Sorts Be
narats
a
btar gis
aut
aS
Ls
i.
er . rai A
Sisto telgegree =: J
ary it 24 7 A
Lyi ge
seal Ts
Te peels!
FY
om)
ee
- f et Be a
- Waits
Bit aus
gta Land a ry ey, ,%
¢
REPORT
OF THE
FIFTIETH MEETING
OF THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THH
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE;
HELD AT
SWANSEA IN AUGUST AND SEPTEMBER 1880.
LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.
1880.
Office of the Association: 22 ALBEMARLE STREET, Lonvon, W.
LONDON : PRINTED BY
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
AND PARLIAMENT STREET
CONTENTS.
Ls aigig nite
Page
OBIECTS and Rules of the Association .....sssscccsceceseesseesecsseescereeerensee xxi
Places and Times of Meeting and Officers from commencement.............++ XXxvili
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from com-
IMENCEMENL ......seeececercscccecccsccsccaveeeveeserseesenseeese by amavaedesaces<eeddp eins XXXV
Eivening Lectures.......ccscsecseccessecensenscsceecescaecsecscesecenssees Besrdesiesthe cece xviii
Lectures to the Operative Classes........s.csescerssecsssecsesceeceeessceesesseees 1
Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Swansea Meeting..........+. li
PP reasurer’s ACCOUNL.......0.cccesccoesccccsccscnecncetscceresasscesessecsessesvecsoecess liii
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at Annual Meetings............ liv
Officers and Council, 1880-81. ...........ccscccsssccecnnscavscccccereccccscssecesenecs lvi
Report of the Council to the General Committee. .........sscscrsesceesereceeevees lvii
Recommendations of the General Committee for Additional Reports and
Researches in Science.............escsccsceosceccvececescceccaseesecsscescescssceees Ix
Synopsis of Money Grants.........csessccceccsssesenneesenasesseessseeeeeecseeesessees Ixvi
Places of Meeting in 1881 and 1882.,..........scssssecesceeseeereseeeeeseeeeseneoes Ixvii
General Statement of Sums paid on account of Grants for Scientific
PUrposes ......2.-c0scecorcnnccecesccnscecenccescscacecsccecabaccccescaqescssqeresecesoes Ixviii
Arrangement of the General Meetings......cs.sssecseeennees SCARRED Er ntearnre +. xxvii
Address by the President, ANDREW Cromare Ramsay, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S.,
V.P.G.S., Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United King-
dom, and of the Museum of Practical Geology ....sscescserescessensenseneeeees 1
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir Wirt1aM THomson, Pro-
essor Tart, Professor Grant, Dr. Stemens, Professor PursER, Professor G.
’ Forses, Mr. Horacz Darwin, and Mr. G. H. Darwin (Secretary), ap-
pointed for the Measurement of the Lunar Disturbance of Gravity ............ 25
Thirteenth Hapoxt of the Committee, consisting of Professor EvERErT, Pro-
fessor Sir Witi1am THomson, Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor Ramsay, Pro-
fessor Grrkre, Mr. J. GuatsHer, Mr. PeneELty, Professor EpwaRp Hutt,
Dr. Crement Lz Neve Foster, Professor A. S, HERscHEL, Professor G, A.
A 2
lv CONTENTS.
Page:
Lzsour, Mr. A. B. Wrnnz, Mr. Gattoway, Mr. JosrpH Dickinson, Mr.
G. F. Deacon, and Mr. E. WErHERED, appointed for the purpose of in-
vestigating the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards
in various Localities of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn up by Pro-
fessor EVERETT (Secretary) ..........-ssccnccssccecessenecesscuscnscnscnscascodeenere
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. O. J. Lopex (Secretary), Professor
W. E. Aryron, and Professor J. PERRY, appointed for the purpose of de-
vising and constructing an improved form of High Insulation Key for
PE SCILOMELET W OLKsies.0v-0ces ovosscsrenmaceeassmcnnvensitsnstgesnnses cms nansneeeesaeats
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Cayizy, F.R.S., Professor
é. G. Sroxzs, F.R.S., Professor H. J. S. Surru, F.R.S., Professor Sir
Wit11aM Tomson, F.R.S., Mr. James Guratsuer, F.R.S., and Mr. J. W.
L. GuatsHEr, F.R.S. (Secretary), on Mathematical Tables. Drawn up by
Miri J: WW. 1s. GOcATSHIMR: <0 s<sccescemoss es eacesso uc bescsecpsesendesdeecagasst an teams
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor SytvEsrer (Chairman),
Professor CayLEy, and Professor Sanmon, appointed for the purpose of
calculating Tables of the Fundamental Invariants of Algebraic Forms ......
Report of Observations of Luminous Meteors during the year 1879-80, by a
ommittee consisting of JamEs GLAIsHER, F.R.S., &c., E. J. Lows, F.RB.S.,
&c., Professor R. 8. Batt, F.R.S., &c., Professor G. Forsus, F.R.S.E.,
eee Fuiieut, D.Sc., F.G.S., and Professor A. S. Huerscunt, M.A.,
BAU HAG Sotenesasepecaveretansorsssiscscsseesscnsssvcersanecasenseeseansecea sce teat nes aammaamee
First and Second Reports of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Davin Git,
Professor G. Forsrs, Mr. Howarp Gruss, and Mr. 0. H. Grrvenan,
appointed to consider the question of Improvements in Astronomical Clocks
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir Wirt1am THomMson,
Professor Tarr, Dr. C. W. Sremzns, Mr. F. J. Bramwett, and Mr. J. T.
Borromiry (Secretary), for commencing Secular Experiments on the
MN ASLICTLY OL WWATCSos<csceunssessssesscoacsaconscassvccecssetspecpacadeamecesoassnameenene
Sixteenth and concluding Report of the Committee, consisting of Jounw Evans,
E.R.S., Sir Jomn Luszock, Bart., F.R.S., Epwarp Vivran, M.A., GroreE
Busr, F.R.S., Wir1t1am Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S., Wittiam AYSHFORD.
SanForD, F.G.8., Jonn Epwarp Lez, F.G.S., and Wi11am PENGELLY,
F.R.S. (Reporter), appointed for the purpose of exploring Kent’s Cavern,
IDBVONSHITOD Ascccscesesde sec daa ec sce cs cocedee deddaddcedducsidaldus'easeuesv cduvesevatteetreee
Report on the mode of reproduction of certain species of Ichthyosaurus from
the Lias of England and Wiirtemberg, by a Committee consisting of Pro-
fessor H. G. Sretey, F.R.S., Professor W. Boyp Dawxtns, F.R.S., and Mr.
C. Moors, F.G.8. Drawn up by Professor H. G. SEELEY ..........0es000e seas
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor P. M. Duncan and Mr. G. R.
_.. _Vuxe, appointed for the purpose of reporting on the Carboniferous Polyzoa.
| Drawn up by Mr. Vuve (Secretary) :
POPC eee reser eee ee eee essere eee eee eeeseeeeeeE eee eeD
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. Evans, Professor T. G. Bonnry,
Mr. W. Carruruers, Mr. F. Drew, Mr. R. Erxeriper, Jun., Professor G.
A. Lrxzour, Professor L. C. Mratt, Professor H. A. Nicnoxson, Mr. F. W.
Ruptzr, Mr. E. B. Tawney, Mr. W. Tortzy, and Mr, W. Wautraker
(Secretary), for carrying on the ‘ Geological Record.’............sceceseceeeeseveee
Sixth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Hux, the Rev. H. W.
CrosskeEY, Captain D. Gatton, Mr, Grarsuer, Professor G. A. Lesour, Mr.
W. Morynevx, Mr. Morton, Mr, Prneztiy, Professor Prestwicu, Mr.
Prant, Mr. MettarD Rzapz, Mr. Rozerts, Mr. W. Waurraxer, and Mr.
Dz Rance (Reporter), appointed for investigating the Circulation of the
26
29
30,
38
39
56
61
62-
68.
76.
8t
CONTENTS. Vv
Page
Underground Waters in the Permian, New Red Sandstone, and Jurassic
Formations of England, and the Quantity and Character of the Water sup-
plied to towns and districts from those formationS..............sscceeeeceseeeeees 87
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. C. WILLIAMSON
and Mr. W. H. Batty, appointed for the purpose of collecting and reporting
on the Tertiary (Miocene) Flora, &c., of the Basalt of the North of Ireland.
Drawn up by Wurm Herier Bary, F.LS., F.GS., M.R.LA.
USA BNEIS97)) ecdadaeeicardosgeeboadocoenepaaebocdguoudsedcorcecchuead Redree Rasen deea meee os ce 107
Highth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor PrestwicH, Professor
Huexss, Professor W. Boyp Dawxrns, the Rev. H. W. Crossxey, Professor
L. C. Mratt, Messrs. D. Mackrntosu, R. H. Trppeman, J. E. Les, J. Prant,
W. Perneetty, Dr. Dranz, W. Motynevx, and Professor Bonney, ap-
pointed for the purpose of recording the position, height above the sea,
lithological characters, size, and origin of the Erratic Blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, reporting other matters of interest connected with the
same, and taking measures for their preservation. Drawn up by the Rev.
NE: ISSN Ya) OCLOEATY: < cclcncdcvavccsruccoscedsovveveduvjenduet@asutecasveudgavetves 110
Report of the Committee, consisting of Captain Anney, Professor W. G.
Apams, and Professor G. Carry FostEr, appointed to carry out an Investi-
ae for the purpose of fixing a Standard of White Light. Drawn up by
Repu aslo MENIEN SECIELUTY)) werecanscacuntesen'ecavctrececoetsecseseeconcasensssnasmce sss 119
Report of the Anthropometric Committee, consisting of Dr. Farr, Dr. BEDDoE,
Mr. Brasroox (Secretary), Sir Groree Campsett, Mr. F. P. Frettows,
Major-General A. L. F. Prrt-Rivers, Mr. F. Gatton, Mr. J. Park
Hareison, Mr. James Heywoop, Mr. P. Hatrterr, Professor Lronz Levi,
Dr. F. A. Manomep, Dr. MurruEap, Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr. CHaRr ies
IROBERTS, and Professor ROLLESTON ......0...0.ccseeecscececscesscescnecsscvesccoosecs 120
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Pyz-Smrrn, Professor M. FostEr,
and Professor Burpon SANDERSON (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of
investigating the Influence of Bodily Exercise on the Elimination of Nitro-
gen (the experiments conducted by Mr. NORTH).........cssecseceeceecseceeceeceees 159
‘Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. C. Spence Bare and Mr,
J. Brooxine Rows, appointed for the purpose of exploring the Marine
BNE EIEN PIOQVOW: 5. oa cava cannacsccansanucdysncstenescaracosvasscnecendcererscses . 160
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. M. Fostrr, Professor RoLLEsTon,
Mr. Drew-Smairu, Professor Huxtey, Dr. Carpenter, Dr. Gwyn JEFFREYS,
Mr. Sctarer, Mr. F. M. Batrour, Sir C. Wrvitte Tomson, Professor
Ray Lanxester, and Mr. Percy StapEn (Secretary), appointed for the
purpose of arranging for the occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station
oF IMTRATILSS: <shne A be adSendsiccedetsobhohndoaniGaagaddcclbe do scHoodadeacdedeBaqeanteckicurcar Gace 161
Report on accessions to our knowledge of the Chiroptera during the past two
years (1878-80). By G. HE. Donson, M.A., M.B., &C. ....eccseeee neers jpnetnoohe 169
Preliminary Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. E. AryTon
(Secretary), Dr. O. J. Lopaz, Mr. J. E. H. Gorpon, and Mr. J. PErry,
appointed for the Liga of accurately measuring the specific inductive
capacity of a good Sprengel Vacuum, and the specific resistance of gases
at different pressures ...... Peaenwcedttst aver Sap cclnesiveaiel duces Tanto Seadoo ene sss sreuanunsee 197
‘Comparison of Curves of the Declination Magnetographs at Kew, Stonyhurst,
Coimbra, Lisbon, Vienna, and St. Petersburg. By Professor W. GRYLLS
ADAMS; F'.R.S........0000000 Ridge e eccerdt ov ltd Soomaali pades suse seseineasesese a «sMenanwessy .. 201
First Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. Lerrm ADAMS, the
Rey. Professor Haventon, Professor W. Boyp Dawxrns, and Dr. JoHN
Evans, appointed for the purpose of exploring the Caves of the South of
RNC a Acaendccdseezed sdcsedes esidsdadadeaddeu dad déedadeaédecvedenccecsdeeeeses oe Mesesecce 209
vi CONTENTS.
g Page
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Sctatrer, Dr. G. Hartiaus, Sir
JosppH Hooxer, Captain F. M. Hunter, and Lieut.-Col. H. H. Gopwi-
AUSTEN, appointed to take steps for the Investigation of the Natural History
PLSOCOMA La setts. stn, Ness eesae tate ve slevesvnsseeeabeakardecescsvddeush deete tes ceeemana 212
Report of the Committee, consisting of the Right Hon. A. J, Munpettra,
M.P., James Huywoop, Esq., F.R.S., SrepHen Bourne, Esq., CHas.
Doncaster, Esq., Rey. A. Bournz, Tartso Masaxr, Esq., Constantine
Mottoy, Esq., R. J. Pyz-Smary, Esq., Dr. Hancock, and Ropert WILKIN-
son, Hsq. (Secretary), appointed to consider and report on the German
and other systems of teaching the Deaf to speak ............sse00s serv aeeemeae a 216
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Jaamss Heywoop, Mr. SHasn,
Mr. SrepHEen Bourne, Mr. WiLxKrnson, the Rey. W. Drtany, and Dr. J.
H. Guapstone (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of reporting whether
it is important that H.M. Inspectors of Elementary Schools should be ap-
pointed with reference to their ability for examining in the scientific specific
subjects of the Code in addition to other matters ...........0..seceeeeene Stee sneae 219
On the Anthracite Coal and Coal-field of South Wales. By C. H. Perkins 220
Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Crustacea. By C.
Spence Barz, F.R.S., &c. Part V.—On Fecundation, Respiration, and the
MEGRE GTI ANIC Cy csc socasslsesescledenasascocsens sovcvesst «cos cndecestuneneceeaseenarestemeen eo. 200
Report on the best means for the Development of Light from Coal-Gas of
different qualities, by a Committee consisting of Dr. WitIam WALLACE
(Secretary), Professor Dirrmar, and Mr. Joy Parrinson, F.C.S., F.1.C.
Part; » Drawn up by, Mr. PAPTINGON ....::..0.+sdescvessounsaeemeenareeaeeeeees 241
oC of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Gamers, Professor ScHirer,
rofessor ALLMAN, and Mr. Gxppzs, for conducting Paleontological and
Zoological Researches in Mexico. Drawn up by Mr. Grppzs (Secretary)... 254
Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. H. F. Barnes-LAwRence, Mr.
PENCE Bars, Mr. Henry E. Dresspr (Secretary), Mr. J. E. Harrie,
Dr. J. Gwyn Jzrrreys, Mr. J. G. Saaw Lerevre, Professor Newton, and
the Rev. Canon Tristram, appointed for the purpose of inquiring into
the possibility of establishing a Close time for Indigenous Animals............ 257
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Dewar, Dr. WItLIAMson,
Dr. Marsa, Warts, Captain Annry, Mr. Sronry, Professor Harter,
Professor McLxop, Professor Carry Foster, Professor A. K. Huntrneron,
Professor Emerson Rurynotps, Professor Rrervotp, Professor Livrrne,
Lord Rayirien, Dr. Scuuster, and Mr. W. CHANDLER Rozerts (Secretary),
appointed for the purpose of reporting upon the present state of our Know-
ledge’ of Spectrum Analysis y 205-2. Usvecsevesdbontvccsucdvarddbuccds des ddovsua neem tes 258:
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. F. J. Bramwett, Dr. A. W.
Wii11amson, Professor Sir W. THomson, Mr. St. Joun Vincent Day, Dr.
O. W. Siemens, Mr. C. W. Mzrrirretp, Dr. Nerson Hancock, Professor
ABEL, Captain Dovetas Gatton, Mr, Newmarcu, Mr. E. H. Carsurr, Mr.
Macrory, Mr. H. Trurman Woop, Mr. W. H. Bartow, and Mr. A. T.
ATCHISON, appointed for the purpose of watching and reporting to the Council
on Patent Legislation.............ssssesessccseses SRE RE SHOSOOO CELA REDE RCO sa 03 Jen ee 318)
Preliminary Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Lronn Levi
(Secretary), Mr. SrepHen Bourne, Mr. Brirrarn, Dr. Netson Hancocx,
Professor JEvons, and Mr. Frtiows, appointed for the purpose of inquiring
into the present appropriation of wages and sources of income, and consider-
ing how far it is consonant with the economic progress of the people of the
Waited. Kanetom, © t.. arate: cacnoss eeeeeasareh ie one cen essccsst aah eaesn or aenene . 318
CONTENTS. Vii
Page
Report on the present state of Imowledge of the application of Quadratures
and Interpolation to Actual Data. By OC. W. Marriristp, F.R.S, ......... 321
The French Deep-sea Exploration in the Bay of Biscay. By J, Gwyn
JEFFREYS, LL.D., FURS. ...ccessecccessseeccnsesccennssessaesesseeeeesseeneceeean senses 378
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir Wiir1am THom-
son, Dr. J. Murrirretp, Professor OssornE Reynoxps, Captain Doveras
Garon, Mr. J. N. SHoorsrep (Secretary), Mr. J. F. Deacon, and Mr.
Rogers Frexp, appointed for the purpose of obtaining information respect-
ing the Phenomena of the Stationary Tides in the English Channel and in
the North Sea; and of representing to the Government of Portugal and the
Governor of Madeira that, in the opinion of the British Association, Tidal
Observations at Madeira or other islands in the North Atlantic Ocean would
be very valuable, with the view to the advancement of our knowledge of
Tides in the Atlantic Ocean ......ssecsseeseesseesesseeesesen eens bednavdeyave oddaaseteve 390
List of Works on the Geology, Mineralogy, and Paleontology of Wales (to
the end of 1873). By “Wi11am Wuitaker, B.A., F.G.S., of the Geo-
logical Survey of England..........sssssscssssseesereresssereneceraueenseesunes cccrbee 397
On the recent Revival in Trade. By STEPHEN BOURNE, FS.S....ccessereeeees 406
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
Section A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 26,
Page
Address by Professor W. Grytis Apams, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S.,
If
2.
PROSGANG OL the WSC ss seve i. sacs cids voce ucow ss aco penvas dee caywdueeseonemneeeeeees
Report of the Committee for the Measurement of the Lunar Disturbance
OLMGTAVALY, Wosessscevscs <es'essesceccocesstancectsssecescudecerew@enscetmeenesteceeeemmes 458
Report of the Committee upon the present state of our Knowledge of
Spectrum Analysis. (Influence of Temperature and Pressure on the
BS HOPE ON AROE) << c2o. 20. sasusnosenu Mu ccnecegperedesuareecneneaveesureeste aammmnee 458
. On determining the Heights and Distances of Clouds by their reflexions in
a low pool of water, and in a mercurial horizon. By Francis GALTon,
ITA cM ERS 0) scacasdcnwienceacoseesuseesessusiuetsaeanesssabacdsnes cans essenaceneneeeee 459
. Improved Heliograph or Sun Signal. By Tremprst Anperson, M.D.,
BuiSOn sees ssceeted seseiascsaes sdnsssessacacisceseerecteevieesene nee ee 461
. Improved Apparatus for the Objective Estimation of Astigmatism. By
DearPRsT ANDERSON, NLD)., B.5c. (2s. ,.cssanseroessas2xccesesdaps eee eree eae 463
. On the Length of the Sun-spot Period. By Henry Murrunap, M.D. ... 465
7. Sur la Calculation des Phénoménes périodiques. Par le Professeur
TRAGONA | 0. Sassenndsscctsdacsosvsbocenocusvonses ss+sn’n00<eicsaseenes ee eee 466
8. On the Laws of the Change of Speed and Direction of the Wind. By
Professor RAGOWA “...:0: ssacesedeceesvsonsecesvassssasoaeeer¢sebenrte cepa 467
FRIDAY, AUGUST 27,
1. Report of the Committee on Underground Temperature............cceseeeeeees 467
2. Report of the Committee appointed to devise and construct an improved
form of High Insulation Key for Electrometer Work .........ssssessseeenees 467
- Comparison of Curves of the Declination Magnetographs at Kew, Stony-
hurst, Coimbra, Lisbon, Vienna, and St. Petersburg. By Professor W.
Gryias “Apaws,.MA., FURS. . ......ccssveneedbotscsteedee aieee te 467
- On the best form of Magnet for Magneto-electric Machines. By W. Lapp,
ERIAGB. cassysnasdateesseosoasssesenpesssicsndatdateetoneseneae epee cane eee 467
. Electric Convection-Currents. By Sizyanus P. Tompson, D.Sc., B.A,
Professor of Experimental Physics in University College, Bristol!iterseave 470
- On a peculiar behaviour of Copper, By Witt1am Henry PREECE ...... 470
'
'
9.
«10.
CONTENTS. ix
Page
PREECE. .ccccccccccccocccccescccseccsccscscsseccsccccescesssesasscecsscnsceensessesesseeces 470
On the necessity for a regular Inspection of Lightning Oonductors. By
RIcHARD ANDERSON, F.C.S., A. Inst... os. secccseeesseeeeeeeceeeeeceeeeeneeens 471
Note on the Theory of the Induction Balance. By Lord Rayteten,
F.B.S., Professor of Experimental Physics in the University of Cambridge 472
SATURDAY, AUGUST 28.
Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables ......ssssseerseeeerrerees . 473
. Report of the Committee appointed to calculate Tables of the Fundamental
Invariants of Algebraic Forms ........sssssesscesseeeeseeesseeeaneeeeranenseneeesees 473
. Report on the present state of nowledge of the application of Quadratures
and Interpolation to actual data .......ssssesesseeeseeeeerenennseseeeeeeanessessees 473
. On Maximum and Minimum Energy in Vortex Motion. By Professor Sir
WItttAM THOMSON, M.A., FURS. ....ccccceseceeeseceeeeeneeceeeeseeeeeeeeceeees 473
. On Inverse Figures in Geometry. By Professor H. J. 8. Surru, M.A.,
F.
BN epee es, aia eeares San viae iauismosleso sceice <esitsapnessmnicvblas@oslensiscnerscsaevece 476
On a Mathematical Solution of a Logical Problem. By Professor H. J. 8.
Sarre, M.A., FURS. ....ceesssessssscecseececeeceeereeseeneaneaaneeseeseeseeseascenees 476
On the Distribution of Circles on a Sphere. By Professor H. J. 8, Surru,
M.A., FURS, ....cesessssecsesscesssenscnccceecceceeassssesescsecseacensecsecescasens ces 476
. Notes on Non-Euclidian Geometry. By Rozrrt S. Barz, LL.D., F.R.S. 476
. On the deduction of Trigonometrical from Elliptic Function Formule. By
J. W. L. GiustsHER, M.A., FLR.S. ....ceccsccsceeccsceescnesecensesseeseseesences 477
. On Plane and Spherical Curves of the Fourth Class with Quadruple Foci,
By Henry M. JEEFERY, FURS. ....cccccceseseceeeeeceeeenseneenttnetneeeaneeeeeee 478
On the equations to the real and to the imaginary directrices and latera
recta of the general conic (a,b,c,e,f,g,r) (x,yl)? =0; with a note on a
property of the director circle. By Professor R. W. Gewese, M.A. ...... 480
. Note on the Skew Surface of the Third Order. By Professor H. J. 5.
Sarre, M.A., FBS. ....cccceceeccecceeeeneeeeneeneeeeesssneeesescenseecasaaaneeenenes 482
. On a kind of Periodicity presented by some Elliptic Functions. By
Professor H. J. S. Sarre, M.A., FURS. .....ccccseeeeeeeeesceeneeeee eee eeeene ees 482
14, On Algebraical Expansions, of which the fractional series for the cotangent
and cosecant are the limiting forms. By J. W. L. Guatsuer, M.A.,
BRS, cence ccovcceccccsconscccetevscoscecnnccsscoscensccaercnssecesectscedecensneensese 482
15. Note on a Trigonometrical Identity involving products of Four Sines. By
J.W. L. GraIsHER, M.A., F.R.S...ccccsecenseeseereeceeceneceesenseeaseserenreenes 484
16. On the Periods of the First Class of Hyper-elliptic Integrals. By
WILLIAM R. ROBERTS, M.A. ......cceseesecececcsccecessnenceccecancesceeecncesseses 485
17. On the Integral of Laplace’s Equation in Finite Terms. By the Rey. 8S.
EARNSHAW, M.A.....cccsseeceeesseeeceneeseceeneceesaueesceeaneseanensseaeanseceense ses 486
MONDAY, AUGUST 30.
1. Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations in the English Channel,
roe paiadeag anc ease sas «sv e¥dacunath on canahastarancesnes¢ee ise covnsecisn chante gap eaqes 488
2. Report of the Committee on Luminous Meteors ....sseseereersereesercereesees 488
. Report of the Committee on the question of Improvements in Astronomical
QOlOCKS rcrcccccccccccoccescessacccccccccccsccceccccnscccescccevesssscecseccccccesonceeesces 488
4,
5.
6.
vf
8.
»
ot
=
CONTENTS.
Page
On a Septum permeable to Water and impermeable to Aix, with practical
applications to a Navigational Depth-gauge. By Professor Sir WiLLIam
ROMAN ANIA GN AIS: derek Suites sncslecsesneet spndonmndarncnnseenepacne seems 488.
On the Effect of Oil in destroying Waves on the Surface of Water. By
Professor OsBorne REYNOLDS, M.A., FURS. <..s.cscsccsdeostessacsesaeseaciees 489:
Experiments on thin Films of Water, with regard to their absorption of
Radiant Heat. By the Hon. F. A. R. RUSSELL............ccsssccssrcsscosscoes 490
On an Experimental Illustration of Minimum Energy in Vortex Motion.
By Professor Sir WutL1aM THOMSON, M.A., F.VR.S. .......sscccscconsccesceees 491
On a Disturbing Infinity in Lord Rayleigh’s Solution for Waves in a
Plane Vortex Stratum. By Professor Sir Wirt1aAm Tomson, M.A., dos
RSs Gat wet Owe Uae oven eitvaeeetensveevucivesiven curse sv JateOe tant see ieee aes
. Supplement to a Paper on the Synchronism of Mean Temperature and
Rainfall in the Climate of London. By H. Courrenay Fox, M.R.C.S.... 493
TUESDAY, AUGUST 31.
Report of the Committee for commencing Secular Experiments on the
BA BStAeTEy OE OW IOS S3,....0550000s ovaneddissedes scat amdbe sede ete oave eee 494
» On the Elasticity of Wires. By J. T. Borromizy, M.A., F.R.S.E ......... 494
. Report of the Committee on the Specific Inductive Capacity of a good
pronpel Waewam *>..556c0c3.ccs5sccasscccsssccccéses sossausdaled svc ope veeeenemneeee 494
» On a method of measuring Contact Electicity. By Professor Sir WILLIAM
POMBO NA, SELES. . scvcvesvenapeers deer veseeoaes ecadareees Eiioshs dese nae ome 494.
. On a method of determining without mechanism the limiting Steam-
Liquid Temperature of a Fluid. By Professor Sir Witt1am THoMsoN,
DEA) as Soa tna Pe hhc antvidesineneiseoestns sete onion eRe ree
On the possibility of originating Waye-disturbances in the Ether by Electro-
magnetic Forces, By G, F. FIvzGRRALD ... ..s00s00s caseas tancenesbulaatetenace
On the number of Electrostatic Units in the Electro-magnetic Unit. By
R. Suma, M.E., Imperial College of Engineering, Tokio, Japan
» On an Electro-magnetic Gyroscope. By W. DE FonvIEttz.......... seseroves OOO
. Sur les Transformations successives des Images photographiques, et les
Applications 4 l’Astronomie. Par M. J. Janssmn, de l'Institut, Directeur
dol Observatoire deren Oni oan... ste stecseescesecesevacoeacdenesseeewss sere 500
» On Improvements in Electro-Motors. By THropor WIESENDANGER ...... 501
On a New Mode of [luminating Microscopic Objects. By Parti Branam,
BOB Gi. sak. in eee eet eet ate ee Iedast Sascdsc-ussapheadoduaenaesee 502
- On an Instrument for the Detection of Polarised Light. By Pump
BRATAM; BON. aiseschaesee el esvekneierkintestaeects meni des Soe ox eeuiomnaae Paedets oad 502
Section B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 26.
Report of the Committee on the Best Means for the Development of Light
from Coal-Gas of different qualities. Part II. ............... oé5ccecapeamanei 503
On some Relations between the Atomic Volumes of Certain Elements and
the Heats of Formation of some of their Compounds. By WALTER
WELDON, ERIS i. déssaess0sesaeesfessteieszets (uedeatsenaines ta eee viva. DOS
CONTENTS. xk
aD Page
8. On the Influence of Water on the Union of Carbonic Oxide with Oxygen
at High Temperatures. By Harorp B, Drxon, M.A., F.C.S....... 0000000 502
4, On Metallic Compounds containing Divalent Organic Radicals. Part I.
ESNIRU I ANCUATIOPGs tovcecte ps sovdssctasecadvorsnedsecescucctccccseseccanccousecsesse7s eee 504.
_ , On the ae of Organic Acids to the Examination of Minerals. By
arOloesOr td, OARRINGTON BOLTON, Ph.D) .2::.52:.2-cccccsscescsvcoseascceconcss 505
FRIDAY, AUGUST 27.
Address by Joseru Henry Griisert, Ph.D., F.R.S,, F.C.S., F.L.S., President of
PRCUSECIIOUIS cdsincacovasoccerectpsscuesesthleesedessersarsstadsossetsecsdesdasnddeevevens 507
1. Report of the Committee upon the present state of our Knowledge of
Spectrum Analysis (Spectra of Metalloids) .........ssscescssceeceeeenenseeecenees 534.
2. Report of the Committee upon the present state of our Knowledge of
Spectrum Analysis (Ultra-violet Spectra) ......sccesseeeeeeeereeneneeeeeeeens ve. 584
8. Exhibition of an Improved Volumetric Apparatus. By J. W. Star tine... 534
4, On the Coal Seams of the Eastern Portion of the South Wales Basin and
their Chemical Composition. By J. W. THOMAS .......ssssesseseeeseeeeeeees 534
5. On a New Mode for the Purification of Sewage. By P. SPENCE..........+. 584
MONDAY, AUGUST 30.
1. On the Refraction-equivalent of Diamond and the Carbon Compounds. By
J. H. GLaDsTONE, Ph.D., F.R.S. .......c.cscceeceeescescescescecsensenceeceecenens 535-
2. The Position of Agricultural Education and Research in this Country and
on the Continent of Europe briefly compared and considered. By J.
MACDONALD CAMERON, F.C.5., &C. secccececeeresereceencereenssesecesneanceseenens 537°
3. On the Specific Rotatory Power of Cane and Invert Sugar. By ALFRED
EMPTIES ANOS wa odacdscnecsarcenscnesessedcncdncocacraqenassnnescdeandmeticarsesss 541
4, On the Identification of the Coal-tar Colours. By Jomn Sprurmr, F.C.S. 542
5. On the Density of Fluid Bismuth. By W. Cuanpirr Roszrts, F.R.S.,
and THOMAS WRIGHTSON, C.H.........csccecsecsceececserecseceecesnscneeeenenecsees 543:
6, On Crystals of Mercury. By Purrip BRAHAM, F.C\S. ......ssseeeeeeeer eee ees 544.
7, On a New Process for the Metallurgic Treatment of Complex Ores con-
taining Zinc. By EpwARp A. PARNELL, F.C.S. ......sessesesseeeseeneeeeees 544.
8. On a New Process for the Production, from Aluminous Minerals contain-
ing Iron, of Sulphate of Alumina free from Iron. By J. W. KYNASTON,
POL iy MLC, sdesissansasiecn saunas sadvwusueosab guess oaseesieseceessnsancassndaeseossnvese 545.
9. On a New Process for separating Silver from Copper contained in Copper
‘Ores and Reguluses, By WitiIaAM HENDERSON.......:+ssscesseesseeeseneeeenes 546:
TUESDAY, AUGUST 31.
1. Further Notes on Petroleum Spirit and analogous Liquids. By ALFRED
i -Hy ATEN, FOS. - ssssacsscascesesss RY preee AONE CORE A TET ERO. dabgasdiseds 547
2. On the so-called ‘ Normal’ Solutions of Volumetric Analysis. By ALFRED
‘7 H. ALLEN, FE.C.S. Severe rercevessesses Oeeecececs @eorseece PTITTEe 549
8. Onthe Determination of the Loss of Heat in Steam-Boilers arising from
Incrustation. By Wit1amM THOMSON, F.R.S.B. o..seeeeesseeeeseneeeeeeeeees 549:
xil
CONTENTS.
Page
4, On the Identification of the Ink used in writing Letters and Documents
in Cases of Libel, Forgery, &. By Wit11am THomson,
5. Note on Silver Sulphate. By Partie Brawam, F.O.S. ........cseseeeceeeeeees 550
6. oe ae of Magnesia on Vegetation. By Major-General Scort, C.B.,
7. On the Action of Oils on Metals. By Witr1am H. Watson, F.C.S. ...... 560
8
. On Bleaching Powder Residue. By Freprrick W. Honexs, F.1.C
ERUC ECE Fe Se eS et TN sh ak 7 SO A Sa MEI eee 660
Section C.—GEOLOGY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 26.
Address by H. Crirron Sorsy, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., President of the
i.
CCUION coccuscscsascscsseccnsaasonows 6eenscceleveocciscecenenocncs 6 aes soene ene netEn 565
Sixth Report on the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the Per-
mian, New Red Sandstone, and Jurassic Formations of England, and
the Quantity and Character of the Water supplied to towns and dis-
tries Mom ChHOss FOrMatMONS. .....5....0c.ccnsoccseeses vases saacoenetsoseaneetnesyes 573
. Notes on the Submarine Geology of the English Channel off the Coast of
South Devon. By ArtHur Roopr Hunt, M.A., F.GAS. .........ceceeeeceees 573
. On the Action of Carbonic Acid on Limestone. By Professor W. Boyp
IVA WAGIN Ge IWA... HRS: . .cocosc<cdescnsacpecesseeccvcsoocasneeceence sepa noseeneeeneee 573
. On the site of a Paleolithic Implement Manufactory, at Crayford, Kent.
By: He) Osi Sei SPURREELy BGAS, cencsececcesccctnsscastenaddaecatedgneeneneetcesmeeess 574
. On the Hiatus said to have been found in the rocks of West Cork. By
G. H. Kiynanan, M.R.LA., Pres. Royal Geological Society, Ireland ...... 574
. Note on the Range of the Bomex Tertiaries of East Suffolk. By W. H.
Darton, F.G.8., of the Geological Survey of England ...........ceseceseceeee 575
FRIDAY, AUGUST 27.
4. Sixteenth and concluding Report on the Exploration of Kent’s Cavern, ~
DBVONSHING Me ecwswacewes anguensataeanatsares side scclcessciteisss assessors stot cee eee: 575
2. Report on the Exploration of Caves in the South of Ireland..............+00 575
3. Report on the Viviparous Nature of the Ichthyosauria ...........:csscseessees 575
A, Report on the Carboniferous Polyzoa ............sssscssecssssesccsecsesecsscseocs 576
5. Report:on the* Geolopical Record? «catccscccessoape+cspsytseteussesaeansseGaduenmes 576
6. On the relation to be established between Coast-line Directions represented
by Great Circles on the Globe, and the Localities marked by Earthquakes
in Europe. By Jos. P. O’Reriiy, C.H., Professor of Mining and Minera-
logy, Royal College of Science, Dublin hoses ee 576
7. On the Island of Torghatten. By Professor W. J. Sorts, M.A., F. us S.E.,
WIGS. ooenskeesnescasevacn sae ace ctebeeee ea ttee eee seteeetaee ste. actecasss conor eemeenns ’ 576
. On a Fragment of Mica Schist. By Professor W. J. Sorzas, M.A,
FR. Biss Bbheastoesaumacnnsnnaasonass ques stent axe eg aanente aaa opine ecg . 577
. On the Geological Age and Relations of the Siwalik and em Ver-
tebrate and Invertebrate Faunas. By W.T. BLAnForD, F.R.S., F.G.S... 577
40. On the Sandstones and Grits of the Lower and Middle Series of the
Bristol Coalfield, By Epwarp WETHERED, F.G.S., F.C.S. .......ececeeeee « 579
1,
2.
CONTENTS. xii
MONDAY, AUGUST 30.
Pace-
On a Raised Beach in Rhos Sili Bay, Gower. By Professor PRestwicu, —
LAER Reaia iene iN i 58
On the Geological Evidence of the temporary Submergence of the
South-west of Europe during the early Human Period. By Professor
ERUNVECET NED AMR tipi rience seess «clk ct cucekuecaciat.cvs cudeccondserslevelccsecs cs 58h
Proofs of the Organic Nature of Hozoon Canadense. By CHartes Moore,
Ete eatiencnsac A vatedvovecuer pit Ans sduere ace aenne Resne se spcip ko sey oso nna 0's 582
. On some Pre-Cambrian Rocks in the Harlech Mountains, Merionethshire.
pepe lle we eEET CRS, MD) NENG? (. 3. Seasrenanaupsatccsine coessascdssbsesrsenas vol ace 584
On the Fault Systems of Central and West Cornwall. By J. H. Cottins,
REE NS Sois wile cals dan vos ot s aduabtadeinccesd sak ease cate sbaceektusaudurecsscavteledéccses 58&
. On the Geology of the Balearic Islands, By Dr. Pumné, F.S.A., F.G.S... 585
. On a Striated Stone from the Trias of Portishead. By Professor W. J.
RUPEE Fe ee P EUs 2b. 5 Huh San scnccsssccevatcacececuseacdesessecesecssacevasecese 586
. On the Action of a Lichen on Limestone. By Professor W. J. Sous,
ys, SESS DEEN sa COS TERS SEMI SEIS Riis eae ecb 2) Shia i 586.
. On Sponge-spicules from the Chalk of Trimmingham, Norfolk. By
Professor W..J. Sorzas, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. ...ccccssccsssessccscssveeces 586
TUESDAY, AUGUST 31.
1. Report on the Tertiary (Miocene) Flora, &c., of the Basalt of the North
Bee PEOIANG 5050 cnascndanpnatnnnns eatiee no esasateeandenassenssadecsasesansenssercaetnes de: 587
2. Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ............... 587
3
.» List of Works on the Geology, Mineralogy, and Paleontology of Wales
(to the end of 1873). By W. WHITAKER, F.G.S.......cccscccssessccsccnoences 588
. Sketch of the Geology of British Columbia. By Grorez M. Dawson,
D.Se., A.R.S.M., F.G.S., Assistant Director Geol. Survey of Canada....... 588.
. On the Post-Tertiary and more recent Deposits of Kashmir and the Upper
Indus Valley. By Lt.-Col. H. H. Gopwiy-Avsten, F.R.S., F.GS., &.... 589
. Notes on the occurrence of Stone Implements in the Coast Laterite, south
of Madras, and in high-level gravels and other formations in the South
Mahratta Country. By R. Bruce Foorn, F.G.S., of the Geological
Survey of India ............csseseee meeneeemcnccehosignes ea sssss nasleadaetastianccensers 589:
. On the Pre-Glacial Contours and Post-Glacial Denudation of the North-
West of England. By C. E. Dz Rancs, F.G:S. .......... Sisko dcetisdavekate 590
Section D.—BIOLOGY.
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY AND Botany.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 26.
Address by A. C. L, Gtnrumr, M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., President
PE OE cen duco cue saat ends se- SoseaScnseanecentccadeceanssas+nesvecssanesivannanties 59E
1. Report on the present state of our Knowledge of the Crustacea, Part V.
fey har EMI EERE NER,IS, Wenadgerns cps naccapsceaasdeconscobodasuennsaspas «neces Sie 598
2.
Report of a Committee for conducting Paleontological and Zoological
Mlesearches It MeXICO ..........0.ecccocccccscccccsccvesscnscccscscevecsconssrsenveones 595
Xiv CONTENTS.
Page
'3. Report of the ‘Close Time’ Committee............+00+ sesegaeeeanes Fe eericc 598
4, Report of the Committee on the Zoological Station at Naples ...........+... 598
‘5. On the Development of Lepidosteus. By F. M. Barrovr, F.R.S., and
BVV ie IN MAIRICER Pls ones ine cpap Sepiac econ oiac.comees «ies.cepe Sabapincnicanhe's iste n aneteneeme 599
. On the Classification of Cryptogams. By Atrrep W. Bennert, M.A.,
F.L.S., Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas’s Hospital ...........cseeenecenees 599
. A Reformed System of Terminology of the Reproductive Organs of Thal-
lophytes. By Atrrep W. Benner, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., Lecturer on
Botany at St. Thomas’s Hospital, and Gzorez Murray, F.L.S., Assistant,
Botanical Department, British Museum .........sseceeeeeeee cops sas eninsiaesieactpa 600
FRIDAY, AUGUST 27,
. Report of the Committee for the investigation of the Natural History of
fhoslsland Of SOCOMA: «<¢«<ses eso eee oo ee nc aie cctesnaclaeee canes seas sauecteeneneeebeesee 601
. On the French Deep-sea Exploration in the Bay of Biscay. By J. Gwyn -
RORRRRYS, UTi,1)., HUIS. cconsecencseessess ere sce iegeenSesinonens si ahuceee aeeEaaaee 601
. Further Remarks on the Mollusca of the Mediterranean. By J. Gwyn
AGSMMRIVA Els, Es uss. sovecsooccosssessrssveuemcmaseacd snares cewese emeeeetEes 601
" MONDAY, AUGUST 30.
. Report on Accessions to our Knowledge of the Chiroptera during the past
two years (1878-1880). By G. E. Donson, M.A., M.B., &e. .......e0c.000 603
. The Cruise of the ‘Knight Errant.’ By Professor Sir C. WrvmLLE
IPTOMAON, LE RiSsses seseaecetssceeesceneeerecbeleecvs sess saaekescadostttvestnesm enna: 603
. On the Relation of the te of Great Britain to those of other
Countries,. ‘By Captain Hi Js HU wis 3... .2:.02.v00k scvecossvcctusestevcenyeneres 604
. On the Double Malar Bone. By Professor G. Rottuston, M.D., F.R.S.... 604
. On the Olassification of Rodents. By Professor G. Rottzston, M.D.,
MUS Sea ctaineeatnycercesabenssadtmrene teases spies sae etecenclaastcerest se sseeet ttt Seaemante 604
. On the ‘Drumming’ of the Snipe. By Captain W. V. Lueen, R.A.,
EBB WAR. AiaeesissSutsvcdsns cc Jecblanmgnt os caer) eee ae 604
. On the Migration of Birds, and Messrs. Brown and Cordeaux’s Method of
obtaining Systematic Observations of the same at Lighthouses and Light-
ships, By ALFRED NEwmTon, M.A,, F.RAS........cc0000 ceassnvace convenaennsn . 605
TUESDAY, AUGUST 31.
1. Exhibition of some of the Zoological Reports of the ‘ Challenger’ Expedi-
tion. By. P. . ScuaTar, MCA PhD isebaivioe ens sceccecosssnee coca eteeeeees . 606
2, On the Classification of Birds. By P. L. Scrarer, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S.... 606
3. Notes on the French Deep-sea Exploration in the Bay of Biscay. By the
Rey: A. MoINORMAN, ELAS, |..ccccccocssccaccstasccacesecescevcsserscee a meeeene eae 609
4, Report on the Marine Zoology of South Devon ........... seeeeevecseeseceoseces 609
DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 26.
Address by F, W. Ruptzr, F.G.S., Chairman of the Department ............... 609
1, Notes on the Origin of the Malagasy. By C. Sranrmanp WAKE............ 620
2. On the Antiquities of Loughor Oastle. By B. JONES.........ccccccccceseeeeeee 620
a
CONTENTS. xv
; Page
3. On Australian Autochthony, By W. FORSTER ..c...ccccccccccceseccceseceeeees 620
4, On Drum-signalling in Africa. By HYDE OLARKB......cccccccceccecceceeceeeee 620
5, On a Manuscript, perhaps Khita, discovered by Captain Gill in Western
Semin Why EY VDE OGARER, ., 0.05555.0 200 es see ceaecteatebeveseWiueveceee visoccesdedt 621
6, Recent Doubts on Monosyllabism in Philological Classification. By Hypz
DARKE. ss seescesesceeceecseceecccccessesestenecessescenceucescascescescesssessucessceces 621
FRIDAY, AUGUST 27.
1. On the Stone Age in South Africa. By W. D. Gooon, O.E.......cccecccccces 622
2. On an Ancient Settlement found about 21 feet beneath the surface of
the peat, in the coal-bog near Boho, county Fermanagh. By THomas
0 TET EE OCaISSrer As-Ocp ren ee ea ee 623
8. On the Structure of Round Barrows. By Professor G. Roxzzston, M.D.,
eae eA AR Th at Ps icnite seta Wop aca tacdhcundeatioadscknsns RebOthiee oveleiens 623
4, On the Structure of Long Barrows. By Professor G. Rotizxsron, M.D.,
RE Rede ar Sachs 0 ae oe ah algo ating sh na poesia aac cet canes. «cacag 623
5. On Prehistoric Times in the Valley of the Rhine. By Professor ScHAarr-
BROUB EM (nates eves e'visa s\seriissieneaelsdnideesaseaevomesaracsesisessuveeveestesnesececesceceeises 624.
6. On the Original Neanderthal Skull. By Professor ScHAAFFHAUSEN........ 624
7, On a Palolithic Stone Implement from Egypt. By H. Sropss, F.GS.... 624
On a Paleolithic Flint Instrument from Palestine, By H. Sropns, F.G.S, 624
MONDAY, AUGUST 30,
1. Report of the Anthropometric Committee ............cccsecseseceeeeeeeceeseseee 625
2, On a Pocket Registrator for Anthropological Purposes, By Francis
Bere ergy eee Ny act cs oie Latent tac ceed ci soncx Massdecescudeesdcddecs 625
3, Additional Remarks on the Greek Profile (incorrectly so called). By J,
PEM SESON, WT ei coe caiecscocdcettecsoccuesswieccccoskcesad eee i 625
4, On the British Flint-workers at Brandon. By J. Park Harrison, M.A. 626
5. On the Retention of Ancient and Prehistoric Customs in the Pyrenees,
By Dr. Puen, F.S.A., F.R.GAS. ......,.00000 Srasialesikae cantar qs vuncuscasvace rege 627
6, On Anthropological Colour Phenomena in Belgium and elsewhere. By J.
SULTS TIS) DSI) SS pe gs ae ea At a oY ee 629
7. On the Pre-Cymric Epoch in Wales. By Hypr Orarxs, V.P.AI. ...... 629
8. On the Antiquity of Gesture and Sign Language, and the Origin of
Characters and Speech. By Hype OnLarkE, V.P.A.L. .ec.cccccscececcccoeeees 6380
TUESDAY, AUGUST 31.
. Surgery and Superstition in Neolithic Times. By Miss A. W. Bucxranp 630
» On Bushmen Crania. By Professor G. Rotiesroy, M.D., F.R.S. oe... 631
. On the Salting Mounds of Essex. By H. Sropms, F.G.S. ....ccc..ccceeeseeee 631
. The Mountain Lapps. By Lieutenant G. T. EMPL, RNs scieusecsesccsorve 631
. The Hittites. By W. Sr. C. BoscAwEn .........:.ccsscesssssecssscesccaceessere 632
On the Discovery of a Bi-lingual Seal in Cuneiform and Khita. By Hypz
SNE Vig CUR. WS, eth n cdpu chil snsSttateasinstasne'saneds> oaceveop ash tigecasnenaa ecg 633
xvi CONTENTS.
Page
7. Further Researches on the Prehistoric Relations of. the Babylonian,
Chinese, and Egyptian Characters, Language, and Culture, and their
Connection with Sign and Gesture Language. By Hype OLarkg,
PY se Neder devew rick. sax ecssuceotscceessosesssseuseges on smeige angi duane ty <aeeatmeeeame 635.
8. On the ‘ Vei Syllabary’ of Liberia, West Africa. By Hyp Crarxg,
PUPA eee ccnsasacetupivonsensessdosseevoscsvaccsssssoaucnseecqetslcneucuts steamers 635
9. Note on a Chilian Tumulus. By JoHn HALiaM MADGE .........ceeeeeseeeee 636
10, India the Home of Gunpowder, on Philological Evidence. By Dr.
GUSTAV OPPERT: Fo... ...cccccssoocsensccrsccecsccvecsoscosscosconssssnnsassscssenssone 636.
DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 27.
Address by F. M. Batrour, M.A., F.R.S., Chairman of the Department ...... 6386
1, On the Alkaline Fermentation of Urine. By A. S. LEA.......cccceeeeeeseceees 644
2. On the Origin of the Head-Kidney. By A. SED@WICK, B.A. ........see0eee 644.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 31.
Report of the Committee for investigating the Influence of Bodily Exercise
on the Hlimingtion: Of Nitrogen % J... 02.1.0c0ccces0vsesedescesesasponssevorntachoceres
Srction E.—GEOGRAPHY.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 26.
Address by Lieut.-General Sir J. H. Lurroy, O.B., K.C.M.G., R.A., F.RS.,
HRIG.S., President’of the Section -.......0..<..c.-secscseseocedoccnseoqnsdosesans 646:
1, Latest News of the Royal Geographical Society’s East African Expedition
minder Miri.) LOMPSON Ysscr0...csccsesieemenseteeaters esse eckecsane= sees saeseaeeremeee 656
2. Through Siberia, vid the Amur and the Ussuri. By the Rev. Henry
NGANDSIGD | RUGS. ccovasoscsesscsenechecusassonensenesereseeessnenarsstmemearEr sens 656.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 27.
1, The High Road from the Indus to Candahar. By Sir RicnHarp TEMPLE,
Bart., G.O.S.L, C.L-H., PR.GS. ....c0cccceecesasunsstevecsucvsssuescceuvstanswends 658.
2. Six Years’ Exploration in New Britain and neighbouring islands. By
WILFRED POWELL ........scccsccassccccecccsccccccsscencccscconsscnsccnsssosesescnes 658.
3. Three Years in South-East New Guinea. By the Rev. W. G. Lawzs,
PS AERTS A got hence seestiecshh at» saan pus So neniietinens yaontteckaeebneas paiastannsiae sienna ite 658.
MONDAY, AUGUST 30.
1, Results of the Portuguese Expedition in West Central Africa. By Capt.
H. CapEso and Licut. R. IVENS .......sscsccesccnecessseasscescccsscenecsenscoenes 6
. Recent Travels in Trans-Jordanic Palestine, By Laurence OLIPHANT... 659
3. On Pictorial Aid to Geographical Teaching. By G. G. Burren, M.A. ... 660:
1S)
¢
——>—E—E—E——————————— Ee
CONTENTS. XVii
Page
. Notes on a Journey from Canton to Kwei-Yang-Fu up the Canton River.
BBY AW. IMIGSNY, .-.-cceocewvedastcscesdecsddedceeneveds cad@Dpocsdecctseetevscesccasescccere 660
. The Dutch Indian Government Exploring Expedition in Borneo, By
PPAR SOR sno tarecn sna s gacine vss onannecceiiapiacancoace caeMeANGas thesabes duaedoadabdse 661
TUESDAY, AUGUST 31.
. On the North-East Passage. By Lieutenant Guorcr T. Tempe, R.N..... 663
. On an Examination of the Balearic Islands. By Dr. Punt, F.S.A.,
Rca voile s vow aneuasydn suonwua4eyeo0'¥suepveSeins Husabies Vos tinesvin Mt RAS ueenay es 663
3. On a recent Examination of the Topography of the Troad. By Dr. PHEnk&,
AE i CA iota, aac gaan nA deaee nat dans apbenueiints Muss urshenacs « Gndde dose $e 664
. A Visit to the Galapagos Islands in H.M.S. ‘Triumph,’ 1880. By
Pisa iea THs UAT RGA ee con Soasadde ccs cacod sss dos. scvs oauy s dncstiew sande dete dus ve<aacncs= 665
Or
. On a visit to Skyring Water, Straits of Magellan. By R. W. CopprnerR 665
. Notes on the Dara Nur, Northern Afghanistan, and its Inhabitants. By
Barerrte Ole Els (Ostby. GAINING < drcssven ccccretacesesssnsevcebeGorscdsvesdsvwodewscese 665
Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 26.
- Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of reporting whether
it is important that H.M. Inspectors of Elementary Schools should be
appointed with reference to their ability for examining in the Scientific
Specific Subjects of the Code in addition to other MALLETS. J.....cececenosesee 666
- Report of the Committee for inquiring into the present appropriation of
Wages and Sources of Income, and considering how far it is consonant
with the Economic Progress of the People of the United Kingdom......... 666
. Vital and other Statistics applicable to Musicians. By P. M. Tarz, F.S.S.,
REE EREEL CoP ec emt tn otic. setnteerc ecar tas Sctattarse sacbecsensstersoncscesduan ttc cicces 666
. Agricultural Statistics and the Land Question. By Ww. Borty,
BREN e 84. 002 -GAx . cacton Va. -cnenaiey due emtanamen > nccecbeacce Motecverctacecter. 56 668
FRIDAY, AUGUST 27.
. Report of the Committee on the German and other Systems of Teaching
the Deaf to speak ...............sccscceccsecescneas Ret Bg ectee COREE COLES 668
. On the recent Revival in Trade. By SrepHen Bovurng, F.S.S. ............ 668
ENewnCac ess eatars Bees oe ele ale eeele dats eletellsecteenicte sia eanisecicwecemessiaaececlaneesacs's 668
Report of the Anthropometric Committee ..........ccecesssceessseeeeeeseneauees 670
2
3. Sy amid Monies and Accounts. By Frank P. Fettows, F.S.S.,
4.
MONDAY, AUGUST 30.
Address by Gzorez Woopyarr Hasrines, M.P., President of the Section ... 671
1. Protection in the United States and its Lessons. By GrorcE BapEn-
MORE, DECALS H WER else) Beis thn sv dosicdesdls vangesues dus amessendbbtauanedeedets 671
2. On the Preservation of Fish and preventing the Pollution of Rivers. va
Lieut.-General Sir James E, Anexanper, K.C.B., K.C.LS., F.R.S.E. ... 672
1880. a
XViil CONTENTS.
Page
. On the required Amendment in the Marriage Laws of the United King-
dom. By the Rev. Danret Ack, D.D., F.R.AS....--.c.scsescesescescenseeeee 672
. On Diminishing Annuities—a Neo-Philosophy in Lending Funds. By
IDREDERTCKON ES INISWCOOMME <stsscticccaccsccccttescor«cneacdccccecnslecbencssvecsesewsss 675
TUESDAY, AUGUST 31.
. What is Capital? The Contradictory Responses of Economists to this
question examined from the ground of Actual Fact and Life. By W.
WESTGARTH
. Remarks and Statistics relating to Swansea Usages and Customs as_ they
affect the Sellers of Foreign or Colonial Copper Ores. By Wm. HEn-
DERSON .....0+00eees doa sha ctRnacescudestestoatensaestitereste seas tse cutmeehcnses 681
. Progress of the English Stations in the Hill Regions of India. By Hypr
CORRE CEO a dedadandelviscuddien 1s sts nuscaneaaduensvaadteanansegeatsneegneseeea 686
Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE,
FRIDAY, AUGUST 27.
Address by James Anprernetuy, V.P.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E., President of the
1.
“SRYCLBIOID 5s sanoneigatnacod beeen eo oc eeopebiC aed soo ribbausnean déooadicdandoanoanccascnosnsseast
On the Bute Docks, Cardiff. By J. McConnocutm, M. Inst.C.E...........6 692
2. On the Temperature of Town Water-supplies. By Batpwrn Laruam,
mH co bo ee
. On the Loading of Ships. By W. E. Hatt
. On the Steering of Ships. By Professor Osporne Reynoxps, F.R.S....... 699
. On an improved Sounding Machine. By Professor Sir W. THomson,
C.E., M. Inst.C.E., F.G.S., F.M.S., &e.
Reece meee reer twee eases eseeseeee ees essee®
. On Spontaneous Combustion of Coals in Ships. By James BaMrrerp ... 696
MONDAY, AUGUST 30.
. Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations in the English Channel... 696
. Report of the Committee on Patent Legislation ............sssseeseeesseeeeeeeee 696
. On the Anthracite Coal and Coal-field of South Wales. By C. H. Perkins 697
. On the Expansion of Steam in Non-Rotative Pumping Engines. By
Henry Davey, M. Insts EUGiS.) ccc, scnsusnnsecs+csessecennesasseenseeerens 697
. Project for a Channel Railway. By Braprorp Lesire, M. Inst.C.E.,
Agent and Chief Engineer, Hast Indian Railway ...........cscssesceseeeseeees 698
. On Combined Elliptical, Parallel, and Angular Motion. By GxroreE
FRA WGUB :sccccesscuseaietacet Siena dtedeh sue psiaptaan sae eteasess sates stetncs satan .. 699
. On the Shakespear Safety Lamp. By Colonel SHAKESPEAR.......+e.s+ceeeee 699
TUESDAY, AUGUST 31.
MA., FRI. sicessddiaes Govncs duchacubh Latch seaduetbandvangeeeh. ceoue dads seen 703
. On the Incrustation of Steam Boilers. By W. THOMSON ...........cseeeeeees 703
————————
LIST OF PLA TES.
PLATE I.
Illustrative of the Report of the Committee on the Viviparous Nature of the
Ichthyosauria.
PLATES II. ann III.
Illustrative of the Report of the Committee on the Tertiary (Miocene) Flora, &c.,
of the Basalt of the North of Ireland:
PLATES IV., V., anp VI.
Illustrative of the Report of the Anthropometric Committee.
PLATES VII., VIIL, anp IX.
Ulustrative of Professor W. Gryzis Apams’s Communication, ‘Comparison of
Curves of the Declination Magnetographs at Kew, Stonyhurst, Coimbra,
Lisbon, Vienna, and St. Petersburg.’
PLATES X. ann XI.
Ulvstrative of the Report of the Committee on the present state of our knowledge
of Spectrum Analysis.
PLATES XII. ann XIII.
Illustrative of Mr. H. Davey’s Paper on the Expansion of Steam in Non-rotative.
Pumping Engines.
a2
nig
sa Ate if
Bat gal
aay fe
Ay =% om
“anions the |
Satie (0 FIO aD
F m9 ce ntlttedds nee *
OBJECTS AND RULES
OF
THE ASSOCIATION.
OBJECTS.
Tue Association contemplates no interference with the ground occupied
by other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and
@ more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the inter-
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British
Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress.
RULES.
Admission of Members and Associates.
All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to
become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to
conform to its Rules.
The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical
Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled,
in like manner, to become Members of the Association.
The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Committees,
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.
All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun-
cil or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become
Members of the Association.
Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the
General Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Associa-
tion, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the
approval of a General Meeting.
Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges.
Lire Messrs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be
published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the
offices of the Association.
AnnvaL Susscrizers shall pay, on admission, the sum of Two Pounds,
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive
' gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par-
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) lose for that and
Xxil RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association
gratis: but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at
any subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion
the sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Asso-
ciation.
Assoctatss for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound.
They shall not receive gratwitously the Reports of the Association, nor be:
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office.
The Association consists of the following classes :—
1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid
on admission Five Pounds as a composition.
2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on
admission Ten Pounds as a composition.
3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to-
the payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership
after intermission of Annual Payment. ]
4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the:
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of
Annual Payment. |
5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound.
6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council.
And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual
volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’)
price, according to the following specification, viz. :—
1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a com-
position for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a fur-
ther sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since
1845, a further sum of Five Pounds.
New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a compo-
sition.
Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.
2. At reduced or Members’ Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publi-
cation Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds
as a composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum
as a Book Subscription.
Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Sub-
scription.
Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume.
for that year only. |
3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets)
any of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up
to 1874, of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6d. per
volume.!
Application to be made at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle
Street, London, W.
Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can
only be issued by direction of the Council.
Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries.
1 A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874, are on sale, £10 the set.
a i a ll Pel
to be final.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Xxili
Meetings.
The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee two
years in advance; and the arrangements for it shall be entrusted to the
Officers of the Association.
General Committee.
The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the
following persons :—
Crass A. Permanent MeEMBERs.
1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi-
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of
Reports in the Transactions of the Association.
2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur-
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera-
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association. With a view of sub-
mitting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must
be sent to the Assistant Secretary at least one month before the Meetiny
of the Association. The decision of the Council on the claims of any
Member of the Association to be placed on the list of the General Committee
Crass B. Temporary Members.
1. The President for the time being of any Scientific Society publish-
ing Transactions or, in his absence, a delegate representing him; and the
Secretary of such Society.! Claims wnder this Rule to be sent to the
Assistant Secretary before the opening of the Meeting.
2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex-
ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of
Meeting. Olaims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries
before the opening of the Meeting.
3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by
the President and General Secretaries.
4. Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections.
Organizing Sectional Committees.?
The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec-
tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their
names are submitted to the General Committee for election.
From the time of their nomination they constitute Organizing Com-
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections,’ and of preparing Reports
thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be
1 Revised by the General Committee, Sheffield, 1879.
2 Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871.
$3 Notice to Contributors of Memoirs.—Authors are reminded that, under an
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which
they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organizing Committees
for the several Sections before the beginning of the Meeting. It has therefore become
necessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the
several Communications, that each Author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoi,
of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association,
XXIV RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
read, to be presented to the Committees of the Sections at their first
meeting. The! Sectional Presidents of former years are ex officio members
of the Organizing Sectional Committees.
An Organizing Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at
11 a.m., to nominate the first members of the Sectional Committee, if
they shall consider it expedient to do so, and to settle the terms of their
report to the General Committee, after which their functions as an
Organizing Committee shall cease.”
Constitution of the Sectional Committees.’
On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi-
dents, and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the
General Committee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and
Vice-Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at
2 p.m., in their Committee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees
by selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. The Sec-
tional Committees thus constituted shall have power to add to their —
number from day to day.
The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute-
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged
with publishing the same before 8 A.M. on the next day, in the Journal of
the Sectional Proceedings.
Business of the Sectional Committees.
Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday at 2 pP.m., on the
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, from 10 to
11 a.m., punctually, for the objects stated in the Rules of the Association,
and specified below.
The business is to be conducted in the following manner :—
1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of
the previous Meeting of the Committee.
2. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the
Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord-
ingly.
3. Papers which have been reported on unfavourably by the Organiz-
ing Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional
Committees.*
At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of
last year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or
PELGTE rrarevcrccceckeeeccecccree , addressed thus—‘ General Secretaries, British Associa-
tion, 22 Albemarle Street, London, W. For Section ........’ If it should be incon-
venient to the Author that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is
requested to send information thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors
who send in their MSS. a full three weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers
are accepted, will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their
Reports and Abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual
Volume unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Assistant
Secretary, before the conclusion of the Meeting.
1 Added by the General Committee, Sheffield, 1879.
2 Revised by the General Committee, Swansea, 1880.
3 Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871,
* These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth, 1877.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. xXV
of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association and
printed in the last volume of the Transactions. He will next proceed to
read the Report of the Organizing Committee.! The list of Communi-
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap-
pointed. At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall
forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday in
the Journal.
On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days,
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the
same before 8 A.M. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one
of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should call
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening.
Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of
the Committee.
Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Copies or Abstracts
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the Sec-
tional Meetings, to the Assistant Secretary.
The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ew officio tem-
porary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xxiii), and will receive,
on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets entitling
them to attend its Meetings.
The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association and the com-
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the state
and progress of which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or Com- _
mittees for the execution of such Reports or researches; and to state
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by
_the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to
_ Government, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities.
In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science,
it is expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and
one of them appointed to act as Secretary, for insuring attention to busimess.
Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist-
_ ance they may require.
The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Assistant Secretary for pre-
sentation to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be done, the
Recommendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association.
N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sec-
tions must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they
1 This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, 1871.
XXVi RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION.
can be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by
the General Committee.
The! Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report
has been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting
to whom a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the Com-
mittee of Recommendations in every case where no such Report has been
received.
Notices regarding Grants of Money.
Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money have been
entrusted by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches
in science, are required to present to each following Meeting of the
Association a Report of the progress which has been made; and the
Individual or the Member first named of a Committee to whom a money
grant has been made must (previously to the next Meeting of the Associa-
tion) forward to the General Secretaries or Treasurer a statement of the
sums which have been expended, and the balance which remains dispos-
able on each grant.
Grants of money sanctioned at any one Meeting of the Association
expire a week before the opening of the ensuing Meeting; nor is the
Treasurer authorized, after that date, to allow any claims on account of
such grants, unless they be renewed in the original or a modified form by
the General Committee.
No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of
the British Association without special permission from the General Com-
mittee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended except in
accordance with the rules of tbe Association.
In each Committee, the Member first named is the only person entitled
to call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. Williamson, University College,
London, W.C., for such portion of the sums granted as may from time to
time be required.
In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contem-
plate the payment of personal expenses to the members.
Tn all cases where additional grants of money are made for the con-
tinuation of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain
’ unpaid on the former grant for the same object.
All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Associa-
tion are to be deposited at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle
Street, Piccadilly, London, W., when not employed in carrying on scien-
tific inquiries for the Association.
Business of the Sections.
The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation from
10 to 11 daily. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto can be used for
no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the Association.
At 11 precisely the Chair will be taken, and the reading of communi-
cations, in the order previously made public, commenced. At 3 p.m. the
Sections will close.
Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications
delivered in may render such divisions desirable.
1 Passed by the General Committee at Sheffield, 1879.
RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXVil
A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author.
Duties of the Doorkeepers.
1.—To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are
appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged.
2.—To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex-
hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the
Assistant Secretary.
3.—Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room.
No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the
Association whose names are printed in the programme, p. 1.
Duties of the Messengers.
To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed, dur-
ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms.
Committee of Recommendations.
The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee,
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional
Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which,
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science.
All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re-.
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the.
Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of
Recommendations.
Local Committees.
Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association
to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.
Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire.
Officers.
A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries,
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee.
Cowneil.
In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall
be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week
of the Meeting.
Papers and Communications.
The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to.
reserve his right of property therein.
Accounts.
The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors.
appointed by the General Committee.
*ounrTe it a 6 MK soure pice sinse 62) evita rare ceepe oie Ow pieie sie .e eee Susans an Per ‘poomAay urmefaag ag . z aan “aE ERHONVIT
c fave boa auroor rapa CO She ‘Sere OM =, SEM EY aL AOMEDOS "Y"ACH |. ceE. «sate gery ERROR GHGs COG, OE
‘SV Wa “bsg ‘orp tojyeg (+o on “ST Qtoq.oH MAO pue uo “SW Tp'a “bsg ‘uoqreg uyor
: “qed “pUeLY “Cl “iL TIS Ayn ‘ALAOWAT
"bsg “unl ‘r0pAey, preyory “bsoy “xo,7 o1aA\ 4.1002, { it: ee Bey buvioy (al 8 a ae
‘ST (arms Wop TUeH “TOD faces Stes ye ome | OR “Sd “TIEMTHM UOSSMTOU "AMY om
‘SU “baa ‘STL1B EL Moug "M eee ee ee ee . aw “OIL pr0'T AOTLOT jo preg ou
Baie. oars “aap ‘one “Wd aus “OFST ‘LT toquiaydag ‘Mopsy1y
‘bsg ‘Suvaqyg ugor aqumMospy-junoP JO [Vy OUT, , SW “peg ‘omeqstag Ww Lt Pere. et: |
“C'TT TOON “a “PAO “DSi ‘TOpPpYT Avkerpuy {. SW “Toysaoag, pravq ug A'S" Wil ‘Yoousary pao0'y pezouoy) rec SU ‘ANVATVAVaNE FO SINOUVIC UL
“bso § <e “Dep ‘MOsspox, ydosop (ttt tt tests eets settee ee eeeees ouBprUsOU qedyouttg “soy eC on “ee3 ay Mae RARE
_—e2. “ak ‘a wep Drea ie eae Sai eto eon Gee cae cee aun Py a ou | ‘OR OSA “VN SLUMOOUVH NONUSA “AL ‘ASU OUT
4 ‘Sa “SOU bos Ma | Slee emetiacehe ate ping SS oe ‘tito pees qo “ont | ong Sith ‘08 IeURRY ‘SNK-NO-UTISYOASN at
‘ON Sout a “bso ‘MOSUIUPY UYOL (toss eesserssessecscceececseees ‘W'S “SW ‘ueyang jo doysta auc
opmansny yeooy sora “beg “omTEA'N UdOsOL | cetieentieeieeicies ogput Sgr “at0g UOHOSEL sop ap tii sts} crtenmresnes = opus sasiostag aut Jo 20199
“bsg LUND OMTEM “WA “CW MeL sossqqorg Cg wa Toa “bse ‘uoyed UNOP ‘S"D'a “S"T'd ‘qoLMoNT Jodoystg oy) -uey “SOM “SUE ‘NOLDNITUNG JO TMVS on
AS Vit ee Nea cigmenaas ce cre ASE a “SNdEA Gis GAper eet
Cenc ccncveceecscse «, Socue ‘ A ‘ GNaatst
Sa aoe nee ene I bac at sta che Rese ses ie eemennis LO REE eh eee ra aor S800 aon.
“Age apne : Fee na PERT eens DEL
Fie ee Pee oe less tee soe Aiea --<ah-neas ec cesn ae ee ee 4 ley (ae oe na
eee ewes . ‘ apalanyvyp
‘gu “ST CV" ah Ee Se pet, { cose eeenevaeneenanenns ‘orp “{eSON priate ow ope ‘aos ‘SD'd'A “SWaI'A ie ae "ARM OWL
Y # "AM ° eun
re array et erasev. coksaaee ets cts ete gir gan eg ee anne aeve e o epmae a axon “MAGNE OL
Ee amet, Caen Da myo wie ar fo opie crarg SRR ERE TeCVEFoU
“SSINVLEYOSS 1V907 *“SLN3QISSed-J301A *“SLN3GISAYd
‘FUOMIOOUSMMOH #4I WOT ‘SaTIEJOIOIG [voor] pus
‘s]MOpPISoIg-oolA “SJWOPISET YIIA ‘MOYRIOOSSY YSIyag oY} Jo Suyooy Jo sou], pur seor[g oy} Surmoys o[qey,
_ Oat * 12 Aine ‘HbunANrKsy
Stet eeeeneeeeeeesaeeeaeeeesees SMOIDUW "4g ‘PAUlOoay
"48 PUB JOqVATS “95 JO aBoT109 poytug e194 Jo pedioug
‘DRL 'SUd “ATT “HM ‘ULSAN GIAVC UIs
AgISIOATUD) agg Jo yediourrg * cay Wa A “A'd ‘vey ugor ‘ayy Ato \ OUT
ace Sa ‘sag “SW “TOE “qavg ‘ourqsug “JT svuoyy, 1g [Btouey
8) “as"W'd ‘(etouep-a01gsup PLOT) eMog plavd “WOH IST UL
ee gard “TO “LM ‘Aoqosoy. Jo [VG ONL
teeeeeeeee soreMrD SEO ‘qawolyeD JO [eM OUT,
Seem e ene rene sess eees ysamquipy JO JSOAOT PLOT Oy "WOH quant OL
“T'S wil “bso ‘pow, sour
‘gta * a A “CW ‘MojVg Jossajorg
‘AP LS Wa “V'W ‘PUvlEy lossoyorg “Aoy
Sete eee renee enews
Gee aici ry $s Be eee MUS dg ° ‘Sur “soq.aoyt ch "f t0Ssaj0rf
: ‘TSW “CW ‘UOSILY “dl A\ 10880501 “UBUUqUIpA JO
“beg ‘souvyo somur
"a'W “bsg “roqoJeLT 19
“Dew ‘STEAL UBT
“NU ‘Tepuyy, uyeqdep
ee ee ee ee ee iy s" iG a brrs 0" a ‘AepBIeyy IOSsajorg.
Ce ee ‘oD "oag £ ‘SU “VIN S “bsg ‘ UIMIVC SOL.teyO
seeeeeeees “Sd “TO'd “AW “ted ‘Toad Woqoy Us "MOH WSL UL
sesserecesse ssa’ t ‘£9[89}901M PLOT OUT, “AQMOLIBTL JO [LVI OL,
“6PST ‘ZT toqmieqdog ‘wYHDNIWEIG
‘S'W'd “WW ‘SHIEAL JO “AY SW CTT “Ae “toqsorg pravd ag
SVU “VIUWW “a'd ‘NOSNIGOU “UL ‘ATU OUT
"SPST “6 sndNy ‘VASNVAAS
SOOO O eee tem eee ee eee eee sess uneeee “Op “Kqat00g efor
ou} JO JUEpIsAtd ‘NOLANVHLYUON JO SINOUVNN ML
Goeeceseng: wa | “beg ‘ @AOTH "A “AL ‘Sua “bso ‘uAMTTIC * AA STANO'T
"TT ‘gepueyy Jo vag oY} “Ady ALA OTL,
"sy ‘sad “SUT “U9 BLOM AL “A AIS
teense ee eees eerconre ar (QED JUNOOSTA, “L'M ‘ong Jo sinbavyy oq.
‘a'W “bsg ‘oon "Cr
{: ** SPIABC “49 Jo doyste pr0T OUT ‘SW “dW “bse “WeTALA "He
“bsg ‘espradoy Moygqe yy (:
“LEST ‘8g ounr ‘au0rxXO
en aes ee eee OED Jo Aqts19ATU ou} 10y ‘IN
“SU "lod “weg ‘SITNNI AUUVH LUTAON UIs
“Sd “a'd Toeysurmyso\\ Jo uvaq oyy “Ady Ata A *p10jxO
Jo AqistoatuyQ ot Joy "gw “T'O'a “bsa ‘qanooysq TeUyong “4 svutoy.T,
eee e reer ere eee re eee ey AQISIOAIT ery jo IOT[BOUVYH-99TA. aL
verses soar “‘prIOyxO Jo doystg pxoT oy = *s"A yf “ossoy Jo [rey ony,
“W'd “bsg “puvpoy TyIOAQUAA\ “FT
‘SU “WW ‘TeMog ‘Jorg ‘anyoyn §='s' ua “a ‘Auoqneq aossojyorg
‘SW “VW ‘TOHTBA JOGO “Aor
te eeee ete eee ree ee "s' ba ‘a “pIOFXO jo doystg piory Chan
seeeee comm Tord “dW “yalvg ‘MopUNBIY *T, 85.100 IIg *OFST ‘OL qoquieydeg ‘NoLaNVHILNOg
‘S'Wid “8'48'0'D ‘NOSIHOUNN ATANI HOLUTAOU UIS
“bsg ‘Apoony ‘0 ‘H "iL
"a'W “bsg ‘yae[ SauoH
Tee eeeseeeceeseness “+ THT QIAQIOT MBYS SOLED ‘WORT qs
tt eereeeeceees eren SOgSZOUI[d JUNOOSTA "TO'E ‘uoJINGYSY p10'T
terre ‘Ysno10grex JO [Vy OUT, “Toqysoyour\ JO smbavyy oy,
“OST ‘BL eunp ‘HpaTUaNVvO
TOPO ee Oe “sa “TOG “VN ‘ ‘bsg ‘Airy a'y ‘ ?
sees OR SU “He “IGHOSUMH “AM “fd NHOL UIs
tt eeeeesereeseoees every fOnSUrY ‘4 ‘AQY ‘a’ ‘Weqery *f *Acy
tee eeeeeeeseeess TOIMION JO COUSIG ONL "OMOIMpIVA, JO [Avy oy,
‘SW “WW ‘payway rossojsorel
‘Sw “Wi “bsg ‘supydoy wenn
“bsg “4so.A\ WHUTTTE A,
‘Sad “ATT “Aqse10og *A\ *AOYT
'S'T'a “beg ‘Teusoyy, svwmoy
‘S'O'd “bsg ‘preyge A Urey TTA,
“FFB ‘98 roquieydeg ‘HUOX
Pee Rechte eee ae EEE Te ‘T0'a “bsw ‘Avperwy [OVqorpy 5
vreeeesuarat “(ATG JO Weed) ‘a'd “HOOOVEd “HD "ATH OUL
‘Sud “A ‘TOISMOTT Pred ag “aI ‘A0T}A0.. eee uyor ‘uo oy
sees eeeceeeees comer ‘qadIO JUNOOSTA "SW Wey aAz4iy [eg
Heese cree stages eeeneserenseresereersseres ‘a’ ‘mosutqoy * WL AoW
. Adem et ewes stones ‘WIE ‘sig ‘UOTE *Yy *M AIS
ee ereereccecercoecevesssOrUDY JUNOOSTA *JOMOIS!T'T JO [AVY OUT,
“SPST ‘21 ysnany “0D
“bag ‘rea[p ‘ary *bsq Soup WUT,
OOP eee ee ete eee ee ee tees ‘SU ‘ASSOU S00) TUVA UL
“UNGNC “O'L ‘wosauy ‘sor “Aart
‘vH ‘apeng x UYOL LossJO1g,
pecan ‘SU wh “HOIMSpag TOSsojOrT ie
aes PO ee eee eee an eeee eee ee tees ‘Sud qmo01eyL "A sa
eee
— —_ ——
[repre png omnney eae at agent
io TOMO} y ‘aTT a . 5
renlast Ba Rpnncnnsennasedenseovtete« unt WOO JOVI BIOL OU | ss ssseseeceneeee sn AEM ME SNANY, STEN
"aT “beg “yooouvyy WospeNt “AN =
scream! on Goa RBC RE Ce i SW “TOG “a'd ‘GXOTI AGUHAWOAH ‘ATH UL
‘COL “Maree TOssojorg “AY
*bsq ‘0400.7 “q ApunyT
Ceeeseoocsesos "Su Somgay’, ‘a OWT HW “q'TT “Dag TwuD preyory
*OPIML[BIL ap JOQBL PLOT ‘oUpI Jo smbrvyy OL,
Ieee ee eee eee eee eee * ulqud ‘axa [0D AqUFILL jo qsOAOL aL
tteeeecscecceeeseeeseveses ran JOIOABAY PLOT of} ‘WOH SW OU,
: “bs ‘aoyeg pAOy'T Yorrvg svuroy y, . m %
“be ‘TeBny yaa gor ( ,, VW 98010 Bloued “AOU OWL 9981 ‘9 snSNY ‘WVHNEITAHO
"s'ra “beg ‘YStMvog PIVOT} Lo... eee ‘swa" gate a Zopeoono[® 30 dovster bi0'T UL sreeeeee prOTXO JO ApsraAaTUp, ay} Ut AueyOg Jo 1OSSoy
‘ anf OW . in * te . ‘ * .
"V'H ‘WOSUIqoY "4dBD [eee eeen ewan’ eeeterrgeyy Sgr ‘along Jo weg ayL) Cd “SUH “a'TT “CW ‘ANGHAVG ‘a “D) SATUVHO
/ Pee eee ee eee eee "g'n7" a “WW ‘aosuLOy.L, UWICTTEM. IOBSOJOLT
ans sorseesqurpy pedoy oug Jo T0qSeAT “SC “WW “bsg “meqery seuton.T,
“bs ‘orpmos) Went CeO e eee eee ee eee ee eH EH HEHEHE aseeee ‘sua “bsg TUNID 10478 i f a 7
°C" WostapUY SUUTOYT, TOSI reer reese eeeeeeeeeeeeeeceseeen sor ap orT SUL “DSM UIUS SWE bases eesees es eT eee eee Ts
‘a'TT “bsg ‘Suvy4g ugor sien sreeeesssorr SqeTT “Wt ‘Tes sepreyo as wan
“Ors wa “seg ‘eulprer UeNILM TS
“q'q ‘ouvprejoryy [edpoung ‘Aoy A1OA OUT
Cee mmm e een awe eeee OD ae SAF “Mn “dso ‘3098 x syoorg. ydesor
cedagetthe s PGMS abate SEEN Tea ee NRL NOR Ls EA
‘C'W “bsg ‘weuray semony, Rea tarot paar steal WO Nd “POST ‘0% ToquIayday “TOOaNaATT
saver Senn “ban © Jo 1O4SU “SD “WWW WOH “SW “CC TOMO A LOSSOJOT “AOU +o. seseeeeeceeeeressvcuager &
SUA AW “bs “wosupp yO | oe ee toy “gp “SET “CTT “CW UeMO JOssaJO1g S'Uu ‘AGMOUUVH JO TUVA UL
‘SD “SU “d'W “Rud “uoj1e8q Aoxy sede ep diutqd US
OR GUAR OR SAL Cs) SVU “Sw “VW ‘Ao[soqq01M POT OULL
*qsuT ,SolmeqoOeyY [NH ‘sarg “bsy ‘sqoowr poujog | s*s'''**** “gar “sexy “ToO-"qnory ‘Sw “bsg ‘soueds urenita "egsT ‘2 requioqydag “Tio
Fee e eee aeeeeeee CTC. V0 1) 170) mM ‘quiep "sol
*£ga100g
“sya “Sua aA “WN “bse ‘SNIMNGOH WVITTIM
‘Md FT WMH “dA “OW “bsg ‘1edoop Arua
se8* AJOIOOS “TY PUB “AIT TMH yy Jo "sorg “W'g'a “bsg ‘48017 sopreyD
“sr OWN ‘yoIMspag ‘Jorg*aoy = ‘g'ara “'T'O'G ‘Avpearey rossojorg
seeeeees scuary ‘qSnoLoqsepuoy poy "SW ‘opsyregp Jo weg oy
= seeeeesssecrrtry ‘ATOA0}S IOSSOJOIT "STW ‘so0IS 3) 3
SIETCH EFORCE ORR IER LY TOE ett CO uh DICK he wie ‘au04s}BaT] AA ey
eee ee ewes ‘SW Wa OV ‘sold “ad * WOSUTQOry “WT (L “Ae
** qseyjoq ‘adoT[OD s,ueend) “sorg § ‘a'a ‘dana “Ss “d ‘AoW
Ce ‘VIWNK ‘ ‘a’ ‘syoutry pzvapy Ady
we ee ve eeccecceceeeercenessceesereus ‘SU ‘orjoag vl od +z, SAU IS
“208 ‘T taquiaydag ‘isvaTag
eee eee e reeset sete eeeeesen es Aqatoog [esoxy a9 JO “aA
wy ‘svar, ‘AIOTNTY ACY “ANIGVS CUVACA IGNOTOO
“MOSITM “d “M OSsejorg
‘C'W “bsg ‘05,1 Wer
*bsq ‘WOT "0 *£ “A
eee ee ee ener ee ee esos assesses View "SI peat ‘assoy JO [IVA ONL
ural arevelalaihe eeisarrersiera wetaiciaeceeiie Vea ‘TOE ‘UaTysrauy Jo [VT OU,
“sta bagy ‘emosmUyy dabb eceecccces ee acccesee *bsqy “110480 ‘gL ‘a’, “bsq ploqqop ‘O'L
*Dsi ‘TEPPIa anqyry eB.10a4) ‘8
“bsg ‘sums UAMTTC ) .. AA ae ‘
eaeareage r “har “fe ; ‘Sd OWN SPLASpag Iossejolg "Ay
SVE “bea AON SUID (oo go utoNr yo douste BIOT OUT, TH MUSOPpUO PAO] Ot,
‘SBIMVLEYOSS JVOO7 *‘SLNIGISSYd-39}A ‘SLNAGISSYd
“TSS %. Ane ‘HOIMSAT
Bae cisterna viva w tie aia cietate ols Giese ana » yehoyy sow0U
-olsy “Sw “TO'd “bs ‘AUTV TTEadIa ANUOTDY
“g1Ul “UOJOTDPID “va UAVITIEAN TIS)
seeee eeeee
‘OW aT “qaeg ‘neollog *q WYyor 1g
neve W, ‘MO[SUDF] LOSseJO.Ig “AOI
id
tH
“VW ‘Si0L18T “W *N *AOY OUT,
“WW ‘durearyT "qd “4 1ossajorg
‘STU “Sw “VW WoyUIQug *D °D Iossojorg |
“V'a ‘a00s0yT ‘M *H TOssayorg
‘VW “bsg ‘omosuvy myj.1y
cong, DBL “PION PADTV
‘SOU “V'a “bsg ‘onqsiqreg “qd *H
"S0'd “VW “bsa ‘qyWLID 031005
‘S'O'd “WN “bso “UgTuls “gs *¢ “H
"ST “a'W “bsq ‘u0zse[[oy 93.1004)
“bsg 7M “a uyor
“WW ‘ITNT Iosseyorg
"SOU “A'S U'T TOON “f Tosseyorg
"S'O'd “bsg ‘prey sexdg
"Yd ‘SxoUTH semoyy, “soy
VW “bsq “uOsTT A, Se as
—————_
Pee eeweee
sete eeeres
ee eereeees
se eeeeenes
He eenceeee
ospLquiey
See eee wees
“rary ‘sad “SUT “TO “VW ‘surepy ‘oO *f Iossojorg
re ed “ony "009 “Ty “Wt ‘sayorg 9) a) TOSSOJOIg
** yekoy romlouosy “Sd “TO “WW “bse ‘Ary ‘a “OD *Z98T ‘T 1990990 ‘aparuaNvD
eee eee eee eee eee eee eee ey SW “WT ‘sTTTeyO “ft ‘AO ou Oooo eee eee eee eee eee eee eee os puquiep jo Ags
weeeecee eso “TO' “WW ‘orMspag lossojorg “Aey OUT, (-AoAtUy a9 uy Aydosopryg peyuowMTIedx Gy pus pemnyeyy Jo
‘aRTI0D Aqrurry, Jo coyswyy “SW “C'C “TOMO MA “AA ACY OUT | TOssojorg uvpuosyour “Sa “WW ‘SITIIM “Y “ATU UL
treeeecrse dry Jo uvag “C'd ‘urapooy Asarey *Aay A10A OU,
stereess QApLiqmi“D Jo ATISIAATUN Vt} JO AO[[eoUBYH-2otA O49 “ASL OU
see erseee
ee eee reee
PPP ee meee meet ee rere sree ee teenes ‘SW “areg ‘poomsa py urmelueg Bais
ee OTH OVW “Seu “Wosuryspoy “gy Losseyorg
stevdessesanenscbouenasteneetarere¥ersanmesers soneontg
d RUT sag “Sw Biouatay ee ‘gmor chi ae
trerersesees sayy “bsgl ‘zeumy, yeurdsy soup age® ‘
isle risinin's neieis sliaielTafols ey rere Gygeg Tost “F Toquioqdoy “UTISHHONVIT
See oh nttod ay CT Sd “Ho OTT “OSE NUTVEUIVE WVITIIA
Peete et eee teers ‘TOTH “oud “beq avon a aosoud |
sereeess ged “Sw “dW “qaeg ‘uoyesq Aory sudpayy ep drm us
feces eeee
ee ee esses
Syd “S'Wd “C'a “teyseyoueyy Jo doystq pxo7y ou,
te teeeseseseseenes commer Oro “ap ‘falUvyg pIO'T ONL,
SOCOTO COO SOG OO COCIOUUGUOOL S it ai if ‘OLOUUSOTLGL jo eq on)
‘SVU “SW “WW UU Iossajorg ‘“S"U'd “CW ‘PUBIOY A0ssojo1g
GOODIE =F si oot “ond “att “CW ‘<uaqneq IOSSOJOIg
“*** pIOFXO “YoInyO ys1AyO Jo uveg “C'C ‘TEPPYT *H ‘H ‘AoY AIO A OU,
seer eeseae
wees eeesas
Cr iy
~P1OFXQ JO
shelaees See etre 8 He GC BIO RO aU aME Dae Sti ‘9eT ‘zg aun ‘a0rxO
SVMS VAM 0H MMOL Fy EEA WN RUTSELLOMM GUO OL
ie eee eee eee eee cere ee rei) args
quevueqnery ploy “syd “T'O'd “Wsnos0qirey JO oxNG UL
PIOFXO Jo AqISIOATUA O44 JO AOTTAOURyD-2OIA “'T'O'C ‘oUNEL “7 “ACY OUT,
PXOFXO JO *ATUN O44 Jo JOTPPOUBYO “TOG “O'd “HH ‘Aquaq Jo [eg OUT,
ery
uaapraqy Jo AyuN0H ay} Jo JeMAAOD “gy “C'TT “bsy ‘uosmONT, "Y
Pe rrr i "SW “aa ‘cosulqoy "WL ANY ou
Sewer meee reer tees "3" “a “VW “Qanoorey “A “MA “AST ONL
4
PT etre oie he teats ols Lae “6981 ‘PI ToqMmeydog ‘Kaname
"C°W'T “WUE OHO ‘Me Uyopag( LHOSNOO HONTUd FHL SSHNHOIN TVAOU SIH
: tWaepraqgy JO AIIM 949 JO ySOAOI pAO'T 9yT,
se eeeeeees Sw coh “Oy “att ‘usepr0q Vy yo [req ou
PP ease eee ears aeee 9 ecgsenresy, “Oy ‘puomyory yo ayng aaL.
5
A
4
P|
oe eee eee ee eee es ‘SOUT “TW “Tord “bso ‘soutry TOpOUOW “a
eee e eee «
Tre ereees
eee ee eeeeteeeee "SY “WI “bsg ‘Treqsrey qyrey somes . :
se eeeerececesesess OFpIIQMIBD ‘adaT[OD APUILY, JO 1oysey_ “8987 Bs requieydag ‘sammy ,
‘SOU bia +a) a On NG “uo no ant “ad *‘TIAAOTLA. “M “AO oan POR e eee Hee tee a reese eeeeee “tanesnyy Wsyig any
Ou “Sw “AW “3teg ‘uoy103q Aorp sedreyy op diy Ug [jo syueunzedeq 4104817] Tengen oq} JO yuepuazutiedng
oe “AW “YW ‘soured “LW “WOH USI ONL | “SD “ST “S'U'd'A “TO'C “CW ‘NEMO CUVHOIY
OPP ewe e te eeee “SOUT > ia 4 *qortapoy qunoostA pi0o_y ou
PECTS TUE VEU DVON ETE aeons 5 ge] s00] 00K pio'T ou,
Sreeese’ sMOIPUY "99 JO AqtsoAtirg “premoery ‘49 pure 10yeaTLg 449 jo
eS pean 94} Jo jedioutg “Gyr “CTT “bsg ‘saqrog ‘q somes
‘bs ‘ttoszapury yortgeg | -urpa jo AqIstaammg oy Jo Tedioung “syd “Td “laysmorg prarq rg "Lost ‘b roqtuaydeg ‘auanad
“beg “Suory oyeT uneny uyor~ ******* wees Ce i ny Ce ar ira iy quug. “leyxeg plarq ug ile pe IROL CCIE CCCI IOLMI eT: alten 6G (|
“bs “nat *uos10puo pH oft} E “OR Soy “Sw “O11 Sos 5 qv, “uOsIyoIn yy "I YOMepoy Ag “Oy ‘AonaI0NA ado wwad GHL aoOvuay SIH
ee eee ee er i rrr *bsqy ‘esojo *
sees . sisisinvsieisie. seerenenrn a Soont eT “Ds ‘spur Tlessnry :
eeeee eeeeee eee en ewan ‘STW “OWT “TK “Ds ‘IayooH, ydaesor
Co oy “QUIT, 99 JO A0}SUpy Sora “bsq ‘Tey ety seuoyL
ttereesees QTSMBYSUIZION JO PuoqS-ystH “bsg “qaqa *O *f
Ce ‘IHW ‘uostueq ‘aL “uoH ISN on
“** QIISMBySUVION JO FUBUEANELT-p1OT ‘rodjag pro'T “uoH AGS oy,
**** QITySdo4saoIe'T JO JUBUINErT-plOT ‘puvyny jo oynq ay} sBLD sty
**** gatyshqieq Jo yuBuoyNery-p10T ‘oatysuOAeg Jo ayNq 944 OBL) SIAL
PEORIICI TIS SOCO «af ‘SUBATT soyvyD “Aer OUT, *bsq ‘gouvyo ‘L
tees
‘998 ‘az ysnSNY ‘WVHONTLLON
sreeeees sored “WH “OO “bst “HAOWD “HY WVITIIM
"ST “Ow Ww “bs ‘OMO'TT “vc pleapy eeeee
*uosqIoqoy "Iq
see e re eeeene "OW “Dai i ) (16) “a ‘ah “bs ‘preypetoyos UWIRITITA
Ce i rd Ps ia 1g ‘Ka, 49ppV ‘a ‘9 ‘U0, qs ONL
ee 19489010 \\ jo doystqr p10'T— oud “AO WSN OL,
sos wud “sad “TO 'd “WW ‘Ao1s09301\\ pIO'TT “WOH, NSH oT,
** adIYstozse010\\ JO JUBHAZNAYT-p1oT ‘109]949A'T plO'T "uoH YSN oy,
eereees* QUIGSYOIMIBA JO JULUEINELT-p1o'TyT ‘YS1a'T ploy “mOH WSN aL
i Ae den dhe hy esata ial di JOOS ACOD IES) (0189 | jo eq ou4 “moe, IU SIYy eq,
‘OAIYSplOYVyS JO yUBUSMIVT-pxo0y ‘plepyory Jo [eq 944 “uOH 4YySNyT Cha
eee cere ees i i i) "yD “sr “bsq ‘stepueg i
“e98T ‘9 toquieydag “NVHONIETg
"*** pOJXQ JO AZISIOAIU 249 UT Ado[oay Jo lossajorg
“Spd “SU “AIT “VW “bsx ‘SsdITTIHd NHOL
“WW ‘elfog *d “5 *A0yT OTL
*hsq ‘urepaqmeyy Aue uyor
SOU “bsg “unl ‘smonzeyy urea,
VN ‘URIIGO,N “Af “AO 3
pieclehie argh eis heise IDI Sane A SUES ERED Stee TAD SGH MOREE MOTT SF] SOUL T,
. ee ed ‘dW “bsg ‘Av “a V
Cece cece ees evieseccesecc ee ‘WS SD “S'H'd “da W “bsg “ITT, (A
"VN “‘pOOMUT A, ‘H yep "AOW ouL Ce ee a yqwg jo uoovepy.Iy ayy aTqvaieud A. ouL - r da ae
“Bsr “SIANC “ay * Wieteeeeaeeresauerescceseneees DrOrIaRT Jo WBC] O9 “AD AIOA 0 veceec ee tence, POST FT taquiogdes ‘Hive
ee ee cose cesalige Stans caracsccaes coat eee eee eeu SW “TO “WN “Hed “TIEAT SHTUVHO UIs
AeA SUED Ses mae eeitia et aici Sale eo UO RON AE yy SUOHPIUST HY OU;
dasacuanouiuee.on ee cst éucluashe sa/qgiver acy eqihateps Gea SERA eEE
sesunscvencevesneegtaceodtieesngnadtecnts ucts endtesatene epee
IOUS JO JUBUONITT-pxOT ‘AI9LIO puv YIOH Jo [req 949 *uoH Fysny oyz)
ey eee ee ‘SW “QT “bsg ‘arrequre,y UTBTTILM.
Poe ee SVU “ag ‘Iol[VAoyH stduay, "Ad
“bsq ‘ueqdeyg ‘9° Se te a Re eee ee” Te SIOOULB IGT,
a Remtncnectat wee) SUIT JO o4NASUT UISYIION ayy JO Quapisorg “bs ‘pooA, sSvloyoIN “S98T ‘9g JSNSNY ‘ANAT -NO-ZTISVOMUN
my HH} FSUBNV veces eee ee "tees osvomoN Jo Jo<uyy “bag ‘leg RIAOT ovesE [8 ST MGTT “EO DNOMLSNUVY ‘MWS
LION 'V | eeeeeseeeeeeeeeeeeeees opery puop aug Jo MEMATETD “bse ‘IopAuz, yn
OP ee ee se ee ee se eens ee "SO ood “Toad “C'yT ‘TeAT selreqO ag
Peewee eee ee ee ee ee eee ee ee ee ee eeee VA “q1eg ‘uvAJOAaLy, ‘OD TOFIBAA TIG
"SalaYVLSYOaS 1VOO7 *SLNAGISSYd-35IA "SLN3GISSYd
‘SOW SW AeysyMVyUyOr IIs «SU “T'O'a “bsg “qorssvy "a *¢
*bsy ‘uosdu0gy, eed | °° SW “'1'O'EL ‘SAI [Ud L0ssefor ‘prlojpetg JO ose }q OU. "BIST ‘LL toquiaydag ‘auosavug fore
‘Gd ‘NOSWVITTIA "A UANVXAIVY WOSSHALOUd
*bsiy ‘pasppoy pasyony oe PPP eee eee es Pe i SIO4SIOT “Tl "” ‘U0 ISN oT,
‘aa ‘Weqduyy "yf *AoY OL
Terre ee ee er
ODDO OSU. i: | “TOC ‘a0jysn0 p1o0'T
Sisi@iatalete)o\eie:6:0\0iaic(e/selatieertarair Sond Be yos(0 9 JO [avg a19 ‘UO H WSU ouL
“bsg “9901TM Arua
“TWD “Id “AOY MLL
*bsy ‘xaquadisp sepreyD
reece were seeving eceKrT Goo Soar “a “weg ‘yooqqn’y uyor «1s
sreeeees sori Oro “Oy ‘attysmoAag JO oyxNC oY} "NOH IST OU,
presser “og “oy Spuomygoy jo ayn oy} “MOH IWS oy,
see tereecebeneeeeeteuuetesuaeeseneseten es #*M1QTION JO OMNC OWL
tressexogsng Jo Aqunop 044 Jo JUBUAWOLT-pro0T ‘“Aaqsoyoryy Jo [{eq OU,
‘ZISL ‘PL JsuSNy ‘NoLHOING
reeeeses eer “Sard CIT UGLNGdUVO ‘dM UC
oe eee ee ee "shy "sold “om “Dsor “YOU 4satd ydasor
| ses ere
Lee ence eee eee ener eset es eneesrresees err am ory sgrariT SMOTVE IOSSAJOLg»
seeeeeeees emmcear garg “Tod “CI ‘WOstysIqO a
Oe eee ‘SW “TW ay: ie) ‘reyAV[ uoATT “Id
eee ee ee ee ee 2 SO “OT “TOd “qreg ‘TeAT sopteyo ag
Teor “TO “S4S'0'D “COM “HU ‘uostyomyy “T OHOPO' THs
natura eee Sei et aetna a Oaitet darts eeraghi ces eat ane oer
-UTpy Jo AqIsTOATU ey) JO Tedioung “WW “weg GueIH wpuUeXETY Us
“*puRyooY Jo [BIIMAH-ooNysUL PLOT “CTT ‘SUSUT Uyor “WOR ISI OUT,
Tere eee eee eee eee qsinquipy JO JSOAOIg ploy Elin) ‘m0 qs au.
See ee “Sa ort} “Oy ‘qonepoong, jo aynqg aT} 998.9, STH
eee ee ee eee “ow eal “Dsq ‘OAT qydasor
SOOO OOOUL tht i “To'a ama tat ace ‘amor ‘a toner
OOOO eee eee eT Serpe “"T" Se B 1 og :
cece Pe ate a rare tay Geese) CE ee ‘OLSL ‘FL doqtuaydag “TooausArT
"IL8I ‘g ysusny ‘upwoaNragq
‘CTI “VW NOSWOHL WVITIIM UIS BOSsatoUud
“TSW “so “YOrMAVT “a “LP
‘ASW “AW ‘uMorg wna *y rJossojorg
b
‘WS ‘omy, Und "Iq “AY
“VW ‘suissryq "WH Arey ‘Ae y
"bs ‘UOSTLIB]T p[eULseyy
. . bee . . . . . fala
“Joystueg “M “AO eeevcsee ‘IW “Toa ‘QUO SpPELH “7 "M “uO; qs EAA 79) uf Ss U af "ad TI AYWIXOH Hi iL UOssaqioud
BOO GC OREO RIO OIRO Tip “qregq “noqaasqy Aon svareyy ep digg us
rape iurpieje‘e‘eléie/ajsiis siv elem ater ei) re tata ‘Kqae JO [AVY oyy ‘uO qusKNy Ean
POSER 8 IONE UN ely Sonar Ty Ms aa tat WT “bso ‘Q0qTeL xXO.T Che 4 |
reste weweeresseeesseescunrer Gbsor ‘xoq OOM Waqoy
teeeerourer Soar “Gn “psa “tequedreg “gq TIeTITM
thee e etree ee ee teen rere ee teeeer eres seguir Gay Bummog ugor Ig
Tom Gan “ag “qaeg ‘oJOOUMON *H PlOYIG Ig “UO SI UL,
th eeeeeeeeteeeeeerereeterseessees® TOAR JO [BG oY} ‘MOH IWS OG,
“69ST ‘8 qansny “AaLOXG
eR SUA Oe “vou “TOG ‘SEHOLS "D TONOUD YOSsHIONd
‘S'V'Wu “bsg ‘sta “Ss ArceH
Cece eee eee ee eee ed see bgor ‘TPOMgq SIE, SVuIOYL, |
eee eee eee eee ee ee Sietalo'ale,« tie (Glasie\6/¢/b.476 erereicie’s's.0 se (BANE
-WIBD Jo AzISIOATUQ eY9 UT AWeUIOAyH pu AWIOUOIySY JO JOSSeJoIg
Uvaspumoy “Syd “Sta “TO'd “WW “bsp ‘suepy yonop uyor “S981 ‘6I ysuany ‘HOIMUON
eee eee ee ee "SHYT “ST “sar a “qieg ‘yooqquT uyor ag eee eee ee eens pea SiC envio ares Rites se Miae nn ole Coren
“*** 9Spriqmep jo Aqis19atuy oy Uy AdO[O9H JO AOSsojorg WeIpPIVA ‘sud “To'ad “a'W ‘YNNOOH NOLIVA Hawasor
~poom “on “sp “SW “CIT “VW “oumspes Wupy “soy euL
eee ee eee ee eene ‘SW “qregq nveTlog. 1940 uygor ag
*T** HPOMON JO FUVUOQOYT-pLO'T “xozSeo[eT] JO [AVG O49 “MOH FYSIy ONL,
‘1240 Spur wou *Acry
“VW ‘uojduioig ydoasor *Aaqy
*eiduiArjeq pyeuog "aq
1880,
“UBALIISE "YY ‘AY =
Peery “S44 ‘seory “ST “Sd “aT “bag ‘sforgor uk *¢ ‘OSST ‘92 ysnsny ‘vasSNVMS
eet ee ee wee eee ee eeseee "SOW OO “TW “bsq AMT TT "7 FOOT OO OH HO SH EH EHH HE HH HO eee EH eHee sr eee* K301004)
spud “Ca “bsg ‘mepara Aossuy *H | [eoy0vr1g Jo mmesny_ ayy Jo pue ‘mopsury paqyun a3
eee eee ee ee ee ee eee e ee Be are | oro WN ‘AAT "a “M ag “uo aL jo Aaammg [Bolso[oax) oqy jo [eteua+)-10,091,T “SOTA
SEO HEH eee EEE EH HEHEHE HEHEHE Hwee ee BaSUBMS jo 10AByV OT, Ss cf “CTT “Dsq ‘KYSWYVU FIGNowo MAUYAUNV
eee ee ee eee eee eee eee eee ey Aasior JO [lVqy 94} “MOR 4YSsry OUT,
‘beg ‘org sour
‘S'0'U “Ud “bsg west0W “AA
Deca licgyy ea hae ‘SO “Sw a ‘Sullpo "M TOSSoJOLg
ee “s “aT ‘STA "SW ‘0ag “yt ‘add . apn ‘H 1A TOSSOJOIg c
eaesscesnsece¥annsurners seer! CQITIO AMBRE) “DE UPOITG HM lice. .sceranewrser eee Co feet Eee
tree eeeeeeeeeeeeeees cougar QuToUIeyM JO LIRA ou) ‘MOR ISIy 04, i, SET cio raere Pat a8
Vise eeeeeeeerer ergo SOs MRITTAZILT [eq oul ‘uoR qusry oy) 2 "L's ea “ATI “aN ‘NVNTTIV ‘f'D YOSsHAOUd
SOWA “SW “ATT “VW “Pe “orpysuoae Jo ayn oy} aoVLH STH
eee ee ee ew eee ee "ST ‘00g “OTT “Tord “Wh ‘say079 “» » IOSSOJOIT
“bsg ‘ssow “a *f
"Sid “Sad “@'TT “bsg ‘Aqaog woyytD “H
4 : Z steer ee eneneeceeeerececesersenrirenrny ‘TeBSEH.O PIOT ‘WOH I4SIy OU.L
“CW “WostaStg “4 aossoyorg | terete et et ee tet eeaeeeceeeesets rete eweeeeteneee eres SUPT Poa F
"OT “beg, ‘poommon mor | “S'vM'a ‘Sw “Tod “WE Sossou JO WUE ony “WOH IUARE OU gaa salons cae ueeee eee roe Dey tare
SH ‘Yop soup | Spd “Sd “T'O'C “UoTystaug Jo [VA O4I “WOH WSL OUD (er Grp ayy &
‘Sia “VW ‘Tea ‘SH tossajorg | cieecrtreeet eres eeresteseterse nese irrooraqy joes ayg aoury ay | CTT“ TO “WW “Peg “ACOOMSILLOdS NVITIIM
ee ey ulyqna ‘asarjop Ayrorry, JO J8OA0Ig OT,
Tee eee eee ee eee eee ed uryquq jo 10AeY pzory 049 ‘UO BySTY OUT
Oe ee ee ‘STAT “Sw (ie bea OpAOE HTT |
Sc PIOJOFIT A Woy TMB A ee "Sra “ao * “WH ““bsq ‘apnory mone | "LIST ‘el qsnsny ‘HLOOWATG
“bsg ‘suepy WET | ttre: spony ‘ployer Ploy ‘uOH 3qSTy ou | “(It “GW ‘NOSWOHL NATIV WOssdaoud
sr eteeeeeerseveceeseess oq mMospy-IUNOTL foe. OT “oH sua 9 |
Ce ee ee 7 "soa “Sua “bsg ‘sunox sous
eee Peet ee ence aces cence oJ ‘tary ‘kesurey Toy “VY Iossojorg 5
“bag “SPOTMIBYL “qe | yc ete: em ap ry sgrayep « ‘art * ‘cw “‘HOsmOY,T, Ua|[Y 1OssaJorg “‘9QI8L ‘9 Taquiaydeg ‘MODSVTH
“Dsq ‘omvyery some oa wee ween ‘ARTS Wa “Tod * ‘amt “VN ‘Wostmmoy, MeTITM US igi tatiana dp me ae oo GTS AGNI
‘SOW “ORPRIG sD “AA AC | °°" sereesseesses rig wy oqaeg TPMXE SUES WUTTIM IS | “Sa “AIT “C'W ‘SMAYANV SVNOHL WOssHuoud
ee er MOSSEL) JO 980A01g ploy ay} "WOH OU,
sd SR TS wd OTT “Le ‘WASry Jo ayn oy} e08D STH
eee ee ‘sO “Sua “bsg ‘stapurg "MA.
ry Sd “ST “SW “CTT “tequedrap "Ed "M AC é 4
“bsg ‘eyze[O *“H Uyor ‘SOUT “sad ae ‘aout ‘aosulmery "9 Aine Ug [e1euex-aoleyy “GLBT “SZ qsnany TOLSIUG
‘SO “os'g “yd “bsy ‘eyuadiep que'y “"M eee eee Pewee eee ee wee eee eee eee eeeeee Jos, jo 10AV 9 eeeeeroree ‘SH “SW “MO MVHSHYMVH NHOoe UIs
sw “AW “g'O “ye ‘oJOOTION *H prlOPeis Ay “WOH WSLY OUT
ee ery "SO Gong ‘arond, jo [ee omy “m0 qUSIYy ou.
SMT “TO SoHOIS TOSsoJO1g "SW ‘Wosurqoy “IC ‘Aer
ee ee ed “sw ‘SMOIDUY * Iq “£100 amd "ADT “FIST “GI qsnany “ISvaTEg
Ce ee rd "TW “qaug ‘aoryje Ay PlVyory 1g ea Pao ee s S ; ae av ¢ 5
sits eeeaeneeeeapeseensereres sguarer ‘gssou JO BG JN} ‘WOH USI OU.L SU “ATI TO'd “IIVONAL £ WOSSHAOUT
Trererecrreere romper Gro ‘MOoTTRISMUG Jo [Le oT} UO IYSTY OY,
‘SglYVLIYOIS 1V9OT “SLNAGISSYd-3OIA 'SLN3O|S3Yd
“bsy “AITeyoUurY ‘7,
mo ‘ TOTAL 4) TOSsa JOA,
“bs Sopy wi [eS SVU SUH MOTT “VW “bsg opoomstygody meray petit ttttteseeteeserreteceestess seg ap BT
psi “auag suqggunyy * f
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
XXXV
Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association.
* Date and Place
Presidents
Secretaries
1832.
1833.
1834.
1835.
1836.
1837.
1838.
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS.
aeeeee
Cambridge
Edinburgh
Dublin
Bristol
seeeee
Liverpool...
Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840.
1841.
1842.
Glasgow ...
Plymouth
Manchester
seeeee
teeeee
. Cambridge
Southamp-
ton.
1847.
Oxford
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
1852.
1853.
Belfast
Hull
aeeeee
weeeee
1854, Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow
1856. Cheltenham
41857.
41858.
Dublin
Leeds
-.
Ze Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A.,
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS
Rev. Dr. Robinson
Rev. William Whewell, F.R.S.
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ......
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S....
Prof. Forbes, F.R.S.........000.
Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S. ......
Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D.,
E.R.S.
Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.LA. ...
The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...
The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely.
Sir John F. W. Herschel,
Bart., F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Powell,
E.R.S.
Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ......
William Hopkins, F.R.S.......
M.A,
Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S.,
Sec. R.S.E.
Rev. W. Whewell,
FE.R.S., &e.
Prof. W. Thomson,
E.R.S. L. & E.
The Very Rev. the Dean of
Ely, F.R.S8.
Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec.
B.S
D.D.,
M.A.,
F.R.S. L. & E.
Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.RB.S.
Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,
F.R.S., M.R.LA,
Rev. W. Whewell, D.D.,
V.P.R.S.
b2
Rev. H. Coddington.
Prof. Forbes.
Prof. Forbes, Prof. Lloyd.
AND PHYSICS.
Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof.
Wheatstone.
Prof. Forbes, W. 8. Harris, F, W.
Jerrard.
W. 8. Harris, Rey. Prof. Powell,
Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine,
Prof. Stevelly.
J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof.
Stevelly.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly,
Arch. Smith.
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev.
W. Scoresby.
J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly,
Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof, Stevelly.
Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly, G.
G. Stokes.
John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.
Rey. H. Price, Prof, Stevelly, G. G.
Stokes.
Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes, W.
Ridout Wills.
W.J.Macquorn Rankine,Prof.Smyth,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
8. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes.
Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran-
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall.
B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt,
Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh.
J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof.
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh.
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof.
Tyndall,
C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood,
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull.
Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A.
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. S. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy,
Prof. Stevelly, H.J.S.Smith, Prof.
Tyndall.
XXXVI
REPORT—1880.
rT ee ee
Date and Place
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1871.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1878.
1879.
1880.
1832.
1833.
Secretaries
J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H.
J.S. Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Rev. G C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison,.
Prof. Stevelly.
Prof, R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8.
Smith, Prof. Stevelly.
|Rev.N.Ferrers, Prof. Fuller, F.Jenkin,.
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T. Whitley.
Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rev. G.
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly.
Rey. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G.
8. Mathews, Prof. H. J. S. Smith,.
d. M. Wilson.
Fleeming Jenkin, Prof. H.J.S.Smith,.
Rev. S$. N. Swann.
Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster,.
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan.
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley,
R. B. Hayward.
Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward,
W. K. Clifford.
Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford,
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen
Whitworth.
Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D.
Everett, Rev. R. Harley.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L.Glaisher,
Prof. A. S. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell.
Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J..
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A.S. Herschel.
J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel,
Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher,,.
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell.
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley,
J. W. L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon.
Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J.
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge.
A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr.
O. J. Lodge, D. McAlister.
W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher,
Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. McAlister.
James F. W. Johnston.
Presidents
Aberdeen...| The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P.,
F.R.S.
Oxford...... Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S....
Manchester |G. B. Airy, M.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Cambridge |Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A.,
Neweastle | Prof. W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.R.S.
Bathies sacs ac Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S.,|
¥.R.A.S.
1865. Birmingham | W. Spottiswoode,M.A.,F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S.
Nottingham | Prof. Wheatstone, D.C.L.,|
F.R.S.
Dundee ...) Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L.,,
F.R.S.
Norwich ...)Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Exeter...... |Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D.,
F.R.S.
Liverpool...|J. Clerk Maxwell, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Edinburgh | Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. ...
Brighton .... W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Bradford ...| Prof. H. J. S. Smith, F.R.S.
Belfast...... Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A.,
M.R.LA.
Rodwell.
Bristol...... Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A.,
LL.D., F.R.S.
Glasgow ...| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
T. Muir.
Plymouth... | Prof.G. C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S.,
Pres. Physical Soe.
Dublin...... Rev. Prof. Salmon, D.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sheffield ...;\George Johnstone Stoney,
M.A., F.R.S.
Swansea ...|Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M.A.,'
F.R.S.
CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II.—CHEMISTRY, MINERALOGY.
Oxtord tices John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Cambridge |John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. |Prof. Miller.
1834, Edinburgh |Dr. Hope
Perce esos sseesseee Sere eeee
Mr. Johnston, Dr. Christison,
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
XXXVii
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.
Date and Place
Presidents
1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
1841. Plymouth...
1842.
1843.
1§44.
1845.
Manchester
Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton
1847. Oxford
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast......
1853. Hull
1854. Liverpool
1855. Glasgow ...
1856. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds ......
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford
1861. Manchester
1862, Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath.........
1865, Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee
1868. Norwich .
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool...
.| Prof.
Dr. T. Thomson, F.R.S. ......
Rev. Prof. Cumming
et eee eee
Michael Faraday, F.R.S.......
Rev. William Whewell,F.R.S.
Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......
Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S.
Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. .......0.
John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. Apjohn, M.R.L.A
see eeeeee
| Prof. T. Graham, F.R.S. ......
Rev. Prof. Cumming .........
Michael Faraday,
F.R.S.
Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A.,
E.R.S.
Richard Phillips, F.R.S. ......
John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......
Dy. Christison, V.P.R.S.E.
D.C.L.,
...|Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S.
Thomas Andrews, M.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A.,
F.R.S.
Prof.W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.S.
Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. ...
Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.B.S.,
M.R.LA.
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart.,
D.C.L.
Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S.
Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S......
Prof. W.A. Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S.
Dr. Alex. W. Williamson,
E.R.S.
W.Odling, M.B.,F.R.S.,F.C.S.
Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D.,
V.P.B.S.
H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S.
T. Anderson,
F.R.S.E.
M.D.,
..|Prof. E. Frankland, F-.R.S.,
F.C.S.
Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S.
Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A.,
F.R.S., F.C.S.
Secretaries
Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston,
| Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera-
path.
Prof. Johnston, Prof. Miller, Dr.
Reynolds,
Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas
Richardson.
Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B, Melson,
Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. T. Clark,
Dr. L. Playfair.
J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, W. M.
Tweedy.
Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham.
R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny.
Dr. L. Playfair, E. Solly, T. H. Barker.
R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof, Miller,
E. Solly.
Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall.
B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly,
T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams.
R. Hunt, G. Shaw.
Dr. Anderson, R. Hunt, Dr. Wilson
T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward.
Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof.
Ronalds.
H. 8. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J.
Pearsall.
Dr.Edwards, Dr.Gladstone, Dr.Price.
Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe.
J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, Prof.
Voelcker.
Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul-
livan.
Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey-
nolds.
J. S. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D.
Liveing, Dr. Odling.
A, Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing,
A. B. Northcote.
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing.
H. W. Elphinstone, W. Odling, Prof.
Roscoe.
Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C.
Stevenson.
A.V.Harcourt,Prof.Liveing,R. Biggs.
A. V. Harcourt, H. Adkins, Prof,
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills.
J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J.
Russell, J. White.
A. Crum Brown, Prof, G. D. Liveing,
W. J. Russell.
Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr, W. J. Rus-
sell, F. Sutton.
Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J.
Russell, Dr. Atkinson.
Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher,
Dr. W. J. Russell.
XXXVili REPORT—1880.
Date and Place Presidents Secretaries
Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.|J. T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T..
E. Thorpe.
Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr:.
W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood.
Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand-
ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe.
1871. Edinburgh
1872. Brighton ...| Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S....
1873. Bradford ...| Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.8....
1874. Belfast...... Prof, A. Crum Brown, M.D.,| Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand-
F.R.S.E., F.C.S. ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe.
1875. Bristol ...... A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A.,| Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler
F.R.S., F.C.S. Roberts, W. A. Tilden.
.|W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden.
Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts,
J. M. Thomson.
W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom-
son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T. Wills.
H. 8. Bell, W. Chandler Roberts, J.
M. Thomson.
Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D.,|H. B. Dixon, Dr. W. R. Haton Hodg-
F.R.S. kinson, P. Phillips Bedson, J. M.
Thomson.
1876. Glasgow ...|W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. ........
1877. Plymouth...}F. A. Abel, F.R.S., F.C.S. ...
atpere Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,
F.B.S., F.C.S8.
Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S.
1878, Dublin
1879. Sheffield ...
1880. Swansea ...
GEOLOGICAL (ann, untin 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY,
1832. Oxford R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......|John Taylor.
1833. Cambridge .|G. B. Greenough, F.R.S8. ...... WwW. Lonsdale, John Phillips.
1834. Edinburgh .
1835. Dublin
1836. Bristol
tteeee
1837. Liverpool...
1838. Newcastle...
1839. Birmingham
1840. Glasgow ...
1841, Plymouth...
1842, Manchester
1843. Cork
1844, York
eee eens
1845. Cambridge.
1846. Southamp-
ton
|
Prof. Jameson
Peewee ereeeerseesee
Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie,
| Rey. J. Yates.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.
Bey mui iilt yee csoece seus scoew ees
Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—
Geography, R. I. Murchison,
F.R.S.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.—
Geography, G.B.Greenough,
F.R.S.
C. Lyell, F.R.S., V.P.G.S.—|
Geography, Lord Prudhope. |
Rev. Dr. Buckland,. F.R.S.—
Geography, G.B.Greenough,
F.R.S
Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
ELR.S.
H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. ...
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......
Richard E. Gviffith, F.R.S.,
M.R.LA.
Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres.
Geol. Soc.
Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A.,
E.R.S:
Leonard Horner,F.R.S.— Geo-
graphy, G. B. Greenough,
F.R.S.
| Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie.
William Sanders, 8. Stutchbury, T..
J. Torrie.
Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.— Geo-
graphy, Captain H. M. Denham,
RN
\W.C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.—
| Geography, Capt. Washington.
George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strick-
land, Charles Darwin.
W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John
Scoular, M.D.
W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D..,.
R. Hutton.
E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R.
Lloyd, H. E. Strickland.
Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick-
land.
Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury.
Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay,
Rev. W. Thorp.
Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton,
Prof. Oldham.— Geography, Dr. C..
T. Beke.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES
OF TIIE SECTIONS. XXXIX
Date and Place Presidents
1847. Oxford
eeneee
1848. Swansea ...|Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B.,
F.R.S.
1849.Birmingham|Sir Charles Lyell, F.R.S.,
F.G.8
1850. Edinburgh'|Sir Roderick I. Murchison,
E.
SECTION € (continued).
_ 1851. Ipswich ... WilliamHopkins,M.A.,F.R.S.
1852. Belfast...... Lieut.-Col. Portlock, R.E.,
F.R.S.
1853. Hull......... Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.........
1854. Liverpool..| Prof. Edward Forbes, F.R.S.
1855. Glasgow ...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.B.S....
1856. Cheltenham| Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S....
1857. Dublin...... The Lord Talbot de Malahide
1858. Leeds ...... William Hopkins,M.A.,LL.D.,
F.RB.S.
1859. Aberdeen...|Sir Charles Lyell, LL.D.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
1860. Oxford...... Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D.,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
1861. Manchester |Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.B.S.
1862. Cambridge |J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S.
1863. Newcastle | Prof. Warington W. Smyth,
F.R.S., F.G.S8.
1864. Bath......... Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,
F.RB.S., F.G.S.
1865, Birmingham|Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,
K.C.B.
1866. Nottingham|Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D.,
F.R.S
1867. Dundee ...|Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.,
F.G.S
1868. Norwich ...|R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.RBS., F.GS.
1869. Exeter ...... Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
1870. Liverpool...|Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton,
Bart., M.P., F.R.S.
1871. Edinburgh | Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.
Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.R.8.
Secretaries
Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C.
Ramsay, J. Ruskin.
Starling Benson, Prof.
Prof. Ramsay.
J. Beete Jukes, Prof, Oldham, Prof,
A, C. Ramsay.
A, Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller,
| Prof. Nicol.
Oldham,
— GEOLOGY.
C. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod,
Searles Wood.
James Bryce, James MacAdam,
Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol.
Prof. Harkness, William Lawton.
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness,
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall.
James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof.
Nicol.
Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep-
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall,
T. Wright.
Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders,
Robert H. Scott.
Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W.
Shaw.
Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir,
H. C. Sorby.
Prof, Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt.
D. C. L. Woodall,
Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T.
Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod.
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert
Jones, H. C. Sorby.
E. F. Boyd, John Daglish, H. C.
Sorby, Thomas Sopwith.
W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C.
Sorby, W. Pengelly.
Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E.
Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly.
R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil-
son, G. H. Wright.
Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry
Woodward.
Rev. O. Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W.
Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins,
Rev. H. H. Winwood.
W. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood,
W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton.
R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny
Hughes, L. C. Miall.
1 Ata meeting of the General
the subject of Geography be separa
t ceed : under the title of the “Geographical and Ethno«
to constitute a separate Section,
logical Section,”’ for Presidents an
Committee held in 1850, it was resolved § That
ted from Geology and combined with Ethnology,
a Secretaries of which see page xliii.
xl
REPORT—1880.
—_—_—SeSeeess= aa kn eee eeeRe»«_a—«a«aXxX—Xx—x—x—x—xX—X—_—_—_—_—_—_—_—_—_—_—_[—_—_—_—
Date and Place
. Brighton...)
. Bradford ...,
. Belfast......
. Bristol
. Glasgow ...
. Plymouth...
. Dublin
. Sheffield ...
. Swansea ...
eeeeee)
Presidents
\
Secretaries
R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,
F.R.S.
Prof. J. Phillips,
F.R.S., F.G.S.
Prof. Hull, M.A. F.R.S.,|
F.G.S.
Dr. Thomas Wright, F.R.S.E.,
F.G.8.
Prof. John Young, M.D. ......
D.C.L.,
W. Pengelly, FURS. ....scesese-
John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.,
F.S.A., F.G.S.
Prof, P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,
F.RB.S., F.G.S.
H. C. Sorby, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.8.
L. C. Miall, George Scott, William
Topley, Henry Woodward.
L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W.
Topley.
F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes,
R. H. Tiddeman.
aches Miall, E. B. Tawney, W. Top-
ey.
J. Armstrong, F. W. Rudler, W.
Topley.
Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde-
man, W. Topley.
HE. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly,
R. H. Tiddeman.
W. Topley, G. Blake Walker.
W. Topley, W. Whitaker.
BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY.
1832. Oxford...... Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G.S. ... | Rev. Prof. J. S. Henslow.
1833. Cambridge’) Rev. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L.S.|C. C. Babington, D. Don.
1834. Edinburgh .| Prof. Graham..............c.c200e W. Yarrell, Prof. Burnett.
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.
1835. Dublin...... Dy PAU MAT esc ccscca season tec J. Curtis, Dr. Litton.
1836. Bristol...... Rev. Prof. Henslow .........065 J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, S.
Rootsey.
1837. Liverpool...|W. S. MacLeay...........sse000 C. C. Babington, Rev. L. Jenyns, W.
Swainson.
1838. Newcastle |Sir W. Jardine, Bart. ......... J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen,
Dr. Richardson.
1839. Birmingham| Prof. Owen, F.R.S. ............ E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson.
1840. Glasgow ...|Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D....... Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat-
terson.
1841. Plymouth...| John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.|J. Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson.
1842. Manchester |Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her-|Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A.
bert, LL.D., F.L.S. Turner,
1843. Cork......... William Thompson, F.L.S....|G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R.
Patterson.
1844; York....::... Very Rev. the Dean of Man-|Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King,
chester. Dr. Lankester.
1845. Cambridge | Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....|Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston.
1846. Southamp- |Sir J. Richardson, M.D., |Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H.
ton F.R.S, Wooldridge.
1847. Oxford...... H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S.|Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V.
Wollaston.
SECTION D (continwed).—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY.
; [For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsec-
tions and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. xlii.]
1848.
Swansea
...|L. W. Dillwyn, F.R.S..........|Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A, Hen-
frey, Dr. Lankester.
1849. Birmingham | William Spence, F.R.S. ......|Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell,
* At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee,
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. xlii.
*
_ 1858.
1869. Exeter
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Date and Place
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich
1852. Belfast......
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.
13 hull Copan
Liverpool...
Glasgow ..
Cheltenham
Dublin.......
Leeds ......
1859. Aberdeen...
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee ...
1868. Norwich ...
seneee
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
xli
*
Presidents
Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E.
F.R.S.
eee meee er eeeeeeeeeeseres
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....
..-/ Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E.
Thomas Bell, F.R.S8., Pres.L.S.
Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D.,
F.R.S.
C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.
Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E.
Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....
Prof, C. C. Babington, F.R.S.
se eeeenee
Prof. Huxley, F.R.S.
Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....
Dr. John E. Gray, F.R.S.
T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S.
Secretaries
Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lan-
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan.
...|Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A., | Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E.
Lankester.
| Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr.
Edwin Lankester:
Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester.
Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester.
William Keddie, Dr. Lankester.
Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman,
Dr. Lankester.
Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester,
Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele.
Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E.
Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester,
Dr. Ogilvy.
W. 8S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P.
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright.
Dr. T. Alcock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr.
P. L. Selater, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
.|H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T.
Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev.
H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright.
SECTION D (continued),—BIOLOGY.}
Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.
—Physiological Dep., Prof.
Humphry, M.D., F.R.S.—
Anthropological Dep., Alf.
R. Wallace, F.R.G.S.
Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.
—Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,
George Busk, M.D., F.R.S.
Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.
—Dep. of Physiology, W.
H. Flower, F.R.S.
George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S.
—Dep. of Bot. and Zool.,
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Ethno., KE. B. Tylor.
Prof.G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,
F.R.S., F.L.S.—Dep. of
Anat. and Physiol., Prof. M.
Foster, M.D., F.L.S.—Dep.
of Ethno., J. Evans, F.R.S.
Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Bot. and
Zool.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol,
Prof. W. Turner, M.D.
Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, W. Turner, HE. B.
Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright.
C. Spence Bate, Dr. 8. Cobbold, Dr.
M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev. H.
B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner.
Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr.
M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T.
Stainton, Rey. Dr. H. B. Tristram,
Dr. E. P. Wright.
Dr. T. S. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster, -
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris-
tram. f
Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans,
Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H.
T, Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram,
C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan-
kester.
Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee,
E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson,
H. T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake,
Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne
King.
2 At a meeting of the General Committee in 1865, it was resolved :—‘ That the title
of Section D be changed to Biology ;’ and ‘That for the word “Subsection,” in the
rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word “ Department” besubstituted.”
xlii
REPORT—1 880.
eee
Date and Place Presidents
Secretaries
1872. Brighton ...
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S.
1873. Bradford ...
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof. Ru-
therford, M.D.—Dep. of An-
thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.
1874, Belfast......
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,
C.B.,Pres.R.S.— Dep. of An-
throp., Sir W.R. Wilde, M.D.
1875. Bristol ......
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof.Cle-
land, M.D., F.R.S.—Dep. of
Anthropol., Prof. Rolleston,
M.D., F.R.S.
A. Russel Wallace, F.R.G.S.,
F.L.S.—Dep. of Zool. and
Bot., Prof. A. Newton, M.A.,
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Dr. J. G. McKen-
drick, F.R.S.E.
J.GwynJeftreys,LL.D.,F.R.S.,
F.L.S.—Dep. of Anat. and
Physiol., Prof. Macalister,
M.D.—Dep. of Anthropol.,
Francis Galton, M.A.,F.R.S.
Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.—
Dep. of Anthropol., Prof.
Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep.
of Anat. and Physiol. R.
McDonnell, M.D., F.R.S.
Prof. St. George Mivart,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,
KE. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S.
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., Dr. Pye-Smith.
1876, Glasgow ...
1877. Plymouth...
1878, Dublin
1879, Sheffield ...
1880, Swansea ...
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy-
siol., F. M. Balfour, M.A.,
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol,
F. W. Rudler, F.G.S.
A. C. L. Giinther, M.D., F.R.S.|G. W. Bloxam,
Sir J. Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.—| Prof, Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton,
Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H.
Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, E. Ray
Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith.
Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson,.
R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E.
Ray Lankester, F, W. Rudler, J.
H. Lamprey.
Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of| W.T. Thiselton- Dyer, R. O. Cunning-
ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H.
Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W.
Rudler.
P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of| E. R. Alston, Dr. McKendrick, Prof.
W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W.
Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr.
W. Spencer.
E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr.
Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr.
Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat-
son.
KE. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. Ju.
Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston,
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe,
F. W. Rudler.
Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden,.
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M.
Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler.
Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab,
J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof.
Schiifer.
John Priestley,
Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg-
wick.
ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
1833. Cambridge | Dr. Haviland...............s0+06. Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget.
1834, Edinburgh |Dr. Abercrombie ............... Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson,
SECTION EB, (UNTIL 1847.)—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE.
1835. Dublin...... Dr Pratchard.......avesasherssese Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart.
1836. Bristol ...... Dr. Roget, F.R.S. ............ ..| Dr. Symonds.
1837, Liverpool...| Prof. W. Clark, M.D. ......... Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long,
Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
1838. Newcastle |T. E. Headlam, M.D. ......... T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose.
1839, Birmingham |John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S....|Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland.
1847, Oxford! ...
1851. Ipswich ...
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
Date and Place |
1840. Glasgow ...|
xliit
Presidents
Secretaries
James Watson, M.D.
Dr. J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof.
Reid.
1841. Plymouth.. p. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S. |Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. RB. S.
Sargent.
1842. Manchester | paward Holme, M.D., F.L.S.| Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
1843. Cork
1844 York......
Pr
1845. Cambridge |
1846. Southamp-
ton
1850. Edinburgh
1855. Glasgow ...
1857. Dublin
1858. Leeds
seeaee
1859. Aberdeen..
1860. Oxford......
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle |
1864. Bath
1865. Birminghm.?
Sir James Pitcairn, M.D.
| Prof, Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
...|Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
../J. C. Pritchard, M.D. ......... I. Erichsen, Dr. R. 8. Sargent.
SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY.
Prof. J. Haviland, M.D. .....
Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.R.S. ...
.| Dr.
a
\
.|Dr. R. S. Sargent, Dr. Webster.
.|C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-
gent.
Thomas K, Chambers, W. P..
Ormerod.
PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
| Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E.
Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S.
Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ....
Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart.,
F.R.S.
.| Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S.
Prof. G. Rolleston,
F.L.S.
Dr. John Davy, F.R.S.L.& E.
M.D.,
|C. H. Paget, M.D.............+0.
Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S.
Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D.,
E.R.S.
Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D.,
F.B.S,
Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers.
..|Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern.
C. G. Wheelhouse.
Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern.
Dr. R. M*Donnell, Dr. Edward
Smith.
Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith.
G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith.
Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner.
J. 8. Bartrum, Dr, W. Turner.
Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop.
Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner.
GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES.
[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C..
p. Xxxvlii.]
1846.Southampton
1847. Oxford
1848. Swansea ...
1849, Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1852. Belfast
ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION D.
IDR sPritichandar, ..ccesecdeee.
Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A.
OPP eee TY Seer er eee e rere erry
Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm
Pres. R.G.S.
Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.,
F.R.S
1853. Hull
1854, Liverpool...
R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,
E.R.S.
Dr. King.
..|Prof. Buckley.
G. Grant Francis.
Dr. R. G. Latham.
Daniel Wilson.
SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY.
Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.,
R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr-
Norton Shaw.
R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Nortom
Shaw.
R. Cull, Rev. H. W. Kemp, Dr.
Norton Shaw.
Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr.
Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw.
1 By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were
siology’ (see p. xl).
Geography.
2 Vide note on
page xli.
incorporated under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Phy-
The Section being then vacant was assigned in 1851 toa
xliv
REPORT—1880.
Date and Place
1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864,
1865.
1866.
1867.
1868.
. Exeter
. Liverpool...
. Edinburgh
. Brighton ...!
. Bradford ...'
. Glasgow ...
. Plymouth...
. Dublin
. Sheffield ...
. Swansea ...|
Glasgow ...
|
Cheltenham |
Dublin
eeeeee
Aberdeen...
Oxtord’.....
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
Birmingham
Nottingham
Dundee
Norwich ...
.|Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S.
eeeere
Presidents Secretaries
Sir J. Richardson, M.D.,|Dr. W. G. Blackie,
F.R.S. Norton Shaw.
Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson,|R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.
K.C.B. Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw.
Rey. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd, |R. Cull, S. Ferguson, Dr. R. R.
Pres, R.LA. Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw.
Sir R. I. Murchison, G.C.St.S.,|R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O’Calla-
F.R.S. ghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas
Wright.
Rear - Admiral Sir James/Richard Cull, Prof. Geddes, Dr. Nor-
Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S. ton Shaw.
Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L..|Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C.
R. Cull, Dr.
F.R.S. Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw.
John Crawfurd, F.R.S.......... Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor-
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode.
Francis Galton, F.R.S.......... J. W. Clarke, Rev. J. Glover, Dr.
Hunt, Dr. Norton Shaw, T.
Wright.
Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,|C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield,
F.R.S. C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson.
Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,]H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt.
E.R.S. R. M. Murchison, T. Wright.
Major-General Sir H. Raw-
linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S.
Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,
LL.D.
H. W. Bates, S. Evans, G. Jabet, C.
R. Markham, Thomas Wright.
H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R.
H. Major, Clements R. Markham,
D. W. Nash, T. Wright.
H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, C. R.
Markham, §. J. Mackie, R. Stur-
rock.
T. Baines, H. W. Bates, C. R. Mark-
ham, T. Wright.
Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N.,
E.R.S.
SECTION E (continwed).—GEOGRAPHY.
Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B.,{H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham,
LL.D., F.R.G.S. J. H. Thomas.
Sir R. I. Murchison, Bt.,K.C.B.,]H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J.
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.8.| Mott, Clements R. Markham.
Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S. |Clements R. Markham, A. Buchan,
J. H. Thomas, A. Keith Johnston.
Francis Galton, F.R.S.......... H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas.
Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.|H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston,
Clements R. Markham.
Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,|E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H.
F.R.G.S. Thomas.
Lieut. - General Strachey,|H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, F. F.
B.E.,C.8.1.,F.R.S., F.R.G.S.,| Tuckett.
F.L.S., F.G.8.
Capt. Evans, C.B., F.R.S....... H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, R. Oliphant
Wood.
Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.,|H. W. Bates, F. E. Fox, E. C. Rye.
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-
son, LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E.
Clements R. Markham, C.B.,
F.R.S., Sec. R.G.S.
Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy,
C.B.,K.C.M.G., R.A., F.B.S.,
FE.R.G.S.
John Coles, E. C. Rye.
H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C.
Rye.
H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. xlv
Date and Place Presidents | Secretaries
STATISTICAL SCIENCE.
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS.
1833. Cambridge { Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. .........{J. E. Drinkwater.
1834, Edinburgh | Sir Charles Lemon, Bart....... Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean.
SECTION F.—STATISTICS.
1835. Dublin...... Charles Babbage, F.R.S. ......|W. Greg, Prof. Longfield.
1836. Bristol...... Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., F.R.S.|Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp.
James Heywood.
1837. Liverpool...| Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon.........| Wee W. Langton, Dr. W. C.
ayler.
1838. Newcastle | Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. .........|W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R. Wood.
1839, Birmingham | Henry Hallam, F.R.S........../F. ae R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C.
ayler.
1840. Glasgow ...| Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, M.P.,\C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W.
F.R.S. | Rawson.
1841, Plymouth...| Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S....... Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R.
W. Rawson.
1842. Manchester |G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. .../Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr.
W. C. Tayler.
1843. Cork......... Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...|Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
1844. York......... Teaser Sykes, F.R.S., J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay-
F.L.S. cock.
1845. Cambridge | Rt. Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.
1846. Southamp- |G. R. Porter, F.R.S. ............|J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W-
ton C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott.
1847, Oxford...... Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Rev. W. H. Cox, J: J. Danson, F. G.
| P. Neison.
1848. Swansea ...|J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede.
1849, Birmingham| Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton...... Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P.
Neison.
1850. Edinburgh |Very Rey. Dr. John Lee, Prof, Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J.
V.P.R.S.E. | Stark.
1851. Ipswich ...|Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ... J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock.
1852. Belfast...... His Grace the Archbishop of Prof. Hancock, Prof. ngram, James
Dublin. | MacAdam, jun.
1853. Hull......... James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.| Edward Cheshire, Wm. Newmarch.
1854. Liverpool.../Thomas Tooke, F.R.S. .........|E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H.
: | Duncan, W. Newmarch.
1855. Glasgow ...|R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ...|J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New-
march, Prof. R. H. Walsh.
SECTION F (continwed).—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
1856, Cheltenham| Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. |Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr.
W. N. Hancock, W..Newmarch, W.
M. Tartt.
1857. Dublin...... His Grace the Archbishop of|Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W.
Dublin, M.R.IA. Newmarch.
1858. Leeds .......| Edward Baines......... BRS. T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, S. Brown,
Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strange.
1859. Aberdeen...| Col. Sykes, M.P., F.R.S, ......|Prof, Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M,
Smith, Dr. John Strang.
1860, Oxford......) Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ......}Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch,
Rey. Prof, J. E. T. Rogers.
xl1vi
REPORT—188
0.
OT ew
Date and Place
Presidents
NX
Secretaries
1861. Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle .
1864, Bath
1865. Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee |
1868. Norwich... |
1869. Exeter
seeeee!
11870. Liverpool... !
1871. Edinburgh |
1872. Brighton ...|
1873. Bradford ...
1874. Belfast
1875. Bristol
1876, Glasgow
1877. Plymouth...
1878. Dublin......
1879. Sheffield .,.
1880. Swansea
4836. Bristol
1837. Liverpool...| Rev. Dr. Robinsor
Charles Babbage, F.R.S.......|R. Hawthorn,
1838. Newcastle
|Lord O’Hagan
... Sir George Campbell, K.C.S8.1, |
M.P.
ssohGts Wa ELAStI OS, IME .csnscns
[William Newmarch, F.R.S....
|
‘Edwin Chadwick, O.B. ........
‘William Tite, M.P., F.R.S. ...|
‘William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,!
F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,
| David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie,
E. Macrory, Rey. Prof. J. E. T.
Rogers.
H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory.
T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory,
Frederick Purdy, James Potts.
E. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F. Purdy.
G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston,
M.P.
Prof. J. E. T. Rogers
M. E. Grant Duff, M.P. .......
Samuel Brown, Pres. Instit.
Actuaries.
Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-
cote, Bart., C.B., M.P.
Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.
Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves .........
Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P....
Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.
eee e er eeeeeereeee
James Heywood, M.A., F.R.S.,
Pres.8.5S.
(Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue
\Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D.,
M.R.LA.
G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.
S.S.
E. Macrory.
R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E.
Macrory.
Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J.
Warden.
Rev. W.C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi.
Edmund Macrory, Frederick Purdy,
Charles T. D. Acland.
Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory,
J. Miles Moss.
J. G. Fitch, James Meikle.
J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips.
J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith.
Prof. Donnell, Frank P. Fellows,
Hans MacMordie.
F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E.
Macrory.
A. M‘Neel Caird, T. G. P. Hallett,
Dr. W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W.
Jack.
W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim.
|W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim.
Prof. Adamson, R. E. Leader, C.
Molloy.
N. A. Humphreys, C. Molloy.
MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
SECTION G.—MECHANIC
AL SCIENCE,
Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S.|T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West.
Oeeeeerceres
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
C. Vignoles, T.
Webster.
1839. Birmingham| Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.| W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T.
Stephenson. Webster.
1840. Glasgow ..../Sir John Robinson ........0.+++ J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tol,
C. Vignoles.
1841, Plymouth |John Taylor, F.R.S. .......000.. Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster.
1842, Manchester | Rev. Prof. Willis, F.R.S.......
1843. Cork
1844, York
se eeweene
ee eeeesee
Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.1LA....
John Taylor, F.RB.S. .......0006
1845. Cambridge |George Rennie, F.R.S.
1846,Southampton| Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.] William Betts, jun., Charles Manby.
Rev. Professor Walker, M.A.,|J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier.
1847. Oxford
F.RB.S.
J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J.
Thomson, Charles Vignoles.
James Thomson, Robert Mallet.
Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster.
Rev. W. T. Kingsley.
PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS.
xlvii
Date and Place
1848.
Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850.
1851.
1852.
1853.
1854.
1855.
1856.
1857.
1858.
1859.
1860.
1861.
1862.
1863.
1864.
Edinburgh
Ipswich .....
Belfast
Liverpool...
Glasgow
Cheltenham
Dublin......
Leeds ......
Aberdeen...
Oxford 2.2.5
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle
Bath
ee eeeneee
1865. Birmingham
1866.
1867.
1868.
1869.
‘1870.
Nottingham
Dundee......
Norwich ...
Exeter ......
Liverpool...
Presidents
Rev. Professor .Walker, M.A.,
F.RB.S.
Robert Stephenson, M.P.,
F.R.S.
Rev. R. Robinson ............06
William Cubitt, F.R.S..........
John Walker, C.E., LL.D.,
F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, C.E.,
F.R.S.
John Scott Russell, F.R.S.
...|W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
C.E., F.R.S.
George Rennie, F.R.S........
Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,
F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof.W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
J. F. Bateman, C.E., F.R.S....
Wm. Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.
Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S. ........
Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL.D.,
F.RB.S.
Thomas Hawksley, V.P.Inst.
C.E., F.G.S.
Prof.W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S.
C. W. Siemens, F.R.S..
Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., E.R. Ss.
1871. Edinburgh | Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.
1872.
1873.
1874,
1875.
1876.
41877. Plymouth...|Edward Woods, C.E.
1878.
1879.
i880.
Brighton ...
Bradford ...
Belfast......
Bristol
Glasgow ...
Dublin .....
Sheffield ...
Swansea ...
.|Edward Easton, C.E.
F. J. Bramwell, C.E.
W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. ...
Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,
C.E., F.R.S.E.
W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S.
C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ..
Pe eee eees
J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech.
Eng.
James Abernethy, V.P. Inst.
C.E., F.R.S.E.
Secretaries
R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé.
Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall.
Dr. Lees, David Stephenson.
John Head, Charles Manby.
John F. Bateman, C. B. Hancock,
Charles Manby, James Thomson.
James Oldham, J. Thomson, W.
Sykes Ward.
John Grantham,
Thomson.
L. Hill, jun., William Ramsay, J.
Thomson,
J. Oldham, J.
.|C. Atherton, B. Jones, jun., H. M.
Jeffery.
Prof. Downing, W.T. Doyne, A. Tate,
James Thomson, Henry Wright.
J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright.
R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H.
Wright.
P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F’. Harrison,
Henry Wright.
P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson,
H. Wright.
W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster.
P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott,
J. F. Spencer.
.|P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt.
P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea, W.
P. Marshall, Walter May.
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M.
A. Tarbottom.
P. Le Neve Foster, John P, Smith,
W. W. Urquhart,
P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C.
Manby, W. Smith.
.|P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman.
H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T.
King, J. N. Shoolbred.
H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie, J.
P. Smith.
H. M. Brunel, P* Le Neve Foster,
J. G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
.|Crawford Barlow, H. Bauerman, E.
H. Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw, J.
N. Shoolbred.
A. T, Atchison, J. N. Shoolbred, John
Smyth, jun.
W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G.
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred.
....| W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar, J.
N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith.
A, T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N.
Shoolbred.
..../A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T.
Wood.
A. T. Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge,
H. T. Wood.
A. T, Atchison, H. T. Wood.
xlviii
REPORT—1880.
List of Evening
Lectures.
Date and Place
1842, Manchester
1843, Cork
eeeeteres
1844. York.........
1845, Cambridge
1846. Southamp-
ton.
1847, Oxford
1848. Swansea ...
1849. Birmingham
1850. Edinburgh
1851. Ipswich ...
1852. Belfast
1853,
eeeeeee
1854, Liverpool...
1855. Glasgow ..
. Cheltenham
1857. Dublin
.| Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Lecturer |
Charles Vignoles, F.R.S. =
PILRVEM EE TUNE]! .,.2.ccqseecace
Ree WURCHISON:.. .6s<.0ssseeere
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.......
Prof. E. Forbes, F.R.S..........
Dr BRODINSON Gs .osccsc2000se0cese%
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........
Dr. WalconermeeR:...<.0sccsess
G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron.Royal
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. .....
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ..
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. ........
Wi. Re iGROvies Heats. cacccsceee
Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S. |
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S.......
Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S....|
John Percy, M.D., F.R.S.......
W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S....
Dr. Faraday, F.R.S. ...........+
Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D.,)
F.R.S.E.
Drs iMamntell, WARS. ccccccstscee
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.,
F.R.S.
Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S.
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S.
Robert Hunt, F.R.S..........-6.
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. |
Col, E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. ......
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson
Col. Sir H. Rawlinson
W...R..Grove, HERS. ...0sccexess
Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S. ..
Subject of Discourse
The Principles and Construction of
Atmospheric Railways.
The Thames Tunnel.
The Geology of Russia.
The Dinornis of New Zealand.
The Distribution of Animal Life in
the Mgean Sea.
The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope.
Geology of North America.
The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik.
Hills in India.
Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism,
.| Geology of Russia.
-| Fossil Mammaliaof the British Isles.
-| Valley and Delta of the Mississippi.
Properties of the Explosive substance
discovered by Dr. Schénbein; also
some Researches of his own on the
Decomposition of Water by Heat.
Shooting Stars.
Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno-
mena.
The Dodo (Didus ineptus).
Metallurgical Operations of Swansea
and its neighbourhood.
Recent Microscopical Discoveries.
Mr. Gassiot’s Battery.
Transit of different Weights with
varying velocities on Railways.
Passage of the Blood through the
minute vessels of Animals in con-
nexion with Nutrition.
Extinct Birds of New Zealand.
Distinction between Plants and Ani-
mals, and their changes of Form.
Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851.
Recent discoveries in the properties
of Light.
Recent discovery of Rock-salt at
Carrickfergus, and geological and
practical considerations connected
with it.
Some peculiar Phenomena in the
Geology and Physical Geography
of Yorkshire.
The present state of Photography.
Anthropomorphous Apes.
Progress of researches in Terrestrial
Magnetism.
Characters of Species.
...| Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities
and Ethnology.
Recent Discoveries in Assyria and
Babylonia, with the results of
Cuneiform research up to the pre-
sent time.
Correlation of Physical Forces,
.| The Atlantic Telegraph.
Rey. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L.
|Recent Discoveries in Africa,
LIST OF EVENING LECTURES.
xlix
Date and Place
1858. Leeds
1859, Aberdeen..
1860. Oxford......
1861, Manchester
1862. Cambridge
1863. Newcastle
1864. Bath.........
1865, Birmingham
1866. Nottingham
1867. Dundee......
1868. Norwich ...
1869. Exeter
1870. Liverpool...
1871. Edinburgh
1872, Brighton ...
1
1875, Bristol ......
1876, Glasgow ...
1877. Plymouth...
1880.
eeenee
1873. Bradford ,..
1874, Belfast......
Lecturer
Subject of Discourse
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S,
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S.
.|Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L....
Rey. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. ...
Rev. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. ...
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N.
Prof.W.A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S.
G.B. Airy, F.R.S.,Astron. Royal
Prof. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prot. Odling, HORSi.csssececnms
Prof. Williamson, F.R.S......
James Glaisher, F.R.S.........
Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S. .........+0+
Dr. Livingstone, F.H.S. ......
J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S.........
William Huggins, F.R.S.
Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S.......
Archibald Geikie, F.R.5.......
Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S.
J. Fergusson, F.R.S.........
Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S..........
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S.
J. Norman Lockyer, F.R.S....
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof.W. J. Macquorn Rankine,
LL.D., F.R.S.
WEVA PAIbel), WH RiSeusevesescssses5
HA, iylor ee Ss vecsececacess
Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.D.,
F.R.S.
Prof. W. K. Clifford............
Prof. W. C.Williamson, F.R.S.
Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S.
Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Huxley, F.R.S. .........
W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.
F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S..........
Prof. Tait, F.R.S.E.
Sir Wyville Thomson, ¥. R. 8.
W. Warington Smyth, M.A.,
E.R.S.
se eeeenneaee
Prof, Odling, F.R.S,
The Ironstones of Yorkshire.
The Fossil Mammalia of Australia.
Geology of the Northern Highlands.
Electrical Discharges in highly
rarefied Media.
Physical Constitution of the Sun,
Arctic Discovery.
Spectrum Analysis.
The late Eclipse of the Sun.
The Forms and Action of Water.
Organic Chemistry.
.|The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat-
tery considered in relation to Dy-
namics.
The Balloon Ascents made for the
British Association.
The Chemical Action of Light.
Recent Travels in Africa.
.| Probabilities as to the position and
extent of the Coal-measures be-
neath the red rocks of the Mid-
land Counties.
..|The results of Spectrum Analysis
applied to Heavenly Bodies,
Insular Floras.
The Geological Origin of the present
Scenery of Scotland.
The present state of knowledge re-
garding Meteors and Meteorites.
..| Archeology of the early Buddhist
Monuments.
Reverse Chemical Actions.
Vesuvius.
The Physical Constitution of the
Stars and Nebulz.
The Scientific Use of the Imagination.
Stream-lines and Waves, in connec-
tion with Naval Architecture.
Some recent investigations and ap-
plications of Explosive Agents.
The Relation of Primitive to Modern
Civilization.
Insect Metamorphosis.
The Aims and Instruments of Scien-
tific Thought.
Coal and Coal Plants.
Molecules.
Common Wild Flowers considered
in relation to Insects.
The Hypothesis that Animals are
Automata, and its History.
The Colours of Polarized Light,
Railway Safety Appliances,
. | Force.
The Challenger Expedition,
The Physical Phenomena connected
with the Mines of Cornwall and
Devon.
The new Element, Gallium,
Date and Place
REPORT—1880.
Lecturer
1878. Dublin
1879.
1880.
1867.
1868.
1869.
1870.
1872.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1876.
1877.
1879.
1880.
Sheffield ...
Swansea ...
Exeter
seeeee
Liverpool..
Brighton ...
Bradford ...
Belfast
Bristol ......
Glasgow ...
Plymouth...
Sheffield ...
Swansea ...
|W. HE. Ayrton
|H.'Seebolim; WiC. srccesscdsen
G. J. Romanes, F.L.S..........
Prof. Dewar, F.R.S. ........000.
W. Crookes, F.R.S..............
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.8.
Prof. W. Boyd. Dawkins,
F.R.S.
Francis Galton, F.R.8.......
Subject of Discourse
Animal Intelligence:: :
Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of
Chemical Action.
Radiant Matter.
Degeneration.
Primeval Man.
.| Mental Imagery.
Lectures to the Operative Classes.
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
.... Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F. B.S.
‘Prof. Miller, M.D., E.R. 8.
.|Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P.,
F.R.S.
W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.
C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.
Prot Od ling WH) EiSsanc sare se soy
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Commander Cameron, C.B.,
R.N.
W. H. Preece
8.
8
seen wee weeneceeene
Matter and Force.
A Piece of Chalk.
.| Experimental illustrations of the
modes of detecting the Composi-
tion of the Sun and other Heavenly
Bodies by the page
Savages.
Sunshine, Sea, and Sky.
.| Fuel.
The Discovery of Oxygen.
A Piece of Limestone.
A Journey through: Africa.
Telegraphy and the Telephone.
Electricity as a Motive Power.
The North-East Passage.
li
OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE
SWANSEA MEETING.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS.
President.—Professor W. Grylls Adams, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Professor G. Carey Foster, F.R.S.; C. W. Merrifield,
F.R.S.; C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.1.C.E. ;
Professor H. J. S. Smith, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.; Sir Wm. Thomson,
D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.
Secretaries—W. E. Ayrton; J. W. L. Glaisher, M.A., F.R.S.; Oliver J.
Lodge, D.Sc. ; Donald McAlister, M.A., B.Sc. (Recorder).
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY.
President.—Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D., F.R.S., V.P.C.S.
Vice-Presidents—I. Lowthian Beli, F.R.S.; William Crookes, F.R.S. ;
W. Chandler Roberts, F.R.S.; Professor Abel, F.R.S.; Dr. J. H.
Gladstone, F.R.S.; A. G. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S.; Professor A. W.
Williamson, F.R.S.
Secretaries—Harold B. Dixon, M.A.; Dr. W. R. Eaton Hodgkinson ;
P. Phillips Bedson, D.Sc. ; J. M. Thomson, F.R.S.E. (Recorder).
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.
President.—H. C. Sorby, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Vice-Presidents.—W. T. Blanford, F.R.S.; Professor W. Boyd Dawkins,
M.A., F.R.S.; J. Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S.; W. Pengelly, F.R.S.; J. A.
Phillips, F.G.S.; W. W. Smyth, M.A., F.R.S.
Secretaries.—W. Topley, F.G.S. (Recorder) ; W. Whitaker, B.A., F.G.S.
SECTION D.—BIOLOGY.
President.—A. C. L. Giinther, M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents—¥F. M. Balfour, M.A., F.R.S.; Professor G. Rolleston,
M.D., F.R.S.; F. W. Rudler, F.G.S.
Secretaries —G. W. Bloxam, M.A., F.L.S. (Recorder); John Priestley
(Recorder) ; Howard Saunders, F.L.S., F.Z.S. (Recorder); Adam
Sedgwick, B.A.
c 2
hii REPORT—1 880.
SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY.
President.—Lient.-General Sir John Henry Lefroy, C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A.,.
F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Sir Henry Barkly, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.;
Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.; Admiral Sir Erasmus Om-
manney, O.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.; Lieut.-General Sir H. E. L..
Thuillier, C.S.I., R.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
Secretaries —H. W. Bates, Assistant-Sec. R.G.S., F.L.S.; EH. ©. Rye,.
Librarian R.G.S., F.Z.S. (Recorder).
SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
President.—George Woodyatt Hastings, M.P.
Vice-Presidents—James Heywood, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., F.R.GS.,
F.S.8.; William Newmarch, F.R.S., F.S.S.; Sir Antonio Brady,
F.G.S.
Secretaries—Noel A. Humphreys, F.S.S.; Constantine Molloy (Re-
corder).
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
President.—James Abernethy, V.P.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E.
Vice-Presidents—Captain Douglas Galton, C.B., F.R.S.; R. B. Grantham,
C.E., F.G.S.; Baldwin Latham, C.E., F.G.S.; Professor Osborne
Reynolds, M.A., F.R.S.
Secretaries—A. T. Atchison, M.A. (Recorder) ; H. Trueman Wood, B.A.
‘OSST ‘oe pnhny
ooo
ae
0 LIT
0 OLF
If 299
£1 994
°F
“NOSWVITTIIM *M “V
9 GI 66F
—EEEE
GQ TERESA Penne ee ee eras ee eeewanesereees ower qT1O9RT
0g Reem et ae mee teee teen aeeee ++ 9s ** Kg9ur0dorqguy
0g odrxoy_ Jo AZ0]007 puv ABojOoy oy9 JO WOMVITySOAUT
GL trees ereees golden ye 0149 [eoTsO[O07 4B a[qBT,
OOL “croft eet esee'* onqeroqry [BOLdO[007 JO px1000 xy
g *****-STOIJBULIO WellLlog Jo s1agBVM pUNos.1epuy
ST puvprl Jo YON 04} JO [USE 9} JO v«LOTY OMODOTTT
Fy fe DE IOLIDOOGII Eo SOCOU OD. Oar foaieiad [Bors0[004)
0¢ eee ee ry woryes0pdx UIAABD §,9U0 ST
Or ott tt tt tts** snanesosygqoy Jo ome Ny snoredtAtA,
sree eee tenes eeeseeeseees semiprady NOY JO SAKE
OL ttt ttttstess**vozsjog snosayrmoqrep Wo 4.10dexy
*****sounyereg puv sjeqsXkig Jo Aqiovdep satyonpuy
OL **Sautyy ut durep-earg Jo Worjoajeqy Loy YuUetINAYsUT
0G **** SyUATOQJo0D yeoy-uNg Jo sorqey, JO WoYe;du0D
02 4‘ *unnovA jasuerdg jo AytoOndep aatjonpuy oytoadgy
tenes eee neeeeeeeereer eres HOMOTIT 1OVBM JO SMUT
¢ seeeeees SUIBLIBAUT [BPUOTIV PUNT
Og thir teteereeereeees Karaprey Jo oouequngsiq weUUy
OS TT tt teat estes eeeeeeteeeeeees crosngTT SHOUT
0g COD OREO UCTS OGOCOR UGC DUS figyt Ni) AQOYSET
8 Fee eee ee ee ee ee ee ee ences seas enereetes® ABET
jo yuopeaAmby [eotuvyoayy og} JO uoeUTIOJOg
er
~~
moconoocoooroocoocooocec|ceso
So
al
MRBoo cososcecscoor~scsece|ce|cec]ecscoe
0 OL RE COG MOCO che hGh g punoisiepuy
0 OL ‘ttt tte ** soy WOesuy WaT Jo WO, MONT
pis F —: BurjaaTT PleufeyY 7B opeuUL syuBIyH
‘(aeak [— 00149 o[remMeqTy) sostedxy soq;Q pue yuo
Pee wwe ee ee er eeeeeeeeeeee (avak 1) SolIe[eVg
PEER RH ETHER EERO EOE EH o weet ees seaetaseee (premeus) ‘THATX
‘TOA ‘surye9WT WEF Jo yxoday ‘OB-G1ST rwok oT]
IoF Suryurid Ioz yun0d0¥ 98,09 2 9pooMsTyyodg ‘sassoyy
“-sosmadxg [BJUeploUy puv ‘oUISsT}IOApy ‘ourpurg
‘Surjutrg Arpung osye ‘surjooyy prewoyg jo sasuedxgq preg
‘08-6281
“SSINAWAVd
*** TQINSBOL], [eIOUI4) 0} JUBISISSY JO Spuvy UT
ll ZL GLFF YOuCrg ussysoM “puepsaq jo yueg ye soured
ee
IL LI GSLerF
9
0
9
&
8
0
0
0
0
0
4
II
's
L6T
L9G
1g
669
€09
096
6&
F
“‘SUIPOOTT VOSTVAG 4v sydredet Surpnjour 40 NV
‘(Suye°W CIAIMAAHS Fo sarge 2 62ST ‘03 WusuY wo LNNOOOV SMAUYOSVAUL TVAANAD FHL
Peer eres eaeterreeenes
, 978J00¥-oJ0Npog [AYIA WO averting
-oumorg -[Aqy 01 jo WOTPOY » LOF ‘SOMOTD “VT “TW OF ‘OLET
Suyoop, MOSSeLH oy} ye epeu query popuedxoun Ag
Sseelaseuveceeasaeessrseseetanasererseeeeeeseeaees©©s TIOTSSTULUOD
“M9 “SZ ssey “quod rod Fg ye s[ostOD OOsF Jo oTes Ag
dew eerroreeereeeenenae GEOR OCE hf 4 Jaqureydag Surpue
wok ‘Ayoroog [RoTQVULAYyyeY WOTZ JU acy poataoery
eee eee CeCe eee eee ees SBUT}O9 I, premeus suLmp s19q
-Md] 0} stodeg JO UOISSTMISURIT, OF SUNS [[VUIS Axpung
Hreeeereetessersecererrereerres STOTIBOTIGN JO ITY
BOOS 06700 (Gu 0G OUCH EOUGOCATS 91a) uo SpudprlATqd “
eee ont — o7Ip SJOPOLL, ,SotpeyT Ly
hemes OTD 0341p SJOYOLT, Soa}VLoOssy =
reeeres O1atp §6oujIp = SuOTydTosqng [enuUTy BF
stesseresseersseseseescrseeeseaseereese® QOUTS PUB
SUIJOON PLEWeyg ye suorjisoduiop oj] Jof¥ paataooy
teerereeeres SOTQOT PLOWoy “UNoodY 4S¥] WOIy oOULTe_ OF,
"O8-6L8T
‘SLdIHORY
‘OS8T ‘Gz ysusuy 04
—_+——————
“MONHTOS JO LNAWHONVACVY HHL dod NOLLVIQOSSV SLL WA
liv
REPORT—1880.
~“
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts
‘Date of Meeting
1831, Sept. 27 ...
1832, June 19...
1833, June 25...
1834, Sept. 8
1835, Aug. 10...
1836, Aug. 22...
1837, Sept. 11 ..
1838, Aug. 10...
1839, Aug. 26...
1840, Sept. Ul felone
1841, July 20...
1842, June 23...
11843, Aug. 17...
1844, Sept. 26...
1845, June 19...
/1846, Sept. 10 ...
1847, June 28...
1848, Aug. 9
1851, July 2
1852, Sept. 1
1853, Sept. 3
1856, Aug. 6
1861, Sept. 4
1862, Oct. 1
1863, Aug. 26...
1864, Sept. 13 ..
1865, Sept. 6
1866, Aug. 22...
1867, Sept. 4
1868, Aug. 19...
1869, Aug. 18...
1870, Sept. 14 ...
1871, Aug. 2
1872,
1876, Sept. 6
1877, Aug. 15...
1878, Aug. 14..
1879, Aug. 20 ...
1880, Aug. 25 ...
1849, Sept. 12...
1850, July 21...
1854, Sept. 20...
1855, Sept. 12...
---| Cheltenham .........
1857, Aug. 26...
1858, Sept. 22...
1859, Sept. 14 ...
1860, June 27...
Aug. 14...
1873, Sept. 17 ...
1874, Aug. 19..
1875, Aug. 25...
Duplintys setae seeese ss The Rev.Humpbhrey Lloyd, D.D.
Weeds -< 57. ssesiesacssss Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L....
Aberdeen ............ H.R.H. the Prince Consort ...
ORPOTO ete coecdutes cs The Lord Wrottesley, M.A. ...
Manchester ......... WilliamFairbairn,LL.D.,F.R.S.
-| Cambridge ......... The Rev. Professor Willis, M.A.!
Newcastle-on-Tyne| Sir William G. Armstrong, C.B.'
SAUD cere vow'ee es Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A. |
.| Birmingham......... Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D. |
.| Nottingham ......... William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S.)
ans|MODUNGEC se ccescecece sss The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B.
INOGWIChY eelncceckase Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S.
Hxeter ....cccvee ...-.| Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L.......
Liverpool ............ Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D....... |
.| Edinburgh ......... Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D.
Brighton ............ Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. .
Bradford iscesesces Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R. 8.
a| Belfast’ .ccsessesseeee Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.|
IBTIStol."..st cece sen ces SirJohn portent E. »F.R.S.
-| GlasZOW ..sssccssees Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.
Plymouth ............ Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S
+ MDI i caversseacetes W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S
Sheffield .| Prof.G. J. Allman, M.D., F.R.S
Sywarsea “caccess A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.B.S..
.| Liverpool ......0.+...
Glasgow -| The Marquis of Breadalbane...
Plymouth ...........- The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S.
Manchester ......... The Lord Francis Egerton......
COT vane sensh ese ee The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ...
MOVES sheep ieeeendeceats The Rey. G. Peacock, D.D. ...
Cambridge ......... Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart.
Southampton ...... Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart.
Oxford Prsiaseccssscse Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart.......
-| SWANSEA ....eeeeeees The Marquis of Northampton
Birmingham......... The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.
Edinburgh ......... Sir David Brewster, K.H.......
-| Ipswich ......seceese0 G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal
Belfast: cesisscccessecs Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S.
Eee scsteneesesss +e-| William Hopkins, F.R.S. ......
Liverpool ............ The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S.
GlasZow .esecececeee The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ...
Where held Presidents
DWOLK Noth cbee cp aSecece. The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L.
Oxtord Wages cos on de oe The Rey. W. Buckland, F.R.S.
Cambridge ......... The Rey. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S.
.-.| Edinburgh ......... Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L.......
Dab lay, Gis. ew esde any The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL.D.
Bristol ..... sbesesiecns The Marquis of Lansdowne ...
The Earl of Burlington, F:R.S.
Newcastle-on-Tyne| The Duke of Northumberland
Birmingham......... The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt
Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D.
Old Life
Members
New Life
Members
ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS.
at Annual Meetings of the Association.
lv
Attended by
=a
Old New
Mimnat-} Ann ast | 222°"
Members| Members
—_e--
46 317
15 376 33t
7 185 s
45 190 9+
94 22 407
65 3g 270
197 _ 40 495
54 25 376
93 mB: 447
128 42 510
61 47 244
63 60 510
56 57 367
121 121 165
142 101 1094
104 48 412
156 120 900
111 91 710
. 125 179 . 1206
4 177 59 636
184 125 1589
150 57 433
154 209 1704
182 103 1119
215 149 766
218 105 960
193 118 1163
226 117 720
229 107 678
303 195 ° 1103
311 127 976
280 80 937
237 99 796
232 85 817
307 93 884
331 185 1265
238 59 446
290 93 1285
239 74 529
171 41 389
273
141
292
236
524
543
346
569
509
821
463
791
242
1004
1058
508
771
771
682
600
910
754
912
601
630
672
712
283
674
349
147
Total
353
900
1298
1350
1840
2400
1438
1353
891
1315
1079
857
1320
819
1071
1241
710
1108
876
1802
2133
1115
2022
1698
2564
1689
3138
1161
3335
2802
1997
2303
2444
2004
1856
2878
2463
2533
1983
1951
2248
2774
1229
2578
1404
915
* Ladies were not admitted by purchased Tickets until 1843.
+ Tickets of Admission to Sections only.
Amount
received
during the
Meeting
seeeeeeee
seeeeeeee
eeeeeeeee
sent eeee
seeereees
aeneereee
sects roes
se eeeeeee
see eeeeene
ee earceee
eeeeeccns
seeeeeeen
Pe eeeeeee
se eceeene
oeooocoooocooocococecocecococeNcococoecece
Sums paid on
Account of
Grants for
Scientific
Purposes
ar
bo
oo
or
_—
i=)
e
for)
ies)
or
=
for}
RPORNONNOCADEFOOODNOHPRONDOOS
eee
one
oor
Owr
Go oo Or
eS
—
or
<o
—
4
=
—
=]
ao
i)
a)
i
NrFANNOOCOSCOCOCOCOROMOAROSGr by
jas
ll
or
i
_—
NAF ASCROACONOCCCF
t Including Ladies,
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1880-81.
PRESIDENT.
ANDREW CROMBIE RAMSAY, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., V-P.G.S., Director-General of the Geologicak
Survey of the United Kingdom, and of the Museum of Practical Geology.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
The Right Hon. the EARL OF JERSEY. L. Lu. Dinitwyn, Esq., M.P., F.L.S., F.G.S.
The Mayor or SWANSEA, J. Gwyn JEFFREYS, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
The Hon. Sir W. R. Grove, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. Treas.G.S., F.R.G.S.
H. Hussey VIVIAN, Esq., M.P., F.G.S.
PRESIDENT ELECT.
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
His Grace the ARCHBISHOP OF YORK, D.D., F.R.S. | W. B. CARPENTER, Esq., C.B., M.D., LLD.,
The Hon. Sir W. R. Grove, M.A., D.C.L., F.B.S. F.R.S., F.G.S.
Professor G. G. Stokes, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., | Sir Jonn Hawksuaw, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
Sec, B.S. ALLEN THOMSON, Esq., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E.
Professor ALLMAN, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.S.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT YORK.
Rey. THoMAS ADAMS, M.A. TEMPEsT ANDERSON, Esq., M.D., B.Sc.
LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT YORK.
W. W. WILBERFORCE, Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
ABEL, F. A., Esq., C.B., F.R.S. NEWMARCH, W., Esq., F.R.S.
ADAMS, Professor W. G., F.R.S. NEWTON, Professor A., F.R.S.
BATEMAN, J. F., Esq., C.E., F.R.S. PENGELLY, W., Esq., F.R.S.
CAYLEY, Professor, F'.R.S. PERKIN, W. H., Esq., F.R.S.
Easton, E., Esq., C.E. Prrr-Rivers, General A., F\R.S.
Evans, Captain, C.B., F.R.S
EVANS, J., Esq., F.R.S.
R. RAYLEIGH, Lord, F.R.S.
Foster, Professor G. C., F.
i ROLLESTON, Professor G., F.R.S.
R.S. Roscoe, Professor H. E., F.R.S.
GLAISHER, J. W. L., Esq., F.R.S. SANDERSON, Prof. J. S. BuRDON, F.R.S.
Heywoop, J., Esq., F.R.S. SMYTH, WARRINGTON W., Esq., F.R.S.
Huaarys, W., Esq., F.R.S. Sorpy, Dr. H. C., F.2.8.
HuGHEs, Professor T. McK., M.A, THUILLIER, Gen. Sir H. E. L., C.S.1., F.R.S.
JEFFREYS, J. GWYN, Esq., F.R.S.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Capt. DoucLas GALTON, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, S.W.
Puivip LurLey ScLATER, Esq., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., 11 Hanover Square, London, W.
ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
J. E. H. Gorpon, Esq., B.A., 22 Albemarle Street, London, W.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., University College, London, W.C.
. EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the
ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
General Sir EDWARD SABINE, K.C.B., R.A., D.C.L., F.B.S.
Sir PHILIP DE M. GREY EGERTON, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Sir JoHN LUBBOCK, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.
The Duke of Devonshire. Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. | Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S.
The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir William R. Grove, F.R.S. Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L,, F.R.S.
Sir G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, | The Duke of Buccleuch, K.G. Sir John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S. °
General Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B. Sir Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L. Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.
The Earl of Harrowby. Prof. Stokes, M.A., D.C.L. Allen Thomson, Esq., F.R.S.
The Duke of Argyll. Prof, Huxley, LL.D., Sec. B.S. W. Spottiswoode, Esq., Pres.R.S.
The Rey. H. Lloyd, D.D. Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, D.C.L. | Prof. Allman, M.D., F,\R.S.
Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. Dr. Carpenter, C.B,, F.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S. Gen. Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B., F.R.S. | Dr. Michael Foster, F.R.S.
Dr, T, A. Hirst, F.R.S, W. Spottiswoode, Esq., Pres.R.S. | George Griffith, Esq., M.A,
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. lvii
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
Report of the Oouncil for the year 1879-80, presented to the General
Committee at Swansea, on Wednesday, August 25, 1880.
The Council have received Reports during the past year from the
General Treasurer, and his account for the year will be laid before the
General Committee this day.
The Council having been requested by the General Committee at
Sheffield to take such further action as regards the correspondence with
the Treasury about the Natural History Collections as they should think
desirable in the interests of science, have prepared and sent to the
Secretary of the Treasury, in reply to his letter of July 22, 1879, the
following letter :—
British Association for the Advancement of Science,
22 Albemarle Street, London, W.
June 8, 1880.
Sir,—The letter of the Council of this Association, of March 25, 1879,
respecting the administration of the Natural History Collections, and
‘your reply thereto of July 22, have been laid before the British Asso-
ciation, at the meeting held at Sheffield in August last, when the subject
was again referred to the Council.
On the part of the Council I am now requested to inform you that
they learn with satisfaction that the action of Her Majesty’s Government,
in passing the British Museum Act of 1878, does not prejudice the ques-
tion of the future administration of the Natural History Collections at
South Kensington, but that the subject is still under the consideration of
the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury.
Under these circumstances, the Council of the Association must again
-express their hope that, when the period arrives, as it must shortly do,
for the settlement of the question, the recommendations of the Royal
Commission on Science will have their full weight and importance
accorded to them.
If, however, the Lords Commissioners of Her Majesty’s Treasury are
prepared, as they would seem to indicate, to constitute a Special Standing
Committee, or Sub-Committee, of the Trustees of the British Museum,
for the management of the Natural History Collections, the Council of
the Association are of opinion that such a form of government, though
not the form suggested by the Royal Commission on Science, might
possibly be so organised as to be satisfactory both to the public and to
men of science.
Trusting that the Lords Commissioners will do the Council the favour
VWvili REPORT—1880.
of considering these observations on a subject which keenly interests
many members of the British Association,
I have the honour to be, Sir,
Your obedient servant,
G. J. ALLMAN,
President of the British Association for the:
Advancement of Science.
Sir R. R, W. LInGEN, K.C.B., &c. &e.
The receipt of this letter has been acknowledged.
A letter having been received from the Secretary of the Anthropo-
metric Committee, requesting that the Council would address a Memorial
to the Education Department, requesting the Department to assist
the Committee in obtaining certain statistics as to the development of
children in Board Schools, it was resolved that a Committee, consisting
of Dr. Beddoe, Mr. Francis Galton, Mr. Heywood, and the General
Officers, should be appointed to consider the subject and to report to the
Council thereon. Owing to the unavoidable absence of several of the
members, the Committee have as yet been unable to make any report to
the Council upon the subject.
The Council have resolved, on the request of the Tidal Observation.
Committee, that the best thanks of the Association be given to the First
Lord of the Admiralty, the President of the Board of Trade, the French
Minister of Public Works, the Belgian Minister of Public Works, and to.
the several other authorities and private individuals, both in this country
and on the Continent, who have kindly and gratuitously had the various
observations carried out and communicated to this Committee ; and more
especially to the French Association for the Advancement of Science for
its cordial assistance in supporting the proposal of the British Association,
and in urging it upon the French Minister of Public Works.
The Council have to announce that they have elected Professor Cornu,
of Paris, and Professor Boltzmann, of Vienna, Corresponding Members,
since the Sheffield meeting.
Applications for free or ‘exchange’ copies of the Reports of the
Association being from time to time received, the Assistant Secretary has
been directed to reply to such applications: 1. That a few remaining sets
from 1831 to 1874 can be supplied at 10/. per set, and all other volumes
between 1831 and 1874 which are in stock at 2s. 6d. per volume net.
2. That all volumes after 1874 can be supplied at the publication price of
24s, per volume, 3. That the Reports for 1839 and 1840 are out of print,
and that only a very few copies remain of those for 1833, 1838, and 1850.
As the Committee are aware, the Association have already determined
to hold the Meeting for 1881 at York, and thus to commence the second
half-century of their existence in the same city as that in which the
Association was founded in 1831.
For 1882 and the following years invitations are expected to be pre-
sented at the present meeting from Southport, Southampton, Nottiagham
and Leicester.
The Council propose that, in accordance with the regulations, the five
retiring members shall be the following :—
Barlow, W. H., Esq., F.R.S. Ommanney, Admiral Sir E., C.B.,
Lefevre, G. Shaw, Esq., M.P., F.B.S.
F.R.G.S. Russell, Dr. W. J., F.R.S.
Maskelyne, Prof. N.S., M.P., F.R.S.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL.
lix
The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary members.
of Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are dis-
tinguished by an asterisk in the following list :—
Abel, F. A., Esq., C.B., F.R.S.
Adams, Professor W. G., F.R.S.
*Bateman, J. F., Esq., C.H., F.R.S.
Cayley, Professor, F.R.S.
Easton, H., Esq., C.E.
Evans, Captain, C.B., F.R.S.
Evans, J., Esq., F.R.S.
Foster, Professor G. C., F.R.S.
Glaisher, J. W. L., Esq., F.R.S.
Heywood, J., Esq., F.R.S.
Huggins, W., Esq., F.R.S.
Hughes, Professor T. McK., M.A.
Jeffreys, J. Gwyn, Esq., F.R.S.
Newmarch, W., Esq., F.R.S.
Newton, Professor A., F.R.S.
*Pengelly, W., HEsq., F.R.S.
*Perkin, W. H., Esq., F.R.S.
*Pitt-Rivers, General A., F.R.S.
Rayleigh, Lord, F.R.S.
Rolleston, Professor, F.R.S.
Roscoe, Professor H. E., F.R.S.
Sanderson, Professor J. S. Burdon,
F.R.S.
Smyth, Warrington W., Hsq., F.R.S.
Sorby, H. C., Esq., F.R.S.
*Thuillier, General Sir H. EH. L.,
C.S.L, F.R.S.
ax REPORT—1880.
>
RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE
Swansea Mertine in Avucust anp SepremBer, 1880.
[When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the
Secretary, except there is a specific nomination. ]
TInwolving Grants of Money.
That the Committee, consisting of Mr. G. H. Darwin, Professor Sir
‘William Thomson, Professor Tait, Professor Grant, Dr. Siemens, Pro-
fessor Purser, Professor G. Forbes, and Mr. Horace Darwin, be re-
appointed for the Measurement of the Lunar Disturbance of Gravity ;
that Mr. G. H. Darwin be the Secretary, and that the sum of 30. be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That the Committee, consisting of Professor Everett, Professor Sir
William Thomson, Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor Ramsay, Professor
-Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Mr. Pengelly, Professor Edward Hull, Dr.
Clement Le Neve Foster, Professor A. 8. Herschel, Mr. G. A. Lebour,
Mr. A. B. Wynne, Mr. Galloway, Mr. Joseph Dickinson, and Mr. G. F.
Deacon, on Underground Temperature be reappointed, with the addition
of the name of Mr. A. Strahan; that Professor Everett be the Secretary,
-and that the sum of 20/. be placed at their disposal.
That Professor G. Carey Foster, Mr. C. Hockin, Professor Sir Wil-
liam Thomson, Professor Ayrton, Mr. J. Perry, Professor W. G. Adams,
Lord Rayleigh, Professor F. Jenkin, Dr. O. J. Lodge, Dr. John Hopkin-
-son, Dr. Muirhead, and Mr. W. H. Preece be a Committee for the
purpose of constructing and issuing practical Standards for use in Elec-
trical Measurements ; that Dr. Muirhead be the Secretary, and that the
sum of 1001. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That the Committee, consisting of Mr. James Glaisher, Dr. Flight,
Professor R. S. Ball, Mr. E. J. Lowe, and Professor A. 8. Herschel, on
Luminous Meteors be reappointed ; that Professor A. S. Herschel be the
Secretary, and that the sum of 151. be placed at their disposal.
That the Committee, consisting of Dr. Joule, Professor Sir Wiliam
Thomson, Professor Tait, and Professor Balfour Stewart, for effecting
‘the Determination of the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat be reappointed ;
that Dr. Joule be the Secretary, and that the sum of 401. be placed at
their disposal for the purpose.
That a Committee, consisting of Dr. O. J. Lodge, Professor Ayrton,
and Mr. Perry, be reappointed for the purpose of devising and construct-
ing an improved form of High Insulation Key for Electrometer Work; that
Dr. O. J. Lodge be the Secretary, and that the sum of 51. be placed at
their disposal for the purpose.
That the Committee, consisting of Professor Sylvester, Professor
Cayley, and Professor Salmon, for the Calculation of Tables of the
RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. lxi
Fundamental Invariants of Algebraic Forms be reappointed; that Pro-
fessor Sylvester be the Secretary, and that the sum of 401. be placed at
their disposal for the purpose.
That Sir William Thomson, Mr. Robert Boag Watson, and Professor
John Young be a Committee for the purpose of making Seismic Hxperi-
ments in connexion with the great Gunpowder Blasts on Loch Fyne;
that Professor Young be the Secretary, and that the sum of 30/. be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That the Committee on Tidal Observations in the English Channel and
in the North Sea, consisting of Sir William Thomson, Dr. J. Merrifield,
Professor Osborne Reynolds, Captain Douglas Galton, Mr. J. N. Shool-
bred, Mr. J. F. Deacon, and Mr. Rogers Field, be reappointed for the
purpose of making a final report ; that Mr. J. N. Shoolbred be the Secre-
tary, and that the sum of 101. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. J. M. Thomson and Mr, J. E. H. Gordon be appointed a
Committee to continue Researches on the Specific Inductive Capacity of
certain Crystals and Paraffines ; that Mr. J. BH. H. Gordon be the Secre-
tary, and that the sum of 101. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. J. H. Gladstone, Dr. W. R. HE. Hodgkinson, Mr. W. Carleton
Williams, and Dr. P. P. Bedson be a Committee for the purpose of in-.
vestigating the Method of Determining the Specific Refraction of Solids.
from their Solutions; that Dr. P. P. Bedson be the Secretary, and that
the sum of 101. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor Dewar, Dr. Williamson, Dr. Marshall Watts, Captain
Abney, Mr. Stoney, Professor W.N. Hartley, Professor McLeod, Pro-
fessor Carey Foster, Professor A. K. Huntington, Professor Emerson
Reynolds, Professor Reinold, Professor Liveing, Lord Rayleigh, Dr.
Arthur Schuster, and Mr. W. Chandler Roberts be reappointed a Com-
mittee for the purpose of reporting upon the present state of our know-
ledge of Spectrum Analysis; that Mr. W. Chandler Roberts be the
Secretary, and that the sum of 101. be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
That Professor P. M. Duncan and Mr. G. R. Vine be reappointed a
Committee for the purpose of reporting on the British Fossil Polyzoa;
that Mr. Vine be the Secretary, and that the sum of 10/. be placed at
their disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. J. Evans, the Rev. J. F. Blake, Professor T. G. Bonney,
Mr. W. Carruthers, Mr. F. Drew, Professor G. A. Lebour, Professor L.
C. Miall, Mr. F. W. Rudler, Mr. E. B. Tawney, Mr. W. Topley, and Mr.
W. Whitaker be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of carrying on
the Geological Record ; that Mr. Whitaker be the Secretary, and that the
sum of 1001. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor E. Hull, the Rev. H. W. Crosskey, Captain Donglas.
Galton, Mr. James Glaisher, Professor G. A. Lebour, Mr. W. Molyneux,
Mr. G. H. Morton, Mr. W. Pengelly, Professor J. Prestwich, Mr. James.
Plant, Mr. James Parker, Mr. I. Roberts, Mr. S. Stooke, Mr. G. J.
Symons, Mr. W. Whitaker, and Mr. C. E. De Rance be reappointed a
Committee for the purpose of investigating the Circulation of the Under-
ground Waters in the Jurassic, New Red Sandstone, and Permian For-.
mations of England, and the Quality and Quantity of the Water supplied
+o various towns and districts from these formations; that Mr. C. E. De
Rance be the Secretary, and that the sum of 10/. be placed at their dis-
posal for the purpose.
dxii REPORT—1880.
That Professor A. C. Ramsay and Professor John Milne be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of investigating the Earthquake Phenomena of
Japan; that Professor Milne be the Secretary, and that the sum of 251.
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. H. C. Sorby, Professor W. J. Sollas, and Professor William
Ramsay be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the Conditions
under which ordinary Sedimentary Materials may be converted into
Metamorphic Rocks ; that Professor Sollas be the Secretary, and that the
sum of 101. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor W. C. Williamson, and Mr. W. H. Baily be reappointed
a Committee for the purpose of Collecting and Reporting upon the Ter-
tiary Flora, &c., of the Basalt of the North of Ireland; that Mr. Baily
be the Secretary, and that the sum of 20/1. be placed at their disposal for
the purpose, on the understanding that a collection of representative
Fossils obtained be sent to the British Museum.
That Dr. M. Foster, Professor Rolleston, Dr. Pye-Smith, Professor
Huxley, Dr. Carpenter, Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. F. M. Balfour, Sir Wyville
‘Thomson, Professor Ray Lankester, Professor Allman, and Mr. P. Sladen
be a Committee for the purpose of aiding in the maintenance of the
Scottish Zoological Station; that Mr. P. Sladen be the Secretary, and
that the sum of 50/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Dr. M. Foster, Professor Rolleston, Mr. Dew Smith, Professor
Huxley, Dr. Carpenter, Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys, Mr. Sclater, Mr. F. M. Bal-
four, Sir Wyville Thomson, Professor Ray Lankester, Professor Allman,
and Mr. P. Sladen be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of ar-
ranging for the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at
Naples ; that Mr. P. Sladen be the Secretary, and that the sum of 75i.
be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Lieut.-Colonel H. H. Godwin-Austen, Dr. G. Hartlaub, Sir J.
Hooker, Dr. Giinther, Mr. Seebohm, and Mr. Sclater be a Committee for
the purpose of investigating the Natural History of Socotra; that Mr.
Sclater be the Secretary, and that the sum of 501. be placed at their dis-
posal for the purpose.
That Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys, Professor Sir Wyville Thomson, and Mr.
Percy Sladen be a Committee for the purpose of a Zoological Exploration
“of the Seabed lying north of the Hebrides; that Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys be
the Secretary, and that the sum of 501. be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
“That Major-General Pitt-Rivers and Mr. A. W. Franks be a Com-
mittee for the purpose of issuing a revised edition of the Anthropological
Notes and Queries for the .Use of Travellers; that Major-General Pitt-
Rivers be the Secretary, and that the sum of 201. be placed at their dis-
posal for the purpose.
That Dr. Pye-Smith, Professor M. Foster, and Professor Burdon
‘Sanderson be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating
‘the Influence of Bodily Exercise on the Elimination of Nitrogen (the
‘experiments to be conducted by Mr. North); that Professor Burdon
‘Sanderson be the Secretary, and that the sum of 50/1. be placed at their
‘disposal for the purpose.
That Professor Rolleston, Professor Allman, General Pitt-Rivers, Mr.
J. Evans, and Mr. E. Cunnington be a Committee for the Investigation
of Prehistoric Remains in Dorsetshire; that Professor Rolleston be the
Secretary, and that the sum of 25]. be placed at their disposal for the
purpose.
|
:
ltt tert ia —
RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. lxiii
That Mr. Sclater, Mr. Howard Saunders, and Mr. Thiselton-Dyer be
a Committee for the purpose of investigating the Natural History of
Timor-lant; that Mr. Thiselton-Dyer be the Secretary, and that the sum
of 501. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. Stainton, Sir John Lubbock, and Mr. E. C. Rye be reappointed
a Committee for the purpose of continuing a Record of Zoological Litera-
ture; that Mr. Stainton be the Secretary, and that the sum of 100/. be
placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. F. Galton, Dr. Beddoe, Mr. Brabrook, Sir George Campbell,
Dr. Farr, Mr. F. P. Fellows, Major-General A. Pitt-Rivers, Mr. J. Park
Harrison, Mr. James Heywood, Mr. P. Hallett, Professor Leone Levi, Dr.
F. A. Mahomed, Dr. Muirhead, Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr. Charles Roberts,
and Professor Rolleston be a Committee for the purpose of continuing
the collection of observations on the Systematic Examination of Heights,
Weights, &c., of Human Beings in the British Empire, and the publi-
cation of photographs of the Typical Races. of the Empire; that Mr.
Brabrook be the Secretary, and that the sum of 30/. be placed at their
disposal for the purpose.
That Mr. Bramwell, Dr. A. W. Williamson, Professor Sir William
Thomson, Mr. St. John Vincent Day, Dr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. C. W.
Merrifield, Dr. Neilson Hancock, Mr. Abel, Captain Douglas Galton,
Mr. Newmarch, Mr. E. H. Carbutt, Mr. Macrory, Mr. H. Trueman
Wood, Mr. W. H. Barlow, and Mr. A. T. Atchison be reappointed a
Committee for the purpose of watching and reporting to the Council on
Patent Legislation; that Mr. Bramwell be the Secretary, and that the
sum of 5/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
That a Committee be appointed, consisting of Mr. James Glaisher,
Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Mr. F. J. Bramwell, Professor O. Reynolds, Pro-
fessor W. Cawthorne Unwin, Mr. Rogers Field, and Mr. A. T. Atchison,
to consider and report upon the best means of ascertaining the effective
Wind Pressures to which buildings and structures are exposed; that
Mr. A. T. Atchison be the Secretary, and that the sum of 5/. be placed
at their disposal for the purpose.
That Professor Osborne Reynolds, Sir William Thomson, Mr. C. W.
Merrifield, and Mr. J. T. Bottomley be a Committee for the purpose of
continuing the investigation on the Effect of Propellers on the Steering
of Steamships; that Professor Osborne Reynolds be the Secretary, and
that the sum of 51. be placed at their disposal for the purpose.
Not involving Grants of Money.
That the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir William Thomson,
Professor Tait, Dr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. F. J. Bramwell, and Mr. J. T.
Bottomley, for continuing secular experiments upon the Elasticity of
Wires be reappointed ; and that Mr. J. T. Bottomley be the Secretary.
That the Committee, consisting of Mr. David Gill, Professor G. Forbes,
Mr. Howard Grubb, and Mr. C. H. Gimingham, be reappointed to consider
the question of improvements in Astronomical Clocks; and that Mr.
David Gill be the Secretary.
-That the Committee, consisting of the Rev. Dr. Haughton and Mr. B.
Williamson, for the calculation of Tables of Sun-heat Coefficients be
reappointed for the. purpose of completing their report; and that Dr.
Haughton be the Secretary. WT ek: ‘
lxiv REPORT— 1880.
That the Committee, consisting of Professor A. S. Herschel, Professor
W. E. Ayrton, Professor P. M. Duncan, Professor G. A. Lebour, Mr. J,
T. Dunn, and Professor J. Perry, be reappointed for the purpose of pre-
paring a final report on experiments to determine the Thermal Con-.
ductivities of certain Rocks, showing especially the geological aspects of
the investigation ; and that Professor A. S. Herschel be the Secretary.
That the Committee, consisting of Professor W. E. Ayrton, Dr. O. J.
Lodge, Mr. J. E. H. Gordon, and Mr. J. Perry, be reappointed for the:
purpose of accurately measuring the specific inductive capacity of a good
Sprengel Vacuum, and the specific resistance of gases at different pres-
sures ; and that Professor W. EH. Ayrton be the Secretary.
That Sir William Thomson, Professor Roscoe, Dr. J. H. Gladstone,
and Dr. Schuster be a Committee for the purpose of collecting informa-
tion with regard to Meteoric Dust, and to consider the question of
undertaking regular observations in various localities; and that Dr.
Schuster be the Secretary.
That the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Forbes, Professor
W. G. Adams, and Professor W. E. Ayrton, be reappointed for the pur-
pose of improving an instrument for detecting the presence of Fire-damp
in Mines ; and that Professor G. Forbes be the Secretary.
That the Committee, consisting of Captain Abney, Professor W. G.
Adams, and Professor G. C. Foster, be reappointed to carry out an in-
vestigation for the purpose of fixing a Standard of White Light; and
that Captain Abney be the Secretary.
That the Committee, consisting of Mr. Spottiswoode, Professor G. G.
Stokes, Professor Cayley, Professor H. J. S. Smith, Professor Sir William
Thomson, Professor Henrici, Lord Rayleigh, and Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher,
on Mathematical Notation and Printing be reappointed; and that Mr. J.
W. L. Glaisher be the Secretary.
That the Committee, consisting of Professor Cayley, Professor F.
Fuller, Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher, the Rev. R. Harley, Mr. R. B. Hayward,
Professor Henrici, Dr. T. A. Hirst, Mr. C. W. Merrifield, Professor Bar-
tholomew Price, Professor H. J. S. Smith, Mr. W. Spottiswoode, Mr..
G. Johnstone Stoney, Professor Townsend, Mr. J. M. Wilson, and
Dr. Wormell, be reappointed to consider and report upon the subject of
Geometrical Teaching, and particularly upon the Syllabuses prepared.
under the authority of the Association for the Improvement of Geome-
trical Teaching ; and that Mr. C. W. Merrifield be the Secretary.
That the Committee, consisting of Professor Cayley, Professor G. G..
Stokes, Professor H. J. S. Smith, Professor Sir William Thomson, Mr.
James Glaisher, and Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher, on Mathematical Tables be
reappointed ; and that Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher be the Secretary.
That Mr. W. M. Hicks be requested to prepare a report upon recent
Progress in Hydrodynamics.
That the Committee, consisting of Professor G. C. Foster, Professor
W. G. Adams, Professor R. B. Clifton, Professor Cayley, Professor J. D.
Everett, Lord Rayleigh, Professor G. G. Stokes, Professor Balfour
Stewart, Mr. Spottiswoode, and Professor P. G. Tait, be reappointed for
the purpose of endeavouring to procure Reports on the progress of the
chief branches of Mathematics and Physics; and that Professor G. C.
Foster be the Secretary.
That Professors J. Prestwich, T. M‘K. Hughes, W. Boyd Dawkins, and
T. G. Bonney, the Rev. H. W. Crosskey, Dr. Deane, and Messrs. C. H. De
RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. lxv
Rance, G. H. Morton, D. Mackintosh, R. H. Tiddeman, J. H. Lee, James
Plant, W. Pengelly, W. Molyneux, H. G. Fordham, and W. Terrill be
reappointed a Committee for the purpose of recording the position, height
above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin of the Erratic
Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting other matters of in-
terest connected with the same, and taking measures for their preser-
vation; and that the Rev. H. W. Crosskey be the Secretary.
That Mr. J. A. Harvie Brown, Mr. J. Cordeaux, and Professor New-
ton be a Committee for the purpose of obtaining (with the consent of
the Master and Brethren of the Trinity House and of the Commissioners
of Northern Lights) observations on the Migration of Birds at Light-
houses and Lightships, and of reporting upon the same at York in 1881;
and that Mr. Cordeaux be the Secretary.
That Mr. C. Spence Bate and Mr. J. Brooking Rowe be reappointed a
Committee for the purpose of completing the Exploration of the Marine
Zoology of South Devon; and that Mr. Spence Bate be the Secretary.
That Professor Leone Levi, Mr. Stephen Bourne, Mr. Brittain, Dr.
Hancock, Professor Jevons, and Mr. F. P. Fellows be a Committee for
the purpose of inquiring into and reporting on the present appropriation of
wages and other sources of income, and considering how far it is con-
sonant with the economic progress of the people of the United Kingdom ;
and that Professor Leone Levi be the Secretary.
That Mr. James Heywood, Mr. Shaen, Mr. Stephen Bourne, Mr.
Robert Wilkinson, the Rev. W. Delany, Mr. Maskelyne, M.P., Dr.
Sylvanus Thompson, Miss Lydia H. Becker, Mr. E. M. Hance, and Dr.
Gladstone, with power to add to their number, be a Committee for the
purpose of reporting on the manner in which Rudimentary Science
should be taught, and how examinations should be held therein, in EHle-
mentary Schools; and that Dr. J. H. Gladstone be the Secretary.
Communications ordered to be printed in extenso in the Annual Report of
the Association.
That Professor W. G. Adams’s paper, ‘On the Comparison of De-
clination Magnetographs at various places,’ be printed i eaxtenso in
the Report.
That Mr. Whitaker’s ‘List of Works on the Geology, Mineralogy,
and Paleontology of Wales’ be printed in extenso in the Report.
That Dr. Dobson’s paper, on ‘ Additions to our Knowledge of the
Chiroptera,’ be printed in extenso in the Report.
That the paper by Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys, ‘On the French Deep-sea
Exploration in the Bay of Biscay,’ be printed in extenso in the Report.
That the paper by Mr. Stephen Bourne, on ‘ Recent Revival in Trade,’
be printed in eatenso in the Report.
That the paper by Mr. C. H. Perkins, on ‘ Anthracite Coal,’ be
printed in ewtenso in the Report.
1880. parmes d
lxvi REPORT—1880.
~
Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Purposes
by the General Committee at the Swansea Meeting in August
and September 1880. The Names of the Members who are en-
titled to call on the General Treasurer for the respective Grants
are prefixed.
A.—Mathematics and Physics.
£
Darwin, Mr. G. H.—Lunar Disturbance of Gravity ............ 30
Everett, Prof—Underground Temperature............:0..eseeeeee 20
Foster, Prof. G. Carey.—Electrical Standards .................. 100
Glaisher, Mr. James—Luminous Meteors ...............ceeeee eee 15
Joule, Dr.—Mechanical Equivalent of Heat .....,............... 40
Lodge, Dr. O.—High Insulation Key .............c.cececesosceeees 5
Sylvester, Prof.—Fundamental Invariants ............0.seceeeees 40
Thomson, Sir William.—Seismic Experiments ................0+ 30
Thomson, Sir William.—Tidal Observations ......... 10
Thomson, Mr. J. M.—Inductive Capacity of eypidis’ ‘afd
ere 6, is... 3. ss e 10
B.—Chemistry.
Dewar, Prof.—Spectrum Analysis.............s.sesseeseeseceeeceeees 10
Gladstone, Dr.—Specific Refractions ............cesseeceeceeees ees 10
C.—Geology.
Paosicam, Prof P. M.——Fassil Poly zon, 0.10 ccsecbncsecneeoececes nnn 10
Evans, Mr. J.—Geological Record ...............scecesseeeneeee ees 100
Hull, Prof. E.—Underground Waters .. ...............e0008 sean es) ED
Ramsay, Prof. A. C._—Harthquakes in Japan .............0...0005 25
Sorby, Dr.—Metamorphic Rocks ................sscsecsessseseeoeees 10
Williamson, Prof. W. C.—Tertiary Flora ....................000 20
D.—Biology.
Foster, Dr. M.—Scottish Zoological Station .............0.ee0e0 50
Foster, Dr. M.—Naples Zoological Station ...............cecseeeee 75
Godwin-Ansten, Lieut.-Col—Natural History of Socotra...... 50
Carried forward 35: Se orerckanccdes aceeeeessastncee ice sO HO
SS ey eer eS Sisk
o
(ie Sa eS =)
OS
Scoocooo eo o®
Oo
Co oO
oooe oo
Clooo
SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. lxvii
£ 3 d.
SUT is eee ee 670 0 0
Jeffreys, Mr. J. Gwyn.—Exploration of Sea-bed North of the
MELE RNR nc ee daida. Asn SIBAILU BS agVi los thes AUCaiDs cea der ndeoes +05 seanee 50 0 0
Pitt-Rivers, General—Anthropological Notes ......... ange *O
Pye-Smith, Dr.—Klimination of Nitrogen during Bodily
ee en cere te eine os srostinns setisavedaeecesetce sss ses 50 0 0
Rolleston, Prof.—Prehistoric Remains in Dorsetshire ......... 25 0 0
Sclater, Mr.—Natural History of Timor-Lant ...............+0 50 0 0
Stainton, Mr.—Zoological Record ...........ceescesasceeeseeeeeces 100 0 0
F.— Economic Science and Statistics.
Galton, Mr. F.—KHstimation of Weights and Heights of
PEARL PER DITNTR oc cielo ta slgldc gna 80. w'ah > wg aides sve es'naa Galen voor 30 0 0
G.—Mechanies.
Bramwell, Mr.—Patent Laws.. Mi bieissicasn mae irea pili tO
Glaisher, Mr. James.—Wind eee on s Baaiiigs PER a: Oe OG
Reynolds, Prof. Osborne.—Steering of Steamships ............ 5 0 0
£1010 0 0
The Annual Meeting in 1881.
The Meeting at York will commence on Wednesday, August 31, 1881.
Place of Meeting in 1882.
The Annual Meeting of the Association in 1882 will be held at
Southampton.
d2
lxvili
REPORT—1 880.
~
General Statement of Sums which have been paid on Account oF
Grants for Scientific Purposes.
£8. d.
1834.
Tide Discussions ..... aiscewe 20 0 0
1835.
Tide Discussions ..........-.0++ ie 0 0
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0
ai67 0 0
1836.
Tide Discussions ..... peters oo: OO
British Fossil Ichthyology ....105 0 0
Thermometric Observations,
Os. 3 e eo He COC ESSERE OCEERELE 50 0 0
Experiments on long-con-
GUMNME VCR ee sss vescp ep etens Wid aa 0
FAA AOC i eiewte peinivaints soosentt SES a0
Refraction Experiments ...... 1b 0) 40
Munnar NgbatiOI...sccc..scseee ee 60 0 0
Thermometers .......+ teens goon +15: 66 0
~ £435 0 0
1837
Tide Discussions ......... septs OSe eal
Chemical Constants ............ 24 13
TBH ATAINTLALON cp ccecceconsscenee 70 O
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12
MiGestap DTristol ete ets oveese 150 0
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature............ 93 3
Vitrification Experiments ... 150 0
Heart Experiments ............ 8 4
Barometric Observations...... 30 (0
BATOMECHETS 31 vocneuscteave suseese 11 18
£922 12
1838.
Tide Discussions ............... 29 0 0
British Fossil Fishes ......... 100 0 O
Meteorological Observations
and Anemometer Caries
UGE), ap aaaenencoedeacorace ee LOO 5 Ola O
Cast Iron (Strength of) . 60 0 0
Animal and Vegetable Sub-
stances (Preservation of)... 19 1 10
Railway Constants ............ 41 12 10
Bristol UNidedssacwsswseescssesrece =, 100:..:0- <0
Growth of Plants ............<e. The 070
Miad sim RGVeErs: 2. .cc.c-scerneees Gy WO
Education Committee ......... 50 0 O
Heart Experiments ............ Deo 0
Land and Sea Level........,... 267. Set
Steam-vessels..........cscescesees 100 0 0
Meteorological Committee SEAR
£932 2 2
1839.
Fossil Ichthyology ............ A OF FOF 20
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth, &¢) ...0:....... 63 10 0
Aa2aOnoo oooaco
Be ta Son Ce
Mechanism of Waves ...... «- 144 2 0
Bristol Tidegwercsecdetecanea . 8518 6
Meteorology and Subterra-
nean Temperature........... hi Bala Ls faa
Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 7
| Cast-Iron Experiments......... 100 0 0
Railway Constants .........0 Sa: TY
Land and Sea Level............ 274 1 4
Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 0 0
Stars in Histoire Céleste...... 171 18 6
Stars in Lacaille ........... pees ed 2104 20
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue ... 166 16 6
Animal SecretionS.............+. 10 10 O
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 0
Atmospheric Air .........008 wo GO Mle
Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 0
| Heat on Organic Bodies ...... S30). Al
| Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22 0 0
‘Hourly: Meteorological Ob-
servations, Inverness and
Kingussie .....+.....4. eine tep hy te,
Fossil Reptiles ......... Sseoeneee 118 2. 9
Mining Statistics ...........006+ DOW OO:
£1596 11 =O
1840.
ISTISUOL TICES cctccseccanstasces » 100 0 0
Subterranean Temperature... 13 13 6
Heart Experiments ............ 18 19 O
Lungs Experiments ............ 813 0
Tide Discussions ......+...es00 50 0 0
Land and Sea Level............ 6 1s &
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 242 10 O
Stars (Lacaille)............ so noel ee be OF
Stars (Catalogue) ..........s+06+ 264 0 0
Atmospheric Air ...........0.0. owLS'y oO
iW AtErVONCITOND. sctevsle (eeteencinaet TORO 0
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... COUR:
Meteorological Observations. 5217 6
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6
Working Population....... saeee QO) 10°50
School Statistics ............. és 4p BO. LONLO:
Forms of Vessels ........seeeeee 184 7 0
Chemical and Electrical Phe-
MOMCNA s. cccsanascussecorenten 40 0 0O-
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth Risa aeataeee cect, O08
Magnetical Observations...... 185 13 9
£1546 16 4
1841.
Observations on Waves ....., 30 0 0
Meteorology and Subterra-
neanTemperature .........06 8 8 0:
ING UINOMICULCTS |; wcjesass0csecaceeeane 10> <0 “O-
Earthquake Shocks ....... eccectplig, cae OF
INCTIGVEOISONS + ..08s-ascnesdeseeees 6 0 0
Veins and Absorbents ........ 3 0 0O
Mud in Rivers ...... Booeposnac 5 0 OQ
GENERAL STATEMENT.
Ra CE
Marine Zoology ...soccersecceves - 1512 8
Skeleton Maps .......e.000. save, 20.0) 0
Mountain Barometers ......... 618 6
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 18 0 0
Stars (Lacaille) .....c..s00ssse0e. 79 5, O
Stars (Nomenclature of )...... 1719 6
Stars (Catalogue of).........00 40 0 0
Water on Tron wissssecsssesseeee 50 0 0
Meteorological Observations
BUIMMETNESS | .,..2c00ys0eceeeds 20 0 0
Meteorological Observations
(reduction Of) ........+s000 . 26 0 0
Fossil Reptiles ..........cssseeee 50 0 0
Foreign Memoirs .............06 62 0 6
Railway Sections ............... 38 1 0
Forms of Vessels. ...........0006 193 12 0
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth ..,.,.,....seses0 55 0 0
Magnetical Observations...... 6118 8
Fishes of the Old Red Sand-
PRIMM Mar cncelscsscacecssscaseveess 100 0 0
Mides ab Leith | ..2653 6 c0cc.050 50 0 0
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10
‘Tabulating Observations...... 9 6 3
Races of Men..............5...006 5 0 0
Radiate Animals. ............... 2 0 0
£1235 10 11
1842.
Dynamometric Instruments... 113 11 2
Anoplura Britannie ............ 5212 0
Tides at Bristol.............00.0 59 8 O
Gases on Light .. ..........0000 30 14 7
Chronometers ......scesesseeees 2617 6
Marine Zoology......s.cecsseseees 15 0
British Fossil Mammailia...... 100 0 0
Statistics of Education ...... 20 0 0
Marine Steam-vessels’ En-
ETGLGS) » seecipedneedassseeeerese dae 28 0 0
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 59 0 O
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of)... 110 0 0
“Railway Sections ...........s006 161 10 O
British Belemnites ............ 50 0 0
Fossil Reptiles (publication
of Report) ..... Beenie Sesse dhs 210 0 0
Forms of Vessels ............005 180 0 0
“Galvanic Experiments on
OCS ewasavicdvasese-sarsas0es 5 8 6
Meteorological Experiments
at Plymouth ................6. 68 0 0
‘Constant Indicator and Dyna-
mometric Instruments ...... 90 0 0
Force of Wind ............... . 10 0 0
Light on Growth of Seeds .. 8 0 O
Vital Statistics 00.0.0... ceeee 50 0 0
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8 1 11
Questions on Human Race... 7 9 O
; £1449 17 8
| ee
1843.
Revision of the Nomenclature
POMS, c osvscevvdersnecsenes - 2 0 0
ar nF
Reduction of Stars, British
Association Catalogue ...... 25 0 0
Anomalous Tides, Frith of
Worth. » ie..svae.sietveceadiass 120 0 0
Hourly Meteorological Obser-
vations at Kingussie and
TRVOTIESS') nscascccwesesuswad 7712 8
Meteorological Observations
at Plymouth .occsccsscssccees 55 0 0
Whewell’s Meteorological
Anemometer at Plymouth. 10 0 0
Meteorological Observations,
Osler’s Anemometer at Ply-
mouth ....... Lge doscbcog nano 20 0 0
Reduction of Meteorological
Observations .....e0.ceeeeseee 30 0 0
Meteorological Instruments
and Gratuities ......606. 6 39 6 +O
Construction of Anemometer
at Inverness ..........ceseesee 5612 2
Magnetic Co-operation......... 10 $10
Meteorological Recorder for
Kew Observatory .......60006 50 0 0
Action of Gases on Light...... 18 16 1
Establishment at Kew Obser-
vatory, Wages, Repairs,
Furniture, and Sundries... 133 4 7
Experiments by Captive Bal-
TGONS)E 5-7 - sakhoul vs sbpeaenee 81 8 0
Oxidation of the Rails of Rail-
WAY Sinnb. si5csd.cecsnetedvodd. sees 20 0 9
Publication of Report on Fos-
sil’ Reptiles: ;..........c<essweee 40 0 0
Coloured Drawings of Rail-
way Sections .......ccccereeees 147 18 3
Registration of Earthquake
Shocks sssiiasiv..ooseene aa 30 0 0
Report on Zoological Nomen-
ClAGULC...d54ii4ets We vaiguets sense 10 0 0
Uncovering Lower Red Sand-
stone near Manchester...... 44 6
Vegetative Power of Seeds.. 5. 3. 8
Marine Testacea (Habits of). 10 0 90
Marine Zoology .......-eeseseeees 10 0 0
Marine Zoology .....sesseeesesens 214 11
Preparation of Report on Bri-
tish Fossil Mammalia ...... 100 0 0
Physiological Operations of
Medicinal Agents ........+066 20 0 0
Vital Statistics .........cccceceee 36 5 §
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 70 0 0
Additional Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0
Reduction of Experiments on
the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 90
Morin’s Instrument and Con-
stant Indicator .........-..+4 69 14 10
Experiments on the Strength
Of Materials ......ssceceeeess 60 0 0
£1565 10 2
lxx REPORT—1 880.
X\
£ 3. d, & 8. ad.
1844, Electrical Experiments at
Meteorological Observations Kew Observatory ............ 43 17 8.
at Kingussie and Inverness 12 0 0 | Maintaining the Establish-
Completing Observations at ment in Kew Observatory 149 15 0:
Plymouth Oiasn-essercteestess 35 0 0 | For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0
Magnetic and 1 Meteorological Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50 0 0
Co- ~Operation ......cecceeeeeeee 25 8 41 The Actinograph .........s0000- 15 0 0
Publication of the British Microscopic Structure. of
Association Catalogue of Shells... est. hecsveserceaceees 20 0 0
SLRS). Gsocriihbecinigadacedansepenee 35 0 O | Exotic Anoplura .......... 1843 10 0 0
Observations on Tides on the Vitality of Seeds ......... 18438 2 0 7
East Coast of Scotland ... 100 0 0 | Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 7 0 O
Revision of the Nomenclature Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 O
OL Shas yesrsedenececescees 1842 2 9 6 | Physiological Action of Medi-
Maintaining the Establish- CINES’ sedvcacscavseccdwactewerne 20 0 0
ment in Kew Observa- Statistics of Sickness and
EOGYacwacsscesestssccecessss esse se LETT OS Mortality in York............ 20 0
Instruments for Kew Obser- Earthquake Shocks .,,...1843 15 14 8
MaLOnYacpetaeseenandsitetacscoss ec 56 7 3 £831 9 9
Influence of Light on Plants 10 0 0 ———<— iy
Subterraneous Temperature
ATMIMOLATChesaesties votrersss vcve 5 0 0 ~y _,, 1846.
@niguredmOraminas lotlRaile British Association Catalogue
way Sections Dr fb idl aaa Wade. (A of Stars Revessepai she Rasta 1844 211 15 0
Investigation of Fossil Fishes Fossil Fishes of the London
ofthe Lower Tertiary Strata 100 0 0 Cl aiva en ncahebag: at. osessncusepmce 100 0 0
Registering the Shocks of Omnpnnation of the Gaussian
Earthquakes ............ 1842 23 11°10 | _ Constants for 1829 ......... 50 0 0
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 20 0 © | Maintaining the Establish-
Radiata and Mollusca of the ment at Kew Observatory 146 16 7
Mgean and Red Seas 1842 100 0 0 Strength of Materials ......... 60 0 O
Geographical Distributions of Researches in Asphyxia ...... 616 2
Marine Zoology......... 1842 010 © | Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0 0
Marine Zoology of Devon and Vitality of Seeds Noereacne 1844 2 15 10
Cornwall. .cvivervecsvevscadeis 10 0° 0 | Vitality of Seeds .......1.1845 712 3
Marine Zoology of Corfu...... 10 0 © | Marine Zoology of Comwall 10 0 0:
Experiments on the Vitality Marine Zoology of Britain... 10 0 0
Of Seeds SNe /aslenioin 9°10. | Hxotic Anoplura. ......... LO iL ened
Experiments on the Vitality Expenses attending Anemo-
of Seeds ie, lath Se 1842 8 7 8 TMCTEMSesene ee se ateeees steeeeeeeees Se |G:
Exotic Anoplura .........c..00 15 0 0 | Anemometers’ Repairs......... 232 8.
Strength of Materials ......... 100 0 0 | Atmospheric Waves ............ ee ae
Completing Experiments on Captive Balloons ......... 1844 8 19°8
the Forms-of Ships ......... 100 0 © | Varieties of the Human Race
Inquiries into Asphyxia ..... 10 0 0 on * aia ee ta
Investigations on the Internal Statistics of Sickness and 5
Constitution of Metals ...... 50 0 0 Mortality in York ............ ah
Constant Indicator and Mo- £685 16 0
rin’s Instrument: ...... 1842 10 0 O
£981.12 8 1847.
Computation of the Gaussian
1845. Constants for 1829...........« 50 0 0
Publications of the British As- Habits of Marine Animals ... 10 0 0
sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6 | Physiological Action of Medi-
Meteorological Observations CITIES) lcosccapeusaes-prne as see 20 0 0
ah [nivernessiiaeetssdassceacees 30 18 11 | Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0
Magnetic and Meteorological Atmospheric Waves ............ 6.9 3
Co-operation ........seeseees - 1616 8 | Vitality of Seeds ............... Ans Vege dl
Meteorological Instruments Maintaining the Establish-
at Mdinburshis tees 18 11 9 ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 6
_ Reduction of Anemometrical £208 5 4
Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0
GENERAL STATEMENT.
£3 ad.
1848.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 11
Atmospheric Waves ..........06 310 9
Vitality of Seeds ............... 915 0
Completion of Catalogue of
SEATS .ccoreesersoereens dus aaveuorent Ors Ovg O
On Colouring Matters ........ nna 04-0
On Growth of Plants ......... 15 0 0
£275 1 8
1849,
Electrical Observations at
Kew Observatory ..........+5 50 0 0
Maintaining Establishment
BURICIULLO) “seccccsclccsivessescese ate TO DOS
Vitality of Seeds ......... Hive. WOMB IL
On Growth of Plants ......... 5 0 0
Registration of Periodical
Phenomena...........00-seseee sro} 0) 0
Bill on Account of Anemo-
metrical Observations...... 13 9 0
£159 19 6
eal
1850.
‘Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 255 18
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50 0
Periodical Phenomena......... 15 0
Meteorological Instruments,
PRZOLES setcssiaatcassedssasa isigset +250
£345 18 0
o ooo
1851.
Maintaining the EHstablish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(includes part of grant in
Oa earecehetesicnstancetens srse ese 309 2 2
Theory of Heat ..............0005 20521) 1
Periodical Phenomena of Ani-
mals and Plants..........004 nO OO
Vitality of Seeds ............... 5 6 4
Influence of Solar Radiation 30 0 0
Ethnological Inquiries’........ TZ nO
Researches on Annelida ...... 10 0 0
£390 9" %.
1852.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
CGneluding balance of grant
Lio? LI GL0) WARANASSAGarapeaceennes 233 17 8
Experiments on the Conduc-
TIONKOL FTCA! Le scccccacscevases Bin ee
Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0
Geological Map of Ireland... 15 0 0
Researches on the British An-
RIBIIC las ceee sepacenanespraps eas" og LOE Ore 0,
Witality of Seeds ...........000 10 6 2
Strength of Boiler Plates...... 10 0 0
£304 6 7
£ 8: @
1853.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 0
Experiments on the Influence
of Solar Radiation ......... 15 0 0
Researches on the British An-
HGUGAvessrcespsecssonsescenenee LV ee Dia 1)
Dredging on the East Coast
Of, Scotland.,.........0.0...0006 10 0 0
Ethnological Queries ........- 5 0 0
£205 0 0
1854, (Bate
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory
(including balance of
former Qrant).......s.seecseeee 330 15 4
Investigations on Flax......... 1.0.0
Effects of Temperature on
Wrought Iron...............668 10 0 0
Registration of Periodical
PHENOMENA, ....2..ccereeeeeeeee 10 0 O
British Annelida ..........0.06 10 0 0
Vitality. of Seeds ..............+ Deeg
Conduction of Heat ............ 4 2 0
£380 19 7
1855.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0
Earthquake Movements ...... 10 0 0
Physical Aspect of the Moon 11 8 5
Vitality of Seeds ..... aseveore sor, MONTH 11
Map of the World...........4+ be fLSe ONTO
Ethnological Queries ..... wel bos0p- 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 4 0 0
£480 16 4
1856.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observa-
tory :—
1854......... £75 0 0
1855. ciccsses £600...0. gyi 21? (0.9
Strickland’s Ornithological
SYNONYMS ..is.cseccseeeeeeeee 100 0 0
Dredging -. and Dredging
HIOMINS) /aidescesser esse es eoseecsee OnES 29
Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0
Strength of Iron Plates ...... 10%\0° 0
Registration of Periodical
PhenoMen®.........eceeeeeeeees 10 0 O
Propagation of Salmon......... 10 0 0
£734 13 9
1857.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 350 0 O
Earthquake Wave Experi-
IMONES .isiccscececesessccsosscses 0 0
Dredging near Belfast......... 10 0 O
Dredging on the West’ Coast
0 0
OF Scotland 2.4... tivseudtensdove 10
Ixxli
ese)
Investigations into the Mol-
lusca of California .......+ 1020) 0
Experiments on Flax .......+. bu 0
Natural History of Mada-
gascar ...... a eyadedaaspecneenes p20. OO
Researches on British Anne-
Vida, (22s: assenasyecnsareeeaneso 25 0 0
Report on Natural Products
imported into Liverpool... 10 0 0
Artificial Propagation of Sal-
WHOD cecntenae tre ceesvaccssacsed = UD Oe
Temperature of Mines........ (ee tte
Thermometers for Subterra-
nean Observations.......0++« ns ee
Life-Boats ......sccsereeerecneeers 5 0 0
£507 15 4
1858.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Earthquake Wave Experi-
MENDES .....sc0cccercerscesvnaseons 25 0 0
Dredging on the West Coast
OF Scotland .........secceseeseee 10 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... Db O70
Vitality of Seeds ............00+ 5- (oO
Dredging near Belfast......... 1813 2
Report on the British Anne-
lidarss.-. Woedadadedesoress¥s = 25, 0. 0
Experiments on the produc-
tion of Heat by Motion in
BIUIGS .. .cececssnsenveressoccoese 20 0 0
Report on.the Natural Pro-
ducts imported into Scot-
LENG Ope a Lisdiente saven 10 0 0
£618 18 2
1859.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Dublin......... 15 0 0
Osteology of Birds .......,++++ 50 0 0
Trish Tunicata .......cscecsreees 5,0 0
Manure Experiments ......... 20 0 0
British Meduside ..........+. wre 50 0
Dredging Committee ......... 5 0 0
Steam-vessels’ Performance... 5 0 O
Marine Fauna of South and
West of Ireland............... 10-020
Photographie Chemistry ...... 10, ;-0,.0
Lanarkshire Fossils ........ ise 20.70 1
Balloon Ascents.......++ wenden eae 39 11 0
£684 11 1
1860.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Dredging near Belfast........ - 16 6 0
Dredging in Dublin Bay...... 15 0 0
Inquiry into the Performance
of Steam-vessels ..........+5 124 0 0
Explorations in the Yellow
Sandstone of Dura Den ... 20 0 0
REPORT— 1880.
\
£ s. d.
Chemico-mechanical Analysis
of Rocks and Minerals...... 25 0 0
Researches on the Growth of
PY¥ants ...2i:icisasstisoeoseeads a 10 OO
Researches on the Solubilit
Of Salts <2......csseessneervves 30 0 0
Researches on theConstituents
Of Manures: .......cesceeeeees 25 0 0
| Balance of Captive Balloon
ACCOUNKS. .......secccreccesesces 113 6
£766 19 6
1861.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 500 0 90
Earthquake Experiments...... 25 0 0
Dredging North and East
Coasts of Scotland ......... 23 0 0
Dredging Committee :—
1860...... £50 0 0
186Losmb82 6010 fo.
Excavations at Dura Den...... 20 0 0
Solubility of Salts ............ 20 0 0
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0 9
Fossils of Lesmahago ......... 15 0 0
Explorations at Uriconium... 20 0 0
Chemical Alloys ......sesseseee 20 0 0
Classified Index to the Trans-
BCLIGUBS.. .. 022000 esssecverteadts 100 0 0
Dredging in the Mersey and
WCE teee vesesceassacsseesesses cer Raed O
Dipy OC8Cier a... ... sev sncscasceons 30 0 0
Photoheliographic Observa-
PIONS: ...-ceustsqdebticaseescas e100) 70 40
Prison Diet. cc: isvedses.. uae gan detect? ina
Gauging of Water............ e200 .0
Alpine AScents seo.ecce.ceeees ween 0 oy 10
Constituents of Manures .....- 25 0 0
£1111 5 10
1862.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory 500 0 0
Patent: LAWS .c.tiasdscoceressnses AL Goo
Mollusca of N.-W. of America 10 0 O
Natural History by Mercantile
Marine esscsess sccoeeucdcenes 5 0 0
Tidal Observations ..........0+ 25 0 0
Photoheliometer at Kew ...... 40 0 0
Photographic Pictures of the
UM) sa vescicnaadsiansataee seer 150 0 0
Rocks of Donegal............00+ 25 0 0
Dredging Durham and North-
BMBbCrland <. cccsusuusen caspase 25 0 0
Connexion of Storms ......... 20 0 O
Dredging North-east Coast
Of Scotland gis. sacwccwussoass G 9.6
Ravages of Teredo ..... soueena 3 11D -0
Standards of Electrical Re-
SISUAMCE) oscssacsccesaccrepaauea 5 pO OO
Railway Accidents ......... alu: OU
Balloon Committee ..... occas OO
Dredging Dublin Bay ......... 10’ 0° =O
GENERAL STATEMENT.
, £8. a.
Dredging the Mersey ww... 5 0 0
Prison Diet ...... thltiapves! 20050
Gauging of Water isssssseveveree 12 10 0
Steamships’ Performance...... 150 0 0
Thermo-Electric Currents ... 5 0 0
£1293 16 6
1863.
Maintaining the LEstablish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Balloon Committee deficiency 70 0 0
Balloon Ascents (other ex-
PCTISES) ecrececereeeevseeceoss - 2 0 0
INGOZOA ss qeseseceecssercereecovere 25 0 0
Coal HPossils ......cveecersesesees 20 0 0
Herrings....... wadnesdeoesdece ial AU uO
Granites of Donegal........-.. 5 0 0
Prison Diet .......sseeeseeeeeees 20 0 0
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
INMENES ....csensescosereressevvece 13 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 50 0 0
Dredging North-east coast of
Scotland Deer stae nes esssonstis 25 0 0
Dredging Northumberland
AMO yDUThAM 2; ..tearses-sses 17 310
Dredging Committee superin-
PENGENCC scresesscscosssns ere (201: OO
Steamship Performance ...... 100 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure ........- 10 0 0
Volcanic Temperature ......... 100 0 0
Bromide of Ammonium ...... 8 0 0
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 0
— Construction and Distri-
DUEION 2.202 ccecceceuvosere aestew AUD He. O
Luminous Meteors poeeesearact 17 0 0
Kew Additional Buildings for
Photoheliograph ........+006 100 0 0
Thermo-Electricity ........... 15 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ....... i ee UU
PIMOTOIG As sacs e1cseseces-cssesceaees 10; 0) 0
£1608 3 10
1864.
Maintaining the Hstablish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Coal Fossils ............0006 sed. eet 20i O10
Vertical Atmospheric Move-
MENtS .......e0dseceveeee cesses 20 0 0
Dredging Shetland ............ 75 0 0
Dredging Northumberland... 25 0 0
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0
Carbon under pressure ...... 10 0 0
Standards of. Electric Re-
PARUATICC Aus tecesssqstedidouseosscs 100 0 0
Analysis of Rocks ............ 10 0 0
TT VOTOIA, «0c ssasenctvsessvediticee 10 0 0
Askham’s Gift. ;.<sevesedstecssees 50 0 0
Nitrite of Amyle ............... 10 0 0
Nomenclature Committee ... 5 0 0
Rain-Gauges ....... evddsuveveses - 1915 8
Cast-Iron Investigation ....., 20 0 0
lxxili
£ 8. d.
Tidal Observations in the
TRH MB OM, coccscspessecssecves ae) 00, 0 0
Spectral Rays........+« assoesseerse 45 0 0
Luminous Meteors ...... septs 20, OO
£1289 15 8
1865.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Balloon Committee .........0. 100 0 0
Ly Groidal.< a Simedesteebsevssasee « 13 0 0
Rain-Gauges secseececceeceseeeve - 30 0 0
Tidal Observations in the
BE nb67 1), 2) SEPA SORE Beacates 6 8 0
Hexylic Compounds ......... «- 20 0.0
Amy! Compounds .........++0 ss 20 0 0
Trish Flora ........0<0«. Weweeenee «' 25. 0. -@
American Mollusca «wee 3 9 O
Organic ACIGS _ .+....secseseeees «, 20.0.0
Lingula Flags Excavation... 10 0 0
Hury PRSrus, .,..<ssss-wsnwwdse- cseae 50 0 0
Electrical Standards..........+4 100 0 QO
Malta Caves Researches ...... 30 0 0
Oyster Breeding ............ ie 25 0 0
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150 0 0
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100 0 0
Moon’s Surface Observations 35 0 QO
Marine Fauna .......sisecssoves 25 0 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire...... 25 0 0
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50 0 0
Zoological Nomenclature...... 5 0 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies
In Wateriswscscsiewtaccoccccsee 100 0 0
Bath Waters Analysis ........ - 81010
Luminous Meteors ....... soa £0). 0.0
£1591 7 10
1866.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0
Lunar Committee.............. - 6413 4
Balloon Committee ........... - 540 0 0
Metrical Committee............ 50 0 0
British Rainfall...............e0- 50 0 0
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 16 0 0
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed... 15 0 0
Luminous Meteors ....... seve 50/0 10
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20 0 0
Chemical _ Constitution of
Cash Urop, : as..05 asesqneace wasn 1 0:°0
Amyl Compounds ...........+ dont; DE O10
Electrical Standards........0+0+ 100 0 0
Malta Caves Exploration ...... 30 0 0
Kent’s Hole Exploration...... 200 0 0
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon
and Cornwall ......c0s...-scess 25 0 0
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25 0 0
Dredging Hebrides Coast ... 50 0 0
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5 0 0
Resistance of Floating Bodies
in Water... cnc caaaee . fas 50 0 0
Polycyanides of Organic Radi-
CaS. a seass ane degddsimeds es es 20 0 0
lxxiv
£ 3. d.
Rigor Mortis ....cceccsssoseereos 10 0 0
Trish Annelida ......... dectoaes # SLbRON O
Catalogue of ‘Oranias............ 50 0 0
Didine Birds of Mascarene
WslandSiiesessrescsevcssceaswees . 500 0
Typical Crania Researches ... 30 0 0
Palestine Exploration Fund... 100 0 0
‘£1750 13 4
——————
1867.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600
Meteorological Instruments,
Palestine ...cce..scececeesscssees 50
Lunar Committee ........ Beanies 120
Metrical Committee ............ 30
Kent’s Hole- Explorations 100
Palestine Explorations........ - 50
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30
British Rainfall............0006 se? 150
Kilkenny Coal Fields ....... oe 25
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed ... 25
Luminous Meteors ..........65 50
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-Beds 30
Dredging Shetland ............ 75
Steamship Reports Condensa-
DUOUU Cee sesectes ic oeevesseansecet 100
Electrical Standards............ 100
Ethyl and Methyl series ...... 25
Fossil Crustacea .........s0008 «| 226
Sound under Water ............ 24
North Greenland Fauna ...... 75
Do. Plant Beds. 100
Tron and Steel Manufacture... 25
Patent Laws
RmMoooeocrPoocoo oeoocoecocoecoeocoeoo oo
eojooooqocoooo cooocececoececo oO
1868.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600
Lunar Committee ............... 120
Metrical Committee............ 50
Zoological Record.............0. 100
Kent’s Hole. Explorations 150
Steamship Performances ...... 100
‘British Rainfall .................. 50
Luminous Meteors.............. - 50
Organic Acids eee 60
Fossil Crustacea............s00- - 25
Methyl] Series. scccccsscevescerssse 25
Mercury and Bile .............05 25
Organic Remains in Lime-
Stone ROCKS: /....ccss.csecccee 25
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 20
Fauna, Devon and Cornwall.. 30
British Fossil Corals ......... 50
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ........... 50
Greenland Explorations ...... 100
Fossil Flora ......... Se biecsn aia . 25
Tidal Observations ............ 100
Underground Temperature... 50
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances
o oecoccoceceo ccoeocece|cecoeo
o ooococoocoo coocoooooocecooe
REPORT—1880.
Y £ 8d.
Secondary Reptiles, ke. ...... 30 0 0
British Marine Invertebrate
WAUND) .cnccssseaacevsasinaverene 100 0 O
£1940 0 O
1869.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600
Lunar Committee ......se0s20006 50
Metrical Committee............ 25
Zoological Record....... penbi 100
Committee on Gases in Deep-
well Water. ..sscssianeasessen 25
British Rainfall...............00% 50
Thermal Conductivity of Iron,
CC OAR RAI RAE Chachi EIS: 30
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150
Steamship Performances ...... 30
Chemical Constitution of
Castyironis sesnceacasesaseeeseer 80
Tron and Steel Manufacture — 100
Methyl Series..........:.seseeeses 30
Organic Remains in Lime-
stone Rocks......:....sssecsees 10
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 10
British Fossil Corals ........ . 50
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ...........- 30
HOssuleM lore viceces esses: csenese 25
Tidal Observations .........06+ 100
Underground Temperature... 30
Spectroscopic Investigations
of Animal Substances ...... 5
Organic ACidS* .......c..cese0e0e 12
Kiltorcan Fossils ............0++ 20
Chemical Constitution and
Physiological Action Rela-
oof “Oo oooco coos, coco oo so ecc'o
“ooo eceocoeoco ooo 9o9o90 CO SCSCCSo
TIONS*) .NeEENR ALES aces cena 15 0 O
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 O
Utilization of Sewage ......... 10 0 O
Products of Digestion ......... 10 0 O
£1622 0 9
1870.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory 600 0 O
Metrical Committee............ 25:0 0
Zoological Record..........s0.0+ 100 0 0
Committee on Marine Fauna 20 0 0
Ears in Fishes ....c..esceseeeee 10 0 0
Chemical Nature of CastIron 80 0 0O
Luminous Meteors. ..........4. 30 0 0
Heat in the Blood............... 15 0 0
British) Rainfall... .csecdadssees 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of
Tron, &enutsavadiewectosctvess 20 0 &
British Fossil Corals............ 50 0 O
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150 0 0
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 4 0 0
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ............ 15 0 0
PRO SSUUIE OTA sciusiaicirens cnt clove sees 25.0.0
Tidal Observations ............ 100 0 0
Underground Temperature... 50 0 0
Kiltorecon Quarries Fossils... 20 0
GENERAL STATEMENT.
‘ £ 8. da.
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0
Utilization of Sewage ......+.- 50 0 0
Organic Chemical Compounds 30 0 0
Onny River Sediment ......... 3.0 0
Mechanical Equivalent of
FEAL. .....cessecsccsescesesseneres 50 0 0
£1572 0 0
1871.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory 600 0 0
Monthly Reports of Progress
jn Chemistry .....s.seesseeeeee 100 0 O
Metrical Committee............ 25 0 0
Zoological Record............+++ 100 0 0
Thermal Equivalents of the
Oxides of Chlorine ......... 10 0 0
Tidal Observations .,...«....+. 100 0 0
Fossil Flora ........+s+0+ Jaceame Way OO
Luminous Meteors ...ccessseee 30 0 0
British Fossil Corals ........ » 2 0 0
Heat in the Blood.,,.........06+ 7 2 6
British Rainfall...............00 50 0 0
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150 0 0
Fossil Crustacea ...cocsssss.+es 25 0 0
Methyl Compounds .........++ 25 0 0
Lunar Objects .......... Hhornsts 20 0 0
Fossil Coral Sections, for
Photographing .......+++0+. ay Ee)
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ........ paseo a On 0)
Moab Explorations ..........+. 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants .........0++ 40 0 0
£1472 2 6
1872.
Maintaining the Establish-
ment of Kew Observatory 300 0 0
Metrical Committee........... San hone OL 0
Zoological Record............-+. 100 0 O
Tidal Committee ............06. 200 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 0 0
Organic Chemical Compounds 25 0 0
Exploration of Moab............ 100 0 0
Terato-Embryological Inqui-
TUES es 5<00 paaidecane nackte kaetnases 10 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 20 0 0
Heat in the Blood.............0. 15 0 0
Fossil Crustacea .........--s00 25 0 0
Fossil Elephants of Malta... 25 0 0
MMMATIODIECES 00.2... .cesceaeee 20 0 O
Inverse Wave-Lengths......... 20 0 0
British Rainfall.......... aeons 100 0 0
Poisonous Substances Antago-
RAISE eee acupe cesses cssnts 4) FEoceee 10 0 0
Essential Oils, Chemical Con-
BULLUTION, KC. .o0.-ccsccoecese ee 0 Oo
Mathematical Tables ......... 50 0 O
Thermal Conductivity of Me-
EELS Met scscsesccseesecnesst Riceeaes 25 0 0
£1285 0 0
£ 3. d.
1873.
Zoological Record..........++60+ 100 0 0
Chemistry Record............... 200 0 O
Tidal Committee .............. 400 0 O
Sewage Committee ............ 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 0 0
Fossil Elephants .............++ 250 OG
Wave-Lengths ..........:eceeees 15020 0
British Raintall yc c.ce.ce.> 20s 100 0 ©
Essential Oils............ssseeeees 30 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 0
Gaussian Constants .........00 10 0 0
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
Underground Temperature... 150 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... bo», 0) (6
Fossil Flora, Ireland............ 20 0 0
Timber Denudation and Rain-
LA eee cecscuesennetsetessassss 20 0 0
Luminous Meteors............++. 30 0 0
£1685 0 0
1874.
Zoological Record.............. 100 0 OG
Chemistry Record..........2006+ 100 0 0
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 O
Elliptic Functions.............++ 100 0 6
Lightning Conductors ......... 10 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of
ROCKS etcbeenccsceresiscievescsen's 10 0 6
Anthropological Instructions,
RiCattespensacwebececeueb ori smebestcc 50 0 G6
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0
British Rainfall...............4.. 100 0 0
Essential Oils...........0sseee0es LOP"O* 10
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 0
| Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0
| Mauritius Meteorological Re-
Seanchineceycncapgarr assesses 100 0 0
Magnetization of Iron ......... 20 0 0
Marine Organisms............... 30° 0 0
Fossils, North-West of Scot-
TERE! --Sooqneeendeuaeeeeaaceneeare 210 0
Physiological Action of Light 20 0 0
Trades Unions .........csesseees 25 0 0
Mountain Limestone-Corals 25 0 0
Hrratic Blocks ...........:.0+0+ 10 0 0
Dredging, Durham and York-
shire CoastS .......cesereeseee 28: br, .O
High Temperature of Bodies 30 0 0
Siemens’s Pyrometer ......... 3); 6.1.0
Labyrinthodonts of Coal-
MEaSULES,....ecceeereeeeseeeeees 5) 30
£1151 16 O
1875.
Eliptic Functions ............+.+ 100 0 0
Magnetization of Iron ......... 20 0 0
British Rainfall ............0sse» 120 0 0
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0
| Chemistry Record.............+ 100 0 O
Ixxv
ixxvi
£ 3. d.
‘Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric ACid..........0..0+ 10 0 O
Isometric Cresols ............006 20 0 O
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 O
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 15 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Development of Myxinoid
IRKSIASS: . cerencuosebeaccessnor nero 20 0 0
Zoological Record.............+ 100 0 O
Instructions for Travellers... 20 0 0
Intestinal Secretions ......... 20 0 0
Palestine Exploration ......... 100 0 O
£960 0 0
1876.
Printing Mathematical Tables 159 4 2
British Rainfall...............0 100 0 O
Olim’seaweterce: ces accmuecscceas 915 0
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200 0 0
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0
Isomeric Cresols ..........00006 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate or Ethyl Sodaceto-
ACCLALE s wespeunanedae Seana essex 5 0 0
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid............0 13 0 0
Exploration of Victoria Cave,
CULE: 5.t2sccendgeneeemaneine chs. 100 0 0
‘Geological Record............0«: 100 0 0O
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Thermal Conductivities of
ROCKS). assensovecantsstorcc oxt 10 0 0
Underground Waters ......... 10 0 0
Harthquakes in Scotland...... 110-0
Loological Record...........0068 100 0 O
WIOSEMBIM Ch oaasssecstescstdevarees 5 0 0
Physiological Actionof Sound 25 0 0
Zoological Station..........0.-.. cor 070
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0
Physical Characters of Inha-
bitants of British Isles...... 1315 0
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 0
Effect of Propeller on turning
of Steam Vessels ............ 5 0 0
£1092 4 2
1877.
Liquid Carbonic Acids in
Minerals aued..\. dxcss. cessor 20 0 0
Elliptic Functions ............ 250 0 0
‘Thermal Conductivity of
ROGKS ment ceses as casnesdecteree G) ia
‘Zoological Record........... se. 100 O 0
Kent’s|Caverit (n.0s)scecasesareen 100 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0
Luminous Meteors ,........... 30 0 0
‘Elasticity of Wires ............ 100 0 0
-Dipterocarpz, Report on...... 20 0 0
REPORT—] 880.
‘5 aS le
Mechanical Equivalent of
Hatin sa. atevesrowen dseyoad eee 35 0 0
Double Compounds of Cobalt
and. Nickel -s4.00--ss0ssveevates 8 0 0
Underground Temperatures 50 0 0
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 100 0 0
Underground Waters in New
Red Sandstone ........ ...... 10 0 0
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty-
rate.on Ethyl Sodaceto-
ACETAL 2.3. 0cisssecsvencsedsns 10 0 0
British Earthworks ..........+. 25 0 0
Atmospheric Elasticity in
INGid...ceasacessesedvsvecwosds 145 0 0
Development of Light from
Coal-gas Avx..sit. iene sates 20 0 0
Estimation of Potash and
Phosphoric Acid..............- 118 0
Geological Record........+...00 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee 34.0 0
Physiological Action of Phos-
phoric Acids &€is.s.0006seseees 15 0 0
£1128 9° 7
1878.
Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0 0
Geological Record............... 100 0 0
Investigation of Pulse Pheno-
mena by means of Syphon
IRCCOEG OT «cece sc -- ee -ncree cman 10 0 0
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0O
Investigation of Underground
Wiah@Tes vanns-ccecc-e eee nenaees 15 0 0
Transmission of Electrical
Impulses through Nerve
StUruchure.- -- .cescsccncassaceda OU On O
Calculation of Factor Table
of Fourth Million............ 100 0 0
Anthropometric Committee... 66 0 0
Chemical Composition and
Structure of less known
Alkaloids............ Neen aereaee 25 0 0
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern 50 0 0
Zoological Record ........+...006 100 0 90
Fermanagh Caves Exploration 15 0 0
Thermal Conductivity of
ROCKS: .scccste reaver cocme nse spare 416 6
Luminous Meteors............06+ 10 0 0
Ancient Earthworks ...........+ 25 0 0
£725 16 6
1879.
Table at the Zoological
Station, Naples ............... 75 0 0
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of the North of Ireland 20 0 0
Illustrations for a Monograph
on the Mammoth ....... “Se 0 0
Reeord of Zoological Litera-
WEY Eeteteerveds sss oc s<resanecenene 100 0 0
Composition and Structure of
less-known Alkaloids ...... 25 0 0
en
i a i tt tt a ee el ee
GENERAL
£8, da.
Exploration of Caves in
Borneo .seseee meawaneas haces 50 0 O
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0
Record of the Progress of
COOOL Vicciddasdeversssdasels spe 100 0 0
Fermanagh CavesExploration 5 0 0
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu-
tions and Solutions of
Compound Salts.............5 25 0 0
* Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0
Calculation of Factor Tables
for 5th and 6th Millions... 150 0 0
Circulation of Underground
SWALCTS. «0.0... cccrcscsccrssssseee 10 0 0
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10 0 0
Improvements in Astrono-
PIECHINCOLOCKS: caucecscssensceses 30 0 0
Marine Zoology of South
TEN OU! cilapevacesscscascesconss es 20 0 0
Determination of Mechanical
Equivalent of Heat ........ - 215 6
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum......... 40 0 0
Tables of Sun-heat Co-
CFFICIENES ........2ceeeseerseeees 30 0 0
Datum Level of the Ordnance
BHUVEY caveseveiesccereseserossass LOR Or 0
Tables of Fundamental In-
variants of Algebraic Forms 36 14 9
Atmospheric Electricity Ob-
servations in Madeira ...... tbe Or'0
Instrument for Detecting
Fire-damp in Mines ......... 22 0 0
Instruments for Measuring
the Speed of Ships ......... Wi 18
Tidal Observations in the
English Channel ............ Lo OF 0
£1080 11 11
STATEMENT.
£
1880,
New Form of High Insulation
RCH: iss ceie cvoceesovcccedsouwsece 10
Underground Temperature... 10
Determination of the Me-
chanical Equivalent of
TLOAt . susccccsssssecccsccrcoranse 8
Elasticity of Wires ............ 50
Luminous Meteors ..........++ 30
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30
Fundamental Invariants ...... 8
Laws of Water Friction ...... 20
Specific Inductive Capacity
of Sprengel Vacuum......... 20
Completion of Tables of Sun-
heat Co-efficients ............ 50
Instrument for Detection of
Fire-damp in Mines ......... 10
Inductive Capacity of Crystals
and Paraffines .............-. 4
Report on Carboniferous
POLY ZOA .eesscscecersccssecececs 10
Caves of South Ireland ...... 10
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo-
SAUIUS 20... .cccccceerersasssecees 10
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 50
Geological Record..........++.++ 100
Miocene Flora of the Basalt
of North Ireland ............ 15
Underground Waters of Per-
mian Formations ........... a eo
Record of Zoological Litera-
PUTO cc.ccssccecccsasersssenescosn 100
Table at Zoological Station
at Naples ...cccceccccsessseve ce
Investigation of the Geology
and Zoology of Mexico...... 50
Anthropometry ........ssesseeses 50
Patent LAWS ..c.sscccecscssneeees 5
£731
General Meetings.
i)
On Wednesday, August 25, at 8 p.m., in the Music Hall, Professor
G. J. Allman, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & H., Pres. L.S., resigned the
office of President to Andrew Crombie Ramsay, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S.,
V.P.G.S., Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United
Kingdom, and of the Museum of Practical Geology, who took the Chair,
and delivered an Address, for which see page 1.
On Thursday, August 26, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place at the Pavilion,
Burrows Square.
On Friday, August 27, at 8.30 p.m., in the Music Hall, Professor W.
Boyd Dawkins, M.A., F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on ‘ Primeval Man.’
~~
Ixxvili REPORT—1880.
On Monday, August 30, at 8.30 p.m., in the Music Hall, Francis
Galton, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., delivered a Discourse on ‘ Mental Imagery.’
On Tuesday, August 31, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place at the Pavilion,
Burrows Square.
On Wednesday, September 1, at 2.30 p.m., the concludimg General
Meeting took place in the Music Hall, when the Proceedings of the
General Committee, and the Grants of Money for Scientific purposes,
were explained to the Members.
The Meeting was then adjourned to York. [The Meeting is ap-
pointed to commence on Wednesday, August 31, 1881.]
>
ADDRESS.
ADDRESS
BY
ANDREW CROMBIE RAMSAY, Esq,
LL.D., F R.S., V.P.G.S., Director-General of the Geological Survey of
the United Kingdom, and of the Museum of Practical Geology,
PRESIDENT.
On THE RECURRENCE OF CERTAIN PHENOMENA IN GEOLOGICAL Tir.
Ty this address I propose to consider the recurrence of the same kind of
incidents throughout all geological time, as exhibited in the various for-
mations and groups of formations that now form the known parts of the
external crust of the earth. This kind of investigation has for many
years forced itself on my attention, and the method I adopt has not here-
tofore been attempted in all its branches. Jn older times, Hutton and
Playfair, in a broad and general manner, clearly pointed the way to the
doctrine of uniformity of action and results, throughout all known geo-
logical epochs down to the present day; but after a time, like the prophets
of old, they obtained but slight attention, and were almost forgotten, and
the wilder cosmical theories of Werner more generally ruled the opinions
of the geologists of the time. Later still, Lyell followed in the steps of
Playfair, with all the advantages that the discoveries of William Smith
afforded, and aided by the labours of that band of distinguished geologists,
Sedgwick, Buckland, Mantell, De la Beche, Murchison, and others, all
of whom some of us knew. Notwithstanding this new light, even now
there still lingers the relics of the belief (which some of these geologists
also maintained), that the physical phenomena which produced the older
strata were not only different in kind, but also in degree from those which
now rule the external world. Oceans, the waters of which attained a high
temperature, attended the formation of the primitive crystalline rocks.
Volcanic eruptions, with which those of modern times are comparatively
insignificant, the sudden upheaval of great mountain chains, the far more
rapid decomposition and degradation of rocks, and, as a consequence, the
‘more rapid deposition of strata formed from their waste—all these were
assumed as certainties, and still linger in some parts of the world among
living geologists of deservedly high reputation. The chief object of this
1880. B
2 REPORT—1880.
address is, therefore, to attempt to show, that whatever may have been
the state of the world long before geological history began, as now written
in the rocks, all known formations are comparatively so recent in geologi-
cal time, that there is no reason to believe that they were produced under
physical circumstances differing either in kind or degree from those with
which we are now more or less familiar.
It is unnecessary for my present purpose to enter into details con-
nected with the recurrence of marine formations, since all geologists
know that the greater part of the stratified rocks were deposited in the
sea, as proved by the molluscs and other fossils which they contain, and
the order of their deposition and the occasional stratigraphical breaks in
succession are also familiar subjects. What I have partly to deal with
now, are exceptions to true marine stratified formations, and after some
other important questions have been considered, I shall proceed to discuss
the origin of various non-marine deposits from nearly the earliest
known time down to what by comparison may almost be termed the
present day.
Metamorphism.
All, or nearly all, stratified formations have been in a sense meta-
morphosed, since, excepting certain limestones, the fact of loose incoherent
sediments having been by pressure and other agencies turned into solid
rocks constitutes a kind of metamorphism. This, however, is only a first
step toward the kind of metamorphism the frequent recurrence of which
in geological time I have now to insist upon, and which implies that con-
solidated strata have undergone subsequent changes of a kind much more
remarkable.
Common stratified rocks chiefly consist of marls, shales, slates, sand-
stones, conglomerates, and limestones, generally distinct and definite; but
not infrequently a stratum, or strata, may partake of the characters in
varied proportions of two or more of the above-named species. It is
from such strata that metamorphic rocks have been produced, exclusive of
the. metamorphism of igneous rocks, on which I will not enter. These
may be looked for in manuals of geology, and sometimes they may be
found in them.
As a general rule, metamorphic rocks are apt to be much contorted,
not only on a large scale, but also that the individual layers of mica
quartz and felspar in gneiss are bent and folded in a great number of
minute convolutions, so small that they may be counted by the hundred
in a foot or two of rock. Such metamorphic rocks are often associated
with masses of granite both in bosses and in interstratified beds or layers,
and where the metamorphism becomes extreme it is often impossible to
draw a boundary line between the gneiss and the granite; while, on the
other hand, it is often impossible to draw any true boundary between
gneiss (or other metamorphic rocks) and the ordinary strata that have
OO
ADDRESS. 3
partly undergone metamorphism. Under these circumstances, it is not
surprising that when chemically analysed, there is often little difference in
the constituents of the unmetamorphosed and the metamorphosed rock.
This is a point of some importance in relation to the origin and non-
primitive character of gneiss and other varieties of foliated strata, and
also of some quartzites and crystalline limestones.
I am aware that in North America formations consisting of meta-
morphic rocks have been stated to exist of older date than the Laurentian
gneiss, and under any circumstances it is obvious that vast tracts of pre-
Laurentian land must have existed in all regions, by the degradation of
which, sediments were derived wherewith to provide materials for the de-
position of the originally unaltered Laurentian strata. In England, Wales,
and Scotland attempts have also been made to prove the presence of more
ancient formations, but I do not consider the data provided sufficient to
warrant any such conclusion. In the Highlands of Scotland, and in
some of the Western Isles, there are gneissic rocks of pre-Cambrian age,
which, since they were first described by Sir Roderick Murchison in the
North-west Highlands, have been, I think justly, considered to belong to
the Laurentian series, unconformably underlying Cambrian and Lower
Silurian rocks, and as yet there are no sufficient grounds for dissenting
from his conclusion that they form the oldest known rocks in the British
Islands.
It is unnecessary here to discuss the theory of the causes that produced
the metamorphism of stratified rocks, and it may be sufficient to say, that
under the influence of deep underground heat, aided by moisture, sand-
stones have been converted into quartzites, limestones have become
crystalline, and in shaley, slaty, and schistose rocks, under like circum-
stances, there is little or no development of new material, but rather, in
the main, a re-arrangement of constituents according to their chemical
affinities in rudely crystalline layers, which have very often been more or
less developed in pre-existing planes of bedding. The materials of the
whole are approximately the same as those of the unaltered rock, but
have been re-arranged in layers, for example, of quartz, felspar, and mica,
or of hornblende, &c., while other minerals, such as schorl and garnets,
are of not infrequent occurrence.
It has for years been an established fact that nearly the whole of the
mountain masses of the Highlands of Scotland (exclusive of the Laurentian,
Cambrian, and Old Red Sandstone formations), mostly consist of gneissic
rocks of many varieties, and of quartzites and a few bands of crystalline
limestone, which, from the north shore to the edge of the Old Red Sand-
stone, are repeated again and again in stratigraphical convolutions great
_and small. Many: large bosses, veins, and dykes of granite are asso-
ciated with these rocks, and, as already stated, it sometimes happens that
it is hard to draw a geological line between granite and gneiss and vice
wersd. ‘These rocks, once called Primary or Primitive, were first proved
by Sir Roderick: Murchison to be of Lower Silurian age, thus revolu-
B2
4 REPORT—1880.
tionising the geology of nearly one-half of Scotland. To the same age
belongs by far the greater part of the broad hilly region of the south of
Scotland that lies between St. Abb’s Head on the east and the coast of
Ayrshire and Wigtonshire on the west. In the south-west part of this
district, several great masses of granite rise amid the Lower Silurian
rocks, which in their neighbourhood pass into mica-schist and even into
fine-grained gneiss.
In Cornwall the occurrence of Silurian rocks is now well known.
They are of metamorphic character, and partly associated with granite ;,
and at Start Point, in South Devonshire, the Silurian strata have been
metamorphosed into quartzites.
In parts of the Cambrian areas, Silurian rocks in contact with granite
have been changed into crystalline hornblendic gneiss, and in Anglesey
there are large tracts of presumed Cambrian strata, great part of which
have been metamorphosed into chlorite and mica-schist and gneiss, and
the same is partly the case with the Lower Silurian rocks of the centre
of the island, where it is almost impossible to disentangle them from the
associated granite.
In Ireland similar metamorphic rocks are common, and, on the
authority of Prof. Hull, who knows them well, the following statements
are founded :—‘ Metamorphism in Ireland has been geographical and not
stratigraphical, and seems to have ceased before the Upper Silurian
period.
‘The epoch of greatest metamorphism appears to have been that which
intervened between the close of the Lower Silurian period and the
commencement of the Upper Silurian, taking the formations in ascending
order.
‘It is as yet undecided whether Laurentian rocks occur in Ireland.
There are rocks in north-west Mayo very like those in Sutherlandshire,
but if they are of Laurentian age they come directly under the meta-
morphosed Lower Silurian rocks, and it may be very difficult to separate
them.
‘Cambrian purple and green grits are not metamorphosed in the coun-
ties of Wicklow and Dublin, but the same beds at the southern extremity
of County Wexford, near Carnsore Point, have been metamorphosed into
mica-schist and gneiss.
‘In the east of Ireland the Lower Silurian grits and slates have not
been metamorphosed, except where in proximity to granite, into which
they insensibly pass in the counties of Wicklow, Dublin, Westmeath,
Cavan, Longford, and Down; but in the west and north-west of Ireland
they have been metamorphosed into several varieties of schists, horn-
blende-rock, and gniess, or foliated granite.’
It would be easy to multiply cases of the metamorphism of Silurian
rocks on the continent of Europe, as, for example, in Scandinavia, and in
the Ural Mountains, where, according to Murchison, ‘by following its
masses upon their strike, we are assured that the same zone which in one
ADDRESS. 5
tract has a mechanical aspect and is fossiliferous, graduates in another
parallel of latitude into a metamorphic crystalline condition, whereby not
only the organic remains, but even the original impress of sedimentary
origin are to a great degree obliterated.’ The same kind of phenomena
are common in Canada and the United States; and Medlicott and Blan-
ford, in ‘The Geology of India,’ have described the thorough metamor-
phism of Lower Silurian strata into gneiss and syenitic and hornblende
schists.
In Britain, none of the Upper Silurian rocks have undergone any
serious change beyond that of ordinary consolidation, but in the Eastern
Alps at Gratz, Sir Roderick Murchison has described both Upper
Silurian and Devonian strata interstratified with separate courses of
metamorphic chloritic schist.
Enough has now been said to prove the frequent occurrence of
metamorphic action among Cambrian and Lower and Upper Silurian
‘strata.
If we now turn to the Devonian and Old Red Sandstone strata of
England and Scotland, we find that metamorphic action has also been at
work, but in a much smaller degree. In Cornwall and Devon, five great
bosses of granite stand out amid the stratified Silurian, Devonian, and
Carboniferous formations. Adjoining or near these bosses the late Sir
Henry De la Beche remarks, that ‘in numerous localities we find the
coarser slates converted into rocks resembling mica-slate and gneiss, a
fact particularly well exhibited in the neighbourhood of Meavy, on the
south-east of Tavistock,’ and ‘near Camelford we observed a fine arena-
ceous and micaceous grauwacke turned into a rock resembling mica-slate
near the granite.’ Other cases are given by the same author, of slaty
strata turned into mica-schist and gneiss in rocks now generally con-
sidered to be of Devonian age.
The Devonian rocks and Old Red Sandstone are of the same geological
age, though they were deposited under different conditions, the first being
of marine, and the latter of fresh-water, origin. The Old Red Sandstone
of Wales, England, and Scotland has not, as far as I know, suffered any
metamorphism, excepting in one case in the north-east of Ayrshire, near
the sources of the Avon Water, where a large boss of granite rises
through the sandstone, which all round has been rendered crystalline
with well-developed crystals of felspar.
On the continent of Europe, a broad area of Devonian strata lies on
both banks of the Rhine and the Moselle. Forty years ago, Sedgwick
and Murchison described the crystalline quartzites, chlorite, and micaceous
slates of the Hundsruck and the Taunus, and from personal observation
I know that the rocks in the country on either side of the Moselle are, in
places, of a foliated or semi-foliated metamorphic character. In the Alps
also, as already noticed, metamorphic Devonian strata occur interstratified
with beds of metamorphic schists, and, Sir Roderick adds, ‘we have
ample data to affirm, that large portions of the Hastern Alps . . . are
6 REPORT—-1880.
occupied by rocks of true paleozoic age, which in many parts have passed
into a crystalline state.’
I know of no case in Britain where the Carboniferous strata have
been thoroughly metamorphosed, excepting that in South Wales, beds
of coal, in the west of Caermarthenshire and in South Pembrokeshire,
gradually pass from so-called bituminous coal into anthracite. The same
is the case in the United States, in both instances the Carboniferous strata
being exceedingly disturbed and contorted. In the Alps, however, Sir
Roderick Murchison seems to have believed that Carboniferous rocks may
have been metamorphosed : a circumstance since undoubtedly proved by
the occurrence of a coal-measure calamite, well preserved, but otherwise
partaking of the thoroughly crystalline character of the gneiss in which
it is imbedded, and which was shown to me by the late Prof. Gastaldi, at.
Turin.
I am well acquainted with all the Permian strata of the British Islands
and of various parts of continental Europe, and nowhere, that I have
seen, have they suffered from metamorphic action, and strata of this age
are, I believe, as yet unknown in the Alps. This closes the list of
metamorphism of paleozoic strata.
I will not attempt (they are so numerous) to mention all the regions
of the world in which Mesozoic or Secondary formations have undergone
metamorphic action. In Britain and the non-mountainous parts of
France, they are generally quite unaltered, but in the Alps it is different.
There, as everyone knows who is familiar with that region, the crystalline
rocks in the middle of the chain have the same general strike as the
various flanking stratified formations. As expressed by Murchison, ‘as
we follow the chain from N.H. to 8.W. we pass from the clearest types of
sedimentary rocks, and, at length, in the Savoy Alps, are immersed in
the highly altered mountains of Secondary limestone,’ while ‘the meta-
morphism of the rocks is greatest as we approach the centre of the chain,’
and, indeed, any one familiar with the Alps of Switzerland and Savoy
knows that a process of metamorphism has been undergone by all the
Jurassic rocks (Lias and Oolites) of the great mountain chain. "Whether
or not any strata of Neocomian and Cretaceous age have been well meta-
morphosed in this region I am unable to say ; but it seems to be certain
that the Eocene or Lower Tertiary Alpine formation, known as the Flysch,
contains beds of black schists which pass into Lydian stone, and also that
in the Grisons it has been converted into gneiss and mica-schist, a) fact
mentioned by Studer and Murchison. I also have seen in the country
north of the Oldenhorn, nummulitic rocks so far foliated that they formed
an imperfect gneiss.
In Tierra del Fuego, as described by Dareitn; clay slates of early cre-
taceous date pass into gneiss and mica-slate with garnets, and in Chonos
Islands, and all along the great Cordillera of the Andes of Chili, rocks of
Cretaceous or Cretaceo-oolitic age have been metamorphosed into foliated
mica-slate and gneiss, accompanied by the presence of granite, syenite, and
greenstone.
ADDRESS. 7
This ends my list, for I have never seen, or heard, of metamorphic
rocks of later date than those that belong to the Hocene series. Hnough,
however, has been said to prove, that from the Laurentian epoch onward,
the phenomenon of extreme metamorphism of strata has been of frequent
recurrence all through Paleozoic and Mesozoic times, and extends even
to a part of the Hocene series equivalent to the soft unaltered strata of
the formations of the London and Paris basins, which excepting for their
fossil contents, and sometimes highly inclined positions, look as if they
had only been recently deposited.
Volcanoes.
The oldest volcanic products of which I have personal knowledge are of
Lower Silurian age. These in North Wales consist of two distinct series,
the oldest of which, chiefly formed of felspathic lavas and volcanic ashes,
lie in and near the base of the Llandeilo beds, and the second, after a long
interval of repose, were ejected and intermingled with the strata forming
the middle part of the Bala beds. The Lower Silurian rocks of Mont-
gomeryshire, Shropshire, Radnorshire, Pembrokeshire, Cumberland and:
Westmoreland are to a great extent also the result of volcanic eruptions,
and the same kinds of volcanic rocks occur in the Lower Silurian strata of
Ireland. I know of no true volcanic rocks in the Upper Silurian series.
In the old Red Sandstone of Scotland lavas and volcanic ashes are of
frequent occurrence, interstratified with the ordinary lacustrine sedimen-
tary strata. Volcanic rocks are also intercalated among the Devonian
strata of Devonshire. I know of none in America or on the Continent of
Europe.
In Scotland voleanic products are common throughout nearly the
whole of the Carboniferous sub-formations, and they are found also asso-
ciated with Permian strata.
Inow come to the Mesozoic or Secondary epochs. Of Jurassic age
(lias and Oolites), it is stated by Lyell with some doubt, that true
voleanic products occur in the Morea and also in the Apennines, and it
seems probable, as stated by Medlicott and Blanford, that the Rajmahal
traps may also be of Jurassic age.
In the Cordillera of South America, Darwin has described a great
series of volcanic rocks intercalated among the Cretaceo-oolitic strata
that forms so much of the chain ; and the same author in his ‘ Geological
Observations in South America,’ states that the Cordillera has been,
probably with some quiescent periods, a source of volcanic matter from
an epoch anterior to his Cretaceo-oolitic formation to the present day.
In the Deccan volcanic traps rest on Cretaceous beds, and are overlaid
by Nummulitic strata, and according to Medlicott and Blanford, these
were poured out in the interval between Middle Cretaceous and Lower
Eocene times.
In Europe the only instance I know of a volcano of Hocene age is
8 REPORT—1880.
that of Monte Bolca near Verona, where the volcanic products are asso-
ciated with the fissile limestone of that area.
The well-preserved relics of Miocene volcanoes are prevalent over many
parts of Hurope, such as Auvergne and The Velay, where the volcanic
action began in Lower Miocene times, and was continued into the Pliocene
epoch. The volcanoes of the Hifel are aiso of the same general age,
together with the ancient Miocene volcanoes of Hungary.
The volcanic rocks of the Azores, Canaries, and Madeira are of
Miocene age, while in Tuscany there are extinct volcanoes that began in
late Miocene, and lasted into times contemporaneous with the English
Coralline Crag. In the north of Spain also, at Olot in Catalonia, there are
perfect craters and cones remaining of volcanoes that began to act in
newer Pliocene times and continued in action to a later geological date.
To these I must add the great cowlées of Miocene lava, so well known in
the Inner Hebrides, on the mainland near Oban, &c., in Antrim in the
north of Ireland, in the Faroe Islands, Greenland, and Franz-Joseph
Land. It is needless, and would be tiresome, further to multiply instances,
for enough has been said to show that in nearly all geological ages
volcanoes have played an important part, now in one region, now in another,
from very early Paleozoic times down to the present day ; and, as far as
my knowledge extends, at no period of geological history is there any sign
of their having played a more important part than they do in the epoch
in which we live.
Mountain Chains.
The mountain-chains of the world are of different geological ages,
some of them of great antiquity, and some of them comparatively
modern.
It is well known that in North America the Lower Silurian rocks lie
uncomformably on the Laurentian strata, and also that the latter had
undergone a thorough metamorphism and been thrown into great anti-
clinal and synclinal folds, accompanied by intense minor convolutions,
before the deposition of the oldest Silurian formation, that of the Potsdam
Sandstone. Disturbances of the nature alluded to imply beyond a doubt
that the Laurentian rocks formed a mountain chain of pre-Silurian date,
which has since constantly been worn away and degraded by sub-aerial
denudation.
In Shropshire, and in parts of North Wales, and in Cumberland and
Westmoreland, the Lower Silurian rocks by upheaval formed hilly land
before the beginning of the Upper Silurian epoch; and it is probable that
the Lower Silurian gneiss of Scotiand formed mountains at the same
time, probably very much higher than now. However that may be, it is
certain, that these mountains formed high land before and during the
deposition of the Old Red Sandstone, and the upheaval of the great
Scandinavian chain (of which the Highlands may be said to form an out-
ADDRESS. 9
lying portion) also preceded the deposition of the Old Red Strata. In
both of these mountain regions the rocks have since undergone consider-
able movements, which in the main seem to have been movements of
elevation, accompanied undoubtedly by that constant atmospheric degra-
dation to which all high land is especially subject.
The next great European chain in point of age is that of the Ural,
which according to Murchison is of pre-Permian age, a fact proved by
the Permian conglomerates which were formed from the waste of the
older strata. On these they lie quite unconformably and nearly undis-
turbed on the western flank of the mountains.
In North America the great chain of the Alleghany Mountains under-
went several disturbances, the last (a great one) having taken place after
the deposition of the Carboniferous rocks, and before that of the New
Red Sandstone. The vast mountainous region included under the name
of the Rocky Mountains, after several successive disturbances of upheaval,
did not attain its present development till after the Miocene or Middle
Tertiary epoch.
In South America, notwithstanding many oscillations of level recorded
by Darwin, the main great disturbance of the strata that form the chain
of the Andes took place apparently in post-cretaceous times.
The Alps, the rudiments of which began in more ancient times,
received their greatest disturbance and upheaval in post-Hocene days,
and were again raised at least 5,000 feet (I believe much more) at the
close of the Miocene epoch. The Apennines, the Pyrenees, the Carpa-
thians, and the great mountain region on the east of the Adriatic and
southward into Greece, are of the same general age, and this is also the
case in regard to the Atlas in North Africa, and the Caucasus on the
borders of Europe and Asia. In the north of India the history of the
Great Himalayan range closely coincides with that of the Alps, for
while the most powerful known disturbance and elevation of the range
took place after the close of the Eocene epoch, a subsequent elevation
occurred in post-Miocene times closely resembling and at least equal to
that sustained by the Alps at the same period.
It would probably not be difficult by help of extra research to add
other cases to this notice of recurrences of the upheaval and origin of
special mountain chains, some of which I have spoken of from personal
knowledge; but enough has been given to show the bearing of this question
on the argument I have in view, namely, that of repetition of the same
kind of events throughout all known geological time.
Salt and Salt Lakes.
I now come to the discussion of the circumstances that produced
numerous recurrences of the development of beds of various salts (chiefly
common rock-salt) in many formations, which it will be seen are to a
great extent connected with continental or inland conditions. In com-
10 REPORT——1880.
paratively rainless countries salts are often deposited on the surface of the
ground by the effect of solar evaporation of moisture from the soil. Water
dissolves certain salts in combination with the ingredients of the under-
lying rocks and soils, and brings it to the surface, and when solar evaporation
ensues the salt or salts are deposited on the ground. This is well known
to be the case in and near the region of the Great Salt Lake in North
America, and in South America in some of the nearly rainless districts of
the Cordillera, extensive surface-deposits of salts of various kinds are
common. The surface of the ground around the Dead Sea is also in extra
dry seasons covered with salt, the result of evaporation, and in the upper
provinces of India (mentioned by Medlicott and Blanford) ‘many tracts
of land in the Indo-Gangetic alluvial plain are rendered worthless for cul-
tivation by an efflorescence of salt known in the North-West Provinces as
Reh,’ while every geographer knows that in Central Asia, from the western
shore of the Caspian Sea to the Kinshan Mountains of Mongolia, with
rare exceptions nearly every lake is salt in an area at least 3,500 miles in
length. This circumstance is due to the fact that all so-called fresh-water
springs, and therefore all rivers, contain small quantities of salts in solu-
tion only appreciable to the chemist, and by the constant evaporation of
pure water from the lakes, in the course of time, it necessarily happens
that these salts get concentrated in the water by the effect of solar heat,
and, if not already begun, precipitation of solid salts must ensue.
The earliest deposits of rock-salt that I know about have been described
by Mr. A. B. Wynne of the Geological Survey of India, in his Memoir ‘ On
the Geology of the Salt Range in the Punjab.’! The beds of salt are of great
thickness, and along with gypsum and dolomitic layers occur in marl of a
red colour like our Keuper Marl. This colour I have for many years con-
sidered to be, in certain cases, apt to indicate deposition of sediments in
inland lakes, salt or fresh, as the case may be, and with respect to these
strata in the Punjab Salt Range, authors seem to be in doubt whether
they were formed in inland lakes or in lagoons near the seaboard, which
at intervals were liable to be flooded by the sea, and in which in the hot
seasons salts were deposited by evaporation caused by solar heat. For my
argument, it matters but little which of these was the true physical con-
dition of the land of the time, though I incline to think the inland lake
theory most probable. The age of the strata associated with this salt is
not yet certainly ascertained. In ‘The Geology of India’ Medlicott
and Blanford incline to consider them of Lower Silurian age, and Mr,
Wynne, in his ‘ Geology of the Salt Range,’ places the salt and gypsum
beds doubtfally on the same geological horizon.
The next salt-bearing formation that I shall notice is the Salina or
Onondaga Salt Group of North America, which forms part of the Upper
Silurian rocks, and lies immediately above the Niagara Limestone. It is
rich in) gypsum and in salt-brine, often of a very concentrated character,
? Many earlier notices and descriptions of the Salt Range might be quoted, but
Mr. Wynne’s is enough for my purpose.
ADDRESS. 11
‘which can only be derived from original depositions of salt,’ and it is
also supposed by Dr. T. Sterry Hunt to contain solid rock-salt 115 feet in
thickness at the depth of 2,085 feet, near Saginaw Bay in Michigan.
In the Lower Devonian strata of Russia near Lake Ilmen, Sir R.
Murchison describes salt springs at Starai Russa. Sinkings ‘made in
the hope of penetrating to the source of these salt springs,’ reached a
depth of 600 feet without the discovery of rock salt, ‘and we are left in
doubt whether the real source of the salt is in the lowest beds of the
Devonian rocks or even in the Silurian system.’
In the United States brine springs also occur in Ohio, Pennsylvania,
and Virginia, in Devonian rocks.
In Michigan salts are found from the Carboniferous down to the
Devonian series; and in other parts of the United States, Western
Pennsylvania, Virginia, Ohio, Illinois, and Kentucky, from the lower
Coal-measures salts are derived which must have been deposited in inland
areas, since even in the depths of inland seas that communicate with the
great ocean, such as the Mediterranean and the Red Sea, no great beds
of salt can be deposited. Before such strata of salt can be formed, super-
saturation must have taken place.
In the North of England at and near Middlesbrough two deep bore-
holes were made some years ago in the hope of reaching the Coal-measures
of the Durham coal-field. One of them at Salthome was sunk to a depth
of 1,355 feet. First they passed through 74 feet of superficial clay and
gravel, next through about 1,175 feet of red sandstones and marls, with
beds of rock-salt and gypsum. The whole of these strata (excepting the
clay and gravel) evidently belong to the Keuper marls and sandstones of
the upper part of our New Red series. Beneath these they passed through
67 feet of dolomitic limestone, which in this neighbourhood forms the
upper part of the Permian series, and beneath the limestone the strata
consist of 27 feet of gypsum and rock-salt and marls, one of the beds of
rock-salt having a thickness of 14 feet. This bed of Permian salt is
of some importance, since I have been convinced for long that the
British Permian strata were deposited, not in the sea, but in salt lakes
comparable in some respects to the great salt lake of Utah, and in its
restricted fauna to the far greater salt lake of the Caspian Sea. The
gypsum, the dolomite or magnesian limestone, the red marls covered with
rain-pittings, the sun-cracks, and the impressions of footprints of reptiles
made in the soft sandy marls when the water was temporarily lowered by
the solar evaporation of successive summers, all point to the fact that our
Permian strata were not deposited in the sea, but in a salt lake or lakes
once for a time connected with the sea. The same may be said of other
Permian areas in the central parts of the Continent of Europe, such as
Stassfurt and Anhalt, Halle and Altern in Thuringia, and Sperenberg,
near Berlin, and also in India.!
' 1 See «Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain,’ 5th edition, where the
question is treated in more detail. ;
12 REPORT—1880.
Neither do I think that the Permian strata of Russia, as de-
scribed by Sir Roderick Murchison, were necessarily, as he implies,
deposited in a wide ocean. According to his view all marine life
universally declined to a minimum after the close of the Carboniferous
period, that decline beginning with the Permian and ending with the
Triassic epoch. Those who believe in the doctrine of evolution will find
it hard to accept the idea which this implies, namely, that all the prolific
forms of the Jurassic series sprang from the scanty faunas of the Permian
and Triassic epochs. On the contrary, it seems to me more rational to
attribute the poverty of the faunas of these epochs to accidental abnormal
conditions in certain areas, that for a time partially disappeared during
the deposition of the continental Muschelkalk which is absent in the
British Triassic series.
In the whole of the Russian Permian strata only fifty-three species
were known at the time of the publication of ‘ Russia and the Ural,
Mountains,’ and I have not heard that this scanty list has been subse-
quently increased. I am therefore inclined to believe that these red marls,
grits, sandstones, conglomerates, and great masses of gypsum and rock-
salt were all formed in a flat inland area which was occasionally liable to
be invaded by the sea during intermittent intervals of minor depression,
sometimes in one area, sometimes in another, and the fauna small in size
and poor in numbers is one of the results, while the deposition of beds of
salt and gypsum is another. If so, then in the area now called Russia, in
sheets of inland Permian water, deposits were formed strictly analogous
to those of Central Europe and of Britain, but on a larger scale.
Other deposits of salt deep beneath overlying younger strata are stated
to occur at Bromberg in Prussia, and many more might be named as
lying in the same formation in northern Germany.
If we now turn to the Triassic series it is known that it consists of
only two chief members in Britain, the Bunter Sandstones and the Keuper
or New Red Marls, the Muschelkalk of the Continent being absent in our
islands. No salt is found in the Bunter sandstones of England, but it
occurs in these strata at Schéningen in Brunswick and also near Hanover.
In the lower part of the Keuper series deposits of rock-salt are common in
England and Ireland. At Almersleben, near Calbe, rock-salt is found in
the Muschelkalk, and also at Erfurt and Slottenheim in Thuringia and at
Wilhelmsgliick in Wurtemburg. In other Triassic areas it is known
at Honigsen, in Hanover, in middle Keuper beds. In the red shales at
Sperenberg and Lieth on the Lower Elbe, salt was found at the depth of
3,000 feet, and at Stassfurth the salt is said to be ‘ several hundred yards
thick.’
In Central Spain rock-salt is known, and at Tarragona, Taen, and also
at Santander in the north of Spain, all in Triassic strata. Other locali-
ties may be named in the Upper Trias, such as the Salzkammergut,
Aussee, Hallstatt, Ischl, Hallein in Salzburg, Halle in the Tyrol, and
Berchesgaden in Bavaria.
ADDRESS. 163
In the Salt Range of mountains in Northern India saliferous strata
are referred with some doubt by Medlicott and Blanford to the Triassic
strata.
In the Jurassic series (Lias and Oolites) salt and gypsum are not
uncommon. One well-known instance occurs at Berg in the valley of the
Rhone in Switzerland, where salt is derived from the Lias. Salt and
gypsum are also found in Jurassic rocks at Burgos in Spain. At Gap in
France there is gypsum, and salt is found in the Austrian Alps in Oolitic
limestone.
In the Cretaceous rocks salt occurs, according to Lartet, at Jebel
Usdom by the Dead Sea, and other authorities state that it occurs in the
Pyrenees and at Biskra in Africa, where ‘mountains of salt’ are mentioned
as of Cretaceous age. The two last-named localities are possibly uncertain :
but whether or not this is the case, it is not the less certain that salt has
been deposited in Cretaceous rocks, and, judging by analogy, probably in
inland areas of that epoch.
In the Hocene or Older Tertiary formations, rock-salt is found at
Cardona in Spain, and at Kohat in the Punjab it occurs at the base of
Nummulitic beds. It is also known at Mandi in India in strata supposed
to be of Nummulitic Hocene age.
The record does not end here, for a zone of rock-salt lies in Sicily aé
the top of the Salina clays in Lower Miocene beds, and in Miocene
strata gypsum is found at several places in Spain, while salt also occurs
in beds that are doubtfully of Miocene age (but may be later) at Wie-
litzka in Poland, Kalusz in Galicia, Bukowina, and also in Transylvania.
In Pliocene or Later Tertiary formations, thick beds of gypsum are
known in Zante, and strata of salt occur in Roumania and Galicia, while
in Pliocene rocks, according to Dana, or in Post-Tertiary beds, according
to others, a thick bed of pure salt was penetrated to a depth of 38 feet at
Petit Anse in Louisiana. This ends my list, though I have no doubt
that, by further research, many more localities might be given. Enough,
‘however, has been done to show that rock-salt (and other salts) are of
frequent recurrence throughout all geological time, and as in my opinion
it is impossible that common salt can be deposited in the open ocean, it
follows that this and other salts must have been precipitated from solu-
tions, which, by the effect of solar evaporation became at length super-
saturated, like those of the Dead Sea, the great salt lake of Utah, and in
other places which it is superfluous to name.
Fresh-water. Lakes and Estuaries.
I now come to the subject of recurrences of fresh-water conditions both
in lakes and estuaries. In the introduction to the ‘ Geology of India’ by
Messrs. Medlicott and Blanford, mention is made of the Blaini and Krol
rocks as probably occupying ‘hollows formed by denudation in the old
gneissic rocks,’ and the inference is drawn that ‘ if this be a correct view,
14 REPORT—1880.
it is probable that the cis-Himalayan palzozoic rocks are in great part of
fresh-water origin, and that the present crystalline axis of the Western
Himalayas approximately coincides with the shore of the ancient paleeozoic
continent, of which the Indian peninsula formed a portion.? The Krol
rocks are classed broadly with ‘Permian and Carboniferous’ deposits,
but the Blaini beds are doubtfully considered to belong to Upper Silurian
strata. If this point be by-and-by established, this is the earliest known
occurrence of fresh-water strata in any of the more ancient palsozoic
formations.
It is a fact worthy of notice that the colour of the strata formed in old
lakes (whether fresh or salt) of palzozoic and mesozoic age is apt to be
red: a circumstance due to the fact that each little grain of sand or mud
is usually coated with a very thin pellicle of peroxide of iron. Whether
or not the red and purple Cambrian rocks! may not be partly of fresh-
water origin, is a question that I think no one but myself has raised.”
There is, however, in my opinion, no doubt with regard to the fresh-
water origin of the Old Red Sandstone, as distinct from the contem-
poraneous marine deposits of the Devonian strata. This idea was first
started by that distinguished geologist, Doctor Fleming, of Edinburgh,
followed by Mr. Godwin-Austen, who, from the absence of marine shells
and the nature of the fossil fishes in these strata, inferred that they
were deposited, not in the sea, as had always been asserted, but in a great
fresh-water lake or in a series of lakes. In this opinion I have for many
years agreed, for the nearest analogies of the fish are, according to Huxley,
the Polypterus of African rivers, the Ceratodus of Australia, and in less
degree the Lepidosteus of North America. The truth of the supposition
that the Old Red Sandstone was deposited in fresh water, is further borne
out by the occurrence of a fresh-water shell, Anodonta Jukesii, and. of ferns
in the Upper Old Red Sandstone in Ireland; and the same shell is found
at Dura Den in Scotland, while in Caithness, along with numerous fishes,
there occurs the small bivalve crustacean Histheriép Murchisoniz.
I think it more than probablethat the red series of rocks that form the
Catskill Mountains of North America, (and with which Iam personally
acquainted) were formed in the same manner as the Old Red Sandstones
of Britain; for excepting in one or two minor interstratifications, they
contain no relics of marine life, while ‘the fossil fishes of the Catskill
beds, according to Dr. Newberry, appear to represent closely those of the
British Old Red Sandstone.’ (Dana.)
The Devonian rocks of Russia, according to the late Sir Roderick
Murchison, consist of two distinct types, viz. Devonian strata identical in
general character with those in Devonshire and in various parts of the
1 By Cambrian, I mean only the ved and purple rocks of Wales, England, Scot-
land, and Ireland, older than the Menevian beds, or any later division of the Silurian
strata, that may chance to rest upon them.
7*On the Red Rocks of England of older date than the Trias.’ Jow. Geol. Soc.
1871, vol, 28.
ADDRESS. 15
continent of Hurope. These are exclusively of a marine character, while
the remainder corresponds to the Old Red Sandstone of Wales, England,
and Scotland.
At Tchudora, about 105 miles 8.E. of St. Petersburg, the lowest
members of the series consist of flag-like compact limestones accumulated
in a tranquil sea and containing fucoids and encrinites, together with
shells of Devonian age, such as Spirifers, Terebratule, Orthis, Leptenas,
Avicula, Modiola, Natica, Bellerophon, &c., while the upper division
graduates into the Carboniferous series as it often does in Britain, and, like
the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland, contains only fish-remains, and in
both countries they are of the same species. ‘Proceeding from the
Valdai Hills on the north,’ the geologist ‘quits a Devonian Zone with a
true “ Old Red” type dipping under the Carboniferous rocks of Moscow,
and having passed through the latter, he finds himself suddenly in a
yellow-coloured region, entirely dissimilar in structure to what he had
seen in any of the northern governments, which, of a different type as
regards fossils, is the true stratigraphical equivalent of the Old Red system.’
This seems to me, as regards the Russian strata, to mean, that just as the
Devonian strata of Devonshire are the true equivalents of the Old Red
Sandstone of Wales and Scotland, they were deposited under very different
conditions, the first in the sea and the others in inland fresh-water lakes.
At the time Sir Roderick Murchison’s work was completed, ‘the’ almost
universal opinion was that the Old Red Sandstone was a marine forma-
tion. In the year 1830, the Rev. Dr. Fleming, of Edinburgh; read a
paper before the Wernerian Society in which he boldly stated that the
‘Old Red Sandstone is a fresh-water formation’ of older date than the
Carboniferous Limestone. This statement, however, seems to have made
no impression on geologists till it was revived by Godwin-Austen in
a memoir ‘On the Extension of the Coal-measures,’ &c., in the Journal
of the Geological Society, 1856. Even this made no converts to what
was then considered a heretical opinion. I have long held Dr. Fleming’s
view, and unfortunately published it in the third edition of ‘The Physical
Geology and Geography of Great Britain,’ without at the time being
aware that I had been forestalled by Dr. Fleming and Mr. Godwin-
Austen. 2)
To give anything like a detailed account of all the fresh-water forma-
tions deposited in estuaries and lakes from the close of the Old Red
Sandstone times down to late Tertiary epochs, is only fitted for a manual
of geology, and would too much expand this address ; and I will therefore
give little more than a catalogue of these deposits in ascending order.
In the Coal-measure parts of the Carboniferous series, a great propor-
tion of the shales and sandstones are of fresh-water origin. This is proved
all over the British Islands by the shells they contain, while here and there
marine interstratifications occur, generally of no great thickness. There
is no doubt among geologists that these Coal-measure strata were chiefly
16 REPORT—1880.
deposited under estuarine conditions, and sometimes in lagoons or in lakes ;
while numerous beds of coal formed by the life and death of land plants,
each underlaid by the soil on which the plants grew, evince the constant
recurrence of terrestrial conditions. The same kind of phenomena are
characteristic of the Coal-measures all through North America, and in
every country on the continent of Europe, from France and Spain on the
west, to Russia in the east, and the same is the case in China and in other
areas.
In Scotland, according to Prof. Judd, fresh-water conditions occur
more or less all through the Jurassic series, from the Lias to the Upper
Oolites. In England, fresh-water strata, with thin beds of coal, are found
in the Inferior Oolite of Yorkshire, and in the middle of England and
elsewhere in the Great Oolite. The Purbeck and Wealden strata, which,
in a sense, fill the interval between the Jurassic and Cretaceous series, are
almost entirely formed of fresh-water strata, with occasional thin marine
interstratifications. By some the Wealden beds are considered to have
been formed in and near the estuary of a great river, while others, with
as good a show of reason, believe them to have been deposited in a large
lake subject to the occasional influx of the sea.
In the eastern part of South Russia the Lias consists chiefly of fresh-
water strata, as stated by Neumayr.
The Godwana rocks of Central India range from Upper Paleozoic
times well into the Jurassic strata, and there all these formations are of
fresh-water origin. Fresh-water beds with shells are also interstratified
with the Deccan traps of Cretaceous and Tertiary (Hocene) age, while
2,000 feet of fresh-water sands overlie them.
In South-western Sweden, as stated by Mr. Bauerman, ‘the three
coal-fields of Hoganas, Stabbarp, and Rodingé, lie in the uppermost
Triassic or Rheetic series.’ In Africa, the Karoo beds, which it is surmised
may be of the age of the New Red Sandstone, contain beds of coal. In
North America, certain fresh-water strata, with beds of lignite, apparently
belong to the Cretaceous and Eocene epochs, and in the north of Spain
and south of France, there are fresh-water lacustrine formations in the
highest Cretaceous strata.
In England the lower and upper Eocene strata are chiefly of fresh-
water origin, and the same is the case in France and other parts of the
Continent. Certain fresh-water formations in Central Spain extend from
the Hocene to the upper Miocene strata.
There is only one small patch of Miocene beds in England, at Bovey
Tracey, near Dartmoor, formed of fresh-water deposits with interstratified
beds of lignite or Miocene coal. On the continent of Europe, Miocene
strata occupy immense independent areas, extending from France and
Spain to the Black Sea. In places too numerous to name, they contain
beds of ‘brown coal,’ as lignite is sometimes called. These coal-beds
are often of great thickness and solidity. In one of the pits which I
descended near Teplitz, in Bohemia, the coal, which lies in a true basin,
<<“ <= -
ADDRESS. ig
is 40 feet thick, and underneath it there is a bed of clay, with rootlets,
quite comparable to the underclay which is found beneath almost every
bed of coal in the British and other coal-fields of the Carboniferous epoch.
The Miocene rocks of Switzerland are familiar to all geologists, who have
traversed the country between the Jura and the Alps. Sometimes they
are soft and incoherent, sometimes formed of sandstones, and some-
times of conglomerates, as on the Righi. They chiefly consist of fresh-
water lacustrine strata, with some minor marine interstratifications which
mark the influx of the sea during occasional partial submergences of
portions of the area. These fresh-water strata, of great extent and thick-
ness, contain beds of lignite, and are remarkable for the relics of numerous
trees and other plants which have been described by Prof. Heer of
Zurich, with his accustomed skill. The Miocene fresh-water strata, of the
Sewalik Hills in India are well known to most students of geology, and I
have already stated that they bear the same relation to the more ancient
Himalayan mountains that the Miocene strata of Switzerland and the
North of Italy do to the pre-existing range of the Alps. In fact, it may be
safely inferred that something far more than the rudiments of our present
continents existed long before Miocene times, and this accounts for the
large areas on those continents which are frequently occupied by Miocene
fresh-water strata. With the marine formations of Miocene age this
address is in no way concerned, nor is it essential to my argument to deal
with those later tertiary phenomena, which in their upper stages so
easily merge into the existing state of the world.
Glacial Phenomena.
I now come to the last special subject for discussion in this address,
viz., the Recurrence of Glacial Epochs, a subject still considered by some
to be heretical, and which was generally looked upon as an absurd crotchet
when, in 1855, I first described to the Geological Society, boulder-beds,
containing ice-scratched stones, and erratic blocks in the Permian strata
of England. The same idea I afterwards applied to some of the Old
Red Sandstone conglomerates, and of late years it has become so familiar,
that the effects of glaciers have at length been noted by geologists from
older Palzzoic epochs down to the present day.
In the middle of last July I received a letter from Prof. Geikie, in
which he informed me that he had discovered mammilated moutonnée
surfaces of Laurentian rocks, passing underneath the Cambrian sand-
stones of the north-west of Scotland at intervals, all the way from Cape
Wrath to Loch Torridon, for a distance of about 90 miles. The mammi-
lated rocks are, says Prof. Geikie, ‘as well rounded off as any recent roche
moutonnée,’ and, ‘in one place these bosses are covered bya huge angular
breccia of this old gneiss (Laurentian) with blocks sometimes five or six
feet long.’ This breccia, where it occurs, forms the base of the Cambrian
strata of Sutherland, Ross, and Cromarty, and while the higher strata are
1880. C
18 REPORT—1880.
always well stratified, where they approach the underlying Laurentian
gneiss ‘they become pebbly, passing into coarse unstratified agglomerates
or boulder-beds.’ In the Gairloch district ‘it is utterly unstratified, the
angular fragments standing on end and at all angles,’ just as they do in
many modern moraine mounds wherever large glaciers are found. The
general subject of Paleozoic glaciers has long been familiar to me, and this
account of more ancient glaciers of Cambrian age is peculiarly acceptable.
The next sign of ice in Britain is found in the lower Silurian rocks of
Wigtonshire and Ayrshire. In the year 1865 Mr. John Carrick Moore
took me to see the Lower Silurian graptolitic rocks at Corswall Point in
Wigtonshire, in which great blocks of gneiss, granite, &c., are imbedded,
and in the same year many similar erratic blocks were pointed out to me
by Mr. James Geikie in the Silurian strata of Carrick in Ayrshire. One of
the blocks at Corswall, as measured by myself, is nine feet in length, and
the rest are of all sizes, from an inch or two up to several feet in diameter.
There is no gneiss or granite in this region nearer than those of Kirkeud-
brightshire and Arran, and these are of later geological date than the strata
amid which the erratic blocks are imbedded. It is therefore not improbable
that they may have been derived from some high land formed of Lauren-
tian rocks of which the outer Hebrides and parts of the mainland of
Scotland form surviving portions. If so, then I can conceive of no agent
capable of transporting large boulders and dropping them into the Lower
Silurian mud of the seas of the time save that of icebergs or other float-
ing ice, and the same view with regard to the neighbouring boulder-beds
of Ayrshire is held by Mr. James Geikie. If, however, any one will point
out any other natural cause still in action by which such results are at
present brought about, I should be very glad to hear of it.
I must now turn to India for further evidence of the action of palzo-
zoic ice. In the Himalayas of Pangi, 8.H. of Kashmir, according to
Medlicott and Blanford, ‘old slates, supposed to be Silurian, contain
boulders in great numbers,’ which they believe to be of glacial origin.
Another case is mentioned as occurring in ‘transition beds of unknown
relations,’ but in another passage they are stated to be ‘very ancient, but
no idea can be formed of their geological position.’ The wnderlying rocks
are marked by distinct glacial striations.
The next case of glacial boulder-beds with which I am acquainted is
found in Old Red Sandstone in Scotland, and in some places in the north
of England, where they contain what seem to be indistinctly ice-scratched
stones. I first observed these rocks on the Lammermuir Hills, south of
Dunbar, lying unconformably on Lower Silurian strata, and soon inferred
them to be of glacial origin, a circumstance that was subsequently con-
firmed by my colleagues, Prof. and Mr. James Geikie, and is now familiar
to other officers of the Geological Survey of Scotland.
I know of no boulder formations in the Carboniferous series, but they
are well known as occurring on a large scale in the Permian brecciated
conglomerates, where they consist ‘of pebbles and large blocks of stone,
ADDRESS. 19
_ generally angular, imbedded in a marly paste. ... the fragments
_. have mostly travelled from a distance, apparently from the borders of
__ Wales, and sorhe of them are three feet in diameter.’ Some of the stones
are as well scratched as those found in modern moraines or in the ordinary
boulder-clay of what is commonly called the Glacial Epoch. In 1855
the old idea was still not unprevalent that during the Permian Epoch,
and for long after, the globe had not yet cooled sufficiently to allow of the
climates of the external world being universally affected by the constant.
radiation of heat from its interior. For a long time, however, this idea,
has almost entirely vanished, and now, in Britain at all events, it is.
little if at all attended to, and other glacial episodes in the history of:
the world have continued to be brought forward and are no longer looked
upon as mere ill-judged conjectures.
The same kind of brecciated boulder-beds that are found in our Per-
mian strata occur in the Rotheliegende of Germany, which I have visited.
in several places, and I believe them to have had a like glacial origin.
Mr. G. W. Stow, of the Orange Free State, has of late years given
most elaborate accounts of similar Permian boulder-beds in South Africa.
There, great masses of moraine matter not only contain ice-scratched
stones, but on the banks of rivers where the Permian rock has been re-
moved by aqueous denudation, the underlying rocks, well rounded and
mammillated, are covered by deeply incised glacier grooves pointing in a.
direction which at length leads the observer to the pre-Permian mountains.
from whence the stones were derived that formed these ancient moraines!
Messrs. Blanford and Medlicott have also given in ‘ The Geology of
Tndia’ an account of boulder-beds in what they believe to be Permian
strata, and which they compare with those described by me in England
many years before. There the Godwana group of the Talchir strata con-
tains numerous boulders, many of them six feet in diameter, and ‘in one
instance some of the blocks were found to be polished and striated, and the
underlying Vindhyan rocks were similarly marked. The authors also cor-
relate these glacial phenomena with those found in similar deposits in
South Africa, discovered and described by Mr. Stow.
Iu the Olive group of the Salt range, described by the same authors,
there is a curious resemblance between a certain conglomerate ‘and that
of the Talchir group of the Godwana system.’ This ‘ Olive conglomerate ’
belongs to the Cretaceous series, and contains ice-transported erratic
boulders derived from unknown rocks, one of which of red granite ‘is
polished and striated on three faces in so characteristic a manner that
very little doubt can exist of its having been transported by ice.’ One
block of red granite at the Mayo Salt Mines of Khewra ‘is 7 feet high
and 19 feet in circumference.’ In the ‘Transition beds’ of the same
* Mr. Stow’s last memoir on this subject is still in manuscript. It is so exceed-
ingly long, and the sections that accompany it are of such unusual size, that the
Geological Society could not afford their publication. It was thought that the Govern-
ment of the Orange Free State might undertake this duty, but the late troubles in
South Africa have probably hindered this work—it is to be hoped only for a time.
c2
3
20 REPORT—1880.
authors, which are supposed to be of Upper Cretaceous age, there also are
boulder beds with erratic blocks of great size.
I know of no evidence of glacial phenomena in Eocené strata except-
ing the occurrence of huge masses of included gneiss in the strata known
as Flysch in Switzerland. On this question, however, Swiss geologists
are by no means agreed, and I attach little or no importance to it as
affording evidence of glacier ice.
Neither do I know of any Miocene glacier-deposits excepting those in
the north of Italy near Turin, described by the late eminent geologist,
Gastaldi, and which I saw under his guidance. These contain many large
erratic boulders derived from the distant Alps, which, in my opinion,
were then at least as lofty or even higher than they are now, especially if
we consider the immense amount of denudation which they underwent
during Miocene, later Tertiary, and post-tertiary times.
At a still later date there took place in the north of Hurope and
America what is usually misnamed ‘ The Glacial Epoch,’ when a vast
glacial mass covered all Scandinavia, and distributed its boulders across
the north of Germany, as far south as the country around Leipzig, when
Ireland also was shrouded in glacier ice, and when a great glacier covered
the larger part of Britain, and stretched southward, perhaps nearly as
far as the Thames on the one side, and certainly covered the whole of
Anglesey, and probably the whole, or nearly the whole, of South Wales.
This was after the advent of man.
Lastly, there is still a minor Glacial Epoch in progress on the large
and almost unknown Antarctic continent, from the high land of which in
latitudes which partly lie as far north as 60° and 62°, a vast sheet of
-glacier-ice of great thickness extends far out to sea and sends fleets of
icebergs to the north, there to melt in warmer latitudes. If in accordance
with the theory of Mr. Croll, founded on astronomical data, a similar
climate were transferred to the northern hemisphere, the whole of Scan-
dinavia and the Baltic would apparently be covered with glacier-ice, and
the same would probably be the case with the Faroe Islands and great
part of Siberia, while even the mountain tracts of Britain might again
maintain their minor systems of glaciers.
Conclusions.
In opening this address, I began with the subject of the oldest meta-
morphic rocks that I have seen—the Laurentian strata. It is evident to
every person who thinks on the subject that their deposition took place
far from the beginning of recognised geological time. For there must have
been older rocks by the degradation of which they were formed. And if,
as some American geologists affirm, there are on that continent meta-
morphic rocks of more ancient dates than the Laurentian strata, there
must have been rocks more ancient still to afford materials for the de-
position of these pre-Laurentian strata.
i eee
ADDRESS. 21
Starting with the Laurentian rocks, I have shown that the phe-
nomena of metamorphism of strata have been continued from that date
all through the later formations, or groups of formations, down to and
including part of the Eocene strata in some parts of the world.
In like manner I have shown that ordinary volcanic rocks have been
ejected in Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, Jurassic, Cretaceo-oolitic,
Cretaceous, Eocene, Miocene, and Pliocene times, and from all that I
have seen or read of these ancient volcanoes, I have no reason to believe
that voleanic forces played a more important part in any period of geo-
logical time than they do in this our modern epoch.
So, also, mountain chains existed before the deposition of the Silurian
rocks, others of later date before the Old Red Sandstone strata were
formed, and the chain of the Ural before the deposition of the Permian
beds. The last great upheaval of the Alleghany Mountains took place
between the close of the formation of the Carboniferous strata of that
region and the deposition of the New Red Sandstone.
According to Darwin, after various oscillations of level, the Cordillera
underwent its chief upheaval after the Cretaceous epoch, and all geologists
know that the Alps, the Pyrenees, the Carpathians, the Himalayas, and
other mountain-chains (which I have named) underwent what seems to
have been their chief great upheaval after the deposition of the Eocene
strata, while some of them were again lifted up several thousands of
feet after the close of the Miocene epoch.
The deposition of salts from aqueous solutions in inland lakes and
lagoons appears to have taken place through all time—through Silurian,
Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian, Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, Eocene,
Miocene, and Pliocene epochs—and it is going on now.
Tn like manner fresh-water and estuarine conditions are found now in
one region, now in another, throughout all the formations or groups of
formations possibly from Silurian times onward ; and glacial phenomena,
so far from being confined to what was and is generally still termed the
Glacial Epoch, are now boldly declared, by independent witnesses of
known high reputation, to begin with the Cambrian epoch, and to have
occurred somewhere, at intervals, in various formations, from almost the
earliest Paleozoic times down to our last post-Pliocene ‘ Glacial Epoch.’
If the nebular hypothesis of astronomers be true (and I know of no
reason why it should be doubted), the earth was at one time in a purely
gaseous state, and afterwards in a fluid condition, attended by intense
heat. By-and-by consolidation, due to partial cooling, took place on the
surface, and as radiation of heat went on, the outer shell thickened.
Radiation still going on, the interior fluid matter decreased in bulk, and,
by force of gravitation, the outer shell being drawn towards the interior,
gave way, and, in parts, got crinkled up, and this, according to cos-
mogonists, was the origin of the earliest mountain-chains. I make no
objection to the hypothesis, which, to say the least, seems to be the best
that can be offered and looks highly probable. But, assuming that
22 REPORT—1880.
it is true, these hypothetical events took place so long before authentic
geological history began, as written in the rocks, that the earliest of the
physical events to which I have drawn your attention in this address
was, to all human apprehension of time, so enormously removed from these
early assumed cosmical phenomena, that they appear to me to have been
of comparatively quite modern occurrence, and to indicate that from the
Laurentian epoch down to the present day, all the physical events in the
history of the earth have varied neither in kind nor in intensity from those of
which we now have experience. Perhaps many of our British geologists
hold similar opinions, but, if it be so, it may not be altogether useless
to have considered the various subjects separately on which I depend
to prove the point I had in view.
REPORTS:
ON THE
STATE OF SCIENCE.
im
9
_
REPORTS
ON THE
STATE OF SCIENCE.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir WILLIAM
THomson, Professor Tair, Professor GRANT, Dr. SIEMENS, Pro-
fessor PuRSER, Professor G. Forses, Mr. Horace Darwin, and
Mr. G. H. Darwin (Secretary), appommted for the Measwrement
of the Lunar Disturbance of Gravity.
Tue Committee beg leave to report as follows :—
The sum of £30 granted in 1879 for the purposes of the Committee
has been paid to Mr. G. H. Darwin.
Before the meeting of 1879 Mr. G. H. Darwin and Mr. Horace Darwin
were making preparations for carrying out experiments with a view of
detecting small variations in the directions of the force of gravity. With
the aid of the above grant some preliminary experiments have been made
during the past year by Mr. G. H. and Mr. H. Darwin in the Cavendish
Laboratory of the University of Cambridge by means of an instrument of
which the principle was suggested to the experimenters by Sir William
Thomson.
The experiments have not as yet been carried sufficiently far to make
it desirable to present a detailed report to the British Association. It
may nevertheless be mentioned that results of some interest have been
attained with regard to the warping of stone columns under the influence
of minute changes of temperature or of small stresses.
The chief conclusion, however, to which the experimenters have been
led is that it is now necessary to entirely re-design the apparatus. It seems
probable that the experiments will occupy a considerable time, and may
possibly prove expensive.
Under these circumstances the Committee think it expedient to defer
the presentation of their Report and of the accounts until the meeting of
the Association in 1881.
Supplementary Report.
The Secretary of this Committee having got inand paid an outstanding
account since the Report was sent in, finds that nearly the whole sum
granted for the purposes of the Committee in 1879 has been expended.
26 REPORT—1 880.
As, however, the experiments are still only in an incipient stage, it is
necessary to defer the report of the results attained.
Under these circumstances the Secretary suggests the advisability of
the continuation of the Committee on the Lunar Disturbance of Gravity for
another year.
As the plan which the experimenters intend to pursue will involve some
masonry work and the use of a good deal of copper for apparatus—an
expensive material and difficult to work—it seems likely that future
operations may prove expensive. The Secretary, therefore, ventures to
suggest that the Association should grant a further sum of 301. for the
purposes of this Committee.
Thirteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor EVERETT,
Professor Sir WiLuiAM THomson, Mr. G. J. Symons, Professor
Ramsay, Professor GEIKIE, Mr. J. GLAISHER, Mr. PENGELLY,
Professor Epwarp Hutu, Dr. CLEMENT LE NEVE Foster, Professor
A. S. HERSCHEL, Professor G. A. LEBourR, Mr. A. B. Wynne,
Mr. GatLtoway, Mr. JoserpH Dickinson, Mr. G. F. DEacon, and
Mr. E. WETHERED, appointed for the purpose of investigating
the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature downwards
im various Localities of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn
up by Professor EVERETT (Secretary).
OxssERVATIONS have been taken in the Talargoch Lead Mine, Flintshire
(between Rhyl and Prestatyn), under the direction of Mr. A. Strahan, of
the Geological Survey, and Mr. Walker, Chairman of the Board of Direc-
tors of the mine.
The top of the shaft is 190 feet above the level of the sea, and is at the
foot of a hill 500 feet above the sea. The lowest workings are 900 feet
below sea-level. The veins run across an angle of Carboniferous Lime-
stone, bounded on both sides by faults which throw down coal-measure
shale; and as the faults have a considerable inclination, the lowest work-
ings run beneath the shale for a considerable distance. The limestone
dips at angles varying from 45° to 55°, and is of two kinds, one white and
massive, the other thin bedded black with thin shale partings.
There are levels at intervals of about 20 yards vertically, in the vein,
most of which have been driven for some years; but all the observations
have been taken in newly opened ground.
They have been taken by boring a hole 24 inches deep at a distance of
from 14 to'5 yards from the fore breast, and either on the same day or
the next day inserting one of the Committee’s slow-action thermometers,
with a foot of plugging consisting of dry rag and clay behind it. After
an interval generally of four days the thermometer was taken out and
read, then reinserted, and read again about a week later, the difference
between the two readings never amounting to so much as half a degree,
The observations were taken at six different places in the mine, which
are designated by the observers Stations I. to VI.; but in one instance,
that of Station II., owing to the swelling of newly exposed shale, the hole
ON THE RATE OF INCREASE OF UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 27
became distorted, so that after extracting the dry rag and clay, an hour
was expended in working out the thermometer, the reading of which has
therefore been rejected. The following is a list of the five remaining
stations, arranged in order of depth :-—
Depth Distance and
ees from Surface Teptperature Direction from
i in feet 4 Mostyn Shaft
TVs ne ; 465 . : 534° . 190 yds. S.W.
Mist ale é 555, r, 529°. . 170 yds. §.E.
Vikeroesic A 636. ‘ 588°. . 840 yds. S.W.
DS < c 660 . ‘ BAe. . 120 yds. 8.
Taya LOL Ti 7 60°8° . 190 yds. N.E.
It will be observed that the order of the temperatures is not the same
as the order of the depths; it therefore becomes important to describe the
positions with some particularity.
Stations IV., V., and III. are near together in ground plan, IV. and V.
being about 250 yards apart, and III. nearly midway between them, and
they have all the same rock overhead between them and the surface,
namely, black and white limestone.
At Station I. the rock overhead consists almost entirely of sandstones
and shales, with thin coal-seams. At Station VI. it consists of white
limestone and shale. ;
It may be mentioned that the temperature at VI. was observed on three
several occasions, namely, January 14, January 21, and February 19, and
was in each case found to be thesame. Mr. Strahan further states that
this station is near a large fault, which contains iron pyrites and gives off
water charged with sulphuretted hydrogen ; the temperature of the water
as pumped up Walker’s shaft from a depth of 770 feet, being 63° at the
top of the lift. It seems probable that the decomposition of this pyrites
may be the cause of the exceptionally high temperature at this station.
The comparison of the temperatures will be most clearly brought out
by tabulating the rate of increase from the surface down to each station, as
calculated from an assumed surface temperature, which may be fairly
taken as 48°. As all the depths are considerable, an error of a degree in
the surface temperature will not have much influence on the comparison,
which stands thus :—
: Depth Excess above Feet per
Station in feet Surface Depiee
LV. . 5 465 e ‘ 5-4° 86
Vv. A s 555 49° s | TS
VI. 5 4 636 a : 10°8° : “ 59
Ii. ° a 660 ri a 6:0° 110
Ne ' » 1041 3 12°8° 81
Stations V. and III., which give the slowest rate of increase, are both
of them ina vein called the ‘South Joint;’ and Stations IV. and I., which
agree well with each other, though differing from the rest, are both of
them in another vein called the ‘Talargoch vein;’ while Station VI.
is in the rock. The horizontal distance between IV. and III. is oaly
120 yards: but if we attempt to deduce the rate of increase from com-
paring these two, we have an increase of only 0°6° in 195 feet. It thus
appears that, notwithstanding the proximity of the two veins, their con-
ditions as to temperature are very different.
Widely as the results differ among themselves, they agree upon the
whole in showing that the average rate of increase is slow; and this
e
28 REPORT—1880.
general result is in harmony with what has been found at the nearest
localities mentioned in our previous reports, namely, Dukinfield and Liver-
pool. Here, as at Dukinfield, all the strata are highly inclined.
Some additional observations at Dukinfield have recently been made
for the Committee, by Mr. Edward Garside, student of engineering in
Queen’s College, Belfast. The Astley Pit, in which they were taken, has
now been carried to a much greater depth than it had extended at the
time of Sir Wm. Fairbairn’s observations, to which allusion was made in
our Report for 1870. The two deepest seams of ccal in if are called the
‘Cannel Mine’ and the ‘Black Mine,’ the former heing the deeper of
the two; they both slope downwards at.about 15°, the deepest point being
the far end of the Cannel Mine. The following is Mr. Garside’s summary
of the observations; the ‘surface-depth’ being distinguished from the
‘shaft-depth ’ because the surface is not level, but slopes slightly in the
same general direction as the seams. The shaft-depth gives the difference
of levels, but the surface-depth, which is practically the same as the
distance of the nearest point of the surface, is what we must use in com-
puting the rate of increase of temperature.
jl ele : Distance
urface Shaft Temperature Temperature from main
A Se ae ue Depth. Depth. of Strata, in ir Road, Air Column.
in 188 oe Feet Feet Fahr. Fahr. Yards
June 17 Cannel 2,700 2,754 863 754 160
Peg) ) black 2,4073 2,631 80 782 630
» 21 #£Cannel 2,4164 2,4823 81 79 600
July 2 Black 1,9874 2,0474 74 714 460 —
The pit is described as being entirely free from water.
All the observations were taken with one of the Committee’s slow-
acting thermometers, in holes drilled in the floors at the far ends of newly
opened horse-road levels; the holes being 4 feet deep and 2 inches in
diameter. All the holes were free from cracks, and were in thesame kind
of rock—an argillaceous earth called ‘warren earth.’ They were allowed
to stand for a short time, to allow the heat caused by drilling to escape.
The thermometer was then inserted, and the portion of the hole between
it and the mouth plugged with cotton waste and the dust which came
out of the hole in drilling. After being left for forty-eight hours, it
was taken out and read.
Arranging the observations in the order of the surface-depths, we have
the following data :—
Surface Feet per Degree
Seam Depth Temperature Som Surkiee
Black . c . - 1,987% Die : : 79°5
3 4 . : - 2,408, + - 980 ° : Cbs bed
Cannel . : . » Ale, Ae OL s ; 75°5
» : ° : . 2,700 ; - 86t 72
The numbers in the last column are calculated from an assumed
surface-temperature of 49°, and show that the increase of temperature
becomes more rapid as the depth increases. If, without making any
assumption as to surface-temperature, we compare the observations among
themselves, the two shallower give an increase of 6° in 420 feet, which is
at the rate of 1° in 70 feet, and the two deeper give an increase of 55° in
2834 feet, which is at the rate of 1° in 51} feet, a result which confirms
the increase of rapidity with depth.
The greatest depth in Sir Wm. Fairbairn’s observations was 685 yards
ON AN IMPROVED FORM OF HIGH INSULATION KEY. 29
or 2055 feet, and the temperature which he found at this depth (754°) is
within less than a degree of the temperature which would be calculated
from the observations now reported.
The Committee have to express their regret at the loss of two of their
colleagues—Prof. Clerk Maxwell, and Prof. Ansted—by death, during
the past year.
Report of the Comittee, consisting of Dr. O. J. Lopax (Secretary),
Professor W. E. AyRTON, and Professor J. PERRY, appointed for the
purpose of devising and constructing an improved form of High
Insulation Key for Electrometer Work.
In the construction of the key it was considered desirable to secure as
far as possible the following conditions :—
1. That the insulation should be nearly perfect.
2. That the conductors should have a very small electrostatic capacity.
3. That they should be entirely protected from all external induction
by a metal case.
4. That the hand of the operator should work the moving parts from
the outside of the case, so as neither to act inductively on the
conductors, nor to electrify insulators by friction.
5. That there should be no friction whatever between insulators and
conductors in the moving parts.
6. That all the insulating parts should be easily removable occasionally
for cleaning purposes.
7. That the commercial price of the key should not be unreasonably
high.
In the original form of the key the conductors were platinum wires
suspended inside a metal case by silk threads, the leading wires being
brought to them through large holes in the case. It was found, however,
that this arrangement was rather too delicate and troublesome for general
use, and it was impossible to artificially dry the air in the case because of
the large holes in it.
It was determined, therefore, to abandon silk strings and to use rigid
supports for the conductors, and to allow the conductors to protrude
through small holes in the case, so that the leading wires might not have
to enter the case to reach them.
For the supports it was ultimately decided to use, not ebonite, but glass,
as the latter is more easily cleaned, and in a dry atmosphere has probably
the better insulating power ; moreover it is not liable to contract a coat
of acid, which acting on the metal conductors gives rise to a feeble E.M.F.
causing some keys to act as extremely weak batteries.
The insulators are four thin pillars of carefully selected glass, mounted
in the case in such a way that they can be easily taken out and cleaned
occasionally. Brass caps are cemented to the top of each of the pillars,
which are so arranged that each cap is near a small hole in the side of the
case, and a short thin rod ending in a binding screw is passed through this
hole and screwed into each brass cap after they are in position.
Small ebonite plugs slide on these rods and ordinarily close the holes
through which the rods pass, except when pulled out. When very good
30 REPORT—1 880.
insulation. is required they are pulled out so as to leave the conductors free
of the holes, touching nothing.
To each of one pair of brass caps a short brass pin is attached, the
two projecting horizontally one above the other. To the other pair two
brass or bronze flat springs are screwed, which project between the two
pins attached to the other pair of caps. Except when depressed the
springs both press upon the upper of the two pins and make contact with
it. All the contact surfaces are gilt. Hither spring can be depressed
separately without bringing the hand near it, by means of a thin glass
rod, which works through a hole in the top of the case, and which is
shod with metal above and below, so that it may not be subject to any
friction which might electrify it.
The piece of metal at the top is a brass cap sliding over a tube fixed in
the top of the case in such a way as to exclude dust; it can be pressed
down with the fingers, and is sent up again by a spiral spring. A pin
and double bayonet-slot is also arranged so as to fix the piece perma-
nently in either of three positions, viz., completely up and in contact
with the top pin, completely down and in contact with the bottom pin,
half-way or insulated.
Tn its present form the key is in principle simply an ordinary double
reversing key turned upside down and shut up in a box.
The glass pillars are fixed to the lid instead of to the floor of the case
for several reasons, one of which is that it economises space and reduces
the height of the key. The lid can be unscrewed and taken out of the
case with all the working parts im situ, which is very convenient. The
floor of the case is quite free and can be removed at pleasure. A dish
stands on it to contain pumice soaked with sulphuric acid whenever
extra insulation is required. Without any artificial drying, however, the
insulation is very good. ‘The dish is made either of lead, or of glass pro-
tected from the working parts by a covering of wire gauze.
The key has been made by Elliott Bros. in two forms—one square, the
other round. The round form of case is distinctly the cheaper; it
necessitates a slight modification in the arrangement of the working
parts, but it appears to be nearly as convenient as the other.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor CayLEy, F.R.S.,
Professor G. G. SToKES, F.R.S., Professor H. J. S. Smrru, F.R.S.,
Professor Sir WitL1aM THomson, F.A.S., Mr. JAMES GLAISHER,
F.RS., and Mr. J. W. L. GuaIsHER, F.R.S. (Secretary), on Ma-
thematical Tables. Drawn wp by Mr. J. W. L. GuaIsHER.
Tue present Report relates to the factor tables for the fourth, fifth, and sixth
millions, and to some results of the enumeration of the primes in the
fifth million and the first five millions. In Section I. an account is given
of the state of the work, two volumes of which have been published,
while a portion of the third and concluding volume is already in type.
Section IT. contains in a condensed form results relating to the distribu-
tion of primes in the fifth million, obtained by enumerating the primes in
ce)
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 31
each hundred, or century, in that million: it is similar to Part I. of last
year’s Report, which related to the fourth million.
As the factor tables for the first five millions are now published, so
that it is for the first time possible to extend the enumerations continuously
from 0 to 5,000,000, it was thought desirable to give here in a tabular
form the main facts relating to the distribution of primes over this range :
these tables form Section III. The results are given very briefly, because
it is hoped that by next year the series of tables will be complete as far
as 9,000,000, and a more detailed examination is deferred till it can be
rendered as complete as possible.
One of the objects to which enumerations of primes are most directly
applicable is the examination of the degree of accuracy with which the
numbers of primes in any given intervals are represented by certain
formule: which have been proposed for the purpose. A formula of this
kind was proposed by Legendre, and another was independently obtained
by Gauss, Tchebycheff, and Hargreave. Certain comparisons between
the numbers of primes counted and the numbers given by these two
formulz for intervals between 0 and 5,000,000 are contained in Sec-
tion IV.
I. State of the Factor Tables for the Fourth, Fifth, and Siath Millions.
During the year the calculation for the three millions has been com-
pleted, and the printing of the tables has been steadily continued under
the direction of Mr. James Glaisher. The volumes containing the factor
tables for the fourth and fifth millions have been published, and twenty
pages of the volume containing the sixth million are now printed and
stereotyped.
The fowrth million was published in December, 1879, by Messrs.
Taylor and Francis. The table itself occupies 112 pages, and is uniform
with those of Burckhardt and Dase. There is an introduction of fifty-
two pages, consisting of eight sections and an appendix. The titles of
the sections are (1) Mamner of using the Table; (2) The Tables of
Burckhardt, Dase, and Chernac; (3) Mode of Construction of the
Table ; (4) On Factor Tables; (5) On the Distribution of Prime
Numbers; (6) List of Writings on the Distribution of Prime Num-
bers; (7) Results of the Enumeration of the Prime Numbers in the
Fourth Million; (8) Application of the Table to the Calculation of
Logarithms. The appendix contains a list of prime numbers from 1 to
30,541 with differences: this list was used in the determination of least
factors by the multiple method. There is also a specimen of one of the
lithographed sheets used in the calculation of the table, and from which
the sieves were formed by stamping out certain of the squares. An
abstract of the third section, which relates to the mode of construction
of the table, appeared in the Report for 1878, and an abstract of the
seventh section, which contains the tables derived from the enumeration
of the primes in the fourth million, formed Part I. of last year’s Report.
The introduction to this million is intended to apply to the whole
three millions.
The fifth million was published in July of this year. The introduction,
which contains eleven pages, consists of only two sections, the first of
which relates to the manner of using the table, and the second to the
results of the enumeration of the primes in the fifth million. An abstract
of the latter forms Section II. of this Report.
32 REPORT—1880.
The sith million is stillin the press, and the printing and stereotyping
of the table will be completed early next year. It is intended to prefix
to this volume an introduction containing the results of the enumerations
for the whole nine millions over which the printed tables will then extend,
with comparisons of the numbers found by counting with those given by
Legendre’s formula and. the liw formula. <A table of the values of li z
from « = 0 toa = 9,000,000 at intervals of 50,000 is now in course of
calculation, as also is a table of the values given by Legendre’s formula
for the same arguments. The results of these comparisons for intervals
of 250,000 up to 5,000,000 are given in Section IV.
Il. Results of the Enumeration of the Primes in the Fifth Million.
The following table, which is similar to that given on p. 47 of last
year’s Report, contains the chief results of the enumeration of the primes
in the fifth million, arranged according to the numbers of primes in
the centuries.
4,000,000 to 5,000,000.
Number of centuries each of which contains primes
> S |S So |S 2S |S S| ai) o|> i=) ==) o/> =i) So
n S ojo ae SS Sls so Salo SiogioisS SiSe oom ce
=) So | So |Oo =i) So |S o|> ei) S| ==) ° | —s a) o
Ssologolosoloesclo Solosoclosoliosoleolo Sol ols,
> o|Oo o|/> SS |\> o|o — ai) o|> ai) So |\> a) o|co So
Se ar ee SH So SEN a Fate SEN ae NSE, OSD Saal See oie STN er ISS
Po I i I OI OI OWI od Pad
(0) 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 2
1 3 3 3 0 By 2 3 3 2 4 26
2 15 17 Wi, 16 13 18 14 20 10 21 161
3 29 39 31 35 37 55 48 49 4] 39 403
4 92 90 | 110 | 100 75 96 83 | 105 | 109 83 943
5 142 | 156 | 151 | 143 | 153 | 132 | 162 | 140] 149 | 160] 1488
6 201 | 195 |' 206 | 212 | 207 | 193 | 198 | 188 | 199 | 200 | 1994
7 215 | 200 |} 161 | 205 | 190 | 192 | 187 | 191 | 194 | 194 | 1929
8 133 | 137 | 166 | 133 | 163 | 155 | 141 | 138 | 130 | 137 | 1438
9 93 89 93 94 96 97 97 97 80 86 922
10 45 48 37 44 37 35 42 47 45 46 426
11 21 16 17 15 18 19 20 12 29 22 189
12 7 Uf 5 2 5 6 6 9 9 7 63
13 3 3 2 1 2 0 2 1 3 1 18
14 1 0) 1 0 1 0 0) 0 0 0 3
No. of © ‘ 2 ‘ 17 ‘
: 6628 | 6540 |6510 | 6511 | 6613 | 6493 | 6523 | 6475 | 6554 | 6522 |65,369
primes
This table shows the number of centuries in each group of 100,000,
each of which contains no prime, each of which contains one prime,
two primes, &c. For example, between 4,000,000 and 100,000 there is
no century containing no prime (%.e. consisting wholly of composite
numbers), there are three centuries which contain each one prime, fifteen
which contain two primes, and so on, there being only one which contains
fourteen primes. The number at the foot of each column is the total
number of primes in the group of numbers to which the column relates ;
thus, for example, there are 6,628 primes between 4,000,000 and
4,100,000.
The next table shows the numbers of primes in each successive group
of 10,000 between 4,000,000 and 5,000,000. Thus, for example, between
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 33
: 4,000,000 and 4,010,000 there are 660 primes, between 4,010,000 and
4,020,000 there are 658 primes, and so on.
4,000,000 to 5,000,000.
s s/s sis sis sis sig gis sig slg sig.g
SS SES NS | OE Sh SRS ON OL SOR SOO Se SOcS
S#s\s8s|SFs\s"s |S¥sis“s|\sFsl\s¥s\sesisks
ee, SUS Cen a SEAS a Sea ES BS oro aca:
toi Wit Sit Vit Tit Hit Hit Hit Hid 6
I. 660 | 663 | 670| 662] 641} 653) 662) 652} 658 | 651
II. 658 | 628 | 644] 666 | 679 | 638} 656} 653 | 655 | 634
Ii. 668 | 652) 663 | 641 | 683) 646} 645 | 643 | 631 | 653
IV. 677 | 632) 628 | 656 | 656} 631 | 651 | 663) 678 | 655
Wie 681 | 661 | 664} 635 | 672 | 648 | 651 | 644] 634] 650
VI. 643 | 662) 660 | 640] 655] 659] 616] 642 | 645] 640
VII. 653 | 671 | 644] 653 | 660) 673 | 665 | 655) 669) 683
VIII. 670 | 651 | 656] 661 | 646} 650] 666] 628] 636]| 661
Ix. 653 | 673 | 632) 662 | 683 | 640 | 667 | 657 | 669 | 654
X. 665 | 647 | 649 | 635 | 638 | 655 | 644] 638 | 679 | 641
mea \ 6628 | 6540 | 6510 | 6511 | 6613 | 6493 | 6523 | 6475 | 6554 | 6522
primes
The following is a list of successions of composite numbers of ninety-
nine and upwards occurring in the fifth million.
SEQUENCES OF 99 AND UPWARDS.
Lower Limit
4,044,077
4,047,157
4,131,109
4,166,893
4,234,537
4,297,093
4,315,607
4,359,403
4,447,321
4,478,423
4,535,717
4,536,179
4,571,107
4,596,731
4,640,599
4,652,353
4,665,553
4,686,709 .
4,738,651
4,783,873
4,958,021
Upper Limit
4,044,179
4,047,257
4,131,223
4,166,999
4,234,651
4,297,199
> 4,315,709 *
4,359,503
4,447,423
4,478,527
4,535,819
4,536,283
4,571,207
4,596,833
4,640,717
4,652,507
4,665,653
4,686,811
4,738,777
4,783,973
4,958,131
Sequence |
This table shows that the 101 numbers between 4,044,077 and
4,044,179 are composite, and so on; the numbers in the first two columns
being the primes which bound the sequences of composite numbers.
; The introductions to the Fourth Million and Fifth Million contain
similar tables giving the sequences of 79 and upwards.
1880.
D
34 REPORT— 1880.
III. Results of the Enumeration of the Primes in the first Five Millions.
The following table is similar in form to the first table of Section II. ;
each column relates to a million numbers, and the last column to the
whole five millions. The last column but one, which refers to the fifth
million, is of course identical with the last column in the table in
Section II.
0 to 5,000,000.
Number of centuries each of which contains x primes
n 0 1,000,000 | 2,000,000 | 3,000,000 | 4,000,000 0
to to to to - Seto to
1,000,000 | 2,000,000 | 3,000,000 | 4,000,000 | 5,000,000 | 5,000,000
0 0 1 1 2 2 6
1 3 16 25 30 26 100
2 29 72 97 136 161 495
3 140 257 | 338 400 403 1538
4 372 667 | 775 862 943 3619
5 801 1253 1408 1480 1488 6430
6 1362 1743 | 1878 1929 1994 8906
7 1765 2032 1997 1849 1929 9572
8 1821 1612 1526 1561 1433 7953
9 1554 1182 1036 950 922 5644
10 1058 691 | 558 497 426 3230
11 592 Si06 w|i 297 221 189 1540
12 316 113 98 60 63 650
13 122 39 28 19 18 226
14 32 7 6 4 3 52
15 20 3 1 0 0 24
16 8 1 0 0 0 9
17 3 0 1 0 0 4
21 1 0 0 0 0 1
26 1 0 0 0 0 1
pelea 78,499 70,433 67,885 66,329 65,369 348,515
It will be seen from this table that the centuries with eight primes are
the most numerous in the first million, the centuries with seven primes
in the second and third millions, and the centuries with six primes in the
fourth and fifth millions. It may be mentioned that the centuries with six
primes are also the most numerous in the seventh, eighth, and ninth
millions.
‘The 26-prime century is of course the first, namely, from 0 to 99, and
‘the 21-prime century the second. In the first century 1 is counted as a
rime.
‘ The next table shows the number of primes in each. group of 10,000
from 0 to 5,000,000, with differences. For example, the number of primes
between 0 and 10,000 is 9,593, between 10,000 and 20,000 is 8,392;
between 1,000,000 and 1,010,000 is 7,216 ; and so on.
——=. St
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 35
0 to 5,000,000.
NUMBER OF PRIMES IN EACH GROUP OF 10,000.
0 1,000,060 2,000,000 3,000,000 4,000,000
to to to to to
1,000,000 2,000,000 3,000,000 4,000,000 5,000,000
No. of | Differ-| No. of | Differ-| No. of | Differ- | No. of | Differ-| No. of | Differ-
primes} ence | primes} ence | primes| ence |primes| ence | primes} ence
I. 9593 7216 8 | 6874 | 29 | 6676 | 32 | 6628 7
II. 8392 | 1201 | 7225 | —9 | 6857) 17 | 6717 | 59 | 6540 | —12
III. 8013 | 279 | 7081 | 164 | 6849 8 | 6691 | 26 | 6510 30
EV 7863 | 150} 7103 |—22 | 6791} 58 | 6639 | 52 | 6511 —1
We 7678 | 185 | 7028 |} 75 | 6770} 21 | 6611 | 28 | 6613 |—102
VI. 7560 | 118 | 6973 | 55 | 6809 |—39 | 6575 | 36 | 6493 | 120
VII. 7445 | 115 | 7015 |~42 | 6765 | 44 | 6671 |—96 | 6523 | —30
VALET 7408 37 | 6932 | 83 | 6716] 49 | 6590} 81. | 6475 48
IX, 7323 85 | 6957 |—25 | 6746 |—30 | 6624 |—34 | 6554 | —79
Xx. 7224 99 | 6903 | 54 | 6708 |} 38 | 6535 | 89 | 6522 32
No. of )
primes f
78,499 70,433 67,885 66,329 65,369
The numbers of primes in each quarter million in the first five
millions, with differences, are:
Number of Primes Difference
0— 250,000 22,045
250,000 — 500,000 19,494 2,551
500,000 — 750,000 18,700 794
750,000. — 1,000,000 18,260 440
1,000,000 — 1,250,000 17,971 289
1,250,000 — 1,500,000 17,682 289
1,500,000 — 1,750,000 17,455 227
1,750,000 — 2,000,000 17,325 130
2,000,000 — 2,250,000 17,150 175
2 250,000 — 2,500,000 16,991 159
2,500,000 — 2,750,000 16,922 69
2,750,000 — 3,000,000 16,822 100
3,000,000 — 3,250,000 16,761 61
3,250,000 — 3,500,000 16,573 188
3,500,000 — 3,750,000 16,566 us
3,750,000 — 4,000,000 16,429 37
4,000,000 — 4,250,000 16,437 —8
4,250,000 — 4,500,000 16,365 72
4,500,000 — 4,750,000 16,271 94
4,750,000 — 5,000,000 16,296 — 25
and the numbers for the complete millions are :
Number of Primes Difference
First million . “ : ‘ 78,499
BISGCOna (5, GHI9 Tiel Geil a: 70,433 8,066
BEBATA ye say spaely ebay aethacr « 67,885 2,548
Fourth ,, ° * ‘ : 66,329 1,556
Fifth 5 3 - 2 r 65,369 960
D2
36 REPORT—1880.
The following table contains the two longest successions of composite
numbers met with in each of the five millions:
Lower Limit | Upper Limit | Sequence
First Million.
370,261 | 370,373 111
492,113 492,227 | 113
Second Million.
1,357,201 1,357,333 131
1,561,919 1,562,051 | 131
Third Million.
2.010,733 | 2,010,881 147
2,898,239 2,898,359 —. 119
Fourth Million.
3,826,019 __ 8,826,157 ave
3,933,599 3,933,731 131
Fifth Million.
4,652,353 4,652,507 153
4,738,651 . 4,738,777 | 125
In the ‘Philosophical Magazine’ for August, 1854, the late Mr.
C. J. Hargreave determined the number of primes inferior to 5,000,000
at 348,527. His method, which is there described, consisted in calculating
the number of numbers which are the products of two prime factors, of
three prime factors, &c., and thus determining the total number of com-
posite numbers between the limits in question. The number of primes
in the five millions obtained by enumeration from the tables is 348,515.
This includes unity as a prime, and it appears that Hargreave excluded
unity, so that if it be included, his number would become 348,528, which
differs by 13 from the number obtained from the tables.
IV. Comparison of the wumbers of Primes counted with the Values given by
Legendre’s and Gauss’s Formule.
Legendre’s formula for the number of primes inferior to a given
number z is .
log «—1:08366 ;
This expression Legendre published in the second edition of his ‘ Théorie
des Nombres’ (Part iv. 1808), and he there gave a table containing com-
parisons between the numbers obtained from it and the numbers obtained
by counting up to 400,000. This table Legendre subsequently extended
in 1816, after the publication of Chernac’s ‘Cribrum Arithmeticum,’ to
1,000,000. It does not appear why Legendre assigned the value 1:08366
to the constant which occurs in his formula, but it is probable that this
value was originally determined so as to render very close the agreement
with the numbers counted in the earlier enumerations, and as the formula
still continued to yield good results as far as the later enumerations ex-
tended, no attempt was made to improve the value at first assigned to it.
The logarithm-integral li x, where li z denotes the integral,
” aa Lees we
eo loge
ON MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 37
a
was employed by Gauss early in the century to represent approximately
_ the number of primes inferior to x; but his researches were not published
till 1863.!, This integral was also used for the same purpose by
_ Tchebycheff ? in 1848 and Hargreave * in 1849,
The following table exhibits the amount of deviation between the
numbers of primes counted and the values given by Legendre’s formula.
Number of primes z :
z count a _ jog 2—1-08366 Difference .
250,000 22,045 22,035 — 10
500,000 41,539 41,533 — 6
750,000 60,239 60,269 + 30
1,000,000 78,499 78,543 + 44
1,250,000 96,470 96,488 + 18
1,500,000 114,152 114,179 + 27
1,750,000 131,607 . 131,663 + 56
2,000,000 148,932 148,976 + 44
| 2,250,000 166,082 x 166,140 + 58
2,500,000 183,073 4 183,175 +102
: 2,750,000 199 99 bN 200,095 +100
: 3,000,000 216,817 - 216,913 + 96
3,250,000 233,578 ; ; 233,636 © + 58
3,500,000 250,151 250,275 +124
3,750,000 266,717 ~ 266,835 +118
4,000,000 283,146 283,323 +177
4,250,000 299,583 299,744 +161
4,500,000 315,948 316,102 +154
4,750,000 332,219 332,400 +181
5,000,000 348,515 348,644 +129
The next table exhibits the deviations between the numbers of primes
counted and the values of li z.
x N add we liz | Difference
250,000 ~ 22,045 4 22,094 + 49
, 500,000 . 41,539 41,606 + 67
750,000 60,239 . 60,350 +111
1,000,000 ~° 78499 © "718,628 +129
1,250,000 kK 96,470 _ 96,573 +103
rt 1,500,000 ~ 114,152 Fr 114,263°! +111
. i 1,750,000 : 131,607 > 131,746 +139
_ 2,000,000 Cis oe ATA OSD 149,055 +123
2,250,000 166,082 sn '| Meese, LOUD 1 133
2,500,000 183,073 183,245 4172
2,750,000 - 199,995 200,160 ~ _ 4165
3,000,000 216,817 216,971 +154
3,250,000 233,578 233,688 -- +110
3,500,000 250,151 250,319 +168
3,750,000 266,717 266,872 +155
4,000,000 283,146 283,352 +206
4,250,000 299,583 299,765 +182
4,500,000 315,948 316,114 +166
4,750,000 - 382,219 332,404 +185
5,000,000 348,515 348,638 +123
1 Gauss, Werke, t. ii.
_ ? Mém de V'Acad. de St. Pétersbourg (Sav. Etr.) t. vi. or Liouville, t. xvii.
* Phil. Mag. July 1849. More detailed references to those papers will be found
in Section V. of the Introduction to the Fourth Million, pp. 36, 37,
—
38 REPORT—1880.
From these tables it appears that although the deviations are less for’
Legendre’s formula than for the liz formula, the former increase in a
more rapid ratio than the latter. As Legendre’s formula contains a
disposable constant, chosen so that the values given by the formula might
represent well the results of the enumerations for comparatively small
values of z, it is to be expected the deviations would for some time be less
than in the case of the logarithm integral formula, in obtaining which z is
is supposed to be very large.
The portion of the former of these two tables up to 4,000,000 has
appeared in a paper ‘On the value of the constant in Legendre’s formula
for the number of primes inferior to a given number,’ ! but the extension
to 5,000,000 is new. This paper also contains comparisons between the
numbers of primes counted and those given by the formule:
az
log «—1
and x
log oT
log
up to 4,000,000. These have also been extended to 5,000,000; but it
seems scarcely worth while to give the tables here, as the extension
amounts to only one million.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor SYLVESTER (Chair-
man), Professor CAYLEY, and Professor SaLMon, appointed for
the purpose of calculating Tables of the Fundamental Invariants
of Algebraic Forms.
In consequence of the academical engagements of Mr. (now Dr.) F.
Franklin, the trained and skilled assistant in the computation of the
tables, only a small portion (87. 5s.) of the 501. granted by the Associa-
tion has been expended.
With this sum the tables for the generating functions and ground-
forms of all single quantics, up to the 10th order inclusive, have been
corrected and completed, and the tables relating to binary systems of
quantics for all combinations of orders up to the 4th inclusive, re-
calculated. The results have been published in extenso in the ‘ American
Journal of Mathematics.’
This revision has led to the discovery that two of the forms included
in the table of ground-forms for a pair of cubics previously accepted as
correct. are composite forms, and should be omitted from the catalogue.
The table affected with this error had been calculated by the German
mathematicians after Gordan’s, and by Mr. Sylvester after an entirely
different method, and the results were in perfect but fallacious accord.
The German method, it may be stated, never offers a complete
guarantee against the occurrence of an error of this nature; its per-
1 Proceedings of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol. iii. pt. vil, pp. 295-308
December 8, 1879). ;
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 39
petuation in the table as calculated by Mr. Sylvester was due to an
arithmetical oversight on his part.
The detection of this grave error is due to the fortunate circum-
stance of the co-operation of Dr. Franklin, whose skill, fidelity, and
accuracy as a computer it is impossible to praise too highly. gojas:_
His time being now again available for undertaking this kind of
work, for which he possesses unrivalled aptitude, the Committee request
a renewal of the grant of 501. for carrying it on.
Report of Observations of Luminous Meteors during the year
1879-80, by a Committee consisting of JAMES GLAISHER, F.R.S.,
&e., E. J. Lowe, F.R.S., &c., Professor R. S. Bau, F.RS., &c.,
Professor G. Forbes, F.R.S.E., WaLTeR Fuicut, D.Se., F.GS.,
and Professor A. S. HerscHEL, M.A., F.R.A.S.
Twenty annual reports having been already presented by this Committee
since its first appointment in the yéar 1859, it is proposed in this, its.
twenty-first report, to review the result of the records and researches upon
which (independently of the twelve preceding annual reports presented
by Professor Baden-Powell) the Committee has during that long period
been engaged.
In a treatise on ‘ Atmospheric Phenomena,’ published by Mr. E. J.
Lowe (one of the present, as well as an original member of this Com-
mittee,) in the year 1846, a copious collection of accounts of halos,
auroras, and other unusual meteorological appearances, omitting, however,
notes of fireballs and shooting stars, served, for the first time probably to
many English readers, an important purpose in separating entirely the’
latter class of phenomena from those equally conspicuous and notable
appearances which are of a purely meteorological origin and signification.
The example of orderly arrangement of such descriptions which this work
supplied was followed up and soon afterwards supplemented by the records
of ordinary and extraordinary observations of luminous meteors begun by
Professor Baden-Powell in the year 1855, and continued in subsequent
annual reports of the British Association until the present time.
' Immensely as the theory of meteor-systems has progressed during the -
long season of attention which has thus been directly bestowed upon them,
the apparitions of fireballs and falling stars are still as striking and remark-
able phenomena as they used formerly to be, and in some important respects
also they remain just as truly problematical ‘ exhalations of the skies’ as.
they were in former days. For although they are now known to be as-
tronomical bodies, instead of objects depending on the winds and other
uncertain meteorological conditions for their various aspects and produc-
tion, yet no astronomical theory has yet been discovered or constructed
sufficiently far-reaching and adapted to account at the same time satis-
factorily both for the well-known occurrences of meteor-showers, and also
for sporadic meteors, including the rarer phenomena of fireballs and
aérolites.
References and allusions are abundantly made in the later years of
these Reports both to the well-known discovery of tle clustering together
40 REPORT—1880. a»)
of meteoric showers and certain periodic comets in the same circum-
solar orbits, and also to the general theory of gatherings of star-dust in
nebular bodies, applied to explain the origin of all classes of meteoric
phenomena by Schiaparelli. :
In recent years’ appendices to the Reports the additions to our know-
ledge of the mineralogical structure and probable past history of aérolites
is also amply reviewed; and the real paths of aérolitic and detonating
meteors have in several instances been found from observations. A
recapitulation of these leading views, and of the observations chronicled
in aérolitic and meteoric parts of the Reports during the latter and
larger part of the long period of their continuation, leads to the conclu-
sion that little (if any) similarity of character can yet be confidently
recognised to exist between aérolites, or detonating fireballs and the
equally rare and magnificent meteoric phenomena of cometary star-
showers.
The intermediate class of sporadic fireballs and shooting stars has been
largely and closely examined and discussed, with consequences of the
greatest importance to their scientific discrimination and description.
The number of meteor-showers or radiant-points proved to be productive
of ordinary displays of shooting stars has been greatly multiplied by
observations and reductions; some few of them, in particular, being
shown to be limited and confined to one or two days only of duration, in
the annual dates of their appearance.
Fireballs of various magnitudes, of whose real paths simultaneous
observations furnished good determinations, have not unfrequently been
shown to be conformable to well-established radiant-points of shooting
stars; and among the many hundreds of meteor radiant-points that have
now been recorded, there is also sufficient evidence to show that many of
the ordinary meteor-systems which they denote may very probably be
following in the trains or orbits of certain formerly recorded comets.
Although presumptive views of a naturally wide distinction between
aérolites and cometary shower-meteors are far from being yet refuted and
explained away by recent theories and observations; yet the real paths of
more than one detonating meteor have now been retraced to recognised
ordinary radiant-points of shooting stars. The course of the large
detonating fireball of Nov. 23, 1878, moreover, while it was strictly con-
formable to the well-marked radiant-point of the a-Taurids of November,
presented also a very close accordance with the somewhat uncertainly
determined orbit (because founded on rather scanty observations) of the
periodic comet of 1702.
Much aid, it will be seen from this short outline of the Committee’s
labours during twenty years, has been afforded by its annual compilations
to advance the present astronomical theory of shooting stars with
materials of observation and by reviews of contemporary speculations.
The opportunities of which the Committee has hitherto been able to
avail itself for correspondence and reductions of the observations annually
received have not been adequate during the last two years for producing
a complete category of their yearly undertaking. A detention like that
required last year of some of the meteor contributions, and a deferment
for a season of some reviews of printed memoirs on meteoric subjects,
must accordingly be granted for the present, until the occasion may occur
ween % more convenient opportunity may offer itself for their presenta-_
10n. ;
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 41
In the following appendix of this interim Report some errors are cor-
rected of which the occurrence in the last two years’ Reports passed
undetected until after the publication of the volumes in which they were
accidentally recorded. The earliest opportunity within its reach is now
taken by the Committee to rectify these errors and to point out some
errors in earlier Reports, to the appearance of which the brief survey of
those Reports required for preparing the above short outline of the whole
series of them has been the immediate occasion of drawing the Committee’s
attention. - In another appendix, by Dr. Walter Flight, the occurrences
of stonefalls, and abstracts of the analyses and discussions relating to
them, which have taken place during the past year, are recorded.
AppenpDIx I.
Revisions and Corrections of real paths of Meteors, and of other results of
observations contained in the Reports of the last two and of some pre-
ceding years.
During the first years following the appointment of the Committee in
the year 1860 for the collection of meteor observations, the importance of
noting the radiant-points of observed meteors’ tracks was not yet recog-
nised, and was far from being generally practised and regarded. The
real directions of flight of many shooting-stars and fireballs, the positions
of whose real courses were found from simultaneous observations during
several years previous to 1866, were accordingly only indicated, if at all,
by the altitude and azimuth of the point from which the meteor proceeded
or was directed in its line of flight towards the earth. Many ofthe
meteors of which the real paths were investigated from more or less
plentiful accounts of their appearance, in the appendices of these reports
for the years 1860-65, were brilliant and sometimes detonating fireballs,
besides some smaller shooting-stars. Among the adjustments needed to
accommodate the rough observations to each other the choice and deduc-
tion of the radiant-point had at that period of the Committee’s first
proceedings not yet acquired the significancy with which on astronomical
grounds it has more recently been invested, the principal objects of those
earlier determinations having simply been to obtain the real heights and
the lengths of path and velocities of the meteors’ flights. Fair weight for
determining the radiant-point was accordingly not always allowed to the
best recorded observations for this purpose ; and some obvious radiant-
points like those of the ‘ Leonids,’ &c., not being then established; con-
siderable errors from this cause, and occasionally also from mistaken
calculations, have been detected in a review of the many real paths de-
scribed in the above-named part of these reports as regards the directions,
or as concerning the astronomical positions in right-ascension and declina-
tion of the radiant-points from which those fine meteors were directed.
The radiant-point positions given in the subjoined list sometimes differ
slightly, from fresh projections and comparisons of the best observations,
from those of the real paths adopted in the earlier reports. In cases
where the errors discovered are, from various causes, of much larger
magnitude, however, than these small emendations of the original ‘re-
ductions, the nature of the hitherto unnoticed misconstructions is stated
and explained in notes which are appended to the list.
— “ “
1880.
REPORT
AI
~
08 ‘d ‘ZosT
61 ‘go ‘dd ‘Z9sT
6L ‘ez “dd ‘Zost
(paurol
-qus ‘ajou oat}
ag) “gL ‘F'dd ‘Zggt
gL ‘F dd ‘Zogt
11% ‘dd ‘z9st
61g ‘d ‘g98T
pues ‘9 “d ‘98ST
1g¢ ‘d ‘gost
éL ‘d “0981
Sig “d ‘g98t
pure ‘gz ‘dd ‘Tost
*sqa0daa
dsoyy JO SOUIN[OA
IaTp1va Jo ased
@ sivok ! souerosoy
(S,119X9T) I OLLI P
sjurod JuBIper UAOUy
(steH) o10g
YON oy srVoN
_
SLIvlOg IeaNt
(suory
-BAlasqo = 4seaq
oy} Jo uwopool (OT ¥ “Z)
01g) “I prey, J IMe], 4 ION g + og jnoqy
‘T primey, | ney, (4 sea) > (o8 F) 26 + §9
jusoordey p iwaN | (og *) Ss — OTE
— #pouoipuy g Ivan
TG-086 ‘9 “ony
03 8 Ayn £8 03.2
(of F) ES + 16
THB]ILSVg (08 #) 0% — 982
‘] pene, Lmey, & 1woN 006 + (01 *) ¢9
=s (‘do}MON “V “H) SF —- GOg OQy
— styuediag d tw GE + LEZ ynoqy
o0l_*F (ST + #9
‘T puny, (rmey, “) §10) LL + ol F
SIB]S poxy JSoelveu Ag g n
WGI suostredu0s9
qurod-juvripet poydopy
Aue ‘nes
-saq. ‘surywuoyo(y
ALOHON 09
seg ‘“surjzeuojod
‘ony ‘JoIsSIIg * C=
IaysayouUry,
puv uopuoyT & <
JeuuvyO
yssug =f C F
vog YON + <
ox ‘A10}BAIOS
-qQ woysvoq ¢ =
I09}9UL o51e'T
“BOLIOULY on
"V'S'a “Ox “yO X
MON ! OT [LASTU
-uaq ‘Sutyeuoye(y
purjeriy pue
peayAjoH °C =
‘urd eT OF
‘urd 0¢ 8
‘urd g¢ 2
‘Ue OF 6
Curd eT 2)
Ss. Ww UE
souvivedde jo sov{d
puv ozIs [e10ues)
(awry [vo0]) 10
SLID 20H
g ‘eq
61 “AON
GI “AON
9 ‘suy
9T Aine
9t Aue ‘T98T
I ‘AON ‘09ST
9 ‘ony ‘098T
GT “AON
GB ‘990 ‘6S8I
0y8q
pie)
0G
go} Om
peutofqns
ay} 04
sroquinu
gola1AjJoyY
“G9-698T SUVHA WHHL
DNIVOG GHAUHSHO ATANOG SUVIS*DNILOOHS GNV STIVAHNIA JO SNOLLISOd LNIOd-LNVIGVa
43
1a¢ ‘F¥ ‘dd ‘gost
Tag ‘so “dd ‘g98T
“Pra
‘Pla
0zg ‘og ‘dd ‘ggg
068 “Zaz “dd ‘g9gT
pue ‘9, ‘d ‘Z9gt
0zg “d ‘g98T
pue ‘9, ‘d ‘Z98T
0zE ‘0zz “dd ‘go8T
61g ‘61g ‘dd ‘g9gt
0s ‘F¢ “dd ‘Zogt
08 ‘9F ‘dd ‘Z98T
(ajou poutol
-qnus 94} 999)
‘0s ‘9F “dd ‘z9sr
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS.
6L “ze ‘dd ‘Z98T
08 ‘oF ‘dd ‘ggg
(j) praraey
(sqjed guoredde
oy3 jo uorjool
-oid yoarrp Aq)
‘TIL PlmMey,
ST[NOIO_] 9 IVON
1]90 ¢ IwoN
UINIOUIMIE > Tey
stoudry 4b van
STLOUTT
suzy) g Jjvon
TWMIOSTY a + IwaN
Isudoq (9 ») f
emby d ran
1909 '? Ivon
stjoog > Ivan
Tney, & Le93N
STUISITA 5 IVAN
(1% + 8 HMey, 5)
WeIVqePLY IVON
(.01 +) ge + 012
(oT *) 81 — &1
(09 +) 93 + ZOE
(o8 #) €¢¢ + SOT
(68 +) 8 + OLT
(oS *) 86 + ST
(of F) 0G + GFE
Gs *)
GI + (.9 *) 008
(08 F )F + Cok FOE
(0ST *) 0g + 086
(01 #) 21 + $9
(og ¥)9 + 02
(.0L #) 8 + 16
CH'S'V) sninvy,
ur ‘ondypos a4} UO
eirqyUe) FO TMA
0} sopliqoy
pystpay ur! ¢ =
aILysyyleg puv
suIpeyg = “FYSTT
“Tap ur $y C f=
Apueur410o
0} IPLPYOS OGL
‘Suryeuojog ‘C € =
Aqriayoory
0} YALA “Surly
-euojog °C $=
T1esuroy
Joymog *§ XG
Tleausoy 07
orlysyIM °C $=
Ammqst[eg
04 YOM IO
‘qustIMg ur’ € 7 =
xossng
puv uopuotT fi =
PLOFXO OF
Amqioyueg € =
STEM
YON 0F 7 O1TYS
-Aqiaq *€ $=
artysAqiaq 04
aiTysyesiog °C =
detTysoy) 07
{ PITYS1A4sa010'T
:1eq4s suryooyg
I04svo
“UBT ‘SUT}eUOZOg
moy
rod Q¢g roMoys
-1e4S qystaq,
‘quoy ‘syBoueaeg
‘md og 9
umd Og g
‘urd pF
‘umd OF 9
‘ud cf OL
‘md 0g 9
‘umd et 9
‘urd ZZ OL
‘urd gt OT
‘urd of 6
‘urd 0% 8
‘ud F TT
‘urd of g
‘urd [1 036
LO
1G “uel “E98T
LG ‘AON
96 “AON
9T “AON
93 “qdag
ee “dag
ao dag
61 “ydeg
&6 “QOL
6 A9
83 “URL ‘ZO8T
8 99d
FG *997
LI
9T
OT
REPORT—1880.
sH
<H
66 ‘oF ‘dd “F981
z6 ‘og ‘dd ‘F98T
26 ‘gz ‘dd ‘Fo8T
16 ‘ao “dd “F981
(a}ou poutol
-qus oy} 999)
‘16 ‘2e ‘dd ‘F981
06 ‘F ‘dd ‘F98T
Foe. F1g dd ‘gost
06 “d ‘F98T pus
‘cee ‘$12 ‘dd ‘eg9sT
06 ‘d ‘F98T
pue ‘O12 “d “g98T
gze ‘2gz ‘dd “ggg
syodex
asat} JO SOUINTOA
Jorpiva Jo osed
pur sive £ sauarazoxy
praeprg 4 @
A,qeqoad ‘uoryour
Suey Mojs sy Aq
(1) ‘IE puney,
08 10 ob
yRerjg “prarmey
[1g +28 98 taney,
SS Ir pune, ¢ J
advospury ot}
dn yy ‘{ yv014s
wt [i] 1 peste
SoJNUTU F Yvatyg
@) ‘IL prsteg
stole
west 3 Iva
[4 19e0ueD
Io ‘MolIQ woIF 10]
rney, 5 aN
TINIOUIUIDY) LIVIN
(uooaflord fq)
{stuolg (a vy) ¢
(syed
peyoford Ag)
‘UMIOSIg + IvON
{rpred
-O[OMIH 2 IBAN |
‘tpredojomey) O ¢
Tosiod F Iw IN
(syyed pozooload
Aq) umostg + Iva N
sIuOdvIC 9 IVON
syutod yuviper uMOuy
TIM suostBdUL0Z
siB}s poxy sorvou Ag
(.9LF ) 0g + O6T
6- GF 4
*(j) Tuepluig & reou
(col FF) 6G 18
(69 *) 16 + SOT
(06 F) Zi + #8
Ge wasn
['uorqoaf
-oid Aq OL +
o99V]. ‘89 + 6F
Gicdl Bice hea
Gada eer
(oF F) 19 + SIS
SOT AL
YON puew ‘qorm
“uaa ‘LI0}VBAIAS
“40 Tehoy °C f=
arrys
josromog «= £
aItyS}os
-10(] 0} JouULYD
ysyoug °C f=
WeYSUI}JON puw -
epung "x Z
qSINQYMe
uopuo'y
surjooyg
yooqstM
uopuo'yT
surjooyg
pue
"14S
pue
“1848
oarysdmeyy 4 <
‘Aprequioy pure
eolueA «CS =
JouuryoO
ysisug =
jouueyy
“¢ t =
YSILougy
‘md 0 OT
‘urd 9g g
‘urd gg 9
‘md og g
‘ud oF 2 OL
‘urd og &
'e § ZT
Curd 0g 6)
‘urd gq OT
‘urd 0¢ 8
‘scm “Y
F Ane 6
L ‘uve ‘F98T as
gurod-juvrpes pojdopy
aouvivedds jo aovyd |(outty yeooy) 10
puv 9azIs [.1ater)
“LD MoH
16 09 1
GL ‘00 08
9 09 6%
gydag 83
ZI ‘ony 1G
OT ‘suy 9%
g ‘ony G
6 Ie ¥G
sojou
poutofqns
aed ay} 0}
sroquimu
% ' EMLICh CICS §
‘(panwyuoo)—gg-E981 SUVAX HHL DNIYAG AHAYTSAO ATANOT SUVIY-DNILOOHY ANV STIVATUTY FO SNOILISOD INIOg-INVIGVY
45
wn
° ZI ‘86 ‘dd ‘egst — eyjedep reoNy |
a |.
= B21 ‘06 ‘dd ‘e9gT — stmoovrq 7 rvayy
B
S)
| T@I ‘08 “dd ‘gost — sie[og evan
ral (a}0u poutol
| -qus oy} 999)
=, | s0t‘tedd ‘6x81
° ‘O31 ‘gy ‘dd ‘F98T — wSiiny 9 ItoN
a OZE “4 ‘c98T suoleyy
Z pue ‘06 ‘d ‘F98T = esi 4 7 JvON
I pisvseg poaros
4 6 ‘88 ‘dd ‘F981 | -qo-[o ‘ouy y | Isedeg » ION
A .
R
° 36 ‘OL ‘dd ‘F981 — sorejuy ION
(109}0Ur 4sB]
oy} UO 930U 24} (syed payzool
90g) . "g6 pue (1) ‘IE pres = | -ord ayy Ag)
%9 ‘09 ‘dd ‘F9gT |.-t9g 10 “] plosieg | ‘lesiog X azeaN
(230u peutol ~ syyed
arias aq} 908) poqyooford Ag
26 ‘99, ‘dd ‘F991 peizenby 7 | ‘turtoordep Q rean
spmooes g ‘poeds [asso
66 ag ‘dd $981 | Aojs _
fprusip y } g rVwou j 10] erky
(08 #) 09 + OL
(.06 *)g9 + 99g
syyed poyooford Aq
(01 +) 18 + $61
(01 #) 9g + ¢8
(¢ ¥)
0g + (GT F) OST
(o9 #) (ZT +
EFE 110] OL + BEE
Cooler e — 86s
(og ¥) 89 +.82
Ga #) 9. —- “oge,
ofl F [0g +
062 410] gg + OL
*PIOFXO 0}
PBWOT “(pe4
-euojyop J) & <
“OITYSY LOT
pave oytq *Sury
-euoyop * C [TNF =
“Suryeuo}a(T
‘oa ‘AI07BAIOSAO
uoysoog °C [[NF <
‘9001 JO
qmog °C TMF =
“purpsug
yo yynog (i) C F
‘puelsay
jo 4soM pue
soem °C $=
“ATRqI
‘QIOISSe] VAL]
*109}9UL asIe'T
‘qsInqyMey pue
‘qormueery ‘A104
-earosqQ edoy
‘slIeg pue ysiny
-YAVA “¢€ g =
"B99 HON
“Treqeary sie]
‘We OF ZI og Indy ar
‘ord og 6 | 1¢‘qeu ‘e981 | ~ TF ©
‘md 0g 8 03 ‘AON OF
ud gg g¢ TL “AON 68
‘urd 0¢ OT Te ‘Sny 88
‘ad Q IT 9g “ony Lg
Curd o¢ g
IO oF 8) OL ‘sny 9g
‘md¢ IT | 6 ‘ony Fost | vgs
we Zo ZI 6 ‘sy gg
‘madog or | .. 9 ‘Suy . 8
46 REPORT—1880.
Norss.—Rectification of some Meteor-tracks referred to in the present list.
No. 6.—The real path of this meteor given at p. 78 of the volume for
1862 of these Reports is entirely erroneous from an accidental perversion
in the calculation of one of the simultaneous observations. The computed
path rests upon a supposed foreshortened view of the meteor at Manchester
near « Pegasi; but the star named in Mr. Baxendell’s observation of the
meteor there was « Capricorni. The real flight of the meteor was therefore
much lower than was supposed; and so far as the correction which it
requires affects the position of the radiant-point, the original observations
have again been projected and compared together. The most probable
place of the radiant-point obtained from the new comparison of the re-
corded tracks is that near ~ Capricorni which is assigned to the meteor
in the present list. The August shooting-stars (A,B,C,D,E,) of which
approximate real paths are given on the same page of the volume of
Reports for 1862 (all of them apparently scattered Perseids) were too
roughly observed to allow any dependence for useful comparisons to be
placed on their astronomical radiant-points. The positions of those points
were only guessed or indicated loosely from the observations to assist the
remainder of the calculations.
No. 12.The direction and position of the real path of this meteor
given at page 80, in the above volume of these Reports, are, by some
mistake made in the graphical projections, greatly at variance with the
precise and accordant observations from which they are derived. The
meteor’s horizontal flight was directed almost exactly from east to west
instead of (as it is described) from about thirty degrees south of east.
The correction, corresponding to this needful emendation of the real path,
is introduced in the present list in the observed astronomical position of
the meteor’s radiant-point.
The radiant here adopted of the meteor No. 14, is also, to accord more
perfectly with the best accounts, placed fifteen or twenty degrees nearer
to the true east point than the position at the same altitude in due N.E.,
which it is assumed to have occupied in the description given at the same
page of the above year’s Report, of that fireball’s real path.
In the account of the real path of the fireball of February 7, 1863 (at
page 321 of the volume for that year), the Mull of Galway is accidentally
misstated as the locality of its end-point, instead of the Mull of Cantire.
No. 29.—The two shooting stars described as simultaneously observed
on the morning of November 14, 1863, at page 91 of the volume of these
Reports for the year 1864, were unquestionably ‘Leonids’; but no
experience of the meteors of that shower having at that time been yet
obtained, their real character was not suspected. The provisional radiant-
points adopted to accommodate the somewhat discordant observations to
each other for calculating their heights, are consequently quite erroneous ;
and some mistakes of deduction of the real paths seem also to have been
committed in the process of the graphical projections. Although they
emanated from the direction of Leo’s Sickle, leaving the well-known
luminous streaks upon their tracks, the simultaneous views recorded of
their flights are not sufficiently distant from each other on a map to afford,
by the backward prolongations and intersections of the tracks, astro-
nomical positions of their respective radiant-points which would be accurate
enough for insertion in the present list.
ae
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 47
The teeming multitude of accounts preserved of the great fireball of
December 5, 1863, again, as noticed in the paragraph just following those
relating to the above two shooting-stars, are unavailable (although stre-
nuous attempts to interpret them were made in contemporary reviews)
to furnish anything of sufficient certainty regarding the real direction of
that splendid fireball’s flashing, perhaps abruptly deviating and deflected
course, to form a record worth placing and including for preservation in
the present list.
The provisional radiant-point adopted in the paragraph of the same
Report-Appendix next following those just noticed, on the real path of
the shooting-star (No. 29) of Dec. 6, 1863, is placed, without much
departure from the observations, due east, and nearly horizontal. But the
backward point of intersection of the two nearly adjacent tracks is yet
about S.E., altitude 40°. As there appears no reason to assume a low
radiant-altitude, and a nearly horizontal motion of this slow-moving short-
pathed meteor through the air, from its observed appearance, it seems a
more correct procedure to comply with the evidently exact and careful
directions of the two recorded paths in fixing the radiant-point position at
their actual point of intersection. This is accordingly the point given as
a very well-determined radiant-point of the shooting-star in the present
reconstructed list.
Nos. 35, 35a.—The real earthward course of the fine bolide of August
9th (a.m.), 1864, described (on page 92 of the volume for that year of
these Reports) as concluded from the simultaneous .iews of the meteor
obtained at the Luxembourg Observatory in Paris, and at Hawkhurst,
in Kent, must, it appears, be rejected and renounced as quite wrongly laid
down and represented. According to the note by M. Chapelas Coulvier-
Gravier of its appearance in Paris, given without doubt correctly (at p.
56) in the general catalogue of that year’s Report, the meteor passed at
Paris from an altitude of eighteen degrees, ten degrees west of north to
' the north point of the horizon. But the recorded real path proceeds from
the assumption that the meteor’s course at Paris was from 10° east of
north towards the true north point.
Small as the difference is (shown in the accompanying figures, 1 and
2), between the supposed and really recorded appearances of the meteor’s
path as seen in Paris, tke effect upon the radiant-point, from the meteor’s
position in the northern sky, at both the stations of the double observation
is prodigious. Instead of being between Perseus and Cassiopeia (H.N.E.,
altitude 60°), as it was represented, the meteor’s real radiant-point was
10°"
considerably south of the equator, in Aquarius or Capricornus, where the
two recorded apparent paths prolonged backwards, then intersect each
other in the sky. The whole account of the fireball’s appearance itself
affords the strongest evidence of its being an ‘ Aquariad,’ travelling, as
this comparison shows it to have been, with moderate speed, and with a
48 : i. © REPORT—1880. -
slightly sloping path towards true north, at the not unusual height of fifty-
five to forty-five miles above the sea, midway between Harwich and
Ostend. It is, on the other hand, just as signally inconsistent with the
usual character of the swift, streak-leaving August Perseids and Cassio-
peiads, as well as with the great height of expansion and disappearance
over a point of the North Sea in the neighbourhood of Holland.- Accord-
ingly, although the meteor’s course was mapped at both of the observers’
stations so far from its southern radiant-point, yet from the precise
character of the two descriptions, and their nearness to the point of
convergence of the tracks, we may still regard the concluded radiant-
point as very reliably established. It was on the ecliptic near the middle
of the last sign but one before the vernal equinox, between Aquarius and
Capricornus.
The direction of flight from altitude 24°, azimuth W. from §. 221°,
noted in a description in the Report of the year 1864, accompanying the
description just discussed, of the real path of another August meteor of
the same date simultaneously observed at the Royal Observatory, Green-
wich, and Hawkhurst, disagrees with the rest of the description of the
path, to which a radiant-point at altitude 39°, azimuth 226° would cor-
respond. The radiant-point directly given by projections of the recorded
apparent tracks, is 28° + 58°, near x Persei, corresponding to altitude
45°, azimuth 228°, showing that the altitude, at least, of the slope of path
in the table of that shooting-star’s reduction, has been accidentally mis-
‘represented.% The radiant near x Persei given directly by the recorded
tracks is that which has been adopted in the present list. ‘
1... No. 839.+-See the remarks on the corrections in the list, below, of the
volume for 1879 of these Reports, pp. 108 and 120, for a new observa-
tion and reduction of this meteor’s real track.
Rectifications of Errata, and of some false conclusions contained in the
Reports on Meteor Observations for the years 1878 and 1879.—The following
recapitulation of some errata and defects occurring in different portions
of the last two years’ Reports are arranged with reference to the lines
and pages of the respective volumes of these Reports where they will be
found, for greater ease and simplicity of their discovery and correction.
Remarks on the corrections which they require are given in accompany-
ing notes when the nature or magnitude of the emendations are such as
to call for explanations and elucidation. jes
. «. On account of the existence of several such material oversights, arising
from the length of the Reports, and from lack of opportunities, which the
Committee has had to regret during the last two years, for full and careful
summaries of meteor records and descriptions, it is found necessary to
condense the comments on these erasures as much as possible. Such
rectifications of them, accordingly, as have already been published else-
where are referred to occasionally in the notes, for further particulars of
the expositions and reconsiderations which they have received. Sufficient
revisions of the several imperfections are only intended to be here afforded
to render the substance of the last two years’ Reports as free from con-
temporaneous faults and misconstructions at the time when they were
presented, as these Reports have generally been in former years.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 49
Errata for correction in the Volume of these Reports for the year 1878.
Page
260
. 267
267
285
296
304
304
304
310
333
335
342
”
Line
12.
@.)
(15 from
foot.)
(4.)
(4.)
19.
25.
16 from
foot.
7 from
foot.
2 from
foot.
4 to 27,
3 to 8.
4 from
foot.
1880.
Corrections and Remarks
For Market Harborough vead Coventry.
Cn the column ‘Nearest known Radiant-point, &c.’), for D., 8
(1877) read Denning (Dec.—Jan., 1876-77).
(in the column ‘Length of Path, &c.’), for about 7 sec.; velocity
184 read 3 or 4 secs.; velocity about 35 (parabolic velocity 33),
(In the column ‘ Observer, &c.’), evase the small woodcut.
Cin the column ‘ Position, &c.*), for passed through an hour angle,
&e., ead disappeared just below 7 Ursze Majoris.
To vol. for 1872 subjoin the foot-note : * In the note at p. 103 of that
volume for 160 + 51 vead 150+ 61; and for 155 +47 read
160 + 49; (Heis M,, 1864 and 1867 ; = 162 + 59, 1877.)
For 155 + 47 read 160 + 49.
For Beckingham vead Rockingham.
For vol. for 1878 vead vol. for 1877.
For near €7ead near €, or (more exactly) near 6.
Dele all the text from and also . . + as fav as Perseids of August
10. In the foot-note, for meteor-tracks of this shower... .
on August 10 and 11, 7ead meteor-tracks of the shower. . . . on
August 10 and 11, 1871. And for the fellow-comet, 1870
I.... to end of the note, read a near companion radiant-
centre.
For The cases . . . . are perhaps exceptions read The case of the
accordance noticed above (p. 326) between the comet 1825 IT. ¢
(— 0115, Oct. 7, 134° + 77°) and a briefly enduring meteor-
shower, noted by Mr. Denning on the nights of October 3 and
4, 1877, at 130° + 79°, may perhaps be an exception.
After (26 to) 27 add nee Lies I 9 ; for 43°5 + 53 read
[Wote—This last and the two preceding corrections relate to an
error, rectified by the last, of the radiant-point assigned in the
cometary radiant-list of the Report of the year 1875, to the
comet 1870 I. By the corrected place this comet is entirely
separated from all appearance of connection with the ordinary
August Perseid-shower; and the conjecture raised in the above
noted passages of the possible origin of a double radiant-centre
in the August Perseid-shower of 1878 from the concurrent
presence of two nearly coincident comet-orbits in connection
with the meteor-stream, is entirely and at once dismissed by the
note of the more correct position of that comet’s radiant-point.
The error of the radiant-place was noticed immediately after
the presentation, but not in time to prevent its publication in
the paragraphs of the Report of the year 1878. The correction
which the above passages required was accordingly pointed out
in a ‘Report on Meteoric Astronomy during the year 1878,’ pre-
sented to the Royal Astronomical Society in February, 1879
( Monthly Notices,’ vol. xxxix. p. 294). Dr. J. L. E. Dreyer, of
the Dunsink Observatory, Dublin, who has devoted much atten-
tion to the orbit of this comet, has noticed that the true astro-
nomical place of its meteor radiant-point (which he gives at
27°51’ + 48° 24’) isin pretty good agreement with a meteor sys-
tem nearly contemporaneous with the Perseids, noted by Schmidt
E
50
Page
Line
REPORT—1880.
Errata—continued.
Corrections and Remarks
353
and others near x Persei.!. Of this radiant-point a conspicuous
maximum or special meteor-shower has been detected by Mr.
Denning on July 51, 1878, and it is with these meteors or with
the Perseids II. forming as distinct a special meteor system at
the beginning of August as the Lyrids and Geminids are in
April and December, and not at all with the ordinary August
Perseids I. that Dr. Dreyer supposes the comet 1870 I. to be very
possibly connected. |
For Beiner read Hiner.
Errata for correction in the Volume of these Reports for the year 1879.
Page Line Corrections and Remarks
80 | 23 and 22) Insert comma and semicolon after air and simultaneously. [Dr.
from foot. Cleveland Abbé has by a recent letter reminded the Committee
that the explanation here given of meteoric sounds has origi-
nated from his own propositions, and was not embraced with
any special application to such a question in the general theory
of sound and light waves treated of in the paper by von Eotvos.]}
As 4 from | For Appomatox vead Appomattox.
foot.
82 19. For meteors read meteor.
», | Last line. | Add to the Note ‘Meteor Notes for Jan., 1879.’ by W. F. Denning.
86 | 2 et seq. | Hnelose in square brackets the words The elements, &c., and the
column of elements of Biela’s comet.
88 30, After 1680 and 1833, add The closest approach of the latter
comet’s to the earth’s orbit occurs on Jan. 27, with a radiant-
point at 135° + 25°.
99 | 11 from | In the column ‘ Appearance, &c.,’ of the meteor seen at Writtle,
foot. insert (see Mr. Corder’s supplementary meteor list, inf, p. 114.)
100 10. After Thames Embankment, London, add [and at Chelmsford. ]
In the column ‘ Appearance, &c.,’ of the same observation add
[see Mr. Corder’s list, inf, p. 114. ]
102 | 12from | For ‘3 or 4 seconds, &c.’ ead ‘3 or + seconds,’ &c.
foot.
103 12. In the column ‘ Observer, &c.,’ for Indianopolis ad Indianapolis.
105 iS In the column ‘ Appearance, &c.,’ after heard in 2™ add At Stock-
ton very violent, causing terror and affright.
= 24 from | For J. W. Backhouse read T. W. Backhouse,
foot.
108 | 24from | For 1858, Aug. 13, [True time 6.39 p.m] 7ead Autumn of 1863 or
foot. 1864. [Probably 1864, Nov. 11.] [True time probably 5.35
p.m. }
In the same observation, column ‘Colour,’ for [streak white ?] read
The long streak white.
109 | 15 from | For [Seen also, &c....] ead [The same as that seen in France and
foot. Kent; these Reports vol. for. 1865, pp. 78, 120. Radiant at
85 + 35(+ 10°).]
1 Astronomische Nachrichten, vol. 1xxxii. No. 1963; and Proceedings of the Royal
Irish Academy, 2nd ser. vol. iii. (Science), p. 255.
118
119
”
”
120
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 51
Errata—continued.
Line Corrections and Remarks
26 from | For Rubernpré cad Rubempré.
foot.
26 Column ‘Appearance, &c.,’ after Paris at end of the description, add
No detonation seems to have been heard.
10. After Chelmsford add [seen also in London; see the above General
List. ]
5. Dele 1858, Aug. 13, 6"39™ p.m., &c., striking out the whole of this first
accordance of the List. See the Note in the Zvratum of p. 120.
its After (Berne time) add A fine fireball; long, slow flight, as if
impeded, but uniform in brightness up to sudden disappearance.
White, yellowish, or pinkish, with tail of fading sparks, and
some light-streak left upon its course. No detonation heard.
ll, In column of ‘Remarks’ add [Calculation of the meteor’s real
path by G. von Niessl; ‘ Verhandlungen des Naturforschenden
Vereins in Briinn,’ Bd, xvii. ]
ile Column of ‘ Remarks ’ for Dec. 27 read Denning 27.
16 from | Column ‘ Observed Radiant,’ after x Ursze Majoris, add The three
foot. observed paths emanate very nearly from one point.
5 from Column ‘Places of Observation,’ afte Dundee, &c., add Several
foot. good accounts of the meteor collected and reduced by J. HE.
Clark.
27. Column of ‘ Remarks ’ for Dec. 2, 1877, ead Denning 2, 1877.
33. Column ‘ Observed Radiant-point,’ for 47° read 55°.
34. Column ‘Length of Path,’ &c., after estimated; add but the
observations indicated a rather slow motion.
18. 1858 Aug. 13 65 39™ p.m. e¢ seq. to end of the paragraph on p. 46,
dele all the Remarks on this accordance, which is a mistaken
and unreal one; and append the following Vote :—Oct., 1879.
A letter just received from Mr. Caws states that the meteor
which he saw near Ryde was certainly observed in the autumn
of one of the years 1863 or 1864, and not, as his original
description seemed to intimate, in the year of Donati’s comet,
1858. The fireball which it described was doubtless the grand
one which at dusk on the moonlit evening of Nov. 11, 1864,
passed over the southern part of France, and which was pretty
widely observed there, and in Kent (see these Reports, vol. for
1865, pp. 78, 120). The contemporary descriptions, with the
addition of this new one, only allow the real path to be roughly
assigned (as follows) as a good average combination of the
plentiful but loose materials. The meteor began its flight 70 or
80 miles above the neighbcurhood of Macon, or of a point mid-
way between Lyons and Clermont, and passing in mid-path over
the southern part of the mountains of Auvergne, ended its
course about 50 or 60 miles above a point mid-way between
Cahors and Montauban, on the rivers Lot and Tarn. The whole
distance of 150 or 200 miles was traversed in about 5 seconds,
with a speed of about 35 miles per second, from the direction,
roughly, of a radiant-point at about alt. 5° or 10°, in the N.E. ;
celestial position 85° + 35° (+ 10°.) The parabolic speed of a
meteor with this radiant-point is 32°5 miles per second. A bright
streak visible in the twilight sky (at Rhodez, and at Pamiers in
Arriége) for several minutes, when the nucleus broke up rather
suddenly at last, remained along its course like an after-glow
of the splendidly luminous white tail, similar in brightness to
the head, by which the nucleus was pursued. Its appearance,
although extremely brilliant, eclipsing the full moonlight at
Rhodez and other places near its path, was unaccompanied by
any audible report.
E2
52 REPORT—1880.
Errata—continued.
Page Line Corrections and Remarks
121 5. 1877, Oct. 8-9, midnight. To this accordance append a Note.
The accordance is illusory. Mr. Denning’s observation in England
was made 13™ earlier than that noted in France and Belgium.
i 17. For radiant-points ead radiant-point.
122 | 2from | For Museids 7ead Muscids.
foot.
124 | Wood-cut.| In the Illustration ‘Radiants of Geminids,’ evase from the figure
the shaded area, which was not intended to appear in the
engraving.
125 16. For torilite read troilite.
128 20. For material ead meteorite.
Appennix II.—Aérolites. By WattrR Figur.
1841, September 6.—St. Christophe-la-Chartreuse, Commune de Itoche-
Servieres, Vendée.!
The fall of this stone, which was accompanied by a double detonation
resembling thunder and a luminous appearance, took place in the vine-
yards of St. Christophe at the above date. It created quite a panic in the
surrounding country; on the first day none of the peasants would ap-
proach it; one could only look with fear in the direction where it lay, it
was said; but on the following day a young man, who was escorted to the
spot, found it out and brought it away with him.
The stone weighs 5°500 kilogrammes, and is in the hands of a pro-
prietor who was neither disposed to communicate any information respect-
ing it, nor to allow any fragments to be removed. M. Daubrée has
therefore to content himself with registering its existence, which up to
the present time has not been placed on record.
1874, November 26, 10.30 a.m.—Kerilis, Conmune de Maél-Pestivien,
Canton de Callac (Cétes-du-Nord).”
A great noise, lasting two minutes and resembling a peal of thunder,
was heard at this date at Maél-Pestivien and for ten kilometres around.
At the same instant a workman near the village of Kerilis saw the earth
struck, at a spot 12 métres distant, by what he believed to be thunder. He
visited the spot the next day, and found a meteorite at a depth of 0:78
métre. The stone weighed 5:000 kilogrammes, and is covered with a re-
markably thick black crust: a number of fragments were detached from
the stone till its weight was reduced to 4°200 kilogrammes ; it then passed
into the hands of a clergyman, who bought it and presented it to the
Natural History Museum of Paris.
A freshly broken surface of the stone shows a mottled and striated
surface, with metallic grains of nickel iron; the surface is of a deep gray
colour with ochre-coloured spots, due doubtless to traces of iron chloride.
The individual grains vary in size; some, the largest, are chalk-white,
1M, Daubrée, Compt. Rend., 1880, xci. p. 30. 2 Thid., p. 28.
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS. 53
the most numerous are of an ashy-gray; here and there rounded grains
(the chondra of Gustav Rose) are apparent, as well as yellow or bronzy
grains of pyrrhotine. The grains of nickel ironare very small. The density
of the meteorite is 3°51. By the action of hydrogen chloride 60 per cent.
of the stone dissolves: this consists of olivine, nickel iron, and pyrrhotine ;
the residue under the microscope is found to consist of a great number of
crystalline grains, much acted upon by polarised light, and some of which
show the forms of the prism; others show the cleavage which indicates
eustatite. Besides these are black grains of chromite with an octahedral
contour.
This stone most closely resembles those of Limerick (Adare) which
fell 1813, September 10th, and Ohaba, Siebenbourg, 1867, October 10th,
and belongs to the group of Sporadosideres and the sub-group Oligosi-
deres. ;
1879, May 10, 5 p.m.—Estherville, Emmet Co., Iowa."
This curious meteorite fell near Estherville in lat. 43° 20’ N., long.
94° 50’ W. within that region of the United States which has been re-
markable for falls of meteorites, three having fallen at Rochester in
Indiana, Cynthiana in Kentucky, and Warrington in Missouri, within the
space of a month. The phenomena attending this fall, of which a short
notice appeared in the Report of last year, were of the usual character,
but on a grander scale. It occurred about five o’clock in the afternoon of
May 10, 1879, with the sun shining brightly. In some places the
meteorite was plainly visible in its passage through the air, and looked like
a ball of fire with a long train of vapour or cloud of fire behind it; and
one observer saw it one hundred miles from where it fell. Its course was
for N.W. to S.E. The sounds produced in its course are described
as being ‘terrible’ and ‘ indescribable,’ at first louder than the loudest
artillery, followed by a rumbling noise, as of a train of cars crossing a
bridge. Two persons were within two or three hundred yards of the spots
where the two larger masses struck the earth. There were distinctly two
explosions : the first took place ata considerable height in the atmosphere,
and several fragments were projected to different points over an area of
four square miles, the largest going farthest to the east. Another explo-
sion occurred just before reaching the ground, and this accounts for the
small fragments found near the largest mass. This latter fell within 200
feet of a dwelling-house, at a spot where there was a hole, six feet deep,
filled with water. The clay at the bottom of the hole was excavated to a
depth of eight feet before the meteorite was reached. The second largest
mass penetrated blue clay to a depth of five feet, at a spot about two miles
distant from the first. The third of the larger masses was found on the
23rd February of the present year at a place four miles distant from the
first, in a dried-up slough. On digging a hole the stone was met with at
a depth of five feet. The fragments thus far obtained weigh respectively
437, 170, 924, 28, 103, 4 and 2 pounds. The height of the meteor is
calculated to have been 40 miles, and its velocity from 2 to 4 miles per
second. The masses are rough and knotted, like large mulberry calculi,
with rounded protuberances projecting from the surface on every side.
The black coating is not uniform, being most marked between the pro-
jections. These projections have sometimes a bright metallic surface,
1 J. L. Smith, Amer. Jour. of Sc., June 1880, xix. 459.
54 REPORT—1880.
showing them to consist of nodules of iron; and they also contain lumps
of an olive-green mineral, having a distinct and easy cleavage. The
greater part of the stony material is of a grey colour with the green mineral
irregularly disseminated through it. The masses vary very much in
density in their different parts; the average cannot be less than 4:5.
When a mass is broken one is immediately struck with the large nodules
of metal among the grey and green stony substance; some of these will
weigh 100 grammes or more. In this respect this meteorite is unique ; it
differs entirely from the siderolites of Pallas, Atacama, &c., or the known
meteoric stones rich in iron, for in none of them has the iron this nodular
character. The large nodules of iron appear to have shrunk away from
the matrix; an elongated fissure of from 2 to 3 millimétres sometimes
intervenes, separating the matrix and nodules to the extent of one-half the
circumference of the latter. The only mineral which could be picked out
separately has a slightly green colour: it occurs in masses, from one half-
inch to one inch in size, has an easy cleavage in one direction, and was
found to be olivine. The same mineral occurs in minute rounded con-
dition in other parts of the material; and minute, almost colourless,
crystalline particles in the cavities are supposed to be olivine. Troilite
exists in small quantity. A quantity of the silicates was picked out,
separated as far as possible from iron, and treated with hydrochloric acid.
The ratio of soluble to insoluble silicates varies very much in different
parts of the meteorite, varying from 16 to 60 per cent. for the soluble part.
The insoluble consisted of :—
Oxygen.
Silicic acid . : 3 : ‘ Reale te . 29:12
Iron protoxide . : Mears i EOD en. . 4:67
Chromium oxide . i ; : 4 2 trace’? 3 : --
Magnesia . 4 x : : on 26:50 . . 19780
Soda with tracesof Kand Li . 5 . D944 . 0:023
Alumina P \ a ‘ 5 F , LOB) a «1 Or0lS
99:29
This is evidently the bronzite commonly found in meteorites.
The green mineral is the soluble part of the meteorite; its cleavage in
one direction is very perfect ; its specific gravity is 3°35; it has a hardness
of almost 7, and is readily and completely decomposed by hydrochloric
acid. On analysis it was found to have the composition :
Oxygen
Silicic acid. ; : i of GlbOls 3 . 22°13
Tron protoxide 2 5 E erica Secale
Magnesia : - : : - 4464 « . 17°86
100°35
The mineral, therefore, is olivine. Dr. L. Smith, who has examined
this meteorite, describes a third silicate which is opalescent and of a light
greenish-yellow colour, and cleaves readily. It was a difficult matter to
obtain enough of the silicate for analysis, but an examination of 100
milligrammes gave the following numbers:
Silicie acid . . ‘ . - 4960 . | (26°12
Tron protoxide : : ¥ 2 T5178 FAs . 3.50
Magnesia 3 : 5 e a 033 Ola re . 13-21
98°39
OBSERVATIONS OF LUMINOUS METEORS, 55
This is equivalent to one atom of bronzite and one atom of olivine,
which, he says, is ‘a form of silicate that we might expect to find in
meteorites.’ The nickel iron, as has already been stated, is abundant,
sometimes in large nodules of from 50 to 100 grammes. It displays the
Widmanstiittian figures beautifully, and possesses the following com-
position :
Tron . . : : : . 92-001
Nickel .. : : - *. 1100
Cobalt , : 5 : . 0°690
Copper - a : . Minute quantity
Phosphorus . : d of OUD
99-903
A careful examination for felspar and schreibersite was made, but with
a negative result.
Found 1879, July 19.—Lick Creek, Davison Co.}
In this paper is given an engraving, actual size, and a short account of
a small metallic mass, weighing rather more than two pounds, and found at
the above date in Davison county. When found it was coyered with a thick
scaly crust of oxide. It weighs 1:24 kilogrammes or 233 ounces avoirdupois.
Tt is one of the rare class that do not show the Widmanstittian figures.
It contains iron, nickel, cobalt, and phosphorus. A complete analysis of the
meteorite is being prepared. It is the property of Prof. W. E. Hidden, of
the New York Academy of Sciences. Mr. Hidden has in his cabinet three
other undescribed meteorites from the Southern States, one of which
weighs 1:45 kilogrammes, or 325 oz. avoirdupois.
1880, February 18, early in the Morning. —Kuritawaki-mura, Yosa-no-gori,
Tango, Japan.”
An eye-witness of the fall of this stone states that in the early morning
he was washing his face, when he saw a ball of fire cross the sky from
north-east to south-west. He was much astonished when a small stone
fell before him from the sky. He caught it up and found it was very hot,
and gave forth a smell like that of gunpowder. The stone is about 14 inches
long and three-quarters of an inch wide, and weighs about 100 grains,
Troy. It is completely covered with a hard black glaze. It appears
to be a stone and not meteoric iron.
The same correspondent mentions a meteoric stone of large size, pre-
served at Toji, which is said to have fallen from the heavens in ancient
times ; and reports another at Chionin. He also says: ‘ I learn that a
stone of several pounds weight fell at Tamba a few years ago.’
The same number of the ‘ Japan Gazette’ contains a short reference to
another aerolite. The mineral stone which fell some time ago at the front of
a gate of Iwata, of Takeda-mura, Yabe-gori, Tajima, with a brilliant light
and report, is about 14 swn thick and 9 sunin circumference, and weighs
about 200 momme. This stone has been sent to the Bureau of Agriculture
of the Home Department, and will be investigated by Prof. Kinch.
1 Tllustrated Sctentifie News, New York, March 15, 1880, iii. No. 6, pp. 62 and 66.
2 The Japan Gazette, April 19, 1880.
56 REPORT— 1880.
First and Second Reports of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Davin
GILL, Professor G. ForsEs, Mr. Howarp Gruss, and Mr. C. H.
GIMINGHAM, appointed to consider the question of Improvements
im Astronomical Clocks.
First Report. By Mr. Davin Guu.!
To maintain the motion of a free pendulum in a uniform arc, when the
pendulum is kept in uniform pressure and temperature, and to record the
number of vibrations which the penduluin. performs, is to realise the
conditions which constitute a perfect clock.
The conditions of absolute uniformity of impulse are, with one exception,
realised in the following arrangement.
Let s (figs. 1, 2, 3) be the point of suspension of a pendulum, and P,
in the same figures, the pendulum rod.
Fie. 1. Fie. 2. Fie. 3.
Let w be an impulse-piece of the shape shown, suspended by a piece
of very delicate spring, so as to swing accurately from the same centre as
the pendulum.
M is an electro-magnet, N an armature mounted on an arm A, which is
pivoted at Q.
In fig. 1 the pendulum is supposed at rest; but the armature n, and
the arm A are drawn, as they cannot remain, for A must either be pulled
against the backing pin p, by the spiral spring rR, or against po, by the
attraction of the electro-magnet M.
Let us now suppose that matters are so arranged that when the im-
pulse-piece w acts upon the pendulum, a galvanic circuit is completed,
and mM becomes an electro-magnet, we shall then have the position of the
arm A, and of the impulse arm w, as in fig. 3, and when the impulse
weight and pendulum rod are separated, we shall have the position of
these as shown in fig. 2.
’ Read at the Sheffield Meeting, 1879, but omitted from that year’s Report at the
author's request.
ON IMPROVEMENTS IN ASTRONOMICAL CLOCKS. 57
Now let us follow the action of this escapement.
First suppose the battery to be attached when matters are in the
position shown in fig. 1. The effect will be that the arm 4 will be drawn
against p>. If we now set the pendulum swinging to the right the
impulse arm w. will follow the pendulum as far as the arm 4 will allow it
to do so, but on reaching this limit, the pendulum will leave the impulse
arm and continue to swing to the right alone.
The instant, however, that the contact between w and P is thus broken,
m is no longer an electro-magnet, and the arm A is drawn by the spiral
spring to the position of fig. 2; the pendulum continues its swing to the
right, comes to rest, and returns. On its return it encounters the impulse-
piece w, not where it left it (viz., at its lowest limits, the arm a resting on
P2), but as in fig. 2, the arm A resting on p,. When P and w encounter,
the immediate result is that, contact being formed, M becomes a magnet,
and the arm A is drawn against p., whilst the impulse-piece w continues
its motion towards the left, along with the pendulum, and returns again
to the right with the pendulum till it is stopped by encountering the arm
A pressing against 5.
Simply stated, the impulse is this:—The pendulum in swinging
against the impulse-weight picks it up at p,, and in swinging with the
impulse-weight it carries it on past p, as faras p. The effective impulse
is, therefore, that of the fall of the resolved horizontal force of w in falling
from p, to py.
This force is absolutely constant.
There is no locking or unlocking, and no friction, and no element of
change eacept such as may be due to the electric contact between w and P.
Such contacts are liable to wear and to stick, and it was not until some
prospect offered of overcoming this fault that we ventured to request
a grant from the Association. The plan of escapement had already been
contrived and tried experimentally by Mr. Gill; but it was in conse-
quence of an idea of Mr. Gimingham’s that it first seemed possible to
overcome the outstanding difficulty and attain a nearer approach to
perfection.
Mr. Gimingham’s idea was to construct a relay which could be
worked by radiation. This relay he first contrived for the purpose of
registering the number of revolutions of a radiometer.
The form which this relay has now assumed, after a variety of expe-
riments, is shown in fig. 4.
Fie. 4.
K is a very light arm of aluminium, mounted on needle-points.
B is a fan of mica, coated on one side with lampblack.
c is a carbon point attached to k.
By means of an aluminium ring, fitting spring-tight into a glass tube,
the supports of the needle-points of kK are fixed in position—the supports
being attached to the ring.
Another ring, ¢, carries a small carbon anvil, against which the carbon
point c can come in contact.
58 REPORT—1880.
Two platinum wires, in connection with r and ¢ respectively, are fixed
into opposite ends of the tube.
The tube is then exhausted till a Crookes’ vacuum is obtained, when
the arm k becomes a radiometer arm.
A small slip of magnetised watch-spring is attached to B, so that a
fixed magnet can be so placed as just to bring the carbon point and anvil
in direct contact.
A strong light being then turned ons, the screen acts like a radiometer
arm, moves back, separates the carbon points, and contact is broken.
By attaching a simple screen to the pendulum, it therefore becomes
possible to cause the pendulum, by alternating, to admit and cut off light
from B, and so produce alternate make and break, entirely as required
by the escapement, without employing any actual contact on the pen-
dulum.
The chief difficulty we now find is a tendency of the carbon points to
stick, and some experiments are now being made relative to this matter.
Four relays on the principle described have been constructed and are
in the hands of the committee for experiment, and Mr. Gill has, besides,
a model of the escapement, and a pendulum with which experiments are
being carried out.
A sum of 12/7. 12s. has been expended out of the grant of 301., and
the Committee requests that the balance of the grant should be allowed to
be applied to the same research.
Second Report.
Since the foregoing report was sent from the Cape by Mr. Gill, I have
devoted much time in developing the mode of electric contact-making by
radiation.
In the above report for last year is described a form of the radio-
relay which at the time seemed to give the most promising results
of any that I had tried. Four of these were made, as mentioned by Mr.
Gill, one of which he took out to the Cape, experimented with, and in the
report he mentions the chief difficulty as being that of the tendency of
the contacts to stick together when work is being done by the current.
In the case of using contacts of metal, such as platinum, this diffi-
eulty is insurmountable, for the reason that the power required to sepa-
rate the contacts when once closed is far greater than that which can be
obtained from any source of radiation that could be used for our purpose.
This point I had settled some time back, and had almost abandoned the
idea of success, when the discovery of the microphone by Prof. Hughes
suggested to me the idea of using carbon contacts. I then commenced
working on the subject again, and experimented with a great number of
instruments of different forms.
The form of a pendulum with the contacts near the point of suspension
has at present given the most satisfactory results. Fig. 5 represents the
pendulum form of the radio-relay ; a is a strip of moderately thin alumi-
nium, to the lower end of which is attached a plate of silver flake mica
6, blackened on the outer face ; ¢ is a clear mica screen, the same size as
the plate 6, also attached to the lower end of a, enclosing a space of
about 6 mm. between the two plates.
The strip of aluminium a is suspended by two springs of soft iron
wire, beaten out flat and very thin in the centre, represented by d in
:
. four or five inches off the bulb, with a concave
ON IMPROVEMENTS IN ASTRONOMICAL CLOCKS. 59
section and dd’ in elevation. The springs are in metallic connection
with the platinum wire e, which is hermetically sealed through the tube
A. To the other platinum wire /, the inner end of which is beaten
out into a thin spring, is attached a carbon point g, h being the cor-
responding carbon plate attached to the pen-
dulum, just below the suspension springs. The
whole is enclosed in the tube A, which is ex-
panded into a bulb at the lower end, exhausted
from the end B, and hermetically sealed.
On placing a source of radiation in front of
the blackened surface 6, and allowing a screen
to move to and fro between the source of radia-
tion and the bulb, contact will be alternately
made and broken between the carbons g and h.
In order to give an idea of the amount of radia-
ting force required to produce a Crookes’ pres-
sure of sufficient power to work an instrument
of this kind, I will mention that a candle placed
Fie. 5.
reflector at the back, answers exceedingly well,
providing the surface 6 is about 15 square
inch in area. The actual effective force also
depends to a great extent upon the distance
between the surface b and the glass envelope.
For this reason I have tried using a clear mica
sereen, placed inside the bulb very close to the
black surface ; but although theory would indi-
cate the advisability of so doing, practice shows
that very little advantage is gained by the in-
troduction of such a screen, the fact being par-
tially accounted for by its forming a second
obstruction to the radiant force from the light
used to work the relay.
By the introduction of carbon contacts I had hoped to have entirely
avoided their sticking together when the current passed. Although for
all practical purposes their employment together with the pendulum form
of instrument has sufficiently reduced this sticking, yet to a certain ex-
tent it still remains a drawback to the use of such a delicate force for
making contact as that to be obtained from this indirect action of the
radiation from a small lamp or candle.
When the contacts merely pass the current through a short length of
straight wire, there is little or no sticking, but on the introduction of
an electro-magnet, a bright spark passes between the contacts, and stick-
ing occurs. The spark is well known to be due to the discharge of the
extra currents set up in the coils of the magnet, and I expected that
both the spark and the sticking would disappear on attaching a tin-foil
condenser to the terminals of the relay. On trying this experiment
the spark was reduced, but there was no observable alteration in the
sticking.
This sticking is probably due either to the carbon containing a
fusible ash, or the attraction caused by the close proximity of the two large
surfaces of oppositely charged carbon, large compared with the part that
absolutely touches and through which only part of the current would be
60 REPORT—1880.
passing. I have tried several kinds of carbon for the contacts, but the
finest electric-lamp carbon seems to be the only available sort, the resistance
of more compact carbons being too high. I have also tried using contacts
of platinum, iridium, also one of platinum and the other of gold, platinum
and iridium, carbon and iridium, carbon and platinum, all of which stick
together more than when both are of carbon.
In order to overcome the, for the present, inevitable amount of sticking
of the carbon contacts, it is necessary to multiply the force for making
and breaking contact by means of long leverage. It will be seen that
in the pendulum arrangement described, any amount of leverage can be
easily obtained without the friction or resistance that would be caused by
ivots.
‘ The force, also, obtainable from a given source of radiation, is greatly
augmented in this instrument by the use of a screen placed a little dis-
tance behind the blackened surface, but fixed to it as part of the pendulum
bob. In this way nearly the maximum amount of Crookes’ pressure
is obtained, all acting in the one direction, whereas, if there be no screen
behind the black surface, the heat transmitted through the blackened
mica sets up a considerable Crookes’ pressure, which acts between the
bulb and the back of the blackened mica, considerably reducing the
effective force in front.
In experimenting with these various radio-relays, I have used a
seconds pendulum, having an escapement similar to that described by
Mr. Gill in his report for last year.
It has been necessary to use an ordinary, but very sensitive, relay
between the radio-relay and the péndulum, as it is best to have as weak
a current as possible passing through the carbon contacts.
I regret that my experiments in the radio-relay part of the subject
should have extended over such a long period, but the time I have at my
disposal for original work is very limited.
I also regret that I cannot be present at the meeting this year, to
show the various relays, and receive suggestions from the members of
Section A. I shall, however, carefully study any discussion that may be
recorded on the subject, and in the continuation of the experiments make
use of any suggestions with great pleasure.
C. H. Gnunenam.
Dear Mr. Gimingham,—I return you herewith Mr. Gill’s letter and
diagrams. The principle of his proposed arrangement seems admirable,
provided a perfect system of contacts could be devised, and your plan for
them is unexceptionable in theory ; but as it appears that the carrying out
of the details may be a little troublesome, I have had recourse for the
present to a more simple contrivance, which, though not so perfect
theoretically, will, I believe, be found to work very well in practice.
I annex a figure (fig. 6) which represents the arrangement. A very
small magnetised needle 4 A is pivoted as a compass needle on a vertical
pin b. Ina plane above or below this is pivoted a light forked lever d dd
so placed that a pin c in the magnetised needle, hits one or other of the
prongs of the fork dd as it swings from side to side. At the extreme end
of the lever d is fixed a fine fibre of spun glass slightly buckled by the
screw ¢; this has the effect of putting the forked lever d d into a state of
unstable equilibrium and compelling it to keep in contact with one or
other of the contact screws ss’. The whole apparatus is enclosed in an
ON THE ELASTICITY OF WIRES. 61
exhausted glass tube (to prevent oxidation of the gold contacts) and when
required for use is placed in the clock case just below the iron ‘bob’ of
the pendulum.
As the pendulum swings the magnet answers Fie. 6,
to its motion and draws the forked lever into
contact with either of the screws s 8’ which are
tipped with gold. The buckling of the glass
fibre tends to make the contact very certain
and avoids any danger of recoil, while there
being no oxygen left in the tube there can of
course be no oxidation of the contacts.
It is supposed that the clock has a mercurial
pendulum with cast-iron cistern, as most pendu-
lums are now made.
The above arrangement is not theoretically
perfect, for there must of course be some slight
reaction from the magnet to the pendulum; but
as the pendulum weighs, or should weigh, about
forty pounds and the magnet about ten grains,
the reaction must be very slight, and even this
would be of no consequence provided the mag-
netisation of the needle remained constant.
The convenience of the arrangement, and
the ease with which it can be applied without
interfering or tampering with the clock, com-
mends it for practical work.
The only practical fault I see in Mr. Gill’s
arrangement for driving the pendulum, is the
extremely small ‘travel’ which the impulse lever
has in each impulse. This will necessitate very perfect ‘banking’ arrange-
ments, for a very small difference in this travel will make a large difference
in the impulse on the pendulum, and the perfection of the arrangement
depends on the impulse being a constant. It appears to me that it would
be desirable to make the impulse-arm very light, but longer in its travel,
and acting perhaps farther down on the pendulum rod.
These are the only points that occur to me.
Faithfully yours,
Howarp GRUBB.
Dublin : August 23, 1880.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir WILLIAM
THomson, Professor Tart, Dr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. F. J. Bram-
WELL, and Mr. J. T. Borromuey (Secretary), for commencing
Secular Experiments on the Elasticity of Wires.
Tur Committee have but little to add to their reports of the last years.
The arrangements in the tower of Glasgow University may now be
regarded as complete, so far as concerns the wires already suspended
there for experiment. At the last meeting of the Association it was
reported that pairs of wires of gold, platinum, and palladium had been
62 REPORT—1880.
suspended in the tube provided for their protection, and that they had
been carefully marked and measured. Since the last meeting observa-
tions have been made at intervals on the lengths of the wires, and these
have been carefully recorded. It cannot be said that there has been any
perceptible lengthening of the wires within the last year.
Some improvements have been made as to caulking the joints of the
protecting tube in order to avoid disturbance of the wires by currents of
air.
A set of drawings, showing the mode of suspension of the wires,
the marks that have been put upon them, the arrangements of the
cathetometer, &c., in such a way as may be useful for reference at any
future time, is nearly ready, and will be published in next year’s Report.
Sixteenth and concluding Report of the Committee, consisting of
JoHN Evans, F.R.S., Sir Joun Lupsock, Bart., F.R.S., EDWARD
ViviaN, M.A., GEORGE Busk, F.R.S., WitL1aM Boyp Dawkins,
F.R.S., WILLIAM AYSHFORD SaNForD, F.G.S., JoHN Epwarp LEE,
F.G.S., and WiLLIaM PENGELLY, F.R.S. (Reporter), appointed
for the purpose of exploring Kent's Cavern, Devonshire.
Your Committee’s last, or fifteenth report, read during the Sheffield
Meeting in 1879 (See ‘ Report Brit. Assoc. 1879,’ pp. 140-148), brought
up the narrative of the exploration of the Cavern to the end of the pre-
ceding month. From that date to 27th November, 1879, the work was
continued day by day, in the manner adopted at the beginning and
described in previous reports.
Visitors.—The Superintendents have again had the pleasure of receiving
numerous visitors, and, whilst conducting them through the principal
portions of the Cavern, of explaining to them the most important and
striking discoveries made during the progress of the work. The follow-
ing gentlemen, accompanied in most cases by ladies, may be mentioned
as amongst the visitors received :—Sir J. Bain, Sir C. A. Hartley, Revds.
Preb. R. R. Wolfe, Dr. J. Baron, W. Earle, W. J. Earle, and J. H. N.
Nevill ; Captain Mackenzie ; Drs. A. Davidson, H. S. Gaye, T. A. Hirst,
J. S. Phené, and H. C. Sorby ; and Messrs. S. Bompas, C. S. M. Bompas,
H. B. Bompas, B. V. 8S. Brodie, H. Burlingham, N. Cole, W. R. Cole,
H. H. P. Cotton, A. De Lisle, E. M. Grant Duff, C. Earle, S. Farnfield,
A. L. Fox, C. Freeman, W. H. HE. Gaye, A. C. Haddon, T. Heath, W. H.
Holder, C. H. S. Hope, A. N. Johnson, R. I. Johnson, H. B. Mackeson,
E. R. Pease, J. G. Pease, A. Perks, J. Perks, W. Perks, HE. J. Sing, A. E.
Sorby, W. Spriggs, A. E. Tylor, T. Viccars, G. F. Whidborne, F. R.
-Wildon, W. M. Williams, E. T. B. Wilson, J. H. Wilson, and J. W.
Wilson.
The Rocky Chamber.—Your Committee, describing in their last re-
port that portion of the Cavern termed ‘ Clinnick’s Gallery,’ remarked :
‘On its eastern side, the third or innermost reach of Clinnick’s Gallery
opens into a large chamber, which the workmen have just begun to
ON THE EXPLORATION OF KENT'S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 63
explore.’ (‘ Rep. Brit. Assoc.’ 1879, p. 147.) This portion, now known
as ‘The Rocky Chamber,’ is 56 feet long, about 28 feet in greatest breadth,
and about 13 feet in greatest height, which it attains near the centre. It
is ornamented with numerous striking stalagmites and stalactites, though
less profusely than the two small adjacent chambers described last year
(Ibid.) These have been left intact so far as possible, and will, no doubt,
in future render this Chamber the most attractive part of the Cavern to
ordinary visitors.
The deposits in the first or western part of the chamber were the
well-known ‘ Breccia,’ or oldest of the Cavern beds, with its characteristic
‘Crystalline Stalagmite’ overlying it immediately. Each of these
‘thinned out’ entirely before the centre of the Chamber was reached, and
the bare limestone floor lay exposed for a distance of 18 feet. Beyond
the centre another deposit presented itself, differing in character, not only
from the Breccia, but also from the less ancient ‘ Cave-earth,’ being
more like the ordinary soil of cultivated ground, than either of them;
there is no doubt, however, that it belonged to the Cave-earth era. It
was at first but a very thin layer, covered uniformly with a sheet of
‘Granular Stalagmite,’ no more than a few inches thick; but, as the
work advanced eastward, both the stalagmite and the deposit it covered
became gradually thicker, never, however, attaining a depth of four feet,
so that the limestone floor of the Cavern was laid bare in every sec-
tion.
In the right wall as one enters the Chamber, and about midway in its
length, there is a very narrow crevice or slit in the limestone extending
obliquely from the roof to the floor. It contained no mechanical deposit
of any kind ; but what may be called its lower wall was lined with a thin
sheet of stalagmite.
The exploration of the Rocky Chamber occupied about four months,
but the labour was not repaid with the discovery of any specimen of much
value. It is satisfactory, however, to have certainly ascertained whether
or not the deposits there contained anything of interest. The ‘finds’
met with were only five in number (Nos. 7,318 to 7,322), and may be
briefly described as below :—
No. 7,318. Part of the skull of a large Hyena, and a detached left
upper sectorial tooth belonging to the same species, probably the same
individual ; found in contact with the bottom of the Granular Stalagmitic
Floor, September 12, 1879.
No. 7,319. Relics of Hyena, consisting of the right upper sectorial
tooth; the molar immediately in front of it; the crown of a canine tooth,
the three upper left incisors still in part of the jaw; the right outer upper
incisor ; and afragment of skull. The whole were found on September 16,
1879, at the bottom of the Granular Stalagmite, and were not improbably
portions of the individual represented by the ‘ find’ No. 7,318, from which
they were about two feet distant. No. 7,319, however, included a few
fragments of bone belonging to some smaller species.
No, 7,320. A piece of flint of nondescript form, from which several
flakes had been dislodged. It was 2°4 inches long, 1:75 inch in greatest
breadth, 1 inch in greatest thickness, unrolled, the edges tolerably sharp,
apparently non-utilized, and having a chalky texture. It was found in
the fourth foot-level below the Granular Stalagmite, without any object of
interest near it, on September 25, 1879.
No. 7,321. Skull of Sheep, with eight teeth, and an axis of probably
64 REPORT —1880.
the same individual. Found November 27, 1879, lying on, but unattached
to, the sheet of stalagmite in the wall-crevice or slit mentioned above.
No. 7,322. The two rami of lower jaw of Wolf (?) or Dog (?), found
November 27, 1879, embedded in, but not covered with the sheet of
stalagmite in the wall-crevice or slit mentioned above. One of them was
lying across the other, and together they contained twelve teeth, most of
them worn considerably.
Second, that is deeper, Excavation, in the Long Arcade—When the
Committee began the exploration in March 1865, it was decided to make
a first excavation from end to end, limited everywhere to the depth of
4 feet below the bottom of the Stalagmitic Floor ; on the completion of this,
to begin, at the entrance where ground was first broken, a second, that
is a deeper excavation, and proceed in the same order as before through
the entire Cavern. The first or 4-feet excavation was completed on Novem-
ber 27, 1879, when the exploration of the Rocky Chamber was finished.
Every chamber, and gallery, and recess large enough for a man to work
in—several of which had been discovered during the progress of the work
—had been thoroughly excavated and explored, and the entire extent and
character of the Cavern to the depth just mentioned, was perfectly known
to the Superintendents, as well as to the workmen.
Excepting the Rocky Chamber and portions of one or two small
narrow recesses, a limestone floor had nowhere been reached by the
excavators, so that it was impossible to say what was the extent and
character of the Cavern at lower depths, or what might be contained in
the deposits still occupying them.
The Committee had by no means lost sight of the original idea of a
second, that is deeper, excavation; nor were they unmindful of the fact
that the work would be incomplete without it; but, bearing in mind that
the exploration had already absorbed the continuous daily labour of nearly
sixteen years, at a cost to the funds of the Association of 1,850/.—a result
greatly in excess of the first rough estimate—they came reluctantly to the
conclusion, during the meeting at Sheffield in 1879, that the time had
very nearly arrived for closing the work, and that they would apply for
but one further grant of no more than 50/., with the definite statement
that it was ‘for the purpose of finishing the exploration.’
Though the Geological Section, to which it was at once communicated,
acquiesced in this conclusion, it called forth a strong and general expres-
sion of opinion that it was eminently desirable to lay bare the limestone
floor in at least some part of the Cavern, as well as to ascertain whether
or not the large mass of deposit still unexcavated contained any animal
relics or human industrial remains; and Professor W. C. Williamson, of
Owens College, Manchester, suggested that subscriptions from private
sources might not improbably be made so as to carry on the work for at
least one additional year ; and he expressed the hope that the suggestion
would be kept in mind by the members of the Section, so that it might
have some practical issue at the meeting of the Association, at Swansea,
in 1880.
As soon as the entire 4-feet excavation was finished, the Superinten-
dents, having a small portion of the 50/. grant still in hand, resolved to
begin the deeper work, and for that purpose they selected a spot a little
within the outer or northern end of ‘'The Long Arcade’ (see ‘ Reps.
Brit. Assoc.’ 1872, pp. 44-47 ; 1873, pp. 198-207; 1874, pp. 3-6). This
ON THE EXPLORATION OF KENT'S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 65
spot had the advantages of being the lowest level reached in the previous
excavation, of offering many facilities for carrying on the work, and the
workmen would begin at once with the Breccia, or oldest known deposit,
in the Cavern—all those of less antiquity having been there already re-
moved. The work was begun on Noyember 28, 1879, the workmen, as
in the first excavation, digging their way daily farther and farther into
the Cavern.
It having become known that only a very small sum remained in hand,
the following subscriptions from friends at a distance, as well as in the
neighbourhood, reached the Secretary from time to time :—
£ s. d. £ 8. a.
Mr. G. W. Baker 1 0 O |} Mr. Josiah Marples . OPO =O
>» A. Benas . 010 0 55 W. Marples oe Omar vO
» 5B. Benas . : 010 O », Mr. G. H. Morton 010 6
Dr. Campbell Browr 010 0 » OC. G, Mott . 010 0
Mr, I. I. Drysdale 010 O » Mr. W. H. Picton 010 0
» H. Durander 010 0 » Mr. D. Ratcliffe 210-10) 0
Rey. W. Earle eee O », 1. Roberts (two donations) 6 38 O
Mr. M. Guthrie 010 O ,, J.T. Robinson . : las 0
» 1. W. Hayward . 010 0 » J. Samuelson Ons 0
» H. Hughes 1p Male etg) , J. Tanner . . 010 0
» <A. R. Hunt 11,0 ,» Timmins = F 010 O
Mrs. A. Hunt . eae »» 1. C. Thompson . : aeRO, =O
Miss Hunt é - Pa 0 », H. Vivian (Member of the
Mr. R. C. Johnson . 010 6 Cavern Committee) 2 2 0
» Mr. W. Jones 5 0 0 » Mr. G. Whidborne 100
», W. Lavers : ; . 5 0 0} Dr.G. F.A. Wilks . é 2 OO
» J.-E. Lee (Member of the A Member of Torquay Natural
Cavern Committee) 3.3 O History Society : : 0 0
», R. Lowndes pe aaa) 110 0
Captain Mackenzie . 5 0 0 phat penned
Mr. Joseph Marples 010 0
The Committee take this opportunity to thank all the donors, and to
express their sense of special obligation to Mr. Isaac Roberts, F.G.S.,
not only for his handsome donations, but for kindly interesting his friends
in the work, as well as for receiving and transmitting their subscriptions.
The workmen were directed to carry the second, that is the lower,
excavation to a depth of five feet below the bottom of the four-feet exca-
vation, making a total depth of nine feet below the bottom of the Granular
Stalagmitic Floor. The method of excavating employed from the first
was still continued, the deposit being taken out in ‘foot-parallels ’ and
‘ foot-levels’ (See ‘ Report Brit. Ass.’ 1865, pp. 19-20) ; a total length of
132 feet was excavated, in the first three of which a continuous limestone
floor was laid bare ; beyond that it ceased, the limestone walls, instead of
meeting actually, were separated by a longitudinal fissure varying from
six inches to four feet, and averaging 1:75 foot in the first forty-five feet,
but occasionally somewhat wider elsewhere. Throughout the greater part
of the excavation a limestone floor was practically, though not actually,
reached, the fissure being too narrow for the men to work. In this fea-
ture, as well as in some others, the Long Arcade closely resembled the two
principal galleries of Windmill Hill Cavern, at Brixham, on the opposite
oe of Torbay (See ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxiii. 485 ; or ‘ Trans. Devon. Ass.’
vi. 798).
The deposit, with the exception of one or two small ‘pockets’ of
Cave-earth, was everywhere the well-known Breccia. Stones rather
1880. F
‘66 REPORT— 1880.
larger than usual were, perhaps, somewhat more than commonly pre-
valent in the lowest levels; but it still remains the fact that, so far as
is at present known, the Breccia is the oldest deposit found in the Cavern.
Pieces of Stalagmitic Floor, necessarily of still greater antiquity, pre-
sented themselves occasionally in the Breccia, a fact which had been fre-
quently observed during the four-feet excavation; but no trace of the
unbroken Floor whence they were derived has ever been detected.
On June 19, 1880, the Committee, having spent all the money placed
at their disposal by the General Committee of the Association, as well as
by their private friends, were under the necessity of suspending the work
and discharging the workmen. Nearly seven months had been spent on
the second or lower excavation, and though no more than eighteen ‘ finds’
(Nos. 7323 to 7340) had been met with, the following description of
them will show that the expenditure of time and money had not been
quite in vain.
No 7323. A flint ‘nodule-tool,’ the butt end rudely an inequilateral
quadrilateral, about 2°6 inches by 2°3 inches, and almost quite flat. When
standing on this as a base, the tool may be described as an oblique trian-
gular pyramid, its axis being at an oblique angle to the base. It attains
its greatest girth about 1°5 inch above the base, where it measures
9°7 inches. The faces of the pyramid are by no means planes, and no
two of them are of the same width. Their common vertex is a rather
blunt edge about ‘9 inch long, and their greatest widths 3:4 inches, 3:3
inches, and 1°5 inch. The extreme length of the tool is 5*9 inches.
Portions of the original surface of the nodule remain almost everywhere
around the butt end, and one face is completely covered with it except a
space within 1-5 inch of the vertex, whence one flake has been dislodged.
It was found alone, in the Breccia, in the eighth foot-level below the
Granular Stalagmitic Floor, on December 11, 1879.
No. 7324. Two flint specimens (Nos. 73543 75q).—No. zoe is a
nodule-tool, almost white, and having no remnant of the original surface
of the nodule. In outline it is rudely quadrilateral, about 2°1 inches long, °
the breadth at the ends being 1°2 inch and 1:1 inch; its greatest thick-
ness is about ‘7 inch, which it attains near the broader end. One face
has a tendency to flatness, the other is convex, and has one principal
longitudinal ridge, and two or three minor ones. No. 7254 is a chip of
but little interest. The ‘find’ occurred in the Breccia, in the fifth foot-
level below the Granular Stalagmitic Floor, where it was met with on
January 5, 1880.
No. 7325. A left last upper molar of Bear, a few pieces of bone, and a
small flint chip ; found in the Breccia, in the seventh foot-level below the
Granular Stalagmitic Floor, on January 15, 1880.
No. 7326. A considerable portion of a rather large tibia, the distal
end perfect, but the proximal end gone entirely. Found alone in the
Breccia, in the seventh foot-level below the Granular Stalagmitic Floor,
on January 20, 1880.
No. 7327. Crown of the tooth of Rhinoceros, found alone, in a ‘ pocket’
of Cave-earth, on January 21, 1880.
No. 7328. A flint nodule-tool, 5°8 inches long, 2:7 inches in greatest
~~" width, and 1-7 inch in greatest thickness—the maximum width and thick-
ness being about two inches from the butt end. It is very convex on one
face, slightly so on the other, and has a small patch of the original crust
of the nodule at the butt end. The opposite end is round-pointed, and
ON THE EXPLORATION OF KENT’S CAVERN, DEVONSHIRE. 67
not more than ‘2 inch thick. The tool was found alone on February 11,
1880, in the Breccia, in the eighth foot-level below the Granular Stalag-
mitic Floor. This specimen is peculiarly interesting, on account of a
remarkably well-developed ‘bulb of percussion’ in one of the lateral
edges, about two inches from the butt end. It was found alone, in the
Breccia, in the eighth foot-level below the Granular Stalagmitic Floor, on
June 2, 1880.
No. 7329. A flint chip, not quite an inch long, found alone, in the
Breccia, in the ninth foot-level, on February 13, 1880.
No: 7330. Piece of bone, found alone, in the Breccia, in the seventh
foot-level, on February 27, 1880.
No. 7331. A small polished agate, set in silver, found alone, on the
surface,on March 5. This trinket of the present day must have been
accidentally dropped by one of the numerous visitors to the Cavern since
the four-feet excavation in that part of the Cavern was finished ; that is,
since February 1873.
No. 7332. A flint flake or chip, 3°1 inches long, 1°53 inch in greatest
breadth, and nearly -5 inch in greatest thickness. It retains a small
portion of the original surface of the nodule from which it was dis-
lodged, but has no indication of having been used or intended for use.
It was found alone, in the Breccia, in the fifth foot-level, on March 6,
1880.
No. 7333. A flint flake or chip, 2°5 inches long, 2°2 inches in greatest “
breadth, and ‘6 inch in greatest thickness. It retains a considerable por-
tion of the original surface of the nodule from which it was struck, and
was found alone, in the Breccia, in the eighth foot-level, on March 17,
1880. There is nothing about it to suggest that it was ever intended for
use.
No. 7334. A left last upper molar of Bear, with a piece of bone,
found alone, in the Breccia, in the seventh foot-level, on April 1, 1880.
No. 7335. A flint nodule, 3°6 inches long, 2°8 inches in greatest
breadth, and 2 inches in greatest thickness. It is pretty much rounded,
no attempt has been made to fashion it into a tool, and indications of its
having been used as a ‘hammer stone’ are neither numerous nor well-
pronounced. It was found alone, in the Breccia, in the sixth foot-level
below the Granular Stalagmitic Floor, on April 13, 1880.
No. 7336. A small chert chip, found alone, in the Breccia, in the sixth
foot-leve! below the Granular Stalagmitic Floor, on April 24, 1880.
No. 7337. A fragment of an unusually smoothly-worn pebble,'or of
the internal cast of an Orthoceras, found alone, in the Breccia, in the ninth
foot-level below the Granular Stalagmitic Floor, on May 21, 1880.
No. 7338. A small flint chip, found alone, on May 31, 1880, in the
Breccia, in the fifth foot-level below the Granular Stalagmitic Floor.
No. 7339. A flint nodule-tool, 5°75 inches long, 3 inches in greatest
breadth, and 2-7 inches in greatest thickness. In form it approaches a
four-sided pyramid ; at the butt end each face is covered with the original
crust of the nodule, and the apex is not well formed.
No. 7340. A mass of flint owing its present irregular form to arti- ©.
ficial chipping, but not entitled to the name of tool. It is 3°35 inches
long, 2°9 inches in greatest breadth, 1-8 inches in greatest thickness, and
retains a small patch of the original surface of the nodule, where there
are a few bruises such as might have been produced by its having been
used as a ‘hammer-stone.’ It was found alone, in the Breccia, in the
F2
68 REPORT—1 880.
ninth foot-level below the Granular Stalagmitic Floor, on June 15, 1880,
that is the fourth day before the suspension of the work.
It may not be out of place to remark here that the second, that is the
deeper, excavation has yielded a greater number of archeological than of
palzontological ‘ finds’; and that whilst no animal relic was found below
the seventh foot-level, the three fine nodule-tools (Nos. 7323, 7328, 7339)
were found in the eighth foot-level, and several flint chips occurred in the
ninth or lowest.
In closing their Report the Committee beg to express their thanks to
Lord Haldon for so freely and kindly allowing them the entire control of
the Cavern whilst carrying on the exploration ; to the Committee of the
Geological Section for their uniform, firm, and most encouraging support ;
to the General Committee of the Association for their liberal annual
grants during a period of sixteen years, which have resulted in an instance
of Cavern-exploration without parallel, it is believed, in this or any other
country, for, at least, its continuity and duration; and to the private
friends whose timely and kind donations enabled a considerable and satis-
factory deeper excavation to be made, and thereby to give the work a
nearer approach to completeness than would otherwise have been the
case.
Finally, the Superintendents feel that it would be less than just were
they to fail on this occasion to state, not merely the satisfaction, but the
admiration with which they review the manner in which the work has
been done by George Smerdon and his co-labourers inthe Cavern. From
the first day of the exploration—March 28, 1865—to its suspension on
June 19, 1880, Smerdon was continuously engaged on the work, and for
nearly thirteen years he was the foreman. During the entire period he
not merely discharged his duties in a most faithful manner, but he never
had a misunderstanding with the Superintendents.
Report on the mode of reproduction of certain species of Ichthyo
saurus from the Lias of England and Wirtemberg, by a Com-
mittee consisting of Professor H. G. SEELEY, /.R.S., Professor
W. Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S., and Mr. C. Moore, F.G.S. Drawn
up by Professor H. G. SEELEY.
[PLATE I.]
Minute Ichthyosaurian skeletons found in the Lias have, from time to
time, raised a suspicion that the young of Ichthyosaurus might possibly
pass in their development through a tadpole stage, since the smallest speci-
mens sbow no indication of limbs. Prof. Haughton, in his ‘ Manual of
Geology ’ (2nd edit. 1866, p. 272, fig. 37), has figured a small individual of
this kind from the Lias of Boll. A less perfect specimen, 9 inches long, from
the Lias of Charmouth, preserved in the Woodwardian Museum, is devoid of
all traces of limbs. These small specimens, like the young of all vertebrate
animals, are characterised by the relatively large size of the head. This
uncertainty as to the mode of reproduction of Ichthyosaurus, has perhaps
received some countenance from the circumstance that Prof. Owen, in his
SO me a :
—_
ES OF ICUTINYOSAURUS. 69 _
Illustrating the Report on the Mode of Reproduction of certam
Species of Ichthyosaurus from the Lias of England and Wirtembury
}
i
a
ON THE REPRODUCTION OF CERTAIN SPECIES OF ICHTIHYOSAURUS. 69
‘ Anatomy of the Vertebrates’ so far hesitated about the true nature and
classification of Ichthyosaurs as to speak of them in one place (vol. i. p.
50) as Dipnoa, although as a rule they are arranged with the Monopnoa.
So far as I can learn, there is no evidence in support of Prof. Haughton’s
hypothesis that Ichthyosaurs pass through a metamorphosis. But, on the
contrary, a number of examples, British and foreign, enforce a conviction
that several species of the genus brought forth their young alive. In all
eases they appear to have been retained in the body of the parent till a
comparatively large size had been reached. Attention was first drawn to
this characteristic of the genus by the late Dr. Chaning Pearce, of Bath,
who, in 1846, contributed to the 17th volume of the ‘ Anuals of Natural
History,’ a paper entitled ‘ Notice of what appears to be the Embryo of
an Ichthyosaurus in the pelvic cavity of I. communis.’ In his note it is
stated that the large animal from the Lias of Somerset is about eight and a
half feet long. The little animal lies at full length in the pelvis, with its
head directed towards the tail of the large one, and is supported upon the
internal surface of itsintegument and upon the internal surfaces of three
posterior ribs of the left side. The young animal measured five and a half
inches in length. The rami of the jaws and one of the longest. ribs, of
which only five or six are visible, are each an inch long; and of the thirty
vertebrae which can be counted the largest measures an eighth of an inch
in its longest diameter.
This minute specimen is bounded on each side by the ilium, ischium,
and pubis, and by the right and left posterior paddles, and on the right
side by the vertebral column and ribs which extend from it. The pos-
terior two-thirds of the little animal is within the pelvis, but the head
appears to protrude beyond it, and was apparently in the act of being
expelled at the time of death. The late Dr. Chaning Pearce remarks on
the correct position of this minute skeleton in the pelvis between the right
and left ribs, with the head protruding ; and from the exact correspondence
between its bones and those of the large Saurian draws the inference that
it can only be a foetal Ichthyosaurus. During the meeting of the British
Association in Bath in 1864, it was my good fortune to have an oppor-
tunity of studying this specimen, and it enforced in my mind the same
inference that was enunciated by its discoverer. Its perfect condition of
preservation, size, and position in the body seem to me completely to
refute the current opinion of those days when Dr. Pearce’s conclusions
were not accepted, that the young animal might have been swallowed
whole, and have gradually found its way to the position in which it
was fossilized. This view Dr. Chaning Pearce combated by remarking
that had so delicate a structure been swallowed whole it could not have.
reached its present place without being dissolved by the gastric juice.
Among the series of Ichthyosaurs presented to the Woodwardian
Museum, by Thomas Hawkins, Esq., is a large slab with the remains im-
perfectly preserved, but containing a disturbed skeleton of a young Ich-
thyosaur in the pelvic region. The vertebral column has the vertebre in
sequence, and the head is remarkable for the high form common in embryos
(fig. 1). Taken by itself no inference as to the mode of reproduction
could fairly be drawn from this fossil, but as a link in a chain of evidence
it has some value. A third British specimen is said to have occurred in
the Lias of Lyme Regis, and to have shown a number of embryos in the
pelvic cavity. Ihave not seen this specimen, but Mr. Henry Keeping, who
first reported its existence to me, considered that it was altogether incon-
70 REPORT—1880.
elusive upon the mode of reproduction of the Ichthyosaurus. Mr. Charles
Moore has examined the specimen and is doubtful as to the inference that
should be drawn from it. These are the only British specimens which
bear upon the mode of reproduction in Ichthyosaurs.
I am aware that it may be fallacious to reason from the structures
of living reptiles back to the nature of soft parts in an Ichthyosaurus ;
but in the alligator, which is also a carnivorous animal, the contents
of the stomach remain there till perfectly dissolved, and in a specimen
11 feet long, the pyloric aperture was only about an inch in diameter, and
defended with two valvular constrictions, so that, supposing the Ich-
thyosaurs to have preyed on their own species, and to have swallowed their
prey head first, after the manner of snakes, there is an @ priori impro-
bability that the young animal would have got farther than the stomach,
which in alligators is placed well forward, and is not unduly large. More-
over, I see no reason to doubt that the substances from the Lias of the South
of England which are well known as Ichthyosaurian coprolites have been
correctly determined. They consist of well-digested materials, and
sometimes contain the scales of ganoid fishes, and hooks of cuttles, such
as are met with in the stomachic region of many individual Ichthyosaurs.
I have elsewhere taken occasion to point out that the spiral structure
which these coprolites display indicates that there was, anterior to the
rectum, a smaller intestine of the calibre of the coil which is wound into
the coprolite ; ' and it is obviously impossible, even if the young specimen
could have passed the stomach uninjured, for it to have passed uninjured
down such a small tube, so that the snout should project from the body
in the way which Dr. Chaning Pearce has described.
Unfortunately Dr. Chaning Pearce did not give a figure of his
specimen, and so the discovery missed alike recognition and recollection.
I lost sight of the specimen until last year, when I learned that it had
been removed to Brixton, and with the rest of the collection it was shown
to me by Dr. Joseph Chaning Pearce, F.G.S. But whether pyrites in it
had decayed, or whether it had suffered in the lapse of years from cleaning
and removal, the fact remains that the young specimen is gone. The ques-
tion here ends in a cul-de-sac, so far as the English evidence is concerned.
An interesting Ichthyosaur in the Royal Museum at Stuttgart, to
which my attention was drawn by Dr. Oscar Fraas, in August, 1878,
would appear to have been the original of a figure by Dr. G. F. von Jaeger,
published in 1824, in his work ‘De Ichthyosauri sive Proteosauri, &c.,’
which I have hitherto been unable to see.
It is certainly the original of a very rough figure, Tab. I. fig. 4, pro-
bably the same plate, g1ven by Dr. von Jaeger in his work, ‘ Ueber fossile
Reptilien welche in Wiirtemberg aufgefunden worden sind,’ published
at Stuttgart,in 1828. But although the young animal is figured as lying
in the abdominal cavity of the large individual, the author does not even
refer to its remarkable position, and confines his observations to an account
of the structure of the genus, and an endeavour to determine the species.
And it was not till Dr. Chaning Pearce’s note became known in Germany
that attention was awakened to the bearing of this and of some similar
specimens.
Other writings of Dr. Jaeger contain evidences of his renewed interest
in this subject, for in the ‘Nova Acta Ces. Leop. Car.’ vol. xxv. pt. 3. p. 961,
1 Index to fossil Remains of - Aves, Ornithosauria, Reptilia, §c., p. 131, 8vo.
869. 9, il
ON THE REPRODUCTION OF CERTAIN SPECIES OF ICHTHYOSAURUS. 71]
four Ichthyosaurs are referred to, which each contained a foetus. One
of these is the specimen originally figured by himself ;! the second is at
Tiibingen; and the third from Zell, near Kirchheim, was exhibited at
Munich in 1854. He remarks that these are all entirely enclosed between
the ribs of the parent, are all fully developed, and were ready to be born,
or in the act of being born, as the animals sank to the bottom. ‘In these
three cases the head, though still in the body of the old animal, is directed
backward. On the other hand, one specimen of Ichthyosaurus from
Ohmden, now at Madrid, has the head of the young one directed forward,
and in sequence with a connected series of vertebre.’ Jaeger argues
that the young do not exhibit any trace of having been eaten, since no
digested matter is found with them, while the vertebrae are in sequence,
and the bones hold the exact position they should have if the Ichthyo-
saurus were viviparous. And he further remarks, that though these
young examples are rare, yet they really exist, while we find no traces of
any eggs, though numerous coprolites are preserved; and from the cir-
cumstance that the skull in the young of these German specimens belongs
to the same species as the old animals, concludes that, at least, the
species which he names Ichthyosaurus tenuirostris was viviparous.
Other important and beautiful specimens have been acquired for the
University Museum at Tiibingen, by Professor F. A. von Quenstedt,
F.M.G.S., and admirably developed by him. They are briefly noticed in
his well-known works, ‘Der Jura’ and ‘ Epochen der. Natur,’ but they
led the learned and accomplished author to the conclusion that the young
specimens had been devoured. In the former work (1858, p. 219), after
describing the species, which he names I. quadriscissus, it is observed,
‘this specimen contains a young one between the ribs, in a position which
indicates that it was eaten. The splendidly preserved skull of the young:
one measures 10 inches in length, with its point towards the hinder extre-
mity, while its tail still remains in the throat. Hence we may infer that
the intestinal canal was as simple as in sharks.’ And in the later work,
published in 1861, p. 549, these statements are repeated, except that two
specimens are mentioned as being in the Tiibingen collection. Though no
argument is offered upon the subject, the large size of the young, and
extent to which its tail reaches forward in one of his specimens, has
evidently weighed with the Tiibingen professor in the printed expression
of his judgment. He, however, called my attention to a small specimen in
the University Museum, with the tail coiled up, which he thought might.
have been footal, but it is not contained in the body of another animal.
In 1876, Arnold R. C. Wurstemberger printed in. the ‘ Jahreshefte-
Ver. Nat. Wiirtemburg,’ a memoir entitled ‘ Ueber Lias Epsilon,’ which
concludes with some account of the species of Ichthyosaurus, giving
an interesting description of I. quadriscissus (Q). After describing a
large parent animal, in which the head is said to be 50 ¢c.m. long, and
the vertebral column 240 c.m. in length, Wurstemberger observes that
the stomach lies unusually far forward, being only 20 c.m. behind the
head, and is defined by containing fish-bones and the dark-coloured
remains of cuttle-fish. “A small Ichthyosaur lies entirely behind this
region, and is so contained between the ribs, that the author is convinced
that it could not have got there after the death of the large animal, hence
it can only have been eaten or be an embryo. Many bones of the young
»\ De Ichthyosauri sive Proteosi fossilis specim. in agro Bollensis vepertis.- 1824
fol. Tab, I. fig. 4A.
72 REPORT—1880.
animal are scattered, and appear to have been washed out of the large
animal, but are always on the ventral side. The entire animal is a good
deal confused, so that the co-ordination and order of the parts can only be
made out after careful study. The bones of the young animal, from being
less mineralised than those of the large individual, are much softer. The
largest veartebra is about 4 m.m. in diameter, so that, reckoning sixty
vertebra, the author estimates the length of the vertebral column of the
small animal at 24¢.m. The head is not only entire, but shows the
sutures between the bones. The sclerotic plates form the usual circles
defending the eyes. The jaws show no traces of teeth, and from their
excellent preservation Wurstemberger inferred that none existed. It is,
however, he says, most remarkable that the snout is not turned towards
the hinder part of the large animal but towards its head, and the vertebral
columns are parallel to each other. This specimen I have not been able
to examine, and no figure of it has been published; but although appa-
rently less well preserved than some others, I believe it to be embryonic,
and that the position of the young animal may possibly have been the cause
of death in the parent. For, after the author’s account of the unusually
forward position and contents of the stomach, I do not accept his doubts
as to whether the specimen really justifies the embryonic hypothesis, in
face of the cumulative evidence that at least six specimens are known
which each demonstrates the same fact of the presence of a young Ichthyo-
saur, in good preservation, in the posterior abdominal region of the
large specimens.
Finally, just as I was leaving Tiibingen, Herr Kocker, Professor
Quenstedt’s obliging and excellent assistant, mentioned to me that there
is at present at Reutlingen for sale an Ichthyosaurus, which is alleged to
contain several young specimens in various stages of development. Being
unable to go to see this specimen, I obtained a photograph of it, but
unfortunately the animal appears to have lain upon its back and side, in
such a position that the ribs of the upper side of the body have fallen
together, leaving the abdominal cavity exposed. Beyond all doubt, there
are the remains of several small Ichthyosaurs in and about the hinder
abdominal region, but their condition is not so clear as in other specimens,
and the circumstance derives its chief weight from being a link in a chain
of evidence, and its interest from repeating a condition shown by the Lyme
Regis specimen referred to.
Of all this material no illustration has been given excepting the rough
and almost worthless figure by Dr. von Jaeger, published between fifty
and sixty years ago. [ am, therefore, glad to be able, by the kind co-opera-
tion of Dr. Oscar Fraas, to submit a photograph (of which Plate I. is a
copy) of this the earliest found example illustrating the relation of the
young to the parent Ichthyosaur.
Tam also greatly indebted to Prof. von Quenstedt for having allowed
me to have photographs made of the two most striking specimens in the
University Museum of Tiibingen. Hence these three figures will enable
those to whom the originals may be inaccessible to judge of the nature and
value of the evidence to which I have already referred. It may, however,
be useful if I append a few descriptive notes on the characters of the
specimens. The determination of the species I purposely leave for a
memoir, in which I trust to give a systematic revision and determination
of the British and foreign Ichthyosaurs ; and this subject is so beset with
difficulties, that it may yet be some time before a species of Ichthyosaurus
ON THE REPRODUCTION OF CERTAIN SPECIES OF ICHTITYOSAURUS. 73
can be defined with the same accuracy and certainty as characterises
other kinds of paleontological work.
The specimen in the Royal Museum at Stuttgart (fig. 4) wants the
head and the hinder half of the tail, in which the vertebrae become greatly
attenuated. The portion of the animal preserved is about 5 feet long, and
of this length rather less than two-thirds is comprised by the body region
of the animal, in which dorsal ribs are developed. The fore limb lies some-
what bent on the ventral margins of the ribs, and the hind limb is well
preserved below the pelvic region. From the apparently firm union of the
ribs to the dorsal centrums they have been pulled somewhat apart, and do
not approximate towards their ventral edges. This animal lies upon its
left side, inclining a little towards the back. As usual there is an upward
arch of the anterior half of the dorsal region. The young animal lies in
the abdominal cavity, and, although not perhaps so fully developed as
might be, its length, so far as can be made out, appears to be about
2feet 6 inches. The vertebral column is parallel to the vertebral column
of the large animal, and is separated from it by an interspace of 25 inches in
the posterior region of the large animal, becoming anteriorly a little farther
distant from it. The young animal lies upon its right side, and although the
ribs have been strained from their natural position, the young animal is
still entirely between the ribs, except where a few of them have been
purposely removed, the better to show its characters. The head of the
small animal is about 10 inches long, and rather more than 24 inches
deep at the hinder border of the orbit. The snout projects from the
abdominal cavity in the region of the pelvic bones for about a third of its
length, but the pelvic bones are no longer in situ, owing to the conditions
of fossilisation. The dorsal region of the young specimen has not been
so developed as to show its ribs, but the vertebral column is in sequence,
though the pressure of the overlying ribs of the large animal has some-
what broken the chain, and exposed the faces of one or two of the few
vertebrx, the largest of which in the lower dorsal region has a diameter
of half an inch. The depth of the body of the young animal was appa-
rently 44 inches. The extremity of the tail is not seen. It may be noticed
that the ribs of the large animal extend over the eye and nasal region of
the left side of the young head, but the shortening of the ribs on the left
side of the large animal shows that the snout could hardly have been con-
tained entirely within the pelvic cavity if the young animal occupied its
present position during life. It is of course possible that there may have
been some slight shifting of position; but the presence of the abdominal
ribs of the large animal in situ, and the generally undisturbed character of
the remains, lead me to believe that the relative positions of the two indi-
viduals are not now greatly different from what they were during life.
T can only endorse the conclusions of Von Jaeger that we have here a
foetus in the act of being expelled, and although the size of the young
animal is relatively large, it is not unparalleled among living amphibians ;
and the eggs of birds vary so much in bulk, that with gigantic eggs, such
as those of Alpiornis, the large size of this embryo is not unexampled.
The great extension of the young in the body of the parent need perhaps
present no difficulty when we remember the large space occupied by the
ovarian organs in the lower vertebrata; and, large as the young animal is,
there is no known limit to the capacity for expansion of the oviduct which
would render its size and position improbable on such an explanation. If
it were asked why the old animal should have died, I can only state that
74 REPORT—1880.
it has been my fortune to dissect a porpoise in which the foetus was simi-
larly placed, and the parent animal was driven ashore in an obviously
enfeebled condition, consequent probably upon the function in which it
was engaged, and if such a specimen had been fossilised it would have
exactly paralleled these fossil Ichthyosaurs.
The specimens in the Tiibingen Museum (figs. 3, 4,) are in some respects
more instructive since the heads of the parent animals are preserved, the
ribs are less disturbed, and the skeletons are altogether more complete. The
specimen exhibited in the Museum, which is from Holzmaden in Wiirtem-
berg, is numbered 7532. The parent animal has the skull-bones somewhat
displaced ; they are about 145 inches long, while the length of the vertebral
column is 8 feet 35 inches, the fore limb is 16 inches long, and the
hind limb 83 inches in length. In the dorsal region there are forty
vertebrz with double-headed ribs ; then follow six with single-headed ribs,
and in about this position the ilium was placed. The caudal vertebree
number 105. The length of the abdominal region of the large animal is
3 feet 6 inches. The iliac bones are relatively large, flattened, and oblong,
and measure 33 inches in length. They have been a little displaced, so
that the hinder limbs le just below the vertebral column.
Entirely within the abdomen is a small Ichthyosaur, lying between the
right and left ribs, with its head directed towards the posterior region of
the body, the extremity of the snout being separated from the present
position of the iliac bones by a width of about five vertebrae. The verte-
bral column of the small animal is parallel to that of the large one in
which it is contained. The head, which is well preserved, is 104 inches
long, has teeth in both jaws, has the eye-plates well developed, and the
orbital cavity about 2 inches in length. The region of the fore limb is
missing, owing apparently to a fracture of the fossil in extracting it in
the quarry. The dorsal vertebree and dorsal ribs are well shown. The
centrums here have a diameter of } inch. The vertebral column can be
traced within the large animal for 21 inches, but the series is a little
seattered, and towards the end the vertebrze are obscure from their small
size. The interspace between the two vertebral columns is only about
2 inches; the depth of the body of the large animal was probably about
23 inches. It is to be remarked that there is no indication that I could
detect of the tail of the small specimen reaching so far forward as to
justify the expression that it was in the throat.
The second Tiibingen specimen is contained in the work-room, and
has no catalogue number.
It is of much larger size, has the dorsal vertebrae and ribs in natural
position, but the hind limbs do not appear to be present, though the iliac
bones remain, slightly displaced. The skull is here 24 inches long. There
are 45 vertebrae, with double-headed ribs, measuring, as preserved, 4 feet.
To them succeed two vertebrx, with large single tubercles, which are
usually regarded as sacral; then 31 vertebre, measuring 2 feet 8 inches,
which form the large anterior part of the tail ; and then succeed 47 ver-
tebrxe of much smaller size; but the extremity of the tail is not preserved.
The abdominal ribs are not well seen, but the depth of the body is about
25 inches. The fore limb in this animal is 133 inches long. From these
and other considerations, which it is not within my present province to
dwell upon, it is evident that we have here a distinct species from the
specimen just ‘described. The young animal lies entirely between the
ribs of the large one in the posterior part of the abdomen, with its back
ON THE REPRODUCTION OF CERTAIN SPECIES OF ICHTHYOSAURUS. 75
towards that of the large individual in which it is contained, as is the
case with the other specimens which I have described. The head is
directed downwards, and the snout extends beyond the limits of the ribs,
as though it were just protruding from the body. The extremity of the
snout is imperfect, but the head, as preserved, is 9 inches long. The ver-
tebral column has a total length,seen of 20 inches, but may extend further
under arib. The vertebre are in natural sequence, though the caudal
region is bent round in a curve ventrally ; but it is difficult to say whether
this is the position natural to the embryo. The dorsal vertebra are $-inch
in diameter, and the corresponding centrums of the large animal are
21 inches in diameter. The ribs of the young animal are preserved, and
there are bones which appear to be coracoids. ‘The hind limb is distinctly
preserved, and measures 1d inch inlength. The femur is 3-inch long, and
the smaller limb-bones are in three rows. It is unfortunate that the hind
limb of the parent is not available for comparison, but that portion of
the original slab is missing. So far as it is possible to compare the
pointed snout and teeth of the young with the large animal, there is
nothing to suggest that they belong to different species.
After thus detailing the facts as to the position and character of these
specimens, the conclusion to be drawn from them may be left to a con-
sideration of the cumulative evidence of the figures; and if I do not for-
mally discuss the view which Prof. Quenstedt has adopted, that these
specimens were eaten, it is because no other animals except Ichthyosaurs
have ever been found in the hinder part of the abdominal cavity of large
specimens of this genus; and because the remains of fishes and cuttles,
which appear to have constituted the ordinary food of these sea-monsters,
are always found, comminuted and indistinguishable in form, in a more
anterior position. It is improbable that the large animal, with its com-
paratively firm quadrate bones, would have been capable of swallowing
a creature in which the head, as in the first Tiibingen specimen, was
more than two-thirds the length of its own head, without in any way
crushing or breaking the structure, or even disarranging an eye-plate ;
while the evidence from the structure of coprolites seems to me to render
superfluous any further discussion of this question of the young animals
being in process of digestion. That the small specimens were washed in
a dead state into the already dead bodies of the large specimens is a
hypothesis that can need no discussion; for the many cases in which the
two bodies are parallel, with the smaller placed entirely within the larger,
have no appearance of accident, while a movement of the sea which would
wash the young about in such a way would probably scatter the bones of
both animals.
I therefore submit that the evidence indicates that these Ichthyosaurs
were viviparous, and were probably produced of different relative bulk
in different species; and it may be from feeble health of the parent
or from some accident of position in the young that they were not
produced alive, and thus have left a record of their method of reproduc-
tion to which no allied extinct group of animals has shown a parallel.
There is some evidence.that in certain cases many young were produced
at a birth, and although the specimens are not in the best state of preser-
vation, analogy strongly suggests that this is a distinctive character of
certain species. It cannot be taken as proved that all Ichthyosaurs were
viviparous ; for the character, though met with among fishes, amphibians,
and reptiles, is not distinctive of any living order of these animals; and it
76 REPORT—1880.
is therefore probable that many species in this extinct ordinal group
produced their young from eggs, like the majority of their living allies.
I would express my thanks to the Council of the Royal Society for
assistance in examining the museums of Europe in which remains of
Ichthyosaurs are contained ; as well as to Dr. Fraas, Prof. Quenstedt, and
Prof. McK. Hughes, for the facilities so,freely afforded me for studying
the specimens in the collections over which they preside.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.
Fig. 1. Small portion of Woodwardian specimen showing part of young Ichthyo-
saur, with a few caudal vertebree of the large animal.
Figs. 2 and 3. The two Ichthyosaurs with young at Tiibingen.
Fig, 4. The imperfect Ichthyosaur with young at Stuttgart.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor P. M. Duncan and
Mr. G. R. Vine, appointed for the purpose of reporting on the
Carboniferous Polyzoa. Drawn wp by Mr. Vine (Secretary).
As so much remains to be done before the Paleozoic Polyzoa can be
properly classified—more particularly the Carboniferous species—it seems
to me that the wisest course to adopt in this Report, is to go carefully
over the work of other authors, reviewing their labours generally, and
giving, in as condensed a form as possible, the results of their varied
efforts.
David Ure,’ the son of a working weaver in Glasgow, is the first, so
far as [am aware, who drew attention by figures to British Carboniferous
Polyzoa; and Martin? gives some good figures of Zoophyta, but species
of these belong to both the Corals and Polyzoa. Thirty-five years after
the publication of Ure’s work, Dr. Fleming? named some of the species
figured, and the Zoophyta he called Cellepora Urii and Retepora elongata.
The first of these, according to Mr. Robert Etheridge, Jun.,4 is Ohcetetes
tumidus, Phillips, and the other is a Fenestella.
In 1826, the work of August Goldfuss® was published. In this a
system of nomenclature was adopted, and many figures of Polyzoa and
Corals given, which to a large extent assisted investigators and helped
them to identify species found in this country. The generic terms used
by Goldfuss were accepted by authors who followed him, but as no dis-
tinction was made by the earlier investigator in separating true Polyzoa
from true Corals, those who worked from his types and descriptions fell into
his error, and mingled, for a time, Corals and Polyzoa together whenever
they had fresh forms to describe.
The chief of the generic terms used by Goldfass were :—
1. Gorgonia, Linnens, 1745.
2. Cellepora, Gmelin, 1788 ?
3. Retepora, Lamarck, 1816.
4, Ceriopora, Goldfuss, 1826.
The type of Linnzus’ Gorgonia was altogether different from the types
of Goldfuss’s genus. The first had reference to the fixed Polypiferous
1 Mistory of Rutherglen and East Kilbride, 1793.
2 Petrifactions of Derbyshire, 1809, Petrefacta Derbiensia.
8 History of British Animals, 1828.
4 Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 1874. 5 Petrefacta Germania.
ON THE CARBONIFEROUS POLYZOA. 77
mass which are still known by the same name, but the last are now
referred to the Fenestellide.
The species of Cellepora are now placed with Chetetes, and most,
if not all, of the Ceriopora of the Paleozoic era are also referred to
Cheetetes and to Alveolites.
The use of the term Retepora, as applied to Paleozoic fauna, has been
abandoned, and the better defined generic term Fenestella used instead ;
but Lonsdale,' in his otherwise clearly defined characters of this genus,
included both Fenestella and Polypora types in the one description of the
enus.
‘i However we may differ, at the present time, from Mr. John Phillips?
in his arrangement of the ‘ Zoophyta’ found in the Carboniferous rocks
of Yorkshire, we must give him the credit for being amongst the first
to attempt a division between Corals and Polyzoa; but in the use of
Lamarck’s genus Millepora for some of his species, he seems to have
been very undecided as to the true character of his fossils.
Phillips describes eight species of Retepora defining certain terms
which he uses, such as fenestrules, dissepiments, and interstices—terms
still used in later descriptions of Fenestella. His species were R. mem-
branacea, flabellata, tenwifila, undulata, irreqularis, polyporata, nodulosa,
and lava. The poverty of Phillips’ diagnosis renders identification of
his species a very difficult matter, but some of his species were so truly
typical in their general, as well as in their minute characters, as to enable
Mr. G. W. Shrubsole, in his elaborate review of the Fenestellide,’ to
retain three of them as types of his very restricted Carboniferous forms.
The retained species are :—
F. tenurfila, Phill. and
Fenestella membranacea, Syno. F. flabellata
. ”
by nodulosa, Phill.
3 polyporata ,,
The Retepora flustriformis, Phill. has been placed as a synonym of F.
plebeia, M‘Coy, by Mr. Shrubsole,4 and as Ptylopora by Morris.2 By
Phillips it was regarded as the Millepora flustriformis® of Martyn, and he
also said it resembled the Gorgonia antiqua of Goldfuss. Retepora pluma,
Phill., is now Glauconome; and Flustra? parallela, which Phillips describes
as ‘ Linear: longitudinally and deeply furrowed, cells in the furrows, in
quincunx, their apertures oval, prominent’’—M‘Coy® refers to the
genus Vincularia, Defranc, and Morris ® places it and another species of
M‘Coy’s with the genus Sulcoretepora, D’Orb. This species has no affinities
with any of these genera; it appears to me to be the Carboniferous de-
scendant of the more ancient Piilodicta, Lonsd. (= Stictopora, Hall).
The non-celluliferous, striated, sometimes rugose margin, and the central
laminar axis, or septum, which divides the cells of opposite sides, are
almost always present in the Carboniferous species. I shall, therefore,
prefer to leave the Flustra? which Phill. describes with the Ptilodicta as
P. parallela, Phill., and this reference is founded upon original investigation
of various specimens of Ptilodicta, of the American Silurian species,'°
1 Geology of Russia. 5 Catalogue of British Fossils.
2 Geology of Yorkshire, 1836. 6 Petrefac. Derbiensia.
% Quarterly Jour. of Geo. Soc. for May, 1879. 7 Geo. of Yorkshire.
4 Ibid. p. 278. si
Syn. Carb. Fos. of Ireland.
® Catalogue of British Fossils.
10 Niagara Group: Paleontol. of Nen York, Hall, vol. ii.; Nat. Hist. New York,
part 4.
78 REPORT—1880.
Ptilodicta Meeki, Nicholson, Devonian species,!-as well as all the known
species of Sulcoretepora of the Carb. Limest. series. ‘
The Millepora of Lamarck seems to have been the generic type of both
Goldfuss and Phillips, and in describing the Carboniferous) species, the
latter author adopted the class Polyparia of the Radiate Division of the
Animal kingdom at that time current among naturalists. It was
Phillips’ misfortune, rather than his fault, that he had to follow in his
classification the authority of those who preceded him. Of the six
species of Millepora described, four are easily identified; the other two
are not so easily recognised.
Millepora rhombifera, Phill., Geo of Yorkshire.
5% interporosa __,, 3 ¥
sy spicularis 7" $3 “y
” oculata ” ” ”
» gracilis » Paleozoic Fos. of Devon, c&e.
i: similis » Torquay.
5, verrucosa, Goldfuss. Of this Phillips say, ‘a species
like this appears at Florence Court, Ireland.’ ?
No group of Polyzoa, recent or fossil,? has caused so much trouble
to Paleontologists as the little group here tabulated from Philips. Mem-
bers of it have been referred to no fewer than five distinct genera, and
even now they may be safely referred to three, if not to four. Rather
than postpone the analysis of the species, I shall prefer to draw upon
later work and do it here instead of elsewhere.
Millepora gracilis is referred to by Phillips in his later work,‘ for he
seems not to have noticed it in the limestone, Yoredale limest., or shales of
Yorkshire ; yet it is most common from everywhere, whilst the M. rhom-
bifera is by far the rarer species. We have the authority of Phillips
himself, that the species I am dealing with, were his; for in a letter?
which he addressed to the Messrs. Young of Glasgow, he says, ‘I agree
with you in referring your beautiful specimens to the three species (M.
gracilis, M. rhombifera, and M. interporosa) named in my books (“ York-
shire,” vol. ii. and: “ Palszozoic Fos.”). Your examples are better than
mine were; but I have no doubt of the reference, &c.’ Morris places the
whole of Phillips’ species—with the exception of M. spicularis and M.
oculata—with the Ceriopora,® the exceptions, for what reason I cannot
explain, he places with the Pustwlopera of Blainville, a genus that had no
existence in the Paleozoic seas.
Millepora rhombifera, Phill., Geo. Yorkshire.
» «gracilis », Paleozoic Fos.
Both Ceriopera, Morris Catalogue.
Rhabdomeson gracile and R. rhombiferum, Young & Young.
Gen. Ch. R. gracile—‘ Stem slender, cylindrical, branching at right
angles to the stem and never less than an inch apart; and consists of a
hollow axis formed by a thin calcareous tube, and of aseries of cells ranged
round the axis . . . apertures of cells, oval . . . ridges tuberculated.’?
R. rhombiferwn.— Stems slender, cylindrical, free ; branches of nearly
1. Geo. Mag., 1875, pp. 19-20, pl. 6, fig. 14. 2 Geo. of Yorkshire.
3 Excepting the Lepralia.
4 Paleozoic Fos. of Cornwall, Devon §c., 1841.
5 April 3, 1874; Ann. Mag. of Nat. Hist., May, 1875.
6 Catalogue of British Fossils, 1854.
7 Messrs. Young, Ann. Mag. of Nat. Hist., May, 1874,
ON THE CARBONIFEROUS POLYZOA. 79
equal diameter given off at wide intervals .;... cells in quincunx all
round the stem ; surrounded by tuberculated ridges . . . cell-area more
numerous on one face than on the other . . , central axis slender, slightly
flexuous, and without transverse septa.’ !
For these two species, the Messrs. Young of Glasgow have founded a
new genus—Rhabdomeson—on account of the peculiar central hollow axis
which they possess, and on which the cells are arranged. This peculiarity
is unique—for I know of no other Polyzoa having a rod or mesial axis
similar to these. Some of the Graptoloidea, sub-order, Rhabdophora,
Allman, possess a mesial axis, and so do the Rhabdopleura—class Polyzoa,
order Phylactolemata—but whether we should be justified in assuming on
this account, either Hydroid or Phylactolematous affinities for these
fossils is a very serious question to decide. The assumption in either case
would involve the discussion of many problems into which I cannot enter
here. The Messrs. Young, in the two papers referred to, have gone into
the question very fairly, and those who follow them in their critical
remarks must remember that they are contending for the antiquity of a
type of Polyzoa organisation not—previous to their discoveries—known
to exist in a fossil state. I have carefully followed the authors in all
their investigations of this intricate question, but I am not prepared to
use this fossil type as in any way indicative of the existence of Phylacto-
lematous Polyzoa in Carboniferous times. At the same time it would be
mere carping on my part to ignore its existence as indicative of peculiar
structural characters that may help us in our future classification of the
‘Palzeozoic Polyzoa.
Millepora interporosa, Phill. Geol. of Yorksh.
Ceriopora interporosa, Morris’ Catalogue of Brit. Fos.
Vincularia Binniei, Etheridge, Jun.?
This species is a very variable one, Phillips speaks of it as having
‘oval pores,’ whilst the Millepora similis has more elongated pores; on
the other hand Vincularia Binniei is spoken of as having ‘oval to hexa-
gonal cells arranged in quincunx; or in oblique ascending lines.’ The
magnitied figure of a series of cells given by Mr. Etheridge as an illustration
of his species, is one of the rarer varieties of M. interporosa. Had Mr.
Etheridge contended for the variety, I should not have disputed his claim,
but as he introduces a most anomalous genus into the classification of our
Carboniferous Polyzoa, I cannot do otherwise than point out the anomaly.
Defrane’s genus Vincwlaria had no existence whatever in Paleozoic
times. D’Hichwald, on whose authority Mr. Mibsridep sects, is most un-
reliable on this point.*
It is on account of their importance that I have dwelt so fully upon
these species. They had a wide geographical range in Carboniferous
times, and though their variability is great, they have many structural
characters in common with the Oeriopera which range into the Mesozoic
and Tertiary strata.
Under the auspices of Sir Richard Griffiths, of the Irish Geological
Survey, Frederick M‘Coy published his ‘ Synopsis.’ There is ample evi-
dence in this work that M‘Coy had much better material than Phillips, and
} Messrs. Young, Ann. Mag. of Nat. Hist., 1875,
2 Geological Mag., April, 1876.
$ See paper on Vineularide@, mihi. Read before the Geo, Soc., June 23, 1880.
* Synopsis of the Carb. Fos. of Ireland, 1844.
dove |[
80 REPORT—1880.
his drawings and diagnosis of species are more elaborate. M‘Coy adds no
fewer than twelve species of Fenestella to our British Polyzoa. They are
F. plebeia, carinata, formosa, crassa, multiporata, ejuncida, frutex, hemisphe-
rica, Morrisit, oculata, quadridecimalis, and varicosa. As I shall have to
speak of these farther on, I will leave the list without any further comment.
M‘Coy retains a few puzzling forms under the name of Gorgonia. These
are G. assimilis, Lonsd.; G. Lonsdaleina, M‘Coy ; and G. zic-zic, M‘Coy.
Another fenestrate genus, introduced by M'‘Coy, bears the name of
Ptylopora. There is a feather-like arrangement in this genus: a central
stem giving off lateral branches which are connected by dissepiments
having oval fenestrules. Fenestella owes its expansion to the bifurcation
of its branches. Ptylopora very rarely bifurcates, there is a basal exten-
sion of the Polyzoary along the central stem. One species is recorded by
M‘Coy—P. pluma—but it is a genus that deserves to be more closely
studied than it has been. In naming some fossils lately for Mr. John
Aitken, F.G.S., from the neighbourhood of Castleton, Derbyshire, I
detected several small fragments of this beautiful genus. The broad
central stem, whenever fenestration was absent, might easily be mistaken
for a robust Glauconome.
The Glauconomes, which M‘Coy figures and gives a description of, are
G. grandis, G. gracilis, and by his discoveries he extends the range of
Phillips’ G. bipinnata.!
The Vincularia I have already repudiated, and the V. parallela, Phill.,
which M’Coy accepts as a type, I have alluded to when describing
Phillips’ species. The Berenicea megastoma, M‘Coy = Diastopora, Mor.
Cat., will be placed in the genus Ceramopora on account of its many well-
marked characters.”
Having all the material at hand for the work, I shall now discuss the
relative value of the genera and species introduced by various authors
since the publication of the volumes alluded to.
Synocladia, King, 1849.
1873. Synocladia biserialis, Swal., var. Carbonaria, Etheridge.
1877. Synocladia ? scotica, Young and Young.*
The type of this genus is very peculiar, and as it is well illustrated in
King’s Permian Fossils, once seen it can hardly ever be forgotten. ‘The
corallum is cup-shaped, with a small central root-like base: reticulated,
composed of rounded narrow, often branched interstices, bearing on the
inner face from three to five alternating longitudinal rows of prominent
edged pores, separated by. narrow keels, studded with small irregular
vesicles alternating with the cell pores.’ The essential characters of this
genus I have underlined.
In the ‘Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist.,’4 Mr. Robert Etheridge, Jun.,
described a ‘peculiar polyzoon from the Lower Limestone Series of
Gilmerton, under the name of Synocladia carbonaria.’ An almost identical
form had been previously referred, by Mr. Meek,° to Synocladia biserialis,
Swallow.® After very minute investigations, kindly supplied to him by
1 Up. Devonian, Croyde, Pilton Devon, Phill., Paleozoic Fos.
2 See paper on Diastoporide, mihi; paper read before Geo. Soc., May, 1880.
3 Dates of publication and reading of paper. The (?) is Messrs. Young’s.
4 Sept. 1873.
5 Paleontology of E. Nebraska, Washington, 1872.
* Transactions of St. Lowis Acad., 1858, vol, i.
ON THE CARBONIFEROUS POLYZOA. 81
Mr. King,—Mr. Etheridge says, ‘I have ascertained that our Scotch fossil
agrees so closely in its main characters’ with the American species,
‘that it can be only regarded as a variety of it.’ !
To Synocladia biserialis Mr. Meek also refers Septopora cestriensis, Prout,
‘a form which appears to differ only from the typical species of Synocladia
by having from one to four rows of cell-apertures on the dissepiment
instead of two.’ ?
In 1878, Prof. Young and Mr. John Young published * details of
another Synocladia, which they called Synocladia (?) scotica from the
Upper Limestone Shales, Gillfoot and Garple Burn stating that ‘in both
localities it is very rare.’ If we accept the departure from the original
type of Synocladia, which I have no objection to, seeing that Prof. King
uses the term for Paleozoic Polyzoa alone, then these two species of the
genus may be recorded as existing in Carboniferous times. They have
the ‘small irregular vesicles alternating with the pores,’ not unique with
this genus, for several others contain a ‘secondary pore.’ Having exam-
ined this secondary pore in thin sections of Carb. species, I can only
account for its presence as being indicative of the existence of a vibra-
cula in these ancient types. There are, however, most essentially definite
characters in the Carb. Synocladia yet to be accounted for. Very fre-
quently, in even the smallest fragments, pores, similar to the secondary
pores on the face, are constantly found on the reverse also. I know of
no analogy in more recent fossil or living species to which I can refer to
account for this feature in this ancient type.
1873. Oarinella cellulifera, R. Etheridge, Jun.
1876. Goniocladia cellulifera, R. Etheridge, Jun.
This is a good typical genus and species, both well described.
Generic and specific ch.— Polyzoariam composed of angular, irregularly
disposed anastamozing branches, strongly carinate on both aspects,
but celluliferous only on one. No regular dissepiments ; the branches
bifureate and reunite with one another to form hexagonal, pentagonal, or
polygonal fenestrules cf most irregular form. On each side the keel of
the poriferous aspect are three alternating lines of cell-apertures.1 The
genus and sp., for there is only one, is well illustrated in the ‘Geo.
Mag.,’ 1873.
1849. Thamniscus, King Permian Fos.
1873. Mr. Rob. Etheridge indicates the possible existence of a species
of this genus in our Scotch Carbonif. rocks. ‘The portions obtained are
fragments of a robust, branching coralline, with a nearly circular section.
The cells are very pustulose or wartlike, with prominent raised
margins. . . . The disposition of the cells and mode of branching is
exceedingly like that seen in Thamniscus dubius, Schl. . . . As the
margins (of the cells) in the present form are decidedly raised and promi-
nent, might it not probably be a species of Thamniscus? If it be a new
species of Polypora, I would propose for it the specific designation of
P. pustulata,’*®
' Sheet 23, Scotch Geo. Survey.
2 Ibid. Expl. of Sheet 23.
3 Proceed. Nat. Hist. Sec. of Glasgow, April, 1878.
* Geo. Mag., 1873 and 1876. Expl. of Sheet 23, Scotch Survey, p. 101.
5 Expl. of Sheet 23, Appendix, p. 102.
1880. G
82 REPORT—1880.
1875. The Messrs. Young of Glasgow, after recording the opinions of
Mr. Etheridge,’ describe Thamniscus ? Rankini, Young and Young, in-
serting between the generic and specific names a(?) ‘Stems free, dicho-
tomous, circular, abont ;4, in. in diameter, branches in one plane.
Cells arranged in spirals. . . Cell-apertures circular when entire, oval
when worn; lower lip prominent. . . Non-celluliferous aspect finely
granulated, faintly striate. . . ‘The generic position of the fossil is
uncertain. . . Meanwhile, though strongly disposed to regard this
fossil as a true Hornera, or a member of a closely allied genus, we think it
safer to leave it in the Paleozoic genus.’ In this the Messrs. Young are
wise, but younger and less cautious observers, on the strength of the many
peculiar affinities which this species has to Hornera, would have eagerly
embraced this opportunity. I cannot, however, regard this species as a
Paleeozoic Hornera, but I must candidly confess that it comes very near to
the generic description accepted by Busk.?
Glauconome, Munster, Sy. Vincularia, Def. 1829. Glauconome, Goldfuss,
1826. Revised by Lonsdale, 1839. (G. disticha Lonsdale, type of
D’Orb.’s Penniretepora) ; Acanthocladia, King, 1849.
It is very doubtful whether this term can be used for other than
Paleozoic Polyzoa. It was originally used by Munster for Cylindrical
forms, for the Glauconome marginata, Munst., in Goldfuss’ Petrefac. of
Germany, is given by Hincks asa synonym of Cellaria fistulosa, Linn. It
was, however, established by Gioldfuss, and afterwards revised by Lonsdale.
M‘Coy,*? improving upon Phillips’4 poor description does not make any
reference to the number of pores between the branchlets. In his later
work he defines the Genus more minutely thus :
‘Corallum of a narrow central stem, with numerous pinnules, or
lateral branches wnconnected with each other: both stems and branches
have two rows of cells on one face, which is usually carinated between
them, carina in some species tuberculated ; opposite face striated.’ 5
In a paper read at the Nat. Hist. Soc., Glasgow, the Messrs. Young
describe several new species of Glawconome. ,
ms : ;
1875. Gilauconome marginalis, Young and Young.
“A stellipora re x
” elegans ” ”
‘3 aspera on -
“¢ flexicarinata ,, ns
ip retrofleaa - 5
” laxa 2 ”
1377,° robusta - a
1877. 4 elegantula, R. Etheridge, Jun.
In describing G. elegantula Mr. Etheridge defines and criticises the
genus Glauconome with especial reference to the Acanthocladia.’
~
Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist., May, 1875, p. 335, pl. ix. bis.
Mar. Polyzoa, pt. iii. Cyclostomata, p. 16.
Syn. Carb. Los. Ireland.
Retepora pluma, Geol. of Yorksh.
Brit. Paleozoic Los.
Proc. Nat. Hist. Soc. of. Glas. 1878. Paper read 1877.
‘Notes on Carb, Polyzoa,’ Annals and Mag. V. IT. vol. 20, 1877.
as @myew o's
:
:
:
ON THE CARBONIFEROUS TOLYZOA. 83
1875. Hyphasmopora, R. Etheridge, Jun.'
The generic and specific characters of this new provisional genus are
well described by Mr. Etheridge in the paper referred to. There is only
one species—H. Buskii, and I am glad that after submitting the specimens
to Mr. Busk, Mr. Etheridge followed his own judgment and established a
new genus, rather than acting upon the indiscreet reference of Mr. Busk,
who says, ‘that the above resembled the genus Vincularia, Defranc ’—
adding afterwards, ‘it is probably the type of a new genus, perhaps allied
to the latter.’ This beautiful species is found in several localities of
Scotland, but I have found it in Yorkshire, and also in N. Wales. It
cannot, however, be considered a common form anywhere.
1850. Sulcoretepora, D’Orbigny.
This genus has been accepted by Morris (Catal.) and by the Messrs.
Young of Glasgow, for certain species of Carb. Polyzoa. Morris gives
the above date, but the Messrs. Young in their paper” say ‘The genus
Sulcoretepora was formed by D’Orbigny in 1847, with the following defi-
nition :—Cells in furrows on one side of simple depressed branches.’
All the Carboniferous species that have been referred to this genus
have cells on both sides, and, as I have already referred one of the accepted
species to another genus, I will deal now with the Sulcoretepora Robert-
soni, Y. and Y. As there are characters in this species altogether different
from any known species of Ptilodicta the same reference for this as
appears feasible for Flustra? parallela, Phill. is altogether out of the
question. The S. [obertsoni has none of the characters in common with
Phill. sp., and I should strongly recommend the Messrs. Young to con-
struct for this typical species a new genus, especially so as ‘ Between
each pair of cells in a longitudinal series, 1 to 3 pores occur, normally
above each cell-aperture, and in well-preserved specimens tubercles sur-
round each cell-area more or less completely.’? The facies of the species
of Phill. and the sp. of the Messrs. Young may at first sight appear
identical, but the forms described by the later authors are destitute of the
non-poriferous, rugose, and striated margins of Flustra ? parallela. It is
upon the presence of this particularly constant character that I refer
Phillips’ species to Ptilodicta.
Archeopora nexilis, De Koninck.
This genus and species, classified as it is with the Polyzoa is a most
peculiar one. I have not by me De Koninck’s work for reference, and
the remarks that I may offer upon the species—for I shall accept the
genus without discussion—are the results of original investigation. The
Species is tolerably common in a few localities of Scotland. I have no
record of it in this country except in doubtful fragments in Wales—and
my type specimen was presented to me by Mr. John Young, and I believe
I may safely conclude that this, with other specimens, was seen and
approved of by De Koninck when he visited the Hunterian Museum of
Glasgow.
Sp. Char.—Polyzoary adherent to stems of encrinites, shells, frag-
ments of Rhabdomeson, Ceriopora interporosa, spines of Mollusca, &.,
' Provisional Genus of Polyzoa, ibid. vol. xv. 1875,
* Proceedings of Nat. Hist. Soc. Glas. 1877.
* Thid. p. 167.
G2
84. REPORT-—1880.
spreading irregularly, forming large patches, at other times mere minute
specs ; pores generally oval, separated from each other by smaller open-
ings. E-cannot call them ‘interstitial or cenenchymal tubuli’—for that
would convey a false impression, for pores and cells are netted together.
The number of small openings surrounding a cell varies ; sometimes there
are as many as fifteen, in other places not more than five or seven. About
twelve cclls with their interjacent pores occupy the space of a line and
half across the cells, from nine to ten in the same space in their length.
The polyzoary is separated from the foreign objects to which it is attached
by a yery thin lamina formed by the bases of the cells. There is no eyi-
Fic. 1, ; Fic. 2.
Archzxopora nexilis, De Koninck, Capelrig E. Kilbride, Scotland.
¥1c. 1. Showing the different sizes of the cells and interjacent pores.
2. More highly magnified, show vacant ‘ arcole.’
3. Transparent, showing sections of interjacent pores ; the long arm-like processes put in
by reflected light.
(Drawn with Camera lucida by G. R. Vine, junr., June 1880.)
dence of tabule in thin sections, but the interjacent pores do not reach
quite to the bases of the cells. I have never seen a specimen, on which
afresh colony is found spreading over an older one, but sometimes a
colony of Stenopora is found upon the polyzoary of Archewopora. In a
thin transparent section of a small fragment of another specimen, adhe-
rent to a portion of shell, a most peculiar structure is revealed—a draw-
ing of which is given, which for a long time puzzled me—because the
—
ON THE CARBONIFEROUS POLYZOA. 85
peculiar biserial cells appeared like an analogous structure referred to
by Prof. Nicholson when describing Carinopora Hindei, Nich.’ His
figures, however, are said to be transverse ; mine are longitudinal, or in a
line with the bases of the cells. These tail-like processes are constant
characters at certain intervals in my very small section, and the figures
given may help in the recognition of the genus in sections of limestone.
At first sight Archewopora has the appearance of Callopora incrassata, as
described and figured by Nicholson,? but a very little examination will
show the difference between the two forms, whereas one is a Polyzoa and
the other a Tabulate coral.
I have now gone over the whole of the recorded genera and species
of British Carboniferous Polyzoa, with the exception of the Fenestellide.
These having been so lately and so ably reviewed by Mr. G. W. Shrubsole,
F.G.S., their omission from this report will not be so much felt as the
omission of any of the other lesser known forms. Mr. Shrubsole,
after very elaborate investigations, and after the careful comparison of
nearly all the known so-called species, is inclined to restrict the twenty-
six species to five typical ones, namely * :—
Fenestella plebeia—M‘Coy
Pe crassa 3
* polyporata—Phillips
33 nodulosa °,,
; membranacea
bd
all the other ‘ species’ falling into the rank of synonyms of one or other
of the five here received by him. But this does not confine the number
of known species to five. When his labours on the family are completed
several new forms will be described, together with at least two more
species of Polypora—the results of laborious investigations in North
Wales. There are also some references to the Polyzoa of the Carboni-
ferous Limestone of the districts between Llanymynech and Minera,
N. W., in the lately published work* of G. H. Morton, F.G.S., Hon. Sec.
of the Liverpool Geological Society.
Several other papers on special points, having reference to Polyzoa,
have been published during the last ten or twelve years. The vexed
question as to the Hydrozoal or Polyzoal affinities of Paleocoryne has
been debated by Prof. Duncan,® Prof. Young, and Mr. John Young,® and
by myself; 7 but the question as to their real affinities is still an open one.
Another paper by Mr. A. W. Waters,® entitled ‘Remarks on some Fenes-
tellide,’ contains some debatable matter, and the papers of Mr. Robert
Etheridge, Jun., on the genus Glauconome, Messrs. Young on the genus
Ceriopora, and the paper on the ‘ Perfect Condition of the Cell-pores and
other points of structure,’® are valuable additions to our knowledge of
Carboniferous Polyzoa. Before any attempt can be made to construct
a system of classification which will embrace—naturally—the several
genera of the Paleozoic Polyzoa, many, at present, very doubtful points
1 Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist. Feb. 1874, p. 81, figs. f and i.
* New Devonian Fos., Geo. Mag., vol. i. 1874, page 2, plate 1.
% «Carboniferous Fenestellidee,’ (uaz. Jew. Go. Soc., May 1879.
4 The Carb. Limestone and Cefn-y-fedw Sandstone. London, David Bogue, 1880.
5 Phil. Transae., 1869. Jour. of Geo. Soc., 1873. Jour. of Geo. Soc., Dec. 1874.
§ Jour. of Geo. Soc., Dec. 1874.
7 Science Gossip, 1879.
8 Proc. of Manchester Geo. Soc., 1879.
® Newspaper Report, Oct. 9, 1879.
86 REPORT— 1880.
must be cleared up by a more complete study of all the species of the
Paleozoic and Mesozoic ages of our earth’s history. It is a difficult
matter with present classifications to place the Genera of Paleozoic
Polyzoa without doing violence to constructed definitions. In the ab-
sence, therefore, of any well-defined families in which the Carboniferous
Polyzoa can be placed, I venture to group the whole of the forms under
separate headings, which must be considered as provisional only. But to
prevent any misconception as to the special characters of each group, I
shall refer to the shape of the cell or zooecia especially, as the basis of
my arrangement, allowing all the other characters to fall into their places
as subordinate only.
Fam. J.—FENESTELLIDA.
Primary Char.—Polyzoary forming small or large fenestrated or non-
fenestrated expansions. Cells placed biserially, or alternate, so as to form
branches or ‘interstices,’ similar in many respects to the Genus Scrupo-
cellaria among living Polyzoa: cells bladder-like, margin of mouth raised
and covered (?) by ‘operculum’ during the life of the animal. The nearest
living representative cell among the British Polyzoa figured by Hincks!
is that of Aleyonidium albidum, with which I can compare generally the
cells of the Fenestellide. The following genera are grouped provisionally,
many details having yet to be worked out :-—
Genus I. FrnesteLLa—plebeia, polyporata, membranacea, in which
the cells are biserially placed.
» IL Feyestetima—nodulosa, actinostoma, in which the cells are
alternate, literally forming single rows.
», III. Gravconomz—Only some of the species studied.
Fam. IJ.—Potyporip2.
Primary Char.—Polyzoary forming small and large fenestrated ex-
pansions. Branches robust, cells placed contiguously in a slanting direc-
tion over the branch, opening on one side only ; the cells on the margins of
the branches (younger cells) nearly of the same shape as in the Fenes-
tellide ; the older cells in the innermost portion of the branches much
compressed, but never partaking of a tubular character.
Genus IV. Polypora.
The cell-structure of the following genera is such as to warrant their
separation from the whole of the above genera, but they are not suffi-
ciently studied, neither are their details so well worked out as to enable
me to suggest a proper place for them at present.
Genus 1. Goniocladia, Htheridge, Jun.
3 IL. Synocladia, si Two most distinct
Synocladia, Young and Young. species.
» II. Hyphasmapora, Htheridge, Jun.
3, LV. Thamniseus, Young and Young.
" V. Sulcoretepora Robertsoni, Young and Young.
» WI. Archeopora, De Koninck.
All the above are types of distinct genera, and before they can be
properly placed the Silurian, as well as the Permian Polyzoa must be
carefully studied in the way that I have already suggested.
For the present, too, I will catalogue the remainder of the Carboni-
ferous Genera, reserving for the future more detailed arrangements.
1 Brit. Marine Polyzoa, 1880, p. 500; vol. i. p. 1xx.; vol. ii. figs. 8 to 10.
i
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 87
Genus VII. Rhabdomeson, Young and Young.
» WII. Ceriopora, Morris.
as IX. Berenicea, M‘Coy = Ceramopora, Hall.
I thus, for the present, conclude my report on the British species of
Carboniferous Polyzoa. It would have been comparatively easy for me
to have made it longer—it would have been difficult indeed to have made
it shorter. To the Paleontologist the study of the Paleozoic Polyzoa
opens up many very important biological details, for the connection of
the Polyzoa with the Graptolites is a question that must be dealt with
in detail; and the relationship of the Palzozoic to all other Polyzoa must
be grappled with intelligently and dispassionately; and for this purpose
members of the Association could help either myself or others by furnish-
ing materials for the study.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. Evans, Professor T. G.
Bonney, Mr. W. Carrutuers, Mr. F. Drew, Mr. R. ETHERIDGE,
Jun., Professor G. A. Lesour, Professor L. C. Mr1auu, Professor
H. A. Nicnotson, Mr. F. W. RupiLer, Mr. E. B. Tawney, Mr.
W. TopLey, and Mr. W. WurraKer (Secretary), for carrying on
the ‘ Geological Record,
Smvce the last meeting of the Association (at Sheffield) the fourth
volume of the ‘Geological Record’ (for 1877) has been issued. The
printing of the volume for 1878 has been begun, and some of the work
for the years 1879 and 1880 has been started. |
The following particulars of the published volumes may be of in-
terest, as showing the extent of the work :—
The first, for 1874, pp. xvi. 397 (= 413) contains over 2130 entries.
The second, for 1875, pp. xx. 443 (= 463) + » 2360 ,,
The third, for 1876, pp. xxii. 416 (= 438) is Oe 37 Oye nate
The fourth, for 1877, pp. xxvi. 432 (= 458).
The volumes therefore average 443 pages and 2280 entries.
Sivth Report of the Convmittee, consisting of Professor HuLL, the
Rev. H. W. Crosskey, Captain D. Garon, Mr. GuaIsHER, Pro-
fessor G. A. LEBour, Mr. W. Motyneux, Mr. Morton, Mr. PEN-
GELLY, Professor Prestwich, Mr. Puanr, Mr. MerLLarp REApE,
Mr. Roserrs, Mr. W. Wurraxer, and Mr. DE Rance (Reporter),
appointed for investiguting the Circulation of the Underground
Waters wm the Permian, New Red Sandstone, and Jurassic
Formations of England, and the Quantity and Character of the
Water supplied to towns and districts from those formations.
_ Lanecashire—At Bootle, near Liverpool, an important boring has been
carried to a depth of 1304 feet by Messrs. Mather and Platt, for the
Liverpool Corporation water-supply. The diameter is 25 inches to a
g
88 REPORT— 1880.
depth of ]000 feet, and 20 inches beneath that limit. The water-level
stood at 50 feet from the surface in the bore-hole before pumping com-
menced. This level is about that at which water stood in the adjacent
Bootle well, when not pumped some years ago. The character of the
Pebble Beds is well seen in the quarry in which the old well is sunk, and
in the large quarry higher up the hill, from which it is evident that the
thickness of this division of the Bunter is not less than 1200 feet, instead
of 600 to 800, as anticipated; the base of the Pebble Beds was found in
the boring at 1039 feet, where the Lower Mottled Sandstone was first
penetrated, the rounded ‘millet seed grain’ being specially charac-
teristic. This structure is well seen in the Lower Mottled Sandstone of
the Vale of Clywd. The Lower Mottled Sandstone in the Bootle boring
becomes very hard and compact at 1228 feet from the surface, being
cemented together by lime ; but the grain, when the rock is broken up, is
seen tobethe same. For details of this boring and for facilities to inspect
the cores I have to thank Messrs. Mather and Platt, of Salford Iron
Works.
Last year I stated the hard compact sandstone met with in the
Bootle boring at a depth of 1228 feet from the surface probably belonged
to the Lower Mottled Sandstone. I also called attention to the rounded
character of the fragments of the soft sandstones lying between the base
of the Pebble Beds, which occurred at 1039 feet, and the top of the hard
bed just described, and I further attempted to show that this rounded, or
‘ millet seed grain,’ was present in the hard rock beneath, which is simply
the softer sandstone cemented together by lime. The boring having
failed to penetrate the hard rock, though carried to a total depth of 1304
feet, left a certain amount of doubt as to the correctness of my identifica-
tion.
In February, 1879, I was unacquainted with any rock resembling the
hard compact sandstone of Bootle; in May of the same year I was much
interested to recognise it in a series of samples of cores shown me by Mr.
Timmins of Runcorn (the contractor for the well-borings and other works
now being put down at Winwick near Warrington). On going through
the series of specimens occurring beneath the hard band, I had the satis-
faction of finding that the hard band at Winwick is underlaid as well as
overlaid by soft running-sand, with a millet seed grain, the whole series
most certainly belonging to the Lower Mottled Sandstone. Beneath them
are 49 feet of indurated mottled grey and dark marls, and calcareous
bands, overlying good limestone, which appears to precisely correspond to
the Upper Coal-measure limestones near Manchester, and the limestones
proved in the Clayton Vale Boring described in the ‘ Trans. Manchester
Geol. Soc.’ 1879 by Mr. Atherton, the cores from which I had an opportunity
of examining through the courtesy of Mr. Vivian, of the North of England
Rock-boring Company. These coal-measure deposits occurring at a
depth of only 340 feet or 113 yards from the surface, cannot but be re-
garded as a discovery of the highest commercial importance, as wellas of
scientific interest; for, looking to the westerly attenuation of thickness of
the Coal-measures of South Lancashire, there can be little doubt but that
the Manchester coalfield will occur at a less depth beneath the limestones
than at Manchester, in which case a valuable and workable coalfield may
lie under the London and North-Western Railway at Parkside, where a
boring has also recently been carried out, and where the coal-measures
have probably been reached at even a still smaller depth, but the par-
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 89
ticulars of which I have not as yet been able to find time to procure, it
necessitating a visit to Crewe, where the cores are preserved.
The following is the journal of the Winwick boring :—
ft. in. ft. in.
Moss . i , 5 : A Z AN 0a Ky
30 0 Fine white sand : 3 ; : 28 Os icin
127 5 Fine-grained sandstone. : ; 97 5
Coarse compact sandstone, with
172 6, ‘millet seed’ grain and red marl 45 1
band if
182 0 Shaly marl . . : é f ¢ 9 6
201 0 Fine-grained (L.M.) sandstone . : 19 0
212 0 Hard sandstone. : 5 : ; 10 0
214 0 { Reeth $' 2 0 \ New Red Sand-
226 0 Caleareous sandstone . : ; ‘ 1 UAE eke: el0 ty, Gin.
252 6 Marl. ; F E 2 p 2 26 6
270 6 Large-grained sandstone . : A 18 0
276 6 Marl. ; ; : ; : H 6 0
298 6 Soft white sand. 3 3 i - 22 0
329 6 Soft brown sand. : 5 : 31 0
340 6 Red sandstone . 4 : F : 11 0
351 6 Mottled grey marl . : : ‘ RO
360 0 Dark mottled marl . = : 8 6 to
365 0 Hard brown sandstone . 2 - 5 0 Uppes tere
369 0 Brown marl . , : . 4 4 Of 33 ft Gin,
373 0 Variegated marl steed Hee Fe 4 0 SSG IOe ©
385 0O Marl. e A c 3 . ¢ 12 0
396 0 Limestone . A 5 : : : ll 0
399 O Marl. z : é : : F 3.0 37 feet of
408 0 Limestone . : Z . i j 9 0 limestones.
412 0 Compact limestone . . ; 5 4 0
The dip of the Pebble Beds in the neighbourhood is to the south-east
and south, at low angles. In Nos. 1 and 2 shafts the strata consist of soft
red moulding sand without pebbles, very easily worked. No. 3 shaft
exhibits characteristic Pebble Beds, the current planes being covered with
dark mica; the rock is hard and contains pebbles. No. 4 shaft, near the
Spa Well, also isin undoubted Pebble Beds, though moderately hard, but
contains many pebbles.
A drift, or level, is being driven to this shaft from the pumping
station 1200 yards distant, which will doubtless throw much light on the
structure of these sandstones. A powerful spring of water was met with in
No. 4 shaft, at a depth of about 90 feet from the surface.
The level of the Parkside wells of the North-Western Railway will be
about 110 feet, that of Winwick pumping station 125 feet, that of the Spa
Well about 96 feet, that of the Dallam Lane Forge well about 43 feet.
Between Golborne and Parkside the Pebble Beds occur dipping east;
from Parkside to Spa Well they continue, but gradually change their
direction of dip to south-east, as is well seen at Middleton Hall Quarry,
near Spa Well. Had not this change of strike taken place the base of the .
Pebble Beds would have cropped out north of Winwick, instead of which |
they occupy a considerable tract around Golborne, and the thickness of
triassic strata at Parkside would have been much less than at Winwick,
1} miles to the south, the strike of the rocks nearly coinciding in direction
with a line drawn between the two wells.
Between the Winwick pumping station and Dallam Lane Forge,
90 REPORT—1880.
24 miles distant, this is not the case; the Pebble Beds at Hulme Delf,
south of Winwick, dip south, or directly at the Dallam works. The
dip varies in different quarries from 4° to 8°. Taking it at 4°, and
the base of the trias at Winwick at 215 feet below O.D., and assuming the
surface of the coal-measures beneath the trias to correspond to the amount
of dip, the base of the trias could be carried down 1000 feet at Dallam
Lane Forge, or 1215 feet below O.D., and 1258 feet below the surface.
The boring of which I gave details actually penetrated of this depth
880 feet, the lowest beds met with being 70 feet of soft Lower
Mottled Sandstone, with the millet-seed grain, occurring immediately
beneath (pebble-bearing) Pebble Beds, so that these soft beds evidently
belong to the uppermost portion of the Lower Mottled series. These we
have seen at Winwick reach a thickness of more than 200 feet, and at
Bootle boring of more than 300 feet, in the latter case without their base hay-
ing been reached, so that they may possibly be 350 feet thick under War-
rington, in which case their base will be 1230 feet beneath Dallam Lane
Forge, which closely agrees with the calculation of the probable position
of the base of the trias, based upon the observed dips at Winwick. There
is therefore strong evidence to believe that the coal-measures underlie
Warrington at a depth of 400 yards, but at what angle and in what direc-
tion they dip there is no evidence to show. The highest coals of the
Wigan coalfield, the ‘ Ince Mines,’ are striking nearly south, between Town
Green, Ashton, and Edge Green, Golborne; and did no fault intervene,
their southern prolongation would pass through Newton Bridge and Great
Sankey, but it is repeatedly thrown back westwards by faults, with
westerly downthrows, so that the coal-measures between Winwick and
Sutton, are entirely measures lying above the Lyons Delf of St. Helens,
and probably in great part belong to the Upper or Manchester coalfield.
In the centre of this tract a colliery has been sunk at Bold Moss, cast of
St. Helen’s Junction, for opportunities to view which, and for copies of
the sections passed through, I have to thank Mr. Harbottle, the managing
director. Several coal-seams have been passed through, and these have
been supposed to be identical with the upper seams of the St. Helen’s
field ; but after having the section drawn to scale, and compared with the
neighbouring collieries, I am inclined to think that these coals are on a
higher horizon, and probably belong to the Upper coal-measures, Pro-
gressing westwards the first fault with an easterly downthrow is that
passing through Whiston, which, with that passing Sutton Heath, throws
in the remarkable trough of New Red Sandstone, extending from Rainhill
to Eccleston Hill, which I have lately had the opportunity of examining in
great detail ; and it will be noted that it is in this triangle that the small
tract of Upper coal-measure limestone is brought by faults to the surface
at Huyton, long since described by Mr. Binney and Prof. Hull. Here we
have the normal south-west and north-east strike of this area, and should
this continue eastwards, and the limestones proved at Winwick range in
this direction with a south-easterly dip, the measures underlying the trias
of Warrington must be very considerably above the horizon of the lime-
stones, and higher in the series than any coal-measures cropping to the
surface in Lancashire. But should the limestones of Winwick belong to
the same horizon as those of the Manchester coalfield, it is in the highest
degree probable that another 600 feet, and possibly much less, would
reach the Openshaw coal, or its equivalent.
The soft ‘ millet-seed’-grained moulding sands of Town Green near
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 91
Ormskirk belong to the Upper Mottled Sandstone, but occupy a lower
horizon in it than the more compact sandstones faulted in west of the
railroad, in which the principal well-borings of the Southport Waterworks
have been carried. But the soft beds afford the water-bearing horizon, in
the welis of the Widness Local Board, at Stocks wells and Netherley.
For similar facilities I have to thank Mr. Beck, of Dallam Lane Forge,
Warrington, for a boring made at that place. From an inspection of the
cores, in company with my colleague, Mr. Strahan, we constructed the
following journal :—
feet
1. Boulder clay and drift . = - . : 30
2. Red and pale yellow, soft rock ; : . 850
3. Red and white ditto, slickensides . . 2 Ubhes
384 feet. FAULT. M aa ca
Flagey micaceous sandstone . : :
4, {Bet Bitonc and thin shale bands . ‘ i 218 Sandstone.
600, Micaceous flags and slickensides . os
5. Red and white sandstone 3 : ' : 159
1626 5 FAULT.
6. Red Sandstone with pebbles . F : 58 { a : =
f Lower
887 ,, 7. Soft Red Sandstone 70< Mottled
Sandstone.
The water pumped was found to be salt :—
At a depth of 227 feet from surface 40 grains of salt per gal.
” 345 ” »” 170 ” 9
. 390: 5 ,, y, 300 a
i eT . 750 3 ub
+ 500, “ 1246 3 s
» 600 “r p 1575 > ”
- 9 680 9 » 3100 = 2)
ES 76 i 4000 i ‘
Z gig: <,* if 4500 &
At Dallam Lane Forge boring, as stated above, distinct traces of a
fault occur at 384 feet, and at 752 feet, and Mr. Beck found the beds
in his opinion turned on end in the former. That one fault occurs
ranging up from the south side of the river is undoubted, and I was
inclined with others to attribute the brine spring met with to the action
of this fault, leading the brine from the salt district in the Keuper
Marls to the south. But during the past year, after careful study of the
action of faults on the passage of water, I have given up this position as
untenable.
Where two porous permeable rocks are thrown against each other by a
fault, the dislocation offers little resistance to the passage of water through
the faults, and affords no facilities for its passage along its length, either
between its walls or along the face of the upcast slope.
Where two impermeable beds of shale or clay are thrown against each
other, the fissure of the fault is narrow, so that it seldom includes foreign
material, and water can neither pass through nor along it.
Where permeable formations are thrown against impermeable rocks,
by faults, the district is divided into watertight compartments ; water
flowing down the dip planes of the strata, ponding up on the dip side,
_travels along the face of the fault, and rises until it escapes where the porous
-rock crops to the surface, and is cut off by the fault, the course of which is
marked by a line of springs.
92 REPORT— 1880.
In the case of the fault traversing Warrington from the south, the
fissure of the fault in the salt-bearing marls would be close, and unavyail-
able as a duct, and supposing even brine-laden water to have sunk into
the sandstones beneath, these being porous would not absorb it equally in
all directions, and would be incapable of conveying it, in the fissure of the
fault, to their outcrop to the north, under Warrington.
Looking to the probable proximity of the coal-measures to the sur-
face, and that salt-springs occur in many coalfields, and, indeed in the
Wigan coalfield, near Worthington, I am inclined to believe the brine-
springs of Dallam Lane to be of coal-measure origin.
AppENnDIx I.—Borings in Lancashire Trias, collected by C. E. De Rance,
Assoc. Inst. C.H
Boring executed by the North of England Rock-boring Company,
Mr. Vivian, C.E., Manager, at Mr. James Hull’s brewery, Preston, 1880.
Surface about 105 feet above the Ordnance Datum line.
ft. in.
WELL, probably in Middle oe Drift 45 6
Muddy sand and clay ‘ Middle 4 6
Fine gravel and sand : , Drift 3.6
Hard sand 58’ 6” 6 0
Dry muddy sand J 6 6
Hard brown ‘ Pinnel : Fauivalentl 2 ©
Brown sandy ‘pinnel * en Ceo wo
Hard dry sand = 1 ee 3 0
Hard dry muddy sand F : { ope eP ay} 4 0
Red sand . ee We 4 6
Hard red sandstone : : ; ZO
Red sandstone 8 0
Soft red sandstone a6
Light red sandstone (0. D. level occurs, in upper
part) . : : é 8 6
Red sandstone, very full of mica ; ° 23 6
Red and grey sandstones, mixed, full of mica . 14 O
Red sandstone 15 7
Soft red sandstone i ee
Coarse red sandstone 30. 9
Red sandstone Lirvee
Pink shale é 4 fs : : 5 : 5,0
Red sandstone : ; ; ; ‘ : : Sas
Rough red sandstone ; , : : : 14 6
246 10
The water in this bore-hole rises within 40 feet of the surface, and its level is
stated not to be connected with that of the water, in the well, derived from the
Glacial Drift deposits. The rock passed throughis a compact coarse sandstone, with
occasional pebbles, micaceous partings, and thin shale beds, and it affords character-
istic samples of the pebble beds of the Trias.
Southport Waterworks Co. Lim., per Mr. W. Harper, Secretary.
Information arranged and notes by C. HE. De Rance.
1. Aughton, near Ormskirk. 1a. 1867. Other bore-holes since well not deepened
3. 180 ft., 10’ +. 6’ 8” oval, 4 bore-holes, 9°42 ft., 222 feet from surface. 3a. One due
west 100 yds., much water in fault.; one north 17 yds.; one south 20 yds. 4. 110-
112 ft., with constant pumping. The drift level, 144 ft. from surface, is not pumped
down to with two engines. 4a. Came to surface. 7. No.
a
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 93
Per imperial gallon.
8. Actual and saline ammonia ; a . 4 : 0-004
Ammonia from organic matter - : i : : 0-00L
Nitrogen as qehrates : ‘
Oxygen required to oxidise organic matter - : : 0010
Lime : - : : ; : f E " : 5544
Magnesia . : - ; : : : . 2-474
Alkalies not ammonic , : z i ‘ 4 3 1/190
Chlorine . ; F 5 é . ; : 3 1°340
Sulphuric anhy dride ; : ; : 5 : 2°114
Nitric acid c : F : 5 F é 4
Carbonic anhydride , : i : : 5 5893
Silica, aluminia, &c. . 2 : ; : a ‘ 4 0:800
Hardness . : ; 4 : : i : : LS
Ditto after boiling . : ; ; : : : - 33
Tt is an extremely pure water.
C. MEymotTtT Tivy, M.A., M.B.,
Laboratory, London Hospital.
9. Soil F A é } : 0
Strong clay P : ; 6 0 |
Sand and gravel : ; So te Ge\ 40’ 6"
Strong clay : : we Le OF ; a,
Quick sand : ‘ ‘ : 2 0] Well, 180'0
Strong clay : 7 : 8 6/
Red sandstone : : SUB ELS (a
Ditto in bore-hole . : s+ \428:0
222 0
Fault with much water between Parliament Shaft and Pilot Shaft, cut in drift
10 to 15 feet from former shaft, and again in West drift from Pilot Shaft.
10. No. 11. Arenone. 12. Yes. 13. No. 14. No. 125. No.
Southport Waterworks Co. Lim., per Mr. W. Harper, Secretary.
1. Scarisbrick. 2a. 1854; not deepened, and no bore-holes. 3. 124 ft.; no
bore-hole. 3a. None. &. Not pumping, water stands near surface, and drains away
into Old Quarry. 4a. Same. 5. Formerly pumped. 6. No. 7. No. 8. Requires
filtering through Mr. Spencer’s Carbide.
Hardness 20° analysed by THOS. SPENCER, F.C.S.,
Euston Square.
“3
acl
ets
~
5
9. Soil andclay . - = 2 C 5 : ; E 5 0 ;
Freestone rock 3 a : A ; ‘ $ SS sre)
120 0
10. No. 211. None. 22. Yes. 13. No. 14. No. 15. No.
Southport Waterworks Co. Lim., per Mr. W. Harper, Secretary.
1. Springfield, near Town Green. 2a. 1876-9. Not completed. 3. 232 ft.
153’x 6. Two shafts. 3a. 135 ft. (39 high, by 6’, then 15’ high). 4. Always
pumping, 125 ft. to water; when stopped, at surface. 4a. At surface. 5. Half-
million gallons without lowering. 6. Does not vary; new well. 7. No.
8. Taken at 250 ft. from surface (bore-hole in well).
Per imperial gallon.
Actual and saline ammonia * : : § é 0-001
Ammonia from organic matter . j j ‘ y . 0-009
Nitrogen as nitrates . ; - : ° : ‘ : a
94 REPORT— 1880.
Oxygen required to oxidise organic matter 5 cae he 0:007
Lime . : cl 6 A . ; : . Fi 4:682
Magnesia . ‘ a . 5 “ : 5 fi 2298
Alkalies not ammonia . ° . : : 2 0:920
Chlorine. “| : ° : ; : : . 1-440
Sulphuric anhydride : ° . 2013
Nitric acid : : c : : 2 : F ; ==
Carbonic anhydride . : - : : : - , 5123
Silica and alumina . : - é : 3 : : 0:100
Hardness . : . : : : : : j . 148
Ditto after boiling . - . - : i : 4 51
The waters from four feeders at 100, 200, 210, and 225 feet from surface, contain less
lime, magnesia, and sulphuric and carbonic anhydride.
The water is of very great purity. I obtained no evidence of organic nitrogen
whatever.
C. Mrymort Tipy, M.A., M.B.,
Laboratory, London Hospital.
ft. in.
‘Soil. 4 : ek 5 . “ ‘ F P 0
Sand ; : : - : : ; : F 3.0
Soily clay “ L : . : 2 : 2 5 0
Gravel and sand . . 3 ‘ : ; : PRs Naya)
* 9 Clay ‘Ae eye ee : : ; Feel Hae)
* \ Gravel and sand (water) TR)" ae : : : . 1 6
Sandy clay : : A : 3 ; : pegrordl havatey 7
Sand and gravel . 5 5 : : A : : 200
Strong clay : 4 . . . : : : 5 0
\ Sandy gravel c Ae : : . : : é 21bg0
Soft red sandstone in well : : : ‘ : « 63:10
Fu aa bore-hole . : ; ; ! QO XI)
252. 0
Mr. Mason, Manager Southport Waterworks, Springfield Station.
Boring made by Mr. Mason, in field at Old Quarry, north-west of
Town Green Station.
Soil . .
a ‘ 5 5 ato
Clay . ; : ‘ 5 > A de
Sandy clay 5 . ; 5 2 8 6
Freestone : ° ‘a A : 134 3
Very light rock . - . 5 2.0
Blue rock 6 é : 0 6
Red sandstone, soft - 5 > fc 15) 6
300 0
Boring made by Mr. Mason, in field near Gerrard Hall, east of Town
Green Station.
Clay . . . ° . 8 . . ; 7 § 0
Gravel (water) - . . . . a : : . 2° 0
Red sandstone . A . . ° - - : »-, 290 nO
10. No. 22. Are none. 23. No, 14. No. 15. No.
* The section of these drift deposits has been published by Mr. G. H. Morton,
F.G.S., in Proceedings Liverpool Geolog. Soc., vol. iv. part iii. p. 370, 1879.
—
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 95
Mr. Arthur Timmins, Stud. Inst. C.B.
Boring executed in 1880 by Mr. J. Timmins, of Runcorn, at Burscough
Bridge, for the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway.
feet
Glacial drift (sand and gravel) : ; ; : i . 240
Red marl . : : & : . 2 5 F 26
Loose rock . 23
Solid red and brown sandstone, brown conglomerate at base . 162
451
The volume of water is stated by Mr. A. Timmins to have increased
much on reaching the solid rock at 289 feet from the surface.
No section of the rock is visible very close to the boring, but as Upper
Mottled Sandstone is seen both to the N.E. and 8.W. of it, the rock first
met with probably belongs to this formation, and is so represented on the
map of the Geological Survey. These beds reach a thickness in the
district of above 400 feet, and as the first 289 feet consisted entirely of
drift, the upper beds here haye doubtless been denuded away, and only
about 111 feet would probably be left. The boring penetrated 185 feet of
rock, consisting of red and brown sandstone, at the bottom of which was
a coarse brown conglomerate, which is probably the conglomerate I found
occurring at the top of the Lower Keuper Sandstone, near Orrel, east of
Waterloo and north of Liverpool.
_ Well and bore-hole at the works of Messrs. Bayley & Craven, at
Ayecroft, Pendleton, near Manchester. Well 32 feet deep, 6 feet diameter.
From bottom 2 tunnels diverge, and extend about 50 feet, containing
when full upwards of 500 cubic yards.
The bore-hole is 403 feet deep from the bottom of well; the first 312
feet is 18 inches’ drain ; the remaining, 91 feet 15 inches.
The whole depth is in New Red Sandstone, 403 feet.
This well yielded upwards of 5,000,000 gallons per day, cn Novem-
ber 28, 1859.
Borings in the Trias and Permians of the Midland Counties, collected
by C. E. De Rance, F.G.S.
Bore-hole at Allford Green, one mile east of Childs Ercall. Carried
out for Mr. Reg. Corbet by Mr. A. Bosworth. Obtained by Mr. J. Dickin-
son, H.M. Inspector of Mines.
feet
Red sandstone . : : ‘ 3 : : : 3 . 400
* 5 with pebbles. : : j ; 3 - 180
Dark purple marl alternating with beds of red sandstone, 8 ft.
to 40 ft. . Oe fc si : : : 3 : - 320
Dark red, and a little blue marl ; 5 4 " . 110
Alternating grey, brown, and red sandstone, with (coal-
measure?) plants . : : - ‘ , : , . 40
Conglomerate similar to that of Silverdale Z : - . 10
1060
Some further particulars of the Leamington Waterworks are given by
Mr. G. B. Jervam, C.E., engineer.
The wells are situated on the north-east side of the town, at the foot
of the Newbold Hills, about 214 feet above the level of the sea ; the deepest
boring is 248 feet deep, or 34 feet belcw it.
A 20-feet well is carried to a depth of 113 feet. An adjoining well,
96 REPORT—1880.
7 feet 6 inches diameter, is down to 110 feet, and from it a tunnel about
6 feet high, to the other well. From the larger well a 20-inch bore-hole is
carried down to 212 feet 6 inches from the surface. From the smaller
well another 20-inch bore-hole is carried down to 210 feet from the surface,
and with a 12-inch diameter to a further distance, in all 242 feet 6 inches
from the surface.
The beds passed through by the wells consist of brown soft sandstone,
with bands of white sandstone, hard rag, and marl partings. The bore-
holes pass through hard red, white sandstone, with red marl partings, the
last bed bored through being soft marl, with streaks of hard, 10 feet in
thickness.
Borings in the Trias, on the north and south banks of the Tees, col-
lected by ‘C. E. De Rance, F.G.S.
The Triassic sandstones seen in the banks of the Tees, in the direction
of Stockton, dip to the 8.E., and the dip obtains in the Middlesboro’ salt
area, as the salt deposit was met with at a shallower level at Messrs. Bell’s
boring, north of that of Messrs. Bolckow & Vaughans. Still farther north
there is a local roll on the coast near Greatham, close to which there is a
boring, 14 miles W. of Seaton Carew, 529 feet deep.
A bore-hole was put down in 1828 by Mr. Fletcher, at Oughton,
about a mile north of Greatham, and two west of Seaton Carew. Details
given by Mr. Peacock, C.E., ‘ Trans. Cleveland L. and P. Soc.,’ 1880 :—
pico,
t. in.
1. Soil
2. Gravel, with water
3. Blue clay, very strong
4. Sand, with a little water
5. Blue ‘clay, very sete
6. Red sand .
it
8
9
10
Nore
. Sandy clay
. Red sand ; '
9. Blue clay ; é - 136 0
="
APROSOARVROOCONENKPNONOKHONOCOBDRONWNNARMOOS
Drift.
. Sandy clay .
11. Sand, with a Tittle water
12. Clay, very strong, pebbles
13. Grey freestone ;
14, Grey sand
15. Clay, very strong
16. Clay brown, very fair
17. Brown freestone . 4
18. Grey metal . p
19. Brown post, with girdles :
20. Red stone :
21. White post, very strong, ‘metal i partings
22. Grey metal :
23. Red freestone
24. White post
25. Red freestone
26. Post girdles
27. Red freestone.
28. Blue metal
29. Red freestone .
30. Blue metal
31. Red freestone, post
32. White post girdles .
33. Blue metal
ROM wWoOmMWoOrH ae ep
bo
_
i
bo
Ro bo SO Ot WH Or be Ge ST OT OO i
_
—
=H Om bs
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS.
Thickness
ft. in.
34. Red freestone, post a F ; F : ; Aggie}
35. White post girdles « F - ;
36. Red freestone, post
37. White post é : - : : a : ‘
8. Red metal . : ‘ . 7 = . rel
39. White post girdles . - - ‘ . ; ‘ :
40. Red freestone, post
41. White post :
42. Red freestone, post
3. Whin girdles .
44. Red freestone, post
45. Strong whin girdles
46. Red metal ‘
47. Strong whin girdles
48. Red metal
49. Strong brown post, ‘with metal partings
50. Red metal 3 ‘ : j
51. Grey metal F
52. Red freestone, post
53. Red bastard-whin .
54, Red metal
55. Strong whin girdles
56. Red metal
57. White post girdles .
58. Red metal .
59. White post girdles .
60. Red metal and white 2 : 6
61. Red metal. : ; : 2 :
62. White post girdles . é ; g
63. White stone, resembling spar
64. Red metal a :
65. Bastard whin virdles : : : * -
66. Red metal ‘ : f : n z .
67. Bastard whin girdles : : ‘
68. Soft red freestone, metal partings
69. Red metal ‘ ; ;
70. Red freestone, post
71. Red metal :
72. Brown freestone, post
73. Red metal
74. White post
75. Red metal
76. Brown freestone, post
77. Red metal 2
78. White post
79. Red metal
80. Brown freestone, post
81. Red metal, very strong .
2S xs oa soft
83. Brown freestone, post
84. Red metal
85. Brown freestone, post
86. Red metal, strong .
—
—
CNONSASOHADWS
CMONNKHNADROOAAS
[—
oOnanoo
_ Ld
AOWHWOSCOCSCOCOHMOBWODOOCONWaARwWOoN
_
” ” “ . - ° 5
88. Strong brown post, with feeder of water
89. White post girdles. ' é :
90. Red metal . : : : 4
91. White post girdles. : - .
92. Red metal, with post girdles .
93. Strong brown post . -
94. Red metal, 329 ft. 9 in.
95. COAL
1880. , og
_
EEOROOWOAAMOSHOOMOARAHE MORIA AMUNAEROANNWROMWL
_
SOPROKOWOHPWOWRHENONODROHOS
98 REPORT—1880.
Thickness
ftetin?
96. Red metal C 5 E “ s - 3 3 5 Poy ft kO)
OM. 3 strong . ; A ' . 7 ‘ » FOG
98. Strong freestone, post . : ° : : 5 2 OL eG
99. Soft red metal : : : > " < - LOS
100. Brown whin . ‘ E - : 5 5 K : hs
101. » treestone . . 5 - i - ek een 0)
102. > whin , i P : 5 (A
103. + freestone Gyn
104. > whin : : eee
105. White stone, resembling spar : S : NB
106. Brown freestone . - : * c : 2 29
107. oe Pay suheds 5 5 : : F 2’ 16
108. Strong white post . c : ° : é ; 4 0
109. » Wwhin post . ; 5 - - C é Log
110. White whin . - : * 3 4 0 A
111. Strong white stone di 4 : : 3)
112. >» grey post . . . : . . ° 1 6
113. », blue post , ; ‘ e . a s/h 16
114. Blue metal : : : : ass
115. Brown stone . ; cg 3 : 2 6 7
51V
Boring at Old Brewery, Norton Street, Stockton. Geological Survey
Sheet 50 Durham :—
Fm. ft. in.
Made ground, : : : - : «MU aL
Black sand . : 5 : : s A PO BEALO
Light-coloured sand . 5 3 2 0° 2°10
Loamy clay : F 3 : - 5 2 Se
Brown strong clay. E : ® “ eee?)
Dark sand 4 i 3 ; A 1 4 0
Brown strong clay : . : 5 , oP ee a
Sand, with water OP
Clay, with stone pedal UY ca
Yellow freestone Oma 6
Rough gravel under . : A ‘ : ORES
Hard red sandstone . : 4 : 7 A POO
Red sand and mould . 213 6
Soft red metal , : ; : 5 Le BAU) el
Hard red sandstone . 3 . 5 . SS 3 Mt
Soft red metal . : 5 : t A Sa OG
Hard red shale . : : : 5 “A
33°22
Section by Mr. John Marley, C.E. Sunk through New Red Marls
to the Permian, commenced July, 1859. Diameter, 1 foot 6 inches.
Boring ceased August 29, 1863, at Boleckow & Vaughans’, Middles-
brough.
Depth Thickness
ft. in. its eanle
gt 0) Shaft :—made ground =. : : F F ap lili 46)
SP et) Dry slime or river mud 8 0
29 10 Sand with water : P 5 ‘ . 5
39 0 Hard clay (dry) : A : - 5 : pam O20)
40 0 Red sand with a little water , ; . hl
43° 0 Loamy . ‘ 2 i . 4 3.30
-
ON
i
—
= DOOCANWMNAIOMUWWDODAONOCONEPARDKVCOPROHr@®Mecr
Oormnoococoococeccoco:
Hard clay (dry)
Rock mixed with clay and water
”» dry
Fs gypsum
Gypsum and water ;
Red sandstone, with veins of gypsum
Gypsum, with clay ; ;
Brown shale, with water.
Red sandstone
a with small 1 veins of sulphate of lime
Blue posts stone, with water in both
Red sandstone, with water ‘ :
Boring :—Ked sandstone .
Red and white #
Red sandstone .
and clay
and a) 130 feet.
Strong clay
Red sandstone .
Red sandstone .
Red sandstone and clay .
Ditto, with seam of blue rock L inch at 1005
Red and blue sandstone . :
Red sandstone .
Red sandstone, and thin veins of gypsum
”>
Red and blue clay and gypsum
5 with veins of gypsum .
Gypsum : : : -
White stone . C 5
Limestone
Blue rock
Blue clay
Hard blue and red rock c : : : .
White stone . C : : : ; t
Dark red rock
Dark red rock, rather salt
Salt rock, rather dark (i.)
[ very dark (ii.)
light (iil. )
| rather dark (iv.)
( very light (v.)
» rather lighter (vi.)
Limestone é
Conglomerate ; this rock resembles limestone, and
contains much salt
100°5
Analysis of Salt No. V!
Ha
THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS.
Thickness
ft.7 ane
15 O
1a 0)
=)
6 O
Zan ()
ae)
0)
0
_
wore
to
—
Sw OH NOWN eRe BO
au
9 O
eT orl oo ae eo)
SOAR SMH NNYPNOSONWN EON WW EAS ote
rr)
~
NaCl < 96-63
CaSO, 3-09
Mg.SO, - ‘08
Na,SO, 6 10
Li.0, ° - - 06
Fe,0, : 5 : - : traces
H,O ; : : - r ; ; 25) One
1 Trans. N. of England TI. of M.E. vol. xiii, p. 10.
H 2
99
100 rREPORT— 1880.
I have to thank Mr. Allison, of Guisborough, for a section of strata
bored through by the Diamond Drill Co., Saltholme Farm, on the Durham
side of the Tees, for Messrs. Bell, Bros., December 15, 1874.
No Strata Daweh He ath Remarks
1 | Soil 16 1 6
2 | Clay | 4 0 5 6
3 | Dark sand [ 7 6 13°20
4 | Clean sand Drift, 77:0 26 0 39 0
5 | Red clay 3.0 42 0
6 | Sand and gravel 8 0 50 0
7 | Boulder clay 27 0 77 (0
8 | Red marl . : ; 73 0} 150 O
9 | Red sandstone, with veins of marl . 4 144 0/|] 294 0
10 | White sandstone ; : ; 13) 29S 3
11 | Red sandstone, with veins of marl ; : 153 9 | 449 O
12 | Red sandstone . ; : ‘ 10 0} 459 O
13 | Soft marl . : : = ‘ ; ; 3 0] 462 O
14 | Red sandstone . : 5 : , . 6 0} 468 O
15 | Blue vein . ‘ ‘ > : * : 010] 468 10
16 | Red sandstone . : ‘i ; 31 2] 500 O
17 | Red sandstone, with veins of marl : 3 27 0} 527 0
18 | Soft marl . s 5 : ; ; : 4 0] 531 0
19 | Red sandstone . 4 : 4 29 0} 560 O
20 Me with veins of marl ; : 49 0] 609 0
21 Soft marl . : 5 6 0} 615 O
22 | Red sandstone, with veins of marl ; f 31 0} 646 O
23 : { 6 0] 652 O
24 Marl, with blue veins and sandstone . : 17 0| 669 O
25 | Red sandstone, with veins of marl . : 66 0} 735 O
26 | Blue vein . . OPA ia: ar
27 | Red sandstone, with veins of marl . : 13) 5") "749 0
28 | Strong marl 3 ; 3 9 6] 758 6
29 | Red sandstone, with veins of marl ‘ : 26 6| 785 O
30 | Blue vein . 2 & 2 5 4 0 3] 78 3
31 | Strong marl 4 : : 6 3) 791 6
32 | Red sandstone, with veins of marl ‘ : 30 6 | 822 0
33 | Strong marl and sandstone Fi % 17 0| 839 O
34 | Red sandstone, with veins of marl . é 16 0O| 855 O
35 | Strong marl . 2 : 5 : 20 0| 875 O
36 | Red sand and marl . 3 E 5 0] 880 0
37 | Red sandstone, with veins of marl ‘ 14 0] 894 0
38 | Strong marl, with veins of sandstone “ 6 0} 900 0
39 | Strong marl ‘ : A 23 0] 923 0
40 | Strong marl, with veins of | gypsum 2 s 7 0} 930 0
41 | Mixed marl hod sandstone fs A 27 0) 957 O
42 | Marly sandstone, with veins of gypsum . | 141 0/1098 0
43 | Gypsum. 4 2 - : A 4 0/1102 0
44 | Hard white stone x ‘ : ; i 3 9/1105 9
45 | Gypsum . 3 6/1109 3
46 | Marly sandstone, very salt a
40 to 45 per
cent. of
47 | Decayed red marl, with salt . i : NO) Sibley 7 prs i eck
48 | Redrocksalt . P Fs ‘ A 5 9 0/1136 7 Pee Wile
ter being
used.
49 | Rock salt . : : : ‘ 66 5 |1203 O
50 | Salt, with marl and gypsum - < a 19 0 |1222 0
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS.
101
\Thickness|
Depth ,
No. Strata este pasa Remarks
51 | Gypsum, containing salt ng / 1229 0
52 | Soft shale, with salt and eypsum 7 0 |1236 0
53 | Soft white shale. . 2 0/1238 0
54 | Gypsum and anhydrite. 23 0 |1261 0
55 | Magnesian limestone (liberation of gas) . 52 0/1313 0
56 | Grey limestone : : : 15 0 |1328 0°
57 | Gypsum : : 8 0 |1336 0
58 », containing salt 1 0|1337 0
59 | Rock salt i : 14 0/1351 0
60 | Marl, containing salt . 2 0/1353 0
61 | Marl, with gypsum 1 0 /|1354 0
62 | Impure salt . 1 0 |1355 0
A boring for coal was commenced in 1856, for Lord Falkland, in
Kirklivington, and carried on in Lav and 1858, under the superintendence
of my friend Mr. P. 8S. Reid, M.E.:
. Reddish clay . : : ‘ :
Fine sand : : 5
Coarse sand
Fine sand
. Reddish clay
Yellow sandstone .
White sandstone, hard
. Sand and gravel
. White sandstone
10. Sand and gravel
11. Light bluish sandstone
12. White sandstone, extra hard
13. Light fire clay . :
14, Light fake (Scotch for shale) «
15. Red sandstone, in one bed <
16. Red fake and ‘blae’ snooker for sand-
ON ote wb
stone) :
17. Red sandstone, hard
PS i 5 ! soft
19. ,, fake and blae
20. Sandstone, extra hard
21. Fake 4
22, Sandstone, extra hard
23. Fake
24, Sandstone
25, Fake
26. Sandstone P
27. Fake and clay .
28. Sandstone
29. Clay. fs
30. Light red sandstone.
31. Red sandstone in bed
33. Magnesian ‘limestone e().
34. Red fake .
35. ,, fake and clay . :
36. ,, fire clay .
37. Magnesian limestone Q). :
38. Fake and clay “ A “ ° .
39. Magnesian limestone . 4 . .
40. Red fake and clay . ° . . .
+ 00
f 109 2
'
F
to
S
10
or
py
_
BPNrFOMUWr POS
_
—_
THN AODWRWWHOWUNNHERERNINQNODHEH
we
B
’
a
MH AWODNUDODOSOCONOSCMHDMOMDMRWWWOHSDS WAMHOWROHMSOCQCSO
102 _ REPORT— 1880.
=
=
41. Sandstone, hard
42, Ag in bed
43. Light red sandstone, hard
44. Red sandstone, extra hard .
45. 4, 44 and beds of fake 2
46. ,,. shale with bands of red sandstone .
47. Grey pyritic sandstone
48, Red shale with beds of hard red sandstone
49. Gypsum, (called ‘ chalk and mre clay,’ a men)
50. Red shaly sandstone
51. ,, sandstone with a shaly appearance :
52. Shaly sandstone and gypsum .
53. Sandstone, with carb. and sulph. of lime
54. Ditto é : : : ‘ :
55. Ditto
—_
to) bo
ho
bo bo
ERANOCAGCPE AOA eR Om
AOGAoasccwnon rR OOH
—"
710 0
Mr. Reid is of opinion that the beds 33, 37, and 39 are not truly
referable to the magnesian limestone; Mr. Morley, C.E., however, con-
sidered these beds to belong to that formation, and the lower part of the
boring to be in the Lower Permian Sandstone.
Still farther west, two borings for coal were put down at Woodhead,
near Great Smeaton, ta 1789, by General Lambton, the one 396 feet deep,
the other 444 feet.
The following section is given in the Geological Society’s ‘Transactions,’
vol. iv. :—
Woodhead Borings, 1789.
ft. in. ft mi
1. 24 9 f Soil and brown clay : : fife 10
2. \ Dark strong clay, with white boulders . 5 20 9
ah Red metal stone with grey girdles . : 48h 0
4. | Red stone with white girdles . ; F sh J
De | Grey and white stone : id ; 4 0
6. | Gypsum, with flinty lumps T,..0
Cie UR Blue whin, with sulphur water 2 es
8. Strong white post, whin girdles 6 16. 16
9. Bastard whin op LS:
10. 231 3( Strong white post with whin girdles ° pf eao LO
qe \ Blue grey metal stone with white scars 8 0
12. | Gypsum 5 x 6
li3: | Soft red stone . 6 0
14, Red and white post . 19 0
15. White post with red scars 18 0
16. Red, white, and grey post, red partings 27 0
ile Soft blue-grey metal - iw @
18. Grey and white post. : : ; - . 3 0
19. Strong blue-grey stone Pb 0
20. Strong white and erey stone . : - « (60) 6
21. 189 4 4 Whin : : : c oe BLO
22. Mixture, whin . : 5 co OG
23. Strong white calcareous post and white
girdles s 5 : . . 5 99 4
445 4
The 190 feet of white sandstone in the boring has been referred by some
to the millstone grit, but probably belongs to the waterstone, as suggested
by Mr. Peacock. He stated the sulphur spring met with in the boring,
ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 103
used at Middleton Spa, was also found in a search for gypsum, in a
boring at Ormesburg (Mr. Pennyman’s lodge-gates,) near 1 Middlesborongh,
in 1851, at a depth of 40 feet, the section being :—
ft. in
Clay and sand . 4 - . : : : at) (nO
Red clay . 2 : ; Z . " : . 140
blue metal : ‘ : 5 ; ; : ase Dati
nae girdle A ; pet a:!
Blue metal, with sulphur water at 16 ft. . LO! a
41 0
Two miles north-west of the Woodhead boring at Eryholme, a boring
was put down in 1809, by Mr. George Allan, M.P., of which the following
account is given by Mr. Peacock :-—
ft. in.
Sand. 4 < . a at ( 7 12 0
Clay and cobble stones . - : - | Drift, 16 0
Quicksand . ? F : ‘ ; 34 fb) OF de 2 20)
Cobbles and sand . ; : : LS eey F 4 0
Red sand post (water) . i - ‘ : ; ; 36607! O
Grey sand post . : , é : : Sree ye)
Ditto, rather hard clay following ‘ . : : srl oy ae)
ted soft sand post : 2 : - . : Healt 38's U)
Strong red post . * 5 : : 5 : . 300 0
Soft red post, not so red. 5 5 ‘ 5 ; sy kee O
Hard dark-red post. : - 5 : : . 90 0
Clay and post . : ° A ° ° yer oe Oye
Red post C . : * < < - ° 4 . 24 0
Flooring . » Grey —: ‘ : : “ : shee he (9)
0
Hard grey post .fbeds . c 4 ; ; é aAl2
666 0
Coatham Boring, 1867, (communicated by Mr. Peacock, M.E.) :—
Depth Thickness
ft. in. ft; in.
1. Clay . . ; : OM es a OIAG
(2. Blue shale, ‘with dagger pand . - : : 39 0
3. Nodular band ~ . : ; : : 1.6
Be | 4. Blue shale . : : . . : . ‘ lL 8
3 | 5. Nodular band . : . . 3 : : 2.0
= 4 6. Blue shale . Z ° : ; : 5 , 6 4
S 7. Nodular band ! F F Mi 5 1 6
3 | 8. Blue shale . : : : - - : . 21.0
9. Bastard post grey. : : : 5, O
(10. Blue shale, with hard band c ; : 33) ,0
_ fll. Dark shale, with sulphuretted band . : SGD ma, Lae
2 | 12. White and grey post, with water (brine) . ; 97.0
2 4 13. Red and white mottled post, and blue and white . 12 0
S 14. Dark blue metal, with whin girdles . p : UMS) 0)
15. White shale : 4 . A . 223 0 18 O
_: (16. Red marl, mixed with eypsum 5 3 74 0
& 117. Whin band A 5 , ‘ t / 0 2
= |18. Red marl . : é - 4 : | 23 0
# 419. Whin band f : : : OL Sey G 0 3
& | 20. Red marl, strong - 4 0)
oy | Gypsum. i : : 1 4
(22. Redmarl.. eee 341 6 0 9
104 REPORT—1880.
Works for the manufacture of salt formerly existed at Tod Point ; but,
Mr. Peacock states, whether sea water or the brine spring from the sea
was used, is doubtful. About 1856, a 6-feet shaft was sunk on the marsh
near Coatham, by the late Mr. Slate, of Redcar, in a fruitless search for
coal; a strong brine was met with, to find which, the above boring was
put down, but the brine spring met with did not realise expectation.
This boring is valuable as showing the actual junction of the lias and
marls with gypsum, which latter, as poimted out by Mr. Peacock, are 28
yards thick in the Middlesboro’ boring. The limestones, thick salt-beds,
and gypsum in that boring, are probably referable to the Permian ; the
intervening beds of red sandstone, 673 feet, are probably referable to the
Water Stones and Lower Mottled Bunter, the Upper Mottled and Pebble
Beds having thinned out.
It would appear that a gradual overlap eastwards takes place in all
the Triassic strata, along a north-east and south-west line, the more marked
transgression being that at the base of the Keuper Water-stones, and at
the base of the Pebble Beds of the Bunter, lines of extensive erosion
occurring at the base of the Keuper building stones and conglomerates,
and on the base of the Pebble Beds of the Bunter. The great thickness
of these Triassic deposits in the north-west, is proved by these borings,
and their thinning out to the south-east is established, and has an im-
portant bearing on the depth to concealed coalfields as well as on the
water-bearing capacity of the Triassic sandstones.
Nottinghamshire.—Prof, Hull, F.R.S.
Retford.—2 wells in breweries, with good supply, 6 feet from surface,
600 feet in Keuper marl in the Bunter series.
Mr. C. Tomlinson, C.E., Rotherham.
Section of strata at boring of Retford Coal Co.’s boring at East
Retford, Notts :-—
ft. in
Soft red marl and sandstone - : - : ERIS
Red and grey marlstone and gr os pumice : : : «soar
Red sandstone . A é 2 RPA (0)
Grey and red marl : : : : ; : : peepee)
Red sandstone . : - : : : E BPRS
Red sandstone and gravel : : : - : : «a 6
Red sandstone . 5 - : ; : : . 230 O
Red marl and gravel . : c : : : : pera er
Red sandstone . : : : ‘ ; : . 142 6
Pebbles or conglomerate : . : : - ; 2) 80
Red sandstone . . - c : : 3 5 e140) 30
Red marl . 5 : - : : j : : pnt ty
Red sandstone . - 69 0
Red and grey marl mixed with red and white sandstone . 99 0
Red marl and limestone . : 2 - : - Pepe hh ot
902 0
Devonshire.— Mr. Thos. 8. Stooke, C.E., Shrewsbury.
Bridge Mills, Silverton, South Devon.
Information obtained January 1879, yield about 315,000 in twenty-four
hours. Strata passed through :—
ON THE CIRCULATION
Sand
Rock
Marl
Clay and greensand
Gravel . : ;
Hard clay
Rock
OF UNDERGROUND WATERS.
. about 94 ft.
27
29
30
5 water
16
16
217 ft.
Approximate height above sea 80 or 90 feet.
No analysis further than to prove it was entirely free from iron,
Susser.—My. W. Topley, Assoc. Inst. C.E., F.G.S.
Sup-WEALDEN Borinc.
ft. in:
Alluvial deposit . : 2 UG
Alternating calcareous beds and
shales.
Soft shaly sandstone, nodules’ and
flints F 16
Soft sandy shale . Us
Soft whitish sandstone 52
Soft sandstone, darker 5
Sandy shale 17
Kimmeridge clay 154
Fr more compact 44
4 softer ‘ : rege
a5 solid . 26
a with traces of ‘carb.
lime, 20
dark brown veins 66
Brown limestone ¢ 3 ae #
Kimmeridge clay : Lane
Brown limestone . . Z Ay
Kimmeridge clay’ : 27
4 » vein of carb. 40
aS 5 very limy 21
+ » veins of carb.
lime, fossils 24
Kimmeridge clay _,, *) 57
” ” ” 9 - 19
# » veins of carb.
lime 4 : : é Pied KO)
ae Bers : é 1a ee,
ss » hard bands of
limestone 4 3 : . 57
” +) id . . . 16
Oxford clay, vein of carb. lime . 28
as » hard,andmore limy 9
Sandstone very soft, and vein of
lime F -
_ Sandstone, shaly, ‘fall of fossils
0 | Sandy shale, full of slip
more compact
» limestone nodules .
Shaiy sandstone . j
Sandstone very shaly .
Shaly limestone .
Light blue limestone .
Shaly limestone .
Calcareous shale .
” 33
loa)
» free from sand .
Clayey shale
Calcareous shale . :
Soft dark gritty limestone .
Calcareous shale .
Friable calcareous grit ;
Soft cal. grit, beds of lime.
Calcareous limestone .
Blue limestone and shale
Strong blue shale, few fossils
Strong blue shale
Limestone .
Calcareous’shale .
Blue shale, few fossils
» 5, traces of encrinites
Caleareous shale, hard bands of
lime :
Light blue lime .
Calcareous shale and fossils
ws », hard lime .
Soft dark shale, many fossils
Strong dark shale E
Hard grey lime
Dark sandy shale
Dark shale .
” ”
oo ocoo oS SSS SOORORSCS SCcoCCoOSCSoORO
105
Qaoocecece SSoSOSSoOSCOOCOMaAOCSC COCO CO COS
1905 0
Appenvix I].—Information collected by Mr. James Plant, F.G.S8.
{The Questions to which the following are Answers will be found in the Sheffield Report,
1879, p. 161.]
Leicestershire.—Messrs, Corah & Cooper, St. Margaret’s Works, Leicester.
1. St. Margaret’s Works, Leicester.
deep. Diameter 3 ft. 6 in.
1a. 1876. No. 2. 200 ft.
3. Well 26 ft.
Bore 58 ft. deep. Diameter, 4in. 3a, None. & 72 ft.
106 REPORT—1880.
before, 58 ft. after. Level restored in 1 hour. 5. About 150,000 gallons in 24 hours.
6. Not known. 7%. Not known. Water stands about 6 ft. below neighbouring canal.
8. Hard, but very clear.
ft. in.
9. Drift, gravel, and soil 4 A . Fro 0
Upper Keuper marls . ; - 5 : 48 0
Upper Keuper sandstone . : ‘ 2 - 26 0
84 0
Several layers of sandstone are very hard, others soft. Bore ends in ‘running
sand ’ upon which the auger makes no impression. 10. None. 11. Yes. 12. No.
13. No. 14. No. 15. None.
Messrs. Scott & Sons, Bay Street Mills, Leicester.
1. Bay Street Mills, Leicester. 1a. 1860. 2. 200 ft. 3. Bottom of well 45 ft.
4 ft. diameter to bottom of bore-hole, 70 ft.; 4 in. diameter. 3a. None. 4. 15 ft.
from surface. Sinks 20 ft. after pumping. 4a. 50 ft.; now 60 ft. 5. Over 100,000
gallons in 24 hours. 6. Not known. 7. Not known; stands about 8 ft. below canal
near. 8. Very hard.
ft.
9. Drift clay, gravel . : : . : “ « 12
Upper Keuper marls 4 . - : . 36
Upper Keuper sandstone é : e822
70
10. Yes. 11. Yes. 12. None. 23. None. 14. None. 15. None.
Messrs. Jessop & Co., Engineers.
1. Friday Street, Leicester. Ia. 1876. No. 2. 206 ft. 3. 33 ft.; 4 ft. diameter.
37 ft. 4 in. diameter. 3a. None. 4. 50 ft. before ; 36 after. 5. 100,000 gallons in 24
hours. 6. Not known. 7. Not known, stands about 10 ft. below canal. 8. Very
hard.
ft.
9. Drift clay and gravel , . . . . Ch Ws
Upper Keuper marl ° : . . Aue)
Upper Keuper sandstone 2 4 . : 2 20
70
Bore ends in Upper Keuper sandstone. 10. Yes. 11. Yes. 12. None, 13.
None. 14. None. 15. None.
Messrs. R. Walker & Sons, Manufacturers, Leicester.
1. Fleckney, Leicestershire. la. Many years ago. 2. 400 ft. 3. 45 ft.; 4 ft.
diameter. 3a. None. 6. Yes; diminished. 7. Yes, affected by heavy rain.
8. Very hard, but very abundant.
ft.
9. Lias drift (contains large boulders of limestone
much rolled) - - ° : 5 : . 30
Gravelandsand . a . . 4 . Be
45
This is another instance of the large supply of water in connection with the
Middle Lias (sand and rock) which lies about 2 miles §.E. of Fleckney, but at a
Righer level. 10. Yes. 11. No. 12, None. 13, None. 14. None. 15. No.
502 hpepori: brit. Assoc: 1650.
Turster & Ce Ltth Dublin .
ry (Miocene) Flora, ke.
‘the North of treland.
WAHAB.
on the tertu
of the Basalt of
Nlustating the Report
i ep, WEg~ pe Hy om _
i T 7 Spee
ae
50*hanori: Brit-Assoc: 580?
Forster ¢ CL ith, Dabliw
(Miocene) Flora, ke.
Lertiary
of the Basalt of the North of lreland.
Mlustrating the Repat om the
ON THE TERTIARY (MIOCENE) FLORA, ETC. 107
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. C.
Wituiamson and Mr. W. H. Baty, appointed for the pur-
pose of collecting and reporting on the Tertiary (Mvocene)
Flora, &c., of the Basalt of the North of Ireland. Drawn wp by
Wim Heuer Batty, F.L.S., F.G.S., M.R.LA. (Secretary).
[Puates Il. & III.)
Svc the first report on this subject, presented to the Association at
their last meeting in 1879, the Secretary, Mr. W. H. Baily, accompanied
by assistants, has again visited the localities from which these interest-
ing plant-remains were obtained, as well as some collections from the
same places made by scientific gentlemen in the neighbourhood. He
would especially mention William Gray, Esq., M.R.I.A., of Belfast; the
Rey. Canon Grainger, D.D., of Broughshane ; and Walter Jameson, Hsq.,
Glenarm, manager of the Eglinton Chemical Works, Glasgow and Glen-
arm, who most obligingly afforded him every facility for carrying out his
investigations.
To the last-named gentleman he is indebted for the following section
of the Miocene deposits between the Upper and Lower Basalt at Libbert,
one mile south of Glenarm, county of Antrim, who carried out the exca-
vations there for the Hglinton Chemical Company, and to whose zeal and
ability in the undertaking he is happy to be enabled to testify.
Section showing the Position of the Leaf-beds at Libbert, near Glenarm,
County Antrim.—700 feet elevation above sea-level.
Upper Basalt, denuded, and of variable thickness.
Thin Lignite Band.
‘Bauxite ’: Aluminous marl.
Miocene.
Red and variegated clays, marls, and conglomerates.
Leaf-bed.
Lower or Amygdaloid Basalt, about 300 feet thick.
White Limestone = Chalk, estimated thickness 250 feet.
Cretaceous. Middle 'l'ertiary
The series of Miocene deposits at this place was found to alter con-
siderably on further excavation, the bauxite or aluminous marl being
gradually replaced by pisolitic iron ore, accompanied by a different
arrangement of the associated clays and mars.
This band of aluminous earth termed bauxite, which was alone sought
108 REPORT—1880.
after by the Company for its value in certain manufactures, was entirely
lost shortly after obtaining this section, although a whiter variety was
discovered towards the base of these deposits, on making a further exca-
vation in another direction.
The leaf-bed was found, as shown in the above section, at the base
of this series of clays, marls, and conglomerates, proving by its fossil con-
tents the entire series, including the basalt, to be of Middle Tertiary=
Miocene Age. The deposit so designated is a light grey-coloured clay or
mar], more or less arenaceous, and highly charged with plant-remains,
most abundant amongst them being the branches of a Sequoia, which
appears to be identical with the species found at Ballypalady, near An-
trim, named by the Secretary of this report S. Dw Noyeri, and which he
considered to be intermediate between S. Langsdorfii and 8. Coultsice
(Heer).!
From the condition of these formations it would appear that they
were the result of successive deposition on the shores of a lake, the iron-
ore having probably been formed in deeper water. Under the boulder
clay the Miocene marls were found to contain broken pieces of lignite,
indiscriminately distributed through them, the plant-bed containing the
remains of a terrestrial vegetation, which evidently flourished at or near
the spot where they are now found, and from their complete state of
preservation affording satisfactory evidence as to the character of that
Flora.
Several additional specimens were procured at the extensive excava-
tions still in progress for obtaining iron-ore, found in connection with the
Miocene deposits at Ballypalady, on the Belfast and Northern Counties
Railway, near Antrim. Amongst them are many impressions of fruits
and seeds, which require closer examination, in order to their determina-
tion, than we have as yet been able to give them.
Other specimens have also been obtained from drifted masses of iron-
ore found on the eastern shore of Longh Neagh, containing vegetable
remains, evidently of a similar age, and which, from the condition of the
deposits, are also in fine preservation. Some of these have been drawn,
and added to the series of plates preparing for publication.
A series of the lignites found connected with these deposits and the
silicified wood of Lough Neagh has been procured, which it is intended
to examine microscopically by means of prepared sections.
In addition to the list of plants from these beds read before the Asgo-
ciation in 1879, and published in the Report, we have to add the follow-
ing :—
ADDITIONAL LIST OF SPECIES.—NORTH OF IRELAND.
PLANTA.
Fam, Cupressine.
Taxodium sp. ; 2 : . : : 4 Z Ballypalady, co. Antrim.
Abictine.
Pinus Graingeri, n.s. (Baily) . A : - . S
Taxine.
Torellia rigida (Heer) ; : : . - - », and Spitzbergen.
Salicine.
Salix sp. : : : : : ‘ : , - 53
1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., vol. xxv. pp. 357, etc.
ON THE TERTIARY (MIOCENE) FLORA, ETC. 109
Cupuliferc.
Lough Neagh, Island of
Corylus McQuarrii (Forbes) 2 F ° . Mull, and North Green-
land.
Lawine
Sassafras? sp. . : : f : Glenarm.
A trilobed leaf, allied to ‘living S. officinarum of
N. America.
Araliace.
a Teac ;
Aralia Browniana (Heer) . 3 : : : : { ee ge
Magnoliace.
Magnolia glauca? (Heer) cones . : b : : AGRE: anual ape jRonth
There are other leaves at present undetermined, which appear to belong
to Ficus, Myrica, Cinnamonium, Olea, Fraxinus, ae Laurus.
The entire number of species at present determined is about thirty ;
and of these, and others which may be yet identified, a more detailed
description will be given when the plates are published.
Heplanation of the Plates.
PuatTe II.
Fig. 1. a, 6. Hemitelites Frazeri (Baily), shore of Lough Neagh. 5. Portion of leaflet
enlarged 3 diameters.
2. a, b. Sequoia Couttsiz (Heer), nat. size and enlarged, shore of Lough Neagh.
93) os Pinus Graingeri (Baily), cone, Ballypalady.
4. a, b. Torellia rigida (Heer), nat. size and enlarged, Ballypalady.
5
. a, b. Corylus McQuarrii (Forbes); b. enlarged portion showing nervation and
minute reticulation, Lough Neagh.
es Fagus-Deucalionis (Unger), Lough Neagh.
PLATE III.
Fig.1. Acersp. . : A : : : i : : . Glenarm.
» 2. Fraxinus sp. . : . Glenarm.
», 3. a, b. Viburnum Whymperi (Heer), a. Cer db. fruit . . Ballypalady.
» 4. McClintockia Lyallii (Beer) with twigs of Peas Du
Noyeri . , : Glenarm.
» 5. Juglans acuminata (A. Eat ; : , : . Ballypalady.
110 REPORT— 1880.
Highth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor PRESTWICH,
Professor HuGHES, Professor W. Boyp Dawkins, the Rev. H. W.
CrossKEY, Professor L. C. Mia, Messrs. D. Macxintosn, R. H.
TippEMAN, J. E. Lee, J. Puant, W. PENGELLY, Dr. ' DEANE,
W. Motyneux, and Professor BONNEY, appointed for the pur-
pose of recording the position, height above the sea, lithological
characters, size, and origin of the Erratic Blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland, reporting other matters of interest connected
with the same, and taking measures for their preservation.
Drawn wp by the Rev. H. W. Crosskey, Secretary.
ArHoucsH the destruction of Erratic Blocks is proceeding with remark-
able rapidity throughout the country, the Committee are able to report
the discovery and preservation of many important specimens during the
past year.
Yorkshire.—Application has been made to the solicitors of the estate
on which the Shap Granite Boulder near Filey, mentioned in the last
Report of the Committee, occurs; and they have promised to draw the
attention of the proprietor to it, so that, it is hoped, its preservation will
be secured.
A remarkable block of Shap Granite, found at Seamer Station, near
Scarborough, has been removed by the station-master into his garden,
where it will be permanently preserved.
This is one of the finest and most remarkable blocks of Shap Granite
yet observed; and Mr. J. R. Dakyns has favoured the Committee with
the following report upon it :-—
At Seamer Station, near Scarborough, a spleudid boulder of Shap
Granite is to be seen. This boulder measures roughly 5ft. 8 in. x 4 ft.
10 in. x 4 ft.3 in. It was found some years ago in quarrying a bed of gravel
near the station for ballast. The boulder, as I am informed, was fairly im-
bedded in the midst of the gravel. This gravel is one of those described by
Mr. C. F. Strangways! as forming ‘a well-marked terrace, the summit of
which is about 225 feet above the sea-level,’ and as probably being the
remains of an old raised beach. The gravel can still be examined, as the
pits are still being worked alongside the railway near the station. It
consists of horizontally stratified beds of dirty gravel and sand. At the
S.W. end of the pit there is a thin wedge-shaped layer of stony clay in
the midst of the gravel.
The boulder is specially interesting in this, that it is the only boulder
of Shap Granite in the neighbourhood whose position in the beds is
known ; and, if the information is correct, this position shows that at the
late age assigned to the gravels, ice must have been floating about, and
dropping far-derived boulders here and there.
Lancashire-—Mr. John Aitken, of Urmston, near Manchester, reports
that three boulders have recently been discovered in his neighbourhood,
in addition to the very large one found at Old Trafford, about two years
ago, and described by Mr. Binney in the ‘ Trans. Manchester Lt. and Phil.
Soc.’ (vol. xvii. p. 55).
1 See ‘ Memoir of the Geological Survey.’ Explanation of Quartz Shap, 95 58.W.
and 95 §.E.
|
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. I11
1. One at Lees Street, Piccadilly, Manchester, measuring 4 ft. 4 in.
x aft. x 3 ft.
2. One at Urmston, in the parish of Urmston, five miles west of Man-
chester.
3. One at Flixton, in the parish of the same name, seven and a half
miles west of Manchester.
This measures 3ft. x 2ft.8in. x 2ft.lin., but has been broken,
and is said to have been originally half as large again.
All three are subangular; (1) and (2) are quadrilateral ; (3) is some-
what conical.
They have numerous groovings and striations, although none are very
deep, upon the flat sides.
The striations of (2) are diagonal at about 45°; and of (3) in a line
with the longest axis.
The whole of these boulders, together with two others of lesser dimen-
sions, consist of very fine highly siliceous grit rock, particularly (1) and
(2), which almost become quartzites. They are all of alight bluish, fawny
ae (1) being of the darkest hue ; are all compact, and do not exhibit
any trace of lamination or bedding.
These boulders, together with the large one at Old Trafford, were
found in almost one line, viz., roughly, EH. and W.
No locality of derivation has yet been assigned to them.
They were disinterred from the drift, and are at the height of about
120 feet above the sea.
(1) is deposited in Alexandra Park, Manchester.
(2) is in a farm-yard at Urmston.
(8) is on the Red Lion bowling-green, Flixton.
Leicestershire.—The Committee are indebted to Mr. J. Plant for the
following notices of erratic blocks in this county, in continuation of the
observations which have been recorded in previous Reports.
IsoLatep BouLpERs.
Boulder at Aylestone, near the river Soar, two nviles from Leicester.—
Dimensions 4 ft. x 3ft.6in. x 3ft. It is subangular ; the direction of the
longest axis is N.E. by S.W., and it is without striations. It is com-
posed of syenite, similar to that of Markfield, seven miles distant to
the N.W., and there is no rock like it in the immediate locality. Long
ridges of sandy ¢ gravel running §.K. occur near it, and it rests on sandy
gravel.
Another boulder composed of the same rock occurs in the same
~ locality. Dimensions, 3 ft.10in. x 2ft.10in. x 2ft.6in. It is also sub-
angular, with the same direction of its longer axis, and without striations.
It is 200 feet above the sea-level, and is situated at the N. end of long
ridges of sand, which appear to be the débiis of Upper Keuper Sandstone.
Jt rests upon sand.
Boulder in the village of Thurnby.—Dimensions, 4 x 3 x lfoot. Rounded
and without striations. It is composed of eranite similar to that of
Mount Sorrel, eight miles distant to the N.W., “and there is no rock like
it in the immediate locality. It is about 600 feet above the sea-level, and
rests on coarse gravel.
Another boulder of the same character occurs in a field near the same
112 REPORT—1880.
village, half a mile more distant from Mount Sorrel, and about 620 feet
above the sea-level. Dimensions, 2 ft.6in. x 1 ft.6in. x 1 ft. 3 in.
Boulder in the village of Bushby.—Dimensions, 1 ft. 6 in. x 1 ft. 3in.
x 1ft.3in. Subangular, without striations ; composed of granite similar
to that of Mount Sorrel, eight and a half miles to the N.W.; no rock like
it being in the same locality.
It is about 620 feet above the sea; is connected with a long sandy
ridge, and rests upon sand.
Another boulder, precisely similar in character, occurs in the same
village. Dimensions, 2 ft. x 1ft.9in. x 1 ft. 4in.
Boulder in Moody Bush field, New York farm, Syston.—This boulder
can be seen in the field, on the left side of ‘The Ridge Way,’ one mile
from its junction with the road from Barkby to Queniborough.
Its height above ground is 4 feet; depth in the ground probably
between 3 and 4 feet. It is five-sided, the sides measuring as follows :—
N.E. 1 foot 6 inches; N.W. 1 foot; S.W.1 foot 6 inches; S. 8 inches;
S.E. 1 foot 3 inches. It tapers gradually to the top, where its size is
reduced to about one-half.
It is sharply angular, long-shaped, and put into the ground by
human agency. The longer awis of the pentagon at the top of the stone
points N. and S., shorter axis EH. and W.
Deeply cut into four of the sides, in rude capitals, are the words
‘Moody Bush.’
It is a very coarse ashy agglomerate from the old volcanic district on
the N.W. side of Charnwood Forest, about 12 miles distant.
It is about 350 feet above the sea. It is isolated, but surrounded by
deep drift deposits, and the bottom penetrates the Lower Lias clay.
Note on Moody Bush Stone.—This monolith, standing in a field ona
very ancient road called ‘ The Ridge Way,’ running S.H. to Tilton-on-the-
Hill, is upon an elevation commanding a view of the surrounding country,
for many miles on all sides, and may have served as a post of observation,
or for a ‘beacon fire,’ or for communicating signals of other ‘beacon
fires,’ for which evidence exists in this country at Borough Hill, lying
due east 7 miles.
The monolith is remarkable for having its longer awis due N. and
S. There is a tradition which says it was called ‘ Mowde Bush Stone,’
and a former owner of one of the large estates near Mount Sorrel held a
‘Court’ at that place, called ‘ Mowde Bush Court,’ and this landowner
and his steward used to go to ‘Mowde Bush Hill,’ where the stone is, and
cut a turf, which was brought into Court. The stone has been in its
present position from time immemorial.
There is a general tradition also that it was usual for persons from
neighbouring districts to bring a turf and put on it.
Boulder at Johnston’s Farm, Thurnby, 5 miles from Leicester.—This
block isin the corner of a field called Pol’s Parlour, in a valley at the bend
of the Willow Brook, W. of New Ingersby, and N. of Winkerdale Hill.
Dimensions, 5 x 4 x 2 feet, but it extends several feet below the soil.
It is very rounded and worn, long-shaped, and the longer axis is N.W.
by S.E.
‘ It has probably been striated, but any striations that may have existed
have been worn into holes by weathering. It is composed of Biinter
conglomerate, or Permian breccia, and was probably derived from Barr
Beacon, or Cannock Chase, distant 40 miles due west. It is about 450
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 113
feet above the sea-level, and is at the boundary of the parishes of Ingersby
and Thurnby. It is connected with the Winkerdale Hill drift, and lies
on deep sand. -
Note on the New Ingersby Boulder.—This large ‘ erratic’’ undoubtedly
stands at the boundary of two parishes, but I am inclined to think it is a
mere accident; the stone has never been moved by man, but remains in
the position it must have been originally left. It may at first have
been buried deeply in the drift sand, as it lies in a hollow, and has been
gradually uncovered by the washing away of this drift sand by the rain
during past ages. On comparing it with specimens of ‘ Bunter Con-
glomerate’ (obtained from this formation in situ), I have come to the
conclusion that it probably belongs to that formation. The nearest point
where this formation occurs is on the south side of the Ashby coalfield,
distant about 25 miles, but from its coarse nature and the large-sized
pebbles, I am inclined to think it must have come from ‘ Barr Beacon’ or
‘Cannock Chase.’ It is in connection with great drift deposits which
really form the ridges and hills of the surrounding district, which deposits
we now know (from the cuttings of the Great Northern Railway, now in
progress) to be upwards of 30 feet thick. It is quite possible (although
its extreme hardness is against the idea) that this large block is a mass
of very coarse ‘ pebbly drift’ (some of the ‘ pebbles’ are sub-angular),
cemented by carbonate of lime and oxide of iron, and it may have been
brought by ice from the N.W. side of the country, where beds of con-
solidated ‘pebbly drift’ of similar composition are known to exist. This
source would be about 15 miles due N.W. The erratic is quite distinct
in composition from the sandy clays and gravels that lie around for many
miles.
(B.) Groups or BouLpErs.
On the estate of Sir A. B. C. Dixie, in the vicinity of the village of
Market Bosworth, are eleven blocks, varying from rough cubes of 4 feet to
1 foot, the largest being about 4 x 3 x 2 feet.
They are rounded, angular, and subangular.
Some of the group may have been removed from adjacent fields.
They are composed of syenites and ashy agglomerates from Bardon Hill,
Markfield, Clift Hill, and Groby, 7 to 8 miles distant. They are about
400 feet above the sea-level, and rest on the surface adjacent to drift beds.
In the village of Carlton are eight blocks of the same character, 420 feet
above the sea-level. They do not appear to have been moved, but are
scattered up and down the village.
In digging out a sewer in Victoria Road, Leicester, ten blocks were
found together, 8 feet below the surface. They were rough cubes of 2
feet to 1 foot, sub-angular and angular; and composed of granite, syenite,
mountain limestone, and chert, from Mount Sorrel 6 miles N., Breedon
Hill 15 miles N.W., Matlock 30 miles N.W.
They were 290 feet above the sea-level.
In Rutland Street, Leicester, two boulders were found in making a
sewer in boulder clay. Dimensions, 4 x 2 x 3 feet and 3ft. x 1 ft. 10in.
x 1ft.3in. They were sharply angular, composed of the granite of
Mount Sorrel, 6 miles N., 212 feet above the sea-level.
In a railway cutting near Countesthorp, Leicester, a group of boulders
was found under a deep deposit of coarse gravel. The largest was 2 ft. 6 in.
att ft; the smallest about half that size. They were rounded. Three
880. I
114 REPORT—1880.
blocks were Lower Keuper sandstone ; two, oolitic limestone; one green-
stone; two, white quartz (altered millstone grit). They were 400 feet
above the sea-level, and spread over an area of about 20 yards. The
group was derived from Nuneaton 14 miles W., Oakham 20 miles N.E.,
Hartshill, 15 miles W., Croft 4 miles W.
In the village of Oadby is a group of rounded blocks of granite from
Mount Sorrel 9 miles N. The largest is 2 x 1 x 2 feet; the smallest,
1 ft.6in. x1 ft. x 1 ft. They are exposed on the surface, but may have
been moved in making the road. They are 400 feet above the sea-level.
In Abbey Meadow, Leicester, in making the new river, a rounded
boulder of chert, abont 2 feet cube, was found. It was probably derived
from Matlock, 30 miles to the N.W., and was about 120 feet above the sea-
level.
In lowering a hill on the road near Aylestone, five blocks of syenite
were found, the largest being 3ft. x 2ft.10in. x 2ft.8in. They were
sub-angular and angular ; and derived from Groby, 5 miles to the N.W.
They were 230 feet above the sea-level, and surrounded by sandy gravel.
At Lodge Farm, on the bridle road to Ridgeway, a group of boulders
occurs; the largest being 2 ft.6im. x 2ft. x 1 ft.6in.; the smallest, 1 foot
cube. They are angular and subangular, and are scattered in a line for
about 200 yards. They are composed of granite from Mount Sorrel, 5 miles
off to the N.W., and are about 300 feet above the sea-level. They rest on
the surface, but are in connection with a long ridge of drift.
Devonshire.—Mr. Pengelly favours the Committee with the subjoined
Report respecting some very remarkable transported blocks and accumu-
lations of blocks which he has observed in South Devon, the transportation
of which it does not seem possible that the action of water alone could
have effected.
I.—The Granitoid Boulders on the strand between the Start and Prawle
Points, South Devon.
On July 25, 1865, Mr. W. Vicary and I observed two granitoid
boulders on the strand between the Start and Prawle Points. They were
well rounded, and totally dissimilar to any rock im situ in the district.
The larger measured 36 x 36x16 inches, and contained a considerable
amount of granular schorl; the smaller one was nearly as large, of finer
grain, and not schorlaceous.
The larger of these blocks cannot weigh less than ‘75 ton. Their
rounded forms may have been acquired since their lodgment on their
present sites, as they must be exposed to the action of the waves at least
every spring-tide storm. It is not improbable that the masses themselves
may have been derived from submarine granitoid rocks in situ, at no great
distance.!
II.—The Block of Greenstone in the Village of Kingston, South Devon.
Whilst passing through the straggling village of Kingston, nearly —
three miles, as the crow flies, S.S.W. from Modbury, South Devon, on
September 28, 1877, I observed in the highway, very near a gateway
leading to an adjacent dwelling-house, a ‘ greenstone’ boulder, irregularly
spindle-shaped, and measuring 4 x 2 x 2 feet, and therefore weighing up-
wards of a ton.
1 See Trans. Devon. Assoc, xi. 330-1.
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 115
There is a mass of greenstone figured on the map of the Geological
Survey 2°6 miles long and ‘6 mile in breadth, having its longest axis in
an E. and W. direction, and extending from due north of Aveton Gifford
to a point about a mile W.N.W. of Kingston, where it makes its nearest
approach to the village.
{1I.—The Blocks of Quartzite in the Parishes of Diptford and Morleigh,
South Devon.
On March 27, 1879, Mr. Paige-Browne, of Great Englebourne, near
Totnes, wrote informing me that in a retired vale in the parish of Dipt-
ford he had recently found a ‘ clatter’ of large stones, apparently quartzose,
about two or three feet across, lying on moorish soil, and quite unlike the
slaty rocks of the neighbourhood. They were very hard, and were broken
up for the roads.
On October 3 we proceeded together to the immediate neighbourhood
of Cleve farm-house, where Mr. Paige-Browne had observed the ‘ clatter.’
Measured as the crow flies, the house is about 2°5 miles S.S.H. from Dipt-
ford village or ‘church town,’ and about 5 miles 8.W. from Totnes.
Adjacent to it, and on the north side, is an orchard; and on the north of
that, a piece of waste marshy land bounded on the west by a small name-
less stream, which divides it from a small wood or copse, and on the east
by a parish road. This patch of marshy land, measuring not more than
100 feet from east to west, slopes for about 300 feet towards the north,
where it enters a transverse valley, through which another small stream
flows. On this waste land were the stones we had gone to see. They ex-
tended from the orchard hedge almost, but not quite, to the transverse
valley ; were half-buried in the soil; and it was obvious, from the number
of large recent-looking pits which presented themselves, that many had
been removed within a few weeks. Nevertheless, there was still a crowd
of blocks, all of a very fine-grained compact quartzite, of a light grey or
drab colour, many of them haying quartz veins, and all utterly unlike the
slaty rocks of the district. Most of them were subangular; some almost
perfectly angular; whilst one was pretty well rounded. One, of ordinary
size, measured 3 x 2°5 x 2°5 feet, whilst another, perhaps the largest of the
series, was 5 x 2°5 x 2°5 feet. The smaller of the two must have weighed
upwards of a ton, and the larger fully two tons. There were no such
blocks in either of the small streams already mentioned, but their beds
were in places covered with small stones derived undoubtedly from the
pane parent rock, and none of them were more than from 3 to 4 inches in
ength.
Mr. 8S. Jackson, of Cleve, informed us that within the last five years
many scores of cartloads had been taken out of the piece of waste ground
on which we were standing, for road-repairs; and he was of opinion that
the same practice had obtained long before his time. We had observed,
moreover, that corresponding blocks had been largely used in building
rough walls and fences in the district.
Mr. Jackson also informed us that crowds of precisely similar blocks
existed in various parts of the neighbourhood, and that a bed of rock of
the same character was to be seen in situ in a quarry on Hannamoors, in
the adjacent parish of Morleigh.
Blocks proved to be very numerous in the orchard at Cleve already
mentioned, and Mr. Jackson stated that his experience led him to suspect
12
116 REPORT—1880.
that in all the localities there were many more than were visible, as they
were frequently met with completely buried in the soil, and about a foot
below its surface. He added that he had never seen a specimen in the
wood or copse immediately on the west, or, indeed, anywhere on that
side of the small stream which divided it from the orchard and the waste
land.
In an orchard on the New-well, or Newell, or Newill estate, about -5:
mile towards the S.H., they proved to be as abundant as at Cleve, and our
guide, Mr. Jackson, stated that they were formerly quite as plentiful in an
adjoining field on the Farleigh estate, but that the ground had been com-
pletely cleared. In a copse on the Farleigh grounds, and on the edge of a
small stream, we saw a block in the form of a rectangular parallelopiped,
measuring 8°5 x 5 x 2°5 feet, thus containing upwards of 100 cubic feet,
and weighing not less than 7°5 tons.
On Hannamoors, in the parish of Morleigh, blocks were very abundant,
and many of them of considerable size.
From Cleve we had been continuously ascending, but not at a high
gradient anywhere. At the highest, that is, the southernmost, point of
Hannamoors there is a quarry in which, interbedded conformably with the
ordinary soft slaty Devonian rocks of the district, there is a bed of
quartzite, identical in character with the travelled blocks we had been
studying, and of which it is no doubt the parent. This quarry is adjacent
to the high road passing westward through the villages of Halwell and
Morleigh to the town of Modbury, and occupying the crest of the hill on
the northern slope of which all the blocks we had seen during the day
were lying. We crossed this road a few yards west of the turnpike gate,
about half a mile west of the village of Morleigh,! and almost immediately
entered a quarry on the southern slope of the hill, where we found another
exposure of the quartzite bed. Indeed, both quarries are worked to obtain
the quartzite for the roads. The bed dips about 30° towards (true) S.E.
nearly. So far as has been observed, the travelled blocks of quartzite
existed only on the southern slope of the hill; they formed two parallel
trains extending northwards, from near the ridge of the hill, along the
distinct secondary valleys of Newell and Cleve; there are none on the
minor north and south ridge, which divides the said valleys; the Cleve,
that is, the western, train is the longer and reached the lower level; and,
measuring as the crow flies, is about ‘5 mile long.
There can be no doubt that the blocks had been transported from south
to north, and from higher to lower ground. The gradient, however, is
very slight, and, as almost all the blocks are very angular as well as large,
it is difficult to suppose that their transportation was the result of nothing
more than running water.
Should blocks be also found on the southern slope of the hill, they
would not necessitate any further modification of the foregoing conclusions
than the substitution of the words ‘ both northwards and southwards’ for
the words ‘from south to north.’
None of the blocks we saw bore any scratches or traces of polish.
IV.—The block of ‘ Greenstone’ near Diptford Court, South Devon.
Whilst passing through the parish of Diptford, on October 3, 1879,
Mr. Paige-Browne and I observed by the roadside, near Diptford Court,
1 See Ordnance Map.
OT OO
ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 117
about 5 miles, as the crow flies, S.W. from Totnes, a rounded block of
‘greenstone.’ It measured 4°25 x 2°5 x 2:5 feet, and, hence, contained
nearly a cubic yard of stone, and must have weighed fully 1°75 ton. It
was without traces of polish or scratches.
We had previously, and within the same hour, visited a quarry in a
mass of igneous rock coloured as greenstone in the map of the Geological
Survey. This mass is represented as extending nearly east and west for
a distance of 1:7 mile, and having a maximum breadth of ‘25 mile. The
boulder, apparently of the same kind of rock, was upwards of ‘5 mile due
north from the nearest point of this mass. The map, however, indicates
another, but smaller, mass of greenstone about the same distance north
of the boulder,
V.—The Limestone Block in the parish of Stole-in-Teign-Head,
South Devon.
Having been informed by Dr. Midgley Cash, of Torquay, that he
had observed a large stone in the parish of Stoke-in-Teign-Head, and near
the road from Torquay to Teignmouth, I proceeded to inspect it. The block
is a mass of limestone, lying on the road to Upper Gable, about 60 paces
west of the Torquay and Teignmouth road, and is apparently used as a
step by persons passing over the southern hedge into the adjacent field.
It may be described as wedge-shaped, with the angles and edges
rounded. Hach triangular face measures 3 x 8 x 1:75 foot, whilst the
depth or thickness is 1°5 foot; so that it contains about 3°75 cubic feet,
and weighs about 700 lbs., taking the specific gravity at 2°95!
The extensive limestone quarries of Barton and Lummaton, in the
parish of St. Mary Church, not more, as the crow flies, than 1:25 mile
towards S.S.W., cause one to feel very sceptical as to the claims of this
mass to the dignity of an Erratic Block. Nevertheless, it appears desir-
able to record its existence.
The Whitakers in the parish of Tamerton Foliot in South-western Devon.
On June 12, 1880, I accepted the invitation of Mr. F. E. Fox, B.A.,
F.R.G.S., of Uplands, in the parish of Tamerton Foliot, in the south-
western corner of Devonshire, to inspect the ‘ Whitakers’ abounding on
his property. -
The term ‘ Whitaker’ is a provincialism. Mr. W. H. Marshall, in his
‘Rural Economy of the West of England,’ 1796, says, ‘ Intermixed with
the soil, and often united with fragments of slate-rock, is found, in blocks
and fragments of various sizes, a species of crystal or quartz—provincially
whittaker—-which in colour is mostly white, sometimes tinged with red
or rust colour’ (i. 16).
The term is in use about Ashburton, and according to Mr. Rock’s
‘Jim and Nell,’ written in the dialect,of North Devon, about Barnstaple
also. It occurs in ‘ Halliwell,’ where it is defined as ‘a species of quartz,’
but it is not assigned to any special locality.
Uplands is from a quarter to half a mile west of the road from Ply-
mouth to Tavistock, and about 4 miles from the former town.
The blocks in a small plantation on the crest of the hill almost adja-
cent to Mr, Fox’s house were perhaps the most important group I saw ;
for though, as I was told, a large number had been taken thence for
' See Ency. Brit., 8th edit. 1856, xii. 88.
118 REPORT—1880,
various purposes, the remainder contained so many specimens, and most
of them of such great size, that they could not fail to rivet the attention
of every geologist who saw them.
They were all partially, some of them perhaps deeply, buried in the
soil, and a few were almost completely concealed by the growth of various
plants rooted on them.
Of the blocksin this group, one measured 10 x 3 x 3°75 feet ; and
another 10°5 x 5°5 x 3 feet, the last dimension in each case being merely
the height above the surface of the soil. Making full deductions for
irregularity of form, and ignoring the undoubted penetration into the
ground, each of these two blocks must have contained fully 100 cubic
feet ; and, taking the specific gravity at 2°64, the weight of each must
have been upwards of 8 tons. These were the largest blocks known
anywhere in the district.
From this plantation we descended into the deep narrow valley which
it overlooks on the north-west, and noted an occasional Whitaker, here
and there, on the slope as we passed down, and a rather greater number
in and near the stream at the bottom—about 200 feet by estimation below
the level of the plantation.
On the opposite slope we again saw an occasional block, and at the
summit were taken to an artificial straight gully, 60 paces in length
and 25 feet in width—the length being in a direction transverse to that
of the valley we had left. This gully, we were assured, had been made
simply through the dislodgment of large Whitakers, which, in a long
narrow stream, had lain huddled together, and, so to speak, had been
quarried for road repairs.
All the Whitakers were of white opaque quartz, having, at least in
some cases, a laminated structure, and traversed occasionally with veins
and crystals of the same material; the crystals having in some instances
a suspicious look of being pseudomorphs of feldspar.
The blocks were all more or less rugged, subangular, and without any
decided traces of glacial polish or scratches. In a very few cases smooth
striated surfaces presented themselves, but were probably slickensides
only.
The rock of the district is the well-known Devonian shale, or ‘ Shillet,’
of drab colour, having a tendency to divide into well-defined rhom-
bohedrons ; and, according to the map of the Geological Survey, this
extends to great distances in all directions. It is occasionally traversed
by small quartz veins, but no parent rock is known which could have
supplied the Whitakers.
At least some of the blocks, instead of lying at once on the ‘ Shillet,’
were lodged in a heterogeneous accumulation of clay and stones, includ-
ing Whitakers from the size of an ordinary apple to some as large as a
cocoa-nut.
That the blocks have travelled a considerable distance cannot be
doubted ; that their transportation was not effected by the action of
water only, is certainly proved by their irregularity of form. From the
facts I saw it seems safe to say that they occur most plentifully on high
ground ; and that, unless those at low levels have rolled down from above
in recent times, the surface of the district must have been essentially the
same at the era of transportation as it is at present.
Their presence must at times, no doubt, be an annoyance to the
farmer ; nevertheless, the roads, the hedges and other common walls, as
ON FIXING A STANDARD OF WHITE LIGHT. 119
well as the large and numerous artificial rockeries in gentlemen’s grounds
in the district, show that they are not without value, and have been very
largely utilised. Indeed, it is to be feared that, unless care be taken to
prevent it, those now remaining in the spots they have so long occupied
undisturbed, may become rapidly fewer, and disappear altogether at no
distant date.
Tt must be understood that in the foregoing remarks I have confined
myself to the limited district I visited. Mr. Fox told me that he had
noticed them elsewhere, and especially near Maristowe, about 3 miles off
as the crow flies, in a N.N.W. direction.
The Committee have confined their Report to a simple record of facts,
without attempting to decide how far these facts support any special
theories. It is believed that many other erratic blocks hitherto unrecorded
are scattered over England, Wales, and Ireland; and that every year a
large number are destroyed by agriculturists and builders. The Com-
mittee appeal, therefore, to local observers to report upon them in order
that evidence so valuable with respect to many problems of the glacial
epoch may be preserved.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Captain ABNEY, Professor
W.G. Apams, and Professor G. CaREY FOosTER, appointed to
carry out an Investigation for the purpose of fixing a Standard
of White Light. Drawn wp by Captain ABNEY (Secretary).
Sryce the last meeting of the British Association a large number of
experiments have been made with various lights, in order to ascertain the
constancy of the various component radiations, the total quantity of such
radiation having been only partially examined. Amongst others that may
be mentioned are coal gas and the ordinary sperm candle. The former fails
to satisfy the necessary conditions unless the burners employed are always
identical, and the atmospheric pressure constant. The latter is constant
when burnt at a constant barometric pressure ; any alteration in the tem-
perature of the surrounding air apparently not altering the relative
intensities of the component radiations. Coal gas and candle light appear
to be too yellow to use as a standard for white light, unless they be
deprived of some of their lower radiations. It has been found that the
‘crater’ of the positive pole of the magneto-electric light emits from its
central zone a light which is excessively white, and very constant in its
component radiations (within limits), the size of the carbon and of the
generator being immaterial. At present, testing the light from various
specimens of carbons is being undertaken, and not till these experiments are
more advanced can any definite idea be given as to whether this source of
illumination may be taken as a possible standard. The whole question is
so involved in difficulties, instrumental and optical, that it will require a
longer period to propose a standard for adoption than it was at first
presumed it would do. It would be well, in the face of these difficulties,
to enlarge the Committee, so that, more workers may be brought to
expend their energies on it.
1 This Report was not received until after the Annual Meeting, haying been des
‘layed by accident,
120 REPORT—1880.
Report of the Anthropometric Committee, consisting of Dr. Farr,
Dr. Beppor, Mr. Brasroox (Secretary), Sir GEORGE CAMPBELL,
Mr. F. P. Fettows, Major-General A. L. F. Prrr-Rivers, Mr.
F, Gatton, Mr. J. Park Harrison, Mr. JAMES Heywoop, Mr.
P, HALLETT, Professor LEONE Levi, Dr. FE. A. Manomen, Dr.
MUIRHEAD, Sir Rawson Rawson, Mr. CuarLtes Roserts, and
Professor ROLLESTON.
[PLATES IV., V., AND VI.]
THE appointment of this Committee was renewed at the Sheffield meeting
‘for the Purpose of Continuing the Collection of Observations on the
Systematic Examination of Heights, Weights, &c., of Human Beings in
the British Empire, and the Publication of Photographs of the Typical
Races of the Empire.’ Since their first appointment at the Bristol
meeting, in 1875, the Committee have had the advantage of being pre-
sided over by Dr. Farr, who has taken the deepest interest in their
labours, and has placed without reserve at their service his unrivalled skill
and long experience in the collection and arrangement of statistics. That
advantage, they regret to say, they will be deprived of in future, Dr. Farr
haying intimated a desire to retire from the office of Chairman on the
ground of ill-health: a desire to which the Committee felt compelled to
accede, while returning him their hearty thanks for his past services.
Should the Committee be reappointed, Mr. F. Galton, F.R.S., has been good
enough to consent to be nominated Chairman in the place of Dr. Farr.
It may be recollected that the Committee reported, in the year 1878,
that their work up to that point had been rather tentative and experi-
mental, and gave details of the forms and instruments which, after much
consideration, had been adopted by them to secure both accuracy and
uniformity.
The instruments are :—
1. A weighing machine.
2. A simple apparatus for measuring height.
3. A Coxeter’s spirometer.
4, A spring balance for testing strength of arm.
In the Report of last year they were able to state that they had
collected 12,000 original observations on weight and height, supplemented
in many cases by observations of chest-girth, colour of hair and eyes,
strength, and eyesight, and to furnish a number of tables, based on
selected portions of these returns, indicating the results to be obtained
from them. In the present year they have the satisfaction of reporting a
considerable addition to the materials at their command, the new observa-
tions of the year being nearly equal in number to all those collected in
previous years. These are shown in Tables I. and II.
The Committee submit that they are carrying on a work of no mean
value to social statistics, supplementary to that of the National Census;
one that could not be performed except through voluntary association,
such as they are exerting themselves successfully to obtain.
They feel it a duty to return hearty thanks to the numerous observers,
whose names are mentioned in these tables (I. and II.), and who have ren-
dered their zealous and obliging services at great sacrifice of time. They
have also to thank the Registrar-General, and Mr. W. Clode and Mr. J.T.
Hammick, of the General Register Office, for courteous and kind assistance.
irub: Assoc: 1880.
Plate V,
Diagram NL
Terman mn nf $1... A—~.-. ST (Oy BERET EERE ey os Ee divs Res ee
iN’
Al
Nd
a
LTS]
Net
Hee
Plate IV.
Diagraun N°] Chart showing the mean Heights, Chest-girths, Weights, and Strength of CassI (Standard ) |
gwen in Tables fromV toX and the relator of the Weight lo Ove Height
50% Report Brit Assos 1656
Ss }
Seles Age m Years
pes 88 NeYeare 1% Ie 1S NG 15% 16% 17 We (19% eh 2h 288
ann wi T mana falaqupaleleluyeteley ieee T PEE eae if tit
Lt } ; tT | tH } if tT + af
1
a
|
{ ignees
t
Cee t ot
t t
T
i a a
si PEE
} if jy}
feller t
if it }
it 18 Nt
ct
1 | 1}
T it i
Sfelatehal cot
Tt a aa
tt it
=; 2 Ge Be —
AUDA TEA Beets
} SS } if
1
a im ma
Peet
208 | |
+H | tH
a i i Coe
| mt
| rey
{ H+ + ert
SSS |
a t jaleta
| a ase t { a
C Toberte =a x
Mustrating Ue Teport of te Anthropometris Committee
: Report Brut-Assoc: 1880. Plate V.
Diagram N° JIL.
Tracings of the Annual Growth tv height of 13 Girls
Age in Years
9. 10.11 12 16 14 15 16 17 _—=—«A8_—_—*40
He
4
i
i
+4
crf
tH Agee
a
ee
Gee
BIaI
4
EI] See a
ANN | a a
|_|
Le
=
PEEEEEEIPREE EEE
NN
LAT Tif
D>
BRGRTs aeees
A
| {AY
TY
ARINC
AWC
]
‘a
&
a
a
a
al
|_|
iz
I
fafa]
| |
aia
||
c
a
:
|
L |
N
nia
KYW)
|
\
SNR WER
NING
VSN YT TTT
|_|
a
bi
|
i
ig
e
cai
ae
Sea
cna
Bia
coo
(eal
aa
ial
ela
le
Ha
ace
a
Mae
S
iN
Baile
RSS
wy
S
NONSH
od
NENG
iN
| AVA,
7 Af
SBaNNGAN
SNG@
HH iS
NN
BN
Fal
|_|
a
es
neces
ae
os
si
il
fl
8
ie Bis
Nia a
SS
=
Le
a
3
N
Sy
RS
BY
ZA
NS
SSGRRS
||
|
JJ SS RRR ERESEEY 274
ate | 7
=n 27 20RnEe
2 a
Z az
ial
[|
oH
eee
LO TTT
355 89/41 eee
S00 Pee
een Ti
+ SEEYEARSEERE
eee Vr
SHH ET
a
| |
piaeiseretetst
= a
:
=:
aaa
R
EEEEEEEEE EEE
PEEP
||
3
7 = SB BEE EEE EEE
Bemieee asec ere aenrre
BOSD oC Ue Se ese Ge Seles Seles caee eee
6 Roberts Spottiswoode &C°Lith London
Mustrating the Report of the Anthropometric Comimuttee
ae
oe
‘b0P Report Brit: Assoc: 1880. Plate VL
Diagram N°IL.
Tracings of the Annual Growth uv height of 12 Boys
Age in Years
18 14 15,16 17, 18 19 20,21 2
|_| ae
!
WM
\y
pppoe
HH AG
v:
N\
mENet
A
A WAS
A
| A ALY A
BBXSACS
' a :
UI
Ss NSA
TS
:
“a
BEERS
Seema
ait
HE
+++ He
2
ane
cy
NX ha
RY
AL}
VNAAL
CML
COO GAZ
MALIA
TAT
rate
a
ce
He
Sfottiswoode & C°Lith London
Illustrating the Report of the Anthropometric Commuttee
REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 121
I. As to Classification of Returns.
In deciding upon the arrangement for practical purposes of returns so
various in their origin, and yet consisting in so large a proportion of infor-
mation derived from special sources, the first consideration has been to
establish a classification of the returns. In this the Committee have had
material assistance from their colleague, Mr. Roberts, who has prepared
the subjoined scheme of classification (Table III.), which the Committee
have adopted. It is based on the principle of collecting into a standard
class as large a number of cases as possible which imply the most
favourable conditions of existence in respect to fresh air, exercise, and
wholesome and sufficient food—in one word, nurture—and specialising
into classes which may be compared with this standard, those which depart
more or less from the most favourable condition. By this means, in
respect to social condition, the influence of mental and manual work; in
respect to nurture, the influence of food, clothing, &c., on development ;
in respect to occupation, the influence of physical conditions ; and in
respect to climate and sanitary conditions, the influence of town and
country life may, as sufficient materials accumulate under the hands of
observers, be determined.
The classification has been constructed on the physiological and
hygienic laws which are familiar to the students of sanitary science, and
on a careful comparison of the measurements of different classes of the
people, and especially of school children of the age of from eleven to
twelve years. This age has been selected by Mr. Roberts as particularly
suited to the study of the media, or conditions of life, which influence
the development of the human body, as it is subject to all the wide and
more powerful agencies which surround and divide class from class, but
is yet free from the disturbing elements of puberty and the numerous
minor modifying influences, such as occupation, personal habits, &c.,
which in a measure shape the physique of the adult. Table IV.
contains some of the data on which the classification has been based.
The most obvious fact which it discloses, apart from the check which
growth receives as we descend lower and lower in the social scale, is, that
a difference of five inches exists between the average statures of the best
and the worst nurtured classes of the community. When it is remem-
bered that at birth children are of the same average size in all classes, it
is evident that the conditions of life, combined with heredity, exert a
most potent influence on the physique of the population of this country,
and it will be seen that the labours of the Committee are directed to the
elucidation of a subject which is of great national importance as well as
of scientific interest.
II. Results of Returns relating to Class I. (Standard No. I.)
Tables V.—X.! and the accompanying diagram give the results of
the returns which the Committee have obtained relating to individuals
coming under the Standard Class (Class I.)
1 It is necessary to call attention to the difference in the meaning of the terms
average and mean—which in common language are synonymous—when used in this
report. An average is obtained by dividing the sum of the values observed by the
number of observations, while a mean is the value at which the largest number of
observations occur, An average includes and is influenced by exceptional cases,
while a mean excludes exceptional cases, and is consequently uninfluenced by them.
1880.
REPORT
122
008
qysisesg
= OIL | OTT Ol Oise alia’ Sure py ‘dreyg ‘yytuag ‘sydep
a or | OF OF OF bet . =, 2 saugiag
= 006 002 006 006 : ; aQe1Z, “js1eg pue yep “ydep
061 O@L oa O6T OST z ; : - 2 asnoyaLoyy “Iq
= 06 06 06 06 3 =“) = | 2 . Asuna eran
86 86 86 86 83 r y 4 = H : ‘ured “Iq
69 99 99 19 19 - 3 . ei * — -prlvMOF ‘“SIssayy
= GF GF 68 68 : : : * assep pue ureg ‘sad
sa 06 06 06 06 SAD, Nad ete (os: papell
isa OFT OFT OFT ont [J PS eee
08 08 08 08 08 3 : : ; . * meyg qdep
09 09 09 09 09 . : i cS . * Jase “TOD
G0Z G06 906 906 906 ; * uwostepusy “MM “Wf Ig *[oD-"qnervy
=a O8TT a O861 = s : : * SIMaT ToTT@M “Id
GPG Ta rs GG GtG , 4 ; : ; * AOTOYTM “TTL
69 69 69 69 69 " ; : “SO WW “PPPS “Wh
9F oF 9F 9F OF ; : : : SIQADYY WeEUION “1
ar 9F8 5 9S6T = : : ; : Ainqueyoeig toleyy
OF OF OF OF OF ; ; ; ; * seTpny Iosseyorg
006 = 006 006 006 ; ; : ; “94008 “Iq
008 00€ 006 00€ 00€ * UOJPTPPIK “WA ‘109 pue rordey pesouey
wry | qsoqg | 4H | 298M | xeg DUE
pues pue UISLIC)
Hy Jo | MBH JO | Gus | ‘ould
qysue4¢ eer icg) qnojoy By “qyrg,
(sae) SUOTBAIESGG Jo 1aquNyy
peysiuiny woya Ag
. .
‘ T[eMuUL0g
puepoquny
paeprequmyy.to
“sLaaqUnyoA ayer
YIIVWpOH ‘st9ava Ay
storyednoo0 snore ‘puetyoog
* "O29 MOULYIO MA
PIVMOF ‘sIssepy JO WoULyIO MA
SOSSsRIM 1eq4O pus [VIIsnpUy
* (gomos Ioyjoue) “
. . “smor
apeslig og ueppodory9 py
(quowmypeysur ysiy) eorpog 4419
: * aorpog uezrpodoryey,
* sIoq10g 1093407
quowmfojdune s,A9TOIT AA “APL UL WaT
[Ooyo, reuMeTy peojsyo,7
SyuSpnyg [eolpeyy
* yeqidsoy s,qst1yQ 4v shog
* Uqraysfioqy 9e syuepnyg
Jooyo, roysuruysa yA ye shog
* qsanqpurg
ae Arey esoy syopep
uoreUrA0yUy JO sa0In0g
16
06
‘6L
. .
ASwdtis SKAGGS
re
"6281 reek ax} Jo pue oy} 03 dn poystuany suoryeAtosqQ JO 4SIT—'] @IAVJ,
123
‘sqtaqoyy soprzeyO “Ip, Aq poqdaTpoo (spenprlAtput 000‘0G) SmorzwAIOSqo dAIsMa}x9 AIOA OY} Peppe oq 09 oI¥ OS9T} OJ,
REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE.
89ST T&13 1389 TOF SPLIL | #86S
_ — ts a O8tZ ‘SU Wd ‘Uoyey slouvlg IW} * * * * *sfeUuTUTIQ “oF
aad == aes os 0g he > : 419490 SSI, 2 (s[TIT9) Joyseqoureyy, Tee ‘aTeg “cP
— oo — OL OL OL ; fee yan a, ee 5 Soran RSE aa { See (loysttg) somep 4g “FF
m= ae 7 OL OL OL ; : (jog) MOY yIeqG ‘SF
— = 001 O0T 001 OOT " * *— ‘uosmoyy, Jepuexeiy "IL |’ ° ° ° ° yoouesn ‘SF
— _ 8 #8 8 8 eS Serr se sITBULAS en (0s ee, ee a
— —_ OST Os OST OST SES Ne 8 AC SNOTUAN ST SCT tc) een ue eee O[TEEOMO Nien Ay
ta *SJOOY IS! 1DWLgSNPUT
_— — 6g 6g 6g 6g ne eS SOUS TET HN anes OSS on
— 02 02 02 02 i ss) See bce es RNTOLDION Ot
— = 661 661 661 661 ; : Saale ; 7 ey "LE
-— _ 002 002 002 00% - : : : : : As "98
— — 96 = 9g¢ 092 S, eo eae | oe eae SS "98
0% a 881 801 831 821 8 + * gageng ag pue Se Sn ee
=a, ae 81é 88 81z 81z ‘aod1yg "Iq ‘MosMe'T [eIeuexy-r0yOedsut( | * oO il : 2 ; S BE
= = Oot — O0L OOT "A “porte Nyt) Aske ees
—_— — 061 = 06T O61 <3" oh eee es s ‘Ig
i = 6L 69 6L 6L . R s , : # OE
— — GE — GE GE . . e . . . “ ¥ "6S.
= — O0T 001 OO 001 Soi ek hoe Cae pS TITOO MMR
Tal P21 zal 1 FI FoI EITC alt PCG 0791 : AoiMY “VITO PU stoazuNJOA “LZ
6SF 6oF 6SF 697 6oF 69F ee eee ee KONE UU ie ere e ) p | Semime ee eryi{iW Aermg pesoy "9g
— 06 = 06 06 5 Se Saray) Meer Marg CRO MESH CLUC) S| Remiminan | Mc besieag. 12 leery UO > Mae
— — Sel | S&T SEI Sel SS teers Saeco cer net’ FS nt et. MATOS. eG
FL €1 68 | 68 | 68 68 ‘ + ppeyg ay pueshorydumyydeQ |* * * \ * * xXoBSH "SZ
— — ec] scl | SST Sel FS sume y puegunA ‘sag |* * * * * qastammog = °BG
1880.
REPORT
— "|. OMe at OF OL Or OL "hs Be RSS ee a ha pe a STELGTE LGR EIS = Ry f° = Sg Soe
oF oF GF oF Gel | oF su) + + DMO EE Drie Ream aR eT ety |e ae = SC" arryswoaeq = “ST
io 1g Tg 1s) Ig / egy ‘ e ; : * uoodsioqjoM “IC | * A ; : puelrequims) “6l
Ja : : < : * uosduxoyy, = , : F 2 4
i 06 28 9} 88 98 oe uray ‘sq pue seyeg ureydep Tee Il
‘suaaquNod ayfray
|
|
oe al 9P oF = ct oF "+ #09 2 apoomsiyjodg ‘sissqw |" * 8 ** SHOFUL “OT
art de: if qQnouL ‘om ‘sropre Ay ‘syuetyzuI0d
099 099 099 "th -S}Og ‘UOSILT JOIAMOD “WH “emog ‘iq | \-dy eorareg [AID IOF saqeprpueyD *
‘d Mq yr I PIP 6
— = = wae ZIPF ee . : : : “oo WT “49099 “I | * : ‘ow ‘slasuassop, Ydvisejay, *g
OFL OFT OFT OFL OFI opr f° 7 Uff tt osemg 00 | * = * Gqueueysur pug) eorjog 4910 “2
ri = 7 OF OF OF "5 8 8 + goppeg Id | * = * 88810 erppHA reddq ‘Towsrg 9
— ’ | : . " : f ‘ - Io4SIO,g *g “I { 194s90
Of 0& 0& 06 0€ W | -104 ‘uautayyuey roy Jooupg purg “¢
= =. 110084) -.00¢ ope | ooe [to 0" 9% *)- Sy.ot TeSgrsamy | "LOUD etait
06 <r | 06 | 06 | 06 06 Ie : 3 4 ; ~ WepleM OL | * : , : * Jooyog AoTpey “g
a | O9F | 006 a | 0061 = : : * woysatg “VY WL “AOU OTL | : ; a5oT[0N YSnoIoq [WwW °G
=e ae! | 2 he UM UT LT : : * "SO" ‘spuourdg “HI | * ; * soyENpBIsIapUl) PLOFXO “T
124
| rea ea + eal
soda | JILSTaA\ = Xeg pue |
| 0 | pue pur ‘urs, |
| ameyy go | ‘yqs10 ‘gourd |
Tee ee | area | peystumy woym Ag UO VULIOJUT JO sedIn0G
ZY SIsoAgy ana
(soTefL) SUOTZBAIOSG JO Jaquinyy
‘(OR8T) 12K quosoad oy} Sutanp poateoor suOIyVAIOsSq() JO SI J—']] GIAV,
125
‘paytiouinue useq 4a4 you aavy Gory ‘“soppeg “iq Aq 909;1tIUI0g 943 Jo [esodstp 93 44 pooe|d useq osTe oAvY SUOTYBAIOSqO JOT}IN} ouLOg
REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE.
09ST 989T 991g IIgs 9S6IL | 902E
—= = a ae OOTT ae : : 3 ; = * s0ppeg “Id ; : : “S[eurMnty “TE
: ; 4 : : 5 aoa . * deqysoqour yy
00¢ 00€ 00€ 00€ 00€ 00€ wo}JNg "Y “TAL fe Teou neva Ag ‘fooyog penmisnpuy ‘og
= = re 09% 09% 09; f° °° * “SOU ‘MOTpeH “I "+ agnubasduy SWH 6%
= 2s 09g a 08s O860 |") * tee Po P TeRGaO Ia Te eee See
— — OF OF OF OF . . . . ‘SOT ‘ue[e0 yy ‘d ‘I . . . . sabuvy ‘SHH 1G
= = Ost as OST —- . ; y “SOUT “TAL “M “A | * * (sjapep) viuwmIwe “SH ‘93
“sdhyg Buty
=< = = = ggg = : . * wosmery [elousx-i0yoodsuy | ° : 3 : < * SsI9Ip[OY “eg
= 2 Sspreny weensplop) *S'0°H'W ‘S194 con Seca fest asa tate ie é
006 006 069 069 063 06S Lal pue uosmey yperouey-10300dsuz S}MIOVY “FS
T6T 16 161 161 T61 I61 x ‘ ‘sgoraeg ‘q puvsouor uRAG ‘sIq | ° F : * aITysuesiomepy ez
18 = 18 18 18 18 ; ; * qgessor] ‘Iyy pu ysorg *ydep | ° . ‘ : © otrysqzury “6S
rt Sa 19 19 19 L9 - : 3 : : uostuiey “yde | ° : * — :pUvlaIOUTySe AA. SIG
ae uosurqoy “ynory pue 4 C . : ‘ :
GLI €9L 966 966 966 966 Matas “Iq ‘qjouueg pur 1980; eS JESTOULOS 06
1o4rey) i 3 . 5 =
aid 4 ap ie a ay t ‘Vy IHE pue ‘qreTQ “nory “yAEIQ “ydep a ad oR a om
a aod Oot = Oot — ‘ : * Sassny ‘ITT | * ; Y : p10jzxO ‘ST
99g _ 9 cg cg es) el OTN 5 TOisag Om AdCe He eAE ? ORTON “LT
= *g FST FST FSI FST * Assougsneyyg ‘Ip pues yooopooy *ydep | * % : : * alrqseoue'yT “OL
— 06 OL OL OL 4 . . . . SOK ‘ppeyg ‘a "IN . . . . . . xossyT ch §
“(LIST Jo sustep) UorpIIyo oyet Satpnyour ‘monetudod orem Jo ode 7U9:
oeg (‘d% ‘astoaexa ‘suortpmoo yeorshqd
Tpanotms AreyTes pus O1VVUAITD
[euteyxe Jo ssouenygur) { uoMedns09 ft
(‘o2p ‘s#urpuno.ms oysemop ‘Sursimu ‘surqyopo ‘pooy Jo saduengur) famyzmy |
*(qoqge] [enue pUB [eUNUT ‘amMSIe, JO SaoMENGUr) £ WOTpPUOH [eID0S »
‘spereulyy =“
[209 =
SS UTNE
“oop ‘s1ammoqe'T
‘uouLIaye A “
‘uouaIeysiy “*
*‘smoTIeg “
*IdyBM\ WO
“ow ‘sramoqe'yT
‘O79 ‘Ton a “
"OTe M
-ueqyeg =“
“SSBLy “
‘sTeIom CCS
‘amyumag =
*"SHULIGD “cc
‘spony =“
09409 “
ss
‘oom “*
‘syoog “
‘soniq
Ul SIOTVA(T
“uatadoyg
‘stadseydoyg
*S¥t910
*spooyag AreyueuL
-d[] UL s1eyovey,
‘TE ssv10
SUMOJ,
100p-uT
“quedo Jad 08-01
(sesse[Q “PIAL 1eMo'T)
SSB[Q [BIo1EUIUIOD
‘soT]VUNT ‘SIOYVULYOLIG
' S}OIpT “maT poo.
So “OH "Spreng -
ore) *S[RUTULLID “SIOqUIL *SI9410g |
0 *s[ooqag ‘sroyde1s0j04g “SOTAARN
5: -[elaysnpuy ‘SIOARLoU | ‘SoTIent) “
I F a ‘skemqrey “
& j slesuassayy sTodea ‘spvoy =“
= ‘oy | seqyveyT “« ‘suopiey “
a “SqINIO9 YT ‘sia yeuULeoYg “amoyg ‘amny
*SIOTP]OS ‘s10TIey, | =. “Tee. “ -[NOlLsy uo
‘opeslig: I11,7 “SAAT _"poom “ SIOYIO MA
‘usmmeorjog | -e1adQg Ax10j0Rq UL SIOYIO AA pue s1amoqey
‘TA SS¥TO “A SSVTO ‘AT SSVI0 ‘TIL SSVTO
SUMOJ, SuUMO,J, £ryun0g
| - 1OOP-UT 100p-UT 100p-3NO
; Ceacere Sls “40190 rod 28.9% “yu90 wed OF-LE
Lu SUBST Sior B
SOSSBT P9}99T9S sasseyQ [euIsNpuy | iv qT
5 preg. | qoozroduy
nN
ta *sasse[Q Sulan0qe'y
‘OJT] JO SUOT}IpUOD oT} 10
‘(opesepoum) |
syURYOIOW
‘sroyueg
*S10JOV
*“SUBIOISN,
*sIayORay,
“SqSTWIV
“‘sIOyNY
"SJUBAIOY [LATO
*sqsTquo(T
*sqoaqToIy
‘SIOOULSUG [LATO
*810}00q,
“sTOAMBT °
“‘ueTAASIO[O
‘saor0,g ATVI[IXNY
*AaeN pue
Aulry jo si20go
*‘SIOULIVT
-ueTe[} Udy)
| ‘ueteUeS
-AryUM0p
‘T ssv1p
SUMOT, § Axqunop
IOOp-UT
100p-43nQ
‘quo xed OF.p
(sesse[Q erppry teddq pure seddq)
Tsasse[Q [vuorsseyorg
poor) A190 A —Laungunay
SOSSBIQ) SUTIMOGB]-UON—,"w0r7pUOD JDLII0g
‘npayy 0} Surproooe uoye[ndog ysytag ot}. JO UO4BOgISse[)—"T]] ATAV,
127
REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE.
ee ee
qqsTeq
uweyy
0-68 G6E 0-89 9.E¢ ote 0-9c} 9-69
qqstoy
9¢1s] 21-28 092s] TOES] OES ae-re| og.ce | { Bae is
oor 0¢T | 3986 |* TeIOL
|——_$__——
Cor [FE | COL. ggZ | COL ISL | COX FOE | COT BEE
T T £F 0} SF
T T 8h
1 a 0 T Pr
€ EAT r OL rot or -oF
or La 3 has) ory rg a | idem § 2 ~9F
gz 6 9 £ 6g € &. Pi a cf oe boa £7 01 -lb
rv Sr OL 6 9b 9 of | * wilt * a J ro ae -8F
ve gt_ It tI FIL zI oF | OF IE 9 & ore 1h S 0% I @ BGG -6F
gox | gt ttS\———f | 41_ger | 8t 19 | SE 9F | OF LT | OF BE £2 ugg 198 -0¢
€rr | Sr OL or Serer 91 oh SI 9 ZI gg | OF OF s 9 OLE -1¢
——zfie| 6 9 tx gir | 4t 6g | 4 gqh|—oc—ger_|_ ot _g¢ | Sx 19 6 Wim =z
S2u | "Ol > or 8 ir ge | £2 $e St 9g | 9F plage! Or GT | 19S -E¢
fir | € &@ 9 oF 9 oc | z 9g | & e | 9F 2h | 45 89 £9 -|=-7"_|_2_£8_| 6z¢ gS
gl + ¢¢ s yt | 9 et | 8 gt | oF se | fF aus 6r gz | 08% -9G
lee z St I § E MOK tee ee ¥ we 26 tr 1% | Sit -9¢
sz 2 eS Tam I ¢ i ¢ 2 FF z Ff % $I 8 It | 99 -1g
SI z ae ro I ¢ z 8 9 6 og -8¢
s I tao IG I ¢ I @ 91 -63
z I ro 38 I @ 9 19 97 09
sumoT, | ATjUN0D | coo I AryaTiop SUMO,
SBA?) stooyos | stoousg| sumAsy sdoys euvspry PMOWT! somo amr |r Peis iliaalt 42
qejog, |TeHISAPUL jodueg | Arey | -y104 pue sora0j08,7 TAY MOLSy Tio, | wW3eH
spooyo, Arey ueuIeT s[ooyoY ssepo-a1ppIW | slooyog onqud
Nag eee No Ne bk a ee eel ee
Csqyaaqoy “O) ‘qos jo SUOTIIPUOD JTYBINOABJ JSOU OY} WOLF POAOMAL LOYINF pus ToypANT are sfoq
ay} s¥ oInjeys JO UOTZepeIdep OY} SMOYS sUBOTT 944 ySnomgy Surauns our Sez-s1z oy], “eFT] FO SMOTFTPUOD yeorshyd
pue ye1oos yuosegip sepun ‘sivah ZI 0} []T Jo a3e ayy Jo skog Jo somyejg eatyepey ot Sutmoys eqei—'AI FIAVL
a ee eeeeee—eEeEeeeeeEeEeeeeeECOeOoOe
oq} pu ‘sooyoy Teorey pue a8 prquieg PUL PIOFXO JO SOI}ISTOATUL) OY} f YOIA\OOM PUB “QsmYpULG ‘eIIUEy
‘uoysureM ‘AoTpey ‘uepepseyy ‘Ysnosogiey ‘Armqdorey, “pvozsyayy “WoyM ‘WOITIO—S700YIg 9N79NT—: SAOTNOS SUIMOT[OF OY} WOIJ PaATIap SOys|ywysS sUTeyUOO o[QUT, SM T—sLON
01-89 80-69
0-69
19S
66-L¢
0-LG
*S80INOS JOJO [[B WIOTJ SUINJOI oY} UI PapNjOUT sesseyo peuotssoyord
Tig—sebajj09 Juany pun hunjyyg ‘wueysurddy pur ‘1ajsutu4se A,
69-69
6g
SOP] osv19 AW
“WSOP Troy
TOL
* 5 + qTey0g,
1880.
REPORT
128
‘S1B9X OG pue OT Jo sosy
oy} Weemjoq uoy, pus sfog [¢g‘o[ JO LHDIGE Uvom pue ‘odesoae ‘Tenjoe oy} SuIMOYG—'A GIavy, ‘(pavpuBig) ‘| ssvIQ
92-89 18-29 66-99
ih G89 | 0-89 ¢-99
FEL Eest GOTT
= = = = I
=4 = = = I
= T Sj
a I 9
a I 9
(a i 8ST
§ 9 61
8 IL 1g
ua! 1€ 9¢
69 8L 89
¥6 SIL FEL
LIT SLT 6FT
91% £93 |=9gI-—
086 =| 246 | «OAT
“EBS G66 621
8&2 LEG €8
FIZ I8I 0g
ra FOL 9T
8¢ 6h 61
0€ or =
L SG Sj
§ v =
Guagal é —
L — —_—
“81 -L1 a)!
AvpyWig ysvy oy
_
Mp He): ets GB it Ve Hs |
sivod OT
GF} Sp Worg
~6h
-09
-14
-29
-£9
-¥9
-a¢
-9¢
-1g
-39
-6¢
-09
-19
-29
-£9
“79
-99
-99
-19
-89
-69
-0L
“IL
“6L
-8L
“FL
-9L
-92
BL-LL
sotjour
OL F310 FH]
, *sdO.MOS JaT]}0 [TB WOIF SINYOI 919 UI popnfout
SOssv[Q [BUOISsoJorg Ot} PUL ‘sTOOYOY [ROIPETT PUB oSpLIquIND PUL PIOJXO JO SOmISIOAIUN oT} = WOMdIYSpIW “YOTMJOOM “FsINqpUeg ‘eruuLpIg—sabajjop yoanN puD hump
© meysuiddg ‘aysurasoA WOISUTIOM ‘AoTPEY “Voyepseyy ‘YSNosoquey ‘Pezs]eT “WO —s700y9g ONAN —: SAO.MOS BuyAoT[Oy OU} WOIy POATLop SOV}ST}H}S SUT!IMOO O[qU9 STULL “ALON
' erg, | 26-¢2 [usr Ay Stony
gorer | enzer | cezet | 9¢-2G1 | 9FSPL | FH-OFT | 99-TFT | 8F-62T | ZEPIT | GT-ZOT | 26-16 | 16-78
a. eetet eat eae [cee ii" etn cel (acca
= — | oct | occr | eacr | ooct | ¢zrr | O-Ght | Gert | O-08T | OGIT | GOT | 926 | O98 | G2 | G22 | “24510 A, UO}
= 7K 4 CZ coe TSF ore | ge9Tt | SOLT pes | 299 SPL 129 698 ost 26. | 4
“16-46 — — | = _ = = — = = = I 1 g z 09 0} eg Wor
FULT _ — = ee = tom == = = a & 9 9 8 =09
= | 19-62 - = = = a = = = = I 8 a1 eT a -09
| gs-18 — — = _ = = = a 9 6 1g 1g ra 0g “OL
EH | co-e ~ — — _ — — a g 9 eg Lg 99 |—Li——| 8% -9L
| 8-98 — _ _— aaa — = = G tL 62 €6 18 9§ tI -08
S 6¢-8¢ — — — —= = I = 9 G6 88 801 (43) 02 j —48
S | 98.0% — — _ I — _ g 6 Li 90T 6 6h 8 I -06
eL-SF _ — _ — _ = 7 ST 4 GIT 98 6% L = 06
> | oF-cr _ _ == = — T L 0g G9 ¢8 $9 LT § = -00T
a 19-LP _ —_— = = g G LT 9¢ 69 G9 66 6 = = -cOT
5 | 6-67 I = = ¢ 02 9% 5 deg ae EL IG 0Z T = _ -O1T
a | Ie2e 9 g z z II €8 69 LL 19 68 rat z - _ C11
& | 8S g p 9 9 1% 89 Zr £6 8g oF g —= = _ -021
2 | s29¢ gI 7 iat 61 OF sit 291 86 29 0g L = _ — I i
m= | 20-69 eI ra 62 LT #8 PEL 681 OIL IF 11 I _ — — -08t
& | 62-19 91 02 0g 9€ gIT P61 itd 6L 8¢ OL - - _ _ Cel
< | 99-9 #8 G Gg Lg TéI 922 11Z 68 81 7 if _ — _ -0FT
sq | 88-29 LG 0z bP co |—Zel—| 12% SIZ 49 rai z — = _ —_ CFT
= | or-s9 OF Le ieee | 69 or | leer |4 a9 |e 18 g = = — = _ -0oT
«, | 28:02 G% 98 oF 8g €8 SFI GL 61 z I — = — = -ccy
Oo | F922 ag ve TF 8h OL 6IT 88 ca 7 I - — oa _ -091
16-FL 8 gI oT 02 ¥ rag 08 g I = a = = = -¢9T
FL | 26-92 ae eI 6% 9% 9¢ 69 8F G I = - - _ — -391
S | oF62 8% or LT 0g HE SF 8% 7 T a _ _ - ~ “C/T
A | 08-98 g z p z 9 rat 8 = = _ - _ _ = ~68T
& | 91-26 = = é - é 14 ee we av ts “> = = = —£04
19-86 g - + = a = si = = 2 = — “5 == “116
18-401 | — oo a ms = =x = = = = — = “18%
e@IIt | 1 a = ae = — a = _ CFE
eel = ae ii om a r ie = 686 S
ee | | CO
| -er | -r | rer | -er | -1r |siwocoy a
“Sq UL INS10 MA
Y} Toemyoq ue, pus
‘fengoe oy} Surmoyg—
1880.
REPORT
130
en “vt
*Sa0At108 qay4o te woly sUIN{a dy Ut papnyouy
‘g. 1 as ‘ ‘ hut
sessu[) [CUOTSseJorg oy] PU’ s[oONdY [HOLA PUL SSPLIQUILD PUL PI0JXO Jo SOL[SI2ATU, oY} S YoLMfooM “yeNYypULS ‘UoMdIYspHR “erUMBpIg—sbaq109 Ian PUD y
fueysuiddg ‘seysurusa, ‘uoyZurTeM ‘Aorpery ‘Uopepseyy ‘ySsnoxoqiaeyy “peeysjeg “Woyq™—szooyog 279nq—? SOOANOS SULAOT[OJ OY} WLO.F PAALTOp SO14S17B4S SUTEIMOD O[qB} SHYL—ALON
62-96 08-96 LOGE | GTS | 6o-FE SE-FS 68-5 PE-GE
GL-GE G.9g GG-98 0-96 O-PS CGPS
ie)
to
N
ioe)
N
nN
o
Y
of
sH
i)
P 676 ST9T
$89
8-66
#86
6-09
¢-£9
0-99
¢.89
LIZ
9-81
G92
LBL
Z-18
8-88
€-98
6-88
r-16
6-86
6.96
0-66
9-101
L-F01
9-901
601
LTT
Sorqjaun
BS ohicle)
a aaa (i a |
|
|
is Unt Be
&& Ig 9F 69 GLT OTE | — Lie
+
Avpyyig ysey Sy
"S180 OG pue OT Jo sesdy ony
meemjeq wep, pues sfog g99¢g jo HIMIN-ISGHO Use pue ‘edercae ‘enzo oY}
reat, vawege eee
Wiis
sic | s182 | 2h23 | 96-26 | $992 1{ seounoBeroay
yyars
-soqQ Uveyy
Te}O.L
GG OF [Z WO
G6
—86
a XG
—4
—96
a 0
—86
66
-0€
a
a
Y
bu
©
100
iN
sue ail
£Z
8T
eT ZB 9€ OL
é
I
eb ct Yi
Jiiiiititii=sae
bee ELSE Pe ie
-IT | st82X OT
ban!
1
of
nc
Ul
i>]
nm
*soTOUT
eed th 98 eet sg res ee gee I ge Pb pe ee ee
SurmoyS—"ITA A1avE ‘(prepueyg) ‘J ssv19
’ “ODVIIAV OY} UL POPNOUT JON » ‘Sd0INOS 1OY4O [[B WOIJ SUINJZOI [v1ONS dY4 UL popnjoUr sassu[g {wUOIsseJorg
at} Pue + SPOoYoS [voIpayT pue aZa10H ysmypurg £ 1oySU1UIYSe AA “YSnoOg [WwW “pveysya—-s7ooyog o9NqJ—: sedANOS SUTMOT[OF ayy WOT PeALIAp SO14s14B4S SOPNOUL 91qe} ST .—ALON
mB _— | brt6 | 9226 | Gass | e696 | 0006 | sros | Fros | che | 1209 | 18.2¢ | 190r | 2768 | ote (a daekd
e |
= ee | 06 | — 26 | 006 | 28 | 0-08 | ~ 002 | 0-09 | 009 | OSF | OOF | ~eze TySueNng uve
a 6¢ 61 61 6F air | ost | 86 oer | ect | wt | 68 | 98 G% “05 Pe Teom
eet | — - - - = = = = = | I _ eels, 0g 0} e% Wor
. | 308t Pe — ee na ok == = — = = z , WT g “08
a 68cr f — = = hk + = ral ac L g1 81 3 |—.— -2g
a ee = pa NS — == pipe SS 9% TT G -0F
S| &h0e oa x a ee a= a erat fo pare 1! 0¢ |__@e § iZ ¢ ~Sh
S| 028% = tT = I ms pred We 8% 8¢ a g I -0¢
S | 26% | 1 = = a z I 8 Vo wi eee Sle EL G = — -9¢
FE-LZ a cm I aad ip Z 8 ST 0 IZ : = = -09
2 | I¢-62 I = g z Or 8 6 0% 8 9 z _ = -99
| SL18 Z é z g g 7A Sia |) We LI L =s Si = “OL
& | core | ¢ g g ¢ Or LL tL_| OT II € I pa = -oL
a | cece | 6 I I ¢ 81 06 8 ¢ ¢ I I = — -08
& | 6o8¢ [ z z z I ed L 1 i % e - -48 ¥
= | 98-0F L ei I——9 —| 8 L L f 3 I ~ = — -06 i
EH | Sher [came 5 € L 6 8 8 I Li L = = Be 96
Zz | onsr | 6 I T = G gl = g z I = — = -001
< | 19h | + I = ¢ IT 9 ¢ F = I = —_ = ~c0T
| PO6r | OZ as ¢ b g € a os =e = oS — -011
mH | teze | 3 l > z i P line Bie “ = = = _ ~STT
| 8hFo 8 a a b g I Z I I = = ® — -021
fx | 9299- > — = I — = I 1 es I 2 = — ~ -92T
S | &0-6¢ = ee oe a I T a BL ee = = = + = 08st
e | 6e19 | — = = = I z je 1 ale = 5s —~ = - ~981
& | 9¢-¢9 é t = on T aa I aT 3 e = — Se ~OFT
& | 8-c9 1 = = a I = ~ — — — — — - -CPT
B | oss I = =a re = = = = = 2 = — — 0ST
28-02 I = = = — = ~ — = ae - — _ -9CT
922 | — = I = = a al = = Ey — - -09T
Boe = = a ce eee i ~ ~ = ~ ~ - _ 061
fog: zapun i Fi Ne See cae
SS is Ae Se) =a Se ieee rea ri a Od Se iT na pale eh a: *sqy UL WIT Jo
Sommers] PUP &% Bau — i R Jamo SUIMvIG
“EL “Aepyyg ysvy ony “qysue1g
‘sIWOX OG pus OT Jo sesy ony
Teemgoq usp pus shog ggoT Jo HLONGMLG weom pu ‘edvroae ‘fenjoe 04} SutmMoyg—]ITA
1880.
REPORT
132
12-6 199-6 |€C-C¢ | FPF |9LE | FF-0Z [SLh | 6F-0 | P8-E | 60-0 | 9- GL: | GPT | O29 | CF | 86%
00-6FT |00-6FT | OF-68 | 009-0 | 00-L | 09- LEP | 60-0 | 60-0 | 40-0 | T9- €9-% | GEL | SIS: | 68h | 666
L9- {8-9 |61-E |99F- | 26-01 |}62-h 790-2 | 60-1 |8¢-01 | 126 | ae. I8-T | 98+ 9LF | 09: | L9T
— |FG.9% | 26-82 | 69-89 | Stved OT
1
> e
Su Sw a H] 5 me a
S| ee RE = BIS o meg So Ban 2 o.. Ste _ =a
A BE BS, | ic} 5 5 °
Ss es (as ec Ce ee) s alee eee Jeo ess (ead pw g oat
Pug £| 09 S/ou, Slo seleeel- ee] ee |e | we | ee BS ToS ofS Terre OSE ae | 8 | oka | ee
SR ESR ESR ElOR Sree re ES | ek] of] Be geltaeloRelomtlapslomel > S| Rt! soo] Be
Pee Sloe SEP ici aa o| =o =49 Boct coq ogg 1S BI/Q2@atsal(Sa5/— Hig mos 2 og Se O09
a a 5 =a ato g = o/S an) moat = og | eS
ae blQeRlFo bre ksblree| (3) a.) P| FS lsc elg cole ale So asl ese Fe | FS| een | &= | puna
pee a ie ~ Clie & & lat Olmo fo > me 1 O rot 2.6 Bo ee na a (aie 3
moto Zo mE B ale gayeagsi ae] *F 5 SEs sie? ols S oli S Elbo Qiao Si Fo Ee ae aBEL COW
Be |ge |e jeosine jee | | 7 me Mme Nee Vee eee Ee A orl Fl
= 1 = oa? © +o co The cr .
YjSuI14s pur ‘ypLS-ysoqo “jyStOM 4Qyst9 ‘
POM WMPEPTT osvarour ponuue oFws0ay qySuers pur “yqI18 sosuioay
JO 9SBOLOUL [BNUUL 2dBIA .B JO SOI}LY -ysoqo “Qystom ‘Qy.c1eq OBBIOAB JO SOIJBY
“1OYJO YOR 0} WOBled
Tey} pure ‘WIy Jo YJueT}g puv ‘qyAIS-ysoqH GYSIEAA “GOSH eSeisae oy} SuLMoYg—X]T AMV], ‘(paepuvyg) “I ssvip
REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 133
Crass I. (Standard). Tasre X.—Showing the Mean Growth.
= Percentage Relative Growth
Percentage Actual Growth (Difference compared with previous year)
Age — -
Height | Weight | ith Strength | Height | Weight | ae Strength |
Atl11 2°8 6°9 18 — bis
12 * 3:6 97 18 6-6 +28°5 | +406 | -- —
13 3°5 88 18 12°5 — 27 | — 93 — + 89-4 |
14 3-4 10°8 3°6 111 — 28 +227 | +100 — 11-2
15 41 12-2 4:3 20° +206 | +129 | + 194} + 80° |
16 4-7 13° 65 | 16°6 +14°6 + &5 | + 512) — 171 |
17 2°2 9°6 38 | 143. | —53-2 | —261 |— 415 )4 19-1
18 Teal eee bite pore 9:3 +682 | —82°0 | — 40°5 | — 34:9 |
19 cs te Mabe MICS Hf 2°8 —57'1 — — 681 |— 70° |
20 “Se eee dai | | Tie | eo — _ — = Syn
emis Oo ; ‘ral oh doar or ; aie Sindh
2 | OF 16 | ie 27 58 0
23-50 0 19 at 2°6 — +187 — — 37
The first part of this table (X.) shows the actual percentage growth
in each year under each of the four heads. The second part shows the
percentage growth of each year, compared with its immediate predecessor,
and thus indicates how far the changes under the several heads are similar
and contemporaneous, or otherwise.
It will be seen in the first part that there is a constant, but more or
less uneven, growth under each head throughout the whole period,
increasing annually up to 16 or 17, and then rapidly diminishing.
The data at 10 are not sufficiently reliable for purposes of comparison,
because they represent selected boys, who were nearly 11 years old; and
those above 20 are imperfect in both numbers and variety. For the first
reason it may not be safe to compare the percentage growth at 12 with
that at 11, which depends upon the data at 10. On the remainder of the
table the following observations may be made :
Between 11 and 14 the rate of growth in height is almost uniform.
At 15 it begins to advance more rapidly. At 16 it takes a further advance.
But at 17 it falls off by more than one-half, and after that year decreases
rapidly.
The same features are observable in the column of weight, except that
the increase in the rate begins a year earlier, viz. at 14.
' The growth of chest-girth is uniform up to 13, when it becomes
double, and then follows nearly the same course as those of height and
weight, except that it continues higher at 17 and 18.
The growth of strength follows a more capricious course—doubling
itself at 13, making no advance at 14, but making a great stride at 15—
continuing longer, and diminishing more slowly than the other heads.
The number of observations are at present too few to be fully relied on.
At 14, while the rate of growth in height remains unchanged, there is
a large increase in those of weight and chest-girth.
In the second part of the table it will be seen, by comparing the
signs + and — at the ages from 15 to 19, and allowing for the irregu-
larity already noticed in the column of strength, the rate of growth in-
134 REPORT—1880.
creases and decreases at the same period, and with great uniformity of
ratio, under all four heads.
III. As to Oolour of Eyes and Hair of Class I.
In 1027 observations belonging to the standard or first class, the
colour of eyes and hair has been recorded. As to the importance and
utility of this branch of the inquiry the Committee may refer to Dr.
Pruner-Bey’s papers, translated in the ‘Journal’ of the Anthropological
Institute, vol. vi. pp. 71-92; to the ‘Manual for Anthropologists,’ pre-
pared by the lamented Dr. Paul Broca; and to the ‘ Notes and Queries on
Anthropology,’ issued by this Association. It may be useful also to
direct attention to the valuable practical remarks of Mr. D. Kaltbrunner,
in his ‘Mannel du Voyageur’ (Zurich, 1879), pp. 504, 505. The types
for colour of hair are the ten lithographed pages issued by the Com-
mittee in 1877 (see Report for that year). Those for colour of eyes
were directed to be: grey, light blue, blue, dark blue, light brown, brown,
dark brown, green, black—the colour to be viewed at such a distance
that minor variations may blend into one general hne and tint. In the
subjoined Table the order of the colours is altered for the reasons given
below... The extent'to which each colour of hair prevails is shown by
the following diagram :—
Albino .
aN
~.
Fair eo ee
Light brown [ ee :
Brown <<
Dark brown pees Bute
Boa
—
Very fair pres
Black brown *
Black
Red brown—Dark red
Red
Golden—Light red
rg
It is to be regretted that the observations are not sufficiently numerous
to distinguish young people from adults, as the darkening of hair goes on
with advancing age. Dr. Beddoe has found a decided difference between
‘women of 18-23 and women over 25 years, but has observed the greatest
change to take place somewhere about 20-23 in men and earlier in
women. He states that the associations generally of hair and eye colours
shown by the table agree with his own observations; that green eyes do
not occur with black hair; nor so-called black eyes with the blackest
hair—this last often accompanying dark grey eyes; and that dark blue
eyes are rare with reddish hair, but often accompany dark or even black
hair, usually in persons of Irish or Scottish Highland extraction. Other
interesting associations may be readily traced in Table XI.
Mr. Roberts (by whom Table XI. was prepared) has contributed the
following remarks on the colours of hair and eyes :—
‘In the instructions issued by the Committee, the colours of the eyes
and hair are arranged in a crescendo scale from fair to black, but I have
thought it desirable to classify them according to their anatomical and
REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 135
Crass I.—ProresstonaL Crasses.—Table XI., showing the Colour of Hair
and Eyes, and their relation to each other, of 1027 Men and Boys
from ages 10 to about 50 years.
Colour of Eyes
4 Light Mixed Dark
elon of : ae : Total Percentages
» » 4
As) A 152/515 |45] § AS) &
bal Mh eal iadar 4 hor pd ti plea | )
ref
. 1 y — .
Sh nent oh 37 | 24 4 4 Bi head 120 487 11°68 BTS
| een [S83 | 49] 27 | 7 13: \ecee}) Dt) Ss ent 19:08
Brown.| 8 | 37] 30] 67 | 23 | 11 | 54] 13 245, 23°86
Dark 9 9 }
Mlttoxrn to 30 | 16| 591 20/12] 41/295] 3 215) 2008)
| "fe a " 22,
Bye ($2 | 5] 8] ar] ef ue 6 far fl a7 i 7-60 [38°79
Black .| 3 5 2 8 | — Tle te |) he 1 | 55 5:36
Red-
ah ee \ By |e Whee: bentyl alll 38 a: 3-70 pas
ie tse Tealeewels [eels w2G) TAlate Bi] ==) |i — aa 2-73
Golden.}| — 6 6 9 3 2 1|/—1|]— | 27 2°63
Total . .| 27 |190 |116 | 317 | 74 | 76/153 | 68 | 6
| 333 391 303 eH an
Percentages 2-6918:50 11:30 30°87| 7°20) 7-40|14-90) 6:62] -59
—— | + =- ~! 100
[32"42| 38-07 29°51 |
physiological relations to each other. The iris, on which the colour of the
eye depends, is a thin membranous structure composed of unstriped mus-
cular fibres, nerves, and blood-vessels, held together by a delicate network
of fibrous tissue. On the inner surface of this membrane there is a layer
of dark purple pigment called the wea (from its resemblance to the colour
of a ripe grape), and in brown eyes there is an additional layer of yellow
(and perhaps brown-red) pigment on its outer surface also, and in some
instances there is a deposit of pigment amongst the fibrous structures.
In the albino, where the pigment is entirely absent from both surfaces of
the iris, the bright red blood is seen through the semitransparent fibrous
tissues of a pink colour; and in blue eyes, where the outer layer of pig-
ment is wanting, the various shades are due to the dark inner layer of
pigment—the wvea—showing through fibrous structures of different
densities or degrees of opacity. ‘The eyes of new-born infants of both
white and black races (and I believe the new-born young of all the lower
animals) are dark blue, in consequence of the greater delicacy and trans-
parency of the fibrous portion of the iris; and as these tissues become
thickened by use, and by advancing age, the lighter shades of blue, and
finally grey are produced; the grey, indeed, being chiefly due to the
colour of the fibrous tissues themselves. In grey eyes, moreover, we see
the first appearance of the superficial layer of yellow pigment in the form
of isolated patches situated around the margin of the pupil, or in rays
136 REPORT—1880.
running across the iris. In the various shades of green eyes the yellow
pigment is more uniformly diffused over the surface of the iris, and the
green colour is due to the blending of the superficial yellow pigment with
the blue and grey of the deeper structures. In the hazel and brown eyes
’ the wvea and the fibrous tissues are hidden by increasing deposits of yellow
and brown pigment on the anterior surface of the iris, and when this is
very dense black eyes are the result. It is very doubtful, however,
whether the iris is ever so dark-coloured in the inhabitants of this country
as to justify the term black being applied to it, and the popular use of the
expression has reference to the widely dilated pupil common in persons
with dark brown eyes. The nearest approach to a black eye among us
is the dark blue or violet eye associated with black hair in some Irish
adults ; here the colour is probably not entirely due, as in infants, to the
greater transparency of the fibrous structures, but to interstitial deposit of
black pigment, or to a layer situated on the anterior surface of the iris.
‘ As the observations included in the above table were made by many
different persons without specific directions or colour-tests, and as the
shades are not well-defined and are too numerous for easy analysis, I have
combined them into three large groups—the light, including the shades
of blue; the mixed, including the grey and green ; and the dark, includ-
ing the brown and so-called black eyes, in order to correct some obvious
errors of observation. Green eyes are more common than the table
indicates, and no doubt many cases of green eyes have been recorded as
grey, and probably a few as light brown. On the other hand the number
of grey eyes appears to be out of proportion to the rest, and this column
probably includes a number of light blue as well as grey and green eyes.
‘Mr. H. C. Sorby, F.R.S., has examined the colouring matter of the
hair,’ and has separated three pigments which he describes as brown-red,
yellow, and black; and he attributes the different shades of the colour of
hair to one of these pigments, or to their combination in different propor-
tions. Thus, fair and brown hairs owe their colours chiefly to yellow and
black pigment ; and the shades of red hair to red and black pigments, the
brightest red having the least black or yellow. Acting on these investi-
gations, and bearing in mind that amongst black-haired races red (and
not yellow) hair frequently occurs, and is generally associated with black
hair in this country, I have interposed the black between the yellow and
red shades in the table. This arrangement has the advantage of separat-
ing the browns and the reds, and of showing how the black overshadows
these colours as the hair darkens by advancing age; and it is useful in
distinguishing the chief racial elements of our population. The diagram
shows the quantity of hair of each colour, and the relation which the
colours bear to each other above the age of 10 years. If the observations
commenced at birth, and were grouped in periods of four or five years, the
curve would change with advancing age, and the apex would move
gradually from the fairer to the darker shades. By grouping the whole
of the observations into fair, dark, and red, as I have done in the table, we
see the prevailing complexion of the higher and professional classes in this
country.’
IV. As to Town and Country Origin of Class I.
Though the statistics as yet obtained are not sufficient to show con-
clusively the different tendencies of town and country life, an attempt has
1 Jour. Anthrop. Inst., vol. viii.
Se aaa
REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 137
been made to elicit from the returns of height and weight relatively to
age some particulars as to the effect of town and country origin respec-
tively on growth of this class. The means for this is given by the follow-
ing extract from the General Instructions issued by the Committee with
the Forms of Schedule :—
‘Oricin.—If the individual has lived habitually in the country he
should be noted as “country folk.’ This, however, is not to include
residence in large country towns (more than 5000 inhabitants), unless
the individual so residing is habitually occupied in country pursuits. If
both father and mother are also country folk in the sense above defined
the entry should be “pure country folk.” In cases where the history of all
four grandparents is known, and they or the majority of them were all
country folk, the entry should have the word “very” prefixed; thus,
“very pure country folk.” If he is of country birth, but has lived in a
town since he was a boy, the entry should be “‘c birth, t since boy.” This
form admits of all required variations by writing “pc” or “v pc”
instead of “cc,” and “child,” “‘ youth,’’ or ‘‘ manhood”? instead of “ boy.”
As regards other cases, too numerous to attempt to define, in which a
doubt may exist as to the proper entry, leave a blank.
‘Similar instructions to be observed as regards townsfolk.’
The returns of cadets at Sandhurst, scholars at Westminster, students
at Aberystwith, medical students, at London Hospital, and scholars at
Felstead, afford the means of making this distinction, at ages from ten to
thirty, in the following number of cases :—
Country . > : : 263
Pure country . 3 E 40 be an
Very pure country . , 50 Total of country origin 379
Country birth, town since 26
Town : rf 4 , 210
Pure town 5 ‘ 4 17 cy ate a
Very pure town : : 5 f rotal of town origin . 250
Town birth, country since 18
Total observed - ; s : - 629
The observations give a slight advantage in both height and weight
relatively to age to country origin over town origin. Taking the two
years of age, eighteen and nineteen, in which there are the largest number
of observations in each class to afford an average, the 161 country lads
- have an average height of 68°2 inches and weight of 141 lbs., while the
seventy-nine town lads have an average height of 68:0 inches and weight
of 139°5 lbs. The distinction is not so easily followed through the grades
of purity in consequence of the small number of observations in some of
them, but it seems to prevail, the averages at the two ages named being—
Height Weight Height Weight
Country . : 68°1 142 Town ; ; 67°9 139
Pure - - 67°4 138 Pure A : 67°5 136
Very pure : 68°8 142 Very pure : 71 tase oy 155
Country birth, ) G ee Town birth 7, 49
town since . le ee country al aoe is
These observations being deduced from the standard class present less
difference than may be expected from a comparison derived from the
peasants and artisans, as persons of this class rarely spend their lives ex-
clusively either in the country or in towns.
The following are full details :—
138
REPORT—1880.
TasLe XII.—Table showing the Average Height in Inches at each of the
undermentioned Ages of Persons of the different grades of Country
Origin.
Country Origin
ountry Birth
Country Pure Country pitied Toon ace Boy ae
Age ; or Child Origin
Number] Average|Number|Average|Number|Average| Number |Average|Number|Average
of Ob- | Height | of Ob- | Height | of Ob- | Height | of Ob- | Height | of Ob- | Height
serva- in serva- in serva- in serva- in serva- in
tions | Inches | tions | Inches} tions | Inches} tions | Inches} tions | Inches
10- 1 53°5 —- — Ss == — —_ 1 53°5
i= + 57:0 = = a5 rs — — 4 57-0
12- 8 575 — 8 575
13> 9 59°5 1 585 10 59-4
14- 23 62:7 5 62:1 — —_— _ = 28 62°6
15- 23 65'5 4 66°3 2 67°5 — —- 29 65-7
16- 25 66°9 3 67:2 3 66°8 — — ol 67:0
17- 25 681 4 64:8 2 69°5 2 68°5 33 67:8
18- 59 67-4 10 67°9 18 68-4 4 66°8 91 67-7
19- 38 68'8 6 66°8 15 69:2 11 68:6 70 68:7
20- 20 69:1 2 67:0 6 69'1 4 71-0 32 69-2
21- 7 68°6 2 66:0 2 68°5 2 69-0 13 68°35
22- 13 691 1 68°5 1 65°5 2 69:0 17 68:9
23- 6 67:7 1 70°5 — ~ 1 725 8 68°6
24- 1 705 | 1 67:5 1 68°5 1 68°5 4 68°8
25-30 3 70°2 1 66:5 — — 1 715 5 69:7
Total Dep eat e st GO | “Soe |) Se aes
Taste XIII.—Table showing the Average Height in Inches at each speci-
fied Age of Persons of different grades of Town Origin.
Age
10-
11-
12-
13-
14—
15-
16-
17-
18-
19-
20-
21-
22-
23-
24-
25-30
Total
Town Origin
Town Birth, All the Grades
Town Pure Town Very Pure Town} Country since of Town
Boy or Child Origin
Number)|Average|Number|Average|Number|Average| Number|Average Number|Average
of Ob- | Height | of Ob- Height of Ob- | Height | of Ob- Height | of Ob- | Height
serva- in serva- in serva- in serva- in serva- in
tions | Inches | tions | Inches | tions | Inches | tions | Inches | tions | Inches
1 52°5 — — - 1 52°5
3 53°5 _ — — -- -— 3 53°5
6 58:7 1 55°5 —_ _ — — 7 58:2
12 59°9 — — — — — 12 599
29 61:2 — — 1 62°5 - — 30 61-2
25 64:9 5 64:5 — —_— _ — 30 64:8
25 66:3 — —- «Ll 66:5 — = 26 66:3
23 67°5 1 69°5 1 66°5 3 66°5 28 67-4
23 68:0 5 67°1 _- — 5 69°3 33 68:1
35 67°9 + 68:0 2 71:0 5 67:1 46 67°9
13 678 | — — — — 1 69°5 14 67:9
5 66:7 1 69°5 —- 2 68:0 8 67-4
t 66:3 — — — — 1 715 5 67:3
3 66°5 — _— “= — 1 67:5 4 66°8
3 68-2 — —= 3 68:2
210) | 5 SS Ste ee ae
REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 139
Taste XIV.—Table showing the Average Weight in Pounds at each of the
undermentioned Ages of Persons of different grades of Country Origin.
Country Origin
| Country Birth, | All the Grades
Country Pure Country ; Very Pure Town since of Country
i Country | Boy or Child Origin
ge je.) Dal Ee ee.
Number! Average Number|Average Number]Average/Number|Average Number] Average
of Ob- | Weight | of Ob- | Weight| of Ob- | Weight| of Ob- | Weight | of Ob- | Weight
serva- | in serva- in serva- in serva- in serva- | in
tions | Pounds| tions | Pounds} tions | Pounds| tions | Pounds} tions | Pounds
10-11 1 72°5 — ca — — — === 1 | 72°5
11- t 725 | — - —_ 4 | 72:5
12- 8 5 | — _- -_- — — — 8 77:5
13- 9 90°3 | 1 92°5 — — —_ —_ 10 | 90°5
14- 23 _{103°6 | 5 102° — —_ — — | 28 | 103-4
15- 23 114:°7 | 4 116°3 2 112°5 — — 29 114:7
16— 25 126°5 | 3 130°8 2 127°5 — i 30 126°2
ies 24 | 136:0 | 4 |115°0 2 142°5 2 142°5 | 32 | 134-2
18- 59 |135:0| 10 | 1400 18 142°5 4 13500) Ols o Tare
19- 39 {1484 ) 6 | 135°8 15 | 1422 9 |143°6 | 69 |145:3
20- 20/1478 | 2 | 1425 6 | 1475 4 |168°7 32 | 1500
21- 7 | 1475 | 2 | 1425 2 | 152°5 2 |150°0 13. | .147°9
225 11 | 1548 ] 147°5 | 1 132°5 2 | 155:0 15 | 152°8
23- 6 | 149-2 L 162°5 —- _ 1 |152:5 8 |151:3
24- 1 147'5 1 162°5 | it 1575 | 162°5 4 157°5
25-30 SE Giconee—— = fe lemmas elo2:5 Ih TA 5 | 162-5
Total . | 263 == JTA0' 1. 50 = 26 — | 379 —
Tasrn XV.—Table showing the Average Weight in Pounds at each
specified Age of Persons of different grades of Town Origin.
Town Origin
Town Birth, | All the Grades
Town Pure Town Very Pure Country since of Town
iy Town Boy or Child | Origin
ge | |
Number|Average|Number|Average|/ Number Average Number Average|Number Average
of Ob- | Weight of Ob- | Weight | of Ob- | Weight| of Ob- | Weight | of Ob- Weight
serva- in serva- in serva- in serva- in serva- | in
tions | Pounds tions |Pounds} tions |Pounds! tions | Pounds! tions | Pounds
10- ] 67°5 = ad _— —_ —— — 1 67°5
11l- 3 60°38 | — == —_ — — — 3 60:8
12- 6 78:3 1 | 775) — —_ — — if 78:2
13- 14 85:4 — | _- — — —_ 14 85-4
14— 29 94:2 — — 1 |107°5 — — 30 94:7
15- 26 | 114°6 4 |116:3 — — — — 30 | 114°8
16- 25 | 1235 _ — 1 {1325 |) — _— 26 |123°8
17- 23 | 133-4 1 | 1382°5 1 | 11775 3 | 120°8 28 |131-4
18- 23 | 136-4 5 | 133°5 — 5 | 145-5 33 «| 137-3
19-. 34 | 141°6 4 |138°8 2 |155°0 5 | 138°5 45 |141°6
20- 10 =| 147°5 — —_ — — | 1 {147-5 11 | 147°5
21- 5 | 1445 1 | 152°5 — -— 2 | 152°5 8 |147°5
22- 4 1/1350 | — —- — -- 1 | 162°5 5 | 140°5
23- 3 | 135°8 — = _— — 1 142°5 4 )137-5
24- —_— — _ — _— — — - _— —
25-30 5 | 1345 = — — —_ — — 5 | 1345
Total .| 211 | — | 16 | — Bey ee | ot eee re
140 REPORT—1880.
TasLtE XVI.—Table showing the Average Height and Weight at each
Age of Persons of all grades of Country Origin, of all grades of
Town Origin, and of all grades of Town and of Country Origin.
All the pict ef Country All the eri of Town | Total of all Grades
Age / |
No. Height | Weight | No. | Height | Weight | No. | Height | Weight
Obs. Inches | Pounds | Obs. Inches | Pounds Obs. | Inches | Pounds
10- 1| 535 | 725| 1) 525 | 675| 2] 530 | 700
iL 4 57°0 725 oN fier 533215) 60°8 7 55*4 67°5
12- 8 57°d 175 A 58-2 78:2 15 578 778
13- 10 59-4 90:5 14 | 59:9 85°4 24 b97 87°5
14_- 28 | 62°6 1034, 30 61:2 94:7 58 619 98°9
15- 29 65:7 114°7 30 64:8 | 1148 59 65°2 114'8
16- 30 67:0 126°2 26 | 66:3 123°8 56 66°7 125:1
17- 32 67°8 134°2 | 28 | 67-4 | 131°4 60 67°6 132°9
18— 91 OF at AST 33 68°1 137°3 | 124 67°8 dare
19_- 69 68% |) 1453 | 45 | 67:9 141°6 | 178 68:4 143°9
20- 32 | 69:2 | 150°0 | 11 | 67-9 | 1475 | 43 | 68:8 | 149-4
21— 13 68:3 147°9 8 | 67-4 | 147°5 | 21 67:9 147-7
22- 15: | 68-9 | 152°8 5 | 67:3 | 140:5)|- 20) 68:5 2 14918
23- 8 68°6 | 151:3 | 4 66°8 | 137°5 12 68:0 146°7
24— + GSS oy) eH -- — | 4 | 68:8 157°5
25-30 | 5 | 69°7 162°5 5 68-2 | 134°5 10 69°1 148°5
a ee = ! wate Ne pe
fier ag '| 43.) (e706 | I B64 | 72:5) 24 | 568 | 74-2
under | « « | | « | (<'0 “ vb | (4°S
103} ar 16} 67 | 63°5 | 106-4 74 | G35 | LOL1 | 141 63°0 103-6
GES 55 HO Ss: |, 1 G75 134°3 87 O74 | 1Bl4 . 240 6775 | 1333
EOF 5, 22 | 114 68°8 146°9 | G4 | 67:9 143-4 | 178 | 684 | 145°6
Pape ae 25 27 68°8 153°1 OE Gy fal 139°2 | 36 68-4 149°6
26h; 30 5 69:7 162°5 | 5 | 68-2 1345 | 10 69°71 148-5
Merm.—Comparing the two columns headed ‘All Grades of Country Origin’ and
‘All Grades of Town Origin,’ it will be observed that those of country origin have
in nearly every case an advantage in height and weight over those of town origin ;
and on referring to the table at foot, where the results are given in periods of
three years, this will be still more noticeable.
VY. As to Growth.
One very interesting branch of the inquiry with which your Com-
mittee is charged is the annual development of young people of both
sexes; but the opportunity of obtaining such information continued over
a considerable number of years is very rare, and the Committee have as
yet been able to procure only one return of this nature. It relates to the
yearly growth of a small number of children of American parents, pre-
sented by Dr. Bowditch, Professor of Physiology in Harvard Medical
School. But they are of opinion that the publication of it, and of some
results which have been deduced from it by the Committee, may be useful
in suggesting to persons who are in possession of similar observations,
however few in number, and limited in period of record, to communicate
them to the Committee. Many parents take the height ‘of their children
periodically ; a few perhaps take their weight also. An examinatioti of
Tables XVII. and XVIII., and the remarks thereon, will show to what
good account a collocation and comparison of such facts may be turned.
Table XVIL. is a comparative statement abstracted by Sir Rawson Raw-
son from Dr. Bowditch’s original table, of which Table XVIII. is a copy.
REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 141
Taste XVII.—Comparative Statement of the Annual Growth of a cer-
tain number of American Boys and Girls (12 boys and 13 girls) as
far as recorded, from birth to 22 years of age, abstracted from the
following Table.
Atvemice Annual Growth in Inches
Number | Height in
of Cases 5
Inches Males Females
Years = = -
i} | S 2 2 i
= 2 = 2 = = x & = =
From birth to lyear|—J| 1| — | 23 —}—] —}|81 —j|—
» Lyear ,, 2years| 8 7) 29:0) 27°8h 1-5: 2°5 | 3°72 | 4:13 | 5:3 | 2:8
we 2hYears,,) 3°55 8 8 | 32°3 | 31°6 | 5:3 | 2-5 | 3°52 | 3°74 | G1 | 2-7
Presa. ‘554 Lie 8 9 | 36°3 | 35°6 | 44 | 14 | 2°78 | 2°97 | 3:7 | 21
_ 2 ea er 9 | 10 | 39°5 | 38:3 | 3:3 | 1:5 | 2:42 | 2°52 | 2°9 | 1:9
PaeDe | > ,,) Goby 10 | 10 | 42:1 | 40°9 | 3:1 | 1:1 | 2°50 | 2°41 | 3:1 | 1:7
5 Lc Se oe 10 |} 11 | 44°6 | 43°5 | 2°9 | 1:3 | 2°26 | 2°42 | 2°9 | 1:7
PMMA 55.’ 9 50% 95 12 | 11 | 46°6 | 45°8 | 3°6 | 2-1 | 2°61 | 2°34 | 2°8 | 2:
=2) 3) SEER e ae Jean 12 | 12 | 49°3 | 48°5 | 4 1:4 | 2°33 | 2°23 | 3: 1:3
POLE cs; 55 LOR sy 12 | 12 | 51:6 | 50°6 | 2°3 | 1:4 | 1°84 | 211 | 2°83 | 1:4
meer, ° 4, 01 5; 12 | 12 | 53:5 | 52°7 | 2:2 | 1°65 | 1:91 | 2°18 | 2°6 ‘Ta
Pee | 55 V2 8s 12 | 13 | 55°5 | 54:8 | 2°%5 | 1:2 | 1°88 | 2°70 | Gla} 1:4 \
5) AIGA ARES a Soe PI els | bT3. | b%e 39 ‘9 | 2-04 | 3°07 | 4:90) 2°3
5 WG a Se 11 | 13 | 59°5 | 60°3 | 4:7 | 4:1 | 2°52 | 1°95 | 3:3 ‘90
na ae 11 | 13 | 62° 62:2 | 3°9 | 1:7 | 2°36 | 1:29 | 3°5 ci
SLD | st) 59 LOL v%55 11 | 12 | 64:2 | 63:5 | 3:8 *B | 2°31 76 | 1:3 0
POG) Gi scr 5, 10 | 55 10 | 12 | 66:4 | 63°8 | 2°5 *B | 1:45 “61 | 14 =f
eee lS 5, 9} 11 | 683 | 64:7 | 2°3 “A | “98 “21 of ‘0
UALS A eS ee 8 6 | 69- 64:9 | 1:8 cit ‘76 “49 T "15
ee 53 20 55 7 3 | 70°5 | 65°2 | 1:0 | Nil| :26 43 9 2
oy 2A 2 5 | — | 70°7 | 66:2 *45) -05) °25 — |— —
-» 02D SAPaeP e 3 | — | 709 — “45 05) 27 — |— —
a. The same girl. 6. The same (another) girl.
The accompanying charis, Nos. IJ. and III. (Plates V. and VI.), show
tracings of Prof. Bowditch’s observations on the successive growth in
stature of twelve boys and thirteen girls nearly related in blood and of
the professional class. The tracings for each individual cannot be fol-
lowed throughout on account of the intersections and overlapping which
occur, but they are sufficiently distinct to show the relative course which
each and all have run. A marked feature in the charts when compared
together is the greater regularity and parallelism of the growth of girls,
especially at the earlier periods of life. From this it is obvious that the
physical development of boys is subject to more powerful modifying
agencies than that of girls, which is attributable to the more varied lives
boys lead, and to the lower degree of viability which they possess even
from the period of birth. Some of the irregularities shown by the trac-
ings are probably due to slight errors of observation, but the deviations
in direction are clearly due to external causes; if the tracings had been
made at the time the measurements were taken, and the apparent causes
of the deviations had been recorded, we should possess some very in-
teresting charts of the physical history of each individual, and many
useful facts illustrating the influence of media on the growth of the human
body.
142 REPORT—1 880.
Taste XVIII.—Table showing the Height and Annual Growth (in feet, inches, |
Bowditch, Professor of Physiology
Age last
Females E :
Birth 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Lilie © ./7— | — | — | — — |—|{—
IRI ol et a — —_— “ _ _— — |4-0°0 | 4-2°3 | 4-4
Alice. . .| — |2-8° | 2-7-8 |2-11- |3-1-1 |3-3-7 |3+6.5 | 3-8-7 |3-10°8) — | 4-3:
Charlotte .| — [2-4 |2-9 |3-0°8 | 3-3-9 | 3-6-8 | 3-8-9 | 3-11-6)4-2-1 |4-3-4 | 46°
Lucy. . .| — | 2-45 |2-9:3 | 3-0-7 | 3-3-7 | 3-6-6 | 3-8-8 | 3-10-6| 4-1'1 | 4-3-7 | 4-6
Lily . . . | 1-11: | 2-7-1 | 2-10 | 3-1-2 | 8-4-1 | 3-6-4 | 3-9-2 | 3-11-6| 4-2-0°| 4-4-3 | 4-6°2
Livy. ..| — | — | — | — [8-18 |3-4-2 | 3-68 | 3-8-5 | 3-110] 4-2-0 | 4-4-1
Fanny . .| — | — | — | — | — | — [3-9-4 |4-03 |4-9°5 [4-41 | 4-69
Esther . .| — | — | — [3-0-4 | 3-3-1 |3-5°6 | 3_7°3 | 3-9°5 | 3_-11'5] 4-1:8 | 4+4:3
Susan . .| —— | — |2-5-6 |2-9°8 |3-0°8 [3-3-2 | 3-63 |3-8-7 |3-11-1] 4-1-7 | 4-3-6
Arria . . | — |2-1' |2-63 |2-11-4/ 3-9-3 | 3-48 | 3-67 |3-9:6 | — |4-1°9 |4-38
Mary . .| — |2-26|2-65 | — |3-1-4 13-42 |3-64 [3-87 | — |4-23 [4-3-7
Annie . .| — | 2-2°8 | 2-6-3 | 2-10°6| 3-1-4 | 3-3:3 | 3-6-0 | 3-8-1 | 3-10°3] 4-0°6 | 4-2'8
Teeke I — |2-8°8 |2-7°6 | 2-11-7/ 3-2-4 | 3-4-9 | 3-7-5 | 3-9'8 [4-05 | 4-2°6 | 4-4-7
ae f — |i+] 88] 47) 27 | 26 | (o65] a3" vor | Sa iba
Males
Frank . .| — | — | — | — | — [8-78 |3-10°7/ 4-1-4 }4-4-4 |4-7- |4-8°8
Henry . .| — | — | — | — | — | = | = 1|3-8-4 |3-10-9/4-1°3 | 4259
Charles. .| — | — | — | — |3-62|3-9.0 |4-0° | 4-23 14-49 |4-7°5 | 4-9-4
Alfred . .| — | 2-83 |3-0-6 |3-3-8 | 3-6-7 | 3-9-0 |3-118/ 4-9-2 | 4-4-7 |4-7°3 | 4-9-3
Nabe cl S| eee bacetobs se thas. sence alls Boll? 4st oe ba
Ned. . «| — |2-4:3/2-9- |3-0 |[8-2:3 | 3-5-6 | 3-7-7 |3_9°8 |4-0° | 4-23 [4-4-2 1%
Vin. *. .| — [2-82 |3-0- | 3-3-2 |3-8°6 | 3-7-3 |3-10-0| 4-0°3 [4-2-7 |4-5-4 | 4-7-0 | 7
James . .| — |2-2:2 |2-4-7 | 2-10: | 3-2-4 | 3-5-5 | 3-7°8 |3-10-7|4-0°8 | 4-48 | 4-6°6 | 7
Ernest . .| — |2-4° |2-9 |2-11-9/ 3-8-8 | 3-5-9 |3-8-2 | 3-11: | 4-1-7 [4-3-4 | 44:8 ;
John. . «| — |2-4 |2-8 |3.03 |3-95 [3.63 |3-8-4 |3-103)4-0°6 | 4-2-0 [4-4-3 | —
Arthur . .| — |2-5* [2-7-5 | 2-10- |2-11:4| 3-1-6 | 3-2°7 |3-4- | 3-7-6 |3-10° | 4-0: i
Basil. . .| — |2-5* |2-8: | 2-11-8)3-2°5 | 3-4-0 |8-6°7 | 3-8-6 | 3-11-4] 4-1-4 | 4-3-1 | 9
else tp VY] — |2-51 |2-96 |3-03 |3-3:5 13-61 [3-86 |3-10°6| 4-1-3 [4-86 | 45:3
eight jf |
Tee lee ee 8 | 82 | ae a) 20. Cee eS
Lh ee Ae SLT al i Se 1 e
Nore.—The measurements were all taken annually during the last 25 years, and the
1872, and The Growth of Children, ‘ Kighth Ann.
REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE.
143
_ individuals were all nearly related to each other.
_ Rep. of the State Board of Health of Mass.,’ 1877.
and tenths) from year to year of 25 children of both sexes. By Dr. H. P.
at Harvard Medical School.
Birthday
ll 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 ai 1) | Scop 1 a
= i
|) 4-46 |4-6.1 | 4-11- | 4-11-9] 5-23 | 5-3-6 | 5-4-2 |5-4-7 (5-5-1 |5-53] — | —
|| 4-4-7 |4-10'8| 5-1-4 | 5-26 |5-3- | 5-3 |5-3.3|5-36/ — | — | — | —
4-53 [4-8-4 [411-5] -— | 5-3-4 [5-45 |5-46 | — |5-53]5-6 | — | —
4285 |4-10'8) 5-2-1 |5-46| — | — |5-63] — |5-69]5-78) — | ~
4-8'3 | 4-10°5| 5-0-9 | 5-4: | 5-4-7 | 5-66 |5-7- |5-73| — | — | — | ~
4-8-2 | 4-10: | 5-0-4 | 5-3-7 | 6-5-1 | 5-5-6 | 5-6-4 |5-66/ — | — | — | ~—
4-6°7 | 4-10'3| 5-0'8 | 5-2'3 | 5-3-2 [5-3-9 | — |5-42 [5-49] — | — | —
4-9°3 | 5-02 |5-2:7 |5-4- [5-47] — |5-5- 16-5 [5-57 |5-59| — | —
4-65 |4-9'5 | 4-118 5-0-9 | — |6-1-1 |5-2:3 |5-24| — | — | — | —
46-2 | 4-9°5 | 411-8] 5-1'3 | 6-18 [5-1-2 [5-3 | — |5-33} — | — | —
eee Pe oT oa fe i a pon ae
eee 4-11: 5.0- | 5-88 |5-4-4 |5-4e | — | — | — [oe se
45° | 4-6-9 | 4-10: | 6-1-2 | 5-98 | 5-4-2 5-5-2 |5-52{ — | — | — | —
14-68 | 4-9: | 5-0-3 | 5-2-2 | 5-35 | 5-3-8 | 5-4-7 | 5-4-9 | 5-5-2 [o-oo | — | —J|feet&
inches
21} 24 | 33 | 19°] 13 | 03 | 09 | o2 | O38 | 10] — | ~ finches
4-10°8| 5~0- | 5-2-9 | 5-7°6 | 5-9-3 | 5-9-8 | 5-10°4) 5-10°5] 5-11°3] 6-11-4] 5-11-6| —
4-5-0 | 4-7-2 |4-9* | 4-11° | 5-1-4 | 5-4-7 | 5-7°2 | 5-8'8 | 5-9°5 | 5-9°8 | 5-10° | —
4-11°2/ 5-1-1 | 5-3- | 6-4-4 | 5-6-3 | 5-9-2 | 5-11:3] 6-0°8 |6-0°9 |6-1. | — | —
Sea bse |b-4> ) = 15 84 | |
4-7- | 49:5 | 4-11-3/ 6-1" | 5-3-2 | 5-5-6 | 5-7-7 | 5-10: | 5-10°8) 5-10-9| 5-11: | 5-11°3
4-5°8 | 4-7-9 | 4-9'9 |5-1- | 5-4-9 | 5-8-7 | 6-9-2 | 5-9-4 | 5-10° |5-10° | — | 5-101
eo) 4—11-3| 53:9 | 6-68 |5-8'8 | — |5-10'5)-— ieee foes |ieed Se
4-85 |4-10- | 4-10-9| 5-29 |5-4-7 | — |5-8 [5-87 | 5-9: [5-92] — [59:9
4-7-0 | 4-9-2 | 4-115] 6-1-7 | 5-4-2 |5-7:5 | — |5-9°6 |5-106) — | — | —
— |4-7-4 | 4-9-2 |4-10°3| 5-1-4 |5-3-7 | — |5-8 |5-9°8 |5-1083) — | —
{4-21 | 4-4-0 | 4-5-4 | 4-76 | 4-101] 5-0-6 | 5-26 [5-34] — | — | — | —
| ARES Sh ae VR (cme ere Ct ey Ch |
JAT5 | 4-9°3 [4-115] 5-2 | 5-42 | 5-6-4 | 5-83 |5-9° | 5-105) 5-107] 5-109 5-10-4|fect &
‘ inches
i 20} 18 | 22] 28 | 92 | 22 | 19] O7 | 15 | 02 | O2 | — |inches
See ‘ Boston Med. & Surgical Journal,’ Dec.
144 REPORT—1880.
Remarks on Table XVIII.
The number of persons observed in the above tables is too small to
admit of drawing any positive conclusions from the data; but it is hoped
that they may be confirmed, or corrected, by other independent observa-
tions.
1° The average growth of the girls in each year from 1 to 5 exceeds
that of the boys, but in a decreasing ratio, viz. :—
In 2nd year, viz.: from 1 to 2—excess of girls—8'3 per cent.
6-2
3rd ” ” 2 ” 3 ” ” ”
4th 9 ” 3 ” 4 ” ” 61 ”
5th ” ” 4 ,, 5 ” ” 4-1. ”
Average : 6°6
2° From 5 to 6 the scale inclines slightly in favour of the boys, viz. :
3:7 %; but as from 6 to 7 it turns back again, being 7 % in favour of
the girls, it may be assumed that the deviation was accidental, and that
from 1 to 7 years of age the growth of the girls exceeds that of the boys,
the average excess of the whole period being 5:2 %.
3° From 7 to 9 the scale turns decidedly in favour of the boys, being
8:1 % in excess, but from 9 to 13 there is a marked excess in favour of
the girls, viz. :—
Excess of Girls
In 10th year, viz.: from 9 to 10—14°6 per cent.
11th a sy. |. LO}, a os Average
12th Rs » Il ,, 12—43°6 - 31:1 per cent.
13th: ss tive 18506 150-01
4° The great excess between 11 and 13 is the more remarkable, as after
the latter year the scale turns in favour of the boys, and continues up to
19, when the number of observations is too small to admit of any conclu-
sion being drawn from what may have been an accidental change.
Excess of Boys
In 14th year, viz.: from 13 to 14— 29:2 per cent.
15th p » 14,, 15— 82:9 +
16th . » 15 ,, 16—203°9 re Average
17th F » 16 ,, 17—137-7 “A 95:4 per cent.
18th A » 17 ,, 18—366°6 is
19th + Sey OLS! 9 al O— wok ep
5° From the above it will be seen that
From 1 to 7 the growth is slightly in favour of girls, viz.: 5:2 per cent,
9
” 7» ” » ” boys, ” 8-1 ”
ee Os ell 5 moderately ,, girls, ,, 14:4 *
A rile, ” largely » | ” ” 47-2 aa
» 13,, 15 ” ae ” boys, ,, 50°6 a
9, Lb 55 18 ” immensely ,, Ff 5» 200°0 fs
With regard to the last proportion the fact is that while at the age of 12
the annual growth among the boys begins to increase—averaging about
that which they made between 4 and 9—it decreases rapidly among the
girls. The total increase from 15 to 19 among the boys was 5°76 inches,
and among the girls only 2°50 inches.
6° In comparing the maxima and minima growths of the two sexes,
there appear to be in the former no very marked features up to the age
of 11.
Sp nleenentia es tes
———
REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 145
Boys Girls
From 1 to 3 they are equal, viz.: : 5 : 5°2 5*2 inches
» 3,, 5aslightexcessamong boys,averagingannually3-8to3-3 ,,
» 5,, 7 exactly equal . ; : ; - 3 63 a
» 75) 9amnexcess among boys . : : : BS ecto ML | 55
BSED. ys ou =p Tels 4 E : 4 PP EY
At 11 to 13 there are in this table two cases of unusual growth
among the girls, viz., 6°1 and 4°9 inches in one year respectively ; and it
is remarkable that in the first case the girl grew only 0°7 inch in the pre-
ceding year, and in the second case the girl (a different one) grew only
0°9 inch in the succeeding year. No such remarkable case occurred
among the boys. After eliminating these two cases, the excess in this
period remains in favour of the girls, but after 13 it preponderates greatly
among the boys :—
Boys Girls
From 11 to 13 the excess among the girls, averaging annually 3:2 to 4:1 inches
” 13 ” 17 39 ” boys, 39 ” 37 ” 2-4 ”
» 17 ,, 20 ” ” ” ” ” 17 ,, 0°8 ”
7° Treating the minima in the same way, those of the boys are uni-
formly lower than those of the girls up to the age of 7, viz. :—
Boys Girls
From 1 to 7 the excess among the girls, averaging annually 1-7 to 2-1 inches
aye sy LL ” ” boys, ” ” 16 ,, 13 ”
At 11 to 13 the minima of the girls are, like their maxima, exceptional ;
showing that in these two years the growth of girls is not only excep-
tionally, but at both ends of the scale usually, in excess of that of boys.
Boys Girls
From 11 to 13 the excess among the girls, averaging annually 1:0 to 1-8 inches
» 13,, 19 ” ” boys, ” 28 O07, 02. 4,
8° The following table would be of considerable interest if it were
based on a larger number of cases. As far as it goes, it shows that in both
sexes a rapid anuual growth, of 3 inches or more, occurs chiefly between
the ages of 1 to 3 and 11 to 16, the proportion being greater among girls
at the latter age, while it is greater among boys between 4 and 11.
Number of Cases of Rapid Growth at Different Ages.
Boys GIRLS
Ages 3to4|4to5| 5to6 |8to4/4to5/5to6| Above
inches/inches} inches |inches\incheslinches| 6 inches
At 1. 2 3 1 1 1 2 0
-e edie 4 1 Las 3 2 1 0413
oy eae 2 ] 0 3 0 0 0
a, « 1 0 0) 0 0 0 0)
Balt (Ba, '. 2 0 0 1 0 0 0
eG. s 5 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
Cae ae ; 1 0 0} 6 0 0 0 0} 2
gee) : 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
et Le 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
lO 0 0 0) 0 0 0 0
yy 11 0 0 0 5 0 0 1
a 12 1 0 0 1 3 0 0
ren I 2 2 0 10 3 0 0 0
ap 2|0 10 Dg ot Gg ae
Jie Bi} 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
» 16 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
io 6)
CO
S
ia
146 REPORT—1880.
Percentage Proportion of above m Three Periods.
Boys Girls
From l1to 38 3 ; 5 2 F 3 - 48:4 44:8
he. sO : : : : 3 : 194 69
parriaut: Sryl'G 5 . : ; ¢ z ; 32:2 48°3
Total 3 3 ; fe L100" 100:
The importance of the period between 11 and 13 among girls is again
illustrated by the above comparison.
9° Of continuous rapid growth the instances were not numerous, but
they were more striking among the girls, and chiefly at an early age.
1 grew 10°5 inches
Boys in 3 years from lto 3 Pee ae NIK ee oo
Wi ig5, Pee ey
” 2 ” 12 ” 14 Ibs 8g 75 ”
” ” 14 ” 16 1 ” T7 ”
it Basnoer es
Girlsin3 ,, rie ; z is ”
thy pejyeh Otay
” 2 ” UE ae fa} 1, 104 ’
” 2 »” 11 ” 13 1 ” 87 ”
2 ” Wess aie Mo Skt
10° The following table would be of much value if the observations
were more numerous. The periods have been divided according to evi-
dent changes in the average growth of one or both sexes. It will not
escape remark that the average growth of both sexes between 3 and 9 was
exactly equal.
Boys Girls
From 1to 3 average annual growth 3°61 3°87 inches
‘tee Pola eo 9 49 248 248 ,,
” 9,, 11 ” ” 187 2:14 | ,,
» 1, 1 » ” 197 288
» 18, 17 ” ” 216 115 ,,
” 17 ” 20 ”? ” 0°66 0°38 ”
The more general, but not less valuable, remarks of Professor Bow-
ditch on his original table, published in the ‘ Boston Medical and Surgical
Journal’ of December 19, 1872, are as follows :—
‘The measurements were all taken annually during the last twenty-
five years, and the individuals were all nearly related to each other. An
examination of the curves shows the following facts :—
‘1. Growth is most rapid during the earliest years of life.
‘2. During the first twelve years boys are from one to two inches taller
than girls of the same age.
‘3. At about twelve and a half years of age girls begin to grow faster
than boys, and, during the fourteenth year, are about one inch taller than
boys of the same age.
‘4. At fourteen and a half years of age boys again become the taller,
girls having, at this period, very nearly completed their growth, while
boys continue to grow rapidly till 19 years of age.’
The Committee adds the following table illustrative of the greater
weight as well as height of girls during a critical period of life, ab-
stracted from Mr. Roberts’s paper on ‘ Factory Children’ (1876).
REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 147
‘Taste XIX.—Table showing the relative Haraur and Waicut of Boys and
Girls in England at the age of 13-14 years. (0. Roberts.)
Height.
Class of Children Sess
Boys Girls Difference
No. | Inches | No. | Inches Boys Girls
Stanway, 1833, Factory Children | 45 | 54:48 | 63 | 55-64 — 1:16
f 1833, Non-factory ,, 22 | 54:98 | 18 | 55:07 — 0:09
Ferguson, 1871-3, Factory > — — —
Roberts, 1873, Non-factory ,, 24 55:21 | 14 56:08 — 0:87
Weight
Class of Children 5
Boys Girls | Difference
No.| lbs. No.| lbs. | Boys Girls
Stanway, 1833, Factory Children | 45] 72:11 | 63) 73°25 | = 114
Be 1833, Non-factory ,, 22 75:36 18} 72:72 | 2:63 —
Ferguson, 1871-3, Factory rr 494 68:72 |542| 70:25 — 1:53
Roberts, 1873,Non-factory ,, 35 76:48 | 27]. 77:58
-- 1:10
VI. Marlborough College Statistics.
Though it does not in any degree enter into the contemplation of the
Committee to discuss the returns of any particular college or establish-
ment in detail, and indeed it would be foreign to their purpose to furnish
the means of comparison that might be invidious between one institution
and another, the series of 1850 observations made during several years by
Dr. Fergus on boys in Marlborough College, and communicated to the
Committee by the Rev. T. A. Preston, have been thought by the Com-
mittee to constitute an exception, and it has been considered advisable to
prepare abstracts of them as affording an excellent example of the useful-
ness of systematic records. These have been prepared by Sir Rawson W.
Rawson for each quarter of a year of age, inthe same manner as those of
the boys at Christ’s Hospital, contained in the Committee’s last Report.
See Tables XX. to XXIII., to which are added tables of head-girth, arm-
girth, and leg-girth (XXIV.-XXVI.) prepared by Mr. Roberts.
12
148
REPORT—1880.
Tate XX.—Statement of the Huicut, without shoes, of Boys im Marl-
borough College, showing the average, maximum, and minimum at
each year and quarter of a year of age, between 9 and 20. (Taken
in 1874-78.)
Height in Inches and Decimals
Age in No. of Quarterly Yearly
Quarters Obser- as
of Years vations : Ri: No. of
Average Maximun Minimum | Obser- | Average
vations
9 1 51 — —
9¢ “a a me, fa 6 53°7
94 2 54 54-2 53°6 j ;
92 3 56:2 572 546
Average of : "
Quarterly Averages pe sed
10 q 54:7 554 54:0
10} 6 53:8 564 51°6 ,
104 8 B54 57-6 52-0 piyred ts eckea
103 7 53°8 5T-2 49-4
Average of ‘ i
Quarterly Averages ia one
11 18 54:7 62°4 49-4
iBe. 16 56°3 67:0 51-2 ;
14 26 56-7 61-2 52-2 pete Ae Ae
liz 24 565 60:4 48°2
Average of : ;
Quarterly Averages pap fue
12 37 57:0 62:2 52°0
124 54 57:3 70:0 53°6 nT.
124 50 579 61:6 52°6 ne ee
123 67 57-2 64:0 52-4
Average of “7 i
Quarterly Averages Bat as
a 80 57-4 65:0 51°6
13} 77 59°3 68:2 544 5
13} 96 59-0 71-2 54-6 pigs, | aeleaiee
132 80 59:2 67:4 49°6
Average of :
Quarterly Averages pie 52°5
oe 110 60°8 68:2 54°2
14} 79 64 68:0 54:0 4
144 97 612 69:0 51-2 BGT eee
143 81 62-2 68°4 56:0
Average of i
Quarterly Averages Br) 53-7.
Age in
Quarters
of Years
KEPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEL.
TABLE XX.—STATEMENT OF THE HEIGHT, &c.—continued.
Height in Inches and Decimals
149
No. of Quarterly Yearly
Obser-
vations No. of
Average Maximum Minimum Obser- | Average
vations
85 62-4 69°6 55-4
78 62:7 70:0 54:0 ;
69 641 70-0 57-2 B1Gy te Gare
83 64-4 73°5 55:0
Average of : ’
Quarterly Averages de aa
77 | 65-1 70°6 BTT
75 65°6 72-0 “59-4 {
73 65:1 70-4 54-6 See eae
58 | 668 72-2 60°0
Average of ’ ;
Quarterly “Averages os 58'8
46 67-4 72°6 60°3
46 67:0 73:0 57-4 ;
26 67:7 71:4 62:4 148 67°5
30 68-0 76-4 62-4
Average of é ;
Quarterly Averages i 60°7
27 67:7 71:0 63-4
16. 69°7 72-4 64:7 :
9 67°5 70-2 63-4 wos Bs
7 69°3 71:2 65:2
Average of : }
Quarterly Averages m2 640
9 679 73-4 63:0
5 66:3 66:6 66:0 ;
1 68:0 — pi
Average of é b
Quarterly Averages ie 63°
2 62:7 67-0 58-4 2 62:7
150
REPORT—1880.
TasLe XXI.—Statement of the Warcur of Boys in Marlborough College,
showing the average, maximum, and minimum at each year and
quarter of a year of age, between 9 and 20. (Taken in 1874-78.)
Age in
Quarters
of Years
6 &
picctop— Se
Weight in Ibs. and Decimals
14
No. of Quarterly Yearly
Obser- ii
vations No. of
Average Maximum Minimum Obser- | Average
vations
1 75:0 — —
2 76:5 79-0 740 i a
3 79°3 82°0 75:0
Average of : ~
Quarterly Averages si a
4 74:2 81:0 68:0
6 71:5 79:0 69-0 rs 733
8 76:2 91:0 63:0 ae
7 715 79:0 63:0
|
Average of ; wie
Quarterly Averages pa on |
18 76:3 98 56
16 77:0 88 | 63 2 , 79-4
26 850 102 71 ai
24 79°3 104 67
Average of : -
Quarterly Averages at ge!
Logs en |
37 83°9 103 65
54 83°6 109 62 F 84-7
50 86:3 108 | 69 ae :
67 85°6 115 58
Average of 1087 63°5
Quarterly Averages
80 90:9 133 64
(fi 92°3 144 74 333 99-3
96 93°7 125 | 70
80 92-4 127 58
Average of 5
Quarterly Averages ae ire
110 98:2 163 74
79 100°5 141 75 367 1015
97 102°7 140 | 64
81 104-7 146 | 75
nes |
Average of : ‘
Quarterly Averages patie TO
Age in
Quarters
of Years
20
REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE.
TABLE XXI.—STATEMENT OF THE WEIGHT, &c.—continued.
k51
Weight in Ibs. and Décimals
No. of Quarterly Yearly
Obser- a
vations alee
Average Maximum Minimum | Obser- | Average
vations
78 110°2 168 73
69 | “al7-3 151 86 315 113:2
83 116°7 186 74
Average of ;
Quarterly Averages 161:7 79°2
77 122:7 161 88
75 126:2 173 91
73 128-0 179 16 283 127-0
Average of ? ;
Quarterly Averages 171:7 88:7
46 133-9 164 95 ‘
26 142°5 201 116 148 136°3
30 136°9 175 106
Average of ,
Quarterly Averages 1782 102°7
Average of ;
Quarterly Averages 1760 120°7
g | 141 160 1H
5 140-0 149 134 20 140:0
1 144-0 ue =
Average of : ,
Quarterly Averages 1510 127:0
116-0
152
- REPORT—1880.
Taste XXII.—Statement of the Cunst-cirrH of Boys in Marlborough
College, showing the average, maximum, and minimum at each year
and quarter of a year of age, between 9 and 20. (Taken in 1874-78.)
Age in
Quarters
of Years
Chest-girth in Insthes and Decimals
No. of Quarterly Yearly
Obser- |—
vations an No. of
Average Maximum Minimum | Obser- | Average
vations
1 29 — a
2 26-2 26-7 26-0 oe
3 27-0 29:0 26:2
Average of 7. :
Quarterly Averages eae apa
4 26°5 27°6 26:0
6 26°6 27:0 24°4 ,
8 26°3 28-2 25-0 ed NY ay
7 25:1 26-4 21:2
Average of : As
Quarterly Averages ars =
18° 26°5 30:0 21°4
16 27-0 29°0 250 ;
26 27-3 31-0 25-0 ag Ue
24 27-1 30:0 25:0
Average of ‘ :
Quarterly Averages oe 25
37 26°6 29°6 25:0
54 27:0 29-4 25°0 F
50 27-3 30-0 25-4 sg Ne an
67 27°71 31:4 25:0
Average of ‘ af
Quarterly Averages ee abo
80 28°0 32-4 25:2
77 28:0 34:2 24-0 28:
96 28-2 32-4 25:0 = waa
80 27°9 31-4 24°6
Average of ' :
Quarterly Averages B23 247
110 27°0 37:0 25:2
79 28°7 34:0 25:0 367 28°3
97 28-1 34-4 25°4
81 29°4 35:1 25°4
Average of 35-1 25-9
Quarterly Averages
REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 153
TABLE XXII.—STATEMENT OF THE CHEST-GIRTH, &C.—continued,
Eee eee
Chest-girth in Inches and Decimals
ote OB ON Te rhe Bee eS Sa a ee Se
Age in No. of Quarterly Yearly
Quarters Obser- — :
of years vations No. of
Average Maximum Minimum | Obser- | Average
vations
15 G5 | -808 33-4 26-0
15} 78 30°1 35°4 26°2 ;
154 69 | 30-4 360 26-4 ge et
152 83 | 30°7 35°4 27:0
Average of ss ,
Quarterly Averages poe 26:4
16 17 32:2 34:2 26°6
161 75 31:7 36:0 28°0 :
161 73. 31-9 38-0 Boe 283 32:0
162 58 32:2 38:0 27:0
Average of ae ‘
Quarterly Averages pay 27-1
Af 46 32:3 36:0 28°6
ry 46 32:0 36:0 27:2 ;
173 26 32-4 35°1 30-0 Modh Psiah:
i$ 80 | 825 36-6 29-0
Average of eet ;
Quarterly ‘Averages oe] 28°7
a 27 32'8 35-4 29°6
a 16 34:0 37-0 30°4
18) 9 34:5 40-0 33-0 59 34-0
183 ia 33°5 36:0 30-4
Average of ae
Quarterly Averages Bu 30°8
Hd : 33°2 35-4 31-0
rs 32:7 334 32-0
193 5 32°7 33-4 39-9 20 329
193 1 33-0 _ ee
Average of
Quarterly Averages 33°8 316
ah Z aay 314 28-0 2 29-7
We REPORT—1880.
Tape XXIII.—Abstract of the Heicur, Weicut, and Cuest-cirta of the
Boys in Marlborough College, observed at each year of age, with the
actual and proportional rate of annual increase.
Height in Inches and Decimals
Aver- | Aver-
Num- age of | age of Percentage
Age ber of | Aver- | Maxi-| Mini- | Quar- | Quar- | Annual Increase} Proportion of
Obser-| age | mum | mum | terly | terly in Inches Increase at
vations Maxi- |} Mini- each age
ma ma
From
9 to 10 6 | 53:7) 57:2) 51:0] 55:6] 54:2 — =
10 ,, 11 25 | 54:4! 57-6) 49:4) 566) 51:6 O-7 1:30
US 2 84 | 56:0} 67:0} 48:2) 62:4] 50:2 16 2°94
12 ,,13 | 208} 573] 70:0) 52:0| 64:4] 52-6 1-3 2°27
13 ,, 14 | 333 | 58-7| 71:2) 49:6) 68:0) 52:5 15 2°62
14 ,,15 | 367 | 61:4] 69:0) 51:2] 683] 53-7 27 4:60
15 ,, 16 | 315 | 63:4) 73:5) 540] 70°6| 55:3 2°0 3°25
16 ,, 17 | 283 | 65:6) 72:2) 54-6) 71:3) 58:8 2°2 3°35
Ip Sells) 148 | 67:5| 764) 57:4) 73:3] 60:7 2:0 3:07
18 ,, 19 59 | 68:5) 72-4) 63:4) 71:2! 64:0 1-0 1:48
19 ,, 20 20 67:4, 73°4| 63:0} 69°3| 63°5|Decrease 1°] |Decrease 1:60
20 2) 62:7) 67:0)| 584) — — = ——
Total . 1850
Weight in Ibs. and Decimals
From
9 to 10 6| 77:0] 82:0) 74:0] 80°5| 74:5 — | —
10 ,, 11 | 25°} 73:3) 91:0] 63:0] 82°5| 65°7|Decrease 3-7 — 5:05
M5, 10) 84 |} 79°4| 1040} 56:0] 98:0) 63:7 + O39 + 114
12 ,,13 | 208 | 84:7] 115°0| 58:0] 108-7] 63:5 + 53 + 6°67
13 ,, 14 | 333 | 92:3] 1440] 58:0| 132°2| 665 $76 + 8:99
14,, 15 | 367 | 101°5| 163°0| 64:0] 147°5| 72:0 + 9:2 + 9°96
15 ,, 16 | 315 | 1132] 186:0| 73-0) 161-7) 79-2 + 11-7 +11°50
16 ,, 17 | 283 | 127:0| 179:0| 76:0) 171:'7| 88:7 + 14:0 + 12°36
LT 08 148 | 136:3|) 201:0|} 94:0] 178°2| 102:7 + 93 + 7:32
18 ,, 19 59 | 1441) 210°0} 104-0} 1760) 120°7 + 78 + 5°72
19 ., 20 20 | 140:0| 160°0} 121-0} 151°0| 127-0 |Decrease 6°1 \Decrease 2°77
20 2 | 116:0| 139:0} 93:0] 139°0| 93-0} Exceptional | co
Total. 1850
Chest-girth in Inches and Decimals.
From
9 to 10 6 | 27:4) 29:0] 26:0) 27°8) 261 — —_—
LOM, LL 25) 261] 28:2) 21:2) 27:3] 24-1 — 13 — 474
1D 55 1D. 84 | 27:0} 31:0} 21:4|) 30:0] 241 + 09 | + 3:44
12 ,,13 | 208 | 27:0) 31:4} 21:4) 30°1| 25-1 + — + nil
13 ,, 14 | 333 | 280) 342] 24:0) 32°3) 24-7 + 1:0 + 3°70
14 ..,15 | 367) 283] 37:0} 25:0} 35:1] 25:2 + 03 + 9:10
15 ,,16 | 315 | 303] 36:0| 26:0) 35:0| 264 + 2:0 + 7:06
16 ,, 17 | 283 | 32:0] 38:0) 266) 36:5] 27-1 sain lr ( + 5°61
17 ,,18 | 148 | 32:3) 36:6) 27:2} 35:9) 28-7 + 03 + 0:09
18 ,, 19 59 | 34:0] 40:0} 29°6| 37-1| 30°8 + 7 + 5:26
19°; 20 20 | 32°99] 35:4) 31:0] 33°8; 31:6 — well — 3:23
20 2] 29°77) 31-4 / 28:0; 314) 280] Exceptional —
REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE. 155
Taste XXIV.—Hxap-cirre of Boys at Marlborough College. ‘Measured
on a line passing above the occipital protuberances and above the
frontal eminence.’
Age last Birthday
Head-girth in . . (
Inches belaosl) aa ae! ae i) a4 || ab fej) 17 | 18 | 19
24-5 NRE TSR (EE SPSS | ppm (PE Py ee as oe
24 ag PT | a
23°5 eh es (rei hades 2 Weer mena | sat loy Bo 2 DOL
23 0 est 1 ad EAS BE) Me ga
29+5 By le at) ai eens 4-995] Seeeds | 42 1429, | LO
22 1} 1! 3/20] 60| 60] 94| 84| 45] 14] 8
21-5 3| 4| 13| 65 | 124|137| 106] 81] 30] 12] 2
21 “| 42! 93| 85 | 85 | 91] 52] 36] 15] 3] —
20°5 han pega (tread Weegee 39) godor ie oy. eR | —
20 Pilea a lana [Sto lee Ghtt 10K Ss lew ey tO |
19:5 Bo ges baie roel | aby oy? Vee ot WE 0,2| eee EE Ph
Total Sia 4| 26| 89 | 219 | 333 | 370 | 320 | 282 | 150] 61] 22
tions
Average Head- 1 | 91.69] 20-96 21-08] 21-23| 21-44| 21-48) 21-77| 21-95] 22°18) 22-23122-36
DS
NotnE.—The Committee recommend that the head-girth should be taken on a line
passing just above the frontal eminence (or eyebrows), including the occipital pro-
tuberance. This and all other girths should be taken with a plain tape, and the
length afterwards read off on a rule, divided into inches and tenths of inches.
Tanne XXV.—Anrm-cirtH of Boys at Marlborough College. ‘ The arm was
held in a loosely-flexed state, the muscles being at rest and flaccid ; the
measurement being made round the thickest part of the biceps muscle.’
Age last Birthday
Arm-girth in
Inches > | sgeshsanalhioieniaalp ue tp Me | 26°) 1% ||\18. |, 29
13 eel) 422i) ees sb ete qaen deal. Saule 1
12°5 es Mer ad a dalseaihyes bascabsoadd Se bie
12 Oh) eee ens ae eS eee eee 3 2 2| 2
115 2 50D tar eat Neteanee Raeions Vee 1 4 3 Gale 1
11 2M) Dee ad ieee 5 er ler i 5| 2
105 Bite ein tuted 2 2 4| 24] 294] 13] 1
10 Boniae ih (as 1 1| 13] 39| 47] 45] 16] °9
95 car een 1{| 12] 23| 43! 71].28| 10] 4
9 pea (age 4 Weg bh i Be) 16") AT CO pita 2 yd NRE
8°5 ou Tb Clb becdde lc Wel 80h SG LaOrt. 12 ites
8 2 3] 292| 70|114| 107} 50] 15 FP oh hema bi fue
75 Pcs sy egestas Agee Ie ACIP aes) eee
7 1 9| 17] 28] 15 8 5 Teg) —— Jpetei| iss
65 as 1 3 4 re ay (ee I Pee ee ee re
6 ES se a eee iba sa a | ea aes ee
4| 26] 89 | 219 | 333 | 370 | 320 | 282 | 150] 61] 22
Total Observa-
tions
Bccin os bp 7-50| 7-26| 7-55| 7-71] 8:01| 8-34| 8-76) 9:36 | 9-70 |10-12|10-04
Norr.—The arm-girth should be taken when the arm is extended horizontally
at the thickest part of the biceps muscle. In right-handed persons the right arm,
and in left-handed persons the left arm, should be measured.
156 REPORT—15850.
Taste XXVI.—Lec-cirta of Boys at Mariborough College. ‘ Measured
at the thickest part of the calf, the muscles being at rest.’
Teg-eirth Age last Birthday
ee 9 | 10 {a1 | a2 | a3 aa ae | a6 eee | te
165 PH eee Poe Ub ee a cr
16 sf ah eel aly lined] eal aac i
155 ie fe ee ee) op) ae cee
15 — i [ch lo STS a) 6 dl
145 ah ee es | 8) ore 10.0 amar ot
14 — foie | eel |e 10] 281, 351] Poe “8
1355 = |e | an 8 1927 |) 381. 49 | eG
13 —| —| 1] 8| 23| 53] 76| 89] 38] 10] 2
12°5 —| —| 5| 15{ 37| 54] 59] 42] 10), 4] 2
12 —| O47) 43] 78/109] 58} 27] 197] 4
115 1) fees 16 | .59}.095 | 68'|35 |. Sul) “Saath
u La 8h 68.) 69 39i) 100|. a ee ees
10°5 1) ea PB 19%) B31. 9 | BN A ee aes
10 Wh MMA lie eR a Meee Ee yy
95 te =) 2. dione |) ai), sgl eee
9 Se ag | | | a
aan 4] 26| 89 | 219 | 333 | 370 | 320 | 282 | 150| 61 | 22
race sey 10-75] 10:70] 11-00] 11-31) 11-63] 12°09) 12-62) 12-99) 13-32) 13-90|13-61
NoTe.—The leg-girth should be taken in the standing position at the thickest
part of the calf. The right leg in right-legged persons, and the left leg in left-
legged persons, should be measured.
VII. Telegraph Messengers.
Mr. G. Carrick Steet has published, in the ‘St. George’s Hospital Re-
ports’ (1874-6), a paper on the development and growth of boys between
13 and 20 years of age, from which Table XXVII. is extracted.
This table shows the average weight, chest-girth, and lifting strength
of boys of the same stature, but of different ages, and elicits the interest-
ing fact that there is, with increasing age, an increase in the weight,
girth, and strength, even when the height remains stationary. Mr. Steet
constructed the table to form standards of the average physical pro-
portions of candidates for the postal, telegraph, and similar branches of
the Civil Service throughout the country—a purpose for which they are
well fitted. The figures in black type indicate the stature of the boys
which should be selected.
VIII. Females.
Hitherto the Committee has been engaged in obtaining statistics re-
lating only to males, but they have received from Mrs. Bovell-Sturge,
M.D. (Paris), observations on 100 girls, by the consent and co-operation
of Miss Buss, of the North London Collegiate School. These will be
dealt with in future reports.
157
REPORT OF THE ANTHROPOMETRIC COMMITTEE.
aay
9-99|8-49|6-€9|Z-69|F-09|9-29/9-99) F928 48 Seqouy Ut
JUS Lop esvr9ay
assy
L6 |E9T |6F¥ [968 |909 |9F6 [Ogg | O89 38 pourae
-xq roquinyy
|
OZF¥|F6Z\66E| — | — | — | — |66-0€ 81-66 T€} — | — |e 1S SS OSES LGR E es —— |S eer lee D mee ae el TL
BIE|GIE|SE| LOE GSE] — | — |96-66 GL-GE|TF-TE)/LE-1E) 4-66) — | — LETITSTILPLIFFLIOST| —|—|o |F |€ Io JL |— |— OL
SSEl6SE|FLEISSE| TEE|08e, — [L-TS| 6-T&| TE 9E-OE| TE] 62] — |OFT|FFIISET SETISFI6GI]—|9 |9 |Z 16 |€ I = 69
LOGIFIE|F1IE| 962,06] — | — |26-TE L0-0€/10-0E L2-1§)99-66 — | — |PPLSPIITEL9ZtiIsl]) —|-—|8 IT jst jot jI9 J— |— 89
EPFE|PES|ISE OEE E6S|0FG, — |90-1E GT-O€|9T-1E/82-06.68-62) 62] — |SEL GaT\ZET SaTOZl\Eal) — IT |@I (9% |62 |Z IT =x 19
6ZE|SE|91E|90E 8F3|Z9G| — |TF-0E 96-0€|16.66 $1.62 €F-62| 9-62, — JOST 9STIOGL SST\LIT GIT] — |PL jo \8b [Sh |8 IF —e 99
SOE|9TE|L1E/966|F86|0E) — |90-0€ €F-0€|89-66/FT-6 91-62|E8-22) — |IZT/LETIOGLSIT/LIT\L01] — 1B |IS |69 |2L |9 | = g9
OTE/ESE|80E|88S\Z9Z|99G GBS|ZO-0E) 6-6Z/E9-6Z| 1-62 OL-8C|FS-SZ/EE-LZ|/OSLGTTIOTL ST ISILSIILITjSt |86 |@8 |LTT\LE |81 |s $9
F0E|96S|FOE|6L4| 19Z|L9S|\8ES|\89-66| 9-62/82-66 F9-8G 11-82 G6-L6] G-9S|LTTLIT/QILOLLISOLSOTEOT|6 |B |LL |9bT LE [62 |T €9
GIE|THG|F8G\9L6/8FS/LES|\LEG\1E-66| 8-8Z/19-86 06-86 G6-26/99-9G|ZS-9G/ETT IIT GOL 9OT|FOL|IOTI9G |F |GL IGG |9IT 99 126 |F 69
GEE|19Z|98G\9S|8ES|OEG/L1G| 2-66) 8Z/6F-86,60-86)LE-L6/96-92/EF-96 GIT ZOTI9OTILOTI6G \86 |96 |F IS |LE |GIL\9L |FE |8 19
— |GZE\ZFB/SSS\EZZ|9TG90G| — \96-0E 96-86)99-26)26-96/Z9-9G)_ 8-26) — |60T TOL 96 |26 |€6 j06 |— |6 |9 68 |T8 {28 8ST 09
— |69S|L9S|\9SS|S12|80G|961| — | G-9G] 1-12 F1-LZ/8F-9Z|9T-93/Z8-Sa] — |16 |$6 |S6 |16 \68 |48 |— |L EL |Z9 |¢8 [68 |Z 6g
— | — |@86|L1Z|L61|G0G/ E61] — | — |99-12/9L-96 GI-9B|ZL-S6|8F-2c| — | —|F6 88 |L8 98 }98 |— |— |§ ILF |9b |TST Lg 89
—|— | — |8ZZ|LOZI9GT/OGT| — | — | — \OF-9682L-8Z/9F-9G/E1-9] — | —] — 98 |€8 |E8B |Z8B |— |— |— |0O€ |8b OAT ISTIT Lg
— | — |0ZZ/9ZZ|96T|I61|T81} — | — |Z9-$2\68-92,90-92| 92|29-F¢| — |—|I8 |Z8 |82L [08 |82 |— |— |6@ |6 |8E [SST \ZOT 9g
— |T&2| — |SOZ/FETIS8T\SZT} — | ¢-gg] — 9Z|LG-QZ|FL-FZ|SF-FZ| — |9L | — OL |LL |9L |9L |— |G |— |€& |8L |SBt Ost gg
—|— | — |96T|LLTIE8TI8ZT| — | — | — | G-86 99-FZ/EL-F6|9F-F2| —|—|— |L9 |FL |PL \FL |— |— |— |T |S [oF |99 $2
fe FL Ra af rf Cg Ae | | eT OI 2) em em et || ti 9 (als €g
199 Poe LOL hale Osha) eS) a [eta LO) |i OL Giles bee cee ee | others mT 6g
See el | ml SN ee 1 |e Se SS SO a a al ee IL Tg
6I 8L LT 9L ST FL ST] GE ST Lt Of St FL SL {6T ST ZI 9T ST FT ST jot SE LE 91 ST Fl &T
sony sosy sony sosy soqouy
S| ees
(309511) QOUGLIJUINIATO-JS9YQ) OAVIOA W "ST UL JYSIOM VseIVAY pourmex
*Sq] UL YjSueI}s adeIZAW
‘quowyaredeq ydeadojay, oy} Jo sorts oy ut yneufojdme
JO} soyeprpuvo pozoofor puv pajdeoov ¢gg‘g jo yISueNgG pue ‘soueroyuMoao-ysoqyQ ‘yysIOM ‘SOSY—'JTAXX FAV,
158 REPORT—1880.
IX. Lvtensions of the Inquiry.
It has been urged upon the Committee by Major-General A. L. Fox
Pitt-Rivers that they ought not to neglect any of the more important
measurements used by anthropologists, the utility of which is well
established. ‘The facts which it is the object of the Committee to deduce
concern the influence on race ; first, of heredity, and, secondly, of external
causes. Anthropometry may be divided under the three heads: size, form,
and colour. Of these, the Committee have as yet taken cognizance only
of size and colour, except so far as the collection of photographs may be
regarded as bearing on form; but as the study of physiognomy is not yet
reduced to a system, no statistics can be derived from these. Of the three
headings, size, form, and colour, as tests of race, colour is generally
allowed by anthropologists to be the most important because the most
persistent, form the next, and size the least important, because all animals
are able to increase in bulk through good living, whereas this cause has
less influence on colour and form. Of the various measurements relating
to form, head form, especially the cephalic index, seems the most
important, for the following reasons :—it is universally employed, easily
obtained, ample data for comparison already exist, it can be obtained from
living subjects as well as skulls, it is useful not only as a test of race, but
also in its bearing upon intellect.’ General Pitt-Rivers therefore proposed
that the greatest length and greatest breadth of head should be added to
the subjects inquired for by the Committee. The Committee propose that
this should be done in future years.
The Committee have had before them also a paper by Dr. Mahomed
relating to useful extensions of the inquiry to medical subjects in cases
where the observers are duly qualified medical men. Upon these sug-
gestions they propose also to act hereafter.
X. Photographs.
The collection for publication of photographs of the typical races of
the Empire has been again entrusted toa sub-Committee, of which
Mr. Park Harrison has been so good as to act as convener. Their report,
prepared by him, is subjoined.
‘During the past year about 400 photographs have been received by the
Committee, mostly from Wales, the Shetland Isles, Morayshire, North
and South Arran, Cornwall, Hast Norfolk, Worcestershire, and the more
remote parts of Kent and Sussex. A certain number have been arranged
on sheets of cardboard for more ready comparison.
‘The photographs from Shetland, taken in full face and profile for the
Committee at the expense of Mr. Bruce, the owner of Unst Island, are of
considerable value. They comprise the portraits of fourteen individuals
belonging to families who have inhabited the islands as long as there are
any records ; and they still, in several cases, retain their original Scan-
dinavian names.
‘The portraits from Moray and Arran, with others from different parts
of Scotland, were presented by Dr. Muirhead.
‘The Welsh photographs, obtained by Mr. Harrison, represent the
darker race in the Principality, and assist in the recognition of kindred
types which appear to exist, with more or less mixture, in various dis-
tricts in England; for example, at Brandon, in Norfolk. Several portraits
ON THE INFLUENCE OF BODILY EXERCISE, ETC. 159
from that locality have been mistaken by competent judges of physiog-
nomy for Welsh. The inhabitants contrast strongly in colour of hair and
eyes with the population of other parts of the county.'
‘In several other counties there appear to be populations differing es-
sentially in features ; but a larger number of portraits, taken ona uniform
system, in profile and full face, would be required, together with head-
measurements, to enable the Committee to define racial characteristics.
‘The Committee have been furnished with a fine series of photographs
of eleven typical inhabitants of the district around Bradford, Yorkshire,
taken and presented by Messrs. Appleton & Co., photographers, of Brad-
ford, and selected and described by Mr. Thomas Tate, F.G.S., to whom
the Committee are much indebted.
‘Owing to the funds at the disposal of the Committee being required
for the reduction of the mass of observations that have been acquired, no
other original photographs have been taken this year under their direc-
tion. Few consequently of those that have been obtained are of value
for strict scientific examination ; and by far the greater part of England,
and Scotland, and the whole of Ireland, the Channel Islands, and the
Isle of Man are unrepresented at present by any photographs.’ ?
The Committee would therefore press on the consideration of the
Committee of Recommendations the advisability of an extra grant for the
acquisition of photographs.
XI. Conclusion.
The Committee request that they may be reappointed, and suggest
that the reference should be in the more general terms ‘for the purpose
of continuing the collection. of anthropometric observations and of photo-
graphs of the typical races of the Empire.’
They have received most efficient services in abstracting the returns
and otherwise from their assistant secretary, Mr. J. Henry Young.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. Pyr-Smitu, Professor
M. Foster, and Professor BURDON SANDERSON (Secretary), ap-
pointed for the purpose of investigating the Influence of Bodily
Exercise on the Elimination of Nitrogen (the experiments con-
ducted by Mr. NortH).
Durine the past year four series of preliminary experiments, each of
several weeks’ duration, have been made by the Committee on the subject,
the expenses of which have been met from other funds. In the course
of these experiments unexpected difficulties have been encountered
relating to method. The most serious of these difficulties having now
been for the most part overcome, we are in a position to proceed with
our inquiries next winter, and have therefore to request that the sum of
50/., previously granted to us, may again be placed at our disposal.
1 Out of eighty recruits who joined the West Norfolk Militia this spring, there
were only three with black or very dark hair and eyes.
2 Since the last meeting of the sub-committee several portraits of natives of
Heligoland have been received as a gift from the divisional officer of the Coast
Guard connected with the island.
160 REPORT—1880.
Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. C. SPENCE BATE
and Mr. J. BRooKING Rows, appointed for the purpose of explor-
img the Marine Zoology of South Devon.
WE beg to report that we have had a series of dredgings, &c., from various
parts of the coast of Devon and Cornwall, selecting more especially those
localities that have been hitherto little explored, or which previous re-
search has shown to be places of interest for the objects that have been
found.
From off the Dudman we have received many animals, which, although
not new, yet have been considered as being among the rarer of our British
Crustacea. Among them are Polybius henslowii, and a macrura that is new
to the coast, if not an undescribed species. It evidently belongs to the
genus Nephropsis. Nephropsis stewarti was taken by Mr. Wood-Mason in
the Indian Seas at a depth of 300 fathoms; another species has been
taken during the Challenger Expedition at 700 fathoms, south of New
Guinea; and another at 800, from off Bermuda: N. Atlantic. All these
are remarkable for the depth at which they were taken, as well as for the
rudimentary or depauperised condition of the eye-stalks; whereas the
British form was taken floating on the surface of the sea, and has large
and well-developed eyes.
The resemblance of all four species is very close, and the distinction
of one from the other is dependent chiefly upon the modified forms of
more or less important parts.
Nephropsis cornubiensis (new species).
We look upon the discovery with considerable interest, as it bears a near
resemblance to the preserved fossil remains of Hoploparia belli, as figured
by Woodward in his table of fossil Crustacea.
If we compare our newly-found form with Nephrops norvegicus of the
Northern Ocean, we shall find many points of similarity and many also
of definite separation—the latter so strong that were we assured that Ne-
phropsis cornubiensis, the name by which we provisionally intend to recog-
nise the newly-found species, were an adult or mature form, we should
not hesitate to accept it as a distinct species. But as we know so
little of the young of any of the macrura after they have passed the earliest
forms in which they first appear, we are induced to believe it may be no
other than an immature condition of Nephrops. If this be the case then
all the species of the genus Nephropsis (Wood-Mason) must be recognised
asin the same position, and probably the fossil Hoplopariaalso. There are
conditions that make one hesitate to affirm this too hastily, and among
these are the facts that, in the localities where Nephropsis has been taken,
Nephrops has not been recorded. There has been no instance of Nephrops
having been taken in the English Channel, or anywhere south of the
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 161
North-Irish and Scotch waters. And as far as we are aware, no specimen
of the genus has been taken in New Guinea, the Philippine Islands, or
Bermuda.
This is, however, but negative evidence, and only valuable until re-
search has been perfected ; and until it is more so than at present, it will
be convenient to allow the genus Nephropsis to include the smaller
forms.
We have also obtained specimens of Arctus arctus, and many others
of interest. “But the sudden and severe illness of our colleague Mr. J.
Brooking Rowe, on whose assistance we had calculated, has precluded us
from a complete examination of all our specimens, more especially in
Annelids, Mollusca, &c. A box of offshore washings has been placed
in the hands of Dr. Zenker, of Potsdam, for examination, more especially
to ascertain the enotomostracous forms of Crustacea that may exist in
this locality.
When all liabilities have been paid, we expect to have some eight or
nine pounds still in our possession, with which we hope to be able to
complete our report at the next meeting of the Association.
The collections that we may secure we propose to deposit in the
museum of the Atheneum at Plymouth, which is essentially of a local
character, and the duplicates, more especially the edriophtbalmous species
of Crustacea, we intend forwarding to the Bristol Museum, to perfect
the collection of British forms in that institution.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. M. Foster, Professor
Rouueston, Mr. Dew-Smiru, Professor HuxLey, Dr. CARPENTER,
Dr. Gwyn JeFrreys, Mr. Scuater, Mr. F. M. Batrour, Sir C.
WYVILLE THOMSON, Professor Ray LaNKESTER, and Mr. Percy
SLADEN (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of arranging for
the occwpation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples.
Your Committee have to report that the Zoological Station at Naples
continues in a most satisfactory state. Under the able management of
Dr. Dohrn, no opportunity ‘is left unemployed for promoting its efficiency
and. utility ; and in these endeavours he is admirably seconded by his
whole staff. During the past year the establishment has been placed
upon a more secure footing than it has previously enjoyed, by the German
Government having voted a grant equivalent to 15001. towards the sup-
port of the Station, and which is understood to be an annual and per-
manent one. As a proof of the great interest taken in the undertaking
in Germany, it may be mentioned that this grant was the result of a
direct resolution of Parliament on a petition moved by Helmholtz,
Dubois-Raymond, and Virchow; and that in the discussion that followed
many of the chief men of the Reichstag took part. The money is
bestowed as a donation from the Empire, for which no return is asked,
each separate State paying for the hire of its table in the usual way ; ©
Prussia having three tables, and five other States one each. In addition
to this Prussia votes 150]. annually towards the publications of the Sta-
Briss ae the Berlin Academy has this year granted 100. for the first
: M
162 REPORT—1 880.
volume of the ‘Fauna und Flora.’ It will thus be seen that Germany
contributes a total sum of between 2250/. and 23501. per annum towards
the expenses of the undertaking: a truly noble support. when it is borne
in mind that the nation has no greater direct participation in the
advantages of the Station than any other country or association that may
hire a table.
In addition to the tables previously taken, one has recently been hired
by Belgium and one by the Italian Navy ; the last chiefly for the purpose
of instructing officers in the collection and preservation of marine
organisms. Russia has also prolonged its contract for five years.
The Royal Society has granted 100/. towards the publications.
Respecting the publications issued under the auspices of the Station,
the following monographs of the series ‘ Fauna und Flora des Golfes von
Neapel ’ will be issued in the course of a few weeks :—
1. Dr. Chun: ‘ Ctenophora.’
2. Dr. Emery: ‘On Fieresfer.’
The remaining monographs mentioned in the previous Report are all
in a forward state; and to the list already given there has recently been
added one by Dr. Andres on the Actiniz of the Gulf.
Of the ‘Mittheilungen aus der Zoologischen Station’ (in which are
published, amongst other works, the investigations carried out by the
members of the staff of the Station which are not comprised in special
monographs) vol. i. and vol. ii. part i. have already appeared, and part ii.
is now in the press.
The ‘ Prodromus Faunz Mediterranes’ is near completion, and may
probably appear during the year.
The ‘ Zoologischer Jahresbericht ’ for 1879 is in the press.
The Library of the Station is continually on the increase, and the num~-
ber of journals has been considerably augmented by the exchange of the
‘Mittheilungen ’ for the proceedings published by other institutions.
The collecting capabilities of the Station have gained an important
advantage in the Scaphander diving-apparatus. Officials belonging to
the establishment have already descended to a depth of 20 métres, and
remained over an hour on the sea-floor, searching for animals and plants ;
and by this method many new insights have been obtained.
A new tow-net has also been constructed, according to a device of Dr.
Dohrn’s, by which the animals occurring in different depths may be
caught ; the apparatus being so arranged that the net can be opened or
closed at any depth it may be desired to investigate.
Surface-collecting is carried out daily as usual; and dredging from
the steamer is prosecuted several times per week; excursions for this
purpose having latterly been extended as far as Gaeta and the Ponza
Islands.
In order to keep pace with the advances made in methods of in-
vestigation, various additions of apparatus and instruments have been
acquired by the laboratory: under this category may be mentioned four
new microtomes, a micro-polariscope, a spectroscope, and an induction
apparatus, besides other apparatus which it is unnecessary to mention
here.
Two elevated reservoirs have recently been erected, by which a regular
circulation of sea-water can be supplied to a number of smaller basins,
specially constructed as working laboratory tanks.
By means of the reconstructions carried out during the previous year
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 163
the aquarium has gained both in beauty and utility, whilst the new system
upon which the glass plates have been fixed has proved so satisfactory
that not a single leakage has taken place. Observations upon the organ-
isms in situ are much facilitated, being now taken regularly, and tabu-
lated by one of the officials of the Station.
In the Dredging Department the Station has received from Dr. Wm.
Siemens about 1000 métres of iron wire of special manufacture, where-
with dredging can be carried on in much greater depths than formerly.
Your Committee have pleasure in announcing that since the presenta-
tion of their last Report, Dr. Dohrn has himself set on foot a scheme for
the foundation of a travelling fund for the benefit of naturalists who may
occupy the English tables, and that a sum of money has been contributed
which may be applied to this purpose. Your Committee are therefore
now in a position to offer a grant of money towards the travelling ex-
penses of any naturalist who may be selected to occupy the Association
table.
It should also be mentioned that preparations are progressing for the
establishment of a small Zoological Station at Messina, as a dependency
of the one at Naples. Students who come to work at the latter place
will thus be enabled to find similar advantages at Messina, although on a
smaller scale; whilst the fauna is even richer in pelagic animals than that
of Naples.
For these additional advantages, several lessors of tables (Prussia,
Baden, Strasburg, and others) have already consented to raise their con-
tributions from 751. to 907. Your Committee would strongly advocate the
adoption of a similar course by the Council of the British Association ;
not only on this account, but also in recognition of the special advantages
afforded to occupiers of the English tables by the establishment of the
travelling fund above mentioned.
Your Committee would, with these particulars before them, most
strongly urge the renewal of the grant as a worthy contribution towards
the advancement of science.
Since the last Report the Association table has been occupied by Mr.
Arthur Wm. Waters, whose report will be found appended; and also
various details, kindly furnished by the staff of the Zoological Station.
I. Report on the Occupation of the Table, by Mr. Arthur Wm. Waters.
The British Association granted me the use of their table at the
Naples Zoological Station for two months, from the beginning of November
last year; but, being in an unsatisfactory state of health, I soon found that
I was unable to stand the climate of Naples, and was forced to leave by
the middle of that month, and, consequently, have no report to furnish of
work completed, but will indicate some of the points I hoped to be able
to investigate.
Recently a good deal of attention has been paid to a tissue of the
Bryozoa, uow called the endosarc, which at one time was looked upon as
a colonial neryous system; but, thanks to the researches of Joliet and
others, we are able to see that the earlier views were quite incorrect, and
know that it plays a most important part in the economy of the colony,
although not as a nervous system, but in connection with the growth and
life of the various parts of the Bryozoon. The endosare in one zooecium
M 2
‘
164 REPORT—1880.
is connected with that in another by means of disks in the zooecial walls,}
which have been called rosette-plates.
These rosette-plates I found, as regards position, form, &c., furnish
characters which in some genera are of great use in the specific determi-
nation, and from what I have seen anticipate that in some cases they also
can be used to distinguish genera. By the position of the rosette-plates
in recent and fossil species (when the state of fossilization allows exami-
nation), the part of the zooarium from which fresh growth takes place is
in most cases clearly indicated ; and it seemed tome of great importance
that a comparative study of the endosare and its position, and of the
rosette-plates, should be made; and the arrangements of the Zoological
Station furnish every opportunity for so doing, and made it the more
disappointing to relinquish the investigation.
Zoobotryon pellucidus, the ctenostomatous species examined by Rei-
chert, being transparent, is very favourable for examination, and from
watching it in different circumstances I conclude that in the normal con-
dition the endosare always consists of a large number of fine threads,
and when it is found as a more solid cord it is in a less vigorous state,
absorption of some of the tissues has commenced, and, if I am justified
in drawing conclusions from incompleted work, this condition must be
looked upon as pathological, or, perhaps, it must be considered the result
of a check to growth caused by periodical or exceptional causes, such as
the unsatisfactory nature of life in an aquarium. This was shown in
several cases in specimens which, when freshly collected, showed a vast
number of anastomosing threads, but after living some days in the
aquarium presented the thick cord in much the condition figured by
Reichert.
After some considerable trouble I induced Diachoris magellanica, a
transparent cheilostomatous species, to root upon some slips of glass,
placed in my small tank for the purpose ; but being successful in this only
just before leaving, I was unable to make the continuous observations
intended. It, however, seemed that while this species, which is brought
from a depth of 30 to 40 fathoms, would live in the aquarium, showing
for some time activity of the avicularia, and occasionally movement
of the polypide, and also throwing out radicles, there was, with this
exception, no further growth ; so that a bud, which was growing when
brought in, would remain at the same stage, and the contents of the cell,
which were of a cellular character, would separate into an irregular
network.
From these and other observations, I saw reason to believe that besides
the study of actively growing specimens, much could be learnt from an
examination of the reversed changes, which take place when growth is
arrested ; and apparently arrest of growth takes place in some parts
frequently and perhaps in the whole periodically, when the endosare will
become consolidated, and is thus a store ready for fresh growth.
From the immediate neighbourhood, I found but few species not
mentioned in the paper published two years ago, but hope shortly to
draw up a list of additions from a somewhat wider range; some are
species known in distant localities, thus again showing that the geo-
graphical range is often very large with the Bryozoa.
1 The rosette-plates may be seen also in the diaphragms of some Ctenostomata;
in the avicularian chambers, and in Membranipora cervicornis is well developed at
the hase of the projecting process.
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 165
Of material, which I had more or less prepared for examination, I
sent home a series in tubes and bottles at that time, hoping I should in
the future have the health to complete the investigation, but if unable to
do so, these points will no doubt all be elucidated ere long by others.
I found the zoological station much changed in several particulars
since I was previously there. The staff is now. much larger, with the
duties more subdivided ; and the library, which is now removed into a
more convenient room, is much improved ; but for some time the weak
point is likely to be in systematic works. I cannot close without saying
that I always found the staff ready to give me every assistance, and
must thank Dr. Dohrn and Dr. Hisig for their kindness, especially in
giving me leave to apply to the Station for help in any work I undertook
while remaining in the neighbourhood.
II. Report on the Reference Collection.
The General Reference Collection has latterly received considerable
attention under the management of Dr. Paul Mayer (in conjunction with
Mr. Schmidtlein for Fauna and Distribution, and Dr. Berthold for Botany).
Dr. Mayer has kindly furnished the following notes.
1. The object of collection is :—
a. To facilitate the determination of specimens for students work-
ing in the laboratory, and to serve as a reference in doubtful
cases. ,
b. To collect material for the Fauna of the Gulf of Naples (extend-
ing northward to Gaeta and southward to Salerno), and
specially for comparison with the forms from Messina.
c. To collect material for systematic purposes, such as the in-
vestigation of individual variation, mimicry, and biological
questions in general.
d. To obtain material for anatomical and special histological in-
vestigations, special reference being had to the best methods
of preservation.
2. Preservation is generally effected in alcohol of 70 to 90 %; for
fishes, alcohol of 50 % is mostly used ; and plants are usually
placed first in concentrated solution of common salt, and then
in alcohol.
3. The number of specimens representing the different groups of
animals varies greatly, because (a) some of the forms are not
equally abundant in all localities; (b) the preservation is not
yet sufficiently good in many groups for the animals to remain
thoroughly recognizable; (c) in many groups the determination
cannot at present be carried out.
4, The determination of the specimens is undertaken, as far as prac-
ticable, by specialists.
5. The following summary will indicate the present condition of the
different groups :—
a. Fishes—Most of the forms of the Gulf represented, together
with some interesting young stages.
b. Tunicata.—Well represented, specially Ascidie ; and nearly all
determined.
REPORT—1880.
166
SS eS EE
O88T ‘99 “ON
lastezuy 007,
paysriqnd
oo MA
uayelozueTs0y top sun
“NepIOA aIPTN[PIORAZUL 9p aqo—
Cortmoyeuy
uepodojeydan) ‘ueapayururez
-YIOM op uvA Sevisto, Stdopt00,
UOT}RIG oT}
Je UayVyepun suoryesysoauy oy
wo.F “oulry uaserd oy} 07 dn
“paqser oARY YONA suorworgng
Sober, * * pueyrezjIMg | * 4 sung “Iq | eFT
4 Se 6 sey | a paddy “ * @ssmig | * * SIMpn'y “Iq | FFT
Sat Cac ; * puelloH | ° CUBUTTOR JOUd | SFT
& ok * 0% yore : : = Tepe. | « uueUlqey “pureg | ZFT
SS pumlurcly oe Fp cow : * wereaeg |* Srequosuedg iq | TFT
“ g oune oT ns : * Smquey * jyasuedg aq | OFT
co Te er s ‘ tumispeg | * Josuryyo0,7 “Iq | GET
“ 1 “ . . “ . . sorpuy Id SEL
. Te 3 : cs : STLPA VIC “Id | LET
O88T ‘IT ‘ure samy BS Ayeyy | * + aquerpea.iq | 9¢T
“ 6L Aep “ F ‘90 r " BISSnY | * YOU eW “Jorg | Get
“16 “AON 3 SARIS aE os Genes! ‘aah eT
te aaeGe = Gee: } * BIssutd | * * Zqraryog *“FJOId | §&T
OS8T “TE yorey Se om: ‘ * erreaeg | * yoorg “1d | St
GLST ser Och |e tae Gee uoryeroossy Ysiiig | * * sieyeA\ “II | TST
“ #2 andy. 3 Se " PULPLOZFIMS | * SIssetq NC “Forg | OST
Seip Teh et Sis BOG) : * puviloH | ° SuIPStA “IG | 6ZT
& “SETI: aes Me te * sToquieyIny | * toTTMUIsreyg “pnyg | gar
O8sT ‘IT yorum | “ eT “ : Sinqseyg |* * ay4gon "yorg | 121
tS a99C « -6 ‘deg Aurepeoy ulpleg | * : qpurig “iq | 921
6181 “OE “990 | 6L8T ‘8a “sny * dspeg |” 4 PPA “IC | S6T
arnqauday [GALI JO oSN opvUr SBA qsvy
O[qBy, oso mM r + arial = |U0 Jo
— Sessa re Grete OWEN SJsipeingey lee
Aouvdnoog Jo uorRmg
ee Fa Be SPARE se Satin BLAS Se
‘OSST “UNO JO GNG FHL On
“6L8T ‘XTOf £0 GNX GH wow NOILVIS CHL LY GUNTOM TAVH OHM SLSITVUALVN GHG wo LSIT V ‘IIT
ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES.
167
c. Mollusca.—Gasteropoda and Conchifera determined part by
Kobelt and part by Gwyn Jeffreys.
The Cephalopoda
include some rarities from Messina, but numerous blanks
exist in the group, specially in the Nudibranchiata.
Q
. Echinodermata.—Most of those named in Ludwig’s ‘ Prodromus,’
and all determined by him.
Dd
. Orustacea.—Neurly all the Decapoda recorded by Camill Heller
(some of them being new to the Fauna of the Gulf of Naples),
determined by P. Mayer.
Important collection of Zoos
reared from the egg.
Amphipoda, Isopoda, Copepoda, &c., only poorly represented,
on account of the difficulty of determination.
s+ ta The
Bryozoa.—Nearly all collected and determined by A. Waters.
. Nemertina.—Determined by Dr. Hubrecht.
. Annelida.—By Dr. Eisig.
The remainder of the Annulosa only imperfectly represented,
pending the publication of the monograph on the subject.
k, Cclenterata.—Fairly numerous, especially sponges, which are
well represented.
l. Protozoa.—Just commenced.
vd
Iv. A List oF PAPERS WHICH HAVE BEEN PUBLISHED SINCE THE PRESENTA-
TION OF THE PREVIOUS REPORT, BY THE NATURALISTS MENTIONED THEREIN.
Dr. v. Ihering .
»
Dr. Hubrecht ,
” e
Mr. Percy Sladen
Dr. Della Valle
Mr. Geddes
Dr. Berthold .
Dr. Solger
Dr. Keller
Prof. Selenka .
Profs. Oscar and
Richard Hertwig
Prof, v. Koch .
Dr, Mereschkowsky :
Beitriige zur Kenntniss der Nudibranchien des Mittelmeers, I.
(‘ Malak. Blatter.’ N. F. ii.)
Graffilla muricicola, eine parasitische Rhabdocoele.
wiss. Zool.’ Bd. 34.)
Vorliufige Resultate fortgesetzten Nemertinen-Untersuchun-
gen. (‘Zool. Anzeiger,’ 1879.)
The Genera of European Nemerteans critically revised.
(‘ Notes, Leyden Museum,’ 1879.)
Vorloopig Overzigt van het Naturhist. Onderzeek, etc. in het
Zool. Station de Naples.
Zur Anatomie und Physiologie des Nervensystems der Nemer-
tinen. (Amsterdam, 1880.)
On a remarkable form of Pedicellaria, and the functions per-
formed thereby; together with general observations on the
allied forms of this organ in the Hehinide. (‘Ann. and
Mag. Nat. Hist.’ ser. vy. vol. vi. 1880.)
Sui Coriceidi parassiti, e sul anatomia del gen, Lichomolgus.
(Mittheil. Zool. Station, Bd. II.)
Sur la Chlorophyle Animale (P.8.). (‘Archives Zool. Expérim.’
t. 8.)
Zur Kenntniss der Siphoneen und Bangiaceen.
Zool. Station,’ Bd. 2.)
Neue Untersuch. zur Anatomie der Seitenorgane der Fische.
(‘ Archiv. fiir Mikr, Anatomie,’ Bd. 17.)
Studien iiber Organisation u. Entwickelung der Chalineen.
(‘ Zeitschr. wiss. Zool.’ Bd. 33.)
Keimblitter und Organanlagen bei Hchiniden.
wiss. Zool.’ Bd. 33.)
Die Actinien anatom. und histol. mit besonderer Beriicksich-
tigung des Nervensystems untersucht. (Jena, 1879.)
Bemerkungen tiber das Skelet der Korallen. (‘ Morphol. Jahr-
buch,’ Bd. 5, 1879.)
Sur la Structure de quelques Corallaires. (‘Comptes Rendus,’
No, 18, 1880.)
(‘ Zeitsch.
(« Mittheil.
(‘ Zeitschr.
168 REPORT—1880.
Dr. Mexscchliownky Sur l'Origine et le Dével. del’ Gut chez la Medusa Encope, etc.
(‘ Comptes Rendus,’ No. 17, 1880.)
Sui primi fenomeni dello sviluppo delle Salpe.
dei Lincei, 1880.)
Prof. Todaro . (Real. Accad.
V. A List oF NATURALISTS TO WHOM SPECIMENS HAVE BEEN SENT
Lire
1879. June 25 F. M. Balfour, Cambridge Echin. and Mollusca - 182
July 29 Anatomical Museum, Oxford . Coelent. and Mollusca 54
+ 29 Prof. Ganin, Warsaw ; . All classes 378
» 29 P.de Loriol, Chalet des Bois . Asteroidea 30
» 29 Prof. F. E. Schulze, Graz. Sponges 10
» 29 Ed. Schunk, Manchester . Murex 21
» 29 Prof. E. Selenka, Erlangen Selachian embryos 42
» 29 Prof. Th. Owsjannikow, St. is 3 38
Petersburg
Aug. 3 W. Kitchin Parker, London Hippocampus embryos 13
» 20 F. M. Balfour, aes Chimera, Clavellina. waar
» 21 Museum, Toronto All classes : : . 1,065
Pe ib desRosin Hasse, Breslau Torpedo embryos AES
Sept. 8 Zoolog. Institut, Erlangen Rossia 12
pi een Chin: Vetter, Hamburg Coelent. Echin. Mollusca . 63
» 29 Ung. Jos. Polytechnikum, Bu- Crustacea « A a BS
dapest
Oct. 6 Prof. Liitken, Copenhagen . Cephalopoda and Fishes . 74
5) 6 Science and Art Dept., South All classes . . 345
Kensington, London
» 25 Prof. Maly, Graz > Dolium™. : : . 7
» 25 Prof. Ray-Lankester, London . Hydromeduse . 102
Nov. 7 G. Cotteau, Auxerre : . Asteroidea b4
sy a “Prot. Lovén, Stockholm . All classes 4 . 328
1 8 Prof, Todaro, Rome . . Salpze C E : othe Ae
Dec. 2 Naturh. Museum, Frauenfeld . All classes a 1438
A 2 Prof. Schmarda, Vienna . Coelent. Annel. Mollusca . 135
» 15 Zoolog. Comptoir, Bale Coelent.and Echinodermata 52
» 24 Dr. P. Fraisse, Wiirzburg Gasteropoda . , ; 5
» 24 Naturh. Museum, Hamburg Coelent. Echin. Annel.
Crustacea 4 200
» 24 Zoolog. Institut, Wiirzbure Gasteropoda . . 18
1880. Jan. 11 J. Madathian, Riesbach . Physalia . 5.70
», 12 Zoolog. Institut, Heidelberg Coelent. Echin. “Annelida. 140
» 27 Prof. C. Vogt, Geneva Coelent. and Mollusca 150
Feb. 2 §. Brogi, Sienna . : Echinodermata : 75
iy 2 Prof. E. Grube, Breslau . Annelid. Crust. and Fishes 64
» 20 Chr. Vetter, Hamburg Coelent. Echin. Annel.
i Mollusca 103°60
March 1 Prof, Alex. Goette, Strasburg . Coelent. Crust. and Mol-
lusca A . 49
9 Fischerei-Ausstellung, Berlin . All classes 6 ° _—
» 18 Dr. Bellonci, Bologna Nephrops . 4 rAd
April 5 Prof. O. Nasse, Halle Hydromedusa, Sagitta,
Cephalop. &c. c + nLO
» 6 N.Fenoult & Co., St. {eel All classes . 3814
» 15 Realschule, Kempten Elementary collection 41
» 16 Dr. Eger, Vienna . Different classes 40
» 16 Dr. Retzius, Stockholm Tunicata and Fishes 81
» 16 Zoolog. Museum, Charkow Different classes 174
» 27 Naturhist. Museum, Groningen All classes . 255.50
» 27 Gymnasium, Reichenberg Elementary collection EK co)
» 27 Zoolog. Museum, Lausanne Different classes 162
», 980 Museum, Liverpool . Coelenterata . 86°60
FROM JUNE 25, 1879, TO JUNE 21, 1880.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHIROPTERA, ETc. 169
Lire
May 6 M. Rebmann, Karlsruhe . . Cephalopoda and Fishes . 18
» 24 Naturh. Museum, Bremen . All classes ; ; . 380
» 24 Zoolog. Institut, Erlangen . Mollusca . : : Bod Fits)
» 24 ” rf Wiirzbure . Echin. Cephalop. Annel. . 148
June 1 Prof. C. v. Siebold, Miinich . All classes : y . 3881
» 1 Prof. Theil, Hermannstadt . Elementary collection . 62
» 21 Prof, Ehlers, Goettingen . . All classes : : eo At?
VI. A List or NATURALISTS TO WHOM MICROSCOPIC PREPARATIONS HAVE
BEEN SENT FROM MARCH 6, 1879, TO JUNE 5, 1880.
Lire
1879. March 6 Mr. Bruker, Constance . : ; . 2 preparations 1.50
May 14 Prof. Harting, Utrecht . , , . 1 ” 20.91
June 12 Mr. Haddon, Cambridge : ’ “ig a 23.10
» 20 Prof. Berlin, Amsterdam ‘ ‘ aon # 52.78
July 18 Prof. Cossar Ewart, Aberdeen ay eG) 70.00
Nov. 3 Prof. Emery, Cagliari . . . . 17 * 23.80
Dec. 20 Dr. Brandt, Berlin . : f y . «8 + 10.90
202.99
1880. Feb. 2 Prof. Emery, Cagliari . : ; a LO “ 14.00
£ 14. Dr. Brandt, Berlin 3 : : OS As 4.00
» 16 Prof. Goette, Strasburg . 3 ‘ Aeon: s 46.60
April 23 Mr. Geddes, Edinburgh . 3 . . 36 9 45.35
May 17 Prof. Metschnikoff, Odessa. ; . 20 Ss 27.00
a 7 Prof. Todaro, Rome : 4 A . 14 3 22.00
» 18 Dr. Ludwig, Bremen . : 4 . 29 a 39.15
» 18 Prof. Du Plessis, Lausanne . : aD ” 6.60
» 20 Zoolog. Institut, Strasburg . ‘ . 80 Pr 116.00
June 5 Dr. Spengel, Géttingen . : P ay 33 2.60
323.30
Report on accessions to our knowledge of the Chiroptera during the
past two years (1878-80). By G. E. Dosson, M.A., M.B., ke.
{A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in eatenso
among the Reports. ]
One of the chief results hoped for from the publication of my natural
history of the order Chiroptera,' as stated in the preface to that work,
was that it would be ‘a stimulus to collectors and students to pay more
attention to this difficult and obscure group of animals than has been the
case hitherto.’ How fully this hope has been realised has been abundantly
shown, not only by the publication of numerous papers on the subject in
various scientific journals, both home and foreign, contrasting remarkably
in number and quality, and especially in the number of different writers,
with those recorded in any previous period of like duration, but also by
the activity which has been displayed by collectors, as evidenced by the
contributions received at the different museums, and by the numerous
letters received by the writer from almost all parts of the world from
those whose interest in the Chiroptera has been at length awakened.
* Entitled Catalogue of the Chiroptera in the Collection of the British Museum.
Published June, 1878.
170 REPORT— 1880.
To enumerate, classify, and correct these contributions; to add some
remarks, supply a few omissions, and correct one or two errors since
discovered in the work referred to above, is the object of this paper.
I commence by re-defining the suborders into which I have divided
the Chiroptera, adding some important characters previously omitted.
Susorper I—MEGACHIROPTERA.
Crowns of the molar teeth smooth, marked with a longitudinal furrow ;
bony palate continued behind the last molar, narrowing gradually back-
wards ; trapezium large, deeply grooved for articulation with the trochlear
base of the first metacarpal bone ; second finger with three phalanges,
generally terminating in a claw; sides of the ear-conch united below,
forming a complete ring at the base ; pyloric extremity of the stomach
elongated ; spigelian lobe of the liver ill-defined or absent.
Sunorper Il1—MICROCHIROPTERA.
Crowns of the molar teeth acutely tubercular, marked with transverse
furrows ;' bony palate narrowing abruptly, not continued laterally behind
the last molar ; trapezium small, forming a simple articulation with the
concave base of the first metacarpal bone; second finger with a single
rudimentary phalanx, rarely (in Rhinopoma only) with two, not termi-
nating in a claw; stomach simple or with the cardiac extremity more or
less elongated ; spigelian lobe of the liver well developed.
Susorper I.—MEGACHIROPTERA.
Familj—PTERoPovipm™.
Epomophorus monstrosus, Allen.”
In the Paris Museum I found a specimen of this species from Ogoné,
collected by M. Marche, which had previously been unknown south of the
equator.
Epomophorus minor.
Epomophorus minor, Dobson, ‘ P.Z.8.’ 1879, p. 715.
This small species should come next after HY. macrocephalus, which
stands second in the list of species in the ‘ Catal. Chiropt. Br. Mus.’ It is
searcely more than half the size of that species, but resembles it in the form
and arrangement of the palate ridges. The head is, however, proportionally
much shorter and broader, and in comparative measurements the female
differs less from the male, as I have shown in the original description.
These remarks are founded on an examination of five well-preserved adult
specimens which I owe to the kindness of Dr. Robb, H.M. Indian Army,
Civil Surgeon of Zanzibar, and the following are the measurements of
the largest, a perfectly adult male :—
Length: head and body 4/0 inches, head 1/65 (in adult feraale 1/’°55) ;
eye from tip of nostril 0/"65 (an adult female 0/55), ear 0/72, forearm
‘In the Stenodermata, which are frugivorous or sanguinivorous in their habits,
this character is not well developed, but the fundamental form of the teeth is the
same as in other Microchiroptera.
* All species referred to in this paper, and of which descriptions may be found
in my work on the Chiroptera, are simply named ; other species:since described have
the place of publication of the original description indicated.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHIROPTERA, ETC. 171
2-5, third finger (metacarp. 1/’*7, 1st ph. 1/1, 2nd ph. 1/65), fifth finger
(metacarp. 1/55, Ist ph. 0/8, 2nd ph. 0/8), tibia 0-96, foot 0’-6.
Hab. Zanzibar.
Dpomophorus labiatus, Temm.
The occurrence of well-preserved spirit specimens, in the collection
received by me from Dr. Robb, enables me to define the species more
correctly than I was able to do in 1878, when dried skins were alone
available. While agreeing closely with H. gambianus in the total length
of the head, the muzzle is shorter, and all other measurements, except those
of the feet, are less. The fifth palate ridge also is not divided, being
marked by a slight groove only. ‘The following are the measurements of
an adult female with well-worn teeth :—
Length: head and body 5/0 inches, head 1/95, eye from tip of
nostril 0/8, ear 0/8, forearm 2/85, thumb 1/2, third finger 1/95,
(1st ph. 1/"3, 2nd ph. 2’-0) fifth finger (metacarp. 1/9, 1st ph. 0/9,
2nd ph. 0°95), tibia 1/15, foot 0'"75.
The fur extends much less densely upon the interfemoral membrane
and legs than in H. gambianus; a very few hairs only appear upon the
backs of the feet. In the female there are distinct, though rudimentary,
shoulder-pouches. Hab. Abyssinia; Shoa; Malindi (Fischer and Peters).
EHpomophorus comptus, Allen.
When describing this species the only specimen available was the skin
of an adult female preserved in alcohol. Hence I was unable to add very
many desirable particulars, especially those relating to secondary sexual
characters and dentition. Fortunately this deficiency has been lately amply
made good by a most excellent account of the characters furnished by an
examination of four specimens preserved in alcohol, and a skin, by Dr. J.
A. Smith, published in the ‘ Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edinb.’ 1880, pp. 362-
69, the paper being accompanied by two woodcuts. The spirit specimens,
consisting of two adult males and a female with a young male (which she
was nursing when captured), I have since had an opportunity of examining
in the British Museum (to the collection of which they have been pre-
sented by Dr. Smith), and I can endorse the very great accuracy of Dr.
Smith’s remarks.
The following measurements were made by me before seeing Dr.
Smith’s paper :—
Adult Adult Adult Adult
ae male male female | female
Length of head : ; 2°25 2°25 1:85 iG,
” eye from tip of nostril 0-9 0-9 0°75 O7
» ear : - : 0-9 0-9 0-9 0-9
” forearm q : 37 37 3°3 3-4
” thumb, metacarp. , , -| O05 0°6 0-4 0-45
5 » phalanx (without claw) . 0-75 0°85 0-9 0-9
3 third finger, metacarp . 2°55 2:7 2°3 2°35
” ” 1st phalanx 1°65 187 16 1:55
3 SJ 2nd phalanx 2°45 2°6 22 2-4
+ fifth finger, metacarp . 2:45 | 2°6 2:2 2°3
» 39 1st phalanx Se EG NS reg ts) V5 1-2
$ ss Qnd phalanx . .| 1:35 | 1:35 1-15 1-2
tibia : : : : | PL aoes) OUST 1:2 1:3
» | foot 0:95 | 09 0-75 08
172 REPORT—1880.
In the fourth column I have arranged the measurements of the skin
of the adult female specimen from which my original description was
taken. The differences in the comparative measurements of the soft parts
(notably of the ear and muzzle) between this and the female spirit speci-
men in the third column, are easily explained by the distortion always
occurring even in the best preserved skins, and shows how very advisable
it is never, if possible, to describe from skins. It may be noticed that the
thumb and third finger of one of the male specimens is considerably
shorter than those of the other, though the rest of the measurements agree
remarkably closely.
In my description of this species I took care to remark that, in the
adult animal, there were two upper incisors, for I had noticed how, in
E. franqueti, the lateral upper incisors were liable to fall out (vide ‘ Catal.
Chiropt.’ p. 13), and these well-preserved specimens show that my suspi-
cion that the dental formula did not really differ from that of the other
Species was quite correct. As Dr. Smith remarks, the immature male has
four upper incisiors, quite similar to those in immature examples of
E. franqueti, one of the males has lost both upper outer incisors, the other
and the female has lost the left upper incisor only.
The presence of two upper incisors only, which was fixed upon as a
distinguishing character by the author of the original description is,
therefore, conclusively shown to be a delusive one. We have, however,
in the form of the palate ridges, as previously noted by me (op. cit. p. 14,
pl. II. fig. 5), a valuable specific character which can be relied upon,
especially when taken into consideration with other characters. The
figure of the palate ridges referred to above, taken from the single indif-
ferently preserved female specimen, is sufficiently accurate, but, necessarily,
not so good as the excellent woodcut of the same parts in an adult male
individual, which illustrates Dr. Smith’s paper. In this species, then, the
third palate ridge (that between the second upper premolars) is undivided
like the preceding ridge, while in H. franqueti (with which alone it may
be confounded) the corresponding ridge is represented only by a promi-
nent oval papilla at either side.
As in E. franqueti, the males of this species have large shoulder-pouches
measuring nearly half an inch across in specimens in alcohol, probably
much larger in living individuals. In these specimens a minute tail about
one-tenth of an inch long is concealed among the hairs. I was unable to
find any trace of one in the skin of the female specimen referred to, and
there is certainly none in any specimen of FH. franqueti I have yet exa-
mined. This part of the body being evidently in a vanishing condition, its
suppression should not lead us, in the absence of other distinguishing
characters, to found therefrom even a distinct race, much less a species.
Hab. West Africa (Lagos, Gaboon, Old Calabar, Ogoné).
Pteropus germaint.
Pteropus germaini, Dobson, ‘P.Z.8.’ 1878, p. 875.!
Ears shorter than the muzzle, concealed by the long fur of the head,
triangular, obtusely pointed, thinly clothed throughout with soft hairs.
} Scarcely was my work on the Chiropterafout of the hands of the printer when
I was enabled, through the kindness of M. Alphonse Milne-Edwards, to inspect some
most interesting specimens of bats lately received by the Paris Museum, among
which were the type of this species, and others to be referred to hereafter.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHIROPTERA, ETC. 173
Fur long and woolly, like that of Pt. aneiteanus, on the back long like
that of the head, directed backwards. Humerus and forearm rather thinly
covered with straight fur like that of the back. The legs are clothed with
long fur, which extends to the backs of the feet; the margin of the wing-
membrane almost as far outwards as the extremity of the fifth finger is
clothed with straight appressed hairs; the posterior margin of the nar-
row interfemoral membrane is quite concealed. Face in front of and
immediately above the eyes light greyish-brown; head and the whole
inferior surface of the body dark blackish-brown, interspersed with several
shining greyish hairs, the shoulders and back darker, the rump and legs
greyer; upper surface of the neck and shoulders pale yellow with reddish
extremities.
Teeth like those of Pt. medius, the first upper premolar small, scarcely
raised above the level of the gum, and occupying the centre of the small
space between the canine and second premolar; last upper molar slightly
larger than the first lower premolar, and about the size of the last lower
molar.
Length (of a not quite adult female) : head and body about 6” inches ;
head 2/3, ear 08, forearm 4/7, thumb 2/"3, third finger (metacarp.
3’, Ist ph. 2/5, 2nd ph. 3/5), fifth finger (metacarp. 3”, Ist ph. 15,
2nd ph. 1/35), tibia 2/2, foot 1/7.
Hab. New Caledonia. Type in the collection of the Paris Museum.
This species resembles externally, to some extent, Pt. aneiteanus, but
the very different form of the teeth at once distinguishes it. From Pt.
vetulus, inhabiting the same islands, it is distinguished by the completely
different colour of the fur, as well as by the absence of transverse basal
ridges in the molars and premolars. Its food appears to consist, in part
at least, of figs, as I found portions of these fruits in the mouth of the
typical specimen.
Pteropus hypomelanus, Temm.
To the localities for this species add Cambodja.
Pteropus kerandrenii, Q. & G.
To the islands inhabited by this widely distributed species must be
added New Caledonia, where are found two other species also, namely,
Pi. vetulus and Pt. germaini.
Cynonycteris amplexicaudata, Geoff.
Add also Cambodja (M. Harmand, Paris Museum).
OCynonycteris collaris, Iliger.
Lord Lilford has bronght from Cyprus, and presented to the collection
of the British Museum, specimens of the large frugivorous bat of that
island, which i find undoubtedly belongs to this species, hitherto known
only from Equatorial and Southern Africa. I have already pointed out
the close connection which exists between this species, C. egyptiaca, and
C. amplexicaudata, and this fact of specimens agreeing in all respects with
South African examples occurring in Cyprus, where we should rather
expect to find 0. cegyptiaca, renders it extremely doubtful whether the
characters used to separate the species are really of specific importance.
ones are, however, required before this question can be finally
settled.
174 REPORT—1880.
Cynonycteris straminea, Geoff.
To synonyms of this species add Pteropus palmarum, Heuglin, ‘ Verh.
Leop. Carol. Akad,’ 1865, Heft 5, Nr. 3, 4.
Genus Boneia.}
Boneia, Jentink, Notes from the Leyden Museum, 1879, p. 117.
Characters generally those of Cynonycteris, but with two upper
incisors only, separated from the canines and also in front; tail well
developed.
Boneia bidens.
Boncia bidens, Jentink, Lc.
Ears longer than the muzzle, rounded at the tips; a prominent
thickened lobule at the base of the outer margin of the ear-conch:
nostrils deeply emarginate between, their inner margins projecting : eyes
equally distant from the ears and from the extremity of the muzzle;
upper and lower lips: deeply grooved in front. Wings from the back near
the spine, about one-sixth of an inch apart at their origin, and from the
base of the toes between the first and second metatarsal bones; tail as
long as the ear and very thick, projecting two-thirds its length beyond
the interfemoral membrane. Face yellowish-brown; head and upper
surface of neck and shoulders golden yellow; beneath dark brown through-
out. Fur moderately long and dense, scarcely extending upon the mem-
branes ; the muzzle, ears, legs, and feet naked.
1-1 1-1 3-3 2-2
tee Gr ees ym.) ak vin, eee
gee BS CR aap a
Dentition :— inc.
entition :— inc 33
Cephalotes minor.
Cephalotes minor, Dobson, ‘ P.Z.S.” 1878, p. 875.
Resembles C. peroni closely in general structure, but less than half
the size of adult specimens of that species; the feet are much smaller
than in very young specimens of C. peroni, and the wing-membrane is
attached to the outer toe, not to the space between the toes, as in that
species ; it also extends further outwards, terminating opposite the second
joint of the next toe.
The teeth are also slightly different; the upper incisors are wider
apart; the second upper premolar has not the prominent antero-internal
basal cusp observed in O. peroni; and the first lower premolar scarcely
rises above the gum.
Length: head and body 4/’:5, tail 0/6, head 1/6, ear 0!"7, forearm
3/2, first finger 1/3, third finger (metacarp. 2/0, 1st ph. 1/5, 2nd ph.
1-9), fifth finger (metacarp. 2/0, Ist ph. 1/1, 2nd ph. 1/1), tibia 1/1,
caleaneum 0/25, foot 0/8.
Hab. Amberbaki, New Guinea.
Type in the collection of the Paris Museum.
1 This appears to be the proper position of the genus, of which I have not yet had
an opportunity of seeing the type of the species on which it is founded.
a,
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHIROPTERA, ETC. 175
Susorper Il.—MICROCHIROPTERA.
Family RuwoLoryiwe.
ERhinolophus luctus, Temm.
Hab. Mount Willis, Java, 2500 feet (Baron v. Hiigel). This new
locality for R. luctus also indicates, as I have previously remarked, that
this species appears to be restricted to the highlands of the countries
which it inhabits.
Rhinolophus acwnimatus, Ptrs.
To the localities of this species add Laos, Siam, (M. Harmand, Paris
Museum).
Rhinolophus affinis, Horsfield.
Add also Cochin China (M. Harmand, Paris Museum).
Rhinolophus minor, Horsfield.
Dr. W. Peters remarks ' that I have unaccountably confounded Rh.
cornutus, Temm. with this species, which, he states, is to be distinguished
from it, as Horsfield’s figure shows, by the superior margin of the central
connecting process behind the sella being obtusely rounded off, as in
Rh. afinis, and not sharply pointed.
The following notes will, I think, sufficiently explain why I still regard
Rh. cornutus, Temm. a synonym of Rh. minor.
1. With respect to Horsfield’s figures they are not only badly executed,
but were taken, as the types show, from very badly preserved specimens,
and therefore cannot be depended upon as correct.
2. The type of Rh. minor (lately in the collection of the India Museum,
and now transferred to the British Museum) agrees so closely with
Horsfield’s description that there can be no doubt of its being really the
type of the species. In it the part of the noseleaf referred to above is
very different in shape from the corresponding part in Rh. affinis (to
which Dr, Peters likens it), it is triangular and pointed, very like that of
Bh. landeri (see ‘Catal. Chiropt. Br. Mus.’ pl. vii. fig. 9), and quite
similar to that of two specimens from Japan, lately added to the collec-
tion of the British Museum, which I have no hesitation in recognising as
examples of Rh. cornutus, Temm. But in other specimens of Rh. minor,
especially in those of smaller size, I have observed that the superior margin
of the posterior connecting process is even more acute, in some exceedingly
so, constituting the variety Rh. pusillus, Peters, (not Temminck) ; in
others, still smaller, the terminal portion of the posterior lancet-shaped
nose-leaf is broad, with straight sides, forming almost an equilateral
triangle, very different from the corresponding narrow terminal process
in other individuals, constituting another variety, which, until lately, I
considered a distinct species and named Rh. garoensis. As a further indi-
cation of how hable this species is to vary, as I have previously remarked,
the position and size of the second lower premolar is very uncertain, being
found in some small individuals of moderate size and standing in the
tooth-row, in larger specimens minute and quite external, and vice versd.
M. B. Ahad, Berl, 1880, p. 24.
176 REPORT—1880.
In the following table the measurements of eight specimens are given,
the localities of each, the position of the second lower premolar, the place
of attachment of the wing membrane to the posterior extremities, and the
nominal specific title of each being indicated beneath :—
Wa ee a eee
© wiles Paap Phe ili Pty) 5 Stns Meet eae ae
Length, head and body . se 1°75.) 1-65 | 1:5 | 1:5 1:65) 1-75 | 1°55
tangs 0:75 | 0-9 | 0:65 | 0-7 | 0-75 | 0-85 | 0-75 | 0-7
» head. [07 | 065/06 |065/07 |0-7 | 0-65
a> ear see 0°52 | 0-7 | 0°65 | 05 | 0°55 0-6 | 0°63 | 0:55
x forearm . . : 145 }16 | 1:4 | 1:3 | 1:45) 1:5 | 1°55 | 1-4
% third finger, metacarp. 1:0 | 1°15 | 0°95 | 1-0 |.1:05 ; 11 | 11 | 1:05
‘5 5 Ist phalanx .|O04 |05 | 04 | O-4 | 0-43 | 0-45 | 0-45 | 0:43
: mnd 33 06 [0-7 | 055 |055/0-6 |0-7 |0-7 |06 |
s5 fifth finger, metacarp. 1:05 | 1°72 | 1:0 | 10 |1°0 | 1°15 {1:15} 1:05,
i ¥ Ist phalanx . | 0:35 | 0-4 | 0:35 0-34 0°35 | O-4 0°38 | 0°35
i ¥ ond! ,, 0-4 [0% | 0-4 | 0-4 | 0-4 | 05 | 0-45 | 0-4
eG sh 06 | 065/05 | 06 | 05 (0:6 06 |06
ein, Coote 0-25 | 0°3 0:25 | 0-25 0°28 0-26 | 0-26 | 0-25
In 1, 2, 3, and 4, the second lower premolar stands in the tooth-row,
and is distinctly visible without the aid of a lens, in 5 it is half external,
in 6 and 7 it is three-fourths external, in 8 it is quite external to the
tooth-row, scarcely visible without the aid of a lens and the first and
third premolars are closely approximated. But neither the form of the
noseleaf nor the size of the individual corresponds to these differences ;
in 2 and 4, the largest and smallest respectively, this premolar stands in
the tooth-row and can be easily seen with the naked eye; in 1, 2, and 5
the noseleaf corresponds exactly in form, in 4and 8 the posterior con-
necting part of the sella develops a long, very acutely pointed, process,
while in 6 and 7 the form of the same part is intermediate. Again in 1,
2, and 8 the wing-membrane is attached to the tibia immediately above
the ankles, while in 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 it extends to the ankles or even to
the tarsus; 1 is the type of Rh. minor; 2 (from Japan) undoubtedly
represents Rh. cornutus, Temminck ; 4 Hh. garoensis, Dobson, while 3,
5, 6,.7, and 8 should, according to Dr. Peters, be referred to Rh. pusillus,
Temminck.
The specimens from Japan differ from the type of Rh. minor only in
being larger throughout; but, as I have shown in the table above (in
columns 6 and 7), in this respect intermediate forms (from Tsagine,
Upper Burma, collected by Dr. Anderson) are found, while the shape of
the nose-leaf, and the development and position of the second lower
premolar, are again intermediate between these forms and that of which
the measurements are given in column 8, and which would be regarded as
a typical Rh. pusillus.
For these reasons I have considered all these forms as but different
phases of the same species; for, although individuals like those of which
the measurements are given in columns 2 and 8, appear to differ so widely
in size, in the development and position of the second lower premolar, and
in the form of the posterior connecting process of the nose-leaf, yet such
perfectly intermediate examples are found that it becomes impossible to
say under which title the latter should be classed.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHIROPTERA, ETC. 177
Rhinolophus ewryale, Blasius.
The Alps and the Pyrenees have been hitherto considered the northern
limit of the distribution of this species in Europe, but lately M. Lataste
has discovered it at Saint Paterne, a place north of the Loire.' Dr. E, L.
Trouessart remarks * that as M. Lataste had previously obtained specimens
of the same species at Vernet-les-Bains (Pyrénées Orientales) it may be
fairly supposed that it is distributed in greater or less abundance through-
out N.W. and S8.W. France.
Rhinolophus hipposideros, Bechst.
The types of Rh. pusillus, Temm., in the collection of the Leyden
Museum, are, as I have previously remarked, undoubtedly specimens of
Eth. hipposideros, and I have, therefore, considered Temminck’s species
identical with that previously described, especially as his description quite
agrees with the characters afforded by the types. Prof. Peters, however,
considers * that I should not have been led to believe that the so-called
types are really the types, and suggests that an interchange of labels may
have taken place, remarking that I should have attended more closely
to the figure of Rh. pusillus which accompanies Temminck’s description.
To this my reply must be much the same as in the case of Rh. ininor et
cornutus (vide supra) namely, (1) that Temminck’s figures cannot be
depended upon; (2) that even if Rh. pusillus, Temminck, be as defined by
Dr. Peters, I can only (for the reasons stated above under Rh. minor)
consider it a variety of Kh. minor; and (3) that in taking the types as
a guide I acted only as Dr. Peters did years ago, in the case of Spix’s
Brazilian types, and for which he deserves the thanks of every naturalist.
To the synonymy of this species, as given by me, should be added
Vespertilio minutus, Montagu, ‘Trans. Linn. Soc.’ 1808, p. 163.
Rhinolophus ferrum-equinum, Schreb.
Allthe known Ethiopian species of the genus are more or less related
to this species, agreeing with it in the low antitragus which is separated
from the rest of the outer margin of the ear-conch by a shallow obtuse-
angled notch, also in the general form of the nose-leaf, in the very small
size of the second lower premolar (which is quite external to the tooth-
row, the first and third premolar being closely approximated), and more
or less in the closeness of the second upper premolar to the canine. It is
worthy of notice that no species having all these characters in common
has as yet been found beyond the limits of the Ethiopian and Palearctic
regions.‘ Of these allied Ethiopian forms I have recognised four as
species, namely—Rh. landeri, clivosus, capensis, and ethiops, but between
these and Rh. ferrwm-equinum come several more or less intermediate forms
presenting slight differences either in the nose-leaf, in the position and
size of the first upper premolar, in measurements, or in the colour of the
fur, which I have included in the synonymy of Rh. ferrum-equinum and Rh.
‘I have to thank M. Lataste for sending me specimens of this species (and
of others to be referred to farther on), of which he obtained 200 individuals at the
above-named place.
2 Le Naturaliste, No. 16, 1879, p. 125.
3M. B. Akad. Berl. 1880, p. 23.
* Rh. ferrum-equinum has been found in the Himalayas, but they are on the
boundary of the Palearctic Region.
1880. N
178 REPORT—1880.
capensis, leaving it to subsequent observers, when more material is avail-
able in our Museums, to say how far some of them may be regarded as
representing permanent varieties. Of these some were not included in my
work, either owing to accident, or because I had not been able to obtain
in time before publication an examination of the types or copies of the
papers in which they were described. These I now proceed to notice..
Rhinolophus macrocephalus.
Rhinolophus macrocephalus, Heuglin, ‘ Reise in Nordost-Afrika,’ ii. p. 22 (1877).
It appears quite evident that this is only another name for Rh. fumi-
gatus, Riipp. which I have regarded as a small form of Rh. ferrwm-equinum
with dark-coloured fur.
Rhinolophus lobatus.
Rhinolophus lobatus, Peters, ‘Reise nach Mossambique,’ Siugeth, p. 41, pl. 9, 13,
figs. 16, 17 (1852).
To this form I accidentally omitted all reference (in the ‘ Catal. Chiropt.
Br. Mus.’) although I had examined the type in the collection of the
Berlin Museum, and find the following record in my note-book.
Nose-leaf like that of Rh. afinis, the summit of the posterior connect-
ing process of the sella more convex and covered with a very few hairs -
the posterior lancet-shaped leaf longer ; ears and teeth as in Rh. ferrwm-
equinum; wings from the ankles, interfemoral membrane slightly trian-
gular behind; extreme’tip of the tail alone projecting; far, dark
slate-blue (in alcohol). Length (of an adult female) : head and body 1/-9
inches, tail 1/0, ear 0/7, forearm 1/’*7, thumb 0/25, third finger 2/6,
fifth finger 2'""2, tibia 0-7, foot 0’3, nose-leaf 0/5 x 0'-32.
Hab. Mozambique, Galitja.
Rhinolophus cethiops, Ptrs.
I have received two specimens of this species from Dr. Robb, Zanzibar,
which differ in no important respect from other specimens hitherto known
only from the West Coast of Africa.
Rhinolophus hildebrandtii.
Rhinolophus hildebrandtii, Peters, ‘M.B. Akad. Berl.’ 1878, p. 195, pl. 1, fig.
1 i Rep
In general form very like Rh. wthiops but somewhat larger, the shape
of the ears and of the nose-leaf almost identical with those of that species,
but the central erect process of the sella is much broader and higher, and
more rounded off above, and the posterior lancet-shaped part of the leaf
is rather thickly clothed with hair. Wings from the ankles; the last
and half the ante-penultimate caudal vertebre projecting abruptly, mar-
gined by a narrow piece of membrane on either side. The following are
an adult specimen of Rh. cethiops from Zanzibar.
in. in.
Length: head and body eee
a Reiley) el 1:5 . 18
5 ear. - : : 3 . 115 . 0°95
oF fore-arm . 5 : , ; ; 2-4 . 2°25
thumb 0:3 03
*
2
measurements of an adult specimen (a skin preserved in alcohol), and of
eee
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHIROPTERA, ETC. 179
in. in.
Length : third finger, metacarp. . 16 1°46
5a 4 1st phalanx ORG 07%
: ss 2nd ¥ ye 1°25
" fifth finger, metacarp. . hie 1°65
3 a Ist phalanx 0°55 . 0°5
* i 2nd x O7*: 06
' tibia : 5 1:08 0°95
f calcaneum O;Giee 0°55
r foot O55 . 0:5
Hab. Ndi, Taita, East Africa.
An examination of a specimen of this species (named by the describer)
in the collection of the British Museum enables me to make the above
notes. A careful comparison of that specimen with specimens of Eh.
ethiops from Zanzibar, while showing the differences I have indicated, at
the same time shows also their close connection in all other respects ; and
I can scarcely regard Rh. hildebrandtii as more than a hill form of Rh.
ethiops, standing in much the same relation to that species as Vesperugo
lasiopterus to V. noctula, though differing much less in size than the latter
variety.
Tricenops persicus.
Trienops persicus, var. afer, Dobson, ‘ P.Z.S8.’ 1879, p. 717.
An examination of two well-preserved spirit. specimens of this species
in Dr. Robb’s collection from Zanzibar, and of others sent to the British
Museum from Ushambola, enabled me to affirm the identity of the Persian
and African forms in the paper referred to above where I have compared
their measurements, &c.
Hab. Persia (Shiraz) ; Hast Africa (Mombasa, Ushambola, Zanzibar).
Phyllorhina tridens, Geoff.
This species, as well as the preceding, extends into both Asia and
Africa. Specimens in the collection lately reeeived by the British Museum
from the India Museum are labelled ‘El Leil, Mesopotamia,’ and
‘ Bushire, Persia.’ The basioccipital bone between the anditory bulle is,
in this species, proportionally much narrower than in other species of
Phyllorhina, and approaches that of Rhinolophus in this respect.
Phyllorhina tricuspidata, Temm.
To list of localities of this species add New Guinea (M. Raffray,
Paris Museum).
Phyllorhina commersonii, Geoff.
Add Malindi, East Africa (Fischer and Peters).
Phyllorhina armigera, Hodgson.
Add Cochin China (M. Harmand, Paris Museum).
Phyllorhina diadema, Geoff.
Add also Cochin China (M. Harmand) ; Sanghir Island (M. Laglaize).
The specimens from the latter locality differ from all others hitherto
examined by me in the great development of the central projecting ridge of
N 2
180 REPORT—1 880.
the sella, which, in one instance, projects almost as far forwards as the
corresponding part of the nose-leaf in Ph. cyclops; the blunt projection in
the centre of the upper margin of the transverse terminal part of the leaf
is also much more defined than in other specimens of this species, and in
one from Sanghir Island corresponds to a large cell behind.
Phyllorhina larvata, Horsfield.
To list of localities add Cochin China (M. Harmand, Paris Museum).
Phyllorhina bicolor, Temm.
Add also Cochin China (M. Pierre, Paris Museum).
Ceelops frithii, Blyth.
To my description of this most remarkable species the following may
be added :—
The caleaneum is weak, but distinct, nearly one-fifth of an inch in
length, and projects at its extremity slightly beyond the interfemoral
membrane; there is no trace of a tail externally; the wing-membrane
extends to the proximal extremity of the metatarsus; the female has
pubic teat-like appendages, as in the other species of Rhinolophide; the
terminal phalanx of the fourth finger ends in a large T-shaped process.
The measurements agree closely with those of the specimen in the Leyden
Museum from which my description (‘ Catal. Chiropt. Br. Mus.’ p. 153)
was taken.
To the localities of this species add Laos (in the roof of the Great
Pagoda at Lakhon, collected by M. Harmand) and Bantam, Java. In
the Laos specimens the fur is very dark brown above, (appearing black
in alcohol), beneath paler, the terminal third of the hairs ashy; ears light
brown ; membranes very dark brown or black.
Family Nyoreriwws.
To the regional distribution of this family add the Australian region
(Austro-Malayan and Australian sub-regions).
Megaderma spasma, L.
To localities add Laos and Macassar.
Megaderma gigas.
Megaderma gigas, Dobson, ‘ P.Z.S.’ 1880, Pt. iii. p. 461, pl. xlvi.
Although many times larger, yet in general external structure this
species agrees very closely with M. spasma, the relative proportions of
parts, however, being somewhat different. Thus the posterior lobe of
the tragus, though similarly shaped, is proportionately shorter, while the
anterior lobe is much broader at the base, more convex forwards, and
obtuse at the tip; the nose-leaf also, though almost identical in shape,
is not much larger than that of that species.
While in M. spasma the extremity of the second finger does not extend
as far as the middle of the first phalanx of the third finger, in this species,
as in M. frons, it extends beyond it.
Tail rudimentary, two short vertebra only project beyond the extre-
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHIROPTERA, ETC. 181
mities of the ischiatic bones, and are quite concealed between the two
layers of integument, divided from the dorsal and ventral surfaces of the
body, forming the base of the large interfemoral membrane.
The single specimen, an adult male, is very peculiarly coloured, some-
what like the specimen of M. lyra, in the writer's collection previously
described.! As in it, the general colour of the fur, ears, nose-leaf, and
membranes is white, the base of the fur, upon the upper surface only,
being pale slate-blue, the colour so characteristic of the genus; unlike the
other known species, the extremity of the carpus, the thumb, and the
membrane between the thumb and the second finger are clothed with
short hairs, in the type specimen of a white colour.
The teeth scarcely differ in general form from those of M. spasma, but,
as in the Ethiopian species of this genus, there is no minute upper pre-
molar, and the dental formula therefore agrees with that of M. frons.
The rudimentary premaxillre resemble more closely those of the Rhino-
lophide than those of any other species of Megaderma. As in that family,
they project considerably beyond the line of the canines, from which they
are also separated by a diastema on either side, and two small depressions
in the gum may be seen, which appear to be the empty sockets of a pair
of rudimentary teeth, occupying precisely the same relative position as in
the species of Rhinolophide, an additional indication of the close affinity of
the Nycteride to that family.
In the skull, as I have generally observed in the larger species of each
genus, the sagittal crest is well developed, and the pair of ridges into
which it divides in front are so strongly marked as to cause the frontal
bones between them to appear considerably hollowed. These ridges ter-
minate on each side in a blunt but well-marked post-orbital process, which,
however, as in M. spasma, is not perforated by a foramen. In this respect,
therefore, the skull agrees with that of M. spasma, which inhabits part of
the same zoological region, though apparently agreeing more closely with
M. frons and M. cor. in the flattened and expanded frontals, and in the
absence of a minute upper premolar :—
Length (of an adult male): head and body (inches) 5’-3, head 1-9,
nose-leaf 0/6, ear 2/2, tragus (anterior lobe 0/45, posterior lobe 1/0),
forearm 4/2, thumb 0/8, second finger (metacarpal 3/3, phalanx
06), third finger (metacarp. 2/"7, Ist ph. 1/85, 2nd ph. 3’°6),
fourth finger (metacarp. 3/1, Ist ph. 1/0, 2nd ph. 1/-5), fifth finger
(metacarp. 3/3, Ist ph. 1/°25, 2nd ph. 1/1), tibia 1/7, calceaneum
m4, foot 1/1.
Hab. Mount Margaret, Wilson’s River, Central Queensland, Australia
(captured by Mr. Wilson).
The single specimen from which the above description-was taken, was
sent by Dr. Schuette to the Géttingen Museum, accompanied by a note
from Mr. Krefft on the colour of the fur and membranes in the recently
killed animal. He describes the fur on the upper surface as leaden or
slate-coloured, with greyish extremities, beneath white ; the ears, nose-leaf,
and membranes flesh-coloured, with the exception of the band of integu-
ment uniting the ears in front, which is deep blood-red.
This species, in comparison with the four other known species of the
genus, is really gigantic in size, exceeding the largest, namely, M. lyra, as
much as the Noctule (Vesperugo noctula) exceeds the Pipistrelle (V. pipis-
trellus). If its habits be similar to those of M. lyra (see my Monograph
' Catal. Chiropt. Brit. Mus. p. 157.
182 REPORT—1880.
of the Asiatic Chiroptera, p. 77, 1876), it must be a very tiger among
bats, able, from its superior size, great development of the volar membranes,
and powerful canine teeth, to prey not only upon every known species of
Microchiroptera inhabiting the Australian region, but also, probably, upon
every other species of the whole sub-order, for one species only—Phyllo-
rhina commersonit. Geoff. (=Rh. gigas. Wgnr)—exceeds it in the length
of the forearm, yet in that species the forearm is disproportionately long,
and in general measurements Megaderma gigas has greatly the superiority
—it is therefore also the largest known species of Microchiroptera.,
The position of this species in the genus appears to be between M.
spasma and M. cor., but more closely related to the latter, with which it
agrees in the presence of post-orbital processes (though comparatively
very short), and in the absence of the minute first upper premolar.
To the great liberality of Prof. Ehlers, of the Gottingen Museum, I
owe the opportunity which has been afforded me of examining and
describing the type of this most interesting species.
Megaderma cor. Ptrs.
Hab. Abyssinia; Malindi; Mombasa.
Megaderma frons, Geoff.
To the localities of this species add Kau, River Osi, East Africa
(Fischer and Peters). Heuglin (op. cit.) notices this species from the
Upper Nile, south of the fifteenth parallel of latitude, and remarks that it
occurs along the banks of streams, and in thick jungle in the tops of
trees; that it sees well by day, and occasionally flies about in full sun-
shine. This agrees sufficiently closely with Capt. Speke’s account of the
same species quoted by me in ‘ Catal. Chiropt. Brit. ‘Mus.’ p. 160.
Nyctcris hispida, Schreb.
To the localities of this species add Kitui, Pokomo-land (Fischer and
Peters).
Nycteris grandis, Ptrs.
The occurrence of two perfectly adult specimens of this species in Dr.
Robb’s Zanzibar Collection, not only adds a new locality, but their size
shows that the type in the Leyden Museum, and the larger specimen in
the British Museum, are but immature individuals. The following are
the measurements of an adult male :—
Length: head and body, 3” inches, tail 3”, head 1/15, ear i.
tragus 0-3 x 0/1, forearm 2/5, thumb 0/65, third finger (metacarp.
1-8, Ist ph. 1-2, 2nd ph. 1/5), fifth finger (metacarp. 2/2, 1st ph.
0/7, 2nd ph. 0/"65), tibia 1/2, caleaneum 1’’0, foot 055.
The second lower premolar in these specimens is much smaller pro-
portionately, evidently owing to the growth of the adjoining teeth, and is
crushed in between the first’premolar and first molar.
Nycteris cethiopica, Dobson.
The tragus is incorrectly given ( ‘Catal. Chiropt. B. M.,’ p. 165) as
narrower than that of N. javanica. It is really broader and altogether
larger, as the well-preserved specimens in Dr. Robb’s collection show, the
mistake in my original description having arisen from the contracted con-
_
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHIROPTERA, ETC. 183
dition of the tragus in the dried skins then only known. The following
are the measurements of one of these specimens: Length: head and body
9/35, tail 2/25, head 0/-9, ear 1/15, tragus 0'°3 x 0'"15, forearm 1/’:95,
thumb 0/55, third finger (metacarpal 1/4, Ist ph. 10, 2nd ph. 1'2),
fifth finger (metacarp. 1/65, 1st ph. 0/55, 2nd ph. 0°55), tibia 0/95,
ealeaneum 0/7, foot 0/45.
Nycteris thebaica, Geoff.
N. angolensis, Ptrs., has been lately reported by its describer from Ndi,
Taita, north of Zanzibar, on the opposite side of the African continent from
Angola. Thus it occurs in a country very close to Zanzibar, whence comes
N. fuliginosa, Ptrs., originally described from Mozambique. In Western
Africa N. damarensis, Ptrs., from Damara-land, appears as an intermediate
form between N. angolensis from the north and N. capensis from the south.
The geographical chain is thus completed. It is difficult to imagine such
allied forms meeting and not interbreeding freely. Ihave already remarked
that I do not think the size or position of the second lower premolar
(which is more or less rudimentary in all the known Ethiopian species
of the genus) of sufficient importance to found a species upon. I have
pointed out its variability in N. grandis, and I believe that the different
sizes and positions of this tooth as exhibited in the following table are
but other examples of its variability in a single species, namely—in N.
thebaica:
a. Second lower premolar quite internal to the tooth-row.
a’, Second lower premolar minute : : : . 1. &. thebaica.
Egypt ; Abyssinia.
b’. Second lower premolar larger . : 5 : . 2. WV. angolensis.
Angolo; Pokomo-land.
d. Second lower premolar half internal to the tooth-row.
ce’, Second lower premolar larger . ; ° : . 93 WV. damarensis.
Damara-land.
c. Second lower premolar in the tooth-row.
dad’. Second lower premolar minute. : : . 4. WV. capensis.
Zambesi ; Natal,
e’, Second lower premolar larger . ; : . . 5. WV. fuliginosa.
Zanzibar ; Mozambique.
Family VesPERTILIONIDA,
Plecotus auritus, L.
Sir Joseph Fayrer has lately sent me specimens of this bat trom
Sutherlandshire; it therefore extends from the extreme south almost to
the extreme north of Great Britain, though probably not found in the
Shetlands, for Mr. Ernest Brown, now (August) visiting these islands, has
at my request particularly inquired into the presence of bats there, and
writes to me that he has never seen one since his arrival, and that the
inhabitants assure him thai such animals are quite unknown there.
This widely distributed species has also lately been recorded by Dr.
Peters from Nikko, Japan, so that it extends from the extreme west to
the extreme east of the Palearctic Region.
Plecotus ustus, Heuglin, is re-described in the ‘ Reise in Nordost-
Afrika,’ p. 30 (1877), but whether that (?) species really belongs to the
genus Plecotus or not I am quite unable to judge from the description,
which omits all reference to the dental characters.
184 REPORT—1880.
Vesperugo velatus, Is. Geoff.
Add Bolivia to the localities of this species.
Vesperugo serotinus, Schreb.
Considering the great variability of specimens of this species, which
are occasionally found to vary more even in the same region than speci-
mens collected in very distinct zoological regions many thousands of miles
apart (for instance, specimens of the Serotine from Central America
have been found by me to present not the very least difference when
compared with European examples), I am led to believe that the speci-
mens from Yunan described by me under the name of V. andersoni
(‘ Proc. As. Soc. Beng.’ 1871, p. 211) represent but a variety or perhaps
local race only of this species.
To the synomymy also add Vespertilio incisivus, serotinus et palustris,
Crespon, ‘ Faune méridionale,’ p. 11 (1844), (vide Trouessart, ‘ Bull. Soc.
des Sci. Nat.’ Nimes, févr. 1879, p. 35); and for the variety, V. fuscus,
add the locality Folsom, El Dorado, California.
Vesperugo borealis, Nills.
Vesperugo borealis, Dobson, ‘ Scientific Results of the Second Yarkand Mission,’
—Mammalia, p. 12 (1879).
To the description of this species (as given by me in the ‘ Catal.
Chiropt. Br. Mus.’) may be added that a fringe of fine straight hairs
extends round the upper lip in front beneath the nostrils. This character
affords, in the case of badly preserved skins of immature specimens, an
easy method of distinguishing V. borealis from V. discolor, in which this
fringe is quite absent.
Vesperugo maurus, Blas.
In a paper, of which I have only recently been made aware by Dr.
Forsyth Major, the identity of Vespertilio savii, Bonap. Vespertilio bona-
parti, Savi, and Vesperugo mawrus, Blas. has been demonstrated to the
satisfaction of the author and of others, but as the types of the first two
named species are not forthcoming, and as the descriptions are incorrect
or insufficient, I retain Blasius’ name.
In the collection of the Gottingen Museum, I have lately found a
specimen perfectly indistinguishable from this species, which was carefully
labelled as having been sent from Popayan, in New Granada, in 1844, by
Degenhardt. The presence of a single specimen is, of course, not sufficient
ground to extend the distribution of this species to the Neotropical Region,
the Chiroptera of which (with one exception only—Vesperugo serotinus, as
I have shown”) are quite distinct from those of any of the zoological
regions of the Eastern Hemisphere. There are, however, in the same
collection, several other specimens of species, evidently Neotropical, which
are labelled ‘ Popayan’ (to be referred to hereafter), and with which this
specimen agrees precisely in the state of preservation. It is also note-
worthy that V. mauwrus has been found in Europe at very high elevations
only, along the Alps, and in this respect the South American habitat given
1 In Atti della Soc. Tose. di Sci. Nat. iii. fase. i. Pisa, 1877.
* Catal. Chiropt. Br. Mus. p. 193.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHIROPTERA, ETC. 185
agrees very well, for Popayan is situated on an elevated plain in the Andes,
6000 feet high.
Tf, then, specimens of this species have really come from such very
distinct and distant zoological regions, and exhibit so few differences,
it becomes evident that we must consider the Oriental representatives
of this species described under the names Vesperugo mordax, Ptrs., V.
pulveratus, Ptrs., and V. austenianus, Dobson, as a distinct species, which,
although agreeing remarkably in general structure and even in the colour
of the fur with V. maurus, differs in its conspicuously greater size (forearm
16) in the very shallow emargination in the upper half of the outer
margin of the ear-conch, in the considerably less degree in which the
extremity of the tail projects from the interfemoral membrane, and in the
much greater development of the first upper premolar, which, although
the second premolar is also clcse to the canine, may be seen without
difficulty from without.
In an interesting paper,! Sgnr. E. Regalia has noted the variations
presented by about thirty individuals of this species collected in Northern
Italy. His observations may with much advantage be attended to by
those who are inclined to found species on slight differences in structure
and colour. Among many other important differences noted by this
observer the variability in the general measurements, and in the size and
presence or absence of the first upper premolar may be especially referred
to here. In his table of measurements the length of the forearm (of which
I had given the average measurement as 1:35 inches) is shown to vary
from about 1:28 to 1:45 inches. Also both first upper premolars were
found in ten individuals; in three the first premolar was present on the
right side only ; while in one this tooth was absent on both sides.
Vesperugo brunneus.
Vesperugo (Vesperus) brunneus, O. Thomas, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ Aug. 1880,
p. 165.
Muzzle broad and flat above, the grandular prominences well-developed,
increasing its width. Lars slightly shorter than the head, with broadly
rounded-off tips, outer margin of the conch faintly convex, angularly
emarginate opposite the base of the tragus, the terminal lobe elongated ;
tragus reaching its greatest width above the middle of the inner margin,
obliquely truncated above, inner margin straight, outer margin almost
parallel to it, with a small triangular basal lobule.
Wings from the base of the toes; post-calcaneal lobe well-developed ;
tail wholly contained within the interfemoral membrane.
Fur, above and beneath, dark-brown.
Outer upper incisors minute, barely one-third the height of the large
unicuspidate inner incisors ; no minute first premolar. Lower incisors at
right angles to the direction of the jaws.
Length (of an adult female): head and body 1:8 inches, tail 1/35,
head 0'"6, ear 0/55, tragus 0/2, forearm 1/-33, third finger 2''-27,
fifth finger 1/6, tibia 0/5, foot 0/-35.
Hab. Old Calabar. Type in the collection of the British Museum.
Distinguished from V. capensis by its unicuspidate upper incisors ; from
V. maurus, not only by the absence of the minute upper premolar, but
also by the tail being wholly included within the interfemoral membrane.
‘ Alcune variazione e particolarita osservage nel Vesperugo Savii Bonap. nota di
E. Regalia. R. Instituto Lombardo, 25 Apr. 1878.
186 | REPORT—1880.
Vesperugo noctula, Schreb.
To the localities of this species add Hekodate, Yesso, Japan (Hilgen-
dorf and Peters).
Vesperugo vagans.
Vesperugo vagans, Dobson, ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ Aug. 1879, p. 135.
Ears short, triangular, like those of V. pipistrellus; the tragus reaches
its greatest width in the upper third, inner margin slightly concave above,
outer margin straight in lower two-thirds, with a small rounded lobule
at the base not succeeded by an emargination, upper margin broadly
rounded off, in general outline, on the whole, like that of V. maurus.
Post-calcaneal lobule well developed; the rudimentary last caudal
vertebra alone projecting. Fur above, dark reddish-brown; beneath
similar, but paler at the extremities. The membranes are nearly naked.
Upper incisors like those of V. temminckii; the inner incisor on each
side moderately long and unicuspidate, the outer very short and conical,
scarcely exceeding the cingulum of the inner incisor in vertical extent,
but nearly equal to that tooth in cross-section at the base ; lower incisors
nearly at right angles to the direction of the jaws, trifid and crowded ;
first upper premolar extremely small, with difficulty seen even with the
aid of a lens, in the inner angle between the closely approximated canine
and second premolar.
Length (of the type, an adult female) : head and body 2/’:0, tail 1/8,
head 0’.65, ear 0/5, tragus 0/2, forearm 1/755, thumb 0/3, third finger
(metacarp. 1/°45, lst ph. 0/6, 2nd ph. 0/75) ; fifth finger (metacarp.
113, Ist ph. 0'"35, 2nd ph. 0/35), tibia 0/6, foot 0/38.
Type in the collection of the British Museum. Hab. uncertain, from
some part of the North American continent or from the West Indies.
Mr. Matthew Jones sent the specimen to the British Museum in the same
bottle with some fishes and other specimens collected at Bermuda, but he
informed me (during my visit to him at Halifax, N.S.) that he could not
say where the bat in question was obtained.
During my visit to Bermuda, I went over Mr. Bartram’s collection,
and found only specimens of Atalapha cinerea and of Vesperugo noctiva-
gans, which he assured me were the only species of bat ever obtained in
the island.
Vesperugo abramus, Temm.
Vespertilio akokomult, Temminck (Monogr. ‘Mammal.’ ii. p. 223, pl. 57,
figs. 8, 9), was accidentally omitted in the list of synonyms of this species
(‘ Catal. Chiropt. B. M.’ p. 226), although given as such in my ‘ Notes
on Dr. Severtzofi’s Mammals of Turkestan’ (‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’
1876, p. 180). Dr. Jentink has called attention to this omission in ‘ Notes
from the Leyden Museum,’ ii. pp. 37-40 (1879).
Signor E. Regalia has published some interesting notes! on this
species, recorded from Italy by Dr. Forsyth Major, in which he discusses
the relative values of the characters used to distinguish it from V. pipis-
trellus.
Dr. E. L. Trouessart has lately ? recorded the capture, by M. Lataste,
of a specimen of this species at Cadillac, Gironde, hitherto unknown west
1 Estratto dal processo verbale della Societa di Sci. Nat. res. in Pisa, 1880.
2 Le Natwraliste, 1879, p. 125.
= A COE a a Es
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHIROPTERA, ETC. 187
of the Rhine, and Mr. Oldfield Thomas has pointed out to me a specimen
in the British Museum, lately received from the Aru Islands.
Vesperugo kuhlii, Natt.
Pipistrellus lepidus, Blyth (‘ Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng.’ xiv. p. 340),
and, probably, Scotophilus rusticus, Tomes (‘ P.Z.S8.’ 1861, p. 35), should be
added to the list ofsynomyms. According to the description of 8. rusticus,
it must come very close to this species, with which it agrees in dentition,
in the white margin to the wings behind, in size, &c., but this question
cannot be definitely settled without an inspection of the type, which both
Dr. Peters and the writer have in vain endeavoured to obtain from Mr.
R. F. Tomes.
To the localities of this species add also Cadillac, Gironde (Lataste and
Trouessart).
Vesperugo temmnnckii, Czetasch.
Vesperugo senaarensis et hypoleucus Fitzing and Heugl. (‘Sitzungb.
Akad. Wein.’ 1866) are again referred to by Heuglin (op. cit. p. 32) ;
they appear to be identical with this species.
Vesperuyo georgianus, F. Cuy.
Dr. Jentink having examined the types of Vespertilio erythrodactylus,
Temminck (which escaped my notice on both occasions of visiting the
Leyden Museum), has determined their identity with specimens of this
species,
Vesperugo nanus, Ptrs.
To localities add Kitui, Ukamba, and Ndi, Taita, Hast Africa (Hilde-
brandt and Peters).
Vesperugo noctivagans, Leconte.
Of this species, which has probably the highest northern range among
the bats of North America (see ‘ Catal. Chiropt. B. M.’ p. 239) I ob-
served specimens, easily distinguished by the peculiar colour of the fur,
in Mr. J. T. Bartram’s collection, during my late visit to the island of
Bermuda, It has previously been recorded from Bermuda by Mr. J.
Matthew Jones.!
Vesperugo doric, Ptrs,
In my description of this species (‘ Catal. Chiropt. B. M.’ p. 240) at
end of line 22 from top of page the word ‘inner’ has been accidentally
substituted for ‘ outer.’
Scotophilus borbonicus, Geoff.
To the synonyms of this species add Nycticejus flavigaster et murino-
Jlavus, Heuglin (‘ Verh. L. Carol. Akad.’ 1861, pp. 14, 15, and ‘Reise in
Nordost- Afrika,’ 1877, pp. 32, 33), and to localities Sierra Leone and
Cape Coast Castle.
Atalapha cinerea, P. de B.
Specimens of this easily distinguished species were also found by me
in Mr. Bartram’s collection at Bermuda, thus confirming Mr. J. Matthew
1 Guide to Bermuda, p. 122.
188 REPORT—1 880.
Jones’s record (J.c.). Examples from Buenos Ayres have lately been
added to the collection of the British Museum, giving another locality to
the species, and showing how very widely it is distributed in the New
World.
Harpiocephalus suillus, Temm.
Add Mount Willis, Java, 2500 feet, to the localities of this species
(Baron von Hiigel and O. Thomas, Br. Mus.).
Harpiocephalus hilgendorfi.
Harpiocephalus hilgendorfi, Peters, ‘M.B. Akad.’ Berlin, 1880, p. 24, pl., figs. 1-10.
Ears somewhat shorter than the head, rounded off at the tips, outer
margin of the conch flatly emarginate above the middle, the remainder of
the outer and inner margin convex. Tragus long, reaching to the-edge of
the emargination on the outer side, pointed, with a tooth-like lobule at the
base of the outer margin, the inner margin convex, the outer concave in
upper three-fourths. Nostrils as in H. harpia.
Wing-membrane extending to the middle of the first phalanx of the
first toe. Extremity of the tail projecting 0:15 inch beyond the inter-
femoral membrane.
Fur, long and soft, extending thickly upon the interfemoral mem-
brane and upon the backs of the toes; the wing-membrane between the
humerus and femur more thinly clothed with long hairs. Muzzle dark-
brown, under the eyes and behind the chin greyish-white: on the back
greyish-brown, each hair dark at the base with greyish extremity, or with
a sub-apical dark band and whiter tip; on the interfemoral membrane
lighter brown, almost unicoloured ; fur on the abdominal surface shorter,
bi-coloured, dark at the base, at the surface greyish-white.
Length (of an adult male): head and body 2/5 inches, tail 1/5,
head 0/85, ear 0/65, tragus 0/38, forearm 1-6, thumb 0/’:6, third
finger (metacarp. 15, Ist ph. 0/7, 2nd ph. 0’'-9), fourth finger (meta-
carp. 1/4, Ist ph. 0/55, 2nd ph. 0/5), fifth finger (metacarp. 1/45, 1st
ph. 0/5, 2nd ph. 0/45), tibia 0/65, caleaneum 0/55, foot 0/°48.
Hab. Yedo, Japan. Type in the collection of the Berlin Museum.
With the exception of H. harpia, this is the largest known species of
the genus. In the synoptical table of the genus (‘ Catal. Chiropt. B. M.’
p. 277), it may be arranged thus :—
I. First upper premolar much smaller than the second Subg. Murina.
a, Upper third of the outer margin of the ear-
. conch concave, forearm 1/35 : : 1. A. swillus.
6. Upper third of the outer margin of the ear-
conch flatly emarginate, forearm 16 . 2. H. hilgendorfi.
c. Upper third of the outer margin of the ear-
conch convex, forearm 1/1. 5 : 3. H auratus.
Harpiocephalus harpia, Temm.
Add also Mount Willis, Java, to the localities of this species (Hodgson
and O. Thomas, Br. Mus.).
Vespertilio capaccinni, Bonap., var. V. macrodactylus, Temm.
Dr. W. Peters, who in 1866 demonstrated the identity of Bonaparte’s
and Temminck’s types, having obtained a well-preserved specimen corre-
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHIROPTERA, ETC. 189
sponding to the latter from Nikko, Japan, has been enabled to add the
following notes':—The European form is larger, has longer feet, broader
and more rounded-off ears, and the tragus is distinctly curved outwards
above, whereas in the Japan animal it is quite straight.
Vespertilio daubentonii, Leis}.
To synonymy add Vespertilio pallescens, Crespon (‘ Faune Meridionale,’
t. i. p. 11, 1844), vide Trouessart, (‘ Bullet. Soc. Sci. Nat. de Nimes,’ fév.
1879, No. 2, p. 35). The same writer has discovered this species in
caves near Villevéque, Maine-et-Loire.
Vespertilio bechsteinii, Leisl.
Found in caves, referred to above, with V. daubentonii (Trouessart).
Vespertilio africanus, Dobson.
Owing to a mistake in the labelling of the type, I was led to assign
the Gaboon as a locality for this form, the true country of which, Mr.
Oldfield Thomas informs me, is unknown. V. africanus is easily distin-
guished from V. mwrinus by its much shorter ears, and acutely pointed
tragus, but intermediate forms may, hereafter, turn up, and the name
which has been unfortunately given may conveniently sink into the list of
synonyms.
Vespertilio nigricans, Wied.
To list of localities add Popayan, New Grenada, and Cordova, Argen-
tine Republic (Gottingen Mus.).
Vespertilio lucifugus, Leconte.
Add Nova Scotia (Matthew Jones and O. Thomas, Br. Mus.).
Kerivoula africana, Dobson.
In my description of this species (‘ Catal. Chiropt. Br. Mus.,’ p. 835),
the ears should have been described as being ‘ as long as the head,’ so as to
agree with the statement in the synoptical table (op. cit. p. 331).
Kerivoula smithii.
Kerivoula smithii, O. Thomas, ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ August, 1880, p. 338
(with a woodcut of the ear).
Kar-conch as in K. africana, but the basal lobule of the tragus is
exceedingly small. Wings to the base. Fur, above and beneath, grey-
ish-brown, the extremities of the hairs shining grey. Distribution of the
fur as in K. lanosa, with the exception of the interfemoral fringe, of which
there is no trace.
Inner upper incisors long, with a distinct posterior secondary cusp at
the commencement of their terminal third, to which point the extremity
of the outer incisor on each side extends; outer incisors with a postero-
internal secondary cusp at the commencement of their terminal half;
first upper premolar intermediate in size between the second and third,
lower premolars equal.
1M. B. Ahad, Berlin, 1880, p. 25.
190 REPORT—1 880.
Length (of the type, an adult male, in alcohol): head and body,
1/55, tail 1-7, head 0/58, ear 0/55, tragus 0/3, forearm 1/3, thumb
0-27, third finger 2/7, fifth finger 1’’-9, tibia 0/55, foot 0°25.
Hab. Old Calabar, West Africa. Type in the collection of the British
Museum.
In my synopsis of the species (‘ Catal. Chiropt. Br. Mus.’ p. 331), this
species may be arranged as follows :—
y’. Outer upper incisors unicuspidate, longer than the outer
secondary cusps of the inner incisors; forearm 1-1 . . africana.
8’. Outer upper incisors bicuspidate, not exceeding the outer
secondary cusps of the inner incisors in vertical ex-
tent; forearm1”3 . i : : ; . . K. smithii.
Kerivoula javana.
Kerivoula javana, O. Thomas, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ June, 1880 (woodcut of head).
Ears rather short, laid forwards they extend about half-way between
the eyes and the extremity of the nose; ear-conch and tragus as in
K. jagorit.
Distribution of the fur as in K. papuensis, but there is no interfemoral
fringe. Above and beneath greyish black, the proximal third of each hair
being black, the middle third whitish, the extremity black occasionally
tipped with shining grey.
Teeth as in K. papuensis.
Length (of the type, an adult female, in alcohol) : head and body 1/9,
tail 1-7, head 0:78, ear 0’’-6, tragus 0/37, forearm 1/53, thumb 0/27,
third finger 3/’-0, fifth finger 2/2, tibia 0/72, foot 0/"35.
Hab. Kosala, near Bantam, Java (2100 feet) ; collected by Mr. H. O.
Forbes. Type in the collection of the British Museum.
In my synopsis of the species (/.c.) this species may be thus ar-
ranged :—
7’. Forearms and thumbs naked ; fur bicoloured : - A. jagorii.
6’. Forearms and thumbs clothed with short appressed hairs ;
fur tricoloured ., ‘ : : : 3 : . K. javana.
Kerivoula lanosa, Sm.
To the description add:—The second finger, and along the outer
margin of the wing to the extremity of the last phalanx of the third finger,
as well as the tail, are clothed with short shining yellow hairs. Outer
upper incisor with a posterior basal cusp, which in some specimens is quite
worn down, and the tooth then appears to be unicuspidate.
Mr. Oldfield Thomas has called my attention to the above omission,
which is required in order to make the description agree with the charac-
ters given in the synopsis of the species.
Natalus micropus.
Natalus micropus, Dobson, ‘P.Z.8.’ 1880, p. 443 (woodcut of head),
Ears and tragi as in N. stramineus, but the tip of the ear-conch is ob-
tusely rounded off, and the external emargination is very shallow. The
superior margin of the face terminates above the nasal apertures in a small
rounded wart-like process, covered on all sides, except in front, by thick-
set hairs, in front naked, with a projecting upper margin. Lower lip
—e--
TORT em Ie
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHIROPTERA, ETC. 191
reflected outwards as in N. stramineus, but beneath it, in front, there is, as
in the species of Chilonycteris (Phyllostomide), but much less developed, a
small horizontal cutaneous projection, like a second lower lip.
Wings from the tibiz, at junction of middle and lower thirds. Foot
extremely small, appearing scarcely half the size of that of N. stramineus.
Fur, above, pale yellowish brown at the base, the terminal half reddish or
chestnut brown; beneath, pale yellowish brown throughout. This is the
appearance of the fur in alcohol. :
Upper incisors like those of N. stramineus, but the outer incisor on each
side, instead of exceeding the inner in cross-section, is equal to or even
smaller than it; upper premolars as in that species, but the second pre-
molar is still more widely separated from the third.
Length (of the type, an adult male): head and body 1/5, tail 1/85,
head 0/65, ear 0/5, forearm 1/3, thumb 0/15, third finger (metacarp.
1-5, Ist ph. 0/55, 2nd ph. 0/7), fourth finger (metacarp. 1/1, 1st ph.
0/35, 2nd ph. 0''35), fifth finger (metacarp. 1/05, Ist ph. 0/35, 2nd
ph. 0/35), tibia 0’’.65, foot 0/25.
Hab. Jamaica (environs of Kingston).
Natalus lepidus, Gerv., is still smaller, has a differently formed tragus,
and is also easily distinguished from both this species and N. stramineus
by its dentition.!
The discovery of this additional form requires a change in the synopsis
of the species as given by me at page 342 (op. cit.) ; the species may now
be arranged as follows :—
a. Lower premolars equal.
a’. A horizontal cutaneous expansion beneath the
lower lip in front; forearm 1/3. : 4 NV. mieropus.
b’. No cutaneous expansion; forearm 15 . lV. stramineus.
b, First lower premolar half the size of the second.
ce’. No cutaneous expansion; forearm 1”05 . - NV. lepidus.
Thyroptera tricolor, Spix.
To localities of this species add Sarayacu, Ecuador (Buckley and
O. Thomas).
Myxopoda aurita.
Myxopoda auwrita, A. Milne-Edwards, ‘ Bull. Soc. Philom. de Paris,’ June, 1878;
Dobson, ‘ P.Z.S.’ 1878, p. 871.
Crown of the head but slightly raised above the face-line; muzzle
obliquely truncated, in general form closely resembling that of the species
of the genus Chilonycteris (Phyllostomide), for the nostrils open widely
apart by similar circular sharply defined margins, and the lower lip is also
papillated and reflected outwards, though not so broadly, and it has not a
thin free margin ; the obtuse extremity of the rather long muzzle projects
in front considerably beyond the lower lip. Ears very large, much longer
than the head, in general outline like those of Vespertilio murinus, but the
inner margin of the conch commences in a small lobe projecting down-
wards ; in the usual position of the tragus or slightly in front of it there
is an irregularly square lobe continuous above with the keel of the ear-
conch ; opposite this, on the outer side, is a mushroom-shaped process
consisting of a short stalk supporting a broad flat reniform expansion ; the
outer margin of the conch terminates near the angle of the mouth.
' See Catal, Chiropt. Brit. Mus, 1878, p. 344.
192 REPORT—1880.
Thumb with an ill-developed claw, but the whole of the inferior surface
of its metacarpal and phalangeal bones supports a large flat horse-shoe-
shaped pad, more than 0/’-2 inch in diameter, whereof the circular margin
is directed forwards and slightly notched in front. The feet have also
adhesive cushions, but while resembling those of the thumbs in structure
they differ in being much smaller.
Metacarpal bone of the index finger nearly as long as that of the
index finger, but there are no distinct phalanges; third finger with three
phalanges, whereof the first and second are nearly equal in length.
The tail projects beyond the posterior margin of the interfemoral
membrane, as in T'hyroptera tricolor, but to a much greater extent, the free
portion being nearly as long as the tibia; calcaneum long, with a very
narrow lobe notched or toothed near the foot.
As in T. tricolor, the toes are united as far as the base of the claws,
and have each two phalanges, and the wing-membrane extends almost to
the base of the claws.
Dentition :—inc. 22 c. = pm. = m. i Upper incisors short,
in pairs, placed close to the canines; the outer incisor, on each side, small,
conical, and acutely pointed, but much larger than the inner one, which
lies close to it, and can hardly be discerned without a lens; lower incisors
short and blunt, in the direction of the jaws; first and second upper pre-
molars very short, the third exceeding the molars in vertical extent;
second lower premolar minute, in the tooth-row, the first premolar
slightly smaller than the third; molars acutely tubercular, with W-shaped
cusps.
Tani (of the type, an adult male, in alcohol): head and body 2'3
inches, tail 1/9, tail free from membrane 0/6, head 0/85, ear 1/3,
tragus 0/25, forearm 1/85, thumb 0/3, third finger (metacarp. 1'"5,
Ist ph. 0-7, 2nd ph. 0'"75, 3rd ph. 0/55), fifth finger (metacarp. 1’"5,
1st ph. 0/5, 2nd ph. 0/5), tibia 0-7, caleaneum 0/6, foot 03.
Certain peculiarities in the structure of this very remarkable species
recall similar peculiarities in Thyroptera tricolor, and have evidently re-
sulted from adaptation to the same purposes. Thus in these two species
alone are the toes united to the base of the claws, and in them alone,
among all known species of bats (except the Phyllorhinine), have the toes
an equal number of phalanges; they also, in the possession of a third
phalanx in the middle finger, differ from all the species of Vespertilionidee,
and from those of the allied families. This species, however, differs re-
markably from T’. tricolor in the structure of the adhesive disks, in the
presence of a well-developed metacarpal bone of the second finger, in the
form of the head and ears, and in dentition, and must undoubtedly be con-
sidered the type of a distinct genus of Vespertilionide.
The adhesive cushions of the thumbs and feet are evidently less perfect
clinging organs than the corresponding parts in T. tricolor ; unlike them,
the thumb-pads are sessile, scarcely hollow on their inferior surface, and
evidently homologous in all respects to those of Vesperugo pachypus ; but
the foot-pads differ from those of that species in being much smaller and
in this respect corresponding with 1’. tricolor.
It is probable that this species (in common with the few other known
species of bats provided with such accessory clinging organs!) uses the
1 See my paper ‘ On Peculiar Structures in the Feet of certain Species of Mam-
mals, &e.,’ P.Z.S., 1876, p. 526, pl. lv. ‘
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHIROPTERA, ETC. 193
adhesive cushions in sustaining its hold on the smooth hard stems and
leaves of palms and of other hard-wooded trees.
Miniopterus Schreibersti, Nat.
Lately discovered at Vernet-les-Bains by M. Lataste, and in the Grotto
de Sarre (Basses Pyrénées) by M. de Folin,! the first recorded occurrence
of this species in France. Also obtained at Awa, Japan (Hilgendorf and
Peters).
Hmballonura semicaudata, Peale.
The British Museum has lately obtained a specimen of this species
(hitherto recorded from the Polynesian sub-region only) from Sarawak,
collected by Mr. Everett.
Emballonura raffrayana.
Emballonura vraffrayana, Dobson, ‘P.Z.S.’ 1878, p. 876 (with woodcuts of head, ear, and
muzzle).
Slightly larger than H. nigrescens, and agreeing with that species in
the comparatively widely separated nostrils, but resembling the species of
the other section of the genus in the projecting extremity of the muzzle,
which extends considerably beyond the lower lip; the ears also are much
broader, and the upper third of the outer margin of the conch is convex,
not concave; the tragus is comparatively shorter and much broader,
attaining its greatest breadth above, where it is so broadly rounded off as
to appear abruptly truncated ; the outer and inner margins are straight
or faintly concave.
Wings from the ankles or from the tarsi; feet much larger than
in H. nigrescens; calcanea about two-thirds the length of the tibie ; fur
above dark brown, paler at the base; beneath, paler throughout, wings
nearly uaked; upper surface of the interfemoral membrane thinly clothed
as far as the extremity of the tail.
Teeth as in H. nigrescens, except that the first premolar is smaller and
scarcely raised above the level of the gum.
Length (of an adult ¢): head and body 1/65, tail 0-5, head 0/65,
ear 058, tragus 0'2, forearm 1/55, thumb 0°25, third finger (meta-
earp. 1/3, Ist ph. 0’-4, 2nd ph. 065), fourth finger (metacarp. 1/"1, 1st
ph. 05, 2nd ph. 0’-2), fifth finger (metacarp. 1’, Ist ph. 0/38, 2nd ph.
0/15), tibia 0/6, caleaneum 0/45, foot 0/3.
Hab. Gilolo Island.
Type in the collection of the Paris Museum.
Coleura afra, Peters.
In recording this species from Tschaka, Hast Africa, Dr. Peters re-
marks (‘M. B. Akad. Berl.,’ 1879, p. 832) that, as noted in his original
description, there is a groove in the lower lip. To this I can only reply
that in the specimen (preserved in alcohol) in the British Museum, from
Dr. Peters’ collection, there is no trace of a groove in the front of the
lower lip.
1 Trouessart, Le Naturaliste, 1879, p. 125.
1880. )
194 REPORT—1 880.
Taphozous mauritianus, Geoff.
Taphozous dobsoni, Jentink (‘Notes from the Leyden Museum,’ 1879,
p- 123), must be referred to this species. Having suspected from the
description that the species, which Dr. Jentink had been good enough to
connect my name with, was at most a variety only of 7. mauritianus, I
sent a specimen of that species to the Leyden Museum, and had it com-
pared with the type of 7. dobson’. The small fleshy pads at the base of
each thumb and on the sole of the foot, noted as a specific peculiarity by
the describer, are equally present in all other species of the genus, indeed
in the species of most other genera of the family Emballonuride, being
particularly large in the sub-family Molossine,! having reference, I believe,
especially to progression on a flat surface, and not coming within the
class of accessory clinging organs described by me in my paper referred to
by Dr. Jentink.?
Taphozous nudiventris, Cretasch.
Nycticejus serratus, Heuglin (‘ Reise in Nordost-Afrika,’ p. 36, 1877),
is evidently a synonym of this species.
Noetilis leporinus, L.
In November last, when dropping down the Sibi river, British Hon-
duras, by moonlight, about 6 p.m., between the tall mangroves which
crowd the banks, one of my companions in the boat (Dr. H. A. W.
Richardson, R.N.) shot a specimen of this species which was flying about
a yard or so above the surface of the smooth stream. The remains of some
of the small insects which were disporting themselves over the river were
found in his mouth, but the stomach was quite empty. Several specimens
of a species of Nycteribia were seen running about on the short fur. It
was probably to get rid of such parasites, and not to catch shrimps, that
the individuals observed by Mr. Fraser (see ‘ Catal. Chiropt. B.M.,’ p. 397)
occasionally struck the water as they flew along.
Rhinopoma microphyllum, Geoff.
Heuglin (‘ Reise in N.-O. Afrika,’ 1877, ii. p. 24) has described as new
Rh. cordofanicum, which he distinguishes as being larger than this species.
The measurements given, however, are considerably less than those of the
type of this species, and I have no doubt that this species, as well as those
described by him in conjunction with Fitzinger (‘ Sitzungb. Akad. Wien,’
1866), namely, Rh. senaarense and Rh. longicaudatum, are also referable to
this species.
Nyctinomus bivittatus, Heuglin.
From the description (op. cit. p. 28), it would appear to me that the
names Dysopes talpinus and hepaticus, Heuglin, must be considered syno-
nyms of this species, which is so closely related to N. plicatus that it can
scarcely be regarded as more than a local race of that species.
Nyctinomus brachypterus, Ptrs.
To the localities add Malindi, EH. Africa (Fischer and Peters).
? See my definition of that sub-family in Catal. Chiropt. B.W., pp. 402, 403.
2 Vide supra, footnote, p. 192.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF THE CHIROPTERA, ETC. 195
Nyctinomus limbatus, Ptrs.
Add also Kitui, Ukamba, E. Africa (Fischer and Peters).
Nyctinomus macrotis, Gray.
Specimens of this species taken in Jamaica were found by me in
the Kingston Museum. This adds another new mammal to the fauna
of the island.
Nyctinomus setiger.
Mormopterus setiger, Peters, ‘M.B, Akad. Berl.’ 1878, p. 192, pl. i. fig. 2
Hars triangular, shorter than the head, widely separated from each
‘other; tip of the ear-conch rounded off, the inner and outer margins
faintly convex; tragus quadrate, the thickened upper margin with a few
hairs ; anti-tragus scarcely defined, and not separated by a notch from the
outer margin of the conch. Head very flat and broad; muzzle flat above,
slightly hollowed in the middle, clothed with short hairs which do not
conceal the skin. Nasal apertures obliquely oval, opening under the
sharply cut extremity of the muzzle, separated by more than their double
diameter from each other. The broad, thickened, but not transversely
folded upper lip has on either side four or five rows of short thickened
bristles, between which fine long and short hairs project outwards; the
lower lip has a few shorter but similar bristles.
Dentition :—ine, 4} ¢, 4 pm de Lia 32 Upper incisors is-
6’ 1-1 * "2-2 "3-3
tinctly bicuspidate, the outer cusps short; the remaining teeth present no
peculiarity.
Fur short ; on the back, sides of the neck, thorax, and abdomen reddish-
brown, pale at the base of the hairs; middle of the breast and abdomen
clothed with still shorter hairs of a reddish-yellow colour. Throat with a
transverse fold passing into a sacciform groove.
Tail extending for half its length beyond the interfemoral membrane.
Thumbs and toes with a few long bristle-lke hairs. Wing-membrane
dark-brown.
Length (of a female specimen in alcohol) : head and body 2/5 inches,
tail 1/1, free from membrane 0/8, ear 0/65 x 0/45, tragus 0/15, fore-
ag 1-4, thumb 0-23, third finger (metacarp. 1/4, lst ph. 0/55, 2nd
h. O'°7), fourth finger (metacarp. 1/3, Ist ph. 0/5, 2nd ph. 0/45),
fifth finger (metacarp. 1/0, Ist Ph. 03, 2nd ph. 0/35), tibia 0/43,
caleaneum () "65, foot 0/3.
Hab. Nadi, Taita, East Africa.
Type in the Berlin Museum collected by Herr J. M. Hildebrandt.
This species is easily distinguished from those of the section of the
genus to which it belongs by the very widely separated ears and by the
torm of the tragus.
Family Puyiiosromipr,
Ohilonycteris macleayi, Gray.
During a visit to Jamaica in March last, I observed many individuals
_ of this species flying about in the environs of Kingston, about a quarter-
of-an-hour after sunset; their flight is remarkably rapid. Thanks to
02
196 rerort—1 880.
Mr. Edward Newton, who shot several for me, I was able to examine
them in the recent state, and found that in all the fur was tinged with
reddish-yellow, a colour never observed by me in dried skins.
Mormops blainvillei, Leach.
This remarkable species also occurs in the environs of Kingston, and
a specimen with exceedingly brilliantly coloured fur of a golden chestnut
hue was shot by Mr. Newton.
Lonchorhina aurita, Tomes.
The British Museum has lately received a specimen of this extraor-
dinary species from New Granada, collected by Mr. Fry. Hitherto the
species was represented by a single specimen, the type in the collection of
the museum of the Army Medical Department, of which the locality was
uncertain, but from collateral evidence, believed by me to be Trinidad, a
supposition now rendered extremely probable. This second specimen
differs in no important respect from the type.
Schizostoma megalotis, Gray.
g ?
To the localities of this species add Popayan, New Granada.
Lonchoglossa wiedii, Ptrs.
In an apparently adult male specimen from Popayan, I found the
zygomatic arches cartilaginous. The following are the measurements :—
Length : head and body 2/5 inches, head 1/1, tail 0/15, ear 0/6, fore-
arm 1’’6, thumb 0/35, third finger (metacarp. 1/5, Ist ph. 0/5, 2nd ph-
0''"8, 38rd ph. 0°5), fourth finger (metacarp, 1/45, 1st ph. 0’"4, 2nd ph.
0'55), fifth finger (metacarp. 1/25, Ist ph. 0°35, 2nd ph. 057), tibia
0'55, foot 0/38.
Cheronycteris minor, Ptrs.
To the localities of this species add Guatemala (Godman).
Artibeus bilobatus, Ptrs.
Add Sarayacu, Ecuador, as a locality (O. Thomas).
Artibeus perspicillatus, L.
This appears to be by far the commonest species of bat in Jamaica.
I found it abundant in every cave visited by me, inhabiting the honey-
comb-like cells in the white limestone. The floor of these caves is covered
to the depth of many feet with their dung, which forms a soft black mass,
in which near the entrances a few sickly plants of the bread-nut were
always found vegetating, having sprung up from the rejected kernels of
that fruit, which appears to form the greater part of their food. At
King’s House, near Kingston, Mr. Newton pointed out to me on the floor
of the bath-room the remains of these fruits, which the bats carried in at
night-time, to feed upon at leisure, while they hung themselves from the
rafters. At the same place, about midday, we forced an individual to
quit his home in a hollow mango tree, but he flew only as far as the next
tree, where he was scon secured. In him the fur was strongly tinged
ON TIE INDUCTIVE CAPACITY OF A GOOD SPRENGEL VACUUM, ETC. 197
with yellow, over the shoulder especially, so that when flying forth from
his retreat I thought it was a specimen of Noctilio leporinus. In this re-
spect this individual contrasted remarkably with all the cave-haunting
specimens I had examined, for in them the colour of the fur appeared to
be almost quite uniform, namely, dark brown in the terminal third, the
extreme tips of the hairs greyish, the basal three-fourths pale greyish
brown ; beneath the greater part of the hairs unicoloured greyish brown,
paler towards the extremities. The facial streaks were more or less
defined in all the individuals captured by me.
Artibeus quadrivittatus, Ptrs.
Add Popayan to the localities of this species.
Chiroderma salvini, Dobson.
An adult male specimen, also from Popayan, in the collection of the
Géttingen Museum, has the facial streaks faintly marked, thus showing
that the development of these marks are probably as variable as I have
already noticed in the case of Artibeus planirostris. There is also a very
faint white line along the spine, which is absent in the type. The
peculiar form of the first lower premolar is, however, as well marked as
in the type.
Preliminary Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor W. E.
Ayrton (Secretary), Dr. O. J. Lopce, Mr. J. E. H. Gorpon, and
Mr. J. PERRY, appointed for the purpose of accurately measuring
the specific inductive capacity of a good Sprengel Vacwwm, and
the specific resistance of gases at different pressures.
iy 1876 two of the members of your present Committee concluded, from
theoretical reasons, based on the analogy between the viscous yielding of
bodies to mechanical stress and the absorption of the electric charge in a
Leyden jar, that some connection of an inverse order would be found to
exist between the specific inductive capacities and the specific resistances
of dielectrics. As at that time it was only for gutta percha and india-
rubber that the specific resistances had been measured, it was necessary,
in order to put the theory to the test of experimen, to carefully measure
the specific resistances of several other dielectrics of which the specific
inductive capacities were known. The substances selected were paraffin-
wax, shell lac, mica, ebonite, &c., and it was found that, in a general way,
if bodies were arranged in increasing order of specific inductive capacity,
they would be found arranged in decreasing order of specific resistance.!
Again, since different gases had different indices of refraction for light,
it was felt that Faraday’s not having succeeded in finding experimentally
different specific inductive capacities for the various gases, must have
arisen from the comparative roughness of his apparatus ; and very delicate
experiments undertaken in consequence, showed that hydrogen had a
decidedly less specific inductive capacity than air, and that carbonic
1 «The Viscosity of Dielectrics,’ by W. E. Ayrton and John Perry, Proc. Roy. Soc.
No. 186, 1878. i
198 rEerort——1880.
dioxide, coal gas, sulphuric dioxide, c&c., a decidedly greater. Lastly,
since the resistance of a gas to disruptive discharge varied with the pres-
sure, it was anticipated—also in opposition to the results of Faraday’s
experiments—that the specific inductive capacity of even the vacuum of
an ordinary air-pump must be slightly different from unity, a conclusion
also subsequently verified by experiment.}
The method employed for that investigation which was carried out in
Japan consisted in using two condensers, one an open air condenser of
adjustable capacity, the other a closed condenser into which any gas at
any pressure could be put. The open air condenser was adjusted to have
the same capacity as the closed one when the latter was filled with air at
the ordinary pressure and temperature ; then the change in capacity of the
latter when the pressure of the air inside was diminished, or when another
gas was introduced, could be determined by changing the insulated coat-
ings of these two condensers to equal and opposite potentials, discharging
them into one another, and measuring the resultant potential with a
Thomson’s quadrant electrometer adjusted for great sensibility.
Previously, however, to this, but quite unknown to these members of
your Committee, Prof. Boltzmann had made a similar investigation, using,
however, a different method of experimenting. The results obtained in
the two independent investigations for the same gases are placed under-
neath side by side, and the fairly close agreement, considering the extreme
delicacy of the experiments, make it quite certain that the general bearing
of the experiments is correct :—
Ayrton and Perry Boltzmann
Air : : : : 1:0000 : ; c : 1:0000
Vacuum c ‘ : : 0°9985 c : : : 09994
Hydrogen . , : ; 0:9998 - : : ¢ 0:9997
Coal Gas : : - . 10004 . - : ’
Marsh Gas . : : : : 2 : é 1-0004
Carbonic dioxide . : ‘ 1:0008 : b 2 ? 10004
Sulphuric dioxide : , 1:0037
The gases were at 760 mm. pressure; the vacuum varied from about
10 mm. to somewhat greater pressures. The observation for sulphuric
dioxide is given, as it is the highest specific inductive capacity yet ob-
tained for any gas.
The very peculiar behaviour of a good Sprengel vacuum in resisting
the passage of an induction spark led to the formation of this Committee,
to investigate, with the aid of a grant from the Association, the specific
inductive capacity of a far higher vacuum than had been employed in
either of the two preceding investigations since Messrs. Ayrton and Perry
predicted that such a vacuous space would be found to have a capacity
very considerably smaller than if filled with ordinary air.
The closed condenser in this case consists of five aluminium cylinders
39°83 centimetres long, placed concentrically at about + centimétre apart,
in a glass tube 58°5 centimetres long and 5:5 centimétres in diameter.
The second and fourth cylinders form the insulated coating, and the first,
third, and fifth the earth coating. The cylinders comprising each coating
are rigidly connected at each end with a thin platinum rod, and these
platinum rods, like the cylinders, do not touch the glass tube, but are held
in position by a thin glass rod, one end of which is fused to the platinum
* ©On the Specific Inductive Capacity of Gases,’ by John Perry and W, 1. Ayrton,
Trans, Asiatie Soc. of Japan, Vol. v. part i. p. 116.
ON THE INDUCTIVE CAPACITY OF A GOOD SPRENGEL VACUUM, ETc. 199
rod and the other to the inside of the glass tube. To give, in a small
space, length to these glass rods, for obtaining surface insulation, they
are made zigzag, and in the form of a flat spiral. To the thin platinum
rods are attached two fine platinum wires, which form the two electrodes
of the condenser, and where these pass out through the glass tube, glass
is fused on to the wire both inside and outside, as in the figure, to increase
the surface insulation.
The area that one set of aluminium cylinders exposes
to the other is about 1800 square centimetres, so that the
electrostatic capacity is about 450 centimétres in absolute
units, or 5/55 of a microfarad.
A small spiral glass tube connects the condenser with ; si
a three-fall-tube Sprengel pump, and as the internal ca- —
pacity of the condenser is large, it was thought desirable png of Condenser.
to attach to the pump an Alvergniat or Geissler arrange-
ment to enable the pressure to be rapidly reduced to about 10 cen-
timétres of mercury. A barometer gauge and a Mcleod gauge are
attached to the pump. The entire glasswork in the apparatus was made
by Mr. Gimingham, and the Committee desire to express their thanks
for the assistance he has so kindly given.
Method of Experimenting.—In the accompanying figure, A is the alu-
minium condenser just described, the interior not being shown in the
‘figure; Bis Sir William Thomson’s ‘sliding condenser,’ kindly lent by
him to the Committee. This, as is well known, consists of a brass tube,
T, about 38 centimétres long and 5°08 centimétres in external diameter,
attached at one end to an ebonite collar, dd, by
which it is supported and insulated. Outside and “yj A
inside this brass tube, but without touching it,
slide two other tubes, 7, and 7), electrically con-
nected with the outer tube 7’, and with the earth.
The motion of the tube 7, forms a coarse adjust-
ment, and that of the tube 7, a fine adjustment of
the capacity of the condenser. On account of the
action of the edges it would be somewhat difficult
to calculate the whole capacity of this condenser
for any given position of the tubes, but it is com-
paratively easy to calculate the change of capacity
produced by moving either tube a known distance
measured on the fine linear scale engraved on each
of the sliding tubes.
As the capacity of this condenser, when the
tube 7’), is in its mean position, is considerably less
than that of the aluminium condenser, another air-
condenser, C, having a fixed capacity about equal to the difference, was
constructed, B, then, could be adjusted so that its capacity, together with
that of C, was equal to that of 4, when A contained air at ordinary pres-.
sure. Then any change in the capacity of A, produced by exhausting the
air, could be measured by finding the new adjustment of B necessary to,
produce balance.
The mode of testing the equality of capacities was suggested by one
of the Committee, Dr. Lodge, and consisted of a modification of Prof.
Hughes’ Induction Balance. Z isa coil of wire of about 3 ohms’ resist-
anee, in which the current from two or three Grove’s cells, P, flows in-
\
200 hREPORT—1880.
termittently, the circuit being alternately made and broken by a clock, M.
w, y are perfectly similar coils of about 800 ohms’ resistance each, and
adjusted in position relatively to Z, so that when the condensers on the
two sides of the balance have perfectly equal capacity no sound is heard
in an especially delicate telephone, T, when the connections are made as
in the figure. It will be observed that the nature of the arrangement is
such that any failure of insulation in A would make it appear to have too
large a capacity and not too small, as would be the case with the method
of experimenting previously described.
For air at pressures greater than one millimetre, the Committee have
not thought it necessary to make many experiments, but between 0°01
and 0°001 of a millimetre pressure several sets of experiments have been
carried out. At the latter pressure—that is, at about one-millionth of an
atmosphere—the specific inductive capacity is certainly low, some experi-
ments apparently making it as much as 0°6 to 0°8 per cent. less than that
for ordinary air, whereas the greatest diminution obtained for an air-
vacuum in the two previous investigations, when the pressure was not
diminished lower than 5 millimétres, was only 0°1 percent. In all the sets
of experiments for very low pressures there are decided waves in the curves
connecting capacity and pressure, but whether these waves really express
a physical law, or whether they are due to the method of experimenting
with currents of very short duration, or whether, lastly, they are due to
the capacity not depending solely on the pressure, but also on the amount
of residual gas occluded in the aliminium cylinders, the Committee have
not yet ascertained, and therefore in this preliminary report they refrain
from giving the curves. A sample of the observations, however, may be
interesting :—
August 26.
Reading on small sliding
cylinder, 7), 7), remaining
Pressure in millimetres stationary
0:0100 4 A - 4 : : 185
0:0041 5 * i ‘ , 3 194
0:0031 ‘ 2 5 ‘ : ‘ 165
Pump RHODES gt ee De oe | ome
continuously 1 0-0020 162
Wie ey HOOT? oe) fe Cink ead d migag
| 0:0020 ; : . Fi } é 160
Uxfowpisn So:wpendes 46 t telionde olf eae
August 28.
Leueee ee ek ke)
0:0407 : - ° : 5 a 332
0:0568 : : - : 3 ° 343
Air being 0:0765 : ; : : ° 350
very slowly 4 0:1204 ; : ' ; ; f 326
let in 071924 * ‘ < 6 ; 292
1:0000 5 : 5 . - : 320
3°2500 3 c ; 5 : : 341
L. 5:5000 ; 4 5 2 : ‘ 379
760:0000 : : : : A % 395
The readings on either day may be compared one with another, but
not those on different days. In either case, however, a difference of 100
in the reading indicates roughly a difference of about 1 per cent. in the
capacity of the aliminium condenser. It will be observed that, in addition
to the curious fluctuations in the capacity for the same small pressure, a
—— r —.- a
50® Report Brit, Assce. 188 Plata Vi)
DECLINATION
March 3% 1879.
a 7 iC nom ipm 2 3 z é 7) 3 a ie 7 mud Jam Z 5 3
St Petersburg “aya ecoanp marta on WO cel eae
pl thm SS
Kew pent Peete pena rs ee
Vint ae BE a a
Viera) et} Sa ee WV
Hor Force at Kew
ee
Vert. Force at Kew
DECLINATION
March 15-16. 1879
S! Petersburg, Kew, Vienna and Coimbra
= SSS ee ee
3E aes SS a Se ee a aa
SS Hae Ss Ee SS Se SS
ees ee ee
SSSA ea
SF ae Sea rs a ~ a
Hee Force at Kew
SS
Vert lore
Bee ee
Mlustrating Professor W. Grylls Adams! Gommunication
Comparison of Curves of the Declination Magnetographs al Kew,
Stonyluanst, (oimbra, Lisbon, Vienna, and SU Pe tenshurg.
50™ Report, Brit, A:
00 188 Plate Vill
DIESGo EI INTAsT NOUN).
March 23°4 1879
Jam 2 8pm 2am
Ye
S° Petersburg ee a — [\ rn
. RN V NN Aa aN
Pe ae =a
Kew tha VA aa
- —— } a
Vienna +~— — —_
\/ EEE Tm
Tp | eee ae Ge Ee ea | eee
Vert. Force at Kew Ward Ratreiad) Haw
Spm Lam
DECLINATION
March 29'* 1879
St Petersburg, Kew and. Vienna’ curves j
70 : 10 4
pe oe Be ee i Oe)
Se
SSS a eee
Se =
we
Hor- Force at, Kew
SS Ss ee
Vert. Force at Kew
opm. tam
Mlustrating Professor W. Grylls Adams’ Gonununteatoon
Comparison of Curves of Uke Declination Magnetegraphs at: Kew
Stonyhurst, ounbra., Lisbon, Vienna, and, $Y Petersburg”
50” Report Brit: Assov:1680. Plate IX.
DE CE NPAT I-O-
March 28-29 1879.
Spottiswoode &O°Lrtk London
IUustrating Frotéssor W. Gryls Adams’ Communicaturn.
Comparison of Curves of the Declination Magnetographs at Kew,
Stenyhurst, Coimbra, Lisbon, Vienna, and S” Petersburg.
ON CURVES OF DECLINATION MAGNETOGRAPUS, HTC. 201
result constantly obtained when very small pressures were employed, and
which may have arisen from the effect of the remanent occluded gas, there
also appears to be a sudden diminution of the capacity at about 0:19 mil-
limétre pressure. To make sure that this was not an accidental result,
the air was pumped out again when the pressure was about 3 millimetres
until it was reduced again to about 0°1 millimétre, when the same dimi-
nution of capacity at about 0°19 was again observed. Now although
these numbers are merely now given as a preliminary indication of the
results obtained by the Committee, there is this interest about them, as
has been pointed out by Mr. G. F. Fitzgerald of Dublin, that the values
obtained for the capacity between about 0-02 and 0-2 millimétre’s pressure
bear a general resemblance to those obtained for the Crookes’ force.
One difficulty met with in the investigation consists in an apparent
change in the capacity of the condensers B and C (partly, no doubt, aris-
ing from changes of temperature) from day to day. A similar difficulty
was met with in the previous investigation made in Japan, but it was
overcome by making alternate measurements of the capacity of the closed
condenser, first with air, then with vacuum, then with air, &., &c. In
the present case this is, of course, impossible, since on account of the large
internal capacity of the condenser A, and the considerable quantity of
gas occluded in so large a mass of aluminium, it takes several days to
obtain a vacuum of 0-001 of a millimétre even, although, at the suggestion
of Mr. Gimingham, induction sparks from a large induction coil (not
shown in the figure), are kept passing between the two sets of aluminium
cylinders at all times that a measurement of capacity is not being made.
Probably the best method of procedure is that followed on August 28, the
last day of the investigation, viz., first obtain slowly a very perfect vacuum,
no measurements of capacity being necessarily made, then admit into the
pump, drop by drop, mercury, occluding air, and make, during a couple of
hours or so, a complete series of measurements of capacity as the pres-
sure rises from, say, 0°001 of a millimétre up to ordinary atmospheric
pressure. Such a set of experiments being performed several times would
probably give a fair indication of the curve for capacity. As it is also
extremely desirable that the experiments should be made with statical
charges of electricity, the Committee have had constructed a somewhat
modified form of Thomson’s quadrant electrometer, which they also pro-
pose employing for the measurement of the specific resistance of gas at
different pressures—the second half of their work, which they have not
yet commenced.
Comparison of Curves of the Declination Magnetographs at Kew,
Stonyhurst, Coimbra, Lisbon, Vienna, and St. Petersburg. By
Professor W. GRYLLS Apams, F.R.S.
[Puates VII., VIII., AND IX.]
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso among
the Reports. ]
Dorine the month of March, 1879, there were several very considerable
magnetic disturbances, and therefore there were several favourable oppor-
tunities for comparing the effects of magnetic disturbances at different
202 REPORT—1880.
stations wherever photographic records similar to those at Kew are
obtained.
Mr. Whipple was accordingly instructed by the Kew Committee to
write to the various observatories where declination magnetographs are
photographed, to ask that fac-similes of the records taken at those stations
might be sent to the Kew Committee for comparison.
In answer to this request, Dr. Hann, Director of the Observatory at
Vienna, and Senhor Capello, Director of the Observatory at Lisbon, have
kindly lent the original negatives, and Rev. Prof. 8. J. Perry, Director
of the Observatory at Stonyhurst, and Dr. Da Souza, Director of the
Observatory at Coimbra, have kindly forwarded positives printed from
their original curves, and Dr. Wild, Director of the St. Petersburg Obser-
vatory, has kindly forwarded very careful tracings of the St. Petersburg
photographs. These have been compared with one another, and with
the original negatives taken at the Kew Observatory, and much valuable
information has already been obtained. Other records have been asked,
but a sufficient time has not yet elapsed for them to come to hand ; it is
hoped that, as soon as they arrive, a complete discussion of them will
greatly extend our knowledge as to the causes of magnetic disturbances
over a considerable area of the earth’s surface.
A disturbance began at 4.20 a.m., Greenwich time, on the 3rd of March,
1879, which is described in the Stonyhurst record as ‘a tremulous motion
of the declination magnet, which lasted for about thirteen hours, accom-
panied by a gradual increase of westerly declination.’
About 5.30 a.m. the agitations west and east became greater, and at
7.30 a.m, there were sudden and great disturbances, the maximum
westerly declination being reached about 8 a.m.: again marked dis-
turbances, not quite so sudden, occurred just before 10 o’clock; then,
after a slight motion eastward until 10.30 a.m., there was again an increase
in the westerly declination, accompanied by great agitations, until 1 p.m.,
after which there is a decrease in the westerly declination, and the dis-
turbance ends at about 5 p.m.
During the whole time of this increase in the westerly declination
the agitations of the declination needle, including some twenty-four
maxima and minima values, are absolutely coincident in time, and very
often equal in magnitude, at Kew and at St. Petersburg.
At Stonyhurst also the curves are coincident with those at Kew
and are almost fac-similes of them.
On comparing the photographs at Coimbra and at Lisbon with those
at Kew-and at St. Petersburg, it is found that the agitations in Portugal
are not so clearly marked, but are coincident in time with those at the
other stations.
Comparing the Vienna photographs of the same disturbance with
those at Kew, they are found to be almost fac-similes of one another—
every agitation westward or eastward at one place is coincident in time
with a similar agitation at the other. The Vienna photographs are
remarkably clear, but the agitations are usually not so large as those at
Kew, and both are usually less than those at St. Petersburg, as given by
the tracings ; but the forms and periods of the successive agitations in a
disturbance, as well as the duration of the disturbances, are the same at all
the stations.
Between 5 and 6 p.m. on the 3rd there was a disturbance, first.east-
ward and then westward, at St. Petersburg, which was not felt at Kew ;
a
ON CURVES OF DECLINATION MAGNETOGRAPHS, ETC, 203
and between 10 p.m. and 12 there were simultaneous disturbances at
Kew and St. Petersburg, but in opposite directions.
From about 10 to 10.40 p.m. there is a disturbance of a very regular
kind, z.e. without much agitation, consisting of a motion of the needle
towards the east, followed by a motion of the needle westward for about
half an hour. This disturbance is strongly marked at Kew and at
Stonyhurst; is less strongly marked, but coincident in time, at Coimbra
and at Lisbon; and also very well shown, but is small, in the Vienna
photographs; but in the tracing from St. Petersburg a disturbance
begins at the same point of absolute time (7.e. about 10 p.m. Greenwich
time), with a motion of the needle towards the west—this motion west-
ward lasts for about 20 minutes, until 10.20 p.m., and is then followed by
« gradual motion eastward until about 10.45 p.m.
The declination at St. Petersburg then remains nearly steady for a
quarter of an hour, whilst the westerly declination at the other stations
is regularly increasing, and from 11.30 p.m. (Greenwich time) the dis-
turbances at St. Petersburg coincide in direction and in time with those
at Kew and at the other stations.
Plate VIL., fig. 1, represents the St. Petersburg, Kew, and Vienna
declination curves for March 3rd, the time being Greenwich mean time
for all stations.
On referring to the Kew curves for the horizontal force, of which Mr,
Whipple has kindly prepared tracings for me, I find that whenever the
deflections of the declination needle are eastward at Kew and westward
at St. Petersburg at the same instant, as in this disturbance between 10
and 10.20 p.m., there is at the same time an increase in the horizontal
force; and when the deflections are westward at Kew and eastward at
St. Petersburg at the same instant, as between 10.20 p.m. and 10.45 p.m.,
there is at the same time a decrease going on in the horizontal force.
This statement is borne out by the comparisons of disturbances on
other days throughout the month.
Three easterly movements of the needle occurred between 3 and 8 p.m.
on the 5th of March.
One began about 2.45 p.m., which is only just noticeable at Lisbon
and Coimbra when looked for, but which is clearly seen in the Kew and
Stonyhurst photographs, and becomes much more important at Vienna,
and is much larger still at St. Petersburg ; but at all places the greatest
easterly declination occurs at the same absolute time (at about 3 p.m.
Greenwich time), and there is then an increase in the westerly declination
until about 3.30 p.m.
From 5 p.m. to 5.26 p.m. there is an easterly movement of the
needle, which is absolutely coincident in time and is well marked at all
the stations, and the amount of the disturbance is as great at Kew and at
Stonyhurst as it is at St. Petersburg. This is followed by a westerly
movement, which is also precisely similar at all the places.
Another similar easterly movement begins about 6.20 p.m. (Green-
wich time) at all the stations, and lasts for a quarter of an hour,
followed by an equal movement westward for the next quarter of an
hour, thus forming a regular V in the photographic curves. The
second side of this V is continued to double the length in the St. Peters-
burg tracings, but the following greatest eastward declination is reached at
204 rnerPoRT—1880.
the same time (about 7.20 p.m.) at all the stations. Then the needle
gradually returns to the westward, and the disturbance dies away.
This deviation of the St. Petersburg curves from the others occurs at
6.40 p.m., at which time there is a sudden increase in the horizontal
force.
Another considerable disturbance, consisting of a general eastward
movement of the north end of the needle, began about 6 p.m. on the 7th,
followed by a westward movement, which ceased about 10 p.m.
In this disturbance, as in others, the Lisbon and Coimbra curves are
like exact reproductions of one another, so also are the Kew and Stony-
hurst curves. Placing the Lisbon negative behind the Coimbra positive,
the dark lines of the Lisbon photograph are seen through the bright
lines of the Coimbra curves; and in the same way, placing the Kew
negative behind the Stonyhurst positive, the dark lines of the Kew curves
are seen to coincide with the bright lines of the Stonyhurst curves, just
as if one were an exact print taken from the other.
Comparing the Kew and the Vienna curves this disturbance is found
to be of precisely the same character at both stations, but its range at
Vienna is less than at Kew. In this case the periods of the disturbance
occur at the same absolute time at all the stations.
At St. Petersburg the disturbance at the beginning is also similar in
character to that at Kew, but previously at 2 p.m. (Greenwich time),
there had been an easterly disturbance at St. Petersburg, which was not
perceived at Kew; and just before 8 p.m., towards the end of the great
disturbance, the westerly range of the needle is very much greater at
St. Petersburg than at Kew, but the needle reaches its extreme positions
either west or east exactly at the same absolute time at the two, and,
indeed, at all the stations.
Unfortunately at Coimbra four curves are drawn on the same slip,
and the zero line for one curve frequently runs into and coincides with
the curve for another day, so that it is difficult or impossible to make out
the character of the disturbances. The distance between the curve and
the zero line appears to be the same as in the Kew curves.
At Stonyhurst three curves are photographed on the same slip, but
the difficulty of dealing with the Coimbra curves is avoided by placing
the zero or time line a long way from its own curve, but the curves for
different days are placed so close to one another that occasionally they
are apt to run into and confuse or cross one another.
At Kew, at Lisbon, and at St. Petersburg, two curves are drawn on
the same slip, and sufficiently far apart not to interfere with one another,
the distance at St. Petersburg being greater than at Kew, because, as a
rule, the disturbances are of larger amount than at Kew.
At Vienna each curve is photographed on a separate slip, and the
hours are numbered astronomically from 0 to 23, the slip being changed
at or just before 21 hr., or 9 a.m. local time, 7.e. about 8 a.m. Greenwich
time.
The Vienna plan of photographing each curve on a separate sheet is
the most convenient of all for the comparison of disturbances at different
places, and there is an additional advantage in this plan because when
there are two or more curves on a slip, disturbances occurring at the same
hour on two successive days are not vertically above one another, and the
want of agreement of the time lines for two or more curves is apt to be
confusing.
ON CURVES OF DECLINATION MAGNETOGRAPHS, ETC. 205
From the Stonyhurst report we find that ‘ the chief disturbance of the
month began about noon on the 9th, and lasted till 4 a.m. on the follow-
ing day.’
On comparing the Lisbon and Coimbra curves for the whole period of
this disturbance, they are found to be absolutely coincident throughout.
On comparing the Kew and Stonyhurst curves, they are also found to
be absolutely coincident, both in range of disturbances and in time ; indeed,
this is one of the most remarkable instances that I have seen.
At Vienna the disturbances are nearly all of the same character, and
take place at the same time, but the range is not quite so great.
On comparing the St. Petersburg curves, it is found that there are
disturbances of the same character, and taking place—i.e. having their
maxima and minima—at the same time as those at Kew and Vienna and
the other stations; but superposed upon these are other disturbances, one
to the eastward from 2 to 3.20 p.m., and to the westward from 3.20 to
3.40 p.m.; another violent one to the eastward from 4.20 to 4.50 p.m.,
followed by a quicker return to the westward until 5 p.m.; another, not
quite so violent, eastward from 6 to 6.30, and westward from 6.30 to
7 p.m.; then, after a period of comparative rest, at 10.20 there is another
disturbance westward for about ten minutes, followed by a return of
the needle to the eastward until 11 p.m., superposed on those dis-
turbances which are the same as the disturbances which are seen in the
Kew curves.
The effect of these extra disturbances, which are so marked at St.
Petersburg, is only just seen in the Vienna curves, the result being that
the heights of some of the maxima are diminished or increased, or the
slopes of parts of the curves are slightly altered, in consequence of the
action of opposing or reinforcing disturbances.
These differences in the disturbances at St. Petersburg and at the
other stations coincide in time with corresponding changes in the value
of the horizontal force, as measured by the Kew curves. Thus from 2 to
3.20 p.m. the horizontal force is diminishing, then from 3.20 to 3.40 p.m.
the horizontal force is increasing ; from about 4.15 to 4.45 p.m. the hori-
zontal force is diminishing, but again increases more rapidly until 5 p.m.;
then from 6 to 6.20 p.m. it diminishes, and afterwards increases more
slowly until a little after 7 p.m.; after a period of rest there is a large in-
crease from 10.15 to 10.55, followed by a diminution of the horizontal
force until 11 p.m.
It thus appears from these comparisons—and the statements are fully
borne out by the other principal disturbances which have been examined
—that :
A diminution in the horizontal force is accompanied by greater easterly
deflections of the declination needle at St. Petersburg than at Kew.
2. Increase of the horizontal force is accompanied by greater westerly
deflections at St. Petersburg than at Kew, or is sometimes accompanied
by a westerly deflection at St. Petersburg and an easterly deflection at
Kew.
On March 11, a disturbance, first eastward for a quarter of an hour
until 9 p.m., then westward for an hour, causes a well-marked and regular
depression in the declination curve.
This takes place at the same instant at Kew, Stonyhurst, and Vienna,
but is not present at St. Petersburg; but at the time of the greatest
eastward deflection, at 9.4 p.m., there is a slight westward deflection at
206 REPORT—1880.
St. Petersburg, the other small disturbances at all the places being the
same.
Again, on the 18th, there is a magnetic storm, lasting from 6.20 p.m.
until 8 p.m., which takes place absolutely at the same time at all the
stations, and for which the curves for places near together absolutely fit.
one another.
At St. Petersburg this storm was more violent than at the other
stations, and was preceded by a violent storm, in which the needle de-
viated first to the east and then to the west, between 4.20 and 6 p.m.
This preceding storm was only slightly felt at the other stations, and
rather more at Vienna than at Kew or Stonyhurst.
About 2.30 a.m. on the 14th, there is a sudden disturbance of the
needle to the westward, which is stronger at Kew and Stonyhurst than at
Vienna or at St. Petersburg.
The next considerable disturbance was on the 15th, beginning at
9.20 p.m. and ending at midnight, followed by lesser disturbances arising
from a distinct cause which lasted until 4 a.m. on the 16th.
This disturbance from 9.20 p.m. to midnight produced similar deflec-
tions at Kew and Stonyhurst, and also at Coimbra and Lisbon, first rapidly
to the east until 9,50 and then to the west; but the range was not so great
at these latter places. At St. Petersburg the deflections of the needle
were in the opposite direction to those at Kew and Stonyhurst, and the
opposite deflections occurred at the same time; and this remark applies to
all the oscillations of the declination needle up to midnight. The dis-
turbance westward was also much greater than the simultaneous eastward
disturbance at Kew.
The disturbances between midnight and 4 a.m. take place at the same
time at all the stations, and are precisely similar in character and in
direction at St. Petersburg, at Vienna, and at Kew. They are also equal
in amount, so that the curves almost fit one another. Here, then, we have
a cause producing opposite disturbances at Kew and at St. Petersburg
for more than two hours, followed by probably some other cause of dis-
turbance producing identical effects at all the stations for a period of four
hours.
At Vienna from 9.20 to midnight the disturbances were simultaneously
in the same direction as, but were very weak in comparison with, those
at St. Petersburg, so that this magnetic storm was very little felt at
Vienna.
On reversing the Kew curve for this disturbance and comparing it
with St. Petersburg, it is seen that the successive maxima and minima
are absolutely simultaneous, so that the deflections opposite ways at the
two places are seen to be due to the same cause; and the Vienna curve is
very nearly coincident with the mean curve obtained by superposing the
Kew and St. Petersburg curves.
Plate VIL. fig. 2, represents the Ste Petersburg, Kew, Vienna, and
Coimbra declination curves for March 15th-16th.
The beginning of this disturbance was accompanied by a sudden and
large increase of the horizontal force until 9.50 p.m., and then by a dimi-
nution until 10.45 p.m., followed by slight oscillations of the needle until
midnight, which are simnltaneous with the oscillations of the St. Peters-
burg declination needle.
The vertical force gradually diminishes from 9.20 to 10.30 p.m.
Nothing can show more clearly than this the direct relation between
ON CURVES OF DECLINATION MAGNETOGRAPHS, ETC. 207
the changes in the horizontal force and the differences in the declination
curves at St. Petersburg and at Kew.
At 11.45 a.m. on March 18 there is a sudden kick to the westward,
lasting for about two minutes and measured by a length of 2 millimétres
on the Kew curve, #.e. giving a deflection of about 2’. This kick takes
place simultaneously at St. Petersburg and at Vienna, and is nearly equal
at all the stations. It is also felt at the same instant at Coimbra and at
Lisbon.
A similar kick, but less marked at St. Petersburg, occurs next day at
11.30 a.m. (Greenwich time) at all the stations.
After an entire agreement between the curves through the day, at 10
p-m. a disturbance occurs which deflects the needle eastward at Kew and
westward at St. Petersburg, but by midnight the curves coincide again,
and remain coincident with the same very small variations through the
night.
Between 3 and 4 p.m. on March 20 we get disturbances opposite ways,
first westward at Kew and eastward at St. Petersburg simultaneously,
again followed by coincidences through the day.
Another disturbance commenced by a tremulous motion of the magnet
about 7 a.m. on the 23rd, and lasted until 11 p.m.
From the beginning of this storm until 1.45 p.m. the several east and
west disturbances or oscillations of the needle are simultaneous and of the
same character, and are very nearly equal in amount at Kew, Stonyhurst,
and at St. Petersburg. From 1.45 to 2.30 p.m. the deflections to the
eastward were far greater at St. Petersburg than at the other stations,
but were still simultaneous at all the stations. The record at Stonyhurst
shows that the vertical force increased in value about 2 p.m., so that here
an increase in the vertical force is accompanied by greater eastward deflec-
tions at St. Petersburg.
The St. Petersburg curve remains below the Kew and Stonyhurst
curves, with the same smaller disturbances, until 7.12 p-m., just
after one but before another violent disturbance, each of which lasted
half an hour. The first of these two violent disturbances was first east-
ward and then westward at all stations, but greater at St. Petersburg
than at Kew, and was accompanied by a corresponding decrease, and
then an increase of the horizontal force. At 7.25 p-m., according to
the Stonyhurst record, the V.F. had diminished to its mean value, and
simultaneously with this diminution the horizontal force had been in-
creasing. The second violent disturbance was westward at St. Peters-
burg, and eastward at Kew and Stonyhurst. This second disturbance
was also westward at Vienna, but less violent in character. The maxi-
mum was reached at 7.30 p.m.
The simultaneous disturbances become alike again in character and
direction at 7.50 p.m., but from 8.15 p.m. until 11 p-m. (the end of the
storm) the disturbances at Kew and at St. Petersburg do not correspond,
but are at times in opposite directions. From 11 p-m. the curves are
again agreeing with one another.
The time scales for different stations are nearly but not quite the
same ; the St. Petersburg is slightly shorter than the Kew scale, and the
Kew is slightly shorter than the Vienna scale. They are so nearly equal
that for short lengths the difference is not perceptible. In Plate VIIL.,
fig. 1, where the disturbances during seventeen hours on March 23-24 are
represented in one diagram, an attempt has been made to guide the eye by
208 RLPORT—1880.
drawing three oblique time lines at 9 a.m., 8 p.m., and 2 a.m. through the
St. Petersburg, Kew, and Vienna curves. There is more difficulty in
determining the exact instant at which any small disturbance occurs from
the Lisbon photographs, as the curves are not divided into hourly or two-
hourly divisions as at the other observatories.
From 7.20 to 7.30 p.m. there is a sudden and large increase in the
horizontal force, which continues high until 7.40, and then suddenly
diminishes until nearly 8 p.m.
On March 28, at 4.30 p.m., a slight eastward disturbance takes place
at St. Petersburg, which is scarcely perceived elsewhere. From 10.20 to
10.30 at all the stations the declination needle is moving westward, and
both the horizontal and vertical forces at Kew are increasing. ‘rom
10.30 to 10.40 the St. Petersburg needle continues to move westward,
and the horizontal and vertical forces continue to increase, but the Kew
needle moves back to the eastward fron 10.30 p.m. until 11.5 p.m., and
then westward to 11.30 p.m. From 10.20 p.m. to 1.25 a.m. on the 29th,
during which time there are two large disturbances, there is a very close
resemblance between the St. Petersburg declination curve and the Kew
horizontal force curve, the disturbances being simultaneous, and a westerly
deflection at St. Petersburg corresponding to an increase of the horizontal
force at Kew. Taking the mean line of no disturbance as common to the
two, the height or depth of the Kew horizontal force curve is about one-
third of the height or depth of the St. Petersburg declination curve at
the same point.
Plate IX. gives the St. Petersburg, Kew, and Vienna declination
curves and the horizontal and vertical force at Kew from 10 p.m. to
4,a.m. on March 28-29.
The Vienna curve is very nearly the mean between the St. Petersburg
and Kew declination curves between 10.50 and 11.30 p.m., but agrees abso-
lutely with the Kew curve for the part of the disturbance after midnight.
This disturbance was only slightly felt at Lisbon or at Coimbra.
According to the Stonyhurst record, the horizontal force magnet was
rather disturbed during these declination disturbances.
On the next day (March 29), at 8.20 p.m., an easterly excursion begins,
which is identical at all stations until 8.45 p.m.; but at this point the
St. Petersburg needle turns sharply back to the west, while the Kew and
Stonyhurst needles continue moving to the east, giving the greatest eastern
deflection for the month (15/ 4’). This point is reached at 8.55 p.m.,
whilst the corresponding western deflection at St. Petersburg is reached
about 9.5 p.m. The St. Petersburg curve then falls again, reaching its
lowest point at 9.30 p.m., after which the curves show a westward motion
of the needles at all stations.
In Plate VIIL., fig. 2, the time lines are drawn obliquely, as in the
curve for March 23-24.
The Vienna curve is almost exactly the mean of the other two curves,
and the Lisbon and Coimbra curves very closely resemble the Vienna
curve for this disturbance.
About 10.40 and again at 11.15 p.m. the St. Petersburg needle is de-
flected to the west, and the Kew needle toward the cast. The St. Peters-
burg needle reaches its maximum at 11.30 p.m., then both needles move
eastward until 12.10 a.m., after which the Kew needle begins to move
westward. At 12.30 a.m. the St. Petersburg needle also begins to
move westward, the curves very closely agree, and the disturbance is
very nearly over.
“aoe
ON THE EXPLORATION OF THE CAVES OF THE SOUTH OF IRELAND. 209
On July 19, before seeing the Kew horizontal force curves, I wrote as
follows: I am led to conjecture that at 8.45 p.m. on the 29th, and at 11.15
p.m., there is an increase in the horizontal force.
On comparing the Kew horizontal force curves I find that from 8.45
to 9.5 p.m. the horizontal force is increasing rapidly, aud that it decreases
again from 9.5 to 9.30 p.m. At 10.40 the horizontal force again increases,
and after a slight decrease about 11 o’clock, there is again an increase in
the horizontal force, beginning at 11.15 p.m., and ending at 11.30 p.m.,
i.e., when the St. Petersburg declination needle reaches its greatest
-westerly deviation.
On comparing an exceedingly good photograph from Vienna for March
26-27, with the photograph from Kew, which is also good, in a disturbance
lasting from 5 p.m. to 7 p.m., in which there were twelve distinct deflec-
tions in each direction and a decided character given to the curve, but in
which no excursion was as great as 2’ from the mean position, I found
that the curves were absolutely coincident.
The Stonyhurst positives agreed with Kew as far as one could judge,
but the agreements between the Kew and Vienna curves here spoken of
are such as are entirely beyond the power of testing by a positive. Almost
the whole of the Vienna photograph of the disturbance lies within the
breadth of the base line in the Stonyhurst positive. The oscillations are
also found to take place absolutely at the same instant of time at Kew
and at Vienna. Similar instances occur on March 31 between 12 and
1 p.m. and between 6 and 7 p.m.
The St. Petersburg tracings also show the same disturbances occurring
at the same times, but the agreement of these Vienna and Kew
curves is far greater than any that can be tested by means of tracings ; at
the same time, there are numberless instances of comparison which might
be given which show that the St. Petersburg tracings are remarkably
good. They are also taken on a very excellent tracing paper, and the
hours are carefully marked on the curves, so that there is no difficulty in
arriving at the time at which any given disturbance occurs.
Tt would be easier to make accurate measurements of time if the base
line were nearer to the curve than it is in the Vienna photographs, and if
only one curve were photographed on each slip at all stations, as is the
case in the Vienna photographs. For the comparison of magnetic dis-
turbances it is important that the arrangement of lamps, lenses, &c.,
should be as exactly as possible the same at all stations, for the accuracy
of the agreement of the results is such that any variation in this arrange-
ment interferes with the degree of accuracy of the conclusions which may
be drawn as to the character or the cause of magnetic disturbances.
First Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor A. LEITH
ApAms, the Rev. Professor HavGurTon, Professor W. Boyp DAWKINS,
and Dr. JouHn Evans, appointed for the purpose of exploring the
Caves of the South of Ireland.
Tue following is a preliminary Report on the Bone Caverns, near Middle-
ton, in the county of Cork, lately explored, in part, by R. J. Ussher
and J. J. Smyth, Esqrs. The work has been restricted to a few days’
1880. P
210 REPORT—1 880.
diggings in the superficial deposits. These, however, are sufficiently
encouraging, and will be renewed on the first favourable opportunity.
; A. Leira Apams,
July 21, 1880. Secretary of the Committee.
Report on the Caves and Kitchen-midden at Carrigagower, Co. Cork.
By R. J. Ussuer.
These caves, whose original mouths are now probably destroyed or
concealed by rubbish, open at present into a quarry in a limestone knoll
on the townland of Carrigagower (‘ Rock of the Goat’), three or four miles
south of Middleton. They are not, broad nor lofty, but have extensive
ramifications, especially that one which opens into the north-west part of
the quarry. At its eastern end, and at a depth of 20 feet from the surface,
the quarry is crossed by a cave now exposed by the removal of its western
side. This cave runs in the line of a joint or fissure, and penetrates the
rock north and south. The floor of this cave, where it remains (through
the northern half of the exposed portion), is of stalagmite resting on pale
sandy clay that overlies the limestone bottom. On this stalagmite floor,
among the débris of broken stalactites, loose charcoal was found, and, on
removing a layer of the solid stalagmite, from 1 inch to 2 inches in thick-
ness, much charcoal was found embedded in it, with sandstone gravel and
some shells of a small Heliz, marking the horizon of an old floor that
had been encrusted by the subsequent formation of stalagmite. The
portion of the cave laid open appeared in its southern part to have had no
stalagmite floor, but to have had an upward opening to the sky, through
which an accumulation of brown surface-earth and kitchen waste had
been introduced, extending downwards into the cave so as to have com-
pletely filled this vertical opening. The accumulation was uniform in
character, containing much charcoal, often in large lumps, and a great
profusion of bones and teeth of ox, sheep or goat, and pig, with some
remains of horse, dog, and cat, and a few of hare and rabbit. The bones
were usually broken. Their colour was generally yellowish, but often
blackened, though they exhibited no appearance of dendritis. In some
instances they appeared to have been burned, and charcoal was very fre-
quently found adhering to them and in their interstices. Numbers of
sea-shells occurred through the accumulation. Seven species of these
were noted, the most common being limpet and periwinkle. Many shells
of the common garden-snail also occurred. With the above were found
several articles of human use. Sharpening-stones of different sizes, flat
circular pebbles, hammer-stones, flint-flakes artificially chipped, a frag-
ment of wheel-made pottery, two iron knives of an antique form, an iron
chisel, and a large flat-headed iron nail, some slag and a piece of jet (?).
A portion of a jet bracelet had previously been found in the same brown
surface-earth close to this spot. J. J. Smyth, Esq., to whose kind assist-
ance we are much indebted, found in a recess, close to the above spot,
a portion of the upper stone of a quern embedded in earth. Near the
centre of the quarry, a portion of a cave remains that has been partly
quarried away. In this was discovered, with bones of deer and ox, part
of another stone, very similar to the above portion of a quern, with a flat
surface and a circular hole in it, though not in a direction exactly perpen-
dicular to the surface. In the surface of an adjoining field a deeply
indented arrowhead of flint was found some time since, and labourers
-
F
4
P,
‘
;
ON THE EXPLORATION OF THE CAVES OF THE SOUTH OF IRELAND. 211
employed on the spot say that triangular chipped flints have frequently
been met with there. The surface-earth around the quarry contains
many bones of ox, goat, and pig, showing that the spot had been the site
of some human habitation for a considerable lapse of time.
Further explorations in this cavern have been postponed, but will be
resumed presently.
Extract from a Report by Roser Day, Esq., F.S.A., on the Implements
found at Carrigagower, Co. Cork.
The iron objects are peculiarly interesting, as examples of very early
domestic articles—comprising a chisel and two knives. The larger of
these has a portion of the wooden haft still adhering to it, and the turn-
up on the handle part, designed for securing it effectually, occurs on a
larger knife in my collection which was found at Larne, Co. Antrim.
These objects lack the peculiar blue or cobalt patina that is so frequently
found on iron tools from Irish crannogs. The oblong stone with polished
sides is a burnisher or whetstone, upon which probably the knives were
once sharpened. The broken stone may either have been a hone stone or
a chisel-shaped celt. If it was found in the same deposit as the iron
objects, I should say it was another polisher, as it is not probable that a
chisel of the advanced iron type would be found in conjunction with one
of stone. Two of the natural pebbles are hammer-stones, and the third,
with its ground and partly polished face, is one of a type commonly met
with in the North of Ireland. In this the central depression is barely
defined, but in others it is much more fully developed, so that I have long
come to the conclusion that, while serving some purpose (perhaps for
grinding the broken points of arrowheads), they were made to pay a
double debt, and served as amulets! I noticed upon the broken bit of
pottery what looks very like a worn-out inscription in Roman capital
letters. This is best seen with a pocket lens. The bit of jet (?) may be
jet or coal; I am not competent to give an opinion. The fragments of
flint are all artificial Among them is the base (showing the bulb of per-
cussion) of a worked flake. These flint-flakes were used down into the
iron age, and we have here another proof of the fact. The bone scoop
sent by Mr. Smyth is, from the character of the texture or structure of
the bone, altered by exposure and time, as it is unquestionably older than
the apple-scoops which schoolboys made in the present century,
and which it closely resembles. JI have another like it, from /
the Lough Revel Crannog, Co. Antrim, with cobalt patina. //*
This from Rathcoursey (Carrigagower) is ornamented, and the \
flint arrowhead found there is small, beautifully chipped, and of
the scarce and deeply indented type.
The iron nail is very curious, with a head like a horse nail.
212 REPORT—1880.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Scuater, Dr. G.
Hartiaus, Sir Joseph Hooker, Captain F. M. Hunter, and
Lieut.-Col. H. H. Gopwin-AustTEN, appointed to take steps for the
Investi jation of the Natural History of Socotra.
CotoveL Godwin-Austen having been unable to carry out his intention of
going to Socotra, the Committee were fortunate enough to obtain the
services of Dr. I. B. Balfour, Professor of Botany in the University of
Glasgow, for this purpose. Prof, Balfour left this country on January 9,
for Aden, and returned home on April 21. As his report of proceedings,
&c. (appended), will show, he has, considering the short time (only six
weeks) that could be devoted to the investigation of the island, and the
inevitable delays and difficulties always attending the first exploration of
an unknown country, not only achieved a remarkable amount of success,
but has proved how much more rich the island is than was anticipated,
and how much is left for fature explorers.
The total expenditure of Prof, Balfour on his expedition amounted to
about 4207. The Committee having received 100. from this Association,
and 300/. from the Government Grant Fund of the Royal Society, there
remains a debt of about 207. due to Prof. Balfour.
The Committee request that a grant of 501. may be made to them to
enable them to discharge this debt. The balance they propose to devote
in aid of the publication of the results obtained by the expedition.
The Committee consider that the best thanks of the Association are
due to Prof. Balfour for having undertaken this expedition, and for the
zeal and industry with which he has carried it through.
The Committee consider that the best thanks of the Association are
also due to Brigadier-General Loch, C.B., Resident at Aden, Major Good-
fellow, Assistant Political Agent, and Captain Heron, of H.M.S. Seagull,
for the great assistance they have rendered to Prof. Balfour on this occa-
sion. The success of the expedition is, as Prof. Balfour informs us,
mainly due to the cordial co-operation of these gentlemen.
Referring to the report of Prof. Balfour, the Committee feel no doubt
that in every branch of science considerable results are yet to be obtained
by further investigations in Socotra, and are of opinion that a second
expedition should be sent out as soon as the necessary facilities can be
obtained.
Report to the Socotra Committee of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science of the proceedings of the Expedition to the Island of
Socotra. . By Baytwy Batrour, Sc.D., M.B., Regius Professor of Botany,
University of Glasgow, in charge of the Expedition.
Having undertaken at the request of the Committee the work of an
expedition to the Island of Socotra, for the purpose of investigating its
Natural History, I left England on January 9, and joining the French
mail steamer Ava at Marseilles, reached Aden on the 24th of that month.
I was accompanied by Alexander Scott, a gardener from the Royal
Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.
On arrival at Aden, I met my friend Dr. Hay, the Port Surgeon, to
SS o_O eee
ON THE INVESTIGATION OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF SOCOTRA. 213
whose kindness [ am much indebted, and with his aid I was enabled to
make a fair collection of the plants of Aden. Captain F. M. Hunter,
Junior Assistant Political Resident, a member of your Committee, was not
at Aden at this time, having gone to the interior a few days previously,
and as he had no prospect of returning to Aden before the expedition left
for Socotra, he had left for me a letter of instruction, giving valuable
information and hints, the outcome of his personal experiences on the
island. In his absence Major Goodfellow, Senior Assistant Political
Resident, gaye me every assistance, and the attainment of the object of
the expedition is in great part due to him.
The official letters of recommendation to the authorities at Aden from
the Home Government, for which the Committee applied, had not reached
Aden at the date of our arrival, but having a private letter of introduc-
tion from General Strachey to Brigadier-General Loch, C.B., Political
Resident, I presented it. General Loch very cordially sympathised with
the object of the expedition, and promoted most materially the carrying
out of the work of the expedition. In default of instructions from the
Home Government he telegraphed to the Bombay Council asking for
authority to aid the expedition, and received a very gratifying affirmative
reply. He then at once placed the despatch boat Dagmar, of the Bombay
Marine, at our disposal to convey us to Socotra, and we were enabled
to obtain from the arsenal, tents and camp implements. He also very
kindly granted leave to Lieutenant Cockburn, 6th Royal Regiment, that
he might go with us to Socotra. Lieutenant Cockburn then joined the
expedition, and apart from the advantage and pleasure I derived from
having him as a companion, the excellent sketches! he made will enable
the Committee to judge of how great an acquisition he was to the staff
of the expedition and of the valuable services he rendered.
The P. & O. mail steamer arriving on January 26, brought the
promised official letters, one from the India Office to the Resident, and
another from the Admiralty to the Senior Naval Officer at Aden. As
a result of the latter letter, Captain Heron, of H.M.S. Seagull, called
upon me on the 27th and offered to take the expedition to Socotra
in his ship. It was subsequently arranged, therefore, that we should go
in the Seagull instead of the Dagmar, and the date of sailing was fixed
for February 2.
The intervening days were occupied in obtaining stores and servants ;
the latter not easy to procure, especially a good interpreter, on account
of the very high rate of pay demanded.
All our gear was shipped on the Seagull by noon on February 2, and
our party—composed of Kuropeans,—Lieutenant Cockburn, Alexander
Scott, and myself; and natives,—interpreter, cook, tent Lascar, general
servant, and two coolies—went on board later. Captain Heron purposed
to sail that day, but the monsoon blowing strongly up the harbour
a start was delayed until next morning. On the morning of the 3rd,
though the wind had not much lulled, anchor was weighed and the
Seagull steamed out of Aden harbour in the teeth of a stiff breeze. By
the afternoon we had made so little way against the wind and current,
and were pitching and rolling so greatly, that Captain Heron determined
to put back and make for Aden again. The expedition at the outset thus
encountered annoying delay, for we remained in Aden Harbour until the
morning of February 6, when again the Seagull left for Socotra. Heavy
' Some of the sketches were exhibited at the meeting.
214 REPORT—1880.
weather kept us back, on this our second attempt, and it was not until
the morning of the 11th that we sighted Socotra.
I desired to land at Hadibu, the chief village of the island, where the
Sultan has his Court ; but as much coal had been expended on the voyage,
and the anchorage at Hadibu being reported unsafe, Captain Heron
deemed it advisable to anchor in Gollonsir Bay, a bay considered the
safest round the island, and at its north-west end.
From the village sheikh we learned that the Sultan was living at his
hill residence, some miles from Hadibu. We therefore sent by messengers
the letter of recommendation furnished to us by the Aden Government.
But it was not until February 16 that an answer arrived at Gollonsir—
an answer of a very satisfactory kind, allowing us to go where we pleased,
and charging the village sheikh and the people of the neighbourhood to
aid us if possible. Whilst waiting for news from the Sultan, our tents,
stores, and baggage were landed from the Seagull, and our first camp was
formed on the slope of a hill N.E. of the Gollonsir village, and we entered
on our work.
The Seagull left on February 16.
Making in the first instance Gollonsir our head-quarters, we explored
the adjacent country to the S. and §.W., until the 25th inst.; when we
struck tents, and sending our heavy baggage and stores by sea, started to
march to Hadibu. We took four days to accomplish it, reaching Hadibu
late on the night of the 28th inst.
Having communicated to the Sultan the fact of our arrival, he came to
Hadibu on March 1, when we had an interview.
Establishing our depét now on the Hadibu plain, about a mile from the
town, we spent the time until the 7th inst. investigating the magnificent
Haggier range of hills shutting in on the south the Hadibn plain.
On March 8, leaving a tent Lascar in charge of the depét at Hadibu,
we started upon a trip to the eastern end of the island, going eastward
along the northern side and returning westward by the southern side of
the island. During this trip we reached Ras Momé, the extreme eastern
headland. Camp at Hadibu was again entered on March 18.
As yet we had not seen much of the southern parts of the island, so
on March 22 we left Hadibu on our last excursion. Crossing the Haggier
range we emerged upon the southern shore at Nogad, traversed the coast
line for some distance, and then recrossed the island, so as to come
down upon Kadhab village on the north side. We regained Hadibu on
the 27th.
March 28. The Dagmar arrived this morning, having been sent
specially for us by the Resident. We were not sorry to see her, as our
camp was now very sickly—Scott was down with fever, one coolie had had
sunstroke, and the other servants were all suffering badly from fever.
So much so that for some time previously hardly one of them could work,
and we had been compelled to hire some of the Sultan’s men.
Having shipped our collections and gone on board the Dagmar, she left
Socotra on March 30, and after a smooth but tediously slow passage
reached Aden on April 3.
Here on our return we experienced as much kindness as before.
General and Mrs. Loch extended to me their hospitality at the Residency.
Our collections were overhauled and finally packed for transmission to
Britain by the P. & O. steamer Deccan, which reached Aden early on
April 10. By this steamer I also took passage, and travelling to Brindisi,
ON THE INVESTIGATION OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF SOCOTRA. 215
arrived in London on the 21st. Alexander Scott went by the Deccan to
Southampton, which brought him to England with the collections early
in May. Lieuteuant Cockburn rejoined his regiment at, Aden.
Collections of specimens in all branches of Natural History were made.
As may be supposed I devoted particular attention to the Botany. of, the
island, and there are dried specimens of between .500 and 600 species of
flowering plants in the collection, besides some Cryptogams. A certain
number of specimens were brought to England alive, amongst them being
such interesting plants as the Dragon’s-blood tree and the true Aloe. A
misfortune deprived me of a number of living plants, and on this wise :—
Having selected the majority of the more delicate living plants I purposed
to bring them with me to London, as thereby they would arrive a fort-
night earlier than by going by Southampton. At Brindisi, however, the
Custom House officer seized the plants and insisted on their, being taken
back to the ship, not allowing me even to book them by another steamer
which would have taken them more directly to, England. Consequently
the plants had to travel up to Venice and thence back to Suez before they
could be forwarded to Britain. And all this because the Italian Govern-
ment dreads the introduction of the Phylloxera into Italy, forgetful
apparently of the fact that it is already abundant in the country, and
also that it lives only on vines.
Specimens of the gums produced on the island and used in commerce
have been brought home. In the zoological collections there are a few
snakes and lizards, some birds, freshwater fish, Mollusca, Crustacea, and
Insecta of various kinds.
Some of the land Mollusca have come to this country alive. Two
living civet cats I was bringing for the Zoological Gardens died on the
way home.
Illustrative of the geology of the island are about 500 specimens of
rocks and minerals from various localities on the island. Igneous, meta-
morphic, and sedimentary rocks are all represented.
I regret that I was unable for some time after my return to turn my
attention to the distribution of the collections for examination. I have
recently, however, done so, and the following gentlemen have kindly con-
sented to examine certain groups :—
Birds : : : . My. Sclater and Dr. Hartlaub.
Land shells >» -- .» > €ok--Godwin-Austen.
Zoological. < Crustacea ‘ : . Prof. Huxley.
Remaining Zoological col- | Dr.Giintherand Zoological staff
lections f of British Museum.
Igneous and metamorphic
Geological. 1 Ae \ Professor Bonney.
Sedimentary : ; > ee ae
Alge . - ‘ é Dr. Dickie.
Fungi. . ‘ : .. Dr. M. C. Cooke.
Botanical. Mosses and allies . ; pr tps gs
Flowering and vascular. PR. : i
eee vd caus br. Bayley Balfour,
The agreement made with the Committee as to the final disposition of
the specimens will be carried out, 'viz., the first set of specimens, zoolo-
gical, to go to the British Museum; the first, set of specimens, botanical,
to go to the collection at Kew; a set of botanical to go to the British
216 REPORT—1880.
Museum. The remainder will be distributed variously. The publication
of results is a matter for consideration by the Committee.
In the foregoing report I have confined myself to a narrative of the
proceedings of the expedition. It is as yet too early to speak definitely
of what the total results will be. But I think I may safely say, from what
I have learnt regarding the birds from Mr. Sclater, and regarding the
land shells from Col. Godwin-Austen, as well as from what I know
of the plant collections, that the results promise to be of exceptional in-
terest. What has been done by the expedition is but a fragment of what
there is to be accomplished. In exploring the island, I deemed it better,
considering the short time of our sojourn, rather to attempt to cover as
much ground as possible, with the view of obtaining a representative
collection, than to examine in detail a limited tract of country. By doing
this, much barren land was travelled over, and many rich and fertile
spots were necessarily only superficially looked at. Especially amongst
the hills of the Haggier range are there valleys which would well
repay a careful and extended investigation. The expedition just com-
pleted ought to be considered only preliminary, for I am assured a rich
harvest awaits any collector who may visit the island.
If at any future time an expedition should be sent to the island, it
would be well if the date of its arrival were timed so that it should have
the last months and the first months of a year upon the island. Our ex-
pedition reached the island too late in the year, so that before we left
the heat was so intense as to prevent our doing so much work
as we desired. Again, the inaccuracy of our knowledge of the geography
of the island is a point to which the attention of future expeditions
should be directed. The chart based on Wellsted’s observations is the
only available one, and that is so incomplete and incorrect as to bé almost
useless to anyone moving about the island.
In conclusion, I desire to express my hearty thanks, and those of the
other members of the expedition, to the Committee for their aid. Also to
General Loch, C.B.; Major Goodfellow; Dr. Hay; Capt. Heron, R.N.,
and officers of H.M.S. Seagull, and to the officers of the despatch-
boat Dagmar, for the very kind way they one and all co-operated to
make the expedition successful.
Report of the Committee consisting of the Right Hon. A. J. Mun-
DELLA, M.P., JAMES HEywoop, Esq., F.R.S., STEPHEN BouRNE,
Esq., Cuas. Doncaster, Esq., the Rev. A. BouRNE, Taiso Masak1,
Esq., CONSTANTINE Mo.uoy, Esq., R. J. PyE-SmiTH, Esq., Dr.
Hancock, and Rosert WILKINSON, Esq. (Secretary), appointed
to consider and report on the German and other systems of
teaching the Deaf’ to speak.
Tue Committee was appointed to consider this subject in consequence
of the reading of a paper at Sheffield by Dr. David Buxton.
The General Committee, by this appointment, confirmed the resolu-
tion of the Sectional Committee, and of Dr. Buxton’s audience—‘ That
a Training College for Teachers of the German system of teaching the
deaf—by speech and lip reading—is a matter of national importance,’ and
ee ee ee
gap Oe,
ON THE GERMAN SYSTEM OF TEACHING THE DEAF TO SPEAK. 217
it was referred to this Committee to consider the best means of promoting
the adoption of this system throughout the country.
In pursuance of this reference, they have made themselves acquainted
with the most recent publications upon the subject, consultation has been
held with, and valuable information received from, persons of eminence
and known experience in this department of education, and lengthened
visits have been paid to each of the schools, in and near London, where
deaf children are taught upon this system.
In the paper read at Sheffield, it was pointed out that other countries
performed their work of this kind better than it had hitherto been done
in this country :—
1. Because they employ the ‘German’ system in preference to the
‘French’ or ‘ Combined’ method, their pupils being taught by
‘Speech,’ and not by ‘ Signs.’
2. Because they employ a superior class and a larger number of
Teachers, who, where it is possible, are specially trained for the
work, not promiscuously engaged in it, as with us.
To which may, we think, be added further :—
3. Because this department of Education is undertaken and super-
vised by the State in other countries; not left, as here, to the
direction of bodies of men whose chief qualifications for the
office are their annual subscription and their kind-hearted-
ness.
More, probably, than any other person engaged in education, the
teacher of the deaf needs the encouragement which springs from an
intelligent sympathy. The entire field of education is avast one. The
instruction of children who are deaf is but a very limited portion of that
field, into which very few persons thoroughly enter. ‘To those who labour
in it, and those who are brought into connection therewith by family ties,
the close study of this subject has been almost exclusively confined. We
may add, also, in passing, that the repelling character of the sign system
is greatly to blame for this. And it has come to pass that those who
have supported the schools and asylums for the ‘ Deaf and Damb’ have
done so, not from any special knowledge or sympathy, but on the general
grounds of philanthropy, charity, or religion; and those who have ad-
ministered their affairs have done so in utter ignorance of the peculiar
condition and necessities of the class over whom they were the, generally,
self-constituted guardians. The first feeling of surprise that the born-deaf
could be taught at all has sufficed to keep these kindly unintelligent
observers satisfied that something was being done. How inadequate that
‘something’ really was—how far below both the necessities and the
possibilities of the case, they knew not, nor cared to know. In recent
years, however, a change has taken place. The attention attracted to the
subject, by papers which have been read, and discussions which have
followed, in our own and kindred societies, the reported observations of
travellers abroad, and articles in the daily and periodical press, have all
gained for it a large amount of interest among men of science, medical
men, the clergy, and the educated classes generally ; and probably the
very first wish of all persons who have to deal with the future of any deaf
child has now come to be the wish to have it educated on the ‘German’
system. This advantage has, however, been all but unattainable, since
nearly all the public asylums and schools in the country are conducted
on the ‘French’ system. To discover and point out the advantages of a
218 REPORT—1880.
better method, and to make those advantages easier of attainment, are,
we believe, the objects we were appointed to promote, and to this purpose
thus understood we have assiduously applied ourselves in our present
enquiry.
That a large proportion of the deaf children of this country.are grow-
ing up without education, we think is undeniable. The blessing of educa-
tion to the individual, and the burden to the community of an uneducated
deaf and dumb population, impart to this question an importance which
cannot be gainsaid. Whenever it is the foolish—and in this case culpable
—reluctance to part with the child which keeps it at home in lifelong
ignorance, we think compulsion is necessary. Thus far as to children
not at school: our verdict is that they ought to be sent there, and that it
is the nation’s duty to send them. Of those who are at school the nation
should further see that the best is made of the opportunity (1) by those
who go to learn, and (2) by those who claim to teach.
1. To those who learn, sufficient time should be given. They should
not be kept waiting for admission on the chances of election by
the votes of the subscribers; nor should they be prematurely
taken from school through failure of funds for paying the fees,
or the eagerness of parents to get them employed.
2. Those who teach should be furnished with the best advantages in
the way of training, remuneration, and status; and they should
instruct the pupils committed to their charge by the best
methods which are attainable.
That the ‘German’ system —speech and lip-reading —is the best
method of instruction for the deaf, we entertain no doubt whatever. No
other system can be placed in comparison with it. That it should not be
applicable in this country to English children, when it is found in success-
ful use in Germany, Holland, Italy, and other countries, is a plea which
cannot be seriously entertained. What is not good enough for those
countries cannot be admitted to be good enough forus. This was forcibly
put before the Section at Sheffield last year, and we heartily endorse it.
To the Training College for teachers, now established at Haling, we look
for results of the greatest importance. A course of systematic and pro-
fessional training, and a system of granting certificates after examination,
form an entirely new departure in the education of the deaf. Nowhere
was such a change more needed. Improvements in every other depart-
ment of educational work left this sole exception only the more observ-
able.
If the new movement is well supported and fully developed, the great
hindrance to future progress will be removed. That hindrance we find
was this—The persons engaged as teachers had no qualifications for their
work, and they were first required to learn the sign-language of the pupils
—to descend to the pupil’s level. The newer system. is, to instruct the
pupil in the language of the teacher, and so to raise him to the teacher’s
level. A generation of practice on this principle will work a change not
easy to realise. It will assimilate the deaf, as far as possible, to the
intellectual and social condition of those who hear, and will break down
those restraints which confine them amongst themselves, and make them
more and more ‘ deaf and dumb,’ thus confirming and strengthening that
introversion of character which is natural, and which wiser methods and
wider influences would unfold and develop, to their far greater happiness.
In order to promote the valuable objects we have described we re-
commend—
ON THE APPOINTMENT OF INSPECTORS OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 219
1. That Parliamentary Grants be made for the Education of the Deaf
on the ‘German’ system.
2. That the Grants be made to meet all the educational needs of any
given district or locality, and that a sum in proportion to the
number of deaf pupils therein be appropriated for their benefit.
3. Aid to Training Colleges, or Grants to approved Students desiring
to be trained.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. James HeEywoop, Mr.
SHaEN, Mr. SrepHEN Bourne, Mr. WILkrinson, the Rev. W.
De.any, and Dr. J. H. GuapsTone (Secretary), appointed for
the purpose of reporting whether it is important that H.M.
Inspectors of Elementary Schools should be appointed with
reference to their ability fer examining in the scientific specific
subjects of the Code in addition to other matters.
THe Committee nominated at Sheffield for the purpose of considering
‘whether it is important that H.M. Inspectors of Elementary Schools
should be appointed with reference to their ability for examining in the
scientific specific subjects of the Code in addition to other matters,’ have
received a considerable amount of evidence upon the subject, and beg to
report as follows :—
1. It has come to their knowledge that the teaching of the scientific
specific subjects is practically discouraged by the incapacity of many of
H.M. Inspectors to examine in them.
2. This incapacity is explained by the fact that the Inspectors are not
generally chosen so much for their fitness to judge of such educational
work, as on account of their high scholarship, or through political
patronage.
3. In the opinion of this Committee there might be an examining body
for H.M. Inspectors, composed of three of the most experienced of the
present senior Inspectors, associated with a similar number of the Science
Examiners of the Science and Art Department. The examination should
be thrown open to Elementary Teachers, and the candidates might be
tested in the practical work of examination in one of the Central Elemen-
tary Schools in London. ;
4, The Committee believe that the opening of the Inspectorship to
fully qualified Elementary Teachers would tend to raise the esprit de corps
of the profession, and improve the character of both Inspector and
Teacher.
5. The Committee are further of opinion that while a university
degree may be fitly regarded as a test of scholarship, it is not a test of
the particular qualifications for an examiner, and therefore is not suffi-
cient in itself to guarantee the holder thereof as worthy the position of
Inspector. There appears to be no reason why academical honours should
be made an indispensable condition of appointment.
6. The Committee recommend that a Memorial be presented to the
_ Lords of the Committee of Privy Council on Education embodying the
above conclusions.
220 REPORT—1880.
On the Anthracite Coal and Coal-field of South Wales.
By C. H. PERKtns.
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso
among the Reports. ]
Tue anthracite or ‘stone coal’ deposit of the British Islands is confined,
with slight exception, to a small portion of the South Wales coal-field.
But, limited as it is, it possesses features of an unusually interesting and
attractive nature, both in respect to its geological character and the pe-
culiar quality of the coal itself. In considering this subject it will be
desirable to bear in mind some of the leading features of the coal-field
alluded to, of which, as stated, the anthracite deposit forms a part.
The South Wales coal-field has its eastern boundary near the centre
of Monmouthshire, and extends from at or near Pontypool in that county,
in a westerly direction, until lost in the waves of the Atlantic Ocean, or,
more correctly speaking, the Irish Channel, in St. Bride’s Bay in Pem-
brokeshire. It thus traverses a distance of over 90 miles. To this consider-
able length its breadth forms a proportion by no means commensurate, as
it nowhere exceeds 21 miles. We are now standing within two or three
miles of the southern outcrop of the coal basin, and a crow’s flight north-
wards of 15 or 16 miles will bring us to the north outcrop in Carmar-
thenshire. The sides and bottom of this great geological valley are
composed of mountain limestone, within which are piled up the various
carboniferous strata to a maximum depth in the centre of over 3000
ards.
J This valley or basin is marked by two distinct troughs. The south,
the smaller one of the two, extends from the Sirhowy valley on the east
to the neighbourhood of Aberavon on the west; while the larger or north
trough reaches from Llanelly through Morriston, Neath, and Blackwood,
to Pontypool on the east. ‘The south trough passes out of the coal mea-
sures near Swansea, leaving to the west but one basin, a continuation, in
fact, of the north trough, with which, in respect to anthracite, we have
alone todo. From the centre of this basin, where the measures lie flat
or nearly so, the rise may be regarded for our present purpose as north
and south, though in reality nature has not followed minutely these car-
dinal points. ‘ Level course’ would thus run in the main east and west,
and, as a rule, the faults cut it in a transverse direction. These faults
are frequently of great magnitude, showing at times a displacement up
to 200 to 300 yards.
The quality of the South Wales coal ranges from the pure anthracite
or ‘stone coal’ to the semi-anthracite or Welsh steam coal, and onwards
to the highly bituminous or smith’s and gas coal. There is also a con-
siderable quantity of coal commonly known as ‘bastard anthracite,’ the
quality of which is extremely inferior ; for while debarred of the purity
and strength of anthracite, it does not possess the opening or swelling
faculty of the steam coal, and decrepitates when burning to an unusual
degree. Anthracite or ‘stone coal,’ with the exception of the Pembroke-
shire portion of the coal-field, is found exclusively on the north rise. I
use the term ‘ stone coal’ advisedly, for that of anthracite has, with more
or less correctness, been applied to coals which, while bearing an affinity
to it, are yet far removed from this, the diamond of the British coal-field,
ON THE ANTHRACITE COAL AND COAL-FIELD OF SOUTIT WALES. 221
so beautiful in appearance, so pure and powerful in combustion, and so
cleanly in its nature. The deposit may be said to commence on the east,
at the higher points of the Neath valley. At Kidwelly, on the west, it
is submerged under the waters of Carmarthen Bay, again to reappear at
Saundersfoot in Pembrokeshire, and finally to be lost in St. Bride’s Bay.
Its limitation to the north rise renders the width of the deposit extremely
narrow, the more so as stone coal jealously refuses to mingle with its less
carboniferous kindred, and a barrier of intermediate quality intervenes as
a rule between it and the bituminous seams of the south rise; but to the
north the mountain limestone and its associated strata alone check the
operations of the stone coal worker. The gradual transition in their
quality, which the same scenes present, renders a definition of the anthra-
cite boundaries extremely difficult. Speaking roughly, I estimate the
length of the deposit, exclusive of Pembrokeshire, at 30 miles, with an
average breadth of 6 miles. Upon this supposition we should have an
area of 180 square miles or 115,200 acres. In addition to this the por-
tion beneath the sea in Carmarthen Bay is 15 miles in length by 6 in
breadth; and the Pembrokeshire coal-field extends for 20 miles, with an
average width of 5 miles. I have not considered it necessary within
the limits of this paper to enter into any minute calculation regarding
the quantity of workable coal now existing in the leading portion of the
deposit. I allude to that lying eastwards of Carmarthen Bay; but I
believe we shall be within the mark in estimating an average thickness to
exist of 35 feet of workable coal, affording a yield of some 35,000 tons to
the acre. An allowance must, of course, be made for the workings that have
already occurred; but they can have made but an insignificant inroad
into the enormous mass of magnificent fuel which here lies for the benefit
of mankind and the exercise of science and art, in the provision of the
best means for its utilisation. The coal-field may be divided thus :—
1st. The Pembrokeshire district.
2nd. The Gwendraeth Valley district.
3rd. From thence eastwards to the Vale of Neath in Glamor-
ganshire.
I have already stated the area of the first, which, according to the
report made to the Royal Coal Commission, contains over two hundred
and fifteen millions of tons of workable coal, all anthracite. The ground
is here much disturbed, and the seams, as a rule, thin; but the quality
of the coal, more especially the ‘ Kilgetty ’ and ‘Timber’ veins, is pro-
bably the finest in the world. Mr. Thomas Foster Brown, in his interest-
ing paper upon the South Wales coal-field, gives a list of seven workable
seams, containing an aggregate thickness of 17 feet 9 inches, and lying
within a depth of 980 feet.
The Gwendraeth Valley, in Carmarthenshire, is rich in both coal and
iron ore. At its upper end the quality is highly anthracitic, modified to
some extent as we approach the sea at Barry Port or Pembrey. There
are some twenty-two seams of coal, varying from one to nine feet in
thickness, that crop out in this valley, with a collective thickness of over
60 fect. Iam quite unable, within the limits of this paper, to enter into
any detail of the mineral features of this and the adjoining district,
reaching, as before stated, to the Vale of Neath. I must confine myself
to simply pointing out the abundance of its resources. The seams of
coal are numerous, and range even up to 18 feet in thickness, all pro-
ducing anthracite, but, as usual, varying to some extent in quality. The
222 REPORT—1880.
‘Big Vein’ of the Aman Valley, known as the ‘ Stanllyd’ of the Gwen-
draeth and Mynydd Maur districts, has the highest reputation for purity
and strength. This seam must not be confounded with the ‘ Nine-foot’
vein, to which the appellation of ‘ Big Vein’ is sometimes applied, both
in the Gwendraeth Valley and at Mynydd Maur.
Another well-known seam is the ‘ Brass’ vein, known also as the
‘Peacock’ and the ‘Diamond’ vein, which attains its best condition in
the Swansea Valley, and is greatly esteemed for the various purposes to
which anthracite is applied. Many of the other seams are also deserving
of special notice ; but having given such a description of the coal-field as
may lead us, to some extent, to realise its value in respect to its resources
and productive power, it will be desirable to consider the difference,
chemical and otherwise, that distinguishes pure anthracite from semi-
anthracite and bituminous coals; and here we are necessarily met with
the same difficulty as in attempting to define the boundaries of the coal
basin, and from the same cause, that of the gradual and almost imper-
ceptible merging into each other of the coals referred to. Professor
Dawkins says: ‘ The whole difference between anthracite coal and ordi-
nary coal consists in this, that the bituminous portion of the anthracite
has been removed in some way; while in the case of ordinary coal, the
hydrogen and oxygen of the bituminous part still remains.’ But this
definition still leaves us to determine where anthracite ends and bitu-
minous begins; and, in considering this portion of my subject, I have
felt myself compelled to fall back upon the analysis I have before me of
a few of the coals worked in the South Wales basin, which are recog-
nised as examples of the various descriptions referred to.
PURE ANTHRACITE,
PEMBROKESHIRE.
‘ Lower Level Vein.’ ‘ Kilgetty Vein.’
Carbon ; ; : ; 94:18 é ; : ; 93°27
Hydrogen . , 5 : 2°99 : ‘ . 3 2°72
Oxygen ; ; : : 76 , 5 ; : 2:47
Sulphur. : : . “59 : “ 5 : 15
Nitrogen . : ° ° 50 : : : : 18
Ash . ; r : - 98 ; : - 3 1:21
100-00 10000
CARMARTHENSHIRE.— Aman Valley.
‘ Big Vein.’
Moisture . 4 5 P ° : 5 0-107
Carbon : . : . ; 2 92°558
Rigdrorcneesie. tb wiry hii psiohinio teh 2-109 aa
Oxygen and Nitrogen. : ; - ‘ 4:678
Sulphur. é P : : ? 120
Ash . - ° fs : : : - 428
100-000
Swansea Valley.
‘ Brass Vein.’
Carbon . : . . . . ; : 91:11
Hydrogen . c 3 : . C : 3°55
Oxygen and Nitrogen . 5 : : ; 3°24
Sulphur * é - . 0 6 : *b9
Ash : 3 3 . - : - : 151
100:00 °
ON THE ANTHRACITE COAL AND COAL-FIELD OF SOUTH WaLEs. 223
Passing from these several examples of pure anthracite, I have selected
a coal worked at Ynismedu, in the Swansea valley, and thought to be the
same vein as the ‘ Four-foot’ of Aberdare, as a type of the ‘ bastard’
anthracite of the district, the analysis of which is as under :—
Carbon . : : : A ; ; 89°18
Hydrogen. : : j ; : : 4-04
Oxygen and Nitrogen . , ; : 5 3°44
Sulphur ? : : : : . - 0-71
Ash .. : A : : . : ; 2°63
100-00
As an example of the celebrated South Wales steam coal, I shall not
be wrong in giving the analysis of ‘ Nixon’s Merthyr’ as follows :—
Carbon . , : : ‘ : . ; 90°27
Oxygen. : : : - E 4 : 2°53
Nitrogen : : : : 5 - ° 63
Hydrogen. : - : ‘ : ; 4-12
Sulphur : ; : : : - : 1:20
Ash : : : : ’ : : ; 1:25
100:00
That of the ‘No. 3 Rhondda’ vein I quote from ‘Fairley’s South
Wales Coal-field,’ as one of the best known and most valued bituminous
seams of the district, the analysis of which is as under :—
Carbon . : : ; h : - 3 72°73
Oxygen and Nitrogen . ‘ d : ; 22°60
Sulphur - : ; ; < , . 117
Ash : : ‘ ; : . . 3 3°50
100-00
From these details it will appear that in the chief constituent, carbon,
the purest anthracite exceeds the ‘bastard’ anthracite by 5 per cent., the
best Welsh steam coal by 3°91, and the bituminous coal by 21°45 per cent.
But, on the whole, and regarded simply in a practical light, I consider
these returns singularly unsatisfactory ; I may almost add, deceptive. I
allude particularly to the analysis of the ‘ bastard anthracite’ and that of
the Welsh steam coal, In the examples I have given there is but a
difference of 1:9 in carbon, ‘8 of hydrogen, and ‘28 in oxygen and nitrogen.
And yet practically, and for all marketable purposes, no greater diver-
gence can exist.
I must leave it to the chemist or others to explain this difficulty,
one which also to some extent exists in respect to the Welsh and
American anthracites. Judging from analysis, appearance, and general
characteristics, these fuels are connected by the closest ties; and yet,
while our Welsh coal, with all its splendid attributes, is neglected and,
excepting for a few purposes, shunned and despised, its great American
brother enters into wide and general use. Much of this is duc, no doubt,
to habit, custom, and necessity ; and I also believe that the rendering of
the coal for market in pieces of various and suitable size, as adopted in
America, is a very great convenience, and would, if followed in this
country, greatly increase the trade of the anthracite worker. We should,
however, look deeper into the matter for a solution of the problem. Dr.
Perey indeed says with respect to anthracite coal, ‘The property of
decrepitating may cause the production of fine particles to such an extent
224 REPORT— 1880.
as seriously to check the passage of air through a furnace in which
anthracite is used for fuel, even when the air is impelled bya blast engine.
It is a property belonging to Welsh anthracite, and to some varieties of it
to an extraordinary degree, but not, I am informed, to the anthracite of
the United States of America.’ However this may be, we know that
anthracite does not possess the opening or swelling qualities of the Welsh
steam coal, nor the binding or caking properties of the bituminons coal.
And thus we have occasion for the introduction of appliances for securing
perfect and more rapid combustion ; to which, in alluding to the history
of anthracite, in respect of the various purposes to which it is applied, or
sought to be applied, I shall venture to direct your attention.
This history is replete with the records of attempts made to extend
the use of this fuel. Imbued with the knowledge of its inherent strength,
its purity and admitted advantages, persons have come forward through
a series of years—some actuated by personal interest, combined with a
desire to promote the public good, others through the latter incentive
alone, and have spent money, time, thought, and labour upon this object,
but unfortunately with but little success.
To this day, the use of anthracite in this country is practically
confined to malting, hop-drying, and lime-burning, and consequently the
resources of this fine coal-field remain practically undeveloped.
As early as the year 1595 attention seems to have been drawn to the
valuable qualities of anthracite coal. Writing in that year a history of
Pembrokeshire, George Owen, Hsq., of Henllys, says, after speaking of
certain woods that had existed in times past, but were then destroyed :
‘ But, for the most part, those that dwell neere the cole, or that may have
it carried by water with ease, use most cole fires in their kitchings, and
some in their halles, because it is a ready fiere, and very good and sweete
to rost and boyle meate, and voyde of smoake where yet chymnies are.’
It is, he adds, ‘ called stone cole for the hardness thereof,’ ‘and being once
kindled giveth a greater heat than light, and delighteth to burn in darke
places.’ ‘Is not noysome for the smoake nor nothing soe lothsome for the
smell as the ring cole is, whose smoake annoyeth all things neare it, as
fyne linen, men’s handes that warm themselves by it; but this stone cole
yieldeth in a manucr noe smoake after it is kindled, and is soe pure that
fine camerick and laune is usually dried by it without any stayne or
blemish, and is a most proved good dryer of malt—therein passing wood,
ferne, or strawe. This cole for the rare properties thereof was carried out
of this country to the citie of London, to the late Lord Tresurer Burley,
by a gentleman of experience, to shewe how farr the same excelled that
of Neucastell wherewith the citie of London is servid, and I think if the
passage were not soe tedious there would be greate use made of it.’ Such
is the tribute to the excellent quality of stone coal afforded by this inte-
resting old geologist. Two hundred and fifty years later, Taylor, in his
‘Statistics of Coal,’ writes of Welsh anthracite, after alluding to the
slight use made of it: ‘ Yet, if we mistake not greatly, the day will arrive
when this great metropolis (London) will seek from the mountains of
Wales her supplies of a mineral fuel far preferable to that which from
custom she now considers so valuable, and which, from its imperfect
combustion, among other causes, now darkens the air with smoke, and
pervades a vast and densely inhabited area with its sooty and noxious
particles.’ This prophecy is still unfulfilled —but in the presence of fogs
hanging with increasing frequency like a funereal pall over the city—
ON THE ANTHRACITE COAL AND COAL-FIELD OF SOUTH WALES. 225
raising the rates of mortality to an alarming extent, depressing the spirits
and injuring the property of its inhabitants, it may well become a subject
for earnest consideration whether some great alteration is not needed in
our domestic heating arrangements, in cases where a population so vast
and unprecedented is brought together. Our English prejudices fill us
with the belief that comfort is alone to be found in an open erate and a
blazing fire, around which we crowd in order to obtain some portion of
the heat which finds its natural vent up the chimney; but is not this
really prejudice or the result of habit ? and would not the Canadian stoves,
so much extolled by Mr. Hussey Vivian in his notes on his American
tour, used with anthracite coal, afford a far more desirable and equable
heat, and at the same time relieve the atmosphere from the masses of
smoke now poured forth during the greater part of the year from every
chimney in London, and render it as pure and clear as that which per-
vades the great anthracite-consuming city of Philadelphia ?
Canadian or other stoves are moreover not essential for the use of
stone coal for domestic purposes. An ordinary grate, with brick sides
and back, close bars and a fair draught, will afford as clear and cheerful a
fire as can be desired.
From its maritime position, Pembrokeshire was enabled to take the
lead in the supplies of this fuel. An outlet for the workings in the
remaining and far larger portion of the coal-field (excepting such as mules
and ponies could afford) was only provided through the formation of
canals and railways.
Their construction has heen as follows:—The Swansea Canal, from
Swansea to Abercrave, made in 1796, now supplemented by the Swansea
Vale Railway, worked by the Midland Railway Company; the Neath
Canal, made in or about the year 1800, up the Neath Valley, from Swan-
sea and Britonferry, the use of which is now in a great degree superseded
by the Great Western Railway, with which is connected the Neath and
Brecon line passing through Crynant and Onllyn; the Gwendraeth
Valley Canal, now converted into a railway, formed in 1825 from the port
of Pembrey to Pontyberem; and the Llanelly Railway, now owned by
the Great Western Railway Company, from Llanelly to Cwmaman and
Llandilo, constructed in 1840. These several arteries, with a line about
to be made to Mynydd Maur, in Carmarthenshire, form a complete outlet
for the entire basin, and a ready means of communication with the ports
of Swansea, Neath, Llanelly, and Pembrey, and with all parts of the
kingdom, and their formation marks the epochs when anthracite was
enabled to enter the general markets.
The first attempt in this country, so far as I am aware, to use stone
coal for steam navigation, was on board a little boat called the Anthracite,
running on the Thames about the year 1835, but I have no records by
me of the course or results of that experiment. In-1847 some 600 tons
was supplied to the steam-ship Washington, belonging to the American
line running from Southampton to New Yerk. In this case a fan was
used, and, under the influence of the magnificent fires afforded by stone
coal so treated, she proceeded on her voyage with the best prospects of
success ; but within a few hours she was back at Southampton with her
furnace bars utterly destroyed by the great heat. Recognising the neces-
sity of employing artificial draught, and that under such circumstances
some method was needed for the protection of the bars, Messrs. Kymer
” eer the proprietors of an anthracite colliery, took out a patent in
80. Q
226 REPORT—1880.
1847 for a water grate to effect the object in view, but after a series of
experiments it was not found practically to do so.
In the years 1853-54 Messrs. McLarty and Co. employed anthracite
in their steamers the Livorna and Geneva, trading between Liverpool and
the Mediterranean ports, and apparently with great success. In this
case no artificial draught was used, and they reported thus: ‘ The an-
thracite has proved to be a twofold saving—in regard to economy of space,
and to a very large saving in the consumption. In the former, the average
saving of stowage is 20 per cent., and in the latter, the reduction in con-
sumption is from 40 to 50 per cent., according to the quality of the coal.
‘Its great cleanliness and entire freedom from smoke we look upon as
not the least of the benefits its use confers upon us.’
The general business of this firm was not, I believe, profitable, and
consequently this successful exposition of the use of anthracite ceased to
exist. Prior to this period Dr. Frankland had reported to Mr. Watney
the result of his experiments with the ‘Pump Quart’ vein coal of the
Gwendraeth Valley. He states ‘that the coal possessed an evaporating
power considerably greater than any other fuel yet examined, 1 lb. eva-
porating, under favourable circumstances, in this boiler, 12°43 lbs. of
water.’ He adds that the space occupied by a ton of this anthracite, as
used for fuel, is less than that taken up by any other coal, and he fur-
nishes a table showing the number of Ibs. of water evaporated by 1 cubic
foot of various coals as under :—
‘ Dufiryn,’ Welsh Steam Coal . A C ; : 565°02
Graigola sy + 5 ‘ “ . 5 . c 581-20
Nixon’s Merthyr 43 5 ‘ - 4 3 F : 514-93
James and Aubrey’s (Anthracite) . - 3 : 5 - 565:02
Sliverdagh » . . . ; . . 618°58
Watney’s 9 " 5 ; ; ; 742°36
Anthracite was also introduced and for some time used on board her
Majesty’s yachts Fairy and the Victoria and Albert.
The ‘ Times’ of July 7, 1853, under the head of naval intelligence, and
referring to the sailing of the Victoria and Albert, from Holyhead to
Dublin, contains the following paragraph: ‘Her Majesty and the Court,
as well as the officers of the yacht, will have a more comfortable voyage
this trip than hitherto, owing to the use of the anthracite fuel with
Colonel Coffin’s steam jets fitted to her furnaces, by which no smoke or
ashes issue from the funnel, thus abolishing the nuisances of smuts in the
eyes and on the clothes of all on deck, and covering the decks with the
dust from the flues, which the ordinary coal throws upon them.’ The
Great Britain steamship, the Royal Charter, the Faith and other vessels
were also at this time using anthracite with much success; but these
vessels, I am informed by Mr. Vickerman, of Hean Castle, Pembrokeshire
(alluding to the two first), ‘ passed into other hands, who were interested
in steam coal colleries.’ He adds, ‘The royal yacht also used anthracite
from these collieries in her Majesty’s yachting days, and she was so
charmed with the cleanliness that she forbade the use of ‘any other fuel
when herself aboard.’ In no single case, however, has the use of this
fuel continued, and the opinion long since entertained and expressed,
that without artificial draught it will not be a permanent success, has
been fully confirmed. Economy in consumption, saving in space, and
other advantages are no doubt readily obtained, but not so rapidity in
evaporation; and, further, it has been demonstrated that the fierce fire
ON THE ANTHRACITE COAL AND COAL-FIELD OF SOUTH WALES. 227
and extraordinary heat evolved by stone coal under the influence of arti-
ficial draught, requires some meaus for the protection of the bars. I also
venture to think that, as described by Dr. Percy in the extract from his
work which I have already given, the property of decrepitation may, as
he says, so seriously check the passage of air through a furnace that the
desirability of conveying the draught by means of the bars themselves, to
all parts of the fire, is very apparent.
With the view of meeting the several difficulties I have endeavoured
to describe, Mr. R. W. Perkins (than whom no better authority upon
matters connected with anthracite exists), in connection with Mr. F. H.
Perkins and Mr. Joseph Williams, took out a patent in November 1876,
entitled ‘Improvements in and relating to furnaces for burning anthra-
cite and other fuel,’ the main features of which consisted in the employ-
ment of hollow perforated bars, through which the blast is forced by a fan,
steam-jet, or other artificial means. In this way combustion is enormously
accelerated, and at the same time the bars are kept perfectly cool by the
eurrent of cold air passing through them. I have myself seen a piece of
paper inserted within a bar when the fire was at its hottest, and remain-
ing unsinged for a very considerable time. With this appliance Mr.
Perkins instituted a series of trials at the foundry of Mr. T. W. Williams,
of Swansea, and he has favoured me with the following results :—
Duration of experiment, five hours, with ordinary furnace and chimney
draught, which was good; coal used, ‘ Birch Grove Graigola’—
Evaporated 7-06 lbs. water to 1 1b. of coal, and 672 lbs. water per
hoar.
Coal used, ‘ Powell’s Duffryn’—
Evaporated 7:53 lbs. water to 1Ib. of coal, and 745 lbs. water per
hour.
The bars with this coal were much burnt.
With Perkins’s bars, but no blast; coal used, anthracite—
Evaporated 7:94 1bs. water to 1 Ib. of coal, and 594 lbs. water per
hour.
Bars slightly heated, but not damaged.
With a fan and Perkins’s furnace; coal used, anthracite, Hendre-
forgan ‘ Big Vein ’—
Evaporated 7:98 lbs. water to 1 1b. of coal, and 960 lbs. water per
hour.
Deducting steam used for fan, the result was 7:92 and 952, the
bars remaining perfectly uninjured.
The above experiments were authenticated by Mr. J. F. Flannery,
C,.E., who was present on behalf of Mr. E. J. Reed, M.P.
A further series of experiments was made with Kérting’s steam-jet
blower and Perkins’s furnace, with the following results :—
Blower used No.1; diameter of steam nozzle 4th of an inch, fall
open; coal, Hendreforgan anthracite; duration of experiment 2 hours
15 minutes—
ar ‘ai pbs 8:14 lbs, water to 1 1b. of coal, and 912'22 Ibs. water per
nour,
» Same blower and coal; duration of experiment 3 hours 50 minutes—
a 8:62 Ibs. water to 1 Ib. of coal, and 819°13 lbs. water per
our,
Q2
228 REPORT—1880.
During a portion of this trial the intervals between coaling were too
prolonged, which diminished the rapidity of evaporation.
With No. 2 blower; diameter of steam nozzle 3th of an inch; } to
4 open; duration of trial, 3 hours 16 minutes—
Evaporated 8:04 lbs. water to 1 1b. of coal, and 925°25 lbs. water per
honr.
With same blower, #ths open; duration of experiment, 4 hours—
Evaporated 6°56 lbs. water to 1 lb. of coal, and 1203-78 lbs. water per
hour.
With blower No. 2, full open; coal, anthracite ‘big vein’ (not the
‘9-foot,’ called ‘big vein’ of the Gwendraeth Valley; duration of trial
2 hours—
Evaporated 6°59 Ibs. water to 1 Ib. of coal, and 1200 lbs. water per
hour.
In the foregoing trials the pressure of steam was maintained at 40
to 45 Ibs.
I may here mention that Perkins’s furnace, with Korting’s No. 1
blower, has been in use for the past two years under the boilers at the
stationary engine belonging to the Metropolitan District Railway, and
situated on the Thames Embankment at the Temple Station, close to the
statue of the late Mr. Brunel, where it can be seen; and it has removed
much inconvenience that they there experienced from great deficiency of
draught, which I have no doubt Mr. Speck, the manager of the railway,
will confirm. In February 1878 a patent was taken out by Mr. T. W.
Williams, whose name I have already mentioned, the object of which is
to apply a blower of a cheaper construction than Kérting’s, and to avoid
the noise created by the latter. This he effects by the application of a
steam-jet inserted into every alternate bar through a nozzle of about +;th
of an inch diameter. The furnaces thus constructed have given much
satisfaction, both in the use of anthracite as well as other coal, effecting
much economy in the cost of fuel, and they are in use in a large number of
the most important works in this neighbourhood and elsewhere. These
patents have been followed by one taken out by Mr. J. F. Flannery, in
September 1878, for effecting still further improvements, having the
same objects in view.
First. The conduction of the blast so that it may enter the bars where
necessary from their length, or for its better application, or other-
wise, at both ends.
Second. When a steam-jet blower is used, in lieu of inserting a jet
into each bar, as in Williams’ patent, he forms a blower in connec-
tion with each pair of bars. This lessens by half the number of
nozzles, and is intended to make the blast more effectual, and at the
same time to decrease the consumption of steam.
Third. By a hole in the bar at the end furthest from the entry of the
blast, he expels any ash or refuse that might enter through the
perforations, by means of the blast itself.
But for marine steam boilers there are objections to the use of steam
blowers, the chief being the quantity of steam they require, and the waste
of fresh water in the boilers, and consequently a fan or other blast is
desirable. In reference to the application of anthracite to marine
engines, a series of experiments was made last year on board the steam-
ON THE ANTHRACITE COAL AND COAL-FIELD OF SOUTH WALES. 229
ship Elephant, belonging to Messrs. Penn & Son. Into the full details
time will not permit me to enter—they are given in a paper read by Mr.
Flannery before the Society of Naval Architects, and fully reported in
‘Engineering,’ on April 16, 1880. I may say, however, that they fully
confirm the trials made at Swansea. Mr. Flannery concluded his paper
in the following words: ‘It would be superfluous to say that this coal,
anthracite, should have very general adoption in Her Majesty’s Navy, and
on board yachts, on account of its cleanliness, economy, non-explosive
character, absolute smokelessness and strength under transportation,
along with the absence of deterioration in the tropics.’
Wor stationary engines, where there is ample grate-surface, and great
rapidity of evaporation is not needed, stone coal requires but a good natural
draught and proper stoking.
I need hardly say that it is used for the engines at all the anthracite
collieries, and for thirty years by Messrs. Hall & Son, at their powder
mills at Faversham. These gentlemen have been good enough to reply
to inquiries I made of them in view of this paper, as follows :—
‘We took to anthracite primarily on account of the absence of smoke
and sparks, and it always satisfies us in this respect.
‘No alteration in our furnaces was needed. Forty pounds of steam is
our average, although some of our boilers work up to fifty pounds.
‘We use no artificial draught. The distance between the fire-bars is,
in the larger furnaces one inch, and in the smaller ths; and we do not
notice that they burn out faster. If the nominal price of North Country
and Welsh coal is the same, we should say the latter is 25 % the cheaper
of the two.’
Messrs. Pigou & Wilks have also used the same fuel at their Dartford
powder mills, for the past five or six years, and I am favoured with
information of a similar nature to the foregoing, in respect of their expe-
rience of it.
I had intended alluding to the use of anthracite in the manufacture of
iron ; but I fear my paper has already exceeded the limits to which I am
entitled, and the subject is too large and interesting to be dismissed in a
few brief sentences. I can but hope that I have said enough generally
with respect to this fuel, to show the great desirability of increased
attention being paid to it. Quoting the words of Mr. Hussey Vivian—
‘We possess the finest anthracite in the world, and it lies almost
untouched.’
Its advantages as a steam-raising fuel are undeniable, and not less so
are those it presents for domestic and general purposes, where, as in
London and other great cities, the absence of smoke would so greatly
minister to the health and happiness of the inhabitants. I believe there
is here a field worthy of the attention of scientific men, whose duty and
privilege it is to render the products of the earth available for the benefit
of mankind.
230 REPORT—1880.
Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Crustacea.
By C. Spence Bate, F.R.S., &e.
Part V.—ON FECUNDATION, RESPIRATION, AND THE GREEN GLAND,
Copuation of the crayfish takes place, according to the observations of
M. Chantran,' during a period which includes the months of November,
December, and January. The male seizes the female with his large
nippers, turns her over, and whilst he holds her lying on her back, places
himself in such a manner as to pour out the fecundating material upon
the two outer lamellze of the tail. After this first operation, which lasts
some minutes, he conveys her rapidly beneath his pleon, in order to effect
a second deposition of semen upon the plastron round the external open-
ing of the oviducts, by means of the curious mechanism so accurately
described by M. Coste, upon the plates of the caudal fan (Ripisura).?
According to the degree of the maturity of the ova at the time of the
union of the sexes, oviposition takes place at a period varying from ten
to forty-five days after copulation. At the moment when this function
is about to be performed, the female raises herself upon her feet, and her
pleopoda secrete for several hours a very viscous greyish mucus; and
then she lies upon her back and brings up her tail upon her plastron in
such a manner as to form with her pleon a chamber, as has also been ob-
served by Lereboullet, in which the ova are collected, enclosing the aper-
ture of the oviducts, the wall of which sécretes a viscous fluid intended to
fasten the eggs to the pleopoda during incubation. When things are in
this state, the laying of the eggs takes place. It is effected at once,
usually during the night, rarely during the day. ‘In different females
this expulsion lasts from one to two hours. The ova, which are always
turned so as to present their whitish spot or cicatricula above, as if to
receive more easily the influence of fecundation, are thus immersed in the
greyish mucus, which in a manner binds the pleopoda and the margins
and extremity of the telson to the pereion, and which assists in bounding
the pouch or chamber so formed, in which a certain quantity of water is
enclosed with the ova and mucus. Immediately after the oviposition we
may detect in this mucus and water the presence of spermatozoids, pre-
cisely similar to those which are contained in the spermatophores attached
to the plastron, and derived from them. With them are mixed pale yellowish
drops and a certain number of rounded granulated globules, isolated or
united in little masses, which do not exist in the cavity of the spermato-
phores, when spermatozoids are to be found. These spermatozoids are
thus in direct contact with the ova, and in the midst of the vehicle which
facilitates their penetration. Fecundation, then, is accomplished in this
chamber—that is to say, outside of the genital organs of the female.’
The observations of M. Chantran have been corroborated by M. C.
Robin, who has ‘ seen that the spermatozoids, which are found in contact
with the ova in the chamber I have just described, are similar to those
seen in the genital organs of the males, and to those in the spermatophores
* Comptes Rendus, July 4, 1870, tome lxxi. pp. 42-45. Ann. Nat. Hist. 4th ser.
vol. 6, p. 265.
* ‘Pris, fan ; odpd, tail (fantail). Telson and posterior pair of Pleopoda,
ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 231
attached to the pereion. They are in the form of flattened cells, with five
to seven rigid immovable cilia starting from their contour, and with a
barrel-shaped projection about their middle. During the first two days
following the oviposition, these spermatozoids, which are very abundant
around the ova and in the mucus, become spherical and pale and remain
motionless ; in the following days they wither, and also become smaller,
darker, and irregular. Lastly, when, after the fixation of the ova, the
excess of the mucus has completely disappeared, in consequence of the
pressure exerted by the incessant contractions of the pleon (which takes
place in a variable period, of from eight to ten days after the oviposition),
those spermatophores which still remain attached to the plastron, consist
of small, white coriaceous filaments, either isolated or mutually adherent ;
they no longer show anything but a central cavity, in which the micro-
scope reveals only a few more or less withered spermatozoids. The wall
of these spermatophores retains its thickness, and remains, as before,
composed of a concrete, striated, tenacious mucus.’ !
Incubation lasts about six months, and the hatching takes place in
May, June, or July.
The first moult takes place ten days or thereabouts after exclusion ;
the second, third, fourth, and fifth moults take place at intervals of from
twenty to twenty-five days, so that the young animal changes its integu- —
ment five times within a hundred days, corresponding to the months of
July, August, and September. The sixth, seventh, and eighth moults
take place in the following May, June, or July. So that there are eight
moults during the first year of the animal’s existence: five in the second
year, and two in the third, of which the first takes place in June, the
second in September. From this time the young crayfish becomes an
adult.
After this the moulting takes place once a year in females and twice in
males, which M. Chantran considers explains why the latter are larger
than the former, the growth being in proportion to the number of
moults. In the adult males the first moult takes place in June or July,
and the second in August or September. Thesingle moult of the females
occurs in August or September.
To effect its moult, the animal places itself on its side ; with its head
and back it raises its carapace, which swings like a lid upon its hinge ;
then when it has thus completely disengaged the anterior part of the body,
it separates entirely from its old carapace by a sudden movement of the
posterior part. This operation, which lasts about ten minutes, is favoured
by the previous secretion of a gelatinous material between the two cara-
paces, which facilitates their disengagement.
Twelve hours after the moults the legs of the crayfish are sufficiently
firm to pinch strongly. Twenty-four hours later they are completely
hardened, the dorsal surface remaining longer flexible; but at the end of
forty-eight hours it has attained nearly a normal degree of consistency.
The young animal remains attached to the pleopoda of the parent for
ten days after exclusion, when the first moult takes place. This is effected
actually under the tail of the mother, and M. C. Robin has ascertained
by means of the microscope, as shown by M. Chantran to the Academy,
that the young remain suspended beneath the pleon of the mother by
means of a hyaline chitinous filament, which extends from a point of the
1 Comptes Rendus, January 15, 1872, tome Ixxiv. pp. 201-2. Ann. Nat. Hist. 4th
ser. vol. 9, pp. 173-4.
Zan REPORT-—1880.
inner surface of the ovisac to the internal branch of each of the four lobes
of the median membranous lamina of the caudal appendage. This fila-
ment exists when the embryos have only attained about three-fourths of
their development.
If the young, continues M. Chantran, detach themselves before this
period, they cannot live separately ; but after the first moult they some-
times quit their mother and return to her again, np to the twentieth day,
at which period they can live independently. He says (Comptes Rendus
for July 17, 1871) he has observed that the young not only feed,
while attached to the mother, upon the pellicle of the eggs, and the
exuvia of the early moults, but the stronger ones eat those individuals
whose development is rendered difficult by their agglomeration, and
which cannot moult. Those which in moulting break their limbs are also
devoured by their companions. Thus the crayfish which are ten days
old eat each other, and this is moreover the case with those of any age
when they moult and are too numerous for the small space they occupy
beneath the pleon of the mother.
M. Chantran also has observed that temperature exerts a marked in-
fluence upon the duration of incubation and the number of the periodical
moults between the exclusion of the young from the ovum and the adult
period. The male becomes ready for copulation on entering its third
year, and the female for fecundation at the commencement of the fourth
year. In relation to the reproduction of the lost appendages M. Chan-
tran’s observations require confirmation, which he promised to make
known. He says that the antenne are reproduced during the period of a
single moult. The other limbs are reproduced more slowly, three moults
taking place during their regeneration. In the first year of their existence
seventy days suffice for the reproduction of these limbs, while in the adult
crayfish, the female requires three or four years to reproduce its limbs,
and the male from a year and a half to two years, for the adult male
moults twice a year and the female only once.
M. Gerbe, who has given much attention to the development of crus-
tacea, says, none of those that he has observed has its organisation complete
on its quitting the ovum as a brephalus (or larva), or possesses features iden-
tical with the parent, so that it might be referred to the species to which
it belongs. All are furnished with transitory appendages adapted for
natation, which give them a locomotion different from that of the adult
stage. These appendages, he states, remain until the fifth and sixth
moult, and become atrophied in position without falling off. It is not
until the fifth or sixth moult that the general form of the adult external
organs are complete. The brephali of various species, however they may
resemble each other in external form, show minor features of distinction,
such as a variation in the number and form of spots, and especially in
the number and conformation of the plumose hairs and spines which
fringe the extremity of the last segment of the pleon. These, he says,
present definite characters which enable us to say to what species any
particular brephalus belongs.
The stomach of the crustacea in the zoza stage presents, he says, no
solid pieces adapted for the grinding of food. It is furnished on its inner
surface with stiff spinules arranged in rows, and with vibratile cilia like
those found in the stomachs of a great number of the lower animals.
These cilia communicate an incessant movement of rotation to the organic
molecules upon which the animals feed.
ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 233
In the brephalus of Palemon, which we have carefully studied in a
fresh and living state, we have not been able to detect any vibratile cilia
within the stomach, but have observed that the outer wall has a strong
and persistent power of contracting upon itself, and so forcing the con-
tents of the stomach in a constant motion.
M. Gerbe (loc. cit.) also states that the liver consists of two simple ceca,
one on each side, ‘ manifestly a diverticulum of the intestinal tube, with
which it has wide communications ; by ramifying it forms a hollow tree,
at the base of which oscillate the vitelline globules, which the umbilical
vesicle pours into the pyloric portion of the intestine.’
He also states that in whatever manner the respiratory functions may
be performed in the adult crustacean, all have a tecumentary respira-
tion in the brephalus condition, whether it be in the zowa or megalop stage.
He has observed the brephalus of Homarus to possess a rudimentary
branchial apparatus quite unfit to perform any functions, while the bre-
phali of other genera are absolutely destitute of such organs, and some do
not obtain them until after several moults.
This want of branchial respiration necessitates a distinction in the
character of the circulation in the younger, as compared with that of
the adult forms of crustacea, that is as between those that have none and
those that haye matured branchial organs.
In the brephali of Maia, Porcellana, Crangon, Palemon, Palinurus,
Homarus, Cancer, &c., the blood which the arteries have distributed to the
different parts of the body returns entirely, directly to the heart, and this
condition continues for a considerable time. ‘It is,’ he says, ‘ only after
the third moult, in the most perfect brephalus of the species inhabiting our
seas, that of the lobster, that a few globules are diverted from the original
general circulation to penetrate into the nascent branchie. All the
arteries open directly into the venous passages by an aperture more or
less dilated into a trumpet-like form.
‘In some larve the abdominal artery may present a sort of sphincter in
its course, at some distance from the central organ of circulation; this,
by contracting, temporarily suspends the flow of blood to the hinder
parts.’ This remarkable peculiarity exists not only in the larva of tke
lobster, but also in those of the Porcellane, and may be found most pro-
bably in the many other genera, as M. Gerbe has observed the circulation
in the last somite of the pleon of the brephalus of Cancer, Carcinus, and
Palemon to have interruptions.
The same author states that, ‘ Although the transitory spines which
arm the thorax’ (carapace) ‘of some species do not receive any arterial
branch, a complete circulation is established in their cavity. Some of the
globules which the venous lacune convey to the heart, make a digression
into these transitory appendages, traverse nearly their whole length, and.
return by a parallel course into the lacuna from which they started.
M. Felix Plateau, of Ghent, has, through the agency of a graphic
method, succeeded in obtaining a delineation of the heart’s action in the
crayfish. A curve is obtained, of which the ascending portions correspond
to diastole, and the descending to systole, contrary to what obtains in the
heart of vertebrate animals.
It is, he says, strikingly like the trace of the contraction of a
muscle—a rapid, almost sudden ascent, with a flat summit, then a
gradual descent, at first quicker, then slower. This, however, does not
represent the whole truth; it is possible also to demonstrate a wave
234. * REPORT—1880.
affecting the muscular wall of the heart, and travelling from behind
forwards, thus demonstrating that this condensed heart is a true dorsal
vessel. On the stimulus of the entrance of renovated blood, it is only the
hinder half or two-thirds of the heart that contracts immediately. This
forces the blood into the anterior half, which contracts while the posterior
division is dilating. When the temperature is increased, as a general rule
the diastolic phase is abbreviated, the number of pulsations rising at the
same time. M. Plateau has also succeeded in making experiments on the
action of the cardiac nerve of Lemoine, an unpaired branch of the stomato-
gastric ganglion. It is shown that excitation of this nerve quickens the
pulsations of the heart and augments their energy, while the division of
it lessens the heart’s action. Whereas excitation of the pereionic ganglia
always retards the heart’s movements, being the converse of a similar treat-
ment of the cardiac nerve.
M. Plateau likewise says that acetic acid applied to the heart-substance
arouses its contractions even after they have ceased, and maintains them
for several hours.!
M. Jobert, in the ‘ Annales des Sciences Naturelles,’ 6th ser. vol. 4, has
drawn attention to the character of respiration in the terrestrial crustacea of
the decapod order. He says that in an examination of the anatomy of these
animals we find that they are provided with branchia the same as other
crabs both marine and fluviatile, and their habit of life in relation to
these organs, which are essentially constructed for aquatic respiration,
appears to be paradoxical, and has not escaped the attention of naturalists.
In 1825 Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire suggested that the ridges which line the
respiratory cavity of Birgus latro assisted the respiration—an hypothesis
that in 1828 was combated by MM. Milne-Edwards and Andouin, who
studied the respiratory cavity of the Gecarcinide, and attributed to a fold
in the membrane which lined the internal cavity, the power of storing up
a supply of water, with which it regularly laved the branchial apparatus,
this water not serving respiration directly, but by its slow evaporation
saturating with moisture the air which is brought into contact with the
branchia, and so precluding the dessication of these organs.
M. Jobert has endeavoured to verify the correctness of these two
opinions, and for this purpose has studied the habit of living specimens
of Uca, Gelassimus, Cardisoma, Grapsus, Telphusa, and T'ylocarcinus.
He takes as typical, Uca una, in which the respiratory apparatus is the
most complete, and points out the various modifications which he has
noticed among the other crustacea.
The branchial chamber is lined with a soft blackish grey membrane
in continuity with the vertical septum (cloison). Ina histological study of
this membrane we find the elements of the hypodermic membrane of crus-
tacea, for instance, large pigmentary cellules, special hypodermic cellules,
and some peculiar fibres, either solitary or united in bundles in the form of
X, which exist all over the membrane. This membrane is lined or covered
by another very thin membrane capable of being separated from it by the
aid of maceration in a very weak solution of acetic acid, and it appears
to be a thin surface of chitin.
M. Jobert opened more than 200 specimens after having been confined
for two, four, and six days in a perfectly dry place, and never found a drop
of water, or ever found the surface of the branchia moist; the cavity was
1 Nature, 1879, xix. 470.
ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 235
always full of air, which the animal had not the power to expel, and even
after submersion of the animal in water for three days some Uca had still
a considerable quantity of air in the upper part of the branchial vaults.
By the researches of Milne-Edwards and Andouin, we know that the
-arterial blood traverses vessels which become smaller and smaller, but is
not taken up by the capillary veins, that it passes into some lacune in com-
munication with the general cavity, and a-portion of the branchiew, and
that after it has been revivified in these organs it is taken up by vessels
which carry it into the pericardiac chamber, which is no other than an
auricula: from thence into the heart. A coloured injection demonstrates °
if the canals of the respiratory membranes are arterial or venous. It also
shows a network of extreme beauty that ramifies upon the vault, both
on the internal and external parietes of the respiratory chamber. This
network is regularly developed, and commences in a large sinus situated
in the anterior part behind the orbital cavity. It divides into three
vessels which ramify on the vertical septum (cloison), and another vessel of
very large diameter which traverses the angle of connexion between the
carapace and the lateral walls of the branchial cavity. Of the other
vessels of less importance, one of which should be noticed, it curves and
ramifies in the folded membrane described by Milne-Edwards and Andouin.
All these vessels send forth a number of branches which resolve into
capillaries that terminate in small irregular polygonal spaces, which are
the true lacune ; but from these lacune other equally delicate vessels take
their departure. They may be observed to enlarge and open into still
larger vessels, which still increase in size and open in their turn into a
large trunk, which opens into an enormous sinus situated posteriorly to
the pereion (or body of the animal) near where the pleon commences,
about a centimétre within and above the basal portion of the last pair of
feet. This large sinus traverses the vertical septum (cloison) and opens
into the auricle.
A coloured injection forced into the sinus gives evidence of vascular
network nearly symmetrical with that observed so regularly displayed on
the walls of the respiratory chamber. Of these vessels one ramifies on the
vertical septum, the other, which is of considerable diameter, winds upon
the roof of the chamber. Another equally worthy of notice is situated in
the angle of the internal membrane folded horizontally on the walls of the
chamber.
There consequently exists, according to M. Jobert, in the parietes of
the respiratory chamber a double system of vessels connected together by
an intermediate capillary network inducing communication direct between
the heart and the general cavity.
The air which is contained in the respiratory chamber never stagnates,
but is renewed very regularly by the aid of a true movementof inspiration
and expiration. The expiratory orifice of the chamber offers nothing very
particular ; whereas the inspiratory, in addition to that which is situated at
the anterior part of the first pair of feet, is supplemented by others smaller
but still important, situated between the third and fourth and posterior
pairs, having the orifices externally hid by long hairs. It is to the
vertical septum that the power belongs that induces the alternating
movements of inspiration and expiration, and that under the influence of
the central organ of circulation. In Uca, where the heart is of consider-
able size, we may observe at the period of the afflux of the blood into
the cavity a corresponding movement outside the vertical septum which
236 REPORT— 1880.
separates the general cavity of the respiratory chamber, produced by a
special mechanism.
M. Jobert found this respiratory chamber largest in Ueca Una, the
reflexion of the membrane most developed, the vascular vessels the most
numerous. Gelassimus, he says, may be considered as possessing an
organism nearly as perfect. Among the Grapsi, which live half of their
time under water, the respiratory cavity is diminished by the flattening
of the carapace, and the vascular network is less abundant.
Under all circumstances M. Jobert found a respiratory organisation
similar to that which exists in all crustacea, but capable of undergoing a
distinct usage. The organisation consists of a simple cavity, the membrane
which lines it is furnished with vessels; one carrying deoxygenised
blood, the other returning it to the heart without passing it through the
branchiz, after it has been brought into contact with air that has been
incessantly renewed. Moreover, this membrane is covered by a pellicle
which precludes desiccation and fulfils the part of a veritable epidermis.
In consequence of the observations which M. Jobert has made, he
proposes to call the crustacea so organised by the name of ‘ Branchio-
pulmonés,’ in consequence of the capability by which their structure per-
mits them to adapt themselves to atmospheric respiration, while they
possess an anatomical arrangement that is essentially aquatic.
Professor Huxley has recently given much attention to the arrange-
ment of the branchia in crustacea, and has done good service in suggest~
ing a tabulation of them under a distinct nomenclature.
The position of the branchial plumes are constant throughout the
several orders, and are absent or present according to specific or generic
variation. He thus has proposed that each plume should be distinguished
by a name that will at once recognise its position, and has proposed the
following classification. The branchia that is rooted to the coxa of the
several pairs of pereiopoda he calls podobranchia. The two that are
situated on the articulating tissue that unites the appendage with the
body of the animal, he calls anterior or posterior arthropoda, and the one
that originates from the side or wall of the several somites of the pereion
he calls plewrobranchia. To the long flabelliform lash that is so liable
to vary both in form, size and number, he uses the two names proposed by
Milne-Edwards tor the same homotypical part, when attached to the organs
of the mouth, or when appended to the feet, namely, the Epignathe and
epipodite, an inconvenience that he himself has expressed when writing of
the same in his work on the Crayfish. This, Milne-Edwards in his
earlier works recognised by the title of the flabelliform appendage. It
appears to me therefore that a term recognising the part in its true
relation wherever existing will be found both more convenient as well as
more correct in anatomical description. I have therefore elsewhere
adopted for it the term of Mastibranchia! (branchial lash).
The same author has also proposed the classification of the macrura
according to their branchial arrangement. But the study of a larger
number of species is yet necessary, before we can see the advantage of
placing in separate families, animals that in form and structure generally
resemble each other, while others that are outwardly dissimilar are placed
in the same genus.
During the voyage of the Challenger the lamented naturalist, Dr.
1 Madoris, lash; Bpdyxuoy, gill.
ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 237
Willemés-Suhm, investigated the metamorphosis of some crustacea which
were repeatedly captured in the tropical and sub-tropical parts of the
Pacific.!
Among these he obtained many specimens of Amphion, and of its
brephalus (larva) not only of the true zoza with a simple telson, but also
of all the intermediate stages between it and the adult form, with two,
three, four,.five and six pairs of walking legs. Of the full-grown Amphion
he had examined three specimens, two of which were undoubtedly males,
as the testes and branchie were plainly visible, the former opening into
the last pair of legs.
He was thus able to endorse Anton Dorhn’s researches, wherein he
dissected a full-grown specimen which possessed branchiz and an ovary.
There is, he says, now no doubt that Amphion is not a larva, but that
there are several species, and perhaps genera, of this remarkable form.
For during the expedition they had captured two very interesting mature
animals which are closely allied to Amphion. One of these has enormously
long eye-stalks, being as long as the entire body of the animal. Another
has, besides the long eye-stalks, the carpus of its several pereiopoda,
very broad and paddle-shaped, while the dactylos is very minute. Both
these forms, like Amphion, have a central ocular spot and eight pairs of legs,
each supporting an ecphysis. But, as a whole, the animal is less flat and
more resembles Sergestes than Amphion ; and he states also that he has been
able to determine that the form described by A. Dorhn under the name of
Elaphocaris is the brephalus of a Sergestes. There is, however, one species,
he says, which in the brephalus stage is not an EHlaphocaris, but a larger
and less spiny form, but similar in all other respects.
The manner in which Hlaphocaris matures into the perfect Sergestes, he
has been enabled to determine from the numerous specimens that he
collected in the Western Pacific. After the first moulting the brephalus
gets six more branched levs and loses many spines. It enters the Amphion
stage, then monlts, throws off the branched legs, gets branchia, and becomes
a spiny Sergestes. It is only after this last moulting that the central
ocular spot disappears.
He also observes that very similar to the development of Sergestes is
that of Leucifer. The earliest form that he had obtained had no eyes,
then sessile ones appear, and the animal then presents the form which Dana
has called Hricthina demissa. After the second moulting the eyes are pro-
jected on stalks, and very long hairs are apparent on all the animal’s
appendages, and the animal appears a long and very delicate zowa. It
now enters the Amphion stage, but never gets more than four pairs of
pereiopoda, and even loses a pair of these when it moults, and puts on the
adult form of Leucifer, in which two pairs of pereiopoda are wanting.
It appears to me that instead of confirming the opinion of Anton
Dorhn that Amphion is an animal in the adult stage, the observation of
the accomplished naturalist of the Challenger rather induces one to believe
that it is only a stage in the development of some of the Schizopod crus-
tacea. The brephalus of Amphion, Sergestes, or Leucifer he has not been
able to determine, inasmuch as he had never been able to obtain them. It
is singular that Amphion was never taken excepting during the night.
M. Gerbe ? says that the central nervous system of the larve of crus-
’ Ann. Nat. Hist., 4th series, vol. 17, pp. 162-3.
2 Comptes Rendus, May 7, 1866, pp. 10-24.
238 REPORT—1880.
tacea presents differences in its arrangement and form from that of the
perfect individual, and the development of each of the medullary nuclei
which constitute the ganglionic masses is in relation to the development
of the organs to which these nuclei correspond.
Herr C. H. Wassiliew! has given an account of his investigations of
the curious ‘ green gland’ of the crayfish. He states that it consists of a
single unbroken coiled tube, closed at one end and opening at the other
into the sac of the gland or urinary bladder, and consists of three distinct
portions. The first of these has the form cf a somewhat triangular yel-
lowish-brown lobule, lying at the upper surface of the gland and forming
the blind terminal portion of the whole tube; the second forms a green
cake-shaped mass, constituting the lateral and inferior parts of the gland ;
while the third is a long, white, coiled tube, connected at the end with
the green portion and by the other opening into the bladder.
The entire tubular gland is lined by a single layer of epithelial cells,
outside which is a fine structureless tunica propria, containing strongly
refracting nuclei. There is no cuticular lining to the tube, which thus
differs very markedly from the malpighian vessels of insects.
In the yellow portion the cells are sharply defined and convex on
their inner surface. In the green part of the tube the cells are large, and
their protoplasm is in connection with a peculiar network of pseudopo-
deal processes which extend into projections of the wall into the lumen
of the tube. In the proximal portion (that nearest to the green section)
of the white part of the tube the walls are smooth, and lined by small
cells approximating the pavement form. In its distal portion mammili-
form and dendritic processes of the wall project into the cavity, often
giving the tube a spongy appearance, and the cells have long broad pro-
cesses developed from their inner surfaces. The epithelium of the bladder
agrees with that of the smooth portion of the tube.
The products of secretion are seen in the white and green, but not in
the yellow portion of the gland, as yellowish, rather highly refracting,
drops on the surface of the cells. Probably the yellow part secretes
a substance soluble in alcohol. That part of the white tube, with the
tesselated epithelium, most likely acts merely as a duct.
The anterior portion of the gland and bladder are supplied by a branch
of the antennary arteries, their posterior portions by the sternal arteries ;
these break up into a rich network of capillaries in all parts of the gland.
The nerve-supply of the bladder is also derived from two sources, its an-
terior part being supplied by a branch of antennary nerves (coming from
the supra-cesophageal ganglion), its posterior part by a nerve from the
supra-cesophageal ganglion, but no nerves have been observed in the
gland itself.
This same green gland has been studied by Professor Huxley and Mr.
Martin, who, in an elementary work on practical biology, describes it as
a soft greenish mass lying on each side of the extreme front part of the
cephalon, and that a fine bristle may be passed in through an aperture
on the first joint of the antenne. And in his more recent work on the
crayfish, Professor Huxley accepts, with apparently little doubt, that the
green gland is the representative of the kidney. ‘The green gland,’ he
writes, ‘is said to contain a substance termed guanin (so named because
it is found in the guano, which is the accumulated excrement of birds),
1 Zool, Anzeiger, 1, 1878.
Ee
ON OUR PRESENT KNOWLEDGE OF THE CRUSTACEA. 239
a nitrogenous body analogous in some respects to uric acid, but less
highly oxidated ; if this be the case, there can be little doubt that the
green gland represents the kidney, and its seeretion the urinary fluid,
while the sac is a sort of urinary bladder.’
The evidence on which this newly-proposed use of the green gland
rests is the mild statement of Will and Gorup-Besanez (I quote from the
notes in Professor) Huxley’s ‘Crayfish’!), who say that in this organ and
in the organ of Bojanus of the fresh-water mussel, they found ‘a sub-
stance, the reactions of which, with the greatest probability, indicate
guanin,’ but that they had been unable to obtain sufficient material to
give decisive results.
When we consider the position of this organ in its relation to the
other parts, as they are arranged in separate genera, very detinite analyses
ought to be determined before a cautious anatomist can accept this idea
as proven.
There is an osseous tubercle on the first joint of the antenna that is
hollow, the orifice being covered by a thin translucent membrane, in the
centre of which there is a narrow perforation. This tubercle Milne-Edwards
and most carcinological students have thought to be the passage con-
nected with acoustic properties, but which I have always contended was
related to the olfactory sense; but as the observations of Will and
Gorup-Besanez, although published in 1848, have been supported by
Wassiliew in 1878, and Huxley in 1879, it will be desirable to allude to this
tubercle by a name that will not commit its relation to any decided use
until so determined. I shall consequently write of it as the Phymacerite.?
This organ is always.in connexion with the coxa or first joint of the
second pair of antennz, even in those crustacea in which the antennz are so
fused into the frontal region (or metopus), that without previous know-
ledge it is impossible to determine its relation to the antennz. In these
cases, as in most of the higher types of the Brachyura, it isso concentrated
into the animal that it is very generally covered and protected by the
appendages of the month, and it is always closely associated with that
organ. Moreover, the watery sac is so delicate in its structure that it is
difficult to dissect it without rupturing its walls—a circumstance that I
have never succeeded in doing in the Brachyura—and the passage of an
inserted bristle must puncture its walls at any point.
In the Amphipoda the entrance is through a long spine, and the
membranous passage is slightly winding. In the Isopoda I never observed
any, at least conspicuous, tubercle. In the Brachyura it is generally closed
by an osseous operculum.
Writing on this same organ, Milne-Edwards says : ‘ The Crustacea, or
at least those of the higher orders, possess also the sense of hearing; the
experiments of Minasi, as shown by a number of daily observations,
furnish proof that,among a great number of these animals, there exists an
apparatus that appears to be the seat of this faculty.
‘ This organ is situated on the inferior surface of the head, in advance
of the mouth, and behind the second pair of antennz, or even in the
basilaire joint of the antenne itself. In the crayfish, as exhibited by the
researches of Scarpa, it exists at this place on each side of the body—a
little osseous tubercle (Phymacerite) of which the summit presents a
circular orifice which is closed by a thin, firm, and elastic membrane,
1 Gelehrte Anzeiger d. kh. Baienschen Ahademic, No, 233, 1848.
2 @iua, tubercle ; «épas, horn (antennal tubercle).
240 REPORT—1880.
which may be compared to a tympanum, or “4 la membrane de la fenétre
du vestibule des animaux supérieurs”’ (P]. XII. fig. 1land11 bis). Behind
this membrane, at the base of the tubercle, we find a little membranous
vesicle full of an aqueous fluid, which receives on the inner and upper
surface a nervous filament given off from the antennal branch. Moreover,
it is capped by a spongy mass, of which Scarpa makes no mention, which
appears to be well adapted for an organ of hearing, although some narrow
bands unite it to the organ of which we are about to speak (PI. XII.
fig. 9a). It is this organ which has already been considered as connected
with the sense of smell. In the Langouste (Palinurus), in the centre of the
membrane that closes the aperture of the antennal tubercle (Phymacerite)
is a small opening which communicates with a disc-like organ (l’organe
en form de galette) the object of which is doubtful, and for the most part
among the Brachyura is entirely replaced by a small osseous, more or less
movable, disc. In Maia and some other short-tailed crustacea, the dis-
position of this kind of operculum is very curious ; we have ascertained,
M. Andouin and myself, that on the anterior border there exists a tolerably
large osseous plate which is bent at right angles and directed upwards
towards the organ, and forms a disc that terminates in a point; near its
base this lamellous prolongation is pierced by a great oval foramen, and
this kind of opening is closed by a thin elastic membrane which we shall
call the internal auditory membrane, and near which the auditory nerve
appears to terminate. Fasciculi of muscles are attached to the extremity
of the osseous lamella, which comes from the opercular disc of the
auditory tubercle (Phymacerite), and which by its form resembles the
stirrup of the human ear ; finally, upon the anterior border of the external
opening which is closed by this disc, there exists also a little osseous plate
which is parallel with the internal auditory membrane, and when the
anterior muscle of the ossicle contracts, so as to be slightly thrown back,
all the little apparatus before the membrane to which we allude becomes
more and more extended.
‘ After the researches made on the transmission of sound by M. Savart,
we know that the existence of an opening closed by a thin elastic membrane
is a condition most available for the imerease of the power of hearing
delicate sounds. This savant has observed that pieces of cardboard which
are not susceptible to vibration so as to determine the form of regular
figures in the fine sand placed upon the surface, are capable of so becoming
when they were covered with a membranous disc. It is then to be presumed
that the kind of drum that we now describe as that of the external auditory
membrane of the crayfish, serves to communicate to the auditory nerve
the vibrations that are transmitted to it, and which affect but little or
nothing the sounding parts that are not in direct communication with
these membranes. ‘The mechanism by means of which the internal
auditory membrane can be alternately relaxed or extended is analogous to
that which is produced in the human ear by the action of the chain of
ossicles, which traverses the cavity of the ear, and its effects may be sup-
posed to be of the same kind. It serves to augment or diminish the
undulations which strike the vibrating membrane, and to modify the
intensity of the sounds which strike the ear.’
That this organ is not connected with hearing is now, I believe,
accepted by those who have inquired into the subject, since organs
resembling otolithes have been found in the coxa of the first pair of
antennz, and in the inner ramus of the posterior pair of pleopoda.
|
ON TITLE DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT FROM COAL-GAS. 241
The green gland in Palinurus is very large, and I have been subjecting
it to examination as to its form and structure, as well as placed the
secretion contained in the sac connected with it in the hands of an
expert chemist, but the results have not sufficiently progressed to enable
me to embody them in this report.
Report on the best means for the Development of Light from Coal-
Gas of different qualities, by a Committee consisting of Dr.
WILLIAM WALLACE (Secretary), Professor Dirrmar, and Mr. JoHn
Pattinson, /.C.S., F.C. Drawn up by Mr. Pattinson.
Part II.
Tue first part of this Report, which was presented at the meeting of the
British Association in 1878, had reference chiefly to the use of cannel gas
such as supplied in most of the towns of Scotland, and which has an
illuminating power equal to 26 candles when burned in a union-jet
burner at the rate of 5 cubic feet per hour and under a pressure of 0:5
inch. It also pointed out the best means known of burning this quality
of gas, and gave the results of photometric testing of several kinds of
burners under varying conditions of pressure.
It is the object of this second part of the Report to give similar infor-
mation regarding the burning of what is known as common gas, or gas
made from the common bituminous coal of the Newcastle and other coal-
fields, or from this class of coal mixed with a small quantity of cannel
coal, and having an illuminating power equal to 16 standard sperm
candles when consumed at the rate of 5 cubic feet per hour in Suge’s
No. 1 London Argand Burner—the standard burner adopted in London by
the London Gas Referees, and prescribed in nearly all recent Acts of Par-
lament of gas companies. This quality of gas, or gas varying from 14
to 16 candles illuminating power, is chiefly used in London and in most
towns in England and Ireland.
The principal condition to be observed, in order to develop the maxi-
mum amount of light from coal gas, is to supply the flame in a suitable
manner with just a sufficient amount of air to effect the complete combus-
tion of the gas. If coal gas is lighted as it issues under a low pressure
from the end of a gas pipe from which the burner has been removed, it
burns with a long, irregular-shaped flame, giving off much smoke, and
yielding a dull yellowish light of very little intensity. The gas has to
ascend to a considerable height before it meets with sufficient air to con-
sume it completely, and the upward currents created by the heat waft the
languid flame about in all directions and cause it to give off smoky par-
ticles. On the other hand, if the gas is forced under considerable pressure
through a very small orifice or very narrow slit, it burns with a thin bluish
flame, without visible smoke, and yielding very little light. The small,
rapid stream of gas, by virtue of the force with which it issues, becomes
mixed at once with such an excessive amount of air that the carbonaceous
constituents of the gas, instead of being partially separated and made in-
candescent, are converted at once into carbonic acid in a flame having
little or no luminosity, just as when gas is burned in a Bunsen burner.
These illustrate two cases in which air is supplied to the flame in an un-
1880. R
242 ; REPORT—1880.
suitable manner, one in which air is supplied too slowly, and the other in
which it is too rapidly mixed with the gas. As in flat-flame burners the
air supply is chiefly regulated by means of the pressure under which the
gas is allowed to issue, it is necessary to avoid these two extremes in order
to develop the light-giving properties of the gas. The dimensions of the
orifice through which the gas issues from such burners, and the velocity
with which it issues, should be so adapted to each other that the gas in
burning is brought into contact with air in such a manner that the heat
developed from a portion of the burning gas heats the remainder to a high
state of incandescence before it is ultimately entirely oxidised. The
quality of a flat-flame burner depends almost entirely on the extent to
which this condition is fulfilled. In Argand burners, or at any rate in
those of the best construction, the due supply of air is admitted to the
interior and exterior of the cylinder of flame, and regulated by means of
the chimney and cone, the gas being allowed to issue from the burner
under little or no pressure. A more complete control is thus obtained
over the air supply than is possible in the case of flat-flame burners, and
it is probably on this account that more light can be developed from com-
mon gas when burned in good Argand burners than when burned in
ordinary quantities in flat-flame burners.
The effect of the pressure under which gas is caused to issue upon
the air supply, and consequently upon the amount of light emitted, is
shown in the following results of experiments made with union-jet and
batwing burners having orifices of various dimensions and unprovided
with any means of checking pressure. The gas was caused to pass
through them under different pressures applied by means of a weighted
gas-holder,
The gas used was equal to 16 candles when tested with the standard
burner—Sugeg’s No. 1 London Argand.
Union-Jet Burners.
Pressure of gas in Cubic feet of gas Illuminating power seat tae ee
inches used per hour in standard candles | gas per Fare
No. 1, with holes 0-024 in. diameter.
05 | 16 1:0 341
1:0 2°5 1:2 2-4
15 Bi 1-2 19
No, 3, with holes 0:032 in. diameter.
03 13 18 70
0:5 2°5 34 68
1-0 38 4:4 58
15 5:1 5:0 4:9
No. 6, with holes 0-043 in. diameter.
| 0-2 1: 18 Td
0:3 2:0 3:7 9:2
0:5 38 73 9°6
0-7 4-7 8:8 9:2
1:0 6:0 10°2 8:5
15 $1 12:0 fhe. 3
———— = CO
oe
ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT FROM COAL-GAS, 243
Batwing Burners.
Illuminating power
per five cubic feet of
gas per hour
Illuminating power
Pressure of gasin | Cubic feet of gas used
in standard candles
inches per hour
No, 2 burner, with slit 0:008 in. wide.
03 0:8 1:0 63
0°5 2-0 4-0 10:0
0-7 28 57 10°2
1-0 3'8 73 9°6
1:2 4-4 76 8-6
15 5-4 | 9:0 8:3
No. 4 burner, with slit 0°012 in. wide.
03 1:3 27 10:4
05 3-2 7-6 11:9
07 43 10°1 11°7
10 56 12°6 113
1-2 6-4 140 10°9
ith 77 16-4 10°6
2-0 9-0 175 97
No. 6 burner, with slit 0:014 in. wide.
03 1-4 2°6 9:3
05 37 9:5 12°8
0-7 4-7 12:7 13:5
1-0 61 15°7 12-9
1:2 7-0 TE 12:7
15 8:5 19-5 11:5
2:0 Flares
Another batwing, with slit 0:020 in. wide.
O-4 3°2 91 14:2
06 5°7 17-2 151
0:8 (ul 22°6 15°9
10 8:3 27:0 16:3
1:2 9°3 30°8 16°6
1-4 10:2 32:0 15'7
16 111 33°0 14:9
18 11:8 34:0 14:4
2-0 Flares
Tt will be seen that the small quantity of gas passing through No. 1
union-jet becomes so mixed with air that even at 0°5 inch pressure the
light emitted when burning 1°6 cubic feet per hour is only equal to one
candle, or 3:1 candles when calculated for 5 feet consumption of gas.
When the pressure is increased to 1°5 inches the results are still worse,
for 3°2 cubic feet of gas per hour are burned with the production of light
equal to 1:2 candles, or only 1:9 candles per 5 cubic feet of gas. With the
larger sized union-jets the results are better, No. 6, when consuming 3:8
cubic feet of gas at 0°5 inch pressure giving a light equal to 9°6 candles
per 5 feet of gas. This amount of gas—3-8 cubic feet—when issuing
under 0°5 inch pressure is not mixed with so much air as the 3:2 cubic
feet issuing under a pressure of 1'5 inches from the No. 1 burner.
The effect of the increase of pressure on the air supply, and conse- ©
quently on the light produced, is also seen in the results of the experiments
with the batwing burners. If the result of burning 5:4 cubic feet of gas
R2
244 REPORT—1880.
issuing from No. 2 batwing under a pressure of 1:5 inches is compared
with the result of burning the amounts of gas nearest to this amount in
the case of each of the other burners, it will be seen that the Uluminating
power increases as the pressure required to send the desired amount of
gas through the burner decreases; or, in other words, the illuminating
power is increased as the gas, issuing with less velocity, is thus mixed or
brought into contact with less air. The following figures taken from the
above table show this :—
Cubic feet of Illuminating Illuminating
No. of burner | Pressure of gas | gas used per | powerinstandard | power per 5 cubic
hour candles feet of gas
2 15 54 9-0 8:3
4 1-0 56 12°6 113
6 OT 4-7 12-7 135
Large 0-6 a7 17-2 15:1
It will also be observed, in examining the above tables, that in the
case of each burner there is a certain consumption and a certain pressure
which gives the best result, and that at all other consumptions and
pressures above or below this the results are worse. No. 6 union-jet, for
instance, gives the best result when consuming 3°8 cubic feet of gas under
0°5 inch pressure ; No. 2 batwing gives the best result when consuming 2°8
cubic feet under 0°7 inch pressure ; No. 6 batwing the best result when
using 4°7 feet of gas under a pressure of 0-7 inch, and the large batwing,
when using 9°3 cubic feet of gas under a pressure of 1:2 inches, There
is, therefore, a limit to the reduction of pressure, causing an increase of
the illuminating power of the gas consumed, and this limit is reached
when the flame ceases to have a somewhat definite form, and burns in a
languid, waving manner, showing very low intensity of combustion, and
having a tendency to smoke. In such cases the air is not supplied suffi-
ciently for vigorous and intense combustion. This condition is illustrated
in the above tables, and especially in the case of the batwing burners.
With each of these burners the gas issuing under the lowest pressures
used produced less light than when higher pressures were used. Thus,
for instance, No. 6 burner gives a light equal to only 9:3 candles per 5
cubic feet when the gas issues under a pressure of 0°3 inch, which is
increased to 13'5 candles per 5 cubic feet when the pressure is increased
to 0:7 inch. Again, with the large batwing having a slit 0:020 inch
wide, the gas issuing at a pressure of 0°4 inch gives light equal to 14-2
candles per 5 cubic feet, whilst under a pressure of 1:2 inches the gas
yields a light equal to 16°6 candles per 5 feet, a result even better than
the standard testing burner gives.
Another point to be noticed in the above tables is, that as larger
burners are used, and larger quantities of gas burned, the illuminating
power per 5 cubic feet is increased. Although the chief cause of this
improvement is the better apportionment of the gas supply to the air as
regulated by the pressure, yet the increased volume of flame causing
greater intensity of combustion, and preventing the cooling of the flame
by the surrounding atmosphere, is doubtless another cause producing this
improved result.
Tt has often been asserted that if gas be heated before it is burned,
a
ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT FROM COAL-GAS. 245
the illuminating power is improved, and some experiments made in the
laboratory of the University of Munich go to show that an increase of
18 per cent. in the illaminating power was produced by heating the gas
from 644 degrees to 288 degrees Fahrenheit. The London Gas Referees,
in an able report on the construction of gas-burners, issued in 1871,
repeated this experiment, and found no appreciable difference in the
illuminating power of gas on heating the gas before burning from about
68 degrees to 296 degrees Fahrenheit. One of us has recently tried the
same experiment. The gas was caused to pass through about 6 feet of
copper tubing, heated to dull redness. By this means the gas was heated
from 58 degrees up to 350 degrees, as indicated by a thermometer placed
in the current of the gas within 6 inches of the burner. It was found
necessary to open wider the tap of the meter as the temperature rose, in
order to pass exactly the required quantity of 5 cubic feet per hour, the
heated and expanded gas requiring more time to pass through the burner
than the same quantity of cold gas. Careful observations were made of
the illuminating power as the temperature rose. The result was that no
appreciable difference could be seen in the illuminating power even at the
highest temperature reached—350 degrees Fahrenheit—thus confirming
the results obtained by the London Gas Referees. As the temperature of
combustion would be increased by heating the gas, and consequently a
higher degree of incandescence produced, some increase of the illumi-
nating power may be expected, but the increase of temperature tried
(and it is very difficult to heat the gas even so high as 350 degrees) is
evidently too insignificant to produce any appreciable increase in the illu-
minating power.
An experiment to try the effect of heating the air supplied to the
burner was more successful in producing an appreciable improvement in
the illuminating power. The air was supplied from a holder under
pressure. It was passed through a heated copper tube, and from thence
into the bottom of the standard Argand burner, which was closed,
excepting to the admission of the heated air. A thermometer was fixed
in the current of heated air about 6 inches from the burner. There was
no difficulty in heating the air to a temperature of 520 degrees Fahrenheit.
At this heat the soldering of the apparatus gave way, so that no higher
temperature was tried. The temperature of the unheated air was 70
degrees, aud the gas used, when supplied with air of this temperature,
gave a light equal to 16 candles per @ cubic feet per hour. As the tem-
perature of the air was increased, the illuminating power gradually rose,
until at 520 degrees a light equal to17°5 candles was produced—a rise of
a candle and a half, or about 9 per cent., for an increase of 450 degrees in
the temperature of the air supply. As the amount of heat supplied by
the heated air brought into contact with the gas and the flame is consider-
able, an appreciable effect is produced on the temperature of the flame,
and consequently on its illuminating power. It would appear, however,
that the principle of heating the air supply is not likely to be alopted for
general lighting purposes, for the additional light which any practicable
amount of heating would cause to be obtained would probably not com-
pensate for the extra cost and trouble attending the use of the required
apparatus.
A number of burners of various kinds, now supplied to the public,
have been tested with common coal gas, having an illuminating power
246 REPORT—1880.
equal to 16 standard sperm candles, when burned at the rate of 5 cubic
feet per hour in Sugg’s No. 1 London Argand Burner, and the results
obtained are given in the following tables. The standard candle, as in the
case of cannel gas, is one consuming 120 grains of sperm per hour.
The photometric apparatus and the method of testing employed were
about the same as those described in the first part of this report. The
two jets representing the candles were supplied with gas from a separate
gas-holder, always kept under exactly the same pressure. The gas con-
sumed in the burners to be tested was also supplied from a separate
holder, to which any required pressure could be readily applied. For
comparison, the results obtained are calculated into the amount of light
for a consumption of 5 cubic feet per hour in each case.
Of the four classes of burners described in the first part of this report,
the ‘ rat-tail’ or single-jet burner is now seldom or never used for common
gas for lighting purposes. The union-jet or fish-tail burner, the batwing
burner, and the Argand burner, or modifications of these various burners,
are now almost exclusively used. These burners and their modifications
have for the most part been already fully described, and it is therefore
unnecessary to repeat these descriptions at any length.
Messrs. Bray and Co. manufacture a great variety of flat-flame burners.
Their ‘Regulator’ burner checks the pressure of gas in the mains by
means of layers of muslin inserted in the burner. Their ‘Special’
burner, in addition to the layers of muslin, has also a piece of a kind of
porcelain, containing a round hole of less area than the exit orifices,
placed below the muslin, through which the gas passes into the burner.
These ‘regulator’ and ‘special’ burners are made in three different
forms—aunion-jets, batwings, and a modification of the batwing called a
‘slit-union.’ The latter, owing to a peculiar chambering out of the head
of the burner, forms a narrower and higher flame than the ordinary bat-
wing, and is therefore better adapted for use in globes. This form of
batwing is also made by various other makers. Besides the burners
already mentioned, Messrs. Bray and Co. also make each form of burner
of high lighting power and of medium lighting power, and they recom-
mend the medium lighting power burners in preference to the others for
general use, as having less tendency to smoke.
Of these burners of Messrs. Bray & Co., the following have been
selected for trial :—
Bray’s Medium Lighting Power ‘ Regulator’ Union-Jets.
At 0°5 in. pressure At 1-0 in. pressure At 1°5 in. pressure
& &D,
eo. |e hoes | Sol fo eee) See
No.of |fS2/ S8-| eRe | Tas | Ss | S22 (S22) Ss | ese
burner |.2 S| -2E |B. 0/35) Se | a. 2]/ 288 | 2E | gre
3.2 eee eeepc Be. | Bee | aS ee eee
Oe Peeci ee es |e” | Oe he eee
1 2:0 2-1 5:3 3:2 2°2 3-4 4:4 23 2°6
2 2°6 30 58 40 4-0 50 5-4 43, 4:0
3 29 3°8 56 4:3 49 57 5:8 54 4:7
4 3:4 61 89 53 85 8-0 ce 10:2 72
5 3°8 78 10°2 61 116 9°5 83 13-4 81
6 44 10°2 11°6 6°8 14-2 10-4 9:0 178 9-9
if 4:6 12:0 12-9 12 19°2 13°3 97 24°5 12°7
8 5:2 158 15-2 8-6 27:3 15°8 115 | Flares —
a
~~
= weg Opn} SCWMDAONMO
nN a gydiomod | SLR DSH 1910
5 Saneurunqty mean
n
n
2
wo = qanod SOnrNONS NH
: S | 6 | Sugeuramyy | * 7% CS RS eh ali
i eaytaliits
<i i -~
re
7 8 B= amoy sad AaenoowdH
a Ee sus jo Hip iaoranosd
=) =) qoay o1quy
o
a "Za 9eey Orquro COD 6D 6 6 00 OD sH
4 oe leg. |S atl eMoul« |lsesreouGo Guecicacs 118
fe ® | 5 | sSuyvurmnyyy mon
Bar|
& R 2
ee) romod M19 19 DHHS
= 8 |. | Sageumngy | SP CPRRAANR
Elo
& ° =
ro) ja r moy rad EO MANoMr
a o0 8B.0 JO mwa wine ee
Zz, A qoog orqny |
‘cal =
ra a7 doy OIqno
Ay 00H OF AMNDAROAN
° eI = G aad seMod | ss Gy Ga a HH
= B 5 | Surjeurunyy[y Ades
5
BR cs | 2
A tre | & zomod OMOrDDONOS
ra] S € | Sugvarmyy | * HH DONS
nm |S
s er 2 Inoy ted Ham amsenne
° FS sua JO AAA A co ce HHH
ina) qaay orqny
A NMAHHOrMDS
Bray’s Medium Lighting Power ‘Special’ Slit-Unions.
qooyz o1qno
< I | Seraenowa
eo) | i testo SOAR HMHHDS
5 suyvunyy | AAAs
a
x
Re Jamod PPONHOSSOSO
Hep peerstag cy chuiCbo ay ff | Meek coe Menich st Aion
ee
nm
=| anoy aed Gis al ohare
sus Jo KHSSOR ANS 4
qyoay Orns)
qooy een At IDANDSH SO 1010 9
2 | g tad 10mo SON co HH 19 10
2 | Soneuumyy | oS aie
a
x
a qamod IDO ODHHHIDNS
j SHHAHLARDS
8 | Suneurunqyy rot GY SH 2 Ge
=
re
| ano aad Stab cy cere
sud Jo Oo HHiDdoKa
qaoz arquy
Joog o1qno Pa Se ee
a Gaodamed |) S's 2 cq arentasas et
5 Sagruunyy | AA aaa
5 our
| —
q
ee romod AHWOAONSOHA
| s mHoe OOK M wh
A=} SuyVuruny [yy S60 10
1D 7
i—)
x amoy «ad or.69 © © Hed Go op
sus jo
qoay orquy
No. of
burner
HAA oo 6D co <H Hd
ANAM HMNOnMDH
Bray’s High Lighting Power ‘ Special’ Union-Jets.
qooy o1qno ¢
AHO O
o rod tamod RR a ES
3 | Suyqeummpy | Ao
ho a EE ————E—Eeee
Sj
Pa aomod DOHRHIO
5 a
A | Sayvaunpy | |S Saag
wD
SI
P| inoy zed op canoe
sus DooODS
Jo Joog o1qng
petted Soa SNSOMDSS
2 Jad samod HAA + 16
5 Suyjvuunyy | Aa ase
a
x
a. qamod CODSOHH
| 3 DoHHoHD
A | Suyvuruniyy m4onS
>
re
re anoy ed Sead eo Gham
S sea CO <H <H 1G & cD
JO Joos OIQNY)
4ooy o1qnd G Pepe
3 aad ramod EG Sig: PONee
Qa
& | Suygvormmyy | SIA oa
a -
x
a qremod AAAS ort
| 3 19 OI ROR
4 | sunearumiyy on
wD a
—
3 Inoy sad ee ee
sua A qi ce oo co H
JO Joas O1Qny)
S38
o§ OO =H 1D & b+ CO
AB
EE ———— ee
248 REPORT—1880.
Bray’s High Lighting Power ‘ Special’ Slit-unions.
At 0°5 in. pressure At 1:0 in. pressure At 1°5 in. pressure
= 6 t 4
a ae iy Ey 5 3 . » ry ay 5 3 8 4 ry By 3
Now (222 | 2 +252 248 Be | Boe lee tee Bae
boner |-2"5 |] £2 | Bes /S"s |] 82 | esS/8%2] £2 | BES
ae) | cesta 26 el | wad | Peston os Same alu tren | (Wes 1c 5
= = Sein | 5 = Ss id = Hae
iS) = Si ESE RS) i= =) eS: = So)
4 3:2 8-0 12-5 4-8 13°6 14:2 6-4 178 13:9
5 3:2 8-2 128 5 14:2 139 7-0 19°5 13-9
6 35 88 12°6 57 16:0 14:0 78 21°6 13°8
7 39 10°6 13°6 G4 18-4 14-4 88 26-0 14°8
9 48 13-2 13'8 Go 25:2 15°9 108 345 16:0
Bray’s High Lighting Power ‘ Special’ Batwings.
At 0°5 in. pressure At 1-0 in. pressure At 15 in. pressure
& S oH ep ol & -
seid gee | Be Wes care (ideal a Eel ae
Noof |Sa2S/ 22 | 85/805 | #8 | Sho] S25) 8 | SS
burner | 5 aes & E = o5 aS an ie 5 = 25 2 te # 8 g o3
SCs) eee ew ee) 3 Bole Mee eee
° Fate Sy aed 8 | Sa = es
4 2°9 7:3 | 12°6 4:6 12°6 13-7 63 16°9 13-4
5 33 91 13°8 5:3 14:8 14:0 72 20°5 14-4
6 3°6 9°8 13-7 57 16-4 14:4 3) 22°8 14-4
iT 4°] 118 14-4 67 20°4 15:2 90 28'1 15°6
It will be noticed that in some of the union-jet burners the lower
numbers of these give very poor results with common gas. It is only
when Nos. 4 and 5 are reached, and with a consumption of about 5 cubic
feet of gas per hour, that good results are obtained. As a rule, all the
burners burn to greatest advantage when the pressure of gas is one inch.
Messrs. Bray & Co.’s Market Burner, intended, as its name implies, for
use in the open air, also gives very excellent results from the somewhat
large amounts of gas they consume. ‘T'wo of these gave the following
results :—
Bray’s Market Barner—Batwing.
At 0°5 in. pressure At 1:0 in. pressure At 1°5 in. pressure
C ao &p | Sy tel) tp . ep 5)
8 as aysl|e .| 6 Bae oe 1S fn 3
Sesic. #148 Ae S Aue
Mark ofburner |S =| @8 |BaS|/S8 8] Sy |Ba|8B 8] Sz leas
S28) 22 |S 8/S25] Se | Su el/22s)| 2S | see
om,,| €8 |(sS2)g%y!| ES |SESl/owL.| 82 |eEs
Be) 2)! CS as otouom vers POs 6 See 2 |, sa iiatets
sae ase Sane S Set | | Se aad Se
) a Shae RE) = Sle ase iS) a i
Market. . . 58 | 178 | 15:3 9°8 | 32:2} 15°6 | 13°6 | 46:0 | 165
ives See iB 0 62 | 193 | 156) 103] 33:5 | 162 | 141} 480] 17:0
This firm has also recently manufactured some flat-flame burners of
very large size, suitable for street illumination. These are made in an en-
larged form of the slit-union pattern, and are called ‘standard’ burners.
ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT FROM COAL GAS. 249
Another form of street burner—a ‘double-flame’ burner—is made by
them. This is formed by two burners being so placed that the flames from
the two join together a little above the burner. We have not had an
opportunity of testing the latter burners, but the large ‘ standard’ burners
have been tested with 16-candle gas at pressures of 0°5 inch, 0:8 inch, and
1:0 inch. with the following results, which, it will be seen, are higher than
those obtained with the standard Argand burner :—
Bray’s Large ‘Standard’ Burners for Street Lighting.
At 0°5 in. pressure At 0°8 in. pressure At 1:0 in. pressure
at sg eam Be 9 a et a woIS + a =o)
Mark ofburner |&ZZ| By | Sah |Sz2| BE [SST /SzZE aa
gma) 22 |2y8/ oho) ER | Sb2/.9 he = 5:5
Be5| £2 |Bes|B58| 88 |sFe|See Bes |
SOR a IBRE |S a) a lessee) a> eee
= a OS = se * aS ff
30 Candle 11:0 | 371] 169} 15:0} 49:3] 161 19:05) 60-8") 16:0
40 5 12:7 | 43:2] 17:°0| 184] 608 | 165 | 21:2 | 72:0) 17:0
50 a 15:0 | 488 | 16:3 |} 193] 65:6] 16:9] 23:6 80:0] 16°9
60 a3 13:3 | 442] 166] 183] 608 | 166} 23°6 | 77:9 | 165
70 ” 16:0 | 52°55 | 164 | 21°99] 73:6] 16:8] 25:0 848) 16:9
80 to 16°5 | 55:0] 16:6 | 22°77 | 749} 16:5 |} 27-2) 87-7) 161
Silber makes flat-flame burners in three forms—single, double, and
triple batwings. A wedge-shaped piece of brass is inserted between the
heads of the two latter burners, for the purpose of directing air currents
to the flame. The body of the burners in each case is large and vase-
shaped. The results obtained by testing these burners are given in the
following table :—
Silber’s Flat-flame Burners—Single, Double, and Triple Batwings.
At 0°5 in. pressure At 1:0 in. pressure | At 1'5 in. pressure
s .|8 |2e8le -|s \Pesle.-| 2. |Pe3
Mark of burner ae Sy (Sa |S22| Sy |Bae See os lees
2&5| 85 |aek/ehs| £2 |Sae) eh) 22 se
Boe; B28 | Beslee8| Fe |ESsleee| Be | EES
| mS = ao | = Eanes
Single A . 1:9 | 2:1 | “88 | o1:7 |°°S-6 | 106 |. 2:4 | 14-8 | 10-0
ey Da 13 2°8 | 10°8 21 4:6 | 11:0 27 60 | Ill
“3 SOS 2°6 5:8 | 11-2 3°9 | 10:0 | 12°8 50] 136] 13
er Ds 3:2 8:0 | 12:5 B51 | 14:1 | 13:8 65 | 183] 141
Pree Es 3:3 8:6 | 13:0 52 | 15:0] 14-4 69 | 20:5 | 14:9
Fe oe 4:2] 116] 13:9 6:3} 19:0 | 15:1 8:2 | 25:0] 15:2
ie pera 48 | 13:2 | 13:7 Col 2AgOR) 1S 9:2) e280 Nr 14:7
DoubleB . 2°6 6:0 | 11:5 46 | 12-7 | 13°8 G3 ell |p, 13°6
me Cre 3:3 74} 11:2 54 | 16:2 | 15:0 75 |) 22:0 |. D477
ee D5 3°8 9:2 | 12°1 6:3 | 20:0 | 15°9 87 | 265 | 15-2
ig aaa 4:3 | 10:0 | 11°6 70 | 22:3) 15:9 9:5 1 SO) Gre
Triple: Cay 3 4-4 9:0 | 102 78 | 23:6 | 151) 11:0] 36:2) 16°
eh Dy hen 49 79 8-1 8-2 | 22°5 | 13:7] 115} 38:0} 165
i By She 4-9 8-4 8-6 8:8 | 240] 13°6 | 13:1) 43°5 | 166 |
The double and triple burners do not give good results excepting
at the higher pressures. The double ones give smoky sluggish flames at.
250 REPORT—1880.
0°5 inch pressure, and the triple ones smoky and shapeless flames even at
a pressure of 1 inch.
Besides other flat-flame burners, Sugg has recently manufactured a
large burner for large consumption of gas, which he calls a ‘table-top’
burner. This has a flat disc-shaped head with a semispherical centre,
in which the slit is formed. ach burner is fitted witha governor. Two
of these have been tested with the gas supplied to the governors at the
under-mentioned pressures, and the following results obtained :—
Sugeg’s ‘ Table-top’ Burners.
Pressure of gas
{
Cubic feet of ee noe Illuminating power
in inches | gas used Tluminating power per 5 cubic feet
0) | 3°8 10:0 13°2
1-0 62 18°6 15°0
20 | 8:3 24:8 15:0
3-0 8-4 25°2 15:0
Another burner
05 5:0 14:9 14:9
10 8:4 2T°7 16°5
2-0 12°3 418 17-0
30 11-4 / 35°5 15°6
Br6nner’s burners, already described in the first part of this report,
have also been tested. They are made specially for use for common gas, as
well as for cannel gas. The A-top burners are intended for use in globes
with common gas; and the B-top burners for use without globes, or in
street lamps, also with common gas. The tops and bottoms of each
burner are separately marked, and are interchangeable. The A-top bur-
ners are made with two sizes of tops and eleven sizes of bottoms. The
B-top burners are made with eight sizes of tops and eleven sizes of
bottoms. The following results were obtained with the A-top and B-top
burners, using 16-candle gas :—
Brénner’s A-Top Burners for Use in Globes.
At 0°5 in. pressure At 1:0 in. pressure At 1°5 in. pressure
Lee le. lees Bsa. lose] zs | flees
i | os cc fed £0. ~~ ee. s 6H #2OoOo
No, of top |Nowof 2 ] es [eee] os) ee |eec| 22 | ee ges
Sy | 2 /885/ 25 | 2/88S| os | Ba 1ESs
A 2 at -- - — 15 2°7 9:0 2°0 4:0 | 10:0
do. | +2 16 2°9 9-1 2°4 5:2 | 10°8 31 68 | 11:0
do. 2h 20 39 9°8 2°9 68 | 11-7 3°8 94 | 12-4
A3 3 21 44 | 105 3:2 78 | 12-2 44 | 10°6 | 12:0
do. 3} 25 4:8 9°6 3°8 9-2 | 12-1 4-9 | 12:2 | 12-4
do. + 2°5 5:4 | 10°8 3°8 9°6 | 12-7 52 | 13°6 | 13-1
do. 43 30 G4 | 10°7 45 | 108 | 12:0 59 | 148 | 12-5
do. 5 B26 U7 “| 12-0 5:1 ‘| 13-2 | 13-0 68 |} 18:0 | 13:2
do. 6 37 87 | 11:8 58 | 155 | 13-3 FT | 214-0 [13-6
do. 7 3:5 8:6 | 12:3 59 | 160 | 13°6 8:4 | 23:0, |, 13-7
do. 8 a7 9:0} 1272 62 | 168 | 13:5 86 | 23:4 | 13:6
|
|
ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT FROM COAL-GAS. 251i
Brénner’s B-Top Burners for Common Gas.
At 0°5 in. pressure | At 1:0 in. pressure At 1°5 in. pressure
~~ / =p Dis we cy a | oD Dis pir op | SPAS pe)
: ~ S ool S528 Retin esa Bae Sas rrlitgg 339
¥ yy Sel oe Pol eo jee 4 3 OD awe
Ne. of top et 2 8 | 5 B 3s ma I's mS Pe = 2 2 ee E z E 5.2
so5| 22 /2eS\e08) 4 |/8esleos| = (Bes
ete) pee Se ot eee (5 BOOM ae (Be
eee) tee Ls has) SS | 18 | BBL] 97
ie ales 2 Is3 | - 1253 88 21 44 |) 105 2:8 G4 | 11-4
by ty 21 | 16 30 9-4 25 | 60 | 12:0 3-4 84 | 12-4
5 par ee 38 90 3-0 TRON EER 7 NW fi ps La tb}
a) oD 3h | 2:3). 45 a3 Be WaLGae alice 4-5 | 11-0 | 12-2
P46 4 | O35 1 AT | 102 36 | 8S | 12-2 5-0 | 13:0 | 13-0
, 4B | 42 | 27 | 59] 1069 | 43 | 104 | 121 | 5-6 | 150°] 134
57 DB 5 | Biles $706) Aled 4:9 | 12°9 | 13:2 6-5 | 18-0. | 13:8
fe eLoLe Ca es oe pe ca a eA 5:9 | 16-4 | 13°8 80 | 23:0 | 144
a aaa 3 i | 4:0 | 102 | 12°8 6°6 / 19:0 | 14-4 9:0 | 26:0 | 14-4
feels | ae LLB 1276 | 7:3 22°0 | 15°1 9°6 | 30:0 | 15°7
Harrison’s ‘ Gas-Light Improver’ is a device similar to that of Scholl
applied to union-jets. It consists of a small plate of thin iron placed
across the top of the union-jet burner, against which the jets of gas im-
pinge, thereby checking the force with which they mingle with the air.
‘When the ‘Improver’ is applied to a burner with small holes, and when
the gas issues under considerable pressure, the light results are better
than when no ‘ Improver’ is applied, but it produces no improvement if
applied to a good burner of the same kind in which the pressure has been
already checked.
Of Argand burners, those manufactured by Sugg and Silber have
been tested. It will be seen that by carefully controlling and directing
the air supply much better results can be obtained than with the Standard
Argand used in testing. Hach burner was tested with the consumption of
gas to which it was best fitted, which was the largest quantity the burner
will use without smoking.
The Silber Argand tried was one marked B. It was used with chim-
neys of various sizes, by means of which various quantities of gas could
be consumed.
Silber’s B Argand with various sized chimneys.
Size of chimney Cubie feet of TWlarninnti : Iluminating power
in inches gas used ee eke vies per 5 cubic feet
5 x 12 4:3 141 164
7x 1% 57 21-0 1s-4
8 x 13 6+ 23°8 18°6
9 x 13 cel 26:2 185
10 x 13 71 26°6 18:7
The following results were obtained in testing a series of Argand
burners made by Sugg, which are called Sugg’s New Reading Lamp
Argand Burners. Hach burner is fitted with a separate governor, to
control the pressure of gas in the mains :— :
252 REPORT— 1880.
Suge’s New Reading Lamp Argand Burners,
Mark of No. of Size of aan: a ue Illuminating ees
Burner Holes Chimney per hour power > eubic Pee
A 15 Exleen | hose 96 15-0
B 18 6xle | BT 118 16-0
C 21 6x12 4-0 12°8 16-0
D 24 7x12 4-4 158 | 18-0
E 27 inte 1) eS 17-2 17-2
F 30 7x13 56 19-4 17-3
; 33 8x13 6-6 24-9 18-3
H 36 9x 13 8:0 27-0 16-9
J 39 9x 12 $1 29-0 1p)
K 42 9x13 8:5 30°09 18-2
Sugg has recently produced some very large Argand burners for street
lighting purposes. These are made with concentric rings, from which the
gas is supplied. Two of these, one a hundred-candle burner, and the other
a two hundred-candle burner, were tested with 16-candle gas, with the
following results :—
Suge’s Large Street Argand Burners.
Cubic feet of | ... | Tluminating
Description of Burner fas | Iuminating | ower per
I ee power py
per hour | 5 eubic feet
be burner with two po a 147 54-9 | 18-6
100-candle burner with two concentric | ae ats | :
rings andacentre jet. ° uf ee ee 18-4
Do. do. 3 : : 29°5. 110-4 | 187
200-candle burner with three concen- | Both :
elas . 52°( 96% | oie
tric rings and a centre jet c Ss lle | soy page
Do. do. ‘ Z : : 55:0 220°8 | 20-0
Although a greater amount of light can be obtained from the burning
of common gas in ordinary quantities in good Argand burners than can
be obtained by the use of flat-flame burners, yet there are many reasons
for thinking that the latter are better adapted for general use, and that
they will continue to be much more largely used for general lighting pur-
poses than Argands. In the first place, the first cost of the Argand
burner is necessarily very much greater. The cost of maintenance—
replacing broken chimneys, &c.—isalso very much greater. Then, again,
the cleaning of the chimneys is troublesome. They must be kept clean, or
a loss of light will result. A chimney which had been in constant use for
thirty hours, burning Newcastle gas, was so dimmed by the deposition of
what is probably sulphate of ammonia on the inside, that half a candle
of the light was intercepted. If, from the irregularities of the pressure
of gas in the main or from other cause, a larger amount of gas is passed
through the burner than can be thoroughly consumed, the flame gives off
dense smoke, which, if not at once stopped, produces very disastrous
effects in rooms. Hence it is almost absolutely necessary to use a special
governor to each burner, which adds still more to the cost. It is only
when the consumption of gas for which the Argand burner is specially
ON TITE DEVELOPMENT OF LIGHT FROM COAL-GAS. 253
adapted is used, that the higher illuminating power results are obtained.
With smaller amounts the loss of light by the excessive supply of air
which then enters the chimney is much greater than in the case of flat-
flame burners of good quality. On burning various quantities of gas
through the standard Argand used for testing, the following results were
obtained :—
Cubic feet of gas per hour Illuminating power ppminating) ge AS)
2°5 2°5 5-0
3-0 5-0 83
34 79 11°6
41 12:1 14°8
4:5 14:3 15°8
55 17°8 16:2
67 178 151
By reducing the consumption of gas from 5 feet to 2°5 feet per hour,
the illuminating power is reduced from 16 candles to 5:0 candles per 5
cubic feet.
The amount of light lost for illuminating purposes by the use of globes
around the lights has been mentioned in the first part of this Report. In
many cases this loss is considerable, and the use of globes with narrow
openings, and made of very opaque white glass, should be avoided.
The principal advantage of the use of globes is that the direct glare of the
flames is prevented, and the light is softened and diffused in a pleasant
manner. It is often worth the sacrifice of a portion of the light to produce
this effect. With properly made globes of thin milk-white glass, having
openings of not less than four inches at the bottom, and still wider ones
at the top, the loss of light can be to a great extent avoided, the light
being reflected by the white surfaces of the interior of the globe through
the wide openings both upwards and downwards.
From what has been frequently shown in this report it will be seen
how very important it is to have complete control of the pressure at which
the gas is supplied to the burners in order to develop its light-giving pro-
perties to the best advantage. The first part of the report points out the
various causes which give rise to great fluctuations of the pressure in the
gas mains. In many towns the pressure may vary from less than an inch
to four inches. No doubt the pressure as supplied to the burners can be
regulated by the taps at the burners or at the meter, but in many situa-
tions where the pressure alters much in the course of a single night this
is very troublesome to attend to, and in most cases will be neglected. It
is best in such places to have governors which act automatically by the
pressure of the gas.
Besides the various governors already mentioned suitable for a number
of lights, it is now possible to obtain governors suitable to be applied to
single lights at a cost within the reach of most gas consumers. These
are placed near the burner, and in many cases form a part of the burner.
In many situations subject to great variations of pressure it is worth while
on the score of economy to adopt such burners. Vastly different amounts
254 REPORT—1880.
of gas are passed, often imperceptibly, through the same burner. In most
of the burners tested for the purposes of this Report, and which are not
provided with means of checking the pressure, it will be seen that about
twice as much gas is passed through the burner at 1°5 inches pressure as
is passed through at 0°5 inch pressure, and the pressure in the mains often
varies more than this. The amounts of gas passed through a burner
without obstruction for checking pressure with and without a governor at
different pressures is shown in the following table :—
Inches of pressure in With governor. Feet of | Without governor. Feet of
the main gas used per hour | gas used per hour
in 2°6 4-9
egy +0 | T+
Zo 4:0 11°8
3 4:0 15°6
Single-burner governors are now made by Sugg, Peebles, Wright,
Borradaile, and others. Many of these regulate the pressure by the rising
and falling of a small cup or cone fitting loosely in a receptacle through
which the gas passes on its way to the burner, and they are of a size
which does not obstruct the downward light, and of a form which does
not offend the eye. Several of these have been tested at pressures varying
from half an inch to three inches. From the exigencies of their construc-
tion they do not act absolutely perfectly, but at pressures varying from
one inch (at which most of them are constructed to commence to act) to
three inches the amount of gas they allow to pass to the burner does
not vary more than half a cubie foot per hour. Such governors are of
very great service, not only in preventing waste of gas, but also in very
nearly securing what is so essential to the development of the maximum
amount of light, » uniform supply of gas to the burner.
Report of the' Committee, consisting of Dr. GAMGEE, Professor
ScHAFER, Professor ALLMAN, and Mr. GeEppEs, for conducting
Paleontological and Zoological Researches in Mexico. Drawn
wp by Mr. GEeppEs (Secretary).
Iy pursuance of the plan for carrying on certain geological and zoological
explorations in Mexico (of which I gave some account in my application
for a grant from the Association last year), I sailed from Liverpool on
September 10th, 1879, and arrived at the city of Mexico on October 10th.
Besides the general object of a naturalist’s first visit to the tropics,
that of. obtaining a more general view of animated nature, I proposed
undertaking certain specific researches :—
1. To examine some of the deposits of fossil bones in the Valley of
Mexico, of which so many accounts had been given me by eye-witnesses,
and to ascertain their age and contents.
2. To fill up such leisure as might remain from that inquiry with a
study of the completely unknown microscopic life of the great lakes.
3. To make a general collection.
eee eee
ON PALAONTOLOGICAL AND ZOOLOGICAL RESEARCHES IN MEXICO. 255
4, To dredge on the coast, should time allow.
I shall proceed to discuss in how far each of these parts of my pro-
gramine has been carried out, but must first explain that almost imme-
diately after my arrival in Mexico my health commenced to suffer; that
indisposition soon passed into illness, and that this illness, ageravated
by very severe, and as it afterwards turned out, mistaken medical
treatment, confined me to my room for upwards of two months,
and left me utterly enfeebled. After my recovery I remained more
than a month in hopes of recovering strength and returning to work,
and even attempted a few excursions, e.g. to the caves of Caca-
huamilpa; but was at length compelled to yield to the urgent advice
of my physicians and relatives, and return to Scotland to recruit my
health. I therefore sailed from Vera Cruz on 1st March last. It will thus
be readily understood that my results, gathered as they are from a period
of afew weeks after my arrival (during which my time was largely
occupied in the preliminary work of gathering information and improving
my knowledge of the language, not to speak of failing health), are neces-
sarily of the most imperfect kind, and that, of various undertakings, well
begun, but never finished, nothing can be saidat all. I hope, however, to
make my memoranda useful to another explorer, my friend M. Joyeux-
Laffuié, D.Sc., who proposes shortly to undertake a similar and I trust a
more fortunate expedition to Mexico.
For dredging on the coast there was of course no time. I am con-
vinced, however, that excellent results await the fortunate naturalist who
can devote a winter to the task, particularly on the Pacific side, which is
completely unexplored.
My collections, though small, were by no means valueless. I obtained
a number of plants, mainly from the ravines eroded by streams in the
alluvial of the Plateau, and these are of considerable interest, since
many are of subtropical facies, belonging to a zone of vegetation consi-
derably warmer and lower than the Plateau itself. This tends to throw
some light upon the migrations of plants in these countries. The plants
growing on the sides of ravines being protected from inclemencies of
weather, better exposed to the sun, &c., are thus enabled to reach altitudes
otherwise uninhabitable by them. I have presented these dried plants
to the Herbarium of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, where also
some of their seeds are being grown.
My zoological collection is deposited in the British Museum. It con-
sisted of a few mammals, of which two are of considerably rarity, viz. :
Spermophilus Mewicanus, Licht., and Blarina micrura, Tomes ; twenty-five
reptiles, fifty-two fish, twelve crustaceans, and a few insects. Some of
the reptiles, fishes, and crustaceans are of interest to the systematic
zoologist, and a note upon some of the crustaceans has just been published
by Mr. Miers in the ‘ Annals and Magazine of Natural History.’ I was
also able to provide Professor Huxley with a small collection of crayfishes
and prawns.
The microscopical investigation, too, had commenced to yield results of
interest, Although in autumn the general facies was surprisingly Enro-
pean, yet new and strange Protozoa, Rotifers, &c., were by no means rare.
Despite all hindrances, however, the main inquiry, as to the age and
contents of the superficial deposits of the Plateau, came much nearer to a
solution. The Plateanis covered to an unknown depth—so great that the
256 REPORT—1880.
Artesian wells which are frequently bored never reach the bottom—with
a series of lacustrine deposits, earthy, clayey, and sandy. Most frequently
the alluvium contains a great quantity of pumice and volcanic ash, and
then acquires so much consistence as to be use in the cheaper and less
durable kinds of building. A considerable area is covered by lakes,
Chalco, Xochimilco, Tezcoco, &c., and these, particularly the latter, have
diminished greatly since the Spanish Conquest. The principal lake, into
which all the others drain, Tezcoco, is very shallow, nowhere more than
four or five feet deep, and has no definite limits, but alters its area by
many square miles in the course of every season. It is easy to see that: the
various lakes now scattered over the Plateau are merely the remnants of
ote vast lake, whose shallow waters extended over the vast plain around
the site of the City of Mexico, and which received the torrents which
come down from the surrounding mountains every rainy season laden
with detritus. Meanwhile the volcanoes, which are scattered over and
around the Plateau, were in great activity, and the surface of the lake
seems to have been generally either wholly or partly covered with pumice
and ashes, which as the waters receded during drought would be deposited
along with the mud at the bottom.
It is interesting to compare the lava-flows which have been emitted
on what was at the time dry land with those which were formed in the
lake itself. The former, such as the Pedregal de Thalpan, are dense,
hard, and black, like the lava of Vesuvius; the latter, e.g. the two little
hills near Mexico, known respectively as the Great and Little Pefon, are
gigantic cinders, red, cracked and porous, and here and there containing
large irregular caves, formed simply by the expansion of the included
water into steam.
All over the Plateau, imbedded in the soft alluvium or in the denser
‘ tipitate’ as the rock containing pumice is called, and frequently laid
bare by the streams, are to be found considerable numbers of mammalian
skeletons. ‘To examine and collect these I made a good many expeditions,
generally accompanied by one or two Indians, who served as guides and
excavators. I obtained many specimens, nearly all, however, in very
imperfect preservation, and many so friable as scarcely to bear removal.
The most abundant remains are those of Hlephas. Mastodon, however,
occasionally occurs, and skeletons of horses, buffaloes, and wolves are
tolerably common. I was much interested by the fact that some time
before and again during my visit a specimen of Glyptodon, apparently
clavipes, had been found in the course of some engineering work, and
had come into the possession of the museum there, thus establishing the
range of this genus of Edentates into the northern part of the Neotropical
region. I was fortunate in discovering a magnificent Edentate skeleton,
closely resembling Mylodon ; but, on returning with my workmen early
next morning to continue the excavation, we found our specimen shattered
into fragments. Some of the country people, who always watched one’s
movements with intense suspicion, and who alternately regarded us as
treasure-seekers and as magicians, so adding considerably to the danger
and discomfort of the undertaking, had done this, and we were able only
to rescue a single broken tooth, now in the British Museum.
On my way home I examined, along with Mr. Halliday, C.H., of Vera
Cruz, an artesian well which he was boring in hopes of obtaining a supply
of water for that city. He had passed through 1260 feet of sands and
ON ESTABLISHING A CLOSE TIME FOR INDIGENOUS ANIMALS. 257
clays, and kindly gave me specimens of all the strata passed through.
These, with his description, are at present in the hands of my friend, Dr.
James Geikie, F.R.S., for transmission to Mr. Murray or some other
specialist, from whom an account of their microscopic contents may
perhaps be forthcoming at the next meeting of the Association.
Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. H. F. BArNEs-Law-
RENCE, Mr. SPENCE Bate, Mr. Henry E. Dresser (Secretary), Mr.
J. E. Hartine, Dr. J. Gwyn JEFFREYS, Mr. J. G. SHAw LEFEVRE,
Professor Newton, and the Rev. Canon TRIsTRAM, appointed for
the purpose of inquiring into the possibility of establishing a
Close time for Indigenous Animals.
Your Committee has to report that on the 7th of June last Mr. Dillwyn,
M.P., obtained leave from the House of Commons to bring in a Bill to
amend the Laws relating to the Protection of Wild Birds, which Bill was
read a second time on the 14th, and ordered to be considered in Committee
of that House on the 21st of June.
Owing to the late period at which the Bill was introduced, the rapid
progress of its earlier stages, and the difficulty of communicating with
some members of your Committee, an attempt to fix a meeting failed, and
your Committee, as a body, had therefore no opportunity of discussing
this Bill, nor, if need were, of reporting thereon to the Council of the
Association according to its instructions. In their private capacity some
members of your Committee, conceiving that the Bill contained much that
was objectionable, are understood to have made representations to that
effect to various members of the House of Commons whom they believed
to be interested in the subject. The Bill passed through Committee of
the House of Commons on the 21st of June, and, in consequence of the
various amendments then adopted, assumed an entirely different aspect
from that which it originally presented, several of the features believed to
have been regarded by some members of your Committee as most objec-
tionable having disappeared. In this state it was read a third time in the
House of Commons, and was sent to the House of Lords on the 15th of
July.
a the House of Lords charge was taken of it by Lord Aberdare, and
it received very careful consideration, several important amendments pro-
posed by him and by Lords Lilford and Walsingham being made in it, both
in Committee and on Report, and it was read the third time on the 15th of
August.
The Bill now awaits the approval of the House of Commons to the
Lords’ amendments.
Your Committee, for the reasons above assigned, having been unable
to discuss this Bill, refrains from offering any remarks upon it, and, while
trusting that the new measure may prove to be efficient, begs leave to
submit this short statement of facts.
1880. S
258 REPORT—1880.
Report of the Comittee, consisting of Professor Dewar, Dr.
Wituiamson, Dr. MarsuaLt Warts, Captain ABNey, Mr. Stoney,
Professor HartLEY, Professor McLrop, Professor Carry FosTer,
Professor A. K. Hunrmaton, Professor EMERsoN REYNOLDS, Pro-
fessor REINOLD, Professor LivEInG, Lord RayLeicu, Dr. SCHUSTER,
and Mr. W. CHANDLER Roperts (Secretary), appointed for the
purpose of reporting wpon the present state of our Knowledge
of Spectrum Analysis.
[PLATES X. AND XI.]
Contents.
- Spectra of Metalloids (drawn up by Dr. Schuster).
. Influence of Temperature and Pressure on the Spectra of Gases (drawn up by
Dr. Schuster).
. Emission Spectra of the Rays of High Refrangibility (drawn up by Prof. Hartley).
. Absorption Spectra of the Rays of High Refrangibility (drawn up by Prof.
Huntington).
Ne
CRU CR
He wo
§ 1. Specrra or Mevattors. By Dr. Scuuster, F.R.S.
I, Preliminary Remarks.
Curtain spectroscopic changes and variations, which we now know to be
common both to metals and metalloids, were first observed in the case of
metalloids. It is owing to this fact that their spectra have given rise to
so much discussion. Angstrém and y. d. Willigen had examined electric
sparks passing through various gases, and had thus observed the spectra
of several metalloids; but the subject first received due attention when
Pliicker and Hittorf (1864) announced the important discovery that one
and the same element can, under different conditions, show more than one
spectrum,! Attempts were naturally made to disprove such a remarkable
and at first sight improbable assertion. Different spectroscopists took
different views; most metalloids were carefully examined, and in the long
discussion which followed, each side had to give in on some points.
Pliicker’s discovery, however, was established in the case of all metalloids
which have been sufficiently well studied. There is now among those
best able to judge a general agreement on the facts, although great differ-
ences exist as to their interpretation. We have in the present Report
nothing to do with the explanations which have been offered to account
for the variability of spectra, but only to record facts and to describe the
phenomena which appear when the spectra of metalloids are examined
under different and varying conditions.
It is perhaps advisable to say one word on the nomenclature which
we shall adopt, and on the general appearance of the spectra with which
we have to deal. Different spectra often resemble each other in
general appearance, so that we can classify and roughly divide them into
three kinds or orders: continuous spectra, line spectra, and spectra of
finted bands, or channelled-space spectra, as they are sometimes called.
Piticker and Hittorf called the spectra of fluted bands, spectra of the first
order ; the line spectra, spectra of the second order. This nomenclature
* Both Pliicker and v. a. Willigen had already, in 1858, described the band spec-
trum of nitrogen, but the subject was first thoroughly investigated by Pliicker and
Hittorf, and only received due attention after the publication of their paper.
par pees
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 259
is sometimes adopted; it presents no advantages, but, on the contrary,
may give rise to a good deal of misconception. We shall not use the
expressions. A spectrum is called a continuous spectrum when it extends
over a wide range, and is not broken up into separate lines. It is, how-
ever, not necessary that it should extend through all the colours. We
may have a continuous spectrum in the green without an admixture of
red and blue, and we often have continuous spectra which are confined to
one end of the spectrum, either to the red or to the violet.
The spectra of fluted bands or channelled spaces generally appear,
when seen in spectroscopes of small dispersive power, as made up of
bands, which have a sharp boundary on one side and gradually fade away
on the other. When seen with a more perfect instrument, each band
seems to be made up of a number of lines of nearly equal intensity, which
gradually come nearer and nearer together as the sharp edge is approached.
This sharp edge is generally only the place where the lines are ruled so
closely that we cannot distinguish any more the individual components.
The edge is sometimes towards the red, sometimes towards the violet end
of the spectrum. Occasionally, however, the bands of channelled space
spectra do not present any sharp edge whatever; but are simply made up
of a series of lines which are, roughly speaking, equidistant. In small spec-
troscopes these bands appear to be altogether homogeneous, presenting a
fairly sharp edge on both sides. A body, as we shall see, may have more
than one spectrum of the same kind.
Variations in the spectra of gases are generally obtained by a sufficient
alteration in the intensity of the electric discharge, which renders them
luminous. We shall call the discharge which passes, when the electrodes
are connected directly with the terminals of the induction coil, ‘ the
ordinary discharge,’ in contradistinction to the ‘jar discharge,’ in which
each terminal is also connected with one of the coatings of the Leyden
jar. In order to get the best effect with the jar discharge, it is generally
necessary to interrupt the circuit in some part, so that a spark is forced
to break through the air whenever the discharge passes.
II. Nitrogen.
Angstrom: ‘ Pogg. Ann.’ xciv. p. 158 (1855).
Pliicker: ‘ Pogg. Ann,’ cv. p. 76 (1858) ; evii. p. 519 (1859).
V.d. Willigen: ‘ Poge. Ann.’ evi. p. 618 (1859).
Huggins: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ cliv. p. 144 (1864).
Plicker and Hittorf: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ cly. p. 1 (1865).
Brassak ; ‘ Abh. Nat. Ges. Halle,’ x. (1866).
Wiillmer : ‘ Pogg. Ann.’ cxxxy. p. 524 (1868) ; exxxvii. p. 356 (1869);
exlvii. p. 325 (1872) ; exlix. p. 103 (1878).
Salet: ‘Ann. Ch. Phys.’ xxviii. p. 52 (1878); C.R. lxxxii. p. 223:
274 (1876).
Angstrom and Thalén: ‘ Noy. Act. Ups.’ (3), ix. (1875).
The Line-spectrum.—This spectrum appears whenever a strong spark
(jar discharge) is taken in nitrogen gas. It is always present when
metallic spectra are examined by the ordinary method of allowing the jar
discharge to pass between two metallic poles. A good knowledge of this
spectrum, which is very rich in lines, is important in all cases where
an electric discharge is used for spectroscopic analysis. The spectrum
has been studied especially by Huggins and Thalén. The latter has
82
260 REPORT—1880.
given the waye-lengths of all atmospheric lines, but has not separated
the oxygen and nitrogen lines. Huggins’ measurements have been
reduced to wave-lengths by Watts (Index of Spectra). At atmospheric
pressure the lines are not sharp, so that an exact measurement is difficult.
Pliicker and Hittorf have given a drawing of the lines as seen in vacuum
tubes with jar and air-break ; but they did not use a sufficient dispersion
for accurate measurement, and their points of reference are so few, that
the reduction to wave-length made by Watts was attended by many
difficulties, and the result is not altogether satisfactory. A careful set of
measurements of the nitrogen lines as they appear, when the pressure is
low and with high dispersive power, would be a very useful addition to
our knowledge of this spectram. The continuous spectrum generally
accompanying this spectrum has been investigated by Wiillner (1869).
The Band-spectrum of the Positive Discharge-—This spectrum which is
generally called the ban?-spectrum of nitrogen, always appears when the
discharge is sufficiently reduced in intensity.
It was first observed by Plicker (1858) in a vacuum tube, and about
the same time by v. d. Willigen in the brush discharge of an ordinary
electrical machine. The best way of obtaining it is that adopted by Plicker,
who was the first to introduce the shape of vacuum-tubes now generally
in use with the capillary part. Hence these tubes are often called Pliicker’s
tubes. The capillary part increasing the resistance greatly increases the
luminosity of the discharge. If nitrogen (or atmospheric air) be intro-
duced into such a Plicker tube, the capillary part will shine, on reduction
of pressure, with a rose-coloured light, when the ordinary discharge is
sent through it. The spectrum is one of the most beautiful which can be
observed. A very good coloured drawing of it is given in Pliicker and
Hittorf’s paper. Accurate measurements of the bands are given by Ang-
strom and Thalén. Another drawing with measurements will be found
in Lecog de Boisbaudran’s Atlas.!
The bands of this spectrum, which are situated in the red and yellow,
present a different appearance from those which are seen in the blue and
violet. This fact has led Pliicker and Hittorf to the supposition that
we have to deal with two different spectra which are superposed only but
given out by two distinct sets of molecules. The authors tried and suc-
ceeded in separating the two spectra. By increasing the diameter of the
capillary part they obtained a tube which only showed the red and yellow
bands. Their experiment is described in the following words, which will
be found in the 28th paragraph of the paper mentioned at the head of this
chapter :—
‘Thus we succeeded in constructing a tube which, when the direct
discharge was sent through it, became incandescent with the most brilliant
gold-coloured light, which might easily be confounded with the light of
highly-ignited vapours of sodium ; but with the intercalated jar, the light
of the incandescent gas within the same tube, had a fine bluish-violet
colour. The yellow light when analysed by the prism, gave a beautiful
spectrum of shaded bands, extending with decreasing intensity to the
blue, the channelled spaces being scarcely perceptible. The bluish hght
when examined was resolved by the prism into channelled spaces, extend-
ing towards the red; while the former bands almost entirely disappeared.
We may transform each colour and its corresponding spectrum into the
other ab libitum.’
' Lecog de Boisbaudran, Spectres Lumineux, Paris (Gauthier Villars).
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 261
This experiment might not be considered to be altogether conclusive,
as a mere relative increase of intensity in the violet end by an increase
of temperature might not be considered sufficient evidence for such a
wide distinction. It was, therefore, thought better to discuss these
spectra together, and not to separate them, for there is no doubt that in
the vast majority of cases they appear as one whole and not as two dis-
tinct spectra. It might, however, be adduced in support of Pliicker and
Hittorf’s opinion that the general aspect of the spectrum in the green is
certainly that of two overlapping spectra. Wiillner (‘ Wied. Ann.,’ viii. p.
590), has described the gradual changes seen in a nitrogen tube having
a very fine capillary bore, when the pressure is gradually reduced to a
very small amount. Owing to the increase of temperature the spectrum
gradually changes into a line spectrum, which is essentially the same as
the well-known line spectrum of nitrogen, Wiillner’s results will be dis-
cussed in a separate report.
The Spectrum of the Negative Glow.—The glow which surrounds the
negative electrode in an exhausted tube shows in many gases a spectrum,
which, as a rule, is not seen in any other part of the tube. In nitrogen
this spectrum has often been observed since v. de Willigen first drew
attention to it, and was recently mapped by Angstrém and Thalén, It is
a channelled-space spectrum, fading away towards the blue. The bands
partially overlap some of the bands which are seen in the spectrum of the
positive discharge, so that with low dispersive powers it might seem as if
in the negative glow some of the ordinary bands were oveatly increased
in intensity. But in reality a new series of bands is added at the nega-
tive pole, as will be seen with a good spectroscope, even if one prism only
be used. The ordinary spectrum of the positive discharge no doubt is
also present, though weak, in the negative glow, and often traces of the
spectrum of the negative pole are seen in the positive discharge ; but there
can be no doubt that we have to deal with two distinct spectra, although
it may not be easy to separate them entirely. When the pressure is much
reduced the negative glow gradually extends into the whole tube, and the
spectrum is then well seen in the capillary part.
Discussion on the Chemical Origin of the above Spectra.—Some discus-
sion has taken place on the chemical origin of the spectrum seen in the
positive discharge. In the year 1872 the writer of the present Report
(‘ Proc. R. Soc.,’ xx. p. 482), described some experiments, in which he
showed that when sodium is heated in a nitrogen tube the band spectrum
disappears, and is replaced by a series of lines which he thought belonged
to nitrogen. He drew the conclusion from his experiment that the bands
were due to an impurity of an oxide of nitrogen. It has since, however,
been shown, especially by Salet, that the disappearance of the bands is
due to another cause, and that the line spectrum which appears on heating
the sodium is not due to nitrogen. Salet also showed how, with proper
precautions, sodium may be heated in a tube containing nitrogen without
destroying the band spectrum, and he has therefore furnished the proof
that this spectrum is really due to nitrogen, and not toanoxide. Willner
has also come to the same conclusion. Angstrém and Thalén, however,
in their joint paper, support the opinion that the spectrum is that of
some oxide of nitrogen. They try to support this view by an experiment
showing that when the brush discharge from a Holtz machine is observed
in atmospheric air, or when the ordinary discharge of a coil is sent through
rarefied air, the band spectrum is seen, and that at the same time the
262 REPORT—1880.
formation of nitrogen dioxide can be proved by means of a solution of sul-
phate of iron. But the reasoning proves too much; for oxides of nitrogen
are also formed under the influence of the jar discharge when the line
spectrum is visible, and we should, therefore, have an equal right to
assume that the line spectrum of nitrogen is due to an oxide. It is im-
portant to remark that the chemical compounds which are formed outside
the spark give us no information on the chemical origin of the spectrum
which is given by the spark itself. In the absence of any contradictory
proof, Salet’s experiment that the band spectrum of nitrogen is seen in a
tube in which sodium is heated to its fusing point must be considered
conclusive that the spectrum is not due to an oxide.
Compounds of Nitrogen and Hydrogen.
Schuster: ‘Brit. Ass.’ Brighton (1872) p. 38; ‘Nature,’ vi. p.
359.
Dibbits, Dr. : ‘Spektraal-Analyse,’ p. 127 ; ‘ Pogg. Ann.’ exxii. p. 518.
Hofmann : ‘ Pogg. Ann.’ exlvii. p. 95.
The spectram seen when a weak spark is taken in a current of am-
monia is neither that of nitrogen nor that of hydrogen, but must be due
to a compound of these two gases. The writer of this report could even
obtain a spectrum in a vacuum tube by maintaining a current of the gas
through the tube. The spectrum consisted of a single band in the
greenish yellow, standing on a faint continuous background. The waye-
length was approximately found to be 5686 to 5627 decimétres. If am-
monia and hydrogen are burnt together, either in air or in oxygen, a
complicated spectrum is obtained, the chemical origin of which has not
been satisfactorily explained as yet. Drawings of this spectrum are given
by Dibbits and Hofmann.
Conpounds of Nitrogen and Oxygen.—No emission spectrum has as
yet been found which can be with certainty referred to a compound of
nitrogen and oxygen; though it is possible that the above-mentioned
spectrum of the flame of ammonia and hydrogen may in part be due to
an oxide of nitrogen. The absorption spectrum of the red fumes of
nitrogen tetroxide has often been mapped ; the most perfect drawing is
given by Dr. B. Hasselberg (‘ Mém. de St. Pét.’ xxvi. No. 4). According
to Moser (‘ Pogg. Ann.’ clx. p. 177), three bands close to the solar line C
disappear when the vapour is heated.
III. Oxygen.
Angstrém : ‘ Pogg. Ann.’ xciv. p. 141 (1855).
Pliicker: ‘ Pogg. Ann.’ evii. p. 518 (1859).
Huggins: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ cliv. p. 146 (1864).
Pliicker and Hittorf: ‘Phil. Trans.’ elv. p. 23 (1865).
Brassak : ‘ Abh. Nat. Ges. Halle,’ x. (1866).
Wiillner: ‘ Pogg. Ann.’ cxxxy. p. 515 (1868) ; exxxvil. p. 350 (1869) ;
exliv. p. 481 (1872); exlvii. p. 329; ‘Wied. Ann.’ viii. p. 253
(1879).
Salet : ‘Ann. Ch. Ph.’ xxviii. p. 35 (1873).
Schuster : ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clxx. p. 37 (1879) ; ‘Wied. Ann.’ vii. p. 670
(1879).
The spectrum of oxygen has been examined by Pliicker, Willner,
Salet, and more recently, by the author of this report, to whose paper the
- ate
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 263
reader is referred for all historical details, as well as for all measurements.
Great care must be taken when experimenting with oxygen to exclude all
impurities containing carbon; for the electric spark oxidizing these com-
pounds shows the spectrum of carbonic oxide, which is much more bril-
lant than the spectrum of oxygen, and may entirely eclipse it. We
distinguish four spectra of oxygen,
The Elementary Line-spectrum of Oaygen.— This is the spectrum
which appears at the highest temperature to which we can subject oxygen ;
that is, whenever the jar and air-break are introduced into the electric
cireuit. It consists of a great number of lines, especially in the more
refrangible part of the spectrum. It has been called elementary line-
spectrum to distinguish it from the other line-spectrum, because, accord-
ing to one hypothesis, which has been suggested, to explain the variability
of spectra, the molecule which gives this spectrum is in a simpler or more
elementary state than that which gives the other or so-called compound
line-spectrum. We may, however, adopt the nomenclature independently
of any hypothesis which may have suggested it.
The Compound Lrine-spectrum of Oxygen.—This spectrum appears at
lower temperatures than the first. It consists of four lines: one in the
red, two in the green, and one in the blue. With, the exception of the
blue line, all the lines in this spectrum widen very easily, and with an
imerease of pressure, more easily even than the hydrogen lines. , They do
not widen out equally on both sides, but more towards the red than
towards the violet. his fact is especially noticeable in the, more re-
frangible of the two green lines. The blue line always remains sharp.
The Continuous Spectrum of Oxygen.—This spectrum appears at the
lowest temperature at which oxygen is luminous. The wide. part of. a
Pliicker tube, filled with pure oxygen, generally shines with a faint yellow
light, which gives a continuous spectrum. Even at atmospheric pressure
this continuous spectrum can be obtained by putting the contact breaker
of the induction coil out of adjustment, so that the spark is weakened..
According to Becquerel an excess of oxygen in the oxyhydrogen flame
produces a yellow colour, which colour very likely is due to this continnous
spectrum of oxygen. The continuous background which often accom-
panies the elementary line-spectram must not be confounded with this,
spectrum.
The Spectrum of the Negative Glow.—This spectrum, which was first
accurately described by Wiillner (1872), is always seen in the glow sur-
rounding the negative electrode in oxygen. It consists of five bands:
three in the red and two in the green. The least refrangible of the red
bands is so weak that it easily escapes observation; the two other red
bands are rather near together, and may be taken for one single band if
the dispersion applied is small, The two green bands, which appear of
the same brightness throughout, with pretty sharply defined edges, are
resolved into a series of lines, when looked at with high optical powers.
The same no doubt holds of the red bands; only the resolution has not
been effected, owing to the weakness of the light.
Transformation of Spectra into each other.—The following description
of the appearance of a vacuum-tube filled with pure oxygen, as it under-
goes gradual exhaustion, will give an idea of the way in which the spectra
of oxygen gradually diffuse into each other :—
‘At first the spark has a yellow colour, and the spectrum is perfectly
continuous. Almost immediately, however, four lines are seen in the
264 REPORT—1880.
capillary part above the continuous spectrum. One of these lines is in the
red, two are in the green, and one is in the blue. The discharge still
passes as a narrow spark throughout the length of the tube. In the
wide part the spectrum remains continuous, and it extends more towards
the red and blue than in the capillary part. It seems as if the four lines
had taken away part of the energy of the continuous spectrum. As
the pressure diminishes, these lines increase considerably in strength, the
spark spreads out in the wide part of the tube, and the intensity of the
continuous spectrum is, therefore, considerably diminished, while it still
forms a prominent part in the spectrum of the capillary part. When the
pressure is small the continuous spectrum decreases in intensity. At
the same time the negative glow, with its own characteristic spectrum,
gradually extends through the negative half of the tube into the capil-
lary part. The continuous spectrum has now entirely disappeared ; the
bands of the negative pole and the four lines stand out on a perfectly
black background. It is under these conditions that the change from the
compound line-spectrum to the elementary line-spectrum is best studied.
The mere insertion of the Leyden jar, I find, makes hardly any difference ;
the jar does not seem to be charged at all. If, in addition to the jar, we
insert a movable air-break, which can be opened or closed at will, while
we look through the spectroscope, we shall be able to see alternately two
perfectly distinct spectra. If the air-break is closed, the four lines of the
compound spectrum only are seen; if the air-break is opened these four
lines will disappear entirely, and the elementary line-spectrum will come
out. We have here as complete a transformation as we have from the
band to the line spectrum of nitrogen, taking place under exactly the
same circumstances. We have, therefore, the same right to consider the
two-line spectra of oxygen as two distinct spectra as we have in the case
of the two spectra of nitrogen.’ !
Chemical Origin of Spectra.—There can be no doubt that all the above
spectra really belong to oxygen. They appear in whatever way the oxygen
has been prepared. They are seen with electrodes of aluminium, platinum,
silver, brass, and iridium. The glass also could not have introduced any
appreciable impurity, for all the spectra were observed in a large glass
receiver in which no part of the spark was within two and-a-half inches
from the glass.
It has been observed already that great caution is necessary to exclude
all carbon impurities, and the reader is warned that several descriptions of
the carbonic oxide spectrum as a supposed oxygen spectrum have even
recently appeared.”
IV. Carbon.
Swan: ‘Phil. Trans. Ed.’ xxi. p. 411 (1857).
Pliicker : ‘ Pogg. Ann.’ cv. p. 77 (1858) ; evil. p. 533 (1859).
V.d. Willigen: ‘ Pogg. Ann.’ cvii. p. 473 (1859).
Attfield: ‘Phil. Trans.’ clii. p. 221 (1862) ; ‘ Phil. Mag.’ xlix. p. 106
(1875).
Dibbits : ‘De Spectraal Analyse’ (1863); ‘Pogg. Ann.’ cxxii. p. 497
(1864).
Morren: ‘ Ann. Chim. Phys.’ iy. p. 305 (1865).
Pliicker and Hittorf: ‘Phil. Trans.’ cly. p. 1 (1865).
1 Phil, Trans, clxx. p. 51. 2 Paalzow, Wied, Ann. vii. p. 130.
OX OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 265
Huggins: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clviii. p. 558 (1868).
Lielegg: ‘ Wien. Ber.’ lvii. (2) p. 595 (1868).
Watts: ‘Phil. Mag.’ xxxviii. p. 249 (1869); xlviii. pp. 369 and 456
(1874) ; xlix. p. 104 (1875).
Wiillner: ‘Pogg. Ann.’ exliv. p. 481 (1872).
Salet: ‘Ann. Chim. Phys.’ xxviii. p. 60 (1873).
Angstrom and Thalén: ‘ Noy. Act. Ups.’ ix. (1875).
Lockyer: ‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxvii. p. 808 (1878) ; xxx. p. 335 (1880).
Liveing and Dewar: ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxx. pp. 152, 494 (1880).
Piazzi Smyth: ‘ Ast. Obs. Hd.’ xiii. (R.) p. 58 (1871) ; ‘Phil. Mag.’
xlix. p. 24 (1875) ; vil. p. 107 (1879).
Few spectra have given rise to so much controversy as the spectrum
of carbon. We shall give an account of the most important experiments
which have been made on the subject.
The Line-spectrum.—This spectrum appears when a very strong spark
is sent through carbonic oxide or carbonic acid. It has been observed and
described by Watts, Wiillner, Angstrém and Thalén. The best measure-
ments seem to be given by the two Swedish observers. Watts gives many
lines which are not found in Angstrém and Thalén’s map, but it seems
possible that the separation of carbon and oxygen lines has only been
imperfectly effected by Watts. All observers seem agreed in ascribing
this spectrum to carbon. Though Huggins and Watts were only able to
obtain this spectrum from carbonic oxide and carbonic acid, Angstrom and
Thalén seem to have seen it also in hydrocarbons when they used a large
condenser.
2. The Band-spectrum (Candle-spectrwm).—This is the spectrum which
is observed at the base of every candle and gas flame. The controversy
on the carbon spectrum chiefly relates to this spectrum, there being a
disagreement of opinion whether it is due to the element carbon or to a
hydrocarbon. The spectrum which has first been described by Swan
consists of a series of bands apparently fading away towards the blue, but
in reality easily resolvable into a series of lines. A good idea of the
appearance of this spectrum as it appears in spectroscopes of one prism,
is obtained from the drawing given in Lecog de Boisbaudran’s Atlas.
Angstrém and Thalén and Watts give more detailed drawings and
measurements. ‘he spectrum was considered by Swan to be due to a
hydrocarbon, but Swan’s experiments were only made with gases
containing hydrogen. Attfield discussed the question at great length in
1862, and came to the conclusion, that the spectrum was really due to
carbon. The experiments which were considered crucial by Attfield and
the great majority of observers were as follows :—
1. A flame of cyanogen in oxygen shows, amongst other bands, this
spectrum most brilliantly, after both gases have been carefully dried.
Cyanogen burning in air also gives the spectrum, but more faintly.
2. Sparks taken in the following gases, at atmospheric pressure,
carefully prepared and dried, show the spectrum.
Cyanogen.
Carbonic oxide.
Carbon bisulphide.
These gases have only carbon in common, and, unless the experiments
are vitiated by impurities, they prove undoubtedly that the spectrum is due
to the element carbon.
266 REPORT—1880.
Mr. Attfield’s paper induced Morren to take up the question. Starting
with the intention of disproving Attfield’s conclusions he ended by being
convinced that he was right. Entirely confirming Attfield’s experiments
Morren satisfied himself that the candle spectrum was really due to carbon,
and not to a hydrocarbon. He especially testifies to the brilliancy of the
spectrum in a flame of cyanogen and oxygen.
Dibbits had already, before Morren, arrived at the same conclusion. He
was the first to furnish an answer to the theoretical objection which can
be raised against Attfield’s explanation, and which at first sight appears
serious. The temperature of an ordinary flame is certainly not high
enough to volatilise carbon. How, then, can carbon be present in the state
of vapour and give us a discontinuous spectrum. Dibbits explains the
difficulty by saying that carbon exists before combustion, combined with
hydrogen; after combustion it is combined with oxygen, and it must
therefore have existed during a certain stage of transition in the form of
simple carbon uncombined. During this stage of transition it gives us the
carbon spectrum. He supports the explanation by the fact that a flame
of carbonic oxide does not show the spectrum, because in it the carbon is
never in a free and uncombined state. Dibbits’ view has received a good
deal of support by some very interesting experiments made recently by
Gouy (‘C. R.’ Ixxxiv. p. 231). In a Bunsen flame, the spectrum under
discussion is confined to a narrow cone; Gouy charges the air before it
enters the burner with powdered salts in a finely divided state, and shows
that at the same place where the candle-spectrum appears we may obtain
the spectra of bodies which it would be impossible to volatilise in the flame.
Thus the salts of iron, cobalt, manganese, silver, give lines which we know
to be due to these metals, as they are found in their spectra obtained
by meaus of electric sparks. Even platinum salts give a spectrum in the
blue cone, but it is not certain that this spectrum is really due to platinum
in an uncombined state. Gouy believes that these experiments indicate a
very high temperature in the blue cone of a Bunsen flame, but we think
an explanation, identical with the one given by Dibbits for carbon, will be
found more plausible. V.de Willigen had already, before Attfield, made
some not quite satisfactory experiments tending to show that the candle-
spectrum is due tocarbon. Pliicker and Hittorf, as well as Wiillner, arrive
(after Attfield) at the same conclusion. Watts has made a long series of
experiments, all tending to support Attfield’s view. In addition to the
gases experimented on by Attfield he took carbonic tetrachloride and
obtained from it the candle-spectrum. Lockyer has quite recently
experimented with the same gas and shown that this much discussed
spectrum can be obtained, when a strong spark does not reveal the
presence of hydrogen. Huggins’ attention was drawn to this spectrum
through his observations on comets, and he also obtained the candle-
spectrum in a current of cyanogen gas, and therefore considered the
spectrum to be due to carbon.
On the whole it may be said that, from the publication of Attfield’s
paper until the year 1875, every spectroscopist, whether he was a chemist
or a physicist, who had set to work to decide the question, came to the
conclusion that the candle-spectrum was a true spectrum of carbon, and
the question appeared to be settled. In the year 1875, after Angstrém’s
death, Thalén published a paper in which he describes some experiments
jointly made with Angstrém. In consequence of these experiments the
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 267
authors expressed the opinion that the candle-spectrum was due to a hydro-
carbon. ‘he experiments which they gave in support of their view were
made by taking the spark of carbon electrodes in various gases and
examining the spectra of the ‘auréole’! or ‘glory,’ as it might be called.
If the spark is taken in oxygen the undoubted spectrum of carbonic oxide
appears ; in hydrogen the candle-spectrum is seen; and in nitrogen some
blue and violet bands are added to the candle-spectrum which appear to
be due to a compound of carbon and nitrogen. As it is known that
acetylene is formed when the spark is taken in hydrogen, Angstrém and
Thalén conclude that the spectrum seen in the ‘glory’ is due to
acetylene.
Recently Professors Liveing and Dewar have supported Angstrém’s
view. The following quotations from their paper will give an idea
of the view taken up by the two Cambridge professors :-—
‘ Our faith in the conclusions of Angstrém and Thaleén on this subject
has been much strengthened by our own observations, which we now pro-
ceed to describe’ (p. 154).
Their experiments consisted in observing the spectra seen in the electric
are passing between carbon poles in various gases, such as air, carbonic
acid, hydrogen, nitrogen, chlorine, carbonic oxide, nitric oxide, and am-
monia. They also examined some flames of carbon compounds. The
following is their summary of that part of their work which relates to the
candle-spectrum :—
‘In the next place, the green and blue bands, characteristic of the
hydrocarbon flame, are well seen when the arc is taken in hydrogen ; but
though less strong when the arc is taken in nitrogen or in chlorine, they
seem to be always present in the are whatever the atmosphere. This is
what we should expect, if they be due, as Anestrém and Thalén suppose,
to.acetylene ; for we have found that the carbon electrodes always contain,
even when they have been long treated in chlorine, a notable quantity of
hydrogen,
‘In the flames of carbon compounds they by no means always appear ;
indeed it is only in those of hydrocarbons or their derivatives that they
are well seen. Carbonic oxide and carbon disulphide, even when mixed
with hydrogen, do not show them; and if seen in the flames of cyanogen,
hydrocyanic acid, and carbon tetrachloride mixed with hydrogen, they
are faint, and do not form a principal or prominent part of the spec-
trum. This is all consistent with the suppesition of Angstroém and
Thalén.’
The experiment, noticed above, on carbon tetrachloride was made by
Lockyer in answer to Professors Liveing and Dewar’s paper.
To recapitulate shortly the arguments on either side: Those who
believe the spectrum to be due to the element carbon rely chiefly on the
brilliancy with which these bands are developed when cyanogen is burnt in
oxygen, also when the spark is taken in cyanogen, carbon tetrachloride,
and carbonic oxide at high pressure ; all the gases being dried with the
greatest care. Those who oppose this view and who hold that the spec-
trum is due to a hydrocarbon, refer to the impossibility of excluding all
1 The French language is the only one which possesses, as far as I know, an
appropriate word for the sheet of light connecting under certain conditions the
electrodes in addition to the spark proper or trait de feu. The term ‘ glory’ was, as
far as he can remember, suggested to the writer by the late Prof. Maxwell.
268 REPORT— 1880.
traces of moisture, and to the fact that this spectrum is well developed
under circumstances where we know hydrocarbons to be present, Finally
we give the wave-lengths of the least refracted lines of the most con-
spicuous bands. According to Angstrém and Thalén they are: 5633-0 ;
51640; 4736:0. Watts gives slightly different values, vis.: 5634-7 ;
5165°5; 4739°8.
Compounds of Carbon and Nitrogen.—The flame of cyanogen, which
had already been examined by Faraday and Draper, before the days of
Spectrum Analysis, shows a series of bands in the red, reaching into the
green, which are not seen in any other flame. Pliicker and Dibbits have
given drawings of these bands, which have their sharp edge on the most
refrangible side. There is no doubt that they are due to a compound of
carbon and nitrogen. The same bands are also seen, when cyanogen is
burnt in oxygen, although, according to Morren and Watts, they are less
developed, a fact which they ascribe to the smaller quantity of undecom-
posed cyanogen at the higher temperature of the flame in oxygen. Ac-
cording to Pliicker and Hittorf, and also Dibbits, the bands in the red
become more brilliant when cyanogen is burnt in oxygen. There seems
to be a conflict between the increased brilliancy due to a higher tempera-
ture and the decrease of luminosity due to the more rapid decomposition
in the oxygen flame.
Besides the red and yellow bands, a cyanogen flame shows a series
of bands in the blue, violet, and ultra-violet. These bands have been,
until quite recently, ascribed to carbon, as they have also been observed in
carbon compounds not containing nitrogen, but according to the experi-
ments of Professors Liveing and Dewar, they can in those cases always
be traced to impurities containing nitrogen.
Thus, according to Watts, the bands are seen when a spark is taken
in carbonic oxide at the atmospheric pressure. According to Professors
Liveing and Dewar this is true, if the carbonic oxide has been prepared
from ferrocyanide of potassium. When the gas, however, was made by
the action of sulphuric acid on dried formiate of sodium, a faint trace of
one of the bands only could be detected. When the gas was prepared
by heating a mixture of quicklime with pure and dry potassium oxalate,
no trace whatever of the bands in question appeared.
Similarly Watts and Lockyer had observed the bands in a tube con-
taining carbon tetrachloride, bnt, according to Professors Liveing and
Dewar, these bands do not appear when the tetrachloride has been well
purified, and when all traces of air have been expelled from the tube.
Experiments with naphthalene gave the same results; the bands did
not appear when the air had been properly expelled from the tube.
These experiments seem conclusive as to the chemical origin of the
spectrum in question. It seems remarkable, however, that this spectrum
should be reversed in the solar spectrum; for a photograph taken by
Lockyer shows a decided coincidence of one of the flutings with a series
of dark lines in the solar spectrum ; and Professors Liveing and Dewar
consider the reversal of another set of flutings still further in the ultra-
violet as probable. The spectrum we have been discussing consists chiefly
of three sets of bands; the first set consists of seven fluted bands (wave-
lengths 4600 to 4502, Watts), the second set of six bands (A=4220 to
4158, Watts), and the third set in the ultra-violet of five bands (A=3888'5
to. 3850, Liveing and Dewar). According to Professors Liveing and
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 269
Dewar there is another band still farther in the ultra-violet, and apparently
coinciding with the solar line P.
Spectrum of Carbonic Oxide.—It has been said already that great care
must be taken, in order to produce a spectrum of oxygen, to exclude all
carbon impurities. If this precaution is not taken a spectrum is obtained
which no doubt belongs to carbonic oxide. The spectrum is most bril-
liantly obtained in a Pliicker’s tube filled with carbonic oxide. The spec-
trum was carefully examined by Willner, and was measured by Watts as
well as Angstrém and Thalén. As some of the bands are situated rather
near to the bands of the candle-spectrum, the two spectra have often been
confounded, and we therefore give the wave-lengths obtained by the
Swedish observers for the most conspicuous bands: 5607°5; 5197-0;
4833°5.
Spectrum of Carbonic Acid.—Plicker mentions already in his first paper
on the spectra of gases (1858) that carbonic acid in a vacuum-tube shows
a band in the red which is very strong at first and gradually disappears.
This band he attributes to carbonic acid (1859), which, it is known, is
gradually decomposed by the spark. Wiillner has carefully examined
and described the changes going on in the spectrum seen in a vacunm-tube
when it is first filled with carbonic acid.
Professor Piazzi Smyth (‘ Phil. Mag.’ xlix. p. 24) has given some very
careful and valuable measurements of the details in some of the flutings
of the spectra which we have described. He ascribes the candle spec-
trum to a hydrocarbon, and the spectram which we have put down as
belonging to carbonic oxide, he refers to carbon, as it is also visible in
tubes not containing any oxygen. Professor Piazzi Smyth has, however,
not filled his own tubes, and we must be careful not to attach too much
value to the labels put on vacuum tubes by the glass-blower who has
filled them. According to Watts, a tube containing hydrocarbons does
not show this spectrum when the gas is heated in contact with metallic
sodium.!
V. Ohlorine.
V. d. Willigen : ‘ Pogg. Ann.’ evi. p. 624 (1859).
Pliicker : ‘Pogg. Ann.’ evii. p. 528 (1859).
Pliicker and Hittorf: ‘Phil. Trans.’ clv. p. 24 (1865).
Salet : ‘ Ann. Chim. Phys.’ xxviii. p. 24 (1873).
Ciamician: ‘ Wien. Ber.’ Ixxviii. (II.) p. 872 (1878).
Morren: ‘C. BR.’ Ixviii. p. 376 (1869).
Gernez: ‘C. R.’ Ixxiv. p. 660 (1872).
W. A. Miller: ‘Phil. Mag.’ xxvii. p. 81 (1845).
The Line-spectrwm.—This is the spectrum which is obtained if an
electric spark is taken in chlorine gas. It has been mapped by Pliicker
and Hittorf, whose measurements have been reduced to wave-lengths by
Watts. Some earlier measurements of the strongest lines will be found
in Pliicker’s paper. Salet has also mapped this chlorine spectrum as well
as could be done with a spectroscope of small dispersive powers. A few
of the lines have been measured by Angstrém (‘ Phil. Mag.’ xli. p. 398).
None of these measurements lay claim to great accuracy. Recently
Ciamician has given a detailed account of the successive changes which
this spectrum undergoes, if the pressure is either greatly reduced or
1 Phil. Mag. xiviii. p. 4566 1874).
J Pp )
270 REPORT—1880.
increased. Lines, which are visible at one pressure, altogether disappear
at another. Some preliminary experiments have convinced the writer of
this report, that we have here to deal with a mixture of several overlap-
ping spectra. In reality the phenomena are even more complicated than
Ciamician supposes, but a more extensive series of experiments is required
before any detailed account can be given.
The Band-spectrum.—This is the spectrum which is obtained by ab-
sorption, if sunlight is sent through a long column of chlorine gas. The
spectrum was first observed by Morren, who describes it, but does not give
any measurements. It has never been obtained as an emission spectrum.
Compounds of Chlorine and Ovygen.—The absorption spectra of chlorine
trioxide and chlorine peroxide were examined by Prof. W. A. Miller in
1845 and found to be identical, while chlorine monoxide did not show
any bands. As no other case is known in which two different compounds
give the same spectrum, and as the oxides of chlorine are very unstable,
there is no doubt that the spectrum of one of them only was observed,
that gas to which the spectrum belongs being also present when the other
oxide was examined. Gernez confirming Miller’s results, also found that
a weak solution of these gases in some liquids presents the same absorption
bands. According to Gernez a long tube filled with chlorine monoxide
shows the same spectrum. A drawing of the spectrum will be found in
Miller’s paper.
VI. Bromine.
Plicker: ‘Pogg. Ann.’ evii. p. 527 (1859).
Pliicker and Hittorf: ‘Phil. Trans.’ clv. p. 24 (1865).
Salet: ‘Ann. Chim. Phys.’ xxviii. p. 26 (1873).
W. H. Miller: ‘Phil. Mag.’ ii. p. 381 (1833).
W. A. Miller: ‘Phil. Mag.’ xxvii. p. 86 (1845).
Roscoe and Thorpe: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ elxvii. p. 207 (1876).
Moser : ‘ Pogg. Ann.’ clx. p. 177 (1877).
Ciamician : ‘ Wien. Ber.’ Ixxviii. (II.) p. 874 (1878).
Hasselberg: ‘ Mém. de St. Pét.’ xxvi. 4 (1878).
The Line-spectrum.—We only possess approximate measurements of
this spectrum by the same authors who mapped the chlorine spectrum.
The spectrum appears whenever the electric discharge passes through
the vapour of bromine. Ciamician has observed similar changes in the
spectrum of ‘bromine to those already mentioned in chlorine.
The Band-spectrum.—This spectrum is obtained by absorption. It
was first observed by Prof. W. H. Miller in 1833.
Drawings and measurements have been made by Roscoe and Thorpe
and Moser, who mentions some changes which the spectrum shows on
being heated. The most detailed and apparently the best drawings are
given by Dr. B. Hasselberg. Both Moser and Hasselberg’s measurements
begin in the orange, so that for absorption-bands in the red we have to
refer to Roscoe and Thorpe’s map.
A flame of hydrogen containing bromine gives a continuous spectrum
only. Similarly, if a hard glass tube is heated to a low red heat and
bromine introduced, the gas becomes luminous ; but a continuous spectrum
only is seen. It is uncertain whether this continuous spectrum is due only
to the bands of the absorption spectrum widened by an-increase of
temperature, or whether we have to deal with a true continuous spectrum.
—
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 271
In the latter case we should have the remarkable fact of a vapour giving a
continuous spectrum at a higher temperature than the one at which it
gives the band spectrum.
VII. Lodine.
Pliicker: ‘ Pogg. Ann.’ evil. p. 638 (1859).
Wiillner : ‘ Poge. Ann.’ exx. p. 158 (1863).
Mitcherlich: ‘ Pogg, Ann.’ exxi. p. 474 (1864).
Pliicker & Hittorf: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ cly. p. 24 (1865).
Salet : ‘C. R.’ Ixxiv. p. 1249; ‘Ann. Chim. Phys.’ xxviii. p. 29 (1872).
W. H. Miller: ‘ Phil. Mag.’ ii. p. 381 (1833).
W. A. Miller: ‘ Phil. Mag.’ xxvii. p. 86 (1845).
Thalén: ‘Stockholm Akad. Handl.’ viii. (1870).
Lockyer: ‘Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxii. p. 377 (1874).
Lockyer and Roberts: ‘ Proc. Roy. Soe.’ xxiii. p. 348 (1875).
Ciamician : ‘ Wien. Ber.’ Ixxviii. (II.) p. 877 (1878).
The Line-spectrum.—This spectrum, which appears under the same
circumstances as the line-spectra of chlorine and bromine, has been mapped
by the same observers. Ciamician found in this spectrum similar changes
as when the pressure was greatly reduced.
The Band-spectrum.—This spectrum, which is easily obtained as an
absorption-spectrum at low temperatures, was first observed by Prof.
W. H. Miller, 1833. It has been carefully mapped by Thalén. The
darkening and widening of the bands when the temperature is increased
has been described by Thalén and Lockyer. It is a curious fact that the
absorption on heating extends continuously into the blue and violet (which
are clear at low temperature) so that the whole of the more refrangible
end of the spectrum can be blocked out. At higher temperatures, however,
the violet and blue light is transmitted, and the spectrum resembles again
that of low temperature. Thus Lockyer heating various vapours in an
iron tube placed inside a furnace, supplied with coke or charcoal, found
that iodine gave an intense bank of general absorption in the violet, where
at the ordinary temperature the vapour transmits light. In his joint
experiments with Mr. Chandler Roberts, in which the vapours were heated
to a still higher degree he found that the violet and blue light was trans-
mitted again.
Salet could obtain this spectrum as an emission spectrum in the wide
part of a Geissler tube. Also by heating the vapour of iodine round a
white-hot platinum spiral.
Wiillner, however, was the first to observe this spectrum as an emission
spectrum by charging a hydrogen flame with iodine vapour.
Angstrém had already examined the spectrum of an alcohol flame
containing iodine, but had obtained a different spectrum, showing bands
in the green. According to Mitcherlich the latter spectrum is obtained if
a flame of hydrogen contains small quantities of iodine. If large quantities
are present the reversal of the absorption spectrum is seen. Salet did not
observe this spectrum ; but the one mentioned by Angstrim and Mitcherlich,
which very likely is that of some compound of iodine.
Spectrum of Iodine Chloride—The absorption spectrum of the vapour
of iodine chloride was observed by Gernez (‘C. R.’ Ixxiv. p, 660) and
mapped by Roscoe and Thorpe, who drew attention to the resemblance of
this spectrum to that of bromine. (‘ Phil. Trans.’ elxvii. p. 207.)
272 REPORT—1 880.
The vapour of protobromide of iodine also gives an absorption spectrum
similar to the above (Gernez: ‘ C. R.’ Ixxiv. p. 1190—1874).
VIII. Fluorine.
Séguin: ‘C. R.’ liv. p. 933 (1862).
Salet: ‘Ann. Chim. Phys.’ xxviii. p. 34 (1873).
A spark taken in fluoride of silicium shows a few lines, which are not
seen when the spark is taken in chloride of silicium. These lines Salet
attributes to the element fluorine ; they are all situated in thered. Séguin
observed a strong blue ray common to fluoride of silicium and fluoride of
boron, and attributes it to fluorine. Séguin does not say in what way the
gases were prepared, but it seems possible that the blue line is the calcium
line, which very often appears when calcium eompounds are used in
preparing gases.
TX. Sulphur.
Ségnin: ‘C. R.’ liii. p. 1272 (1861).
Mulder: ‘Jour. f. Prakt. Chem.’ xci. p. 112 (1864).
Pliicker and Hittorf: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ cly. p. 13 (1865).
Salet : ‘Ann. Chim. Phys.’ xxviii. p. 37 (1878).
Lockyer: ‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxii. p. 374 (1875).
Gernez: ‘C. R.’ Ixxiv. p. 803 (1872).
The Line-spectrum.—lf sulphur is heated to its point of ebullition in-
a vacuum-tube, and the jar discharge passed through the vapour, we
obtain a line-spectrum, which was first measured by Pliicker and Hittorf
(Watts, Index of Spectra). Salet also has mapped this spectrum, and a
few of the lines have been measured by Angstrom (‘ Phil. Mag.’ xlii. p. 397).
Séguin has obtained this spectrum by heating sulphur in hydrogen and
passing a spark at atmospheric pressure through the hydrogen. He was
thus the first to observe this spectrum.
The Band-spectrum.—If the ordinary discharge is passed through a
vacuum-tube, in which sulphur is kept boiling, a beautiful band-spectrum
is obtained. Pliicker and Hittorf give a coloured drawing of this spec-
trum, but without measurements. Measurements have been supplied by
Salet, who furnishes us with the best investigation on sulphur spectra
which we at present possess. He was the first to observe this spectrum
as an absorption spectrum, by passing the light through sulphur vapour
heated to a high temperature, an observation which has been confirmed
by Gernez and Lockyer.
The flame of sulphur, as well as the flame of sulphuretted hydrogen,
gives a continuous spectrum only, but if a hydrogen flame contains traces
of sulphur a band-spectrum is seen. This spectrum was first obtained
by Mulder by heating sulphur near the orifice of a glass tube through
which hydrogen passed, the hydrogen being burnt at the orifice. Salet
increased the luminosity of the flame by pressing it against a layer of
cold water falling vertically. According to him the band-spectrum thus
obtained is the same as the one seen in a vacuum-tube; the relative
intensity of some of the bands only being altered. Considering, how-
ever, the small dispersion used by Salet and the large differences between
the two spectra shown in his map, it seems probable that we have to deal,
in part, at any rate, with a new spectrum, most likely that of a compound.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 273
Some of the bands of the electric spectram no doubt may be present as
well.
The Continuous Spectrum of Sulphwr—Sulphur vapour at compara-
tively low temperatures shows a continuous spectrum by absorption.
The change of this continuous spectrum to the band-spectrum seems to
be connected with and dependent on the change in density which sulphur
vapour undergoes between the temperatures of 500° and 1000°. Gernez
at least mentions that the change takes place simultaneously with a rapid
decrease in density.
X. Selenium.
Mulder: ‘Journ. f. Prakt. Chemie,’ xci. p. 113 (1864).
Pliicker and Hittorf: ‘Phil. Trans.’ clv. p. 5 (1865).
Salet : ‘Ann. Chim. Phys.’ xxviii. p. 47 (1873).
Gernez: ‘C. R.’ Ixxiv. p. 803 and p. 1190 (1874).
Lockyer and Roberts: ‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.’ xxiii. p. 348 (1875).
The spectra of selenium are analogous to those of sulphur, and are
obtained in the same way. According to Salet the band-spectrum may
be obtained in the flame of burning selenium, or when the metalloid is
heated ina hydrogen flame (Mulder). Sulphur, as we have observed,
gives under the same conditions a continuous spectrum only. The band-
spectrum of selenium has been obtained by absorption in selenium vapour
by Gernez. At 700°, according to this observer, the vapour of selenium
absorbs all the light with the exception of the red ; but if the temperature
is raised the tint of the vapour brightens, and the different regions of the
spectrum re-appear, furrowed with groups of black bands in the blue
and violet. The band-spectrum has also been obtained by Lockyer as an
absorption spectrum.
Gernez also describes the absorption spectra shown by the vapours of
selenious acid, protochloride of selenium, and bromide of selenium ; but
he does not give any measurements.
XI. Tellurium.
Thalén: ‘Noy. Act. Ups.’ (111) vi. (1868).
Salet: ‘Ann. Chim. Phys.’ xxviii. p. 49 (1872).
Gernez: ‘C. R.’ lxxiv. p. 1190 (1872).
The line-spectrum of tellwriwm can be obtained, like that of metals, by
taking the jar discharge from tellurium poles in air. It has been mea-
sured by Thalén. Salet has observed a band-spectrum in vacuum-tubes
in which tellurium was heated, but he could not decide whether this
spectrum did not rather belong to an oxide. Gernez heated tellurium in
an atmosphere of carbonic acid gas to a temperature near that at which
glass begins to melt, and he observed in the transmitted light an absorp-
tion spectrum, extending from the yellow into the violet.
Protochloride of tellurium, according to the same observer, gives a band-
absorption spectrum, chiefly in the orange and green. The vapour of
protobromide of telluriwm absorbs the light in the red and yellow.
XII. Phosphorus.
Séguin: ‘C. R.’ liii. p. 1272 (1861).
Plicker and Hittorf: ‘ Phil. Trans.’ clv. p. 24 (1865).
Salet: ‘Ann. Chim. Phys.’ xxviii. p. 56 (1878).
1880. T
274 REPORT—1880.
Christofle and Beilstein: ‘C. R.’ lvi. p. 399 (1863).
Mulder: ‘ Journ. f. Prakt. Chemie,’ xci. p. 111 (1864).
Lecog de Boisbaudran : ‘Spectres Lumineux’ (1874).
Lockyer: ‘ Proc Roy. Soe.’ xxii. p. 374 (1874).
By passing a spark in hydrogen at atmospheric pressure in which
phosphorus was heated, Séguin observed a line-spectrum. Pliicker and
Hittorf and Salet observed the same spectrum by treating phosphorus in
a vacuum-tube like selenium. The spectrum consists of comparatively
few lines, which are chiefly situated in the orange and green.
A hydrogen flame containing traces of phosphorus takes a green
colour, and shows a spectrum which was first drawn by Christofle and
Beilstein. Mulder makes the interesting remark that a drop of ether in
the hydrogen apparatus altogether prevents the formation of this spec-
trum. He tries to explain the fact by assuming that the ether prevents
the oxidation of the phosphorus.
Salet rendered the green flame more luminous by cooling it. The
most successful way of effecting this seems to be to surround the tube,
through which the hydrogen escapes, by a wider tube, and to blow cold
air through this wider tube. This cooling produces a change in the
relative intensity of the bands, the red and yellow bands being strength-
ened. Lecoq de Boisbaudran gives a careful drawing of this spectrum ;
which very likely is due to some compound of phosphorus.
XIII. Silicon.
Troost et Hautefeuille: ‘C. R.’ Ixxiii. p. 620 (1871).
Salet: ‘Ann. Chim. Phys.’ xxviii. p. 65 (1873).
Pliicker : ‘Pogg. Ann.’ evil. p. 531 (1859).
A spectrum of silicon may be obtained by taking the jar discharge
between poles of silicon. - Kirchhoff has thus mapped two bands, one of
which, however, according to Salet, is due to lead. Troost and Haute-
feuille mention that they have obtained in this way a great number of
lines, but their measurements are all given to an arbitrary scale. By
passing a spark through the chloride and fluoride of silicon we can
eliminate the lines due to the halogens, and obtain a spectrum of lines
which must be due to silicon. This has been done by Salet. Salet has
also obtained spectra of the hydrogen flame charged with chloride, bro-
mide, and iodide of silicon. Most of the bands observed are common to
all three compounds, but whether they are due to silicon or to a compound
with oxygen or hydrogen is uncertain. Pliicker observed in a vacuum-
tube filled with chloride of silicon a band-spectrum, which very likely is
due to that compound. Silicon fluoride also gives a band-spectrum under
the same conditions. Bromide of silicon, according to Salet, gives a con-
tinuous spectrum in a vacuum-tube, when a weak spark is passed through
it. A strong spark decomposes the gas, and the lines of bromine and
silicon appear.
XIV. Boron.
Troost et Hautefeuille: ‘C. R.’ Ixxiii. p. 620 (1871).
The spectrum of boron was obtained by Messrs. Troost et Hautefeuille
by comparing together the spectra obtained between platinum poles in
atmospheres of fluoride of boron and fluoride of silicon.. It consists of
several groups of brilliant double lines in the yellow, green, and blue.
el
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 275
§ 2. On THE Inrivence or Temperature AND Pressure ON THE SprcTRA
or Gases. By Dr. Scuusrer, F’.R.S.
A study of the changes which may be observed in the spectra of gases,
under varying circumstances, is of great importance, both from a practical
and a theoretical point of view. We are here chiefly concerned with the
practical side; and it is clear that a full investigation of all spectroscopic
variations attending changes of physical conditions, will ultimately lead to
a science which will aim, not only at a merely qualitative analysis, as the
original spectroscopy did, but which will enable us to determine the exact
physical state of a luminous body, at whatever distance from us that body
might be placed.
There is some difficulty in arranging the great quantity of partially
unconnected facts which we shall have to place before the reader. We
shall endeavour, for clearness’ sake, to arrange our material under five
different heads. We shall first discuss what changes we have a right to
expect in the appearance of a spectrum, if the quantity of luminous
matter is increased, or if the temperature is raised, the absorbing pro-
perties of the gas remaining unaltered. We shall next speak of the
widening of lines, which, as we shall see, often accompanies an increase
of pressure. Then we shall treat of the different spectra given by one
and the same body at different temperatures, and we shall see how far
satisfactory explanations have been offered for their existence.
So far our road will be clear, but we shall find that these spectra of
different orders, as they have been called, are only extreme cases of con-
tinuous changes which are nearly always going on. Very often we can
refer these continuous changes to a gradual displacement of one spectrum
by another; but often we shall not be able to prove the existence of a
second spectrum. There is, 4 priori, nothing impossible, or even improb-
able, in the view that the relative intensity of different lines may be
different at different temperatures, and often when we observe a variation,
we may equally well explain it by assuming the gradual appearance of a
new spectrum, or an alteration only in the relative intensities of the lines.
It becomes then a matter of extreme difficulty to decide which of the
two suppositions is correct. In doubtful cases we may often be able to
obtain important information by means of a method which is little under-
stood, even by spectroscopists. It is the method which has first been
extensively used and investigated by Mr. Lockyer, of projecting an image
of the luminous source, spark, are, or flame on the slit of the spectroscope,
and thus localising the spectra which are thrown and confused together,
if the luminous source is examined directly without the interposition of a
lens. We shall see how, by means of this method, we shall often at a
single glance be able to tell how the body will behave at different tem-
peratures and under different pressures. Many facts which have been
quoted as remarkable might have been foretold by means of this method.
Our fourth chapter will be devoted to it. In our last chapter we shall
have to give an account of some changes which have not found a place
under the previous heads.
I. Influence of Thickness of Radiating Layer on the Spectra of Gases.
Let a be the coefficient of absorption for a certain wave-length of a
layer of gas, of thickness and density equal to unity. Let e be the
T2
276 REPORT—1880.
radiation of a perfectly black body for the given wave-length, and at the
temperature of the body, the radiation of which we are considering.
Then the radiation E of a layer of thickness a and density 6 will be!—
E= [1-a-«)® 3
We pass over some obvious consequences of this formula, which have
~ been treated in detail in Zodllner’s paper, but shall discuss whether a mere
increase in the thickness or density of the layer can alter the relative
intensities of the lines. Put dd =o and let EH, be the radiation of the
same body for another wave-length, e, being the corresponding radiation
for a perfectly black body.
In the first place we remark that there can only be one finite value of
o, for which the two radiations can be equal; for the equation
[1-a-«) "| = [1-a-«)"] Z
has only two roots, one of them being « = 0, which case, of course, is
excluded from our consideration. For an infinite thickness—
By _ 4
ee
Let e, be larger than e; then, if for any given value of o, say o', EK, is
larger than E, it must be also larger for all greater values of ¢, for if for
any value larger than o!, H, could be smaller, it would have to be equal
to E for two values lying between ¢ = co! and « = ©; which, as we have
seen, is impossible. On the other hand, if, for any value of o, EH, is
smaller than EH, the relative intensities must be reversed by an increase
of thickness, for an infinite value of ¢ will make E, > E.
We have been assuming that e, is larger than e; e being the radiation
of a perfectly black body. Now for all temperatures which we are con-
sidering, the radiation of a perfectly black body decreases in the visible
part of the spectrum with the wave-length. Hence the wave-length, for
which E, is the radiation, must be larger than the corresponding wave-
length for E. Putting all these considerations together we arrive at the
following laws :—
1. If the less refrangible of two rays is the stronger for any given quantity
of luminous matter, no increase of that quantity can reverse the relative
intensities, but a decrease may render the more refrangible ray stronger.
2. If the more refrangible of two rays is the stronger, a sufficient in-
crease m the quantity of luminous matter will, in all cases, reverse the
relative intensities, but a decrease will never make the less refrangible ray
stronger.
Zollner, who was the first to draw attention to the fact that a reversal
of relative intensity may be produced by an increase in the quantity of
luminous matter, has failed to notice that this inversion can only take
place if the less refrangible ray is the weaker of the two.
When we come to look round for examples in which the effect of
thickness of a layer can be clearly traced, we shall have difficulty in
finding any. For most gases the values of a are exceedingly small,
and then, of course, the increase of quantity must be exaggerated to an
enormous extent before any appreciable effect is produced. Even on the
) Zollner: Phil. Mag. xli. p. 190 (1871); Wiillner: Wied. Ann. viii. p. 590 (1879).
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. Q2h7
sun, the relative intensities of the lines is often the same as that we
observe in our laboratory experiments, and where it is not, it does not
show such changes as would be produced by a mere increase of the
absorbing layer. In liquids, of course, and some vapours which have
large absorbing powers, an effect of the thickness of the absorbing layer
can be traced.
If the temperature of a radiating gas is increased, the absorbing
power for each ray remaining the same, the radiation will vary in the
same proportion as e; that is, as the radiation from a perfectly black body.
It follows that the more refrangible rays will relatively gain more’ than
the less refrangible rays, but it must be borne in mind that the absolute
intensity of any given line can never decrease, unless the quantity of
luminous matter decreases.
II. Widening of Lines.
In his celebrated paper, ‘ Optiska Undersékningar’! (1853,) Angstrom
gives two drawings of the hydrogen spectrum. In neither of them are
the lines sharp; but in one of them especially they are drawn out into
broad bands. The property of widening their lines under certain circum-
stances has since been found to be common to all bodies, though some of
them possess it to a much larger extent than others. Hydrogen and
sodium are the best known instances of elements which widen their lines
considerably, though in one of the spectra of oxygen, the lines broaden
even more easily. Wiillner? has given a detailed description of the
behaviour of the hydrogen lines under different pressures, both with the
condensed and uncondensed discharge. The same author has also given
us information as to the widening of some of the oxygen lines in the same
paper, and his observations were confirmed and extended by the author
of this report. Ciamician‘* has described the widening of the lines ot
mercury, sodium, and some other gases. The papers of Lockyer, and of
Liveing and Dewar will also be found to contain many observations on
the widening of lines. We shall refer presently to some of their most
important experiments on the subject.
It is a fact which is often, though by no means generally, true, that if
a spectrum widens its lines easily, the widening begins with the most
-refrangible lines. This was first noticed by Pliicker and Hittorf in the
case of hydrogen. They express themselves as follows: ®
‘Hydrogen shows in the most striking way the expansion of its
spectral lines and their gradual transformation into a continuous spectrum.
By increasing the power of the coil, Hy (coincident with solar line near G)
first expands, then Hf (solar F). Let the aperture of the slit be so regu-
lated that the double sodium line will separate into two lines, nearly
touching; then the angular breadth of Hf becoming two or three
minutes,® the breadth of Hy is about double. Ha remains almost un-
changed after Hy has passed into an undetermined hazy band, and Hf
extended its decreasing light on its two sides.’ A fourth hydrogen line,
more refrangible than the others, was discovered by Angstrém, and as
Goldstein’ has remarked, this line is the first to widen, thus following
} Translated, Pogg. Ann. xciv. p. 141 (1855).
2 Pogg. Ann. CXxxvii. p. 339 (1869). 3 Phil. Trans. clxx. p. 37 (1879).
4 Wien. Ber. (2) xxviii. p. 867 (1878). 5 Phil. Trans. elv. p. 21 (1865).
6 The large Steinheil spectroscope was used. 7 Berl. Ber. p. 593 (1874).
278 REPORT—1 880.
the generalrule. It would be interesting to determine the behaviour of
the ultra-violet lines of hydrogen which have recently been discovered.
In the case of oxygen, Pliicker and Hittorf have remarked that the
less refrangible lines widen most easily. But Pliicker and Hittorf did
not separate the two line-spectra of oxygen. (See Report on Spectra of
Metalloids.) The lines belonging to the lower temperature widen more
easily perhaps than any other lines, with the exception of the blue line,
which always remains sharp, and presents a striking contrast to the other
lines. The two green lines belonging to this spectrum widen more easily
than the red line; so that the lines which do expand follow the rule.
The lines of the other line spectrum do not expand very much, though
their edges lose their sharpness at high pressures. Pliicker and Hittorf
remark that the blue group widens more easily than the violet groups.
The more refrangible of the two double sodium lines (D,.) widens
more than the less refrangible component. According to Ciamician’s
experiments, mercury follows the rule, and widens the most refrangible
lines most easily. It has often been remarked that all lines lose the
sharpness of their edges when the pressure is increased,! but there is a
een difference between the cases we have just mentioned and the lines,
or instance, of chlorine, bromine, and iodine, or nitrogen, which may
become fuzzy, but never spread over an appreciable part of the spectrum.
Though the difference is one of degree only, it is very marked. We may
say that, as a general rule, if a system of lines widens much or easily,
the more refrangible lines of the system will be the first to widen,
while if a system of lines shows the broadening to a small degree only,
no general rule can be given.
When a line widens, it may do so either symmetrically on both sides,
or the widening may be greater on one side. It is a remarkable fact that
when a line widens chiefly towards one side, that side is in nearly all, if
not in all cases, the less refrangible one.
In the case of the hydrogen lines, it is of some importance to deter-
mine whether they widen symmetrically, because the small displacements
of the line in stars which are referred to star motions, may be in part
due to a one-sided widening. The Greenwich observers? have, therefore,
made a very careful series of measurements, in order to find out whether
the centre of the F line shifts as it broadens. No shift was detected in
a range of pressure from 3°0 mm. to 500 mm., the width of the line:
altering considerably within that range. J. J. Miiller’s experiments,
giving an apparently different result, will be presently referred to.
The lines of sodium seem also to widen nearly equally on both sides.
Zoliner * has examined these lines with his reversion-spectroscope—an
instrument which is pre-eminently fitted for such an investigation. He
gives the results in the following words: ‘In the more refrangible line,
which, with increase of the vapour-density, was the most widened, no
displacement was perceptible ; meanwhile there appeared to take place in
the other line, as the brightness increased, an extremely slight displace-
ment in the direction cf a diminution of the refrangibility.’
But Zéllner does not seem himself to attach very much value to this
observation, the displacement being very slight. Dr. J. J. Miller* has
1 e.g, Cailletet, C. &. Ixxiv. p. 1282 (1872).
2 Results of the Astronomical Observations made at the Royal Observatory,
or cenmich, 1876, p. 118.
§ Phil. Mag. xli. p. 204 (1871).
4 Lewe, Ber, (1871) and Pogg. Ann. cl. p. 311 (1873).
OO
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 279
had the curious idea of examining whether the rate of propagation of a
ray of light in space depended on the amplitude of vibration. The wave-
length was measured by means of interference fringes of long difference
of path (Newton’s rings), and he was incidentally led to inquire into the
possibility of a displacement of the centre of the sodium lines, when
larger quantities of sodium were introduced into a Bunsen flame ; in
which case it is known the lines are seen to widen. Miiller found such
a displacement in the same direction as Zéllner, who refers to his
experiments as corroborating his own results. But Miller also found the
effect he was looking for ; that is to say, he found the centre of lines to
shift when the light was weakened after it had left the flame. Now this
latter part of the investigation has been subjected to a very careful
examination by Lippich,! who could discover no such effect. As there un-
doubtédly was a source of error in Miiller’s experiments, which has not
yet been pointed out, we must defer our judgment also on his other
results. When he therefore finds a very slight shifting of the hydrogen
lines, due to an alteration of the power of the spark, we cannot put his
observations on an equal level with the subsequent negative results of the
Greenwich observers.
Speaking of reversals in the voltaic arc, Mr. Lockyer? adds the
following note: ‘The absorption-line does not always occupy the exact
centre of the bright band. This point is occupying my attention, as it
raises a very interesting question connected with molecular vibrations.’
In the plates accompanying the paper we find one at least of the
aluminium lines between H and K slightly more expanded on the less
refrangible side.
Mr. Lockyer? has referred to the same question in a recent paper,
and mentions two examples in the silver spectrum. In one case (4210-0)
the line seemed to be much more widened on the more refrangible side of
the absorption line; in the other case (40543), it was more widened in
the opposite direction. The rubidium line (4202) is also given as more
expanded on the less refrangible side.
Profs. Liveing and Dewar‘ mention that the magnesium lines (4703)
(4354) widen more on the less refrangible side.
The lines of the lower temperature spectrum of oxygen widen con-
siderably on the less refrangible side. This is very marked in the case of
the more refrangible of the two green lines, and of the red line. The centre
of the former line shifts through 2Xth métres.’ The less refrangible of
the two green lines widens more symmetrically. According to Ciamician,®
most of the mercury lines show this one-sided widening, and with some
of them it is so marked that they seem exclusively expanded towards one
side only.
T have only come across two cases in which lines seemed to be more
widened on the most refrangible side, and neither of them seems to be
established beyond doubt. The first is the one in the spectrum of silver men-
tioned by Lockyer and quoted above. But Profs. Liveing and Dewar did
not notice the reversal of the line in question, the wave-length of which they
give as 4208. A new line, however, came out at 4211°3; that is on the
less refrangible side. It is possible that the dark space between the two
1 Wien. Ber. (2) Ixxii. p. 355 (1875). 4 Proc. Roy. Soc. xxviii. p. 367 (1879).
2 Phil. Trans. clxiv. p. 805 (1874). 5 Wien. Ber. (2) \xxviii. p. 886 (1878).
3 Proc. Roy. Soc. xxviii. p. 428 (1879). & Nature, xvii. p. 148 (1877).
280 REPORT— 1880.
lines was taken by Lockyer for areversal, and that consequently the greater
intensity and width of the more refrangible line appeared as a one-sided
development of the wings. The second case is not very clearly described
by Ciamician. In the text of the paper he only mentions that when the
double yellow mercury line becomes fuzzy, continuous light is seen to the
right and left of it. In the drawing this is figured as a widening of
the more refrangible line towards the violet, and of the less refrangible
line towards the red. The description is too vague to allow any certain
inference to be drawn, but it seems possible, as a simple optical fact, that,
when a double line widens, the wings can be traced to a greater distance
on that side of each component which is removed from the other.
We have now to discuss the causes which may produce the widening
of lines. In the first place it might be suggested that, in accordance
with a formula which we have already given, an increase of the quantity
of luminous matter would produce an apparent widening of the lines;
for it follows from the formula that, unless the coefficient of absorption
is absolutely zero for any given wave-length, the spectrum sent out by an
infinite number of molecules in the line of sight is always continuous. A
greater number of molecules will, therefore, cause the spectrum to ap-
proach the continuous state, and the widening of the lines may be due to
the first stage towards this approach. To this we shall reply, that an
increase in the number of molecules cannot be the primary cause of the
widening of lines; for the lines of sodium, for instance, in the sun are
comparatively sharp, though the thickness of the absorbing layer is
greater than anything we can produce in our experiments. We can
prove the same point more clearly in the case of hydrogen. If we enclose
the gas in a tube of the form adopted by Mr. Monkhoven and Prof.
Piazzi Smyth, so that we may look longitudinally through the capillary
bore, we increase the thickness of the radiating layer to a very great
extent; yet lines which are sharp when the tube is looked at transversely,
will remain sharp when it is looked through longitudinally, although an
increase in the pressure or in the intensity of the discharge will at once
produce a widening. It must be remembered that the effect of an in-
creased number of radiating molecules will only depend on the curve of
intensity near the line. If a line is absolutely sharp, no increase in the
number of molecules will ever increase its width, and two lines of the
same brightness, which present the same appearance at their edges, must
behave exactly in the same way, when the thickness of the radiating layer
is increased. Yet, while we have some lines which widen easily and
enormously, others, which present the same appearance, do not show any
widening. That, if a line is once widened, an increase in the number of
radiating or absorbing molecules will increase the apparent extent of the
widening is possible, but we must distinguish this effect from the original
cause which has produced the widening.
It is, I believe, the almost unanimous opinion of spectroscopists that
the widening is, in most cases, produced by an increase of pressure.
This opinion was first put forward by Frankland and Lockyer.' In the
case of gases, the easiest way to produce the widening is by an increase
in the pressure of the gas, and the metallic lines are also generally seen
to widen when the density of the gas through which the spark is taken
is increased. But we may also, in the case of hydrogen, for instance,
1 Proc. Roy. Soc. xvii. p. 288 (1869).
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 281
widen the lines by an increase in the intensity of the discharge.! Those
who believe that the widening of a line is due to an increase of pressure,
attribute to an increase in temperature, such as is produced by an in-
creased discharge, an influence only in so far as it raises the pressure of
the gas. This opinion is supported by the fact that the sodium-lines
widen rather more easily at low temperatures.
According to the molecular theory of gases, the following explanation
might be given for the widening of lines.
As long as a molecule vibrates by itself, uninfluenced by any other
molecule, its vibrations will take place in regular periods. The lines of
its spectrum will consequently be sharp. But if the molecule is placed
in proximity with others, its vibrations will be disturbed by occasional
encounters. The number and strength of these collisions will depend on
the pressure of the gas. Ideas analogous to these seem to have been in
the minds of many writers, and it is difficult to decide where they first
occurred ; but we may quote a short passage taken out of a paper by
Lippich,? in which similar views were, perhaps for the first time, clearly
expressed, and in which the reference to Boyle’s law is especially in-
teresting :—
‘If the pressure of a gas is increased, or if, as in the case of vapours,
its properties are not those any more of a perfect gas; that is, if the
length of the path during which a molecule is within the influence
of another is not any more small compared to the length of the mean
free path, changes in the spectrum will necessarily accompany the new
state of things. . . . New vibrations will arise, the intensity of which
will be the smaller, the further removed they are from the vibrations of
the molecule in the ideal state. The lines of the spectrum will then
appear with indistinct edges and expand the more, the more the gas
deviates from the laws of Mariotte and Gay-Lussac.’
The behaviour of the two yellow sodium-lines is in many respects
remarkable. It has already been mentioned that the widening seems to
take place more easily at a lower temperature, but it is obviously not
dne to a lowering of temperature, for Profs. Liveing and Dewar? have
observed that a layer of sodium vapour about 4 cm. thick, at atmo-
spheric pressure, gave sharp and narrow lines, at a temperature which was
lower than that of a Bunsen burner; while in the Bunsen a much smaller
quantity of sodium vapour will produce winged lines. Some of the ex-
periments described in the paper to which we have just referred are not
easily reconciled with the explanation given above for the widening of
lines. Profs. Liveing and Dewar describe the effects of pressure thus :—
‘The effects of compressing the vapour were very remarkable. As
the pressure increased the channelled spectrum speedily disappeared, then
the diffused edges of the D band contracted, the band itself likewise
contracting until it became a very fine pair of lines, or if the amount of
sodium present was not too much, D came out bright. On letting off
the pressure, the phenomena recurred in the reverse order, and the whole
could be repeated several times. After compression, as long as the
pressure was sustained, the D absorption remained permanently narrowed,
but did not continue bright.’
' Pogg. Ann, exxxix. p. 465 (1870).
? The widening observed by Stearn & Lee (Proc. Roy. Soc. xxi. p. 282—1873) is
due to this cause.
* Proc. Roy. Svc. xxix. p. 482.
282 REPORT— 1880.
The general results of the investigation are summed up by Profs.
Liveing and Dewar thus :-—
‘The phenomena attending the compression of the vapours, as well as
those of the amalgams of varying percentages, seem to indicate that the
width of the D absorption is dependent on the thickness and temperature
of the absorption vapour rather than on the whole quantity of sodium
present in it. Very minute quantities diffused into the cool part of the
tube appear to give a broad diffuse absorption, while a layer of denser
vapour of small thickness in the hottest part of the vessel gives but a
very narrow absorption. This may, however, be due to the variation of
temperature.’
In a previous paper, Profs. Liveing and Dewar! had expressed them-
selves as follows on the widening of lines :—
‘It is apparent that the expansion of lines so often observed when
fresh materials are introduced, must be ascribed to increase in the density
of the vapours, not to any increase in temperature. Moreover, the length
of the tube, which reaches a very high temperature in the experiments
above described, is very short in the lime crucibles, and still shorter in
the carbon crucible, so that the reversing layer is also short in many
cases.’
There is one cause, which, as Profs. Liveing and Dewar mention,
may have affected the results of the later paper: ‘The results of the
foregoing experiments may have been complicated by the sodium-vapour
which diffused into the cool part of the vessel. We have attempted to
overcome this complication by passing down into the bottle, when full, or
nearly full, of sodium vapour, a platinum tube, closed at the top with a
glass plate and filled with nitrogen, and observing the absorption through
this tube. The nitrogen in the tube prevents, for a short time, the entry
of the sodium vapour into the tube, and so, by passing the tube to differ-
ent depths, the thickness of the layer of sodium through which the
observations were made could be varied. It was found, in this way, that
a layer of sodium-yapour, about 4 cm. thick, at the atmospheric pressure
at the temperature of our furnace, gave the D absorption sharp and very
narrow ; but as the sodium diffused into the tube the absorption extended
until it produced a broad band with diffuse edges.’
In these experiments, the light emitted by the bottom of the platinum
vessel, in which the sodium was evaporated served as the source of light,
the absorption of which on its passage through the vapour was observed.
Now it is clear that, had the vapour been throughout of the same tem-
perature with the vessel, the absorption would have exactly counter-
balanced the radiation, and no effect would have been produced. The
absorption which was produced was, therefore, entirely due only to the
vapour in the parts of the tube which were cooler than the bottom. [If,
therefore, the effect of compression was to drive down the vapour into
the hotter part of the tube, a thinning out of the absorption would be a
necessary consequence, and no conclusions as to the effect of pressure
can be drawn. On the other hand, it is difficult to see why, even in the
compressed tube, the vapour should not have gradually diffused into the
cooler parts. The disappearance of the channelled-space spectrum of
sodium, however, in the compressed vapour, indicates a higher tempera-
ture, and consequently a diminished absorption.
1 Proc. Roy. Soc. xxviii. p. 370.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 283
Taking the whole of these experiments together, they do, I believe,
indicate that the lines of sodium widen more easily at a comparatively
low temperature ; but, as they may also be seen very wide at high tempera-
tures and narrow at low ones, they leave the original cause of the widen-
ing unexplained.
The fact that the sodium lines widen more easily at a comparatively
low temperature is in accordance with the theoretical speculations we
have given on the cause of the widening of lines. For in the passage
quoted Lippich has remarked that an increased widening of lines would
go on simultaneously with an increased deviation from Boyle’s law; and
that deviation will be greater when the vapour approaches its temperature
of condensation.
Moreover, the widening of the sodium lines seems to take place
chiefly at the temperature at which the line-spectrum changes into the
band-spectrum. It will be seen further on that, according to the opinion
held by most spectroscopists the band-spectrum is due to a molecule con-
taining a greater number of atoms than that giving the line spectrum.
If this opinion is true, sodium vapour ought to show a change of vapour-
density as one spectrum changes into the other, similar to that which has
recently been proved to exist in iodine by Victor Meyer.! That at the
moment when the atoms or molecules of sodium have a tendency to com-
bine with each other, the molecular forces should be affected and dis-
turbed in such a way as to produce a widening of lines seems perfectly
intelligible. At the same temperature at which the band spectrum of
sodium changes into the line spectrum, Mr. Lockyer has observed some
very remarkable phenomena.” In some parts of the tube in which the
sodium was yolatilized, the lines seemed to widen only towards one side,
while in others they were widened towards the other side. It is, perhaps,
worth mentioning, in connection with a remark by Lord Rayleigh on dis-
turbed vibrations,’ that the two parts of the band-spectrum of sodium lie
on the two sides of the D lines.
Referring again to the effect of pressure on the widening of lines the
question arises, whether for a given temperature and pressure a line may
be of different width whether the molecule is placed in an atmosphere of
similar or dissimilar molecules. We shall have occasion to refer to this
point again, and to show that such a difference in all probability exists,
and that it is not due to a mere reduction or increase in the number of
luminous molecules in the line of sight. We may mention here for
instance that Mr. Lockyer‘ has observed that the lines of oxygen or
nitrogen may be obtained sharp at atmospheric pressure by mixing a
small quantity of one gas with the other. The gas which is present
in small quantities has its lines sharp. If, therefore, we observe that in
putting larger quantities of sodium into a flame we widen the lines,
we must take many questions into account, and not conclude merely
that an increased thickness of the radiating layer has produced the result.
We finally refer to one cause which limits the sharpness of spectro-
scopic lines, and which was first pointed out by Lippich® and later by
Lord Rayleigh.® The molecules of a gas are, in addition to their vibratory
motion, endowed with a translatory motion. Those molecules which are
moving towards us will, in accordance with Doppler’s principle, send us
1 Chem. Ber. xiii. p. 394 (1880). * Phil. Mag. vi. p. 161 (1878).
* Proc. Roy, Soc. xxii. p. 378 (1874). 5 Pegg. Ann. exxxix. p. 465 (1870).
& Phil. Mag. xiiii. p. 322 (1872). 6 Nature, xvii. p. 148 (1877).
284 REPORT—1880.
light which is slightly more refrangible than that which would be sent
out by a quiescent molecule or one moving at right angles to the line of
sight. Onthe other hand the molecules which are moving away from us’
will have the wave-length increased. The lines as they appear to us, and
as they come from molecules moving in all directions, must have a certain
width. lLippich has pointed out how this limit of sharpness which cannot
be surpassed may be made use of to determine which lines in a mixture of
gases are due to each component; for the heavier gas will have its lines
narrower than the lighter gas. As a rule, however, the lines of a spec-
trum are wider than the limit given, and especially the widening of lines
which we have been discussing in this chapter is of a much higher order
of magnitude.
III. Spectra of Different Orders.
Spectra may be classified according to their general appearance. The
different classes have been called orders by Pliicker and Hittorf. We
have first, appearing at the highest temperature, the line spectra which
are best known and need no further description ; we have next produced,
generally at lower temperatures, the spectra of channelled spaces, the ap-
pearance of which was described in the introduction to the report on the
spectra of metalloids. Continuous spectra, which need not necessarily
stretch through the whole range of the spectrum, form a third order.
Pliicker and Hittorf have shown that one and the same element may pos-
sess at different temperatures spectra of different orders. Their results
have been confirmed in the case of a great many different elements. A
discussion has naturally arisen on the cause which can produce such a
remarkable change of spectra. We first quote Pliicker and Hittorf’s!
opinion on the subject :—
‘Certainly in the present state of science we have not the least indica-
tion of the connection of the molecular constitution of the gas with the
kind of light emitted by it; but we may assert with confidence, that if
one spectrum of a given gas be replaced by quite a different one, there
must be an analogous change of the constitution of the ether, indicating
a new arrangement of the gaseous molecules. Consequently we must
admit either a chemical decomposition or an allotropic state of the gas.
Conclusions derived from the whole series of our researches lead us
finally to reject the first alternative and to adopt the other.’
The idea that different spectra of one and the same element are due
to differences of molecular structure has found considerable favour with
spectroscopists. It has formed the leading idea of a large part of Lock-
yer’s? work, who gave the following five stages through which spectra
often pass, each stage being in his opinion due to a different molecular
structure :—
1. Line-spectrum.
2. Channelled-space spectrum.
3. Continuous absorption in the blue.
4. Continuous absorption in the red.
5. Continuons absorption throughout.
Salet? also adheres to the opinion that different spectra are due to
different allotropic states. Helmholtz, as quoted by Moser, has suggested
that the line-spectra may be due to atoms, the band-spectra to molecules.
1 Phil. Trans. clv. p. 1 (1865). 3 Ann. Chim. Phys. xxviii. p. 1 (1873).
2 Proc. Roy. Soc. xxii. p, 372 (1874). 4 Pogg. Ann. clx. p. 177 (1877).
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 285
The same idea was more fully developed by E. Wiedemann.' Even
ngstrém and Thalén,? who do not adopt Plicker’s interpretation of his
experiments, remark :—
‘We do certainly not deny that a simple body may in certain cases
give different spectra. We may quote, for instance, the absorption-spec-
trum of iodine, which does not in any way resemble the system of bril-
liant rays of the same body, obtained by means of electricity ; and we
may remark moreover, that in general every simple body, presenting the
property of allotropy, must in the state of incandescence give different
spectra, provided that this property of allotropy exists not only in the
gaseous state of the body, but also at the temperature of incandescence.
‘Supposing, therefore, that there is really allotropy, even for the
gaseous state, a certain absorption-spectrum must belong to every one of
these allotropic states.’
An idea which has commended itself to so many different observers
must possess a large amount of plausibility ; but before we give various
reasons and facts which seem to support it we must first refer to the only ©
rival hypothesis which has been offered. This theory is founded on the
formula given by Zoéllner, and already quoted in this report, which con-
nects the intensity of radiation of each line with the number of radiating
molecules in a line of sight. Zdllner already mentioned the possibility
of explaining spectra of different orders by means of it, but the idea was
chiefly developed by Willner. Starting from the fact that band-spectra
are generally given by the brush discharge, in which a great number of
molecules are luminous, while the line-spectra are given by the spark,
which, as a rule, is thin; also that the band-spectra often appear in the
wide part of a Pliicker tube, while the line-spectra are seen in the capil-
lary part, Wiillner concludes that the thickness of the radiating layer
materially affects the spectrum which is seen. The difficulty which
stands in the way of this explanation lies in the fact that the maxima of
light in the band-spectrum lie altogether in other places than in the line-
spectra. To overcome this difficulty, as has been pointed out by HE.
Wiedemann,’ we must assume a change in the emissive power with tem-
perature different for each ray of the spectrum. Zollner,‘ for instance,
remarks :—
‘But these values (the coefficients of absorption) may have for the
same wave-length and continuous alteration of the temperature, ‘similar
maxima and minima, to those which they, in fact, possess for the same tem-
perature and continuous alteration of the wave-length, whereby they pro-
duce the phenomenon of discontinuous spectrum.’
Wiillner,® referring to the same point, says :—
‘Hereby it is by no means necessary or even probable, that the ab-
sorption power increases for all rays in the same way ; that, therefore, the
ratio of the values of and for different wave-lengths is the same at all
temperatures. As soon as such a change takes place, a displacement of the
maxima of light will, or at least may, be produced. But it is only such
a displacement of the maxima of light, if the bright lines of a line-spec-
trum are situated at other places than the maxima of illumination of a
band-spectrum. In this way lines of a line-spectrum can really disappear,
1 Wied. Ann. v. p. 500 (1878). 4 Phil. Mag. xii. p. 199 (1871).
2 Nov. Act. Ups. ix. (1875). 5 Wied. Ann. viii. p. 594 (1879).
3 Wied. Ann. x. 202 (1880).
286 REPORT—-1880.
while at their place in the band-spectrum an even illumination or even a
decreased brightness exists compared to that of surrounding places.’
We have introduced these quotations in order to show that both
Zolner and Wiillner are aware that a mere alteration in density or thick-
ness of the radiating layer is insufficient to account for the changes in
spectra, but that a change in the absorptive and emissive properties of
the gas is necessary. But it is further evident that once we assume this
change we need not any more have recourse to any effects of increased
number of radiating molecules; for the change itself would be sufficient
to account for the phenomena, which could at most be affected, but not
produced, by an increased thickness of the radiating layer. We may
therefore pass over the experiments which Dr. Goldstein! has made in
order to show that an increased thickness of spark does not produce the
effects required by Wiillner’s theory; and, consequently, also over the
answer which Wiillner ? has given to Dr. Goldstein’s remarks.
The difference between the two explanations really comes to this :
Zodllner and Wiillner assume that the radiation for a given wave-length is
a continuous function of the temperature, which may be different for
different wave-lengths, and for each may have maxima and minima; in
other words, that the spectrum is a continuous function of the temperature.
Those who adopt the rival hypothesis hold that the spectrum is within
wide limits independent of the temperature, but that at certain points
sudden changes in the forces which bind the atoms together take place,
and that these changes are accompanied by a sudden change in the
spectrum. It is likely that these changes are produced by a different
number of atoms bound together in one molecule.
The change of the channelled-space spectrum of sodium to the line
spectrum seems indeed to take place within narrow limits of temperature.
If the absorption of that vapour is observed at low temperatures, so that
the channelled-space spectrum is observed, and the temperature is
gradually raised, little change is seen for some time. The D lines, though
present, are sharp and faint. When a certain temperature is reached,
however, these lines seem suddenly to get blacker ; the bands at the same
time weaken, and as they become dimmer and finally disappear, the whole
energy of the motion seems to be thrown into the D lines, which now are
widened into a broad black band. The change is exactly such as would
be produced by a change in the molecular structure of the gas at the given
temperature, and it is very likely that a change of density will be proved
to take place at that temperature.
Those who adopt this view of the cause of multiple spectra, support it
by the fact that in many cases where we know a change of density to occur,
changes in the spectra are observed perfectly analogous to those which
we want to explain. Thus, for instance, sulphur vapour near its boiling
point has an anormal vapour-density ; it then shows a continuous absorp-
tion; as the temperature is raised and the density becomes normal, the
spectrum changes into a channelled-space spectrum. Iodine, bromine,
and chlorine give us spectra of fluted bands at low temperatures; but if
we pass an electric spark through them, line spectra are obtained. The
recent experiments of Victor Meyer and others seem to show that the
vapour density is different in the two cases.
An apparent exception occurs in the case of nitrous oxide gas, which
1 Berl. Ber. 1874, August, p. 593, and Phil. Mag. xcix. p. 333 (1875).
2 Berl. Ber. 1874 (December) and Phil. Mag. xlix. p. 448 (1875).
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 287
on heating changes its vapour-density and its molecular structure from
N,0, to NO without showing an equally marked change in its spectrum.
But the exception is apparent only, for the absorption spectrum gets very
much stronger as the temperature is raised, so that we have every reason
to suppose that the spectrum we observe is really due to the molecule NO.
We ought at the same time to expect the spectrum belonging to N,O, to
get weaker, and finally to disappear. As, however, it is a general rule
that the spectrum of a more complex molecule lies more to the red than
that of the simpler molecule, it is likely that the spectrum of N,O, lies in
the extreme red and ultra-red. Moser! indeed has found that three
bands which are observed in the absorption spectrum of nitrous oxide at
low temperatures disappear when the temperature is raised; these bands
therefore we may ascribe to N,O., which gas very likely possesses a
greater number still further towards the red.
When chemical combination takes place a change in the spectrum is
observed which is entirely similar to that observed in many vapours when
the temperature is lowered. The spectra of the oxides, chlorides, bromides,
and iodides of the alkaline earths are spectra of fluted bands. If a com-
bination of one element with another can change a line spectrum into a
channelled-space spectrum, it is quite a plausible assumption to suppose
that a combination of one element with itself can produce an analogous
change, and that as a rule a spectrum of channelled spaces corresponds
to a more complicated molecular structure. :
The question is likely to be definitely settled by a new line of inves-
tigation which has been started by Prof. E. Wiedemann,? and which, if
followed out further, will largely add to our store of knowledge on these
and similar points. Prof. Wiedemann has undertaken calorimetric
measurements, in order to see whether or not heat is absorbed by a gas
when a change of spectrum takes place. He has taken hydrogen gas as a
first example, and measured the heat produced by a spark, equalising the
same difference of potential, first when the gas gives a band spectrum,
and, secondly, when it gives the line spectrum. The change from one
spectrum to the other was produced by a minute change in the length of
an air-break, which was introduced into the circuit. Prof, Wiedemann has
found indeed that a certain amount of heat is necessary to change the
band spectrum into the line spectrum, and that this heat is independent
of the pressure and cross section of the tube.
These experiments would be decisive if we were quite certain of the
chemical origin of the band spectrum investigated by Prof. Wiedemann.
According to several spectroscopists this band spectrum is due to a hydro-
carbon; so that if this is the case, Prof. Wiedemann would really have
measured the heat of combination of hydrogen and carbon. Prof.
EH. Wiedemann will no doubt follow out this most promising line of
research in the case of other gases, the spectrum of which has been
investigated with more decisive results.
It is often found that metallic vapours near their point of condensation
give an absorption which is continuous through part or the whole visible
range of the spectrum. Even some gases like oxygen give us continuous
spectra at the lowest temperature at which they are luminous. In the
case of sulphur the appearance of the continuous spectrum is coincident
with the anormal vapour-density, and is therefore no doubt produced by
Pogg. Ann. clx. p. 177 (1877). * Wied. Ann. x. p. 202 (1880).
288 : REPORT—1880.
the more complete molecule. It would not be unreasonable to suppose
that a similar cause produces also the other cases of continuous absorption.
But Prof. Stokes ' has suggested another cause which may produce such
a continuous absorption :—
‘We have reason to believe that the mere motion of matter through
the ether is insufficient to produce vibrations. There must be two portions
of matter exerting forces on each other in order that the ether should
be thrown into agitation. In ordinary line-spectra we consider that
the two portions of matter form part of the same molecule. Now, it
seems possible that also two portions of different molecules should in
their rapid approach towards each other, or recession from each other,
cause forces in the ether which produce vibration. These latter vibrations
we might expect not to take place in fixed periods, but to produce what
we call a continuous spectrum. We may suppose that at the lowest
temperature at which, for instance, oxygen is luminous, the vibrations in
the ether are chiefly produced by this rapid relative motion of different
molecules, while at higher temperatures the relative motions of different
portions of one molecule might have the upper hand; the continuous
spectrum in one case, and the line spectrum in the other, might thus be
explained.’
IV. The Method of Long and Short Lines.
If the spectrum of a metal is taken by passing the spark between two
poles in air, the pressure of which is made to vary, the relative intensity
of some of the lines is often seen to change. Similar variations take place
if the intensity of the discharge is altered, as, for instance, by interposing
or taking out a Leyden jar. It is a matter of importance to be able to use
a method which in the great majority of cases will give us at once a sure
indication how each line will behave under different circumstances. This
method we now proceed to describe.
It has often been stated, even by the earliest observers, that the
metallic lines when seen in a spectroscope do not always stretch across the
whole field of view, but are sometimes confined only to the neighbourhood
of metallic poles. Some observations which Mr. Lockyer had made jointly
with Prof. Frankland? led him to conclude that the distance to which
each metallic line stretched away from the pole could give some clue on
the behaviour of that line in the sun. In the year 1872 Mr. Lockyer ®
worked out this idea and obtained important results.
In his experiments an image of the spark was formed on the slit of the
spectroscope, so that the spectrum of each section of the spark could be
examined. Some of the metallic lines were then seen to be confined
altogether to the neighbourhood of the poles, while others stretched nearly
across the whole field. The relative length of all the lines was carefully
estimated. Tables and maps are added to the memoir.
In order at once to clear up a widespread misapprehension we may
mention that the longest lines (that is, those which stretch away furthest
from the pole) are by no means always the strongest. Even spectro-
scopists use the terms, longest line and strongest line, sometimes as
1 See note to paper by Schuster ‘On the Spectrum of Oxygen,’ Phil. Trans. clxx.
p. 88 (1879).
2 Proc. Roy. Soe. xviii. p. 79 (1869).
3 Phil. Trans. clxiii. p. 253 (1873.) This paper will also be found to contain
references to previous observations bearing on the subject.
Ol aS
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 289
synonymous ; but those who are accustomed to work with a lens between
the spark and the slit, will be able to give many instances where a faint
line is seen to stretch nearly across the whole field of view, while a strong
line may be confined to the neighbourhood of the pole, and is reduced
sometimes to a brilliant point only. c
We give a few conspicuous examples, to which we shall have occasion
to refer again. The remarks refer to the length of the lines in sparks
condensed by means of a Leyden jar.
Lithium : The blue line (4602°7) is brilliant but short. It is given by
Thalén as stronger than the orange line, which is much longer.
Lead: 4062°5, one of the longest lead lines, but faint, and according
to Lockyer difficult to observe.
Tin : 5630-0 is the longest tin line, but it is faint, while the stronger
lines near it (5588°5 and 5562°5) are shorter.
Zinc: The zine lines (4923-8, 4911:2, 4809-7, 4721°4, 4679°5) are
given by Thalén as of equal intensity, but the three more refrangible ones,
are longer.
As a first result, Mr. Lockyer found that, by a reduction of pressure;,
some of the shorter lines rapidly decreased in length and disappeared,
while the longer lines remained visible and were sometimes hardly affected.
lt follows, therefore, that a reduction of pressure may change the relative
intensity of the lines; for a stronger, but shorter, line may disappear,
while a weaker and longer one remains. We may quote, for instance,
Mr. Lockyer’s remark on the behaviour of the zinc lines, when the pres-
sure is reduced.
‘In the case of zine, the effect of these circumstances was very marked,.
and they may be given as a sample of the phenomena generally observed.
When the pressure-gauge connected with the Sprengel pump stood at from
30 to 40 mm., the spectrum at the part observed was normal, except that
the two lines 4924 and 4.911 (both of which, when the spectrum is observed
under the normal pressure, are lines with thick wings) were considerably
reduced in width. On the pump being started, these lines rapidly decreased
in length, as did the line at 4679,—4810 and 4721 being almost unaffected ;
at last the two at 4924 and 4911 vanished, as did 4679, and appeared
only at intervals as spots on the poles, the two 4810 and 4721 remaining
little changed in length, though much in brilliancy. This experiment
was repeated four times, and on each occasion the gauge was found to he
almost at the same point, viz. :—
Ist observation, when the lines 4924 and 4911 were
. gone, the gauge stood at ‘ 30 millimétres.
2nd ” 33 ” bed . 29 ”
3rd ” ” 39 ” - 29 ”
4th 9 2 ” 39 ° 31 39
‘A rise to 34 millimétres was sufficient to restore the lost lines.’
Mr. Lockyer next examined the spectra given by chemical compounds :
‘It was found in all cases that the difference between the spectrum of
the chloride and the spectrum of the metal was: That wnder the same
spark conditions the short lines were obliterated, while the wir lines remained
unchanged in thickness.’
__ Thus, for instance, when the spark was taken from zine chloride, it
did not show the lines 4923 and 4911, which, though of equal brightness
with 4809, 4721, 4679, are shorter, and disappear, as we have seen, when
the pressure is reduced. The three last-mentioned lines were seen.
1880. U
290 REPORT—1880.
The strongestlines of aluminium in the green and blue are not seen
when a spark is taken from the chloride, but the longest lines falling
between the solar H and K are seen.
Cadmium is also a striking case, for while the longest lines—5085,
4799, 4677—are seen in the spectrum of the chloride, the equally bright
but shorter lines, 5378, 5338, do not appear.
Other examples are given by Mr. Lockyer.
In a subsequent paper the same author! has examined the spectra of
the compounds of lead, strontium, barium, magnesium, and sodium with
chlorine, bromine, iodine, and fluorine, and has confirmed his previous
results.
An alloy behaves in the same manner as a chemical compound: ‘ For
instance, it is possible to begin with an alloy which shall only give us the
longest line or lines in the spectrum of the smallest constituent, and by
increasing the quantity of this constituent the other lines can be intro-
duced in the order of their length. This reaction is so delicate that I
learnt from it a thing I had not before observed, that the least refrangible
line of C, the triple line of magnesium, is really a little longer than its
more refrangible compound ; for the spectrum of magnesium was reduced
to this one line in an alloy in which special precautions had been taken to
introduce the minimum of magnesium.’
This behaviour of alloys was subsequently made the basis of a quanti-
tative spectrum analysis by Messrs. Lockyer and Roberts.? Comparing the
spectra of metals as observed by this method with their reversal in the
solar atmosphere, Mr. Lockyer found that it was the longest le and not
necessarily the strongest line which was first reversed in the sun.
Subsequent work has shown that the longest lines are also generally
those which are most persistent on a reduction of temperature. The short
lines, which disappeared on a reduction of temperature and were not
visible in the spectrum of the chlorides, also disappear when the metal is
volatilized in the are instead of the spark. Thus the strong zine lines
4924, 4911, which we have already mentioned, disappear in the arc. A
similar remark applies to the two cadmium lines, 5377, 5336 which Profs.
Liveing and Dewar 3 found to be absent in the arc, and which, as we have
seen, are also absent in the spectrum of the chloride. The strong but
short magnesium line 4481,-is also absent in the arc, as is shown in
Rand Capron’s ‘ Photographed Spectra.’ 4
In this way many facts which have often puzzled observers, are
brought under one general law. Take, for instance, the three tin lines
to which we have already drawn attention. The least refrangible is the
longest, but it is faint, while the two others are strong. We conclude from
this that at low temperatures this faint line is stronger than the other
two, while if the temperature is raised the two most refrangible lines are
the strongest. This is fully confirmed by experiment. Lecoq de Bois-
bandran,® who usually employed the spark without condenser from a
solution of the metallic salts, gives the least refrangible of the lines as the
strongest, and mentions that the line is weakened by the introduction of
the condenser.
It is a corollary of what has been said that if we produce the reversals
1 Phil. Trans. clxiii. p. 639 (1873). 2 Phil. Trans. elxiv. p. 495 (1874).
3 Proc. Roy. Soc, xxix. p. 402 (1879). 4 Photographed Spectra, p. 35 (1877).
5 Spectres Tamineur, texte p. 143; C. R. lxiii. p. 943 (1871).
Se SSeS: *
‘
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 291
of lines by means of laboratory experiments, we shall always first reverse
the longest lines, for the order in which the lines reverse will be the order
of intensities at the temperature of the reversing layer. This is also con-
firmed by experiment. Thus Cornu! has reversed the two aluminium
lines between H and K. These are the longest lines, according to Lockyer,
and they are also the only two lines which are reversed in the sun,
although aluminium possesses some very strong lines in other parts of the
spectrum. Zinc and cadmium gave similar results. The order in which
the metallic lines reverse had been made the subject of a series of investi-
gations by Liveing and Dewar, and their results tend to confirm the law
given by Lockyer. Although some differences exist between the order of
reversal given by Liveing and Dewar? and the order of length given by
Lockyer, it must be left for further inquiry to see whether the differences
are real. The difficulty in estimating the relative length of two lines which
are not very near together, must be very great, and no doubt some of
the lengths as given by Lockyer may require some corrections. Thus, for
instance, Profs. Liveing and Dewar have reversed the lines 5085, 4799, 4677
of cadmium, but not 4416. This agrees with Lockyer’s law, for the three
first are longer than the last ; but they have seen the line 6438 reversed
once, and this line is given by Lockyer as shorter than 4416. But from
the great intensity of 6438 in Lecoq’s drawing, we should infer that it
was really a long line, and that the length given by Lockyer is not correct.
With the other metals, where a comparison is possible, the two lines of
investigation seem to lead to the same result. Lead first reversed 4058
and subsequently 4063 ; this is the order of their length, though 4063 is
faint at the temperature of the spark, and other much stronger lines have
not been reversed.
The fact that a reduction of quantity, as for instance in an alloy,
destroys the shorter though perhaps stronger lines, and leaves the longest,
is more remarkable than might at first sight appear. Lecoq de Boisbau-
dran has studied the effect of diluting the liquids which he used as
electrodes, and his results confirm Lockyer’s law of the longest lines.
Thus, for instance: lithium in the flame gives the red line very much
stronger than the orange line. The red line is the longest, but with a
concentrated solution and a spark Lecoq* found the orange line to be
stronger ; dilution with water, however, at ohce gave preponderance again
to the long red line. A similar remark applies to the red cadmium line,
6438, which is stronger in a concentrated solution than 4677, but is
weakened by dilution, being in reality a shorter line.
After having given the facts relating to the question of long and short
lines, we have to see whether we can find a theoretical explanation of
these facts. ;
The first explanation which naturally occurs to everyone would make
the appearance of the long and short lines depend on the greater thick-
ness of luminous matter surrounding the electrodes. As this thickness
decreases we should expect to see more ‘and more lines disappear and only
the most persistent lines remain. These most persistent lines would be
the longest. But this explanation will not account for the facts; for as
we have ‘said the longest lines are not always the strongest, and we have
proved, in the first chapter of this report, that an increase of thickness
1 C. R. lsxiii. p. 332 (1871).
* See especially Proc. Roy. Soc. xxix. p, 402 (1879).
8 C. &. Ixxvi. p. 1263.
U2
292 REPORT—1 880.
could never change the relative intensity of two lines when the least
refrangible of them is the strongest. Yet we constantly find that a less
refrangible line is longer, but weaker throughout its length, than one which
is situated more towards the violet. If an increased thickness of luminous
matter was the cause of the appearance of the shorter line near the pole,
we should have in this case, for a larger thickness, the more refrangible
line the stronger; but in the centre of the spark, where there is little
luminous matter and where the least refrangible long line is the only one
seen, this would be the strongest. This cannot possibly be due to the effect
only of decreased thickness. The fact that the longest lines are those
appearing at lower temperature, though in the experiments of Lecoq and
Liveing and Dewar, the quantity of luminous matter is really larger than
when a high tension spark is employed, also disproves the theory that
thickness of the luminous layer has much to do with the explanation of
the long and short lines.
The next explanation which we shall discuss, starts from the fact that
the longest lines become stronger when the temperature is reduced. A
metal at low temperatures has a certain number of lines ; as the tempera-
ture is increased other lines may come out, which may gain in intensity
and finally surpass the original lines. These lines coming out at higher
temperature would be the short lines, while the long lines would be the
low-temperature lines. This explanation accounts very satisfactorily for
a part of the phenomena, as for instance the disappearance of the long
lines when the pressure of the gas in which the spark is taken is reduced ;
for the temperature of the spark will be lowered in that case. Also the
fact that the longest lines are those which first reverse would flow
naturally out of the explanation given. But the explanation is not com-
plete. Why should a mixture of different elements only show the longest
line of that constituent which is present in small quantities? In the
case of chemical combinations we might assume that the spark having to
do the work of decomposition is weakened, and that therefore the low-
temperature lines are obtained. But this could no longer be if a chemical
compound is replaced by a mechanical mixture. » There is no reason why
a spark taken from a mechanical mixture of two bodies should be cooler
than one taken from each body singly. Nor could the remarkable effects
of dilution, which we have already mentioned, be accounted for solely
on the supposition that the long lines are low-temperature lines. We
require an additional hypothesis. Speaking of the widening of the
sodium lines it has already been suggested that, under the same pressure,
at the same temperature, and for the same number of radiating molecules,
we might have a difference in the spectrum if the molecules. with which it
comes into collision are molecules of the same kind only of are chiefly
molecules of a different kind. I think we must have recourse to the same
explanation in order to account for the facts which are now before us.
For if an alloy shows us at the same temperature the longer lines only of
each constituent, this may at any rate be due to the fact that the shorter
lines are more easily produced by the molecules of the same kind than by
those of a different kind. We must, in fact, assume, in order to account
for the phenomena, that the spectrum of a molecule, when it is excited by
molecules of another kind, consists of those lines chiefly which a molecule
of the same kind is capable of bringing out at a lower temperature already.
It would follow from this that the effects of dilution are the same as those
of a reductiow of temperature, which is the case. We shall speak of this
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 293
hypothesis, which may explain the behaviour of long and short lines as
the hypothesis of molecular shocks, for according to it the short lines are
brought out by a greater intensity of molecular shocks.
There is, however, another way of looking at these phenomena, which
is advocated by Mr. Lockyer. If we carefully examine the spectrum of a
metal, an image of the spark being projected on the slit of the spectro-
scope, and if we observe the changes which a spectrum. undergoes when
the temperature or pressure is altered, we cannot fail to be struck by the
fact that we can generally divide the lines into two, or sometimes perhaps
more than two sets, the lines in each set varying together. The question
forces itself on the observer whether we have not to deal in one and the
same spark with two or more overlapping spectra which vary relatively to
each other. The faint lines which stretch sometimes like ghosts away
from the poles into the centre of the spark, would belong to one spectrum,
the short brilliant, often winged, lines, which are only confined to the
neighbourhood of the pole, would belong to another.
A spark would show that set of lines strongest which belongs to the
molecular grouping which is present in the largest quantity within the
spark. The relative quantity of different molecules may vary with the
distance from the pole, and thus a line which is strongest in the centre of
the spark may be weakest near the pole. If a spark is taken from different
chemical compounds, or from alloys, that set would show which is due to
the particular grouping in which the element is contained in the com-
pound. We shall speak of this hypothesis as the hypothesis of molecular
combination. Both suppositions which we have mentioned, and to which
we shall have to refer again, express the facts fairly well, but neither of
them is free from difficulty.
V. Other Changes in the Relative Intensity of Lines.
We have given in the preceding pages a method by means of which
the study of a spectrum shown in one given spark, will indicate to us its
behaviour under a great many different circumstances. What we have
said is true within sufficiently wide limits to render the method an
extremely valuable one, but if the range of temperature or pressure within
which our experiments are made is pushed beyond a certain point, further
considerations will have to be taken into account. That the method
must or may ultimately break down appears both from the experimental
results which we have given and’from the two possible theoretical ex-
planations which we have mentioned. We have quoted, for instance, the
behaviour of some zine lines, when the pressure at which the spark is
taken is reduced. We have seen that while three long zinc lines have
remained comparatively unaffected, two equally strong but shorter lines
near it rapidly decreased in length and finally disappeared. Now suppos-
ing that instead of decreasing the pressure we had increased it, the lines
which rapidly decreased in length would increase more rapidly than the
others, and thus, unless all lines tend towards one fixed limit, the shorter
lines might finally outgrow the long ones. At that point the method of
long and short lines would fail to give us correct results. Mr. Lockyer!
has drawn attention to another cause which renders the method unsafe,
if the temperature is pushed beyond a certain point. According to the
‘two hypotheses, which, as we have seen, fairly well account for the facts,
1 Proc. Roy. Soc. xxviii. p. 157 (1879).
294 REPORT— 1880.
the long lines are due to a comparatively cool state of the metallic
vapour. Now, according to the theory of molecular shocks, it is an open
question how the long lines behave when the temperature is increased ;
they may get stronger, they may not alter their intensity, or they may
get weaker. According to the hypothesis of molecular combinations, on
the other hand, the long lines must necessarily get weaker and finally
disappear. Now, in reality, they do get weaker and finally disappear in
many cases. Thus in the case of calcium, Mr. Lockyer! has pointed ont
that the blue line which is the strongest at the temperature of the Bunsen
burner, of the arc, and even of a weak electric spark, gradually weakens
when the intensity of the spark is increased, and finally disappears with a
coil of large power. Now supposing we observed the length of this
calcium line, as the spark is gradually increased. At first it would not
only be the longest but also the strongest line; as the temperature is
raised, the line, while still remaining the longest, would decrease in
strength and would finally disappear. But it may not disappear at the
same time throughout its length. If the temperature of the spark is
nearly equal throughout its length, the greater quantity of matter surround-
ing the electrode would increase its visibility near the pole. In that case
the line would shorten before it disappears. If, on the other hand, the
temperature of the spark is decidedly higher near the pole, the line would
first disappear there, and remain longest in the centre of the spark. It
would be interesting to decide experimentally how the line actually does
behave. In the mean time, we may say that, as Mr. Lockyer has pointed
out, a short line may not only be the first indication of a state of things
as they are at a higher temperature, but may also be due to the last
_ remnant of the state of things as they are at a lower temperature.
We have, besides this calcium line, many other lines which disappear
when the temperature is raised. Thus, of the violet rubidium lines
(4216, 4202), only the more refrangible one remains in the spark. The
two blue calcium lines both disappear when a condenser is used. The
disappearance of these lines is always accompanied by the appearance of
other strong lines.
When indium is volatilised in a flame, two lines (4509, 4101) are
seen. A third line (4532) is given on Thalén’s list. According to
Messrs. Clayden and Heycock,? this third line appears when the spectrum
is taken from the chloride or from the nitrate, but disappears when the
spark is taken from metallic indium. Other strong lines, however, in
different parts of the spectrum, replace it in that case.
There are sometimes lines appearing at low temperatures, but behaving
differently from proper low-temperature lines. These lines require
further investigation, and may in some cases, at least, be due to some
compounds of the metals with other elements present. We give some
examples :—
Lead (5005). Mr. Brassak,? who was the first to investigate the
differences observed in metallic spectra, when a condenser is put in or
ont of circuit, has noticed that in lead, without condenser, a strong line
appears at the point indicated. Mr. Huggins,‘ who has found this line to
be sensibly coincident with the chief line of nebule, has used it as a
reference, by means of which he might detect a proper motion of these
1 Proc. Roy. Soc. xxiv, p. 352 (1876). 2 Phil. Mag. ii. p. 387 (1876).
8 Abh. Naturf. Ges. Halle, ix. (1864).
4 Brit. Ass. Rep, (2) Bradford, 1873, p. 34.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 295
celestial bodies. He mentions that this line appears very strong under
conditions under which the other lead lines are weak. The line is givén
as a strong line by Lecoq de Boisbaudran, who used feeble sparks, and
these facts would suggest that it is a low-temperature line of lead. But
Thalén has already pointed out that the line is only seen in the neigh-
bourhood of the electrodes, and it figures as a short line on Lockyer’s
map. Also Profs. Liveing and Dewar, who have reversed the long lines
of lead, do not notice the reversal of this line.
Tin (6100). Salet! notices that when a hydrogen flame contains a
compound of tin, an orange line appears which is apparently coincident -
with the orange line of lithium. This line does not figure on any of the
maps of the tin spectrum.
Zinc. Lockyer? found that zinc, volatilized in an iron tube, showed
by absorption a green line. Liveing and Dewar? do not mention having
seen this line reversed, but it is very likely the line, 5184, given by Lecoq
de Boisbaudran, and proved by him not to be due to an impurity.
Sodiwm and Potassium. In the absorption spectra of sodium and
potassium, lines appear in the green which were noticed by Roscoe and
Schuster, but referred by them to known metallic lines of these bodies ;
but Profs. Liveing and Dewar ® have pointed out that they are not coin-
cident with any known metallic lines. They have determined the wave-
lengths for sodium to be 5510, and for potassium, 5730.
This is the place to notice some remarkable phenomena mentioned by
Mr. Lockyer. He passed a spark through an exhausted tube, below the
lower pole, a piece of sodium was heated, and under the experimental
conditions mentioned in the paper, the vapour above the sodium arranged
itself in layers of different colours. The layer adjoining the sodium was
green, and showed the green and red sodium lines without the yellow
lines, while the layer above was yellow, and only showed the yellow
lines, without the green and red. Mr. Lockyer also could obtain the
yellowish-green lines of potassium without the red. In a subsequent
paper, Mr. Lockyer’? has opened out the question whether the spectrum
of an element as it separates out of different combinations containing
different numbers of atoms of the element in question, is identical or not.
This is an important point, but does not come within the range of this
report.
The question has been raised how far the presence of a molecule of a
different kind may affect the spectrum of an element. The wide range
within which Mr. Lockyer’s law of long and short lines, and the elimi-
nation of impurities affected thereby, is true, shows that in a great many
eases at any rate, the admixture of another atom only alters the spectrum
in so far as it gives agreater prominence to the long lines ; but Mr. Lockyer®
himself had brought forward examples in which the law of long and
short lines does not hold. He has obtained a spectrum of iron in which
the longest manganese lines were absent, while some shorter ones were
strongly represented. The question is connected with the preceding one,
and 7 discussion is not possible at present, as the material is still too
scanty.
Photometric measurements of the relative intensity of different lines
1 Ann. Chim. Phys. xxviii. p. 69 (1873). > Proc. Roy. Soc. xxvii. p. 132 (1878).
2 Proc, Roy. Soc. xxii. p. 372 (1874). 6 Thid. xxix, p. 266 (1879).
3 Spectres Lumineux, texte p. 138 (1874). 7 Ibid. xxx. p. 31 (1880).
4 Proc. Roy. Soc, xxii. p. 362 (1874), 8 Tbid, xxviii. p. 157 (1879),
296 REPORT—1880.
under different spark-conditions would be of great value. The relative
intensity of the two strongest hydrogen lines in a series of experiments
was estimated by the Greenwich observers.' Messrs. Frankland and
Lockyer? had already pointed out that on a reduction of pressure the
blue line (F) is the last to disappear ; and Mr. Lockyer? afterwards pointed
out that an increase of temperature made the red line stronger, In the
published results of the Greenwich observations the pressure of a. va-
cuum tube varied between 387 mm. and 100 mm. The relative intensities
are given as follows :—
P Pressure = 887 mm. Ha = 10 HB = 10
297 10 8
217 10 8
100 10 9
In the last case the F line was considerably narrower than before, and
this may have caused the increased brilliancy.
Through the kindness of Mr. Christie, 1am also enabled to give some
unpublished observations on the same point made at Greenwich. <A tube
sealed off under a pressure of 5 mm. was employed and the effect of an
air-break in the circuit was studied. Without an air-break Ha was brighter
than Hf by one-fourth ; a break of one inch introduced little change,
except that the whole spectrum was fainter; but when the break was
increased to 1:75 inches, H( was the brightest line, Ha being only about
two-thirds as bright. In these experiments the spark was sufficiently
strong to cross an air space of 2°5 inches when the tube was not inter-
posed. Other experiments with a somewhat stronger spark confirmed
the fact that Hj is increased in relative intensity when the break is
increased.
With a spark which could cross a space of 1°8 in. and a break of
1:75 in. the following observation was made :—
The spark passed occasionally with great difficulty, sometimes giving
the usual crackle and at other times a sharp report, almost like a pistol.
The degree of ease with which the spark passed, and the appearance of the
spectrum, both varied so rapidly that it was difficult to say if one depended
on the other. So far as could be ascertained, Ha was absent when the spark
passed with the greatest difficulty, and brightest when it passed most easily.’
M. Lecoq de Boisbaudran‘4 mentions that an increase of temperature
is often accompanied by a relatively greater increase in the brilliancy of
the more refrangible rays. It is often said that such an increase isa
direct consequence of the formula established by Prof. Kirchhoff. If
the absorptive power of a molecule remains the same, while the tempera-
ture is increased, it follows that the blue rays gain more quickly in inten-
sity than the red ones, but the less refrangible ones would never actually
decrease in intensity, the quantity of matter remaining the same. Now
- such a decrease is observed in most cases mentioned by Lecoq de Bois-
baudran, and there is generally no reason to suppose that the quantity of
luminous matter has been reduced. We may doubt, therefore, that the
observed differences in the spectra are in all cases regulated only by
Kirchhoff’s law; but it is a perfectly plausible hypothesis that a higher
temperature is in general accompanied by a decrease in the absorptive
power of the less refrangible rays. Asa stronger blow often brings out
' Greenwich Astron. Results, p. 121 (1875). * Proc. Roy. Soc. xxiv. p. 352 (1876).
* Proc. Roy. Soc, xviii. p. 79 (1869). 4 Spectres Lumineux, texte p. 43 (1874).
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 297
higher tunes, stronger molecular shocks may bring out waves of smaller
length. There are several instances of a regular increase in the relative
intensity of the blue rays which may be ascribed to this cause. The
most remarkable instance is perhaps seen in the spectrum of phospho-
retted hydrogen. Ifa little phosphorus is introduced into an apparatus
generating hydrogen, the flame will.show a series of bands, chiefly in the
green. The spectrum gets more brilliant if the flame is cooled. This
can be done, according to Salet,! by pressing the flame against a surface
kept cool by. means of a stream of water or by surrounding the tube, at
the orifice of which the gas is lighted, by a wider tube through which
cold air is blown. The process of cooling the flame, according to Lecoq,”
changes the relative intensity of the bands in a perfectly regular manner.
The almost invisible least refrangible band becomes strong, and the
second band, which was weaker than the fourth, now becomes stronger.
As another example of a similar change we may give the spectrum
shown toa Bunsen burner. By charging the burner with an indifferent
gas? (N, HCl, CO,), the flame takes a greenish colour, aud though the
spectrum is not altered, the least refrangible of the bands are increased in
intensity.
A similar change takes place, as pointed out by Mr. Lockyer,* in the
two sets of bands of the spectrum ascribed by Profs. Liveing and Dewar
to a combination of nitrogen and carbon. (See Report on the Spectra of
Metalloids.)
While in the cases we have just mentioned, the phenomena are per-
fectly regular, and such as would flow from a general law of a more rapid
increase in the intensity of the more refrangible lines by an increase of
temperature, there are other cases where the changes are very irregular,
as in the spectrum of tin, lithium, magnesium, the changes in which
spectra we havealready noticed. Zinc behaves in the opposite way : a rise
in temperature increases the intensity of the less refrangible blue rays.
The theory which, as we have suggested, may account for this increased
brilliancy of the more refrangible rays is in accordance with the theory
which explains the long and short lines by molecular shocks, but the
theory of molecular combinations may also account for the facts which
are now before us; for if the low-temperature spectrum is due to a more
complicated molecule, it is quite in accordance with our ideas of molecular
vibrations that its vibrations should take place in longer periods than
those of a simpler molecule.
We have here again two hypotheses, that of molecular shocks and
that of molecular combinations. Both explain the facts satisfactorily.
and I do not think that one of them necessarily excludes the other. I
believe, on the contrary, that a line can be drawn, and that while the
regular changes observed chiefly in band spectra may be due to one cause,
the often irregular changes in metallic spectra, where one set of lines
disappears and another appears—often on the violet side, but sometimes
towards the red—may be due to another.
It is often said that we must not ascribe the same phenomenon to two
different causes, when one of them is sufficient to explain it; but the
point at issue is whether the phenomena are the same in all cases. An
1 Ann. Chim. Phys. xxviii. p. 57 (1873).
2 Spectres Lumineux, texte p. 188 (1874).
3 Lecoq de Boisbaudran, Spectres Lumineur, p. 43 (1874).
4 Proc. Roy. Soc. xxx. p. 461 (1880).
298 REPORT—1 880.
advance of science has constantly led to the separation of phenomena
which were formerly considered to be connected together, and we believe
that the further development of the different points we have attempted
to discuss, in which different observers have strongly taken up opposite
opinions, will lead to the blending together of different views rather than
the entire elimination of one of them.
§ 3. Euisston Specrra or Rays More RerrancisLe THAN H. Report by
W.N. Harrtey, Professor of Chemistry, Royal College of Science for
Ireland, Dublin.
Schule was the first to show that silver chloride when exposed to light
transmitted through a prism was blackened more by the violet rays than
by those of any other colour.}
Wollaston who, prior to Fraunhofer, perceived certain obscure rays in
the Solar Spectrum, repeated the experiments of Schule, and found that
the blackening of silver chloride extended not only over the surface occu-
pied by the violet rays, but also to an equal degree over an equally large
surface beyond the visible spectrum.? Shortly after the discovery of
photography, Sir John Herschel resumed this subject, and remarked that
different sensitive substances when exposed to the action of the spectrum
behave very unequally. The maximum of chemical action takes place
sometimes in one colour, sometimes in another, sometimes even outside
the spectrum, and it was always observed to extend beyond the violet.
Herschel unsuccessfully endeavoured to ascertain whether there are inac-
tive spaces in the chemical spectrum, by exposing sensitised paper pre-
pared according to the process of Mr. Fox Talbot.’
He showed at this time that the ultra-violet rays are not completely
invisible. They produce upon the eye a sensation which is not that of
violet nor of any other prismatic hue, but rather resembling what one
might call a lavender-grey tint. He proposed to apply the name lavender
to the obscure rays which produce the tint in question, in order to ab-
breviate the awkwardly sounding expression ultra-violet rays, and to
avoid the ambiguity attached to the term chemical rays, which in point of
fact are found in all parts of the spectrum.
M. Edmond Becquerel was more fortunate in demonstrating the exist-
ence of chemically inactive rays. He showed impressions on prepared
paper and on plates of iodised silver, indicating maxima and minima of
chemical action. Becquerel gave the name of phosphorogenic spectrum
to the collection of rays which show the phenomenon of phosphorescence.
This spectrum extends beyond the violet, and consists of rays identical
with the luminous and the chemical rays. We are indebted to Prof.
Stokes for a means of studying the extremely refrangible rays by means
of fluorescence.°
If a spectrum be projected on to certain substances such as quinine
sulphate, tincture of turmeric, or glass coloured with uranic oxide, these
substances become luminous, for a considerable distance beyond the
region of the violet rays, and the rays thus rendered visible are always
1 Traité Chémique de V Air et du Feu, sec. 66, 1781.
2 Phil. Trans. 1802. 8 Ibid. 1840.
4 Bibliotheque Universelle de Geneve, t. xl. 1842.
5 Phil. Trans, 1852.
——
woe
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 299
less refrangible than the incident rays. Prof. Stokes made drawings of
certain obscure bands which were seen in that part of the spectrum lying
beyond the violet, and these correspond with impressions taken on sen-
sitised paper and prepared photographic plates by M. Becquerel. He
found likewise that glass excited a considerable absorption of the more
refrangible rays, but that quartz was of all bodies the one which trans-
mitted them most easily.
’ By direct vision, using lenses and prisms of quartz, Prof. Helmholtz
has been able to see the obscure rays, the existence of which was proved
by Prof. Stokes and M. Becquerel. A very pure spectrum was observed
in such a manner that a second slit shut off all the distinctly luminous
rays from tle eye of the experimenter. By receiving the rays on a screen
saturated with quinine sulphate solution, they are rendered very plainly
visible! M. Esselbach has modified the process and made further obser-
vations? Dr. J. W. Draper has also repeated the experiments of
Becquerel and reproduced the ultra-violet spectrum on photographic
plates.? This work has been continued of late years by his son, Dr.
Henry Draper of New York.
M. Mascart has examined the ultra-violet portion of the solar spectrum
by means of photography, and has given a drawing of a normal spectrum
extending beyond H.* Making use of a Babinet’s goniometer of very
perfect construction with a prism and lenses of quartz, he substituted a
photographic plate for the eye-piece. By the use of gratings traced on
glass by M. Nobert he has made measurements of the wave-length of some
of the ultra-violet solar rays as well as of the lines of cadmium, the spec-
trum of this metal being remarkable for the range beyond H, to which
its rays extend.
There is a regular diminution in wave-length from the solar line H,
396°7, to 221°7, the extreme cadmium line. It was remarked that the
shortest wave-length, 221-7, together with the longest of the visible undu-
lations, A, 760, constitutes with the intermediate vibrations a scale extend-
ing nearly two octaves. In the accompanying table the wave-length of
ultra-violet cadmium lines as measured by M. Mascart are given.
Wave-length of lines in that portion of the spectrum of cadmium more
refrangible that the solar line H. Determined by M. Mascart :—
Numbers designating Numbers designating
Cadmium lines 5 Wave-length Cadmium lines Wave-length
8 ’ ‘ 398°56 15 : . —
Mat sad? aon) 360-7) ol 16 aachels ae ‘S
10 © + 346-45] wi 17 . 37434 | 9 E
i fa . - 340°30 & 4 18 ° 257°42 b & a
12 . . 328°75 | 2 5 23 231°83 | ? 5
13 e . — o 24 : 226°56 o
14 . = ory 25 . = 221°76 )
Dr. Henry Draper was the first who obtained photographs of the sun’s
spectrum completely in focus and on one plate from G (wave-length
430°7) to above O (wave-length 344-0), the photograph in this case being
twelve inches in length. He succeeded on another occasion in photo-
graphing from near h (wave-length 516°7) to T (wave-length 303:2)
1 Pogg. Annal, vol. xciv. 3 Phil. Trans. 1859.
2 Tbid. vol. xeviii. 4 Annales de UV Ecole Normale, 1864.
5 The wave-lengths calculated by MM. Mascart and Cornu are stated in millionths
eee mt, while those quoted in the foregoing report are given in ten-
MULLVONENS,
300 REPORT—1880.
and even further than this he has. photographed the regions including
E, D, C, B, a, and A, together with ultra-red rays.! He used a ruled
speculum-plane, and in certain cases a concave speculum-mirror. The
plate.generally employed was of glass ruled with 6,481 lines to the inch,
made by the beautiful machine constructed by Mr. L. M. Beemer of
New York. The ruled surface is 1,8; inch long and 584, of an inch
wide. It appears to be unquestionably more perfect than any similar
grating made by Nobert and others. The grating being on glass gives a
bright transmitted spectrum which was generally used, the remaining
optical part of the apparatus being of glass achromatised according to the
plan of J. W. Draper. The slit was 55, in length and +}, of an inch in
width. The jaws of the slit made of steel were provided with a micro-
meter screw for separating them, and another for placing them at an
angle so that occasionally photographs were taken with the slit opened to
yo inch at the top and only +4, at the bottom, so.as to obtain a different
intensity at the two edges of the spectrum. Most of the photographs
were taken from spectra of the third order, which possesses the following
advantages: first, it is dilated to such an extent as to give a long image,
and yet is not one too faint to be copied by a reasonable exposure of the
photographic plate ; and secondly, the spectrum of the second order over-
laps it {in such a way that D falls nearly upon H, and T upon O, and
these coincidences serve to determine the true wave- length of all the rays.
In order to obtain a spectrum of uniform character for rays of all
refrangibilities, parts of the sensitised plate were protected by a series of
diaphragms during exposure for faint groups of rays; by the removal of
these at intervals the strong rays were photographed with a distinctness
which could not otherwise have been attained.
The region from wave-length 400°0 to 435:°0 only required about
1-10th the exposure required by that from 3440 to 351:0. In the photo-
graph published in ‘Nature,’ the line O had 15 minutes’ and G 23
minutes’ exposure to a wet bromo- iodised collodion plate, and still the
former is under-exposed.
After the production of spectra which were in focus from end to end,
it was necessary to attach a scale to them by which wave-lengths might
be read.
Plate X. is a copy of Dr. Draper’s photograph.
Using as a basis the numbers given by Angstrém for the rays, Ds, by
and G, the wave-lengths of the principal rays on Dr. Henry Draper’s pho-
tograph were calculated. Taking advantage of the fact that the second
spectrum overlaps the third, the ray D being near H of the:third, and F
of the second being near O of the third, it is obvious that wave-lengths of
three points, one at each end and one in the middle of the photograph, may
be readily ascertained. . As the rays D and b were too feeble to be easily
photographed, the following device was resorted to to indicate their
position, with regard to lines on the spectrum of the third order. In
front of the sensitised plate and close to it, were placed two very fine
steel points, one carefully adjusted to D, of the second order, and the
other to F, of the second order. On developing the picture after expos-
ing the plate to the ultra-violet spectrum of the third order, two sharply
defined images of the steel points were superposed on the spectrum. The
1¢On Diffraction Spectrum Photography, and the Determination of the Wave-
lengths of the Ultra-violet Rays, Nature, 1874, p. 224; also American Journal of
Science and Art, Dec. 1873.
Asoo. 1660
December, 1872
ork
Lhotograph of the Diffraction Spectrum. (taken by Professor Henry Draper, MD
University of New }
=
& roled
The
mS incladi
mirror.
sto the inch,
tatherford of
f5 of an inch
—
‘
al
mS VE
Wh
“ae
Mlustrating te Peport of the Committes ore Spectre Analyses.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 301
point coincident with D, of the second order was found on H, of the third
order, and the point b, of the second order had impressed itself near O of
the third order. The ray G of the third order, the wave-length of which
is known, was impressed photographically on the collodion plate.
By a simple calculation it was rendered evident that a given ray in the
compound H, was of wave-length 393°01, and that another near O had
the wave-length 34446.
Dr. Draper ruled a fine scale with a dividing engine, and applied this
to his spectrum photographs in order that the wave-length of any line
could be read off at once to the 10-millionth of a millimétre.
The following remarks concerning M. Mascart’s measurements are
worthy of record. The line L, which he regards as single is in reality
triple, and does not correspond to wave-length 381°9 but to 38271; M is
correctly designated by 372°8, but it is double; N is really at 358°3 and
not at 358°0.
The spectrum above H, when compared with the region from G to H,
is marked by the presence of bolder groups of lines, the most conspicuous
of which are those between 382°0-386°0; 370°5-376:°0; 362°0-365-0 ;
356°8-359°0; 349°0-353:0. Dr. Draper’s fine photographs show how
impossible it is to depict the relative intensities of lines in the spectrum
by any other means than photography, and how groups of lines even may
fail to be resolved ; in his original negative there could be readily counted
more than fifty lines in the group H.
In fact ‘ The exact composition of even a part of the spectrum of a metal
will not be known until we have obtained photographs of it on a large
scale.’
M. Cornu has given a description of the solar spectrum from the line
called h to the ray O, and has drawn a beautiful map made to the scale
of waye-lengths.' This work was intended to be a continuation of the
labours of Angstrom. The spectra were observed by photography in a
manner similar to that devised by. M. Mascart, but as the optical apparatus
was made of glass, all rays more refrangible than O (wave-length=344'11)
were intercepted. .
In a continuation of his experiments using more perfect lenses of
quartz and Iceland spa as well as prisms of these materials, M. Cornu
has succeeded in photographing the solar spectrum as far as a line called
U (wave-length 29484). Rays more refrangible than this are absorbed
by the earth’s atmosphere. As a reflector for the ultra-violet rays,
metallic mirrors were found to be useless, therefore in order to bring solar
rays into the slit of the collimator, a right-angled prism of quartz was
used, the light being totally reflected from one side of the prism. The
image was received on a photographic plate, a dark-slide being made to
replace the eye-piece of the spectroscope.
By taking two photographs on the same plate, one below the other,
the prism being turned to the right or to the left through a measured
arc, the sharpness of the lines and their position near the centre of the
field gives us a means of ascertaining the position of the prism corre-
sponding to the minimum angle of deviation for any particular ray. On
account of want of intensity in the rays, photographs are difficult to obtain
from diffraction spectra. Diffraction-gratings on glass yield spectra con-
tinuous only as faras R. Photographs of diffraction-spectra have been
1 Annales de U Ecole Normaie, 1874.
302 REPORT—1880.
taken by M. Cornu by means of a quartz grating; the lines ruled on the
quartz numbered 60 to the millimétre. The photographic process em-
loyed was the ordinary one with wet collodion and a developer of ferrous
sulphate. The collodion was salted with cadmium iodide and bromide,
there being 4 parts of the former to 1 of the latter salt. M. Cornn’s
observations regarding that portion of the solar spectrum more refrangible
than H include the following remarkable facts.
1. No single or isolated line is met with among the principal groups,
such as we are familiar with in the luminous portion of the spectrum, as
for instance the single lines C, D, 4 and F.
2. The groups of rays are always made up of twin lines, triplets or
multiple groups, lying very close together. This occasions a certain con-
fusion which enhances the difficulty of accurately measuring their wave-
lengths. The confusion of lines is increased when diffraction-gratings are
used instead of prisms, since their dispersive power in comparison with
that of prisms decreases with the refrangibility of the rays.
3. The greatest extent of the solar spectrum can be photographed only
in the spring-time of the yearand at mid-day ; at any other time the most
refrangible rays are intercepted by the atmosphere.
4, Nearly all the solar rays more refrangible than H are due to the
spectrum of iron. A photograph of the spectrum of this metal is a fairly
accurate representation of the solar rays, and may be used as a spectrum
for comparison.
5. Without exception all these rays belong to matter which enters
into the composition of meteorites.
The wave-lengths of the principal lines in the solar spectrum have
been measured by M. Cornu. He adopts the designation O, P, Q, R,
x and S, given by M. Mascart to indicate certain rays.
The following numbers are the wave-lengths of the principal solar rays
determined with a diffraction-grating made by Brunner.
Solar Line, Wave-length. Solar Line. ~- Wave-length.
G’ 3 = 434-08 18) ~ - = 34410
h = 410°05 1p = 336:00
H = 396'81 Q = 328°63
K =, 393'33 R = 317:98
L = 381:96 C - 5 2 = 314:47
M = 372-62 Between S’and 8” = 310°31
N = 35818 Trace. = 306-95
The numbers are the results of five different measurements which
agreed well with each other, the means agreeing very satisfactorily with
numbers obtained by M. Mascart.
Comparing the spectrum of iron with the solar rays, it was found that
the incandescence of the metal caused by the action of fifty-five Bunsen’s
elements was much more intense than sunlight. The lines in the
spectrum thus observed were for the most part coincident with the solar
rays L, M, N, O, P, Q, S, T and U; their identity was easily recognised,
The following table shows the wave-length of iron lines compared with
those in the solar spectrum. The ray R is due.to calcium, while other
important lines belong to nickel, aluminium, magnesium and titanium.
The line P cannot be recognised as belonging to any known metallic
spectrum, :
Plate XI. is a copy of a beautiful plate of the normal spectrum ex-
tending beyond the line H, published by M. Corna.!
1 Annales de VEcole Normale, 1880.
we
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 303
Table showing the coincidence of Iron Lines with certain lines in the
Solar Spectrum. The wave-lengths were determined by taking
photographs with a Nobert’s grating ruled on quartz.'
Designa- Wave-lengths of | Wave-lengths of Previous Determinations of Wave-
tion of Solar Iron Lines. Solar Bis. lengths of Solar Rays.
Rays.
Cornu, Cornu. Cornu. Mascart.
v — 434-08 — —
h —- 410-05 — —-
2 407-04 —_— 407-04 —_—
H’ 396°85 39681 396°76 .396°72
K 393°33 — _— —
L 382-08 381-96 381:96 381/90
M 372°85 372°62 372°68 372°88
N 358°29 358°18 358-05 358-02
oO 344-11 34410 343-97 34401
Ie —_— 336-00 335°98 336°02
— 330°73 — — —_
Q 328°76 328°63 — 328°56
-- 319-62 — —_ —
R — 317-98 —_ 317-75
r — 314°47
8, 310-00 Between §,and§,
— 304-21 31031
— 302°52 (trace 306-95)
x 302-00
» (2) 298-44
_ 295°43
U 294-84
— 293°73
— 292°86 |
_ 275°39
— 27478 |
§ 4. Ansorprion-Spectra or THE Rays or High Rerranciprtiry. Report by
A. K. Huyrineton, Professor of Metallurgy, King’s College, London.
+ Inthe year 1852 it was discovered by Prof. Stokes that quartz absorbs
the ultra-violet rays of the solar spectrum less than glass,” and in 1853 he
ascertained that the length of the spectrum of the electric light obtained
by means of lenses and prisms of quartz was greatly in excess of that
of the solar spectrum under the same conditions.?
These discoveries made it practicable to investigate spectroscopically
the properties of the extreme rays of the ultra-violet spectrum—rays the
existence of which had previously been unknown.
On June 19, 1862, Prof. Stokes and Prof. W. A. Miller communicated
to the Royal Society the results of the investigations which they
simultaneously but independently had made on the permeability of matter
for the rays of high refrangibility, and on the spectra of metals photo-
graphed by means of quartz apparatus. The absorbent action of various
solids and liquids upon the chemical rays had been described in 1843 by
1M. Cornu, Annales de V Ecole Normale, 1880.
2 ¢On the Change of Refrangibility of Light,’ Phil. Trans. 1852.
3 ¢On the Long Spectrum of the Electric Light,’ Phil. Trans. 1863.
304 REPORT—1880.
M. Becquerel ;1 but his restlts were vitiated in consequence of his haying
used glass instead of quartz apparatus,
Both Prof. Stokes and Dr. Miller carried on their experiments by
means of an induction coil and a Leyden jar; the metals for the points
between which the spark passed being varied according to circumstances.
The rays which escaped absorption by the substance interposed in their
path were caused to pass through a quartz prism, and then focussed on a
fluorescent screen or on a photographic wet plate: the former method
being employed by Prof. Stokes,” the latter by Dr. Miller.?
Dr. Miller’s experiments are comprised under the following heads :—
(1) The absorption of the invisible rays by transmission througly
different media.
a. By transmission through solids.
b, By transmission through liquids.
c. By transmission through gases and vapours.
(2) The absorption of the invisible rays by reflection from polished
surfaces.
(3) The photographic effects of the electric spectra of different metals
taken in air, including
a. Pure metals. b. Alloys.
(4) Photographic effects of electric spectra of different metals produced by
transmitting the sparks through gases other than atmospheric air.
The general results having reference to (1) may be stated as
follows :—
Colourless bodies which possess equal powers of transmitting the
luminous rays vary greatly in permeability to the invisible rays.
Diactinic solids (that is to say, solids which are permeable to the
chemical rays) preserve their diactinic power both when liquefied and
when converted into vapour.
Colourless solids which are transparent to light, but exert a con-
siderable absorptive effect upon the invisible rays, preserve their absorptive
power with greater or less intensity both in the liquid and the gaseous
state.
In the preparation of the various compounds for examination, much
care is stated to have been taken to employ materials in a state of purity.
Notwithstanding, in some cases there was reason to believe that some
impurity was present which could not be detected by the ordinary tests,
but which was opaque to the actinic rays. Subsequent researches by
others have proved this surmise to be correct. It was found that filtration
through paper sensibly impaired the diactinicity of a solution.
Dr. Miller states that he was unable to trace any special connec-
tion between the chemical complexity of a substance and its diactinic
power.
As regards ‘ the absorption of the invisible rays by transmission through
different media,” it may be remarked that the solids examined were not
of uniform thickness, and the substances experimented on in a state of
solution were in the condition of saturation, and, therefore, not fairly
1 Annales de Chimie, Ser. 3, vol. ix. p. 301.
2 Phil. Trans. 1863. 3 Loe, cit. 1863,
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 305
comparable one with another : nevertheless some important generalisations
were arrived at. No substance which could be conveniently employed
for prisms and lenses was found to surpass quartz in diactinicity.
(2) ‘The absorption of the invisible rays by reflexion from polished
surfaces.’
A small polished plate of the substance under experiment was supported
at an angle of 45° opposite the vertical slit of the apparatus, and the
source of the rays was arranged so that they should be reflected in the
direction of the axis of the tube. ‘It was found that no judgment of
the perfection of the reflecting power could be formed from the colour of
the metal.’ For example, gold possesses the power of reflecting all the
rays, even the most refrangible, very equally, though somewhat feebly.
Next to gold ranks burnished lead, some parts of the spectrum reflected
from lead being more intense than that from gold. The spectrum
reflected from these two metals was found to be longer than that obtained
by reflection from any other metallic surface examined. The spectrum
reflected from a silver surface was characterised by a sudden cessation for
a certain distance of the image on the photographic plate; that is to say,
in a certain portion of the spectrum the rays had been absorbed, some
more refrangible being transmitted. The reflection from steel was more
intense than that from any other surface employed, with, perhaps, the
exception of tin.
Speculum-metal, platinum, zinc, aluminium, mercury, cadmium,
copper, and brass were also examined.
The foregoing experiments on reflection from metallic surfaces were
undertaken in consequence of the difficulty experienced in obtaining a
spectrum, all parts of which were even approximately in focus in the
sane plane. The results were not, however, considered favourable to the
substitution of a speculum for a lens.
(3) Photographic effects of the electric specira of different metals taken
im wir.
(a) Pure Metals. Although each metal was found to have a distinc-
tive spectrum, as in the case of the ordinarily visible rays, yet it is re-
markable that no important difference is apparent in the less refrangible
end. The photographic lines of the air-spectrum are most marked in the
less refrangible portion, whilst the characteristic lines of the metals are
particularly evident in the more refrangible parts. The more volatile
metals gave the most intense spectra—those of bismuth, antimony,
cadmium, zinc, and magnesium being the most prominent in this respect.
A certain similarity was observed in the spectra of allied metals; this was
the case with the three last-named metals, and also in the case of iron,
cobalt, and nickel, and with bismuth and antimony, as well as with chro-
mium and manganese. In consequence of imperfections in the methods of
experimenting, the true relative length of the spectra was not accurately
determined.
(b) Spectra of Alloys. Dr. Miller states that ‘When equal weights
of two metals are employed (tin and lead, for example, or cadmium and
lead) a compound spectrum exhibiting the lines due to both metals is
produced ; and it is not always the more volatile metal that predomi-
nates.’
1880, x
306 REPORT—1880.
(4) Photographic effects of electric spectra of different metals produced
by transmitting the sparks through gases other than atmospheric air.
The gases to be examined were passed through a glass tube which
enclosed the electrodes; on one side the part opposite the metal-points
was cut away and replaced by a thin piece of quartz. The general results
of these experiments on the invisible rays are in harmony with those
already obtained for the visible rays by MM. Angstrom,' Alter,? and
Pliicker.2 They may be summed up as follows :—
1. Each gas tinges the spark of a characteristic colour; but no judg-
ment can be formed from this colour of the kind of spectrum which the
gas will farnish,
2, In most cases, in addition to the lines peculiar to the metal used as
electrodes, new and special lines characteristic of the gas, if elementary,
or of its constituents, if compound, are produced. When compound
gases are employed, the special lines produced are not due to the compound
as a whole, but to its constituents.
Prof. Stokes’s experiments on the fluorescent spectra of metals and
the diactinicity of solids and solutions corroborate the results obtained by
Dr. Miller, In his method of experimenting the substance to be observed
is introduced into the solvent, and the effect on the fluorescent screen
watched as solution gradually takes place; in this way he was enabled to
seize the most characteristic phase of the absorption, and registered it on
paper by means of a pricking instrument devised by him for the pur-
pose.
Some interesting results were also obtained by him regarding the
Absorption of the invisible rays by Alkaloids, Glucosides, §c. He found
that these bodies were intensely opaque for a portion of the invisible
rays, the mode of absorption being generally highly characteristic. The
solvents used were water, dilute sulphuric acid, dilute hydrochloric acid
and ammonia; all of these being sufficiently transparent to therays under
examination, to answer the purpose. The effect of acids and alkalies on
the glucosides presented one uniform feature: when a previously neutral
solution was rendered alkaline the absorption began somewhat earlier,
when rendered acid somewhat later. In the case of quinine and the other
bases observed, with one exception, the absorption, if altered at all, was
changed in an opposite manner to that in the case of the glucosides when
the base is set free by ammonia. Bands of absorption also appeared
when neutral substances were examined, e.g., in the case of coumarine
and paranaphthaline.
In addition to experimenting on several minerals as to their trans-
parency for the rays which give rise to fluorescence, Prof. Stokes exa-
mined them also for the property of fluorescence itself. His researches
in this direction were rewarded by some interesting results. He found
that adularia exhibits a pair of bluish dots—the images of the tips of the
electrodes—when the rays of highest refrangibility are focussed on it ; as
the same phenomenon was observed with colourless felspas from different
localities, it is doubtless a property of silicate of alumina and potash.
The other case of interest relates to a particular variety of fluor-spa
found at Alston Moor. The specimen, when exposed to the spark passing
1 Poggendorff’s Annalen, 1855, Bd. xciv. s. 141.
2 Silliman’s Journal, 1855, vol. xix. p. 213.
8 Poggendorff's Annalen, 1859, Bd, ecvii.s. 497.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 307
between aluminium-points, in addition to the usual blue fluorescence
exhibited a reddish colour, extending not nearly so far into the cry-
stal; this reddish fluorescence was ascertained to be produced by the
rays of extreme refrangibility. Prof. Stokes found that as the distance
between the electrodes was diminished the reddish fluorescence appeared
to increase. Similar experiments with this crystal lead him to the con-
clusion that the proportion of rays of extremely high refrangibility is
decidedly greater for the spark at the contact-breaker than for the secondary
discharge.
Pe dtecharge and lines of blue negative light.—When the electrodes are
made to nearly touch, and the spark passes with little noise, a new set of
strong lines make their appearance in the invisible region of moderate
refrangibility. Although in this mode of discharge the jar has not much
influence, the lines in question are better seen when it is suppressed
altogether. Under these circumstances the visible discharge is very in-
significant, but a very considerable effect is produced in the invisible
region.
oo the publication of the papers just referred to until the year
1874, we find nothing recorded which materially adds to our know-
ledge of the more refrangible rays of the ultra-violet spectrum. About
this time M. J. L. Soret constructed a spectroscope provided with a
fluorescent eyepiece.! The modification introduced consists essentially
in placing a transparent and fluorescent substance at the focus of
the object-glass, and, in order to view the spectrum to advantage,
haying an eyepiece inclined to the axis of the telescope. By means
of this spectroscope (still further slightly modified) M. Soret ex-
amined the solar spectrum at different altitudes.2 He found that the
intensity of the ultra-violet spectrum is notably greater at high eleva-
tions than at the sea-level, but that the spectrum does not extend
further. Similar observations were made by Janssen in India: he re-
marked that at a great elevation it was possible to distinguish by direct
vision ultra-violet rays, which, with the same instrument, could not
be distinguished at the level of the sea. M. Soret draws the inference
that it is the sun’s atmosphere, and not that of the earth, which absorbs
the solar rays of a smaller wave-length, a conclusion which is, he says,
already admitted by some savants, and which is confirmed by the fact
that the light emitted by the edge of the sun exerts a less energetic
chemical action than that emanating from the centre. Our atmosphere
exerts a twofold absorbing action: the one, due to the vapour of water
and to gaseous substances, is elective and gives rise to atmospheric
bands; the other is continuous, and acts with an increasing energy the
more refrangible the rays. The latter is probably due to solid or liquid
particles in suspension in the air, for on the sky becoming clouded the
ultra-violet rays lose much of their intensity, and when the sun is near
the horizon they disappear altogether.
By the publication by M. Soret in 1878, of the results of further in-
vestigations, our knowledge of the extremely refrangible rays was some-
what advanced. He examined many of the substances previously
investigated by Professors Stokes and Miller, and also a considerable
number of other bodies. As, however, in most cases the substances
employed had not been specially prepared, the conclusions to be drawn
' Archives des sc. phys. et nat, 1874, t. 49.
2 Loe. cit, t. lvii. 1876.
ee.
308 REPORT—1880.
from the results were in consequence necessarily limited. Apparatus
employed :—a Ruhmkorff’s coil, a magneto-electric machine, and four
Leyden jars were so arranged as to give a spark 15 centimetres long.
The spectroscope with a fluorescent eyepiece was employed in this and
subsequent investigations of a similar nature.
Transparency of Quartz, &c.
The observation by Prof. Stokes, that quartz when beyond a certain
thickness does not transmit the extreme rays was confirmed, a gradual
absorption being found to take place as the thickness increased ; he also
found that a prism of Iceland-spa absorbs the very extreme rays. From
a comparison of the transparency of quartz and water, the conclusion was
arrived at that ‘the coefficient of extinction for the rays of the refrangi-
bility of the ray 32 is feebler for quartz than for water; but for the rays
27-31 this coefficient is stronger for quartz.’ It was ascertained that the
transparency of solutions filtered through paper was not impaired pro-
vided the paper had been previously washed with water containing a little
hydrochloric acid, and then with pure water.
If the thickness of the layer through which the rays have to pass be
increased, the very refrangible rays are more and more intercepted; but
the rate of diminution varies much with different substances. Chromates
and nitrates were observed to cause absorption bands in the ultra-violet
region. The sulphates of didymium and cerium, and commercial ammonia
were also found to occasion absorption bands, that in the case of ammonia
being, however, due to some impurity ordinarily present in ammonia de-
rived from gas-liquor.
MM. J. L. Soret and A. A. Rilliet have since examined the ultra-
violet absorption-spectra of the ethereal nitrates and nitrites with the view
to ascertain whether these substances behave in the same way as metallic
nitrates and nitrites}
The nitrates of ethyl, butyl, and amyl were found to absorb energeti-
cally the ultra-violet rays; but they did not produce the characteristic
absorption-bands observable in the case of the metallic nitrates. The
ethereal nitrates are, however, more transparent than the metallic nitrates
for the rays 12-14, but less so for 17-20, being again more transparent
for the extreme rays. The vapours of the ethereal nitrates exhibit con-
siderable absorptive power even at the ordinary temperatures.
Nitrites of amyl and ethyl absorb energetically the ultra-violet rays.
Six bands, about equidistant, are apparent between H and R. The vapours
give the same bands. The alkaline nitrites, although very absorbent for
this part of the spectrum, do not give the same absorption-bands.
An examination of the absorption-spectra of the bases in gadolinite by
means of the solar rays, an Iceland spa prism being used, has led M.
Soret to the conclusion that some of the bands in the ultra-violet region
are not due to yttrium, erbium, or terbium, but to the new base dis-
covered by Delafontaine.? In a subsequent communication on the
absorption-spectra of didymium and some other substances obtained from
samarskite,? a comparison is given between a chloride of didyminm from
samarskite, and one obtained from a different source. The former ex-
hibited differences, supposed to be due to the presence of the new earth
in small quantity. Further on in the same volume (page 521) we find
' Comptes Ren tus, t. \xxxix. p. 747. 2 Thid. t. Ixxxvi. p. 1062.
Loe. cit. xxviii. p, 422.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 309
some comments on the identity of the earth called X by M. Soret, holmium
by M. Cléve, and philippium by MM. Delafontaine and Marignac.
With the view to ascertain whether the centre of the eye is trans-
parent to the rays of extreme refrangibility of the induction spark, M.
Soret has made experiments on the eye of the bullock, the calf, and the
sheep. He finds that the limit of transparency for the aqueous and
vitreous humours, with a thickness of one centimétre, is the ray U (A=
294-8, Cornu); with a thickness of 2-3 millimétres 16-20 (cd) are inter-
cepted, but 22-24 are transmitted: 7.e. there is an intermediate absorption
or absorption-band. A diagram is given showing the maximum trans-
parency for different thicknesses.! As it appeared probable that the
absorption was due to albuminoids contained in the humours, the
curve due to white of egg was examined; it is shown in the dia-
gram. These two curyes present considerable analogy in form, but the
absorption-band of the latter is displaced in the direction of the less
refrangible end of the spectrum. ODefibrinized blood also gives an
absorption-band similar to that of white of egg. The cornea and the
crystalline are more absorbent than the aqueous and vitreous humours.
The thinnest possible slice of the crystalline cuts off the rays of greatest
refrangibility. The curve due to the crystalline diluted with water
approached more nearly to that of white of egg than to that of aqueous
humour. The eye of living man is certainly more transparent for these
rays; but this is due in all probability to its smaller dimensions. The
comparison is also made more difficult by the rapidity with which the
tissues alter after death.
In any case it appears probable that the eye as a whole absorbs all the
rays more refrangible than U, 7.e. the most refrangible ray of the fluores-
cent solar spectrum.
__ M. Cornu, when determining the wave-lengths of the solar spectrum,
in order to construct a map, made some object-glasses which were
achromatized by using a converging lens of quartz, and a diverging lens
of Iceland spa. There is not, however, the proper relation between
the dispersion of these two substances to give a very perfect achro-
matism, and in addition Iceland spa absorbs somewhat energetically
the most refrangible rays. M. Cornu discovered a substance at least
as transparent as quartz.and which has a law of dispersion so well in
harmony with that of quartz that we are enabled to obtain a system
of lenses of which the achromatism is nearly perfect. This substance
is a colourless variety of fluor spa from Switzerland. With this
arrangement he obtained, on one plate, with satisfactory sharpness
of definition, the spectrum of all the photographic rays from the
three blue rays of zinc tothe ray No. 32 of aluminium? It may be
pointed out that the great transparency of fluor-spa for the rays of
highest refrangibility had previously been referred to by Professors
Stokes, Miller, Hartley, and Huntington. As _ it crystallises in the
tesseral system it might probably be used with advantage in special
researches to avoid double refraction.
By means of the apparatus described above, M. Cornu has carried out
some important investigations regarding the limit of the ultra-violet rays
of the solar spectrum at different elevations.*
He finds that the limit of the solar spectrum varies with the state
1 Comptes Rendus, t. \xxxviii. p. 1012. 2 Thid. t. lxxxvi.
8 Arch. des Sc. phys. et nat. t. ii.
4 Comptes Rendus, t. \xxxvili. pp. 1101 and 1285.
310 REPORT—1880.
of the atmosphere, the nature of the collodion, and the duration of the
exposure ; but, if the finest days be chosen, and a collodion of constant
composition be used, the length of the exposure being always the same,
then comparable series are obtained. For example—
Observations made at Courtenay (Loiret), 11th Sept. 1878. Lat. 48°
2! 2’; wet plates.
10"30"am. . . . 2955 | 3840™pm. , . . 3020
O19? pm. 6 SE RO vig fae ote) {age
HMSsa 5: . oe 2955 AES Ay 7) OAS Seo
1 BD: 0 use _ glasoie e870 BrQaaiy Shh d Bisel
a9)" 4, ENS KA Sao Bi tae a «iS ong LS
The length of the spectrum is expressed in wave-length by compari-
son with the diagram constructed by M. Cornu from observations made
in 1877.! The table given above indicates that the length of the spectrum
diminishes with the height of the sun; which tends to prove, M. Cornu
thinks, that atmospheric absorption is the cause of the limitation.
Therefore, on diminishing the depth of the atmosphere, by making the
observation at a greater elevation, the length of the photographic spectrum
ought to be increased. From calculations based on experiments made at
a small elevation M. Cornu concludes that the limit of the spectrum
would be altered by an amount equivalent to one-millionth of a milli-
meétre for a rise of about 663 métres. He deduces from his experiments
a formula which expresses the law governing the increase in length of
the spectrum at different heights. This formula shows, says M. Cornu,
that if the principles which have served to establish it are exact, we are
condemned never to know a considerable portion of the spectrum—per-
haps the most interesting.
The spectrum of iron in the voltaic arc extends at least to radiations
of which the wave-length \=200, whereas the most favourable obser-
vations of the solar spectrum have only reached \=293.
The consideration of the temperature of these two sources leads one to
think that the solar spectrum ought to extend beyond the limit of the
spectrum of the voltaic are.
From theoretical considerations, based on these observations and the
formulz deduced from them, M. Cornu concludes that if this absorption
really takes place it ought to be sensible for small thicknesses of atmo-
sphere ; in other words, there ought to exist rays of so short wave-length
as to be absorbable by a small thickness of air.? He finds that with
the solar rays approximately the following results should be obtained :—
10:00m. of air at 760mm. would Sait shoe rays the wave-
length of which is t Bits oy: 211°84
100m. ” ” ” ” ” ” . 184:21
0'10m. ” ” ” ” A 93 : 156°58
The sparks produced by a powerful induction coil approximately fulfil
the double function of furnishing very intense and very refrangible
radiations. This is particularly the case with the extreme rays of alumi-
nium, designated 30, 31, and 32 by M. Soret, and the wave-lengths of
which were found by M. Cornu to be :—
Ray 30°30 7 1968:82
J 193-35 strong.
» 31 double 4 199.37 weak.
186°02 strong.
32 triple 5» very weak,
185°22 not so strong.
1 Comptes Rendus, t. 1xxxvi. 2 Thid, t, Ixxxviii.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 311
These groups are developed when examined either by photography’
or by fluorescence, with the aid of a spectroscope having lenses and
prisms entirely of quartz or of fluor-spa, and focussing at a metre; the
order of brilliancy being 30, 32, 31.
The following experiments demonstrate that the intensity of the
extreme rays is modified considerably by atmospheric absorption in the
manner indicated by the formula.
With a spectroscope (comprised of one prism and an object-glass)
focussing at six métres, the ray 32 was invisible, the feeblest ray, 31, being
still quite distinct. On adding a collimator, so as to reduce the distance
to 1:50m., the ray 32 again became visible, notwithstanding the absorption
due to the additional object-glass.
To complete the demonstration, M. Cornu had a spectroscope con-
structed focussing at 0°25m. With this apparatus the ray 32 had a
superior intensity to ray 30; so that the order became 32, 30, 31. Still
not satisfied, he arranged, between the collimator and the prism of
the spectroscope, a tube four métres long, closed at its two extremities
by fluor spa. When the tube is full of air no trace of 32 is visible, but
if a vacuum be gradually made, 31 gains in intensity, 32 soon appears,
and finally surpasses in intensity 31. As the air is readmitted the phe-
nomena repeat themselves in inverse order.”
In order to put this property of the atmosphere to the test of further
direct experiment, M. Cornu carried out a series of experiments of great
interest in the Alps. The following are the results of these experiments,
which were made under particularly favourable conditions :-—
Riffelberg. Viege. Rigi.
July 24. July 25. July 26. July 28. August 1.
Truetime A /|Truetime A |Truetime A (/Truetime A /|Truetime A
115 52™ 294:3 gh 5™ 294:3 65 51™ 201°2 9" 39™ 295°7 85 08™ 298°8
0 59 294:7 9 29 294°5 7 9 3001 |10 2 295-7 8 48 297-0
ets} . 9 55 294:3 8 55 297-4 |10 26 295-4 9 20 295°7
1 44 294:51}10 17 294-0 9 41 295°7| 11 25 2954] 11 24 2948
1 eG 2 10 14 293°5 | 11 45 295-4] 11 49 2948
11 23 294:0|10 52 293°4 0 24 295°4 0 17 = 294°8
11 51 294:0) 11 39 293°7 0 47 295-4 O 44 2948
0 41 293:°2 | 11 58 293°7 1 20 295-4 2. 21° 2951
9 2934) 0 33 294:7 2 0 295-4 BM 28 Vee
1 33 293°8 1 9 294-7 3 6 296-4 4 17 3006
5 22 301°5 1 44 294:7 3 47 298°9
5 43 303-1 5 2 3004) 4 27 3009
6 7..3805:7 | & .3 302-0
| 5 32 3041
The most remarkable series is that of July 25 at Riffelberg. The
curve traced by taking for ordinates the logarithm of the sine of the true
height of the sun, and as abscisse the wave-lengths for the limits ob-
served, is nearly an absolutely straight line. The deviation in the curve
for the Rigi corresponds to the time at which there was mist. Expressed
in wave-lengths, the extreme limits of the ultra-violet solar spectrum were
as follows :—
1 When wet-plates are used they should be washed with pure water after sen-
sitising, as nitrate of silver is very opaque to the extreme rays.
2 Comptes Rendus, t. \xxxviii. p. 1289.
ale REPORT— 1880.
r Altitude.
Riffelberg . 5 293°2 2570"
Rigi ; : ; 294°8 1650
Viege ; 295°4 660
Diff, (Riffel- -Vidge) —2:2 1910
The conditions of the foregoing experiment were obviously more
favourable to the correct determination of the influence of different
thicknesses of atmosphere in absorbing the extreme rays than were those
previously made at low levels. It would appear, then, that the increase
of length expressed in wave-lengths is about one-millionth of a milli-
métre for 900m. within the limits experimented on by M. Cornu.
Notwithstanding the failure on the part of Dr. Miller to trace any
special connection between the chemical complexity of a substance and
its diactinic power, Mr. W. N. Hartley, in the year 1872, having at his
disposal the apparatus which had been used by Dr. Miller, determined to
repeat, in 1 more complete and comprehensive manner, the experiments
which had been made by that investigator. He was led to this determi-
nation by the consideration that all the characteristic physical properties
of organic substances are dependent on their molecular constitution; and
he inferred that if a large number of bodies of similar constitution were
examined, many of which would be metameric substances, such as the
ethereal salts of the organic acids and homologous series of the normal
alcohols and acids, evidence might be forthcoming of the influence of
impurities and the variations in the absorption of the invisible rays
caused by each increment of CH, in the molecule. In the carrying out
of this research, Mr. A. K. Huntington was associated with Mr. Hartley ;
their joint labours are recorded in the ‘ Phil. Trans.’ part I., 1879, and in
the ‘ Proc. Roy. Society,’ 1879.
The relative absorptive power not being affected by the physical
condition of matter (Miller), the inconvenience of making observations on
equal volumes of organic substances in a state of vapour was avoided, it
being easy to arrive at the maximum absorption due to a molecule of a
substance by taking into account its specific volume in the liquid state,
and making the layer of liquid proportionally thick, or by dissolving the
substances in solvents of known transparency in the ratio of their mole-
cular weights.
The method of experimenting.
After careful trial of the methods of studying the ultra-violet rays,
preference was given to the photographic method. Rays which cause a
very indistinct effect, or no effect at all, on a fluorescence screen, will on
a properly prepared photographic plate produce a satisfactory image. A
piece of uranium glass is extremely useful in focussing ; a strip of glass
coated with gelatine in the solution of which some wesculine has been
dissolved, answers equally well. To observe the visible and ordinarily
invisible rays simultaneously by reflected light, a piece of paper steeped
in a solution of esculine, to which a little ammonia has been added may
be employed.
In the course of the investigation it was found necessary to modify in
many important details the original apparatus. In order to prevent the
ignition of volatile liquids and to better concentrate the light on the slit,
the liquids under examination were placed at the back of the slit, in a
box forming a prolongation of the collimator tube. A means of exhausting
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 313
vapours which might become diffused in the tube was provided. The
metal employed to produce the spectrum has varied according to circum-
stances, but for most purposes nickel was preferred. In many cases,
especially where absorption-bands occur, it is desirable to photograph
with the slit wide open; in this way a continuous and more uniform
spectrum is obtained. Wet-plate photography did not give satisfactory
results; the more refrangible end of the spectrum either not photograph-
ing or being very weak, and in a small room the ozone generated by the
electric discharge causes a deposit of silver on the plate directly the de-
veloper is applied. Accordingly, recourse was had to dry-plates ; gelatine
plates were found to be the most generally serviceable. The lines of
zine, cadmium, and aluminium were employed to define the region of
absorption.
After examining a very large number of specially purified substances,
and recording the results by diagrams which accompany the report, the
following generalisations were arrived at:
(1) The normal alcohols of the series C,, H,,,-, OH, are remarkable
for transparency to the ultra-violet rays of the spectrum, pure methylic
alcohol being nearly as much so as water.
(2) The normal fatty acids exhibit a greater absorption of the more
refrangible rays of the ultra-violet spectram than the normal alcohols
containing the same number of carbon atoms.
(3) There is an increased absorption of the more refrangible rays
corresponding to each increment of CH, in the molecule of the alcohols
and acids.
(4) Like the alcohols and acids, the ethereal salts derived from them
are highly transparent to the ultra-violet rays, and do not exhibit absorp-
tion-bands.
Examination of Substances containing the Benzene Nucleus.
In the examination of substances represented by a formula containing
a closed chain of carbon atoms doubly linked together, it yas shown that
all such bodies are highly adiactinic, the hydrocarbons being least so.
Prof, Stokes has pointed out that one of these substances, salicine (a
glucoside of saligenin) during the process of dilution causes an absorption-
band in the spectrum of the transmitted rays. It was thought worth
while to examine allied substances, such as phenol, salicylic acid, etc., and
ascertain whether they also produce absorption-spectra. The following
points of interest were made apparent by the results of this examination
of benzene and its derivatives :—
(1) Benzene and the hydrocarbons, alcohols, acids, and amines
derived therefrom, are remarkable—first, for their powerful absorption
of the most refrangible rays; secondly, for the absorption-bands made
visible by dissolving themin water or alcohol; and thirdly, for the
extraordinary intensity of these absorption-bands even in very dilute
solutions.
(2) Isomeric bodies containing the benzene nucleus exhibit widely
different spectra, inasmuch as their absorption-bands vary in position and.
in intensity.
(3) The photographic absorption-spectra can be employed as a means
of identifying organic substances, and as a most delicate test of their
purity. The curves obtained by co-ordinating the extent of dilution, or
in other words the quantity of substance, with the position of the rays of
314 REPORT—1880.
the spectrum transmitted by the solution, form a strongly marked and
highly characteristic feature of very many substances.
Tn consequence of the satisfactory results which they had obtained,
Messrs. Hartley and Huntington thought it worth while to make a
special examination of essential oils.! In addition to the scientific interest
which these bodies possess, many have considerable commercial value,
and consequently are subject to adulteration.
It is now well known that essential oils consist for the most part of
isomeric hydrocarbons, which may be divided into three polymeric
groups, having the composition represented by the formula—C,,H,,—
C)5Ho4—CyoH 3p. ;
To the first class belong the hydrocarbons derived from turpentine,
orange, nutmeg, myrtle, and others; the second group includes the
hydrocarbons from rosewood, cubebs, calumus, cascarilla, patchouli, and
cloves. The third group is represented by colophene. Though of
unknown constitution, these bodies exhibit a close relationship to benzene
derivatives.
The report on this investigation contains twenty-five diagrams having
reference to about fifty specimens which had been examined. In the
examination of the following bodies no absorption-bands were discovered,
but the absorption of the extreme ultra-violet rays was found to be
greater the higher the number of carbon atoms in the molecule:
australene, terebene,? terebenthene, hesperidene, cajputene, dihydrate,
the oils of lign aloes, Indian geranium, santal wood, cedrat, birch bark,
juniper, rosemary, rosewood, lavender, vitivert, turpentine, cubebs,
patchouli, citronella, elder, melaleuca ericifolia, and cedar wood, the
hydrocarbons from cedrat, nutmeg, carraway, and menthole, otto of rose,
and otto of citron.
The presence of cymene in small quantity was indicated by absorption-
bands in the case of the hydrocarbons from thyme, lemon, and nutmeg,
the blue oil from patchouli, and in one specimen of carraway hydrocarbon.
The following bodies cause powerful absorption-bands, and are, there
can be but small doubt, composed largely of some benzene derivative:
oils of bay, thyme, peppermint, bergamot, cloves, aniseed, and cassia,
carvole, myristicol, and otto of pimento. It is generally admitted that
the oils of bay, pimento, and cloves contain eugenol, C;H;.OH.OCH;.
C3H; ; oil of aniseed, anethol, C;H, .OCH;.C3H; ; oil of thyme, thymol,
C,H;.OH;.C3H,. Some other oils, such as bergamot and oil of pepper-
mint, as likewise the bodies menthole, carvole, and myristicol, have an
unknown constitution. The three latter substances are said to be iso-
meric.’ A special interest is attached to their examination, since the
character of the spectra they transmit appears to show that the nucleus
of menthole is a terpene; while the benzene ring is the inner basis of
carvole and myristicol. An examination of the absorption-spectrum of
myristicol throws further light on the nature of this substance. On
reference to the diagram, we find that the absorption-band is not well-
defined, and that a comparatively small amount of dilution has sufficed to
eliminate it. Now these are the characteristics of an absorption-spectram
due to a mixture of two substances, one of which only is capable of causing
an intermediate absorption.
1 Proc. Roy. Soc., 1880.
* Since shown to be chiefly camphene (Jowr'n. Chem. Soc. vol. xxxv. p. 758).
* Jour. Chem. Soc., Gladstone, vol. xxv. p. 1.
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 315
The refraction-equivalent of myristicol! agrees well with numbers
characteristic of compounds of the aromatic series. It may be inferred
from these facts taken together that this substance is composed largely,
but not wholly of some benzene derivative.
The refraction-equivalent of carvole is also abnormal, like that of
bodies of the aromatic series. Its absorptive power is remarkable, it still
being very considerable even when the substance is diluted to 1 in 300,000 ;
whereas the absorption-band in the case of myristicol has practically
disappeared at about 1 in 20,000. Similarly bergamot may be shown to
be a mixture of a terpene with a benzene derivative, and oil of peppermint
to be composed entirely, or nearly so, of a benzene derivative.
The following is a summary of _ ; '
the conclusions drawn regarding Oil of aniseed. B.P,, 220-228° C. one prey BHODS
the terpenes :— band is due to anethol, CgsH, { P
1. Terpenes, with the composi- a
tion C,)Hj,, possess in a high de-
gree the power of absorbing the
ultra-violet rays of the spectrum,
though they are inferior in this re-
spect to benzene and its derivatives.
2. Terpenes, with the compo-
sition C,,;H.4, have a greatly in-
creased absorptive power.
3. Neither the terpenes them-
selves, nor their oxides nor their
hydrates, exhibit absorption-bands
under any circumstances when
pure, but always transmit continu-
ous spectra.
4. Isomeric terpenes transmit
spectra which generally differ from
one another in length, or show
variations on the substance being
diluted.
5. The process of diluting with
alcohol enables the presence of
bodies of the aromatic series to be
detected in essential oils; and even
in some cases the amount of these
substances present may be approxi-
mately determined.
The accompanying diagram
may be taken as typical of the ab-
sorption-spectra referred to. The ws
light portion represents the region Absorption still strong at 500,000.
of absorption.
The results so far obtained by Professors Hartley and Huntington
naturally led to the consideration whether substances with two doubly-
linked adjacent carbon atoms exhibit any bands in their absorption-
spectra, and other similar questions, These points have been independently
investigated by Prof. Hartley, since his appointment to the Royal College
of Science, Dublin.?
? Gladstone, Jour. Chem. Soc. vol, xxiii, p. 149.
2 Chem. Soc., read June, 1880.
316 REPORT-—1880.
As representatives of bodies with two doubly-linked adjacent atoms,
ethylene, amylene, and allyl-alcohol were examined: no absorption-bands
were seen. ‘To ascertain the effect of treble-linking, two carbon atoms,
acetylene and valerylene, were examined: again, no absorption-bands
were apparent.
It appears probable then that in no case do carbon atoms arranged in
an open chain give rise to absorption-bands. The arrangement of the H
and O atoms has not been found to affect the question.
With hydrocarbons containing at least six atoms of carbon and their
derivatives there are three possible arrangements which admit of tke
carbon atoms forming a closed chain :—
(1) Three pairs of carbon atoms may be doubly-linked, as is assumed
to be the case in benzene ;
(2) Two pairs may be doubly-linked ;
(3) The six atoms may be singly-linked.
There are reasons for representing oil of turpentine and terebene as
having two pairs of carbon atoms doubly-linked, and their nucleus formed
by a closed chain, which includes these two pairs of atoms. These bodies
exhibit no absorption-bands, from which Prof. Hartley concludes that
bodies containing a closed chain of carbon atoms, in which only two pairs
are doubly-linked, do not cause intermediate absorption. Again, the
constitutional formula of camphor may be based on a closed chain of
carbon atoms. It is found to be more diactinic than the terpenes, from
which it may be inferred that its atoms are less compactly united: a
state consistent with the theory of a singly-linked closed chain of atoms.
Camphoric acid agrees with camphor in this respect. From the foregoing
considerations it is surmised that no molecular arrangement of carbon
atoms causes selective absorption, unless three pairs are doubly-linked
together in a closed chain.
The absorption-spectra of condensed benzene nuclei are next con-
sidered.
It was expected, from the generally accepted views as to the con-
stitution of naphthalene and anthracene, that these substances would
cause a larger number of absorption-bands than benzene, and that the
bands would have greater intensity. A solution of naphthalene, however,
of 1 in 60,000 shows four absorption-bands, whereas six bands of ben-
zene, apparent at a dilution of between 1 in 700-800, have been entirely
eliminated at 1 in 2500. Therefore, although the number of bands is
not increased, the absorptive power is very considerably greater in the
case of naphthalene.
Phenanthren, which is supposed to contain three benzene rings
arranged as follows, shows three strong absorption-bands with a solution
containing one in 4000 :—
shicguidy (0 he
Noic% Noo”
Noto”
th eLE_ ox ONG
Anthracene | | dit |
’ ght
“\o/ 5x \oF G
ON OUR KNOWLEDGE OF SPECTRUM ANALYSIS. 317
diluted to 1 in 50 millions with acetic acid still shows considerable absorp-
tion. Hydrocyanic is very diactinic; cyanuric acid is not, and Prof.
Hartley accordingly assigns to it the formula
HO
|
x7 \n
jn
HO” “Nx Nuo
It has been shown that cymene has a well-defined absorption-spectrum,
and according to Dr. Armstrong this substance forms a part of orange
cil, French turpentine, and Russian turpentine. On examining specimens
received from Dr. Armstrong, no cymene could be detected in the first
two, and less than 4 per cent. in the last. The inference is, therefore,
that the cymene found by Dr. Armstrong was formed by the chemical
treatment to which these substances were subjected in his investigation.
\ ol Cal Cx |
\ 232425 26 27
2000
| 200
“+ | |
10000
_,, [CF
CYMENE oa) Os COT
14,000
16,000
100 oud)
The wave-length of these cadmium lines is given on p. 299. The light parts indicate the
absorbed, and the dark the transmitted, rays.
4 Although there have been but few workers in this line of research,
sufficient has been done to indicate its value in investigating the con-
stitution of colourless bodies.
318 REPORT—1880.
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. F. J. BRAMWELL, Dr.
A. W. Wituiamson, Professor Sir W. THomson, Mr. St. JoHN
Vincent Day, Dr. C. W. Siemens, Mr. C. W. MERRIFIELD, Dr.
Nertson Hancock, Professor ABEL, Captain DouGLas GALTON,
Mr. Newmarcu, Mr. E. H. Carsutt, Mr. Macrory, Mr. H.
TRUEMAN Woop, Mr. W. H. Bartow, and Mr. A. T. ATCHISON,
appointed for the purpose of watching and reporting to the
Council on Patent Legislation.
Tis Committee begs leave to report that with the exception of the
introduction of a Bill on the Patent Law by Mr. Anderson, Mr. Alexander
Brown, Mr. Hinde Palmer, and Mr. Broadhurst, which Bill was not pro-
ceeded with, there has been, so far as they are aware, no attempt at
legislation on the subject. The Committee have spent the five pounds
granted to them, and request that they may be reappointed, and that a
sum of five pounds be granted to them.
Preliminary Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor LEONE
Levi (Secretary), Mr. STEPHEN Bourne, Mr. Brittain, Dr. NEILSON
Hancock, Professor JEvons, and Mr. FELLows, appointed for the
purpose of inquiring into the present appropriation of wages
and sources of income, and considering how far it is consonant
with the economic progress of the people of the United Kingdom.
Wuitst the attention of economists and financiers has been directed to
ascertain the rate of increase of wealth and capital in the United King-
dom, the corresponding important subject of the mode of its expenditure
or the manner of appropriation of wages and other sources of income, has
not been subjected to sufficient analysis, nor have its economic bearings
been sufficiently appreciated. What proportion of the national income is
yearly used as capital, what proportion of capital is devoted to productive
or unproductive purposes, how far, in short, is the present method of
appropriation consonant with the economic progress of the people of the
United Kingdom; these are questions of great moment, worthy of care-
ful attention.
The national income consists of the total amount of utilities produced,
less those wasted within the year, from the increment of capital, from land
and sea, from industry and manufactures, from commerce and navigation.
The total gross receipts of every individnal cannot be taken as the total
national income. The income of the professional classes, including per-
sons engaged in the general and local government, in the defence of the
country, in the learned professions, or in literature, art, and science, and
the income of persons engaged in entertaining and performing personal
offices for man, as domestic servants, are not independent incomes. Such
persons receive what the producers of wealth yearly expend. In like
manner, the total gross expenditure of every individual cannot be taken
as the sum total of the national expenditure, inasmuch as a large portion
ON THE APPROPRIATION OF WAGES, ETC. 319
of what is paid away only passes from hand to hand, and is not really ex-
pended. What is expended is the amount devoted to the production of
the articles consumed, and the amount paid to foreign countries for com-
modities imported, account being taken of the value of commodities re-
maining in existence, and for the use of which only a certain percentage
should be annually charged. The expenditure for education consists, not
in the salaries of teachers and other officers, but in the cost of buildings,
and materials used for purposes of instruction, together with the con-
sumption of the staff employed. The expenditure for amusements does
not consist in the remuneration of artists, save, as before, the cost of that
which they consume, but in the cost of buildings, appliances, and mate-
rials. Of the expenditure for alcoholic liquors a large portion remains in
the hands of distributors and goes to the State for revenue. Viewed in
this light the national balance-sheet will have on the one side the total
value of utilities produced, on the other the total amount of expenditure
of such utilities, the balance being the surplus left for accumulation, or
the amount of loss of national capital.
The national income calculated in money value arises from the follow-
ing principal sources, viz. :—
Land, Ironworks, Railways, Industry,
Houses, Quarries, Canals, Manufactures,
Mines, Fisheries, Shipping, Commerce,
Receipts for services from foreign countries,
Receipts from foreign and colonial investments, &c., &c.
In all cases the income from these different sources must be estimated
by the annual value of products of existing properties, annual value of
properties newly produced, and total amount of utilities created by dis-
tribution, after all expenses are deducted,
The national expenditure may be distributed as follows :—
State expenditure, viz.: Interest of public debt, civil service, mili-
tary and naval expenditure, &c.
Local expenditure: Care of the poor, health, roads, &c.
Productive industry for home consumption.
5 35 export.
Religion, charity, education, science, and art.
Public works of utility, viz.; Railways, canals, &., &c.
Investments in colonies and foreign countries.
The personal expenditure should be classified as follows :—
Articles of food.
6 drink.
Clothing.
House rent.
Household furniture,
Fire and light.
Education, Church, Charity.
Travelling and amusements.
Domestic service.
Luxuries: Tobacco, ornaments, dogs, and horses.
Taxes.
The data available for the proposed inquiry are doubtless very in-
sufficient, nevertheless much authentic information is available.
As regards income, the Inland Revenue Commissioners supply the
annual amount of property assessed to income and property tax. Although
320 REPORT—1880.
the ascertainment of the total national income is a question apart from
the manner in which the different classes of the community partici-
pate in the same, the income-tax returns of the amount assessed to each
individual under Schedules D & E, and of the aggregate of all the assess-
ments under Schedules A, B, & C, will be found as great helps in the cal-
culation ; especially in any attempt to consider the relation of expenditure
to income among the different classes of the community. From the
reports of the Local Government Board we have the total value of real
property subject to local taxation. The Miscellaneous Statistics give the
rates of wages in manufactures and trades. From the Agricultural
Statistics we have the materials for ascertaining the quantities of agri-
cultural products; from the Board of Trade tables the tonnage of ship-
ping annually built. The Mineral Statistics give the quantities of coal,
iron, and other metals produced. As regards Expenditure, the Board of
Trade tables give the quantities and values of articles of food and clothing
imported and consumed. But no information is given in public docu-
ments of the quantities and value of the same produced and consumed at
home, and it will have to be obtained from other sources. The Statistics
of Coal, the accounts of Water and Gas companies, and the Accounts of
the House Tax, supply information regarding the expenditure on house,
fire, light, &c. The railway accounts give the amount expended in
travelling. Special information would be needed on the expenditure on
theatres and amusements; in newspapers, reviews, tracts, and books.
And still greater difficulty may be found in estimating the expenditure
in articles of consumption, arising from the additional value imparted
to such articles by artificial and other cireumstances. A large item of
national expenditure consists in labour productively or unproductively
employed. In its great population the United Kingdom possesses a vast
source of wealth, and any portion of the population remaining idle or
unproductive must be considered as so much loss of national wealth.
The national income of the United Kingdom is considerable in amount,
probably exceeding one thousand millions a year, but its economic value
depends on the mode of its appropriation, and any information illustrative
of the relation between income and expenditure among the different
classes of the community would be of great value. No sharp division,
it is true, exists between the upper, middle, and labouring classes ; never-
theless there are ample data to assist in the inquiry. Considerable
advantage, the Committee thinks, would be derived by the comparison of
the personal expenditure in different countries, greatly affected though it
is by the difference of temperature and the habits of the people. Are the
people of England less thrifty than the people of other countries? Is
the amount of national saving in the United Kingdom less than might
be expected? Many economic and social problems depend for their
solution on the mode in which wages and other sources of income are
appropriated, and your Committee ventures to solicit its reappointment
with a view of instituting the necessary inquiries, and making a full and
exhaustive report on the whole subject.
ee
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 321
; ‘
Report on the present state of knowledge of the application of
Quadratures and Interpolation to Actual Data. By C. W.
MERRIFIELD, F'.R.S.
Chapter I. Introduction. : ;
», 1. Interpolation by known properties of the particular function: use of
’ Taylor’s theorem. ;
» II. General considerations relating to the application of finite differences
to interpolation and quadrature.
» LV. Theorems of finite differences.
Sec. 1. Common formule of direct in- { Sec. 6. Interpolation of direction:
terpolation and quadrature maxima and minima.
by ordinary differences. » 7. Symmetrical differences.
», 2. Inverse interpolation. » 8. Definite, or tabular interpola-
», 3 Equidistant ordinates, not dif- tion.
ferenced. », 9. Interpolation of double entry
» 4. Multiple integrals; ordinates tables, or functions of two
not differenced. or more variables.
» 5. Quadrature by differential co-
efficients.
Chapter V. Interpolation and quadrature with ordinates not equidistant.
Sec. 1. Newton’s method. Sec. 3. Gauss’s method.
» 2. Lagrange’s method. » 4, Other methods and suppositions.
Chapter VI. Interpolation and quadrature for uncertain values.
» VII. Periodicity.
» VIII. Systematic computation of quadratures and interpolations.
» LX. Graphical methods.
‘9 X. Mechanical quadratures, Ry
I,.—IntRopuction.
The questions, both of interpolation and quadrature, will be considered,
for the purposes of this report, chiefly with reference to the two following
Cases :—
(a) Where a definite number of observations is given, and no inter-
mediate observations are procurable. This is the case with most
records of isolated or discontinuous observations, and with time
observations.
(b) Where a curve is mechanically or graphically given, either actually
or implicitly, so that ordinates can be taken at pleasure, while
the analytical expression of the curve is either unknown or not
available. This is the case with the graphical record of con-
tinuous observations, and with the calculation of areas and mo-
ments in engineers’ work, and in nayal architecture.
When any varying quantity, or function, is tabulated, the table gives
the value of the function corresponding to certain given values of the
subject of the fonction. The values of the subjects are termed the
arguments of the table: the corresponding values of the function are
termed the entries. Interpolation js the problem of finding the value of
the entry corresponding to an argument not actually given in the
table, but usually intermediate to the extreme arguments. When the
form of the function is absolutely unknown, except from the definite values
a interpolation is essentially an indeterminate problem.
880. Y
322 REPORT—1880.
When the form of the function is known analytically, and can be used
for the purpose of determining the intermediate value or values required,
the problem becomes determinate, but the work is then rather that of
computation than of interpolation. This is equally true whether the
computation be direct, and independent of the table, or whether the tabu-
lated values be used to facilitate the computation of those not tabulated.
The latter case, under a slight change of aspect, is usually included in
the term interpolation—namely, interpolation by means of the known
properties of the particular function tabulated. This is not included
in the general problem of interpolation, which is the object of this
report.
Pithe method of quadratures is usually understood to mean the inte-
gration of a function by the use of certain definite values of it, The
geometrical expression of this is the quadrature of an area by means of
its ordinates. There are two principal and distinct cases of this—one
where the function or curve is only known for certain definite values or
ordinates, and not intermediately, and the other where the function or
curve, although not analytically given, so that the integral calculus can
be applied to it directly, is or may be known at any selected point or
ordinate whatever. The first case has indeterminateness of the same
order as the corresponding problem of interpolation: the second presents
itself in the case of curves actually drawn or otherwise continuously
indicated, and practically also where the function, although given in
analytical form, is not the differential coefficient of a function which can
be directly computed ;—and this second case has, in itself, nothing inde-
terminate.
Interpolation has also to be considered with reference to differential
coefficients as well as to the function, and also with reference to maxima
or minima either of the tabulated function or the argument.
Quadrature also has to be applied to moments as well as to simple
integrals, Multiple integrals have also to be considered, but, like simple
integrals, always between constant limits. The principal types of these
are, in addition to the simple integral,
a2
4 y de
the moments ve vt: ay da
1
a
2 gy dx
a
and multiple integrals of the two types
a b 2
fe Bees se udedy drs,
i ONL dat
Be vac x) “4
and
—-
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 323
IJ.— INTERPOLATION BY Known PROPERTIES OF THE PARTICULAR FuncTION.
Use or Taytor’s THEOREM.
The calculus of finite differences is of such general and easy appli-
cation that its use has sometimes superseded other methods which are
preferable in particular cases. This is especially true of the ordinary
logarithmic tables, including those of circular functions. Where the
first difference is constant, or nearly so, it is sufficient to use proportional
parts ; but when the second and third differences have to be taken into
account, it is frequently preferable to use the properties dependent on the
form of the function. The advantage of this is very marked in the in-
verse use of the table, where the argument has to be found from the
entry.
The formule required may in some cases be obtained by algebraical
transformation of the function; but a more general method is afforded
by the use of Taylor’s theorem in the following form :—
Let y = $2 be the nearest tabular entry, and let
ytl=¢@+h)
be the interpolation required : 7 and h, or, often preferably, log J and log h,
have to be determined in terms of one another and of 4,
The direct application of Taylor’s theorem gives
, h? wt h3 tt
ee ee ee ae ax ers
ee ee ras aot oe
orl = hoe {1 +4 oe aid Ge gig oe hw wit
whence
. mh¢q '
log 1 = log h + logg/« + ord
mh? (oa? | mh? ole 7
sera ce) a oe nearly
where m is the modulus of the logarithms : writing «= wy, gives similar
formule for h and log h in terms of J and dy. The differential co-
efficients of Wa may be determined either directly, or by the common
de de &c. in terms of dy dy &c. There is no
dy’ dy? ~ dx dz® ‘
advantage in setting out the general formule, because it is easier to obtain
ra? formula suited to each case by direct differentiation, than by substi-
ution.
In the case of common logarithms, making log (xh) = log a +k,
log k=log(™) +4 = nearly
formule which give
log h=log (Mzk) +4h nearly.
= m is the modulus of common logarithms and M its reciprocal, so
at
10+log m=9°63778 43113 00537
log M=0°36221 56886 99463.
Y2
324 REPORT—1880.
These are far more useful working formule for large logarithmic tables
than any depending upon differences.*
This process receives an evident simplification when the function
tabulated is a simple integral. In that case gu is replaced by /yadz, ¢'x
by xz, and so on. It is therefore of useful application to the direct tables
of elliptic integrals, like Legendre’s ; but it will not apply to the tables
recently printed by the Association, because in these the functions
tabulated are not mere integrals, having simple differential coefficients,
but are complicated functions, of which the differential coefficients are
still more complicated. Nevertheless, whenever A ¢ = »/ (1 —sin0 sino)
is known or discoverable, the formule of this article may still be of use
for interpolating to F¢ and K¢.
These, and other methods of interpolation derived from the properties
of the function itself, are of especial advantage at those parts of a table
where the rate of change of value of the function differs widely from that
of the argument. Immediate examples of this are afforded by the tables
of logarithmic sines and tangents for small angles. In these and many
similar cases the general methods of interpolation, dependent upon finite
differences, are practically useless. It should not be forgotten that there
are two kinds of difficulty met with in certain of those cases—one in
which a very small change in the argument corresponds to a very great
change in the entry, which introduces actual indeterminateness into the
attempt to interpolate to the latter—and another where the amounts of
change fairly correspond, bat, the argument varying uniformly, the rate
of change of the entry varies rapidly. Each case has its converse. An
example of the former is to be found in the attempt to determine a small
angle from its cosine—in which case accuracy is impossible; an example
of the second is:to be found in the problem of finding the logarithmic sine
or tangent of a small angle, in which the only difficulty is the arithmetical
one arising out of the particular system of tabulation in common use;
that is to say, a difficulty arising from our having selected, for reasons of
a general character, a plan of tabulation not suited to the work to be done
in the particular case.
III.—Generat ConsIpERATIONS RELATING TO THE APPLICATION OF FINITE
DIFFERENCES TO INTERPOLATION AND QUADRATURE.
When all that is known of a function is, that it takes certain definite
values for corresponding definite values of the independent variable,
separated by finite intervals, the function itself, and consequently all its
* A very full account of this method, with copious examples, is given by Legendre
under the title ‘ Méthodes diverses pour faciliter 1’Interpolation des grandes Tables
trigonométriques’ in the Connaissance des Temps for 1817, p. 302. The formule for
logarithms were first given, to one term only, by Dodson, in his ‘ Antilogarithmic
Canon,’ dated 1742. The second is also given by Legendre, ‘ Fonctions Elliptiques,’
vol. ii. p. 13. Several other examples will be found in the author’s memoir on
‘ Elliptic and Ultra-elliptic Integrals,’ Phil. Trans. vol. 152 (1862) pp. 421-427. See
also Legendre, op. cit. pp. 34, 61, 62.
+ The difficulty in the former example is inherent, and therefore insuperable. In
the latter example it is met by using a table of natural sines or tangents, and finding
the logarithm of the interpolated value, or else by an artifice such as the formation
of special tables of log at or of log = v These are called Delambre’s tables; but
ne x
they were given long before Delambre’s time by John Newton, in his Trigonometria
Britanica (sie) dated 1658 ; in the folio edition p. 41, § 6.
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 325
intermediate values, are simply and absolutely indeterminate. If all
that is known of a curve is that it passes through n equidistant points,
nothing is really known of the curve. If the points are in a straight
line, it may undulate in any manner between them. Nevertheless, it will
often be interesting and useful to consider the simplest case, in which
the undulations are minimised. Many physical problems are known to
contain no undulatory element, and therefore their graphical solution may
reasonably be assumed to be the simplest curve, cleared of undulations,
which will pass through the points. When these are in a straight line,
the solution is obvious. It is not so if they are otherwise distributed. If,
for instance, three points in a plane be taken generally, the simplest curve
through them, having regard only to its intrinsic qualities, is a circle;
but there are many conceivable conditions under which a catenary, or a
parabola, might be more probable. The uncertainty appears to be of the
same order as the selection of an independent variable. In the practice
of experienced draughtsmen, as well as in theory, there is no rule except
the general avoidance of discontinuity, and there are not wanting cases in
which a local discontinuity is the simplest interpretation. When a base
line is assumed, and ordinates are measured with reference to that, it is a
question whether the assumption that the second differential is constant is
not as good as the assumption that the curvature is so. The question is
not very material, except in extreme cases, where the whole process
becomes one of bare probability rather than of approximation. In the °
ordinary application of the calculus of finite differences, the work is good
for nothing when any extreme is approached.
The theory of interpolation by means of finite differences appears to
be, historically, a mere extension of the rule of ‘proportional parts,’
namely, that part-way between the arguments corresponds to part-way
between the entries—the part-way being in each case proportional. This
is not exact where one increases or diminishes uniformly, and the other
does not; but it was very early noticed that it was approximately true for
most tables, and the more nearly true in proportion as the interval between
the successive arguments was diminished, the approximation not being in
the direct ratio of the diminution of interval, but nearly as the square of
that diminution.
Whether few or many orders of differences be taken, the value of the
process depends upon the sufficiency of the convergence. If that be
secured, the selection of the process is a mere matter of convenience.
Without it the process fails.
One of the best examples of this is to be found in the quadrature of a
circular segment, by ordinates set off from its chord. .The semicircle,
however many differences be used, always gives a bad approximation,
even if a great number of ordinates be taken. Regarding the question
analytically, it appears that the differential coefficients of the ordinate are
all infinite at the limits of integration, and the convergence necessarily
fails. Geometrically, it is an attempt to represent a curve, which is
parallel to its ordinate, by a curve which never can be so within finite
range. If, however, instead of taking a semicircle, a smaller segment be
taken, there is no theoretical objection to the process ; convergency is
secured, and practically the requisite approximation is obtained.
The difficulty above indicated has presented itself in the case of a
perfectly continuous curve, with everything ascertained, so that exact
326 REPORT—1880.
ordinates can be obtained by calculation in any way and to any extent
that may be demanded. Very different considerations present themselves
in dealing with physical data, even when the given abscisse and ordinates
are measured with absolute precision. Here a further assumption of
simplicity is required, namely, that there is continuity (in the sense in
which that term is used in Cauchy’s proof of Taylor’s theorem) of the
same order as the number of differences used. This does not necessarily
exist. Ina pressure diagram, for instance, the pressure may, as matter
of fact, have varied discontinuously between the selected ordinates, while
the assumption of process is, that it has varied continuously.
It is worth while here to mention another problem in which arbitrary
processes are often used as if they were definite, and that is, the averaging
of discontinuous or irregular phenomena. To fix the ideas, consider the
population of a small island represented by the ordinate of a line, the
abscissa being proportional to the time. The population line will not be
a curve, but a series of steps, falling one unit at every death, and rising
at every birth—horizontal between. If the population be large, this will
hardly be distinguishable from a curve—probably a continuous one. But
if it is endeavoured actually to reduce it to an equivalent continuous curve,
this cannot be done with indefinite approximation, unless some further
assumption be introduced; for any fair curve lying between one drawn
through the top edges of the steps and another through the bottom edges
will answer our indefinite question. The general answer is then uncertain
to the extent of this difference, at least. Hach condition that it is subjected
to—as, for instance, equality of areas, of moments, of moments of inertia
or the like—merely introduces an equation which must be satisfied by the
coefficients of any algebraical formula which may be selected to represent
the data.
Some degree of indeterminateness in amount must always remain,
unless the conditions are exhausted by assumptions sufficient to render
the curve determinate, or by evidence extraneous to the actual data of
observation.
This is obvious enough when stated, being merely an extension, from
two to more quantities, as well as in genere, of the remark, that a mean is
indeterminate until we know what mean is meant. Yet it is no uncommon
thing to see observations discussed in disregard of this, and treated, not
as affording means of determining the parameters of a law assumed; or
derived aliunde, but as affording the means of determining the law itself
with completeness.
The effect of discontinuity increases as we differentiate, and decreases
as we integrate. Thus a corner in a curve alters the tangent, or first
differential coefficient, discontinuously, and makes the second infinite,
while the ordinate only changes its rate of variation, and the change is
still less observable on the integral or area. The amount of discontinuity,
as well as its order, is to be considered. For many purposes a small
discontinuity of low order is of about the same importance as a considerable
discontinuity of a higher order of differentiation.
The ordinary assumption, both in interpolation and in quadratures is,
that one quantity may be finitely expressed as a rational integral function
of the other, with a sufficient approximation, and that the constants of
this expression may be determined also with sufficient approximation,
from the known values of the quantity assumed to be so expressed as a
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 327
function of the other. That is to say, if ome quantity be w, and the
other a, it is permissible to write
Ung = Ay AH + Hye? + vee e A,0"
when n is the number of intervals, or n + 1 that of the values of the
function: and then to determine the constants, so that the substitution of
the n + 1 values w = 79, 7), 72++... Shall give, for each
Ug = Ay + AT) Hever s Ayr", Ke.
There are other equivalent expressions which are sometimes more con-
venient, for instance :—
Un = (ty — @) (4, — @) vee 0s (& — 2)
Assuming a curve to be generated according to a continuous law,
if the equation between the ordinate and the abscissa is of a simpler
character, when integrally expressed, than
Y= dy + ye toons + 4,2"
that will be shown by the as with a high suffix vanishing, or, if finite
differences be used, by the higher differences vanishing. It follows that,
if the ordinates are known to be exact, a form may in general be as-
sumed, not less simple than the above—that is to say, of a degree only one
less than the number of ordinates—and any simplification will appear
from the resulting equations. If, however, the law is in reality more
complex, the assumption made is only good as an approximation.
Whether it be an approximation or not, hinges upon the question of
convergence.
It will be shown further on that, as regards quadrature, the rules
run in pairs, 2m — 1 equidistant ordinates giving a result of the same
order of accuracy as 2m ordinates, and generally a rather better result
arithmetically. This is proved as far as 7 ordinates, and is a probable
inference generally. Assuming convergency, the higher rules would
seem to be better for the same number of ordinates than the lower. That
is to say, the rule of 9 ordinates or 8 intervals is better than the rule of 5
intervals or 4 ordinates, taken as 4 + 4, and this again better than the rule
of 3 ordinates or 2 intervals taken as 2 + 2 + 2 + 2; while this again is
better than the polygonal rule taken as 8 x 1.* The main part of the
foregoing reasoning is independent of any supposition as to the equi-
distance of the ordinates. But it does imply that the ordinates are
exactly given. If this be untrue, it is not easy to see how much proba-
bility is involved in our assumption. Apparently this question is indeter-
minate, like that of the best mean, where the object of the mean is not
stated. Mr. George Darwin has shownt that, for the quadrature of an
area of which the ordinates are liable to uncertainty, the broken line
simply joing the heads of the ordinates gives a more probable area
than that obtained by any of the higher parabolas.
It may be worth while to remark, that, for the purposes of interpola-
tion, the relation of ordinate and abscissa is a supposition of mere
convenience, not of necessity. The only necessary relation is that of
function and variable.
* Tt is more convenient to compare the number of intervals into which the base
is divided, than the number of ordinates. The arithmetical comparison always turn
upon the intervals,
t See The Messenger of Mathematics for January, 1877.
328 REPORT—1880.
IV.—TxHeEoREMS OF FINITE DIFFERENCES.
Section 1—Common formule of direct i nterpolation and quadrature by ordinary
differences.
TE. tgs); tay 322% oe u, be any n+ 1 consecutive series of numbers
or homologous quantities whatever, and if we difference them so that
Up41 — U, = Au,, it is well known, and can be easily proved by induction,
that the operative symbol A is subject to the ordinary laws of algebraical
combination, and that, provided the subject of operation does not alter,
it may be treated as an algebraical constant. Moreover, since a con-
sequence of this is
Uy 4) = qd “f A) - U,
the suffixes also follow the index law, and
reg = (L+ A) th
The only limitations are that q and r shall be positive and integral, and
that r + q shall not exceed », With these limitations, the expansion is
identically verified. So far, no assumption is needed concerning equi-
distant variations.
The theory of finite differences assumes that wu, w,..... u, are
successive states of a function of a variable increasing by equal incre-
ments, so that if u) = ¢z, and if h be the increment of 2, w,= @ (z + rh).
Then by mere induction we obtain
b (z+ wh) = 92 + NAGz + nG@—) A? , oz
n(n—1) (n= 2) yg ¢
+ 1.2.3 apy =e ob oe
This, with a slight difference of notation only, is Brook Taylor’s theorem
in finite differences, which would now be expressed symbolically by
@ (4 + nh) = (1 + A)”. gz
Then, making the further assumptions of continuity and convergence, in
exactly the same way as the expansion of. e* is deduced as the limit of
the binomial expansion (1 + =) when + is made infinite, Taylor deduced
7 :
* It is worth while to compare this with the corresponding geometrical expression
given by Newton (Principia, Book III, Prop. xl, Lemma 5, Case 1, 3rd ed. 1726, p-
486).
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 329
the differential theorem of expansion which usually bears his name, and
which may be symbolically written as
¢@+h) =e" 6 (2).
It is worth while to notice the two points: that he obtained it as a limit,
and that he obtained it indirectly, the assumptions of continuity and con-
vergence being tacit.* Taylor does not proceed to discuss these points,
which, however, are now well known to all who have read Cauchy’s
observations on the theorem.
The full consequences of Taylor’s two theorems appear to have been
first stated by Arbogastt in the symbolical form—
d
F(1 +A). w= Fe ae, wt
When F is any function whatever, but is applied to the symbols of opera-
tion only, viz., A and h <, and the resulting operation applied to w.
x
Subject to suitable interpretation in the case of negative and fractional
values, this formula really includes the whole of the ordinary theory of
interpolation and quadratures.
As regards fractional interpretation, since (1 4+ A)". u,=uwu,, a
fractional index applied to (1 + A) simply means an interpolated value.
In the same way a negative index applied to (1 + A) merely means a
preceding value.
A fractional index applied to A has no useful. meaning at all, being
indeterminate § ; a negative index also, strictly speaking, gives indeter-
minateness, which, however, is removable, within limits. For we have
to interpret A=! s0 that A ~A="u, = u,. "This is satisfied if A~! repre-
sents the indefinite series ending with..... U,9 + U,-;, and the use of
this between limits gets rid of the indeterminateness, A more exact and
intelligible statement of this is that A~!, standing by itself, is either
indeterminate or infinite ; but Aq! w, — A-u, is perfectly determinate,
and stands for
Ug FF Ugy] He oe ee Upng FU}.
In this respect Aq! is strictly comparable with » fae, and, in fact, we have
* See the Methodus Incrementorum directa et inversa, auctore Brook Taylor,
-D. . London, 1716.
t See his Caleul des Dérivations, Sirasburg, 1800, pp. 343-352. See particularly
§ 405, p. 351, Formula E.
t It is worth while, following Arbogast, to distinguish this theorem from that
underwritten, in which F affects the whole expression that follows it :—
F { (1+ A) x grb =e Spy = th AY Re
A little consideration will show that this is but another way of writing the identity
F {oe + mh) \ = Fo(@ + mh)
This is an important theorem, but a very different one, and it has no immediate
application to the object of this report.
§ This is in fact a question of general interpolation. If the value of a function
is only known for integral values of , there is no means of distinguishing
Fv from Fe + ¢ (sin n7r) . fe
which are wholly different when 7 is fractional. This is but one example of a very
general truth. .
330 REPORT—1880.
~
-1
indeterminately + @ <.) u= = ude = oe ne
z g
1 1 il
= Arl(] —-A — — A? 4 — A} —,,,,.)u;
(lt pA igs" + 34 )us
deternunately : . th ade = Aq! u, — Amu,
+ 5 (u,—%)
1
— 75 (Au, — Aug)
< Af acig 1 Vad, lS ee
24, 7 q
the first form, A~! w, — A-! a, having the value already stated, namely,
Ug TF Use), 6 ve ea U9 “bh =]
and wu taking the values w, and w, at the limit rh and gh.
The coefficients here used are called the coefficients of quadrature ;
they are the coefficients of the expansion *
bem tel eile ———~{ of Pri V 223 ee ee
log al i 2) 1 4+ Viz + Vo2 + 30 +
HRS! Ree
M1 Py Ve 12
il € AIT Sa
Yar 24 Vs 720
ots et yy) Obs
NO 160 Ve 60480
7275 ef ty SSBSB He
ye 24192 ee 3628800
__ 8183
® -~ 1036800
This is the leading theorem of simple quadratures, all the other
theorems being mere transformations or extensions of it. Before it
can be advantageously applied, some transformation is needed, because
both sets of differences run diagonally in the same direction, so that the
required differences cannot be got without the use of ordinates beyond
the limits of the integration. The simplest transformation is that by
ascending differences, which is easily obtained by expanding in terms of
Busse instead of A= palace, But the most useful process is to ex-
LA 1—Ff
pand partly by ascending and partly by descending differences, whereby
we obtain symmetry, and use ordinates falling entirely within the limits
of integration. Observe that (1+ A) (1 —F)=1.
* See De Morgan Diff. and Int. Cale. p. 262; Lacroix, vol. iii. p. 182. Also
Woolhouse On Interpolation, Jc. (London, Layton, 1865), reprinted from the Assw-
vance Magazine, vol, xi,
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 331
a if eat ikeg a +A) =—1:log (1 — F)
= F-!— V, + V.F — V3F? + see eee
i een ee VG Vai bc iat n
Now introduce the limits of integration, using ascending differences at
one end and descending at the other. This gives
5 Si Ue = th + Ae = Vite + Va Fe ee
—(Antyo + Vi Yo + VoAyo + +++ +)
=FYot yi tyot eevee $Y tan
— V2 (Ayo — Fyn) — V3 (A? yo t Fyn) sees
SS Wasi A’Yyo + (-Y Fun} —"6 & 8 0 ©
or, since F', y, = A’ (1 + A)~. y, =A’ Yen
we have, finally,
: mye =% Yo ty + y+ pose st Oates Oy
ary V> (Ayo = Ay,-1) an V3 (A?y7o + A? Yn—2) Tee St
= View 1 ArYo a (—)* AY \ StS eee
which is the usual formula of quadratures.*
Section 2.—Inverse Interpolation.
Using the common formula of direct interpolation, the problem is to
find the value of n from the formula
BS Naecety iget ys we: oral
a2
where everything but » is known.
Stopping at any given order (say the +") of differences, neglecting all
beyond it, which is evidently permissible provided the differences be con-
vergent, and sufficiently so (and only on that hypothesis) this really
involves the solution of an equation of the 7? degree in n. It is usual
to effect the solution by successive approximation, that is to say, by
stopping successively at the first, second, third, &c., differences in succes-
sion, and determining at each step a new and more accurate value of n.
_ Thus, neglecting all beyond the first difference, a first approximation
gives
A? by + . e e ee °
UT (on 7 0) 2A Po-
This merely amounts to the use of proportionate parts.
The second step is to calculate
&(m — 1) 4° 6). = 4,
* See De Morgan, Diff. and Int. Cale. p. 313. The proof there given is sub-
stantially the same as this, only differing in arrangement. The above arrangement
perhaps shows a little more obviously the reason why the constant part used is the
same in both formule. Stated more exactly, what is done is to introduce an inter-
mediate (but indefinite) limit, and to reverse one of the definite integrations,
Doe , REPORT—1880.
then, neglecting all further terms, as a second approximation
No = ($n — $0): (A bo + 1).
For a third approximation
¥Gis-D) { A% +3 - 2) Ago b= cy
may be calculated: this gives
2. 23 = (bn — $0) = (A 0 + 62).
The process is very cumbrous when carried beyond the first correction of
the proportional part. But it has one very marked advantage, namely,
that, being a tentative process, any error in one step is more or less com-
pletely corrected at the next step, and the practical effect of accidental
error is thus to make the approximation less rapid, instead of absolutely
vitiating the result. It might even happen that an error of calculation,
by being nearer the required answer, might give a more rapid approxi-
mation.
The rapidity of approximation depends, firstly, upon the degree of
convergence ; and, secondly, upon the first approximation being sufficiently
near the required result. This is exactly parallel to what takes place in
the numerical solution of equations, and there is, here as there, the same
difficnlty, presenting itself where any given approximation is nearly half-
way between two solutions, and the successive results oscillate between
the two, instead of converging to either.*
When convergence is assured, this tentative method is probably the
best, and is at any rate the safest. An extension of Hutton’s rule for
extracting roots t might possibly be found of use. But the criterion
of convergence in this process has not been satisfactorily determined.
There is, however, reason for believing that the convergence is not so
good as in the direct tentative process given above.
This process is applicable, not only to the common formula of inter-
polation by descending differences, but to all formule which can be
arranged by ascending powers or factorials of n, the index of interpolation
For in any such form it still remains as the approximate solution with
respect to of an equation of the form ;
4 Gye ag 2? Fe ag te
where a™ is either a power or a factorial of z.
Section 3.—Lquidistant Ordinates, not differenced.
In general, writing
U, = CoUp FOU F..... Cy Uy
where UU, «. ~. « are certain given values of w corresponding to given
values of x, namely, a, 2, .... 2, and then assuming a form of w in
terms of « which will allow the coefficient ¢ to be so determined that
a = #,,shall make c, = 1 (when 2, is one of the given values) and all the
other c’s vanish, a formula of interpolation is obtained which can be con-
verted into a formula of quadrature by integrating with regard to x from
* See Horner, in Leybowrn’s Repository, No. 19, p. 63, and J. R. Young, Theory
and Solution of the Higher Equations, second edition (1843) note, pp. 474-6.
{ For which see the London, Edin.and Dublin Philos. Mag. vol. xx. (1860) p. 446,
and the Philos, Trans. for 1862, vol. clii. pp. 429-431.
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 333
0 ton. When the values are equidistant, 7 h or + A « must be used instead
of 2,,.
There is usually an advantage, both in the symmetry of the formule
and in the probability of an accurate result, in taking ordinates on both
sides of the origin of interpolation. .On any reasonable hypothesis, a mean
result is generally better than one near an extreme, and this remark is
verified by the greater tendency to convergence of the formule when the
interpolated value lies near the origin of interpolation than when it lies
away from it. As a general rule, where extreme accuracy is required, it
should not lie farther off than half the equidistant interval. There are
then two kinds of symmetry to consider: symmetry to a central ordinate,
involving an odd number of ordinates and an even number of intervals ;
and symmetry to an interval, involving an even number of ordinates
and an odd number of intervals.
Taking the former case, of symmetry to an ordinate, we may write for
the ordinates
Uun + 2 «oe Ung 5 WU} » Un, Uy, U2 abet te cet U ny
and the general formula of interpolation will be given by
Je ee PE Se Cy Uy + Coy + 2 we ee HF CQUny
where the coefficients c are functions of z, determined by the condition
that z=rh shall make c,—1, and all the others vanish. The simplest way
in which thig cay be done rationally and integrally is by writing
w (h? — a?) (4h?—2?) . 2... (n? h? — 2”)
4, = — SX
| 2a... h™
{2 Uo _ Un=1 U1 _ Un-1 U=1
x ew—-h “«e+h
4 Un Un *
2 — nh = e+nh
where v, is the coefficient of «” in the binomial expansion (1 + )?".
This gives for
n= 0, u,, = Uo (as it ought)
a (h? — 27) f2u wm wy
EO. 2h? Ay e—-h wth
Be = (Ra Oe ae ie _ 4m, 40,
ieee 2414 ri. a a TG is
Uo U_9
e—2h we+2h
In the second case, of symmetry to an interval, let any even number
of ordinates be
ee Ma assis ty As Any Diy. cents aif M,, N,
and let the variable « = 4 z, or a be the independent variable measured
from the middle point of the middle interval AA; =h=2k. Then if v"
* Boole writes this in 4 slightly different form; see his Finite Differences
2nd edition, p. 50. The formule themselves are due to Newton; see his Methodus
Differentialis (London, 1711, published by W. Jones as part of the Analysis per
quantitatum series, fluwiones, &c.) pp. 93-101. They are also te be found in vol. i.
of Horsley’s edition of Newton’s works.
334 REPORT—1880.
be the coefficient of 2 in the binomial expansion of (1 + 2)?"-1, the
corresponding formula is
geet 3 A ee eee (2n-1)7 kh? — 2?
2 ° a, 6 cele isl erlanen(Ane'= 2) han
Vv A Vv A, wn Un—1 B ae, Un—1 B,
k+z k—2z 8k—2z 38k +2
N N, \ #
ro LT Rite Shxgey ach) RL ass (Bad ly fee
Thus if n=1
Uz =
=e — Se a (as it ought).
This formula gives a very important theorem for the bisection of an
interval. Making z = 0, k& divides out, and there remains
eer tiene Ce a — ’
MT siagTgD, wh wees ee ae
5B + B,) + ; Un-2 (CO + O)- ceeeee \
When n=1,2u,=A+A,
n=2,16%=9(A+A,) —(B+B,)
n= 8, 256 u) = 150 (A + A,)— 25(B + B,) + 3(C4+0C)).
The general case of » =1 is simply equivalent to the use of pro-
portional parts.
ye{ Although, as has been already remarked, the rules for quadrature by
ordinates can be obtained by integrating the corresponding expressions
for interpolation by ordinates, that is not the easiest way of obtaining
them. One way is to integrate ’ (1 + A)* dz after expanding it, and
0
then, rejecting all the terms after A’, make n = r and substitute E — 1
for A. This process is given in most of the text books.
But a simpler and more symmetrical method, and one which can
easily be extended to higher integrals, is by the use of indeterminate
multipliers, as follows: Write vu = a) + a.27 +a,24 +a,a°+.....
whence
- : ude=nday + lepap ews Datwet Paris -
2 -—n 3 5) é
Again substituting 0, 1;=2,+3..... in succession for 2,
Up = A
5 (tar Hh) = do + ay + ay + a5 + @ ss: ode aAt
* See De Morgan, Diff. and Int. Cale. p. 549.
t See Boole, Finite Differences, art. 10; also Murray’s Shipbuilding, p. 32.
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 335
1
5 (Uug + Uy) = My + 22a, + 2tay + Bag + wee vcee
5 (tas + Uy) =a + Say + Bay + Bag + eoeeeee
. . . . ———- e ° . e e e
Now, introducing indeterminate multipliers,
1
gnu timer ta ait reece ee AN
Ay + 27Ay + 37Ag +. 2... WA, = Lis
3)
AyH BAH BAG + eee MA SEH
Ay + 25r, + BA, +1... . nr, = ae
from which the value of any 2 is easily formed, by means of determinants
if necessary. For any given value of x the coefficients are those of the
corresponding rule for 2” ordinates or 2n + 1 intervals, Thus, stopping
at n=1
i! devs 4
gto PALA N Sig No 7
1
a ude = : (w_, + 49 + 41)
Sl
Again, stopping at n =2
Nh bi Nia Nya, BIS Ny ichahen i BF
2 3 5
14 64 24
whence A, = re ie 4g) ®° = AE
JS. uda =— (7u_» -+ 82u_,; + 12a) — 32u, + Zu2).
-2
The rules for an odd number of intervals or an even number of
ordinates may be got by giving «# the successive values +1,+3,+4 5
-..-.. Then w,+4, takes the same value as before. Writing
n= 2m + 1, and using as indeterminate multipliers pry, 3, ws . . . . the
equations become
Pet a Pp +e eee ee Pome, = 2mM+1
Py + 8? 34+ SO? pst ee eee (2m + 1)"Hone1 = 5 2m +18
Py + 84 pg + Of ps5 + wae ee (2m + 1)"pone1 = 5 2m + iy
Stopping at m = 0, hp, =1
Sf: ude = : (wa1 + %)
-1 2
336 REPORT—1880.
Stopping atm=1,2m+1=8
Oo” Bree eae ce
Py + ps = 3, oy + 93 = 9
i
YS as dp Oe and
eo (uz Ae 3 uy +3, + U3)
-3
It is to be observed that the interval in the » formula is 2, and not
unity. ans bati i
The actual coefficients for quadrature by means of equidistant
ordinates, when the interval’is taken as unity, are *
2 Mecca : (1 +.1).. The trapezoidal rule
3 ordinates or i The parabolic rule, or
2 intervals \ 3 ie a Simpson’s first rule
4. ordinates or
3 intervals
a - . . : . , . . .
: (1+3+4+3+41) Simpson’s second rule
5 ordinates or 2
4 intervals \ 4B (7 + 82 + 12 + 32 + 7)
- ntonale } ggg (9+ 75 +50 +504 75 + 19)
5 intervals 288
7 ordinates or il
6 intervals \ jap (Al + 216 + 27 + 272 + 27 + 216 + 41)
8 ordinates or 7 (751 + 3577 + 1323 + 2989 + 2989 4+ 1323
7 intervals 17280 +3577 + 751)
9 ordinates or 4 (989 + 5888 — 928 + 10496 — 4540 + 10496
8 intervals 14175 — 928+ 5888 + 989)
10 ordinates or 9 (2857 + 15741 4+ 1080 + 19344 + 5778 + 5778
9 intervals 89600 + 19344 + 1080 + 15741 + 2857)
11 ordinates or 10 (16067 + 106300 — 48525 + 272400 — 260550
10 intervals § 598752 + 427568 — 260550 + 272400 — 48525
+ 106300 + 16067)
In the, foregoing the numerical coefficients only are given, and the
ordinates have to be inserted. Thus, the ordinates being a, b, c, d, e, the
rule for five ordinates or four intervals is
S (7a +82b4+ 12c +°32d + 7e) x interval.
To the above should be added Weddle’s approximate rule for 7
ordinates, or 6 intervals, namely :
f AQ +541464145+)).
* These are all taken from Cotes, Harmonia Mensurarum, by Robert Smith,
Cambridge, 1722, De Method Differential, p. 33. The principle of these rules seems
to have been known to Newton; see his Methodus Differentialis already quoted.
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. aor
This is a modification of the rule of seven ordinates already given,
aE ; 1
differing from it only by 140 ‘AB.*
It will be observed that these formule are symmetrical end for end,
and since the integration is between definite limits, the origin of the
abscisse is indeterminate, and may be taken so as to fall in the middle, or
so that the equivalent integration is from — rhto + rh. It follows that,
for the purposes of comparison, instead of taking
y= bo tbeatbw+t.. es. Neetu a
we may take, since
+1
af a?™-! da = 0 always
=1
Y= bo + by x? + ale ey le) eB lel eure: ‘. (i Adil
omitting the terms containing odd powers of #; and that we therefore
obtain no greater generality by using 2m ordinates instead of 2m — 1.
The error in either way is of the same order.f
The formule of quadrature for an odd number of ordinates or an even
number of intervals appear to have been also given by James Stirling,t
who adds a set of what he calls corrections. The number of ordinates
being 2 m — 1, the correction is of the form
— AE-"(E— 1) x base
the coefficient A being apparently determined so as to make the corrected
value exactly agree with the result obtained from integration, when both
are applied to #7". But they do not lead to the next rule, for 2m +1
ordinates. As a particular example, the correction for the rule of three
ordinates, namely, pase (w_, + 49 + 4) x base, is — base (wy — 4u_,
+ 6uy — 4u,; + uy) X base. The values of the coefficients A are inexactly
given by Stirling as
ot eels (i bop
180’ 470 ’ 930’ 1600
i 2 3 296
180’ 945 ’ 2800 ° 467775
The inaccuracy is not a mistake, because Stirling only uses them as a
test of approximation, and not as a means of obtaining accuracy.
Bertrand (Calcul Intégral) gives the corrections in a slightly different
form, from which the coefficients just given are obtainable by multiplying
Bertrand’s corresponding coefficient by 27": A?”0?". In the following
table we give Bertrand’s first coefficient only. It is the excess of the com-
instead of
* The first eight formule are given by Thomas Simpson and verified by Atwood.
All the rules are given (but with some misprints) by Bertrand (Calcul Intégral).
Atwood makes a curious mistake in the rule of 8 ordinates. He is endeavouring
to correct Simpson, with whom, however, his result is really identical, only that
Atwood has introduced the factor 49 into both numerator and determinator, without
seeing that it divides out: see A Disquisition on the Stability of Ships, by George
Atwood, F.R.S., read before the Royal Society, March 8, 1798, and reprinted
separately (p. 62 of reprint). :
+ See Todhunter, On the Functions of Laplace, Se. pp. 98 and 104.
t See his Methodus Differentialis; London, 1730, p. 146, Prop. xxxi. He stops at
nine ordinates.
1880. Z
338 ; REPORT—1880.
putation by the rule for 2m — 1, or 2 m ordinates, over the actual value of
1 .
the integral f” ada.
0
Number of | Number of J Number of | Number of
ordinates intervals Excess ordinates intervals Excess
1 1
2 = v4 woke
6 é 38880
1 167
3 2 — 8 . eo
120 10588410
1 37
4 3 — 9 8 ——
270 17301504
if 865
5 4 wee 10 9 poeta |
2688 631351908
6 5 11 ll 10 260927
52500 136500000000
This is a fair indication of the error to be expected in treating a con-
vergent form by these rules. It is no criterion where the curve approaches
parallelism to the ordinate.
It must be remembered also that the higher rules use more ordinates,
and therefore ought to give more accuracy. As regards relative accuracy,
the proper test is so to use the rules as to cut up the function or curved
area into the same number of intervals, for which purpose it is necessary
to use the least common multiple of the order of (or number of intervals
in) the rules. Thus, what has hitherto been considered, in the case of
two and three intervals, is the comparison of
r {1900) + 49(F5) +190) }
with £ {1 9(0) + 39(5) + 39(5) “ 19(1) }
8 3 3
the proposed comparison is between
gits+2+4+ 244 4 1)
md 3(1+8+3424+ 343841)
with corresponding ordinates, namely
1 2
(0), o(G) (=) eoee3nvee (1)
In this way, using 21 ordinates, or 20 intervals,
+10 ;
f afde gives
-~ 10
Accurate value by integration ° : 2,857,1428 Errors
By rule of 5 ordinates F - js 2,857,17324 + 3032
By rule of 6 ordinates ‘ » . 2,857,2084 + 6532
Ratio of errors 128: 275
eS a
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 339
20
Again, f° (wide gives
Accurate value by integration . 3 182,857,142§ Errors
By rule of 5 ordinates : é : 182,857,1734 + 30}9
By rule of 6 ordinates é : ; 182,857,20382 + 653°
which accords with the former result.
In the same way, using 7 ordinates or 6 intervals; we find that
+3 ‘
f wdz gives
-3
Accurate value by integration . : , , 97°2 Errors
By rule of 3 ordinates. : ; ; , 98 + 08
By rule of 4 ordinates. : : , . 99 + 18
Ratio of error 4 : 9
6
Again, f” a'dx gives
0
Accurate value by integration - . : 15552 Errors
By rule of 3 ordinates . . “ : 1556 + 08
By rule of 4 ordinates ; : A : 1557 + 18
which accords with the former result. These coincidences arise from
the change of origin not affecting the definite integration.
In this particular case the errors may be shown symbolically by
operating at once upon ¢ + 4)" from « = 0 tox = 6 by
(1) Simpson’s first rule (three ordinates)
(2) Simpson’s second rule (four ordinates)
(3) The rule of 7 ordinates
The results are, in ascending powers of A
i) Gagged 6418 +274 2441254 Ba+5
ope Sa 6418+ 27 4244123 4 343
3 Son Bevel
€ cy 2 ‘ aL
(3) ..... 6418427 +242 4 384 7)
and the errors are
for (1) + 55 4 +35 AS +75 As
Sate ADA Sila "AG
en Oy 4g 8 ea + 980,
Neglecting the last term, it appears that the ratio of error is as 4:9 in
favour of Simpson’s first rule as against the second.
It is worth while to continue this comparison backwards. For thus
it is not necessary to have recourse to arithmetic. Taking a parabola with
axis parallel to the ordinates, it is easily seen that the rectangle between
the middle ordinate and the base is a better approximation than the
trapezium consisting of the chord, the base, and the extreme ordinates,
and that the ratio of the errors is + 1: — 2, the errors being of opposite
si
So far as the first six cases go, therefore, it appears that a rule with
Z2
340 REPORT—1880.
an even number of ordinates has an error numerically about double that
of the corresponding rule for one ordinate less. The number of cases
tried is not sufficient to warrant any general inference as to the compara-
tive amount of error, especially when we consider their signs; but it is
highly probable that the rule with an odd number of ordinates is always
better arithmetically than, and not only of the same order of error as,
the rule with one more ordinate. As has already been stated, no
general investigation of these comparative values appears to have been
made. The point is, however, one rather of analytical curiosity than
of real importance. The rules requiring high orders of differences are
better replaced by lower rules with more ordinates, unless in the very rare
cases where the ordinates themselves are difficult to calculate. It is
claimed that such an exception is found in calculating the curve of stability
of a ship when the mainwale, or armour shelf, and the deck are successively
immersed ; but there is at least a doubt in these cases whether the dis-
continuity, which makes the calculation of more ordinates difficult, does
not vitiate the accuracy of the higher orders of differences. If that be
so, the advantage sought by their use—namely, to be sure of not adding
an error of calculation to the errors of measurement, or to the errors due.
to wide intervals—would of course be lost.’ Nevertheless the higher rules
are analytically nearer the truth, and must be actually so in certain cases.
Only it must not be taken for granted that these are usual cases. It is
the practice of French naval architects to use the polygonal rule through-
out their calculations, in deliberate preference to the rule of three ordinates.
The arithmetical work is thereby much simplified, and so the liability to
accidental error is diminished. Moreover by taking ordinates sufficiently
close, the error of the rule can be reduced without limit, and where the
ordinates are inexact, it is not clear that the parabolic rule has any
advantage.*
In dealing with actual data, the use of a large number of ordinates has
evidently the advantage of taking a more complete account of the facts
than the use of a smaller number. Any want of continuity between the
ordinates is necessarily ignored by all the rules, and that to the greater
extent, the greater the interval.
The rule of nine ordinates, and many of the higher rules, involve nega-
tive as well as positive coefficients, and are inconvenient on that account.
The amount of the difference between the use of the polygonai rule
and the parabolic (or Simpson’s first) rule is best shown geometrically
as follows:
il B Cc
* Dr. Farr has used the same rule, or an arithmetical process equivalent to it,
for the integrations used in the Life Tables calculated under his superintendence by
the Registrar-General’s Department. See the Sixth, Hleventh, and Tivelfth Reports
of the Registrar- General for Births, Deaths, and Marriages in England (1847, 1852,
1853), and the English Life Table published by the Registrar-General.
—-
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 341
Let Aa, Bb, Cc be three consecutive equidistant ordinates. Then, by
the polygonal rule, the area is represented by the trapeziums AabB
and BbcC. Let at, tc be tangents at the extremities of the curve, and
draw at’ parallel to tc. Then the actual area of the curve regarded
. 2 :
as a common parabola is the trapezium AacC plus 3 of the triangle
ate (=ta?’) while the polygonal area AabecC is AacC See te
2
=AacC + =f at’, and the difference between these is( — 3) tat’
— - Tichstes
When more ordinates are used, it is easy, by repeating the construction,
to form a triangle which shall give a superior limit to the error made by
substituting the trapezoidal rule for the parabolic. For the geometrical
addition of the curvilinear segments, taking each as two-thirds of its
circumscribing triangle corresponds very nearly (although not exactly)
‘to an algebraical addition which can be effected graphically on the second
ordinate from each end, by drawing parallels to the chords and tangents
from the head of the first ordinates.* It also follows that if the tangents
at the extremities of the curve are parallel, the difference between the two
rules disappears, and they lead toa result practically identical— that is to
say, only differing by an error of a high order.
Section 4.—Multiple integrals, ordinates not differenced.
a b
A multiple integral of the form oe. s-. & de dy, in which
—a,/—b
the limits are all constant, and the variables (except w) all independent,
can be computed by treating each variable separately, by a repeated appli-
cation of any process of arithmetical integration. In the case of a double
integral applied to the calculation of volume this is equivalent to cutting
the volume by parallel plane sections, obtaining the areas of these by any
method of ordinates, and then summing the areas of these sections, each
taken as an ordinate, to obtainthe volume. Thus, taking nine equidistant
ordinates with the interval 4 in one direction, and & in another at right
angles to it, and calling them
a, b; cy
Qo by Co
a3 bg cg
an application of Simpson’s rule gives us for the plane areas
Fh (a + 4d, + 6), 5 h (aa + Aba + 00), 4h (as + Ads + 09)
or, using the vertical sets,
Ak (aly 4a + as), 51 Real eae a ee ee
* See Woolhouse ‘On Interpolation, &c.’ Assurance Magazine, vol. xi. p. 308—sepa-
rately published by C. and E. Layton in 1865. See also Leclert, ‘Note sur le Calcul
numérique des aires curvilignes planes,’ Annales du Génie civil, tome viii. p. 630.
M. Leclert states that his note isin great part a reproduction of M. Réech’s lessons.
342 REPORT—1880.
A second application of the rules to either set gives
1 a, + 46,4 ¢
—hk< + 4a, +166, +4c, > = V
9 +a3;+ 4b3+ cz
It might be supposed that this represented the volume-integral of a
paraboloid with its axis parallel to the ordinates; but this is not so, for in
the paraboloid, since all parallel sections are equal and similar,
a, — 2b, + ¢, = a, — 2b, + ag = a, — 263 +.€5
or a, — 2b, + c,
—2a, + Ab, —2c, = 0)
+ a3 — 2b, + cy
Combining this with V (above) gives
; fe Jape O1*. ae aia al aaa
V==hk << +a, 4+2b, +e, > == hk SO 4+ 803,40
3 np peak 0 as Ol stes
So that the volume of the paraboloid for nine ordinates is given by either
set of five symmetrical ordinates only : that is to say, by either the central
one and those at the four corners, or by the central one and the four at
the middle points of the sides of the square.
Dr. Woolley, to whom this simplification is due, showed that this rule
applied not only to one paraboloid through the heads of the nine ordi-
nates, but to the sum of the volumes of two paraboloids in two ways,
either
ay a, by cy
hy by + bs Co
3 b3 C3 C3
a, b; cy Cy
Ay by + by Cy
a3 a3 bs C3
In fact, let 6, be taken for origin, a, b, c, for the axis of #, and b, b, b for
the axis of y, z being normal to the plane of the paper, then writing the
equation to a paraboloid as
2=at+ be + cy + dx? + ey? + fay + av* + Ba?y + y ay? +3
and integrating first with regard to y between the limits +4 #, and
then with regard to « between the limits 0 and h, the volume whose base
is the triangle c, b, cz is expressed by
2
Sagal iin : dik +3 oh? + 2 alk + A ile,
3
The other three components may be obtained by interchanging h and k,
and other corresponding letters, and then by changing the signs of h and k.
The altitudes of the nine points are obtained by writing 0 and + h for
* See the Mechanic's Magazine for 5th April, 1851, vol. 54, p. 265; also Dhuaray’s
Shipbuilding, pp. 35-6. See also Inst. Nav. Arch. vol. vi. (1865), p. 44, and vol, viii.
(1867) p, 210.
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 343
zand 0,and + & fory. Making these substitutions, the volume of the
whole solid is found to be
V == hk (6a + 2dh? + ek?)
Qo! bo
bo
= 5 hk (ay + b + 2b, + 03 +02)
co
= 5 Uh (a + a3 + 8b, + ¢3 + ¢,).
If, moreover, the paraboloid be reduced to one of the second degree by
making a/3yé vanish, the following equations also hold:—
vol. on a, ¢; ¢3 = : hk(b, + by + ¢2) = . hk (2b, + ¢,) — Ala
3
vol. on a, a; as hk (ay + 05 + b3) = : hk: (2by + a3) -; fH?
9
elie, aes 2 i (ayia) aot he Chr tateydt 5 fle?
vol. one, ¢3 3 = 4 hie (bs + ba + 6s) = 2 ik (35. ey ¥ 5 hohe
a
The rule for the corner ordinates is not very convenient, The other
rule, when we have nine ordinates only, may be written, having regard to
the coefficients alone, as
010
121
010
For a considerable number, say 5 x11, it becomes
01010101010
12222222221
02020202020
12222292221
01010101010
The rule for the coefficients is that all the ordinates which are odd in both
planes of section have the coefficient zero: all the others have the co-
efficient 2, except the border rows and columns, where the coefficient is
1 instead of 2. The summation, governed by these coefficients, has then
to be multiplied by 3 hike
A geometrical proof is easily given, as follows. Let
abed be a portion of the paraboloid corresponding to the
rectangular base ABCD, and let the planes of section
be supposed (in the first instance) parallel to principal
planes. It is a well-known property of the paraboloid
that its sections by any series of planes parallel to one
another and to the axis, are similar and equal parabolas.
Project the are cd orthogonally on the plane ABba by a
cylinder passing through cdéy. It is plain that the solid
ABCDdéyc is this parabolic cylinder plus a solid rec-
tangle. Allthe sections of the outlying solid abeddy, parallel to BCcd, are
equal and similar portions of equal parabolas, and therefore its volume
is the same as that of a cylinder, having the parabolic segment cby for
344 REPORT—1880.
its base, and AB for its altitude. Hence the volume of the paraboloid
between the extremities of nine ordinates,a,..... ¢3, resolves itself
into 2kw, the parabolic area whose ordinates are ay by cy, added to 2h x the
parabolic area whose ordinates are
by — by, by — by (= 0), bs — dy
or, by the rule for parabolic areas,
V = 2k (a, + Abs A ¢y).-+ 2n { (ive Be) teh (OR (Bs — by |
= 3 hk (ay BP 2by4 Be hee)
The restriction as to the direction of the principal planes is equivalent
to writing F = 0 in the general equation of the paraboloid
Z=A + Bu + Cy + Da? + Ey? + Fay
but 5 (@@ + p) (@ + q) = 4ay identically, and (« + p) (e +q) — zy is
the variation of any ordinate (p,q) from the middle one, as regards this
term alone; it is therefore evident that, for the symmetrical integral, the
effect of this term vanishes.
Two applications of the polygonal rule are easily seen to be equivalent
to drawing a hyperbolic paraboloid through the heads of every four ordi-
nates, the four right lines joining the ordinates two and two being the
generators (of both systems). The last paragraph shows that its volume-
integral can be expressed by interpolating a middle ordinate, and using
that only, instead of the four others. This appears to be equivalent to
the reduction obtained by Woolley’s rule in the degree above; but it is
of no practical use, seeing that it only substitutes the sum of (m—1) (n— 1)
ordinates for that of mn ordinates, an advantage which, in general, is no
compensation for the interpolation.
: Two applications of the polygonal rule lead to the scheme of multi-
pliers :—
|
oO |
—
(Pa
a
Dole pw He
Dole
bo
j=
I
—
a
(=
Jousd
=
Hel Dol DO] bo] BY
GC —-——__, --—____ J
1 bord,
= - O- 0
ore ae 9 3
ret Dat a
TOO LAO
1
multipliers
1
—\—-——_—Y
Hy
4
NiRF On|
—
_
i
me
—
—
DIR ON]
—
oO
|
fo)
|
f=)
\—
(=)
_
lan
—)
bo]
bo
bo
bo
—
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 345
it is to be observed that, while the first is less accurate on the supposition
thatthe surface is of strictly parabolic character, and convergent, yet it has
the advantage of taking account of the surface (using the above example)
at 45 points instead of 30. It thus secures that the surface to which
the arithmetical summation refers shall coincide with the surface to be
measured in 45 points as against 30, on the assumption of accurate
measurements. The advantage of the higher rule, therefore, depends upon
there being no possibility of a periodic term, and upon there being no such
want of convergence as would render terms of higher degree than 2? y?
noticeable. If the ordinates are inexact, this advantage of the polygonal
rule holds a forttort.
The author has shown* that there exists a similar reduction in the
number of ordinates necessary for the summation of a triple integral.
Writing the 27 ordinates of
U= dy) + ae + Puy + 12
+ aya? + Boy? + yo2? + Aye + paw + vay
+ a3z? + B3y? + 7323
+ ie + Aoy) ye + (pe + poz) zw
We or tn a) oy
as
ay Oy C4 a,’ by" ¢," ay! byt! e,!
ar as’ By Gy ay" Bel! cgt!
ag bg C3 tix! Ba! 3! ay! bs" cg!
the treble integral = af _1 1 du dy dz is expressed by
= id Coa er a onl oak gh) bras My
in which the absolute middle ordinate does not appear. In fact, arrang-
ing the 27 letters which represent the ordinates in a cube, the only ones
which appear are the middle ordinates of faces. The late Professor
Rankine expressed this rule in the following form: ‘The mean density
of a parallelopiped is the mean of the densities at the middle points of
its six faces.’ This supposes the density to be a parabolic function of the
three co-ordinates, not higher than the third degree, and thus, of course,
excludes the case (which usually presents itself physically) of the density
varying from the middle to the bounding surface. This rule, like
Woolley’s, may be modified by using. corner ordinates, or the ordinates
corresponding to the middle points of the edges: only then the formule
are Jess simple, and the middle ordinate of all does not disappear.
All the remarks about Woolley’s rule inadequately representing the
surface, as compared with the polygonal rule, apply a fortiori to this.
Whatever may be the convergence, except upon a certain limited hypo-
thesis, namely, that the function is of definite parabolic form, coincidence
between the actual subject of integration, and the subject of summation,
is secured at too few points for the results to be reliable.
It had been observed by the author that there was a peculiar relation
of the ordinates in these rules, namely,
* See Scott Russell’s Modern Naval Architecture, vol. i. p. 127, and Trans. I. NLA.
vol, vi. (1865) p. 47. :
346 REPORT—1880.
1. Simple measurement x =+ (6a)
2. Simpson’s rule fi dx =+ h(a + 4b + c)
3. Woolley’s rule Sf: dx dy =< Ht (ig +, + 2g + By to,)
4, Meritela’s (ff de dy dz =< HL (ag! + by + By! + by! 4 ba" + 65’)
or, as the multipliers may be graphically arranged,
i Lee
fe 1 Dia i oa lg
a) i
there being a curious tendency of the middle ordinate to ‘move out.’
The late H. J. Purkiss, by operating upon the equivalent form
Uy = Uy + Ax? + By? + Cz? +....
(n variables) *
showed that the n” integral
h k l i :
Vg nf -3 eT ae udx dy dz...
was represented by
voor oe {2- 2 (n'a 3) u, |
when 2, =f (0,0,0....) and
Z=f(h,0,0....) +f(—h,0,0....)
+f (0,4,0....)+/(0,4 —h&0....)
+7 (0,00 ....) +/(0,0,-J,....)
+ &e.
Multiple integrals of the form
SN: A tt, (dare Wi,
may be treated by rules nearly similar to those already given for simple
integrals. It is worth while to observe that in this form of integral only
one integration (the last) is between definite limits, the others being
rather algebraical forms expressed by the notation of the integral calculus,
than actual integrations. Thus f fu da* between the limits +m is not
the analogue of af : af 5 i u dx dy, where h and k& are each made = n,
—hJ —k
but is an abbreviated expression for fi "dee fs “udu. This becomes evi-
—n 0
m
dent, when it is remembered that U,, is simply the solution of dan =U
Moreover, after one integral has been taken between limits, all following
integrals are mere multiples, with a parabolic series added, on account of
* See Zrans. I, N. A., vol. vi. for 1865, p. 48.
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 347
the constants of integration. These constants must not be forgotten, but
as they disappear when the origin of integration is suitably taken, they
need not be further discussed here.
The same treatment which was applied to the investigation of Cotes’s
formule may also be applied to a double integral, only then it is necessary
to use a series with odd powers only, because the even powers disappear
for + limits. Writing
U = Ay% + Age? + ase® 4+ oc ecccenes
and taking the integral between limits + n
1 1 1
ar U, = on + 53 ayn? + Zp aan + 5 gaa + arin a ave
Assuming the first integral to vanish with z, ¢ vanishes, and the first
significant term ise a,n8, Now writing in succession
+1,+3,+5......forz.
1
@ (ay +) Ha Hag tas te. eeeeee
1
9 (— Wz + U3) = 8a, + 88a3 + Das +e econ
5 (— ts + tis) = Bay + 58a + 58a, =f stars whe (Ce
or, using indeterminate multipliers
E 1
Ay + 3Ay + DAZ H+... ee Th, = 5-3
1
A, + 379A, + 5°AZ +..... \,, = 4.5”
A, + BA, + S*AZH+..... A, = apn &e.
: a
stopping at n = 1, dA, = e
, DOr s. OL
stopping at n = 3, A, = 160" A, = 160
that is to say,
Sf: dz? between limits + h is
is (— wy + 4)
Sf: dz? between limits + 3h is
3
30 h? (— 17%u_3 — 189u_, + 189u, + 173)
Similar formule, symmetrical to an ordinate instead of to an interval,
would be obtained by writing 0, +1,4+2..... for z. But the integral
vanishes for « = 0, and these formule would evidently be less advan-
tageous than those of the odd series, for the same reason that in a simple
integral the even series is the better.
348 REPORT—1880.
These formule are, however, rather curious than useful. For the
treatment of multiple integrals, symmetrical differences are more con-
venient.
Section 5— Quadrature by differential coefficients.
The reciprocal of the formula
d
iN = Ta De —1
enables the difference between a definite integral and the term of a series of
ordinates to be expressed by means of the successive differential coefficients
for values corresponding to the extreme values of the function. Calling
these u, and w,,
hs =
A“ thy, — Ant ig = 4 & da — i} {m4},
There is nothing indeterminate about this equation, the left-hand side of
which is the sum
Ug + Uy +Ug+..... + Un]
while the right-hand side has for its first term ae Mh a de, for its second
be/o
term — > (uv, — Up) and for its general term thereafter,
(— yr i q2"+1 q?rtl
(RRORSE Wig ae Srp Barty BO) ape Mo — gape
where B,,,, represents Bernoulli’s numbers taken without regard to
sign.
The complete formula in its usual form is
h { a + Uy + Uo 4. fe arletiers 4- Un—} + + uy }
nh 1 # 1 hi
— ude + = ——(2', oss wy) ie aie er all's)
ae , 6. | 2. “ae ah ia
r hert2 q2r+l qzti
Fees + (—) Bares [ar 42 Ci Un — aru”)
aF dood
The meaning to be attached to oo an a “is that they are the values
x" xv
I”
of aa when « is made severally equal to nh and to zero.*
The use of this formula presents no difficulty except in one remark-
able case, pointed out by Legendre,+ in which all the odd differential co-
efficients after some particular value of 7 take the same value at both
limits. Among these may be instanced u= /(1 — i? sin 2x), the
‘limits being 0 and ->- ~ or ~. All the odd differential coefficients are
affected with the factor sin a cos z, which vanishes at both limits, so
that each term of the expansion contains zero as a factor. Nevertheless,
* See Woolhouse On Interpolation, Summation, §c., part ii. p. 45 (note), for a very
singular extension of this formula.
{ See his Ponctions Hlliptiques, vol. ii. p. 57
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 349
the summation is not identical with the complete elliptic integral, as may
easily be ascertained upon trial—and there are many other functions
which present the same peculiarity. The paradox seems the greater, in-
asmuch as the numerical coefficients of the differential forms are highly
convergent, seeing that when r is large
Bot A Bo,-1
[2r+2 °°] Q,r
=1:47? = 1:40 nearly.
The explanation, however, is, that the numerical coefficients introduced
by the differentiation performed upon w increase without limit, so that
q?2rt1 ’ jf ; 2
qari (uv, — Uo) becomes really co — oo, which is necessarily indeter-
minate, and may (and usually will) exceed the corresponding factor in
the previous term in some ratio which is a multiple of +2, and which
increases without limit as + increases. Then the series finally becomes
divergent, and the paradox is solved.
In many such cases, and notably so in the rectification of the
quarter-ellipse, the subdivision of the base, that is to say, an increase in
the number of ordinates, gives extremely rapid convergence towards the
true value. Thus for / = sin 45°, if we take three ordinates only, viz.,
“=> 0) Uy, =i!
@ = 45° Uy = sin 60° = 0°8660254
x= 90° Uz = sin 45° = 0:7071068
ul
orn oes 0:5
uy = 0°8660254
54s = 0°3535534.
1-7195788
This, multiplied by 47 gives for the length of the quarier ellipse
1350284. The value taken from Legendre’s table is 1:3506438820.
If we were to use the parabolic rule we should have
heh
4u, = 3°4641016
uz = 0°7071068
3 | 51712084
1:7237361
This, multiplied by i m, gives 1:35382, which is not so good a result as
we got before. The anomaly here is the counterpart to the one already
mentioned. Its explanation is, that if the ordinates are differenced, the
differences diverge at once, and, therefore, the series of which Cotes’ rules
are a mere transformation is divergent from the beginning, so that the
more terms of it are taken, the farther from the truth is the result. In
other words, the higher rules are worse, instead of better, than the poly-
gonal rule. This is an instructive example of the advantage of a sub-
divided interval over a rule of a higher order.
350 REPORT—1880.
Section 6.—Interpolation of direction : maxima and minima,
It frequently happens that it is required to find, by means of given
ordinates, whether differenced or not, the value of some particular
differential co-efficient, or else the value of the variable corresponding
to some given value of the differential coefficient. These ultimately
depend upon the symbolic equation
d
— = log.
= og. (1 + A)
suitably transformed and duly interpreted, or solved. In certain cases,
the desired result may be obtained by mere algebraical transformation,
by indeterminate coefficients or otherwise.
As an example, let it be required to obtain a formula for the tangent
at the head of the middle ordinate of the set
the common interval being h. The analytical problem is to determine
ae = h (1 +A)? log. (1 + A) uo
in such a form as to stop the ce series at Atuy. The work is
pe = ul
“
2 2 = ANG ce Ne
= (1 +A) (a- = At + = At) 19
3 : 1
= (a+ pat Ale = A3 — 54!) uw
2 1
— 3 (v3 — m4) — oi (U4 — Uo).
The process is perfectly general, and needs no further remark, except
that the work might have been made a little more symmetrical by taking
the middle ordinates as origin. This will give considerable simplification
in the algebraical solution. To obtain this,
write w= aw + cx
omitting the even powers, which evidently disappear in the result,
Then a =a + 3ca? (=a when « = 0)
ai
—
w= — Uy =z (| — U1) = ah + ch8
Ug = — U2 = (us a U9) = 2ah + Sch?
and \, and A, are to be so determined that
Ay (Uy — U1) + Ay (Ua — Ung) = ah
This gives 2A, + 4A, = 1, 2A; + 161. =0
2 i
whence A; = 3° A= — o This, allowing for the change of origin,
is the same result as that already obtained.
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 351
The general problem of maxima and minima is, in interpolation as in
d
ordinary analysis, to determine w and 2 so as to make SS =0. Itisa
5 PRK: Fa
particular case of the more general problem in which ea = a, but it is
practically much simplified by the consideration that Aw is generally very
d z = :
small when vanishes, so that the approximate position of the maximum
or minimum is visible at sight ; but there is no such help in the general
case. .
The process for determining a maximum or minimum is to expand
(1 + A)* uw as a rational integral function of x, and also such that the
functions of A appearing in it shall be capable of interpretation ; then to
differentiate with regard to x, and equate the result to zero, The appro-
priate root of the resulting equation thus gives the value of a, and that
of w, is then found by interpolation. As already stated, there is practi-
cally an approximate value, obtained at sight, to start the more exact
approximation, The most obvious course is to take the ordinary bi-
nomial expansion, namely,
pe es 32 — 372 ‘
w= Uy + Amy += Bpse eg Bammutt ty 20 veo, sigs
1 2 6
whence
m =0 = Au + ge a : Deu) + se bet 8 A3uy + &e.
and this equation has to be solved with respect to 2, preferably by succes-
Sive approximation, after which w is determined. But any other expan-
sion, such as that by symmetrical differences, in which the expansion
variable is A: /(1 + A) may also be taken. When the solution is
obtained otherwise than by successive approximation, as, for instance, by
solving as a quadratic, care must be taken to select the proper root.
Values corresponding to inflexional points in a curve, are, of course,
2,
determined by operating in like manner upon “
In the use of equidistant ordinates, no difficulty can arise from w and
2 reaching a maximum together. But when the ordinates are not equi-
distant, this point requires attention. It presents no other difficulty than
is met with in the ordinary theory of implicit maxima,
The case of “ = a, only differs from that of ae 0, as far as work
dx
is concerned, by its being less easy to see what the first approximation is
to be. Graphical processes, however, or trial and error, soon remove any
difficulty.
It must be remembered that the determination of a tangent is of a
higher order of precision than the determination of the point of contact.
It follows that the determination of the argument corresponding to the
maximum or minimum value of a tabulated function is less precise than
that of the corresponding value of the function, and also less precise
than its determination generally,
302 REPORT—1880.
Section 7.—Symmetrical Differences.
If the successive values of a function are written down in a column
and differenced, the successive differences belonging to a given value run
across the scheme in a diagonal line, down or up accordingly as the
process is begun from top or bottom. Thus, beginning from the top, the
series Uy... .U, gives the following scheme :—
Uo
Arty
Bays. SAG
Adie sc seA°tg
Ug ss
PNoia east ft Nay tack e LNs
Uz +...
Aw3z ... Agry
ae a
Au,
Us
This process is essentially unsymmetrical, as is evidenced by its diagonal
character. But any horizontal line has symmetry as regards the general
scheme, and accordingly the line w., A?u,, Atug is said to be a set of
symmetrical differences, that is to say, symmetrical to a value or ordinate.
So again the set Aw, Au,, A°wo is said to be symmetrical to an interval.
It will be observed that this process is an alternate one—that it is
not possible to pass from one column to the next, but always to the next
but one. The operative symbol at each actual step, as, for instance, from
A3u, to Au, is always A? : (1 + 4) and the direct problems of interpo-
lation and quadrature by symmetrical differences are to express (1 + A)*
and Fudx in a series of ascending powers of A?:1+A=Z2. It so
happens that (1 + 4)” can be expanded by ascending powers of Z, but
not by powers of Z?. This introduces terms of the form A: /(1 + 4)
which cannot be interpreted so long as terms used are confined to one
horizontal line, thus implying that the expansion must be a double series.
The series itself was given by Newton,* but without proof. The connec-
tion between the two parts of the series is a differential one. This is
perhaps best shown as follows, using the notation
Z=4?:(1+A)=(E-1)?: E=E4+ 4H - 2,
= Sse oy DOR Jatt Ay _A(2:4+ 4)
ee a (83 Ft) = 5 ea
aE
Solving the first equation with respect to EH, gives
B=1+4=14+324 a/ (e+ i 2)
E-! =14 52%, /(4+42)
The form of these values shows that E and its powers involve, in their
* See his Mcethodus Differentialis, already quoted, Prop. III.; also Stirling,
Methodus Differentialis, Prop. XX. pp. 104-8; De Morgan, Caleulus, pp. 544-7,
Lacroix, 2nd ed. of his Caleulus, vol. iii. pp. 26-31 and 327-330,
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 353
expansion, both odd and even powers of /Z; but that H* + E-* may be
expanded in integral powers of Z, and KH” — E-* in odd. powers of / Z.
Then the differential coefficient of E” + E-” with regard to Z is
(Br! = Bo") 22 in which 22 =1 -E2 = M
2 (E*-! = E-*-!) az? 2 which TE 1-—E oR” whence
ae r : =—x as ie ao Wl=-«
ag ee Meta ge t E)
and also : : . *
bd (et E-*) + 5 (E'S EM)
=(o 40 a) OSE
If the upper sign be taken, writing
+ (i 4 Eo) a $ BZ + yBP 4808 +...
suitably determining the coefficientsaPy..... and giving the proper
interpretation to M, furnishes the formula for interpolation symmetrical
to an ordinate ; while, if the lower sign be taken, writing
3 5
5 (BP — E+) =a V2 +0523 PE Lae |
furnishes the formula for interpolation symmetrical to an interval. The
coefficients may be determined either by the ordinary methods of in-
determinate coefficients, by the calculus of generating functions, or by
writing
Uy, S Cun Uin Fie vnee + Colo + CU, +...» Cyn
and determining the coefficient c in the simplest form, so that « =rh shall
make c.,= 1 and all the rest vanish.* _
The actual formule are best expressed in a notation similar to that
originally given by Newton and Stirling, namely, for the case symmetrical
to an ordinate, in which the differences run, -
Aw_; A3y_» Abu_s
Uy Aty_, A4u_o ASiye Sheba laa
Au, A3u_) A®u_»
write B = 5 (Au_, + Au)
1 .
C aa, (A8u_, + Alu_r)
oi $ (A®u_s Ee A5u_.) &e.
and @ = u,b = A2u_;, c= At. uy &e.
so that C= BZ, D= CZ = BZ?
and b= aZ,c=bZ=aZ? &. Then
* See a paper by the author in the Messenger of Mathematics, vol. iv. p. 110.
Another proof is given by Professor Emory McClintock, of Milwaukee, in the
American Journal of Mathematics, pure and applied, vol. ii.
1880. AA
354 ‘ REPORT—1880.
te = a + ( Be + 5 be’)
2
+ (20x + 5 ex®) x 3.4 |
1 2 eg? —1 gy? — 4
+ (3Dz + 3 de") x Sta ab
| A w—1 a—4 oo? —9
+ (5Ee + 5 en) x S-. S ‘7B + &e.
the common interval being supposed unity. If the interval is other than
unity, say h, the formula must be rendered homogeneous by the substitu-
tion of « : h for a. :
For the formula symmetrical to an interval, the differences run
Uy eeee A?u_» ceee Atu_s oeee
Bis, . phwe AB g Caw en MPa dues
TAL os ae SS pala «Pa
1
Then writing A’ = 9 (uy + Uo)
13 a (A?u_. + A*u_;)
es $ (A‘u_s + Atlus) &e.
and a! = Au_,, -b’ = A®u,», c’ = Aus; &e.
there is the same relation as before between the successive letters, and the
formula is
U, = (A! + a/v)
(ahh, oe
+ (3B’ + b'z) ii
, pes 4a? — 1 4g? — 9
+(0'4ee) Sot Be
1 apart — 1 4a2®— 9 Aak—25') og
1 ED aa hey aes ee
Making w = 0 in this gives the well-known formula of bisection by sym-
metrical differences, yiz.,
—— babe ea 1459 1 ae 1:9. 25 "D—! &
ly aN — 76? ag EB GID Tale) 8, 10
= ale ye Tee 5 /
=A 3B + jog 1094) f+ ecccee
Formule for quadratures by these symmetrical differences may be at
once obtained by integrating Newton’s formule between + limits, in
which case the terms involving odd powers of « disappear on integration,
leaving only the even differences in the formula symmetrical to an
ordinate, and the even mean-differences in the formula symmetrical to an
interval. The interval between the ordinates is assumed to be unity.
if
Hence if there are » + 1 ordinates the limits will be = 3 (n+1), and
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 355
not simply 0 to 1 or + e unless the formula be first duly transformed,
Proceeding in this way the following formule are obtained.*
Number of
Ordinates Expression for the Area +
3
6 fat sbt ie + gah
8 86 92 989
a {oats Be ¢ + i892 + 99370 °
175 3445 , . 4045. 16067
1
oa ees {a a+ 2b + yee + d + oo79 ° + sara t
1512
ie 158 1833 4813
12 {a ot 4 18, ES Fr pal SST + 37550
1364651
+ 6306300 9
A similar set of formule may be obtained, symmetrical to an interval,
and in terms of A’, B’ &c.; but the coefficients, as well as the form of
the series, are more complicated, and the accuracy somewhat less, on the
parabolic hypothesis, than the corresponding rule of the other series.
The first rule in this set is the common polygonal rule ; the next is got by
5, and is
area = 3 (“ + t B’)
integrating from — 3 to +
which is equivalent to Cotes’s rule of four ordinates.
These rules may also be cbtained by the direct substitution of sym-
metrical differences for the ordinates in Cotes’s rules, with which they
are of course identical, except in form.
The application of symmetrical differences to quadratures may also
be made to depend upon the formula :
c ® dan — { tog a + A) be
* See Stirling, Meth. Diff. p. 148. In the formule for 9, 11, and 13 ordinates,
Stirling simplifies the numerical coefficient of the final term, just as he has done in
the table of corrections for Cotes’s rules, apparently for easier use. The practice is
not a satisfactory one, as it prevents verification, and saves but little work.
+ In the above formulz the interval between the ordinates is taken as unity. If
the whole base is taken as unity, the area is given hy omitting the numerical factor
outside the S \ The table has been independently computed, and compared with
Stirling’s table.
AAR
356 : REPORT—1880.
It is not, however, commonly used in this form for mere quadrature; but
the method is used in the calculation of tables in the form
Am he Feet = An { tog @! + Aye
and in most cases in practice, mis taken equal to . The algebraical
process consists in the development of the right-hand side of the last
equation in terms of
Z= =o A= Slt y/(Z44 2) «
1+A
log (1 + A) = log {l+5 Zt forint & nN
1 1 a bh
Sf ava & ) a
Z Mas 2 oo eee
Se ae tee 14 5B 9. HB VOT be }
Repfesenting the mth power of the series in{ py ;
14+ M,Z + M,Z? + M,Z? + M,Z + ai ecat elena ts ;
and restoring 4-(1 + A)-4in place of Z!
m Am+2 m+4
ATU +M, Nera Of M, Nise Sf
(+4)2° 2 (pay (U+.ay?™
which has to be interpreted.
Denote the successive values of u by....U,.. uP U,,U or wu, m4,
Uy, Ugy) wre are Uy, 1D Which w= ¢ (#) 4, == F (@ + nh), U rn=o (@— mh).
Then the aaale of relation is
U7 ~ aye te + Ayu TE ty pore(e+s ie 1) be also denoted
by V or v, it gives rise to a parallel scale, WioritoM ry ; OF V, Vj) Vo 20» Uns
with the same relation between its successive terms, and for its connect-
ing relation with the other scale, V, = (1 +A 2 We
If m be even (= 2m), direct substitution gives
{ tog (ick, a) ny = AMT, + M, A”+2U,,, + MA”HUp) fees eee
If m be odd (= 2n + 1),
{ log (1+ 4) ba = AHY, + MAmV, 5 + MA" V5 +.
The values of the coefficients are as follows :—
Mh Sea MS amps” + 22):
My = = 5 = yay (85m? + 462m + 1528),
My = gig gp Tgp (1753 + 4520u? 4+ 40724 + 119856);
ON QUADRAJURES AND INTERPOLATION. 357
and by giving m any positive or negative value, the series for any diffe-
rential*coefficient or integral may be at once found.
In practice, however, there is frequently a difficulty in using the
series, where m-is odd, from the values of V, V,, V., &c., not being
obtainable without a distinct interpolation, where the values of U, Uj,
U,, Uz, &c., only are given. When m is even, the converse may be the
case.» -«This-may be obviated by using mean differences, as follows:
2
Making Z = i + a3 before, i
2 1 hit jee.” Pete 5 Ze |
——_ = A)7-z4 L— = aint iene ahey a. eh
gear + yf ma ee a 6 oe I
Combining this with the previous expressions, we get
2 { 10 el + ay} Qny A2 U +N A2nt2 U
— o SS SSS n et n
24al ° V1+A i Een
A2nt4
N, STs im, Uaea + Leds ae
— AV iy + Bs paar eras + NjAv HVS SBN ie San ey A
Now, since (2 + A)V, = V, + V,-1,
log (1 + A) Van = $ (PV = A*V,) +4 N, (A2"2V 45
$A? PV ns) ote > N,(A*"*4V 43 ae Am+4V7 5) + eae 43 STs sl a He 3
and similarly, when m is odd,
{ log e! a4 ay pone = FO ues + A22+ 1G.) <b 2. N, (A130 g
+ AM4U,,,) +5 N,(A*5U 45 + AM*50 04) boccec es
The values of the coefficients N are as follows :—
1 1
N, => — a4 (m + 3), N, => oT. 32.5 (5m? + 52m + 135),
1
N;=—- g034. 8.7 Wan + 777m? + 5749m + 14175),
N, E By (175m4 + 5720m3 + 96794? + 619776m
7 BS 788.5.
a + 1488375).
Remember that the sum of two successive differences is the difference
of alternate numbers in the preceding column.
The formule most frequently occurring in practice are, for integrals,*
I ni ny Dy OLE
ae. afute=s (u +m) rn) GD; + Au) + 790 (A‘U, + A‘U))
e. -
* The higher coefficients cannot be relied upon for accuracy. They were calcu-
lated, with some care, many years ago; but they are not of much practical use, and
have not been satisfactorily verified,
358 REPORT—1880,
191 119981
~ B10. a8 AUS + ACU») + srg799 gn APUs + APUs) =e
1 1 17 367 27859
SN lime APY Lt Gone SO Din oy a eeesOps ix.
h sf V toa YY 5769 V5 * 190m “°V5 > S6700 28
1295803 Alo 15183675231
ASV, + ALY @ she siete auth
1871100 . 216 > 7662154500 . 220
LOY Gee a pa ean Vey obsess ner =
jet fda =" ig op Ut dean ovens
289
L291. ti poping sting
56700 .o8 Us +
Most of Legendre’s tables of definite integrals were computed by the
second or third of these formule, His great table of elliptic functions
was calculated by the second.
For differential coefficients
du...1 1 1
erie 5 (AU, + Au) — a (A8U, + A3U)) +65 (AU; + A*U))
ss Acta
280
uf
=> AY, + 3, 23 A8V, =F
CAD VALU a) Aciagis ois « sesh se uheve otnid bia
3 4
5.g7 Vs — 2a
35
+9. 915 AQV = SEL
If #» =0 in the N formula, it becomes
i =4 Wet a's ee a (A°V, + A°V,) +2. (A‘V, + A‘V2)
98
a
7 gil
(A°V, + A°V,) +53 (PV, + AV) meee
a well-known formula of bisection,
Some obvious transformations will enable corresponding formule to
be obtained for A" "dz" where m and x are different.*
It is to be observed that the formula for integration above given is
not _fruse, but G A fds which is a different thing. rtf udz itself be
required, it must be obtained by summation.
A very compendious method of interpolating tables by means of
bisection is derivable from the ordinary formula of bisection, by affecting
it with A. Thus, stopping at the first term, namely, vw = 5M + V)
Aw= 5 (AN, + AV)
= AV, +54°Vi
SAV —5atV.
* See Woolhouse on ‘ Interpolation, Summation, &c.’ in the Asswrance Magazine,
vol, Xi, p. 301 et seg. for some interesting transformations of these theorems,
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 359
Tf the second difference is small, the correction for the alternate difference
is very easy. A particular case of this formula was suggested by Sir
John Leslie * for continuing either Briggs’ or Vlacq’s logarithm tables.
For the difference between the logarithms of (say 11000 and 11002 is the
same as between those of 5500 and 5501, and the formula given above
enables us to find from it the difference between the logarithms of 10099
and 11001, and so on, so that the odd series can thus be quickly calculated,
and the extension of the table to double its former range effected with
very little more than mere copying. ‘Mere copying,’ however, when
applied to an extensive table of logarithms, is so laborious, and such
a fruitful source of error, that this application of the method has never
been made. Nevertheless, it is a very convenient process for interpolating
tables of physical or other observations, where the second difference is not
very considerable.
Section 8.— Definite or Tabula Interpolation.
The problem of definite or tabular interpolation is this: given a table,
or a set of differences, corresponding to a given equal interval; to con-
struct from it a table corresponding to some other equal interval, usually
a sub-multiple of the former. For example, suppose a function to be
tabulated (or given by differences) for every ten minutes, and that it is
required to find the means of tabulating it to every minute ; it would be
possible to interpolate separately to every intermediate value; but this
would be unreasonably laborious, and what is usually needed is to find a
set of differences corresponding to the reduced interval, from which the
table may be set up, either by arithmetical summation, or by a difference
engine.
Let A be the symbol of differencing for the wider interval, and 6 for
the smaller interval, and let
BK=1+A,e=1+d
then the fundamental relation between the two scales is EH = e”, and the
analytical problem is simply to express a selected function of e in terms
either of H, or of a selected system of functions of it. The equation
E = e” arises simply from a comparison of the original and interpolated
series, namely,
Oripmial heriba "Uy ss te + Opie’ ened e wee Une bh a sf
interpolated series, vg Uy, Uy 6 Um—y Um Unt) Unto + + © Uom—1 Vam 2 eee
Where Uy = Uo) E Uo = U, = Loe 7 ey,
EU, = EU, =U, = Us, = ep, =? Uo, &e.
All the remainder of the work consists, firstly, of algebraical trans-
formation; and, secondly, of the actual arithmetic. The kind of
transformation needed turns, firstly, upon how the E’s are expressed ;
secondly, upon how it is desired to express the e’s. Thus the H’s may be
expressed either by a mere tabulated series Up, U,,U,, Uz .... -, that
is, by powers of E; or by Up and its ordinary differences, that is, by:
ascending powers of A or H—1; or again by symmetrical differences,
that is, by powers of Z = A?: (1 + A); or even by ascending differences,
that is to say, by powers of A: (1 + A). So it may be desired to express
the interpolation by powers of e, of d or e— I, of z= d®: (1+ d) or of
* See the article ‘ Logarithms,’ in the recent editions of the Hncycl. Britannica.
The article originally appeared in the supplement to the fourth edition.
360 P REPORT—1 880.
d:(1 + d), and in any case the problem is simply the analytical expression
of any such function of e in terms of the selected function of HK. The
assumption, that U, and wu should coincide, is not a necessary one.
The only effect of their not coinciding is to substitute the equation
kK” = et” for the simpler form E” = e””,
An exposition of the application of this method to symmetrical
differences appears to have been first given by Henry Briggs in his Arith-
metica Logarithmica, published in 1824. But it appears from his preface
that the tables of sines, afterwards published by Gellibrand in the Tri-
gonometria Britannica, had been calculated by Briggs, by a more or less
complete application of these rules, twenty years earlier.* His exposition
is, however, not very well suited to modern use, being rather too much
specialised, with a view of suiting his own work. A more general
exposition of the method is given by Roger Cotes in his Canonotechnia,
sive constructio tabularum per differentias.t This, besides general rules,
contains the tabulated coefficients for the bisection, trisection, and quin-
quisection of the interval. It does not appear that the subject was
resumed until recently, when Mr. Woolhouse gave both tables and
formule for the division of the interval by 5 and by 10.t
According to Lacroix, the method of tabular interpolation for ordinary
differences was first published by Mouton, to whom it was given by his
friend Regnaud, in 1670, and afterwards reduced to a general formula by
Lagrange and Prony. The method is as follows. Let ugu,wy....-.
be a series of numbers, of which the fourth difference may be neglected,
and snppose that it is desired to obtain the differences for interpolating
two numbers between each. Let the required differences be b, c, d, the
original differences being represented in the usual way by Au, Ayu, &e. .
Then, if the interpolated series 2%, %) + b, uy + 2b +c, &c. be formed, and
the terms representing 2) u, &c. be picked out, they give
Uy = Ug
U; =U +96 +3c+d
Us = Uy + 6b + ldc + 20d
Uz = Up + 9b + 36c + 84d
and differencing these,
Au, = 3b + 38¢+d
A?u,) = 9c + 18d
er aN oly Ayan Dd eee es
solving these as a set of simultaneous equations,
= 5 Au — : Aru) + a Au
i ; Aug — - A3ug
ihe a Adu, §
* Brigts’s words are ‘Nam Differentic, que ante annos viginti mihi maximo usui
fuerunt in novo canone sinuum condendo, in horum Logarithmorum caleculo sunt
mihi multo melius perspecte et cognite.’ An explanation and proof of Briggs’s
method of quinquisection are given by Legendre in the Connaissance des Temps for
1817, p. 219. ;
¢ Published in the same volume with the Harmonia Mensurarwm, by R. Smith,
Cambridge, 1722.
t Vide op. cit. part ii. Also Assurance Magazine, vol. xi, p. 61 et seq.
§ For the general formula see Lacroix, Traité de Calcul. vol. iii. p. 43.
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 361
The tables given by Cotes and Woolhouse for symmetrical differences
appear to have been formed upon the same principle.
A question of some interest in the interpolation of tables, in which the
number tabulated is only approxiniately’cdrrect, is whether it is preferable
to apply proportional parts to the true calculated difference of the
function, or to the actual tabular difference. Thus in the seven-figure
logarithms
log 66310 = 48215790
log 66311 = 4°8215856
the tabular difference is 66, while the correct difference as obtained from
Vega’s ten-figure table is 65494, which, to seven figures, is only 65, The
question is, whether it is better to use 65 or 66 for finding the proportional
parts. By a comparison of the extreme cases, M. Lefort * has shown that
so long as the tabular difference (that is to say, the difference actually
found between the numbers as given in the table) is used, the last figure
in the interpolated result cannot be in error by more than unity ; while
if the true calculated difference, cut down to the nearest figure, be used,
the last figure may be in error by more than unity. It follows that the
actual difference of the table, and not the mean difference given in some
tables (such as Hutton and Callet), should be used for the interpolation.
Section 9.—Interpolation of Double Entry Tables, or Functions of two or more
cians Variables,
The problem of the interpolation of functions of two variables presents
but few difficulties beyond those of interpolation of functions of a single
variable, excepting what is due,to the increased complexity of the process.
This renders many of the special artifices practically unmanageable,
although the very fact of the complexity increases the importance of
simplifying the actual work. Nevertheless, it is better on the whole, in
processes which are not of frequent use, to encounter deliberately a little
excess of arithmetical labour, rather than to risk the chances of error from
want of analytical simplicity and perspicuity. If any one process should
be often wanted, those who need it may be left to invent the special
machinery.
The general theorem of interpolation for double entry is expressed in
the two formal identities.
Uy, =f (zy)
tay = (1+ A)*(L +8)" to 0
in which A refers to variation with regard to a, on the supposition that 7
is constant, and 6 refers to variation with regard to y, on the supposition
that x is constant.
In general it is usual to give equal weight to the two variations, that
is to say, that if it is proposed to neglect terms of the order p, then all
terms of the form A” 6", where m + » =p, are to be discarded, whatever
may be the separate values (always supposed positive) of mandn. The
terms of the expansion would thus be grouped as
Uxy = U9 0
+ (tA +y8) uo0
* See the Proceedings of the Royal Soc. of Edinburgh, vol. viii. (1875), p. 610.
362 : REPORT—1880.
+ 5 (a2 A? + Say Ad + 9" 67) uo 0
+. je So, 94.48, orje it
But this supposition is entirely arbitrary, and not even justifiable if it
happens to be known that. the second and higher differences are con-
siderably greater in one direction than in the other. This, and the remedy
for it, are only to be ascertained by a special study of the function.
Tn accordance with common practice, the direct expansion by ordinary
differences has been used; but there is no motive for this except con-
venience and simplicity. Subject to the difficulties of interpretation and
handling which they introduce, any form of the expansion
Uy = (1 + A)” (1 + A)" ut 9 = E* EF’ uy 9
will answer the purpose. There are even cases in which it would be
desirable to form an interpolated table for the given value of one variable
on the supposition that the other is constant, and then to interpolate
that as a single entry table.
Thus, supposing that going along a line in the table represents the
variation of y, and going down a column represents the variation of 2,
then the whole column corresponding to a particular value of y might be
interpolated, value by value, so as to give the series arranged in
colunun
Udy Uy Uo, Ugy 2 ee ee ee
and then interpolation to w,,, might be effected by single entry; or the
process might be reversed, and the line
Uno Ux} U;9 Un3 @ 0:0! 0. 0, 0
formed first, and then w,,, by single entry interpolation.
It is worth while to remark that the interpolation may occasionally
be reduced to single entry interpolation along a diagonal line. This is
always the case in bisection; but it is by no means confined to that
case.
The inverse problem of interpolation is in general of a higher order of
indeterminateness, unless some other data are given than the mere value
of the ordinate. _ For if the two variables be regarded as horizontal, and
the function as representing a vertical ordinate, then the ordinate being
given in value, merely furnishes a locus, namely, a level line. So if one
of the variables be given, a special table may be formed for that value of
the variable, and then the inverse interpolation is an operation of single
entry. . But if, instead of this, some equation be given between # and y,
the problem falls out of the province of direct synthesis, unless the
relation between « and y be that they are in a constant ratio. The
analogy is of course that of the representation of a surface in geometry of
three dimensions, and that analogy is really the key to the question.
An example of the interpolation of a double entry table as far as
third differences is given by Legendre.*
Quadrature in two dimensions is really equivalent to the evaluation of
solid volume. The two quadratures may be effected either separately,
or by the methods indicated in Section IV, 4, of this report.
Another problem arising out of a double entry table is that of inter-
* Traité des Fonetions Elliptiques, vol. ii. p. 201 (cap. xv-)
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 363
polation to the direction of a normal line or tangent plane. This, in the
ordinary language of partial differential coefficients, is the evaluation of
Vere)
The first thing is to find p and qg by the methods for interpolation, of
ordinates (IV, 6) and then to form the. radical. _Graphical methods are,
however, generally the most convenient for this. The integration of this
radical in two dimensions gives the surface. For an example of this
particular form of interpolation combined with quadrature, see Scott
Russell’s ‘ Modern Naval Architecture,’ and the ‘Transactions of the
Institution of Naval Architects,’ vol. vi. for 1865, p. 64.
Tables of treble (or higher multiples) entry are of course confined
within very narrow limits. Their interpolation calls for no special re-
mark, unless it be that the indeterminateness, as well as the complexity,
increases with every additional dimension. This remark is true, as a
separate consideration, ‘firstly with regard to the general indeterminate-
ness of all interpolation, and secondly with regard to the indeterminateness
of the inverse processes, with reference to the possibility of more roots
than one, and to the requirement of more data than the ordinate.*
‘V.— INTERPOLATION AND QUADRATURE WITH ORDINATES NOT EQUIDISTANT.
Section 1.—Nenton’s method.
The principal theorem of interpolation when the distances between the
ordinates are arbitrary instead of equidistant, is given by Newton, in his
‘*Principia,’} under this title, ‘Invenire lineam curvam generis parabolici
que per data quotcumque puncta transibit.’ It consists of a method of
divided differences, and Newton uses it in a form which is, as exactly as
may be, the counterpart of that which he uses when the ordinates are
equidistant. It is not thought necessary to reproduce it here, as the
reference to it is very easy.f
Professor Emory McClintock, of Milwaukee, has given § a modifica-
tion of Newton’s formula, which lends itself better to logarithmic com-
putation. The terms being $a, or $%,, $%2 Or $p%g, and. so forth, the
general term of his divided differences is
m &n — Pm tp
Dm41 cL, = $ 4 $ a
®, — Unt)
which gives, on multiplying up,
On vy, = Dm Gmn+1 a (#,, ey nit) Pm-+1- Bye
Giving m the values 0, 1, 2, &c. in succession, and substituting suc-
cessively, we get
Po Un = bo % + (@, — 1) $1 2 + (a, — 2) (@, — 22) bo 3
+ (%, — 2) (a, — @o) (2%, — #3) o3 %4 + ceoee ee
* See on this G. Darwin, on ‘Fallible measures of variable quantities,’ Zondon,
Edin. and Dublin Philos. Mag. for July, 1877. See also Lacroix, Jraité de Calcul,
vol. iii. p. 44 e¢ seg. (arts. 913 et seq).
Tt Book iii. Prop. xl. Lemma V. case 2; see also his Methodus Differentialis, Prop. iv.
t See also De Morgan, Caleulus, p. 550; Lacroix, Traité de Calcul, vol. iii. p. 31,
et seqg.—or page 552 of the Cambridge translation. See also Stirling, ZInterpolatio
Serierwm, Prop. xxix., and Hall, ‘ Finite Differences,’ Zncycl. Metrop. p. 249.
§ See the American Jowrnal of Mathematics, pure and applied, vol. ii. pp. 307-314,
364 t REPORT—1880.
which, if a' fractional value be given to n, becomes a formula of inter-
polation.
Section 2.—Lagirange’s method.
Lagrange’s theorem of interpolation, although identical in its results
with Newton’s, is in a form analogous rather to the case of ordinates not
differenced, than to the use of differences, which is the analogy followed
by Newton. As is well known, it depends upon
cia 2#G1) (BissBa) a saeteesinn (w— a)
(apo — 4) (9 — Ga) «wee, (a — a,)
becoming unity for « = a, and vanishing when @ is equated to any other
of the quantities a, a,a3....4,. Then interchanging ay with a, a, &e.
in succession, so as to obtain a series of quantities Ky X, X, . . . X,, the
formula of interpolation is
Ug == Koy Up. Ky Uy + Ko tg ia.e «yee + Xiu,
The proof consists in the observation that since X, = 1, and all the other
Xs vanish when a = a, it leaves uv, = u, as it ought todo. Although this
formula usually bears Lagrange’s name, it is said to be really due to
Euler. The chief advantage of it over Newton’s method is, that the co-
efficients are in a form adapted to logarithmic computation.
The differential coefficients of w, with regard to x may be obtained by
actually differentiating the resulting formula, either in Newton’s or in
Lagrange’s method. But they may also be obtained, as in the common
theory of equations, by an obvious application of Maclaurin’s theorem.*
The quadrature can also be effected, as was pointed out by Newton,
by the application of the ordinary methods for the measurement of an
area of parabolic form. It does not appear that the details have as yet
received much attention, but it is evident that the final formula of either
Newton or Lagrange may be integrated between limits, by direct integ-
ration, and that the result of the integration may be expressed in terms of
the intervals and ordinates, either by direct substitution, or by the help of
indeterminate coefficients. Judging from the form in which Laplace has
placed the differential coefficients, it is probable that some interesting
results would be obtained by such an investigation ; but these results
would be likely to be more interesting as a matter of form, than useful as
a matter of arithmetic.
Section 3.—Gauss’s Method of Quadrature.
This method is of high analytical interest, as connecting the theory of
interpolation with what are known indifferently as Spherical Harmonics,
or as Lagrange’s or Laplace’s functions. It is also useful and in-
teresting from the point of view of their inventor, in making the best
possible use of a small number of ordinates, when the function subjected
to this mode’ of ‘quadrature is capable of exact expression in a parabolic
form. If this last condition be not assured, its arithmetical value also
becomes in a like degree uncertain. It has assuredly never been proved that.
there is any general advantage in adapting the rules, indicated by the
parabolic theory as the most exact, to cases which are not known to fall
strictly within that theory.
* See Boole’s Finite Differences, 2nd edit. p. 41.
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 365
Gauss’s proposal is to select the abscissw in such a manner that the
error of a quadrature, obtained by means of 1 selected ordinates, shall
disappear in the application of this quadrature to any rational function
not exceeding the degree of 2n—1. For this purpose, supposing the limits of
integration to be + ; the abscissee are the 7 roots of the equation
del cade
7 Ga laa
which are the halves of the roots obtained by equating to zero the co-
efficients of Legendre.* Thus the multipliers for quadrature are easily
obtained by substitution or by indeterminate coefficients. The roots of
the sets up to » = 5 can be obtained as quadratic surds, and, with the co-
efficients, are as follows:
n=l, #2#=—0,¢,=1
arsatt | 1
nm=2, oe = —,¢, = Cy =5
12
7, =o, fous ora = 0
20
oy = em oy ¥ 80
ey ey= E+ cy 30
pean 2 = 55 (8) £2 / 70) or 2 =
: wg ot 822. = 13 V 70
Snes 1800
18 we BIDAR TB ES 70.
far ae 1800
co = 2 +
Sere LADO) tee
Section 4.—Other Methods and Suppositions,
For some extensions of Gauss’s method, and for some particular forms
* See Legendre, Fonctions Elliptiques, vol. ii. p. 531; Todhunter on the Functions of
Laplace, Sc., chapter x.; Boole, Finite Differences, 2nd edit. p. 51, (ch, iii, art 12);
Bertrand, Caleul Intégral, p. 339. Gauss’s own memoir is Methodus nova integralium
valores per approximationem inveniendi. Géttingen—Comm, III. [1814] Wow. Ann.
Math. xv. (1856).
+ The numerical values of these and of some of their logarithms are given by
Gauss, Bertrand, and Todhunter in the works already quoted. The limits of error
are also fully discussed by the two latter. But an attentive perusal of Bertrand’s
reasoning will show that the limit of error depends upon the convergency of the
parabolic expression of the function, and cannot be relied upon where this is not
secured,
366 REPORT—1880,
of the other theorems of interpolation, the reader is referred to Mr.
Moulton’s notes to ch. iii. of Boole’s ‘Finite Differences,’ second edition, and
to the examples of the same chapter. The extensions of Gauss’s method
are of too special application to need exposition here, especially con-
sidering their very doubtful utility in dealing with actual, as distinguished
from analytical, data.
It is important to observe that both Newton’s and Cotes’s methods
admit of a far wider generalisation of form. The parabolic character of
the assumption usually made, that the function subjected to interpolation
or quadrature is either a rational integral function of the variable, or a
convergent series, is not by any means necessary. On the contrary, the
very form of Lagrange’s expression shows that it is permissible to sub-
stitute for the simple factors, functions of those factors arbitrarily chosen,
with only such restriction as to form as is needed to prevent the formula
becoming confused or nugatory.* This is merely another way of stating
the essentially indeterminate character of interpolation. If has to be
shown, as a prior condition of the use of any such specialised formula,
that there is good reason for applying it, aud that its results are reliable.
The reason for generally selecting the ordinary methods turns upon the
two principles, that a, function can be approximately represented by a
convergent rational series, and that the approximation can be made as
great as we please by taking the intervals sufficiently small. It has already
been pointed out that these principles are not universally true, and, as
particular cases, that they are not so when there is either physical dis-
continuity, or discontinuity within the meaning given to it in the proofs
of Taylor’s theorem, Anexamination into the questions corresponding to
these is needed in using any such functional substitute for the simple
factors of the parabolic assumption, in order to render the method safe
and complete. There are doubtless many cases in which this may be
practically neglected. In those cases there may bea doubt as to the
necessity for any such refinement at all, except as a mere matter of
selecting the proper function for interpolation,} and indeed the complete
investigation frequently amounts, in the end, to nothing more than doing
this. It even sometimes brings back the question to the determination
of an analytical expression which shall adequately represent the table or
series of observations. A very remarkable instance of this is the repre-
sentation, due to the late Benjamin Gompertz,t of the decrements of
life by means of a double exponential function. The equivalent
physical assumption is that the stock of vital force undergoes a weakening
proportional to the time, and this assumption, not improbable in itself,
is found, with a suitable determination of the parameters in each case, to
represent, with a high degree of accuracy, all the best life-tables, through
* This may very well happen if very general forms are incautiously subjected to
special interpretation, or if special forms are incautiously generalised, g- ox is a
well-known example of this trap for the unwary.
} Cf. Stirling, Methodus Diff. p. 88, ‘Nam interpolatio non est temere suscipienda,
sed ante exordium operis inquirendum est quenam sit Series simplicissima, ex cujus
intercalatione pendet ea seriei proposite. Atque hec preparatio est magna ex parte
omnino necessaria, ut deveniamus ad conclusiones concinnas et elegantes.’
{ The formula is dy =— abv y dx, where y is the number living at the end of #
years. See Gompertz ‘On the nature of the Function expressive of the law of
Human Mortality,’ Philos. Trans, 1825, p. 613. See also another paper by the same
author, Phil. Trans. 1862, p. 571. See also the article < Mortality ’ in the Penny
Cyclopedia and in the English Cyclopedia (Arts and Sciences). :
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. . 367
a very considerable portion of their range. Nevertheless its insufficiency
is shown by its being impossible to apply the rule to the whole range of
the observed life-table (including infant and senile life), without either
losing accuracy, or introducing a discontinuous change into the para-
meters. Investigations of this description, however, belong rather to
analysis’ than to mere interpolation. Their importance can hardly be
overrated, especially when functions involving more than one parameter
have to be considered ; for tables of double entry are very cumbrous,
and to go beyond that is practically impossible. Hence the importance
of Gompertz’s formula, and the corresponding importance of those of
Jacobi’s investigations* which have rendered it possible to reduce the
evaluation of elliptic functions, primarily depending upon three variable
quantities, to a combination of results obtained from interpolating double-
entry tables. It seemed advisable to point out the bearing of these
considerations upon the subject of interpolation, although their detailed
exposition lies outside the scope of this report.
VI.—INTERPOLATION AND QUADRATURE FOR UNCERTAIN VALUES.
When a number of observations of a phenomenon, which can yield but
a single numerical value, have to be compared, the ordinary theory of the
errors of observation furnishes the most probable numerical amount of
that value, or of any given function of that value ; and this whether the
observations be all equally good, or have definite numerical weights
attached to each. A further refinement has been introduced by attaching
weights themselves derived from the departure of the individual observa-
tions from the first mean. This is a perfectly definite process, and the
only remark which needs to be made upon it here is, that the most
probable value of a given function of the result is not the same thing as
the given function of the most probable value of the result.
When an unknown curve is only known by a number of points, each
determined subject to some unknown but appreciable error, the problem of
finding the curve is absolutely indeterminate, unless some assumption be
made as to the nature of the curve. This will be best seen by taking an
easy problem, in which the indeterminateness is removed by a simple
supposition, Let us assume that a right line has been observed, and is
to be plotted by means of a set of equidistant ordinates, but that upon
setting them off, the heads are not in a right line. It is then a perfectly
definite problem to find a right line such that the squares of the distances
of the points from it shall be a minimum, and in accordance with the
fundamental principle of the ordinary theory, we shall find the same right
line in whatever uniform direction we measure the distances. But the
assumption that the line through the observed points is a right line, is
exactly what we want to avoid in the general problem. On the other
hand, when points of a curve are definitely given, we may make the curve
determinate by assuming that its continuity is of the highest order
possible. In its simplest form this is effected by assuming the curve to
have a parabolic equation ; but this is not essential, and we may settle it
by circular curvature instead of by parabolic order. But whatever law
* See Legendre, Traité des Fonctions Elliptiques, vol. iii. pp. 141-2 (2nd supp.
art 171); also Jacobi, Fundamenta nova Theorie Lunctionum Ellipticarum, pp. 139,
140,
368 ‘ REPORT—1880.
of facility we take for the nature of the curve connecting the points, that
is evidently independent of the law by which the points are assumed,
aud there is no law connecting the two systems of probability. Any
attempt to attain determinateness is therefore of necessity futile.
This indeterminateness is experienced in practice as well as indicated
by theory. One of the commonest. modes of ‘fairing’ a curve through
given points is by using a flexible batten, or spline, which is pinned down
by lead weights to the points through which the curve is to be drawn, and
the pen is then drawn along the batten. Now, in practice, it is found
impossible to use similar battens for all curves. The batten has to be
weakest where the curvature is the greatest, and it is a matter of taste
and discrimination to select a batten with the proper taper, and to use it
discreetly, so as to get a reasonable and presentable result. The use of
moulds or curved patterns is still more a matter of eye. :
In the case of a curved surface such as that of a ship, the problem is
rendered somewhat more determinate by the consideration that all the
sections, and all their projections, must be fair curves. The two sets of
vertical sections, and the water sections, thus correct one another, and it
is not an uncommon thing to complete the ‘fairing’ by means of diagonal
lines. Another mode, nearly equivalent, is to make a model, and to
work it until it is not only quite smooth, but until, when it is held up in
every possible light, the shadows fall evenly and fairly upon it. This
is quite as severe a test as the drawing. Nevertheless, in either case the
adjustment is not a matter of rule, but of taste and judgment. Apart
from the mechanical skill necessary to produce such work, there are many
people whose perceptions are not sufficiently delicate to appreciate or
test it.
While the problem is thus really and intrinsically indeterminate, all
the solutions being strictly secundum quid, instead of being general, the
difficulty is by no means beyond the reach of practical skill in the most
useful cases. A comparatively small number of sections in two dimensions
will enable two experienced draughtsmen to produce a couple of ships
which shall differ very little in size or shape when they come to be
built.
It may be worth while to repeat that the indeterminateness really
turns upon the want of any arithmetical comparison between two inde-
pendent systems of variation of error, or of any analytical means of com-
bining them so as to give a single determinate result.*
* On this subject see Mr. G. H. Darwin on ‘Graphical Interpolation and
Integration,’ Messenger of Mathematics, January 1877, p. 134, and the same author
on ‘Fallible Measures of Variable Quantities,’ Philos. Mag. for July 1877. In the
former paper Mr. Darwin gives a simple proof that the use of the trapezoidal rule
gives a less probable error for the area of a curve, when the ordinates are taken as
having each the same possible numerical error, than is given by the higher parabolic
rules. The arbitrariness of this assumption as to the law of error should not pass
unnoticed.
See also a paper by Mr. Eckart in the Transactions of the Institution of Naval
Architects, vol. xiii. (1872) p. 318 and plate xv., for an example of a fair curve drawn
through a series of points whose positions require correction. See, further, a paper
by Dr. McAlister in the Quarterly Journal of Mathematics for this year (1880), on
the use of the Geometrical Mean for giving the most probable result. This is
equivalent to using the logarithms of the terms, instead of the actual terms, in the
equation of probability.
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 369
VII.—PERIOpICITY.
The ordinary assumption of interpolation is that there shall be no
periodicity in the function, and this assumption is involved in the
approximate equation virtually assigned to the curve being of parabolic
form. Any periodicity vitiates the accuracy of the result, and the
detection of this periodicity is necessary before any correction can be
applied, or any special methods adapted to the periodic character.
In observed results, rather long series are required before periodicity
can be detected, unless it can be independently inferred from analytical
or physical considerations. It is best detected by plotting a curve of
the function, and the process may be facilitated by first transforming
the function so as to deprive it of any very abrupt curvature. The
oscillation will then generally become visible, or may be made so by an
elliptic exaggeration of ordinates, taken nearly normal to the general
direction of the curve.
The arithmetical methods of detecting periodicity are mere trans-
formations of this geometrical principle. They are very difficult and
intricate pieces of work, especially when the periodicity is of high order
and small amplitude. Examples may be seen in the discussions of the
inequalities of the planetary systems in astronomical works, and, in a less
elaborate way, in the discussion of the various periodicities which have
been associated with the sun-spot period.* They also present themselves
in the discussion of tides ; but in these cases the probability of a period is
sufficiently evident to cause it to be looked for in the proper way.
When the period is once found, there is seldom much difficulty in
dealing with it, either for interpolation or for quadrature.
VIII.—Systrematic CoMPUTATION OF QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATIONS.
In all work connected with either interpolation or quadrature it is
necessary, both for convenience and correctness, to do the work in a
neat and well-arranged tabular form. The expression given in many
books for the parabolic quadrature, namely, ‘to the sum of the first and
last ordinates add four times the sum of all the even ordinates, and twice
the sum of all the other ordinates, and multiply the total by one-third of
the interval’ is not the form in which any practised computer would
think of working. The slight repetition of labour involved in the tabular
form is as nothing compared with the trouble and chance of error involved
in disturbing the regular order of the ordinates. Moreover, when moments
are required, as well as mere area, the tabular arrangement is a clear
gain of work. An example of the arrangement for obtaining the centre
of gravity of a curvilinear area is given below. The curve selected for
integration is y= 2 ./(« + 1) — 2, for the values 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 of a.
The result is that the area is 11:3568, and that the codrdinates of
the centre of gravity are
435586 a, 13-2840 4 42,
T13e78 = 28377, and Fs = 11096.
is See also Messrs. C. & F. Chambers ‘On the Mathematical Expression of Obser-
vations of Complex Periodical Phenomena,’ Phil. Trans. vol. 165 (for 1875) p. 361.
. BB
370 REPORT—1 880.
| y ty dx a pry dx yr Jyde
| 5 B H ;
Te eal d@iovhe & | ucla neck Stan chee | ae aera
S rt =: = BA ba | == a 3
P Boar s a Bralia| seal Tey gO hiettg
1 hoo 1 Loli 0 | 0 0: 1. LO 1
2 | 08984 | 4 33136 | 1 |. 3:3136 || 06862 | 4 | 27448 | 2
3 | 14641 | 2 | 2:99892 | 2 | 5:8564 || 21433 | 2 | 49866 | .3
ae a eae: 3 | 24m 4: 4 | 16 4
5 | 24721 | 2 | 49442 | 4 | 19-7768 || 61110 | 2 | 19-9290 | 5
6 | 28990 | 4 | 115960 | 5 | 57-9800 || 84042 | 4 | 33-6168 | 6
7 | 32915 | 1 | 32915 | 6. | 19-7490 || 10-8338 | 1 | 10-8338 | 7
Zh — "| "34-0735 | — [130-6758 = — | 7970407a=S
re — | % | 113578 | 4 | 435586 gh 2 | 13-2840 | —
Tf the interval is other than unity, account must be taken of it, multi-
plying the sum for fi dx by the interval, and the sums for fay dx and
fv dz by the square of the interval.*
When the integration has to take place in two dimensions, as in eal-
culating the displacement and mechanical centres of ships, a much greater
saving can be effected by systematic arrangement.
It is sometimes more convenient to compute the area of a curve from
the polar expression J — i 7?d6 ; but this needs no special remark.
or
The rectification of a curve is but a particular species of quadrature,
being either J / (du? + dy?) or f (sec .dv,) where ¢ is the angle between
the tangent and the axis of abscisse. Its arithmetical treatment presents
no special feature, unless it be that the secant of @ has to be obtained from
ordinates. This is fully treated of in Cap. IV. Sec. 6 of this report.
The quadrature of a curved surface by means of ordinates rests on
a similar principle, namely, on the quadrature of the double integral
sec @ dudy where # is the angle between the tangent plane, and the
“plane of the base (ay). The greater part of the work turns upon the
2 y\2
determination of sec ¢ = «f i 1+ e) _ (FZ) \. This done, the
dx dy.
* See some examples of integrations differently arranged for other purposes, in
various papers in the Zvansactions of the Institution of Naval Architects—especially
vol. ii. p. 163, vol. v. p. 9, vol. vi. p. 51. ae RY, :
+ For examples of a ‘displacement sheet’ see Shipbuilding, Theoretical and
Practical, by Napier, Rankine, Barnes, and Watts (Mackenzie) p. 46 ; and Theoretical
Naval Architecture, by Thearle (Collins) pp. 50-58 and Table I. Fora similar sheet
suited to the application of Woolley’s rule see Trans. I.N.A., vol. vill. p. 213. Many
other interesting examples of carefully arranged integration will be found scattered
throuvh the Trans. I.N.A. and treatises on naval architecture, such as Scott Russell’s,
and the works already quoted.
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 371
double integration is easily effected between the required limits, cither by
Woolley’s rule, or by any other method which may suit the case.*
It is of some consequence to conduct the work so that the degree of
accuracy may be as nearly as possible the same throughout. It is best to
follow the rule of using as nearly as possible the same number of signifi-
cant figures right through. Thus it is idle to use five or six figures for a
moment, and only two or three for the coordinate of the centre of gravity,
because either there are more than we want for the moment, or else there
are not enough if we require any further step to be taken from the value
so found for the centre of gravity. It is a common thing to see much
good work disfigured by want of attention to this. The rule above sug-
gested is not absolute ; but it is onghe whole the best to work from, except
in some special cases, which a little thought will easily discriminate.
It is scarcely necessary to enter into any detailed disquisition con-
cerning the application of arithmetic to interpolations. Probably too
much has already been written on the subject. With regard to inter-
polation in two dimensions, the reader may usefully consult Legendre,
Fonctions Elliptiques, vol. ii. cap. xv. pp. 201-207.
TX.—GrapuicaLt Mrrmops.
Of mere interpolation, there is no need to say anything here. Whew
once a function is represented by the ordinate of a curve, the interpolation
is effected at sight, whether the direct interpolation from the intermediate
-yalue of the variable, or the inverse operation of obtaining the value of
the variable corresponding to a given value of the ordinate. “In the same
way a parallel ruler will give us the means of interpolating direction, and.
of finding maxima and minima.
In the case of quadrature there is something to be said, although that
is very little more than the translation of the arithmetic into geometry.
The geometry is practically restricted to the simple parabolic rule, or to
the trapezoidal rule—the parabolas of higher order are of course unsuited
to graphical work. That they are so has already been shown to be a
matter of no great consequence.
The fundamental operation of quadrature is that of finding the ares
of a plane curve. It is convenient to reduce the construction to that of
finding the area included between a base line, two parallel ordinates at
right angles to the base, and a curved line forming a fourth side to the
figure. As has been already remarked, this curve must never be parallel
to an ordinate, nor should it have any abrupt curvatures.
If we work by the trapezoidal rule, we may divide the base into any
number of intervals; if by the parabolic (or Simpson’s) rule we must
take an even number of intervals ;—and in either case we draw ordinates
through the points of division. Taking the simpler rule first—which is
equivalent to assuming that the line joining the heads of two successive
ordinates is straight—the sum of the first and second ordinates is set off
on the second ordinate. This represents twice the area of the curve
between those ordinates, which doubled area is a strip equal to the length
so set off, and of the width of the interval between the ordinates. Twice
the area between the second and third ordinates is similarly represented.
* An example of one arrangement for this purpose was given by the author im
vol. vi. of the Trans. I._N.A. pp. 64-72, and also in Scott Russell's Naval Architecture,
pp. 135-138, It is a cumbrous process at best.
° BeBe
372 REPORT—1 880.
by their sum. This, added to the length previously laid off on the first
ordinate, gives the area up to the third ordinate, and is set off upon
that, and soon. ‘This gives the ordinates of a new curve,* which repre-
sents double the area of the first curve up to any given ordinate, original
or interpolated. The curve passes through the foot of the first ordinate,
because there is no area until that has been passed. If the curve is
inconveniently tall, it must be reduced by dividing all the ordinates in
the same ratio.
If the parabolic method is preferred, we divide the base into an even
number of intervals, and draw ordinates. Join the heads of all the odd
ordinates by right lines cutting the even ordinates (produced if necessary )
and divide the portion of the even ordinates included between the curve
and the chord into three equal parts. Then the distance from the base
to the point of division nearest the curve gives the area comprised between
the adjacent odd ordinates. That is to say, it is the length of a strip,
whose base is the double interval, and whose area is equal to that of the
corresponding curved area. The length thus obtained on the second
ordinate, is set off on the third: the length similarly obtained on the
fourth ordinate is added to that on the second, and the joint length laid
off on the fifth. We thus obtain ordinates for a curve of areas; only the
scale is one-fourth of what would be obtained by the previous process
applied to the same curve.
It is very important to keep an accurate account of the scale. This
is best written along each curve: thus
curve of lengths, one inch representing (say) 2 feet
curve of areas, one inch representing » 8 square feet
curve of volumes, one inch representing ,, 8 cubic feet
reduced curve of volumes, one inch = », 128 cubic feet.
The additions are best performed by setting off the lengths in suc-
cession on a straight-edged strip of paper. If only the total area is
required, the whole operation can be performed upon the strip.
If moments are required, the first thing is to construct a curve repre-
senting the moments of the ordinates. Start from the foot of the first
ordinate (whose moment about itself is zero), take the head of the second
ordinate, double the third, treble the fourth, and so on. Integrate the
curve thus obtained, and we get a curve of moments, any ordinates of
which represent the moment of the area of the original curve up to that
,ordinate—the moment being taken about the first ordinate.t The mo-
ment may, of course, be taken about any other ordinate; but the new
ordinates on one side of the selected ordinate must be set off below in-
stead of above the base. The scale may be reduced at the first operation
by taking the multipliers 0, n, 2n, 3n, 4n, &c., where n is a fraction,
instead of using 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, &e.
If the curve of areas be again integrated from the foremost end, the
complete integral represents the moment of the original curve about the
final ordinate. This is a consequence of the formula (easily obtained by
integrating by parts)
fy de= WE dx dx + fay dx
** See chapter vi. for some observations on the mode of drawing these curves.
+ The moments must be taken about an ordinate, not about the base. If moments
‘about the base are wanted, a fresh set of ordinates must be taken parallel to the
base.
ea.
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 373
The interval used in the graphical process is quite immaterial provided
careful account be kept of scale. It is impossible to pay too much atten-
tion to this point.
It is, of course, not necessary that the original ordinates should re-
present lengths. They may represent areas, in which case their curve of
areas will represent volumes; or they may represent pressures, in which
case, with a suitable interpretation of the interval, the areas will repre-
sent work; or, again, the integral of a curve of temperatures may
represent heat. Whether it actually does so, or not, depends upon what
is taken for the interval.
What all these processes effect is mere summation with suitable
coefficients. The processes of multiplication or division, except by a
small integer, are not conveniently performed in this way. So, although
we get out the moments graphically, we must have recourse to arith-
metical division, to find the position of the centres of gravity, or of
gyration, Similarly, if we want to set off the squares, or the cubes, of
the ordinates, we must use a table of squares or cubes, and set off from
that.
It is best to use printed or lithographed sheets divided into squares,
the interval being chosen with reference to the work to be done, In
English shipbuilding work, which is usually drawn on a scale of z-inch
to the foot, quarter-inch squares are the mest conyenient. There should
be a thicker rule at every fifth or tenth line, to prevent mistakes in
counting. Any sized square will do, only if the right size be chosen, it
saves, at least, one set of reductions. For mere quadratures, it is not
necessary that the lines should be exactly at right angles, but in cross-
measurements it is inconvenient to have the two diagonals measuring
different lengths.
The intersections of curves drawn to the same scale solve graphically
a number of equations, differential and other, which it would be difficult
to treat otherwise. There is no difficulty in changing the independent
variable. One of the simplest ways of doing this is by the interchange
of wand y, by taking a fresh set of ordinates at right angles to the old
ones. But as there is no restriction to rectangularity, and as we may
measure to an inclined or even a curvilinear base, it is obvious that the
range of transformation is very wide indeed, An example of the appli-
cation of this to the problem of rectilinear motion in a resisting medium
will be found in the ‘ Phil. Mag.’ for June, 1868, Neither of these points,
however, falls strictly within the scope of this report, and therefore it is
unnecessary to enlarge upon them,
As regards the accuracy of these graphical methods, the work in the
Royal School of Naval Architecture was generally done from drawings
on a scale of 3-inch to the foot. The displacement got out correctly in
two ways used generally to agree within about } percent. If it exceeded
2 per cent., it used to be regarded as evidence of a blunder, As regards
blunders, graphical processes have the advantage of making these appa-
rent by a corner in the curves,
Polar quadrature of an area.—It was pointed out to the author by the
late M. Normand of Havre, that the polar quadrature could be very
rapidly applied to finding the area of transverse section of a ship’s hold.
For this purpose the angles could be marked on a wooden quadrant held
vertically athwartships at the corner underneath a deck, and divided into
equal angular intervals, while a tape would pass from the centre of the
Sys nePoRT—1880.
quadrant to the opposite side or bottom of the ship and would be made
to cover one of the divisions. The observed length of this tape being 7,
the integral On 7d) would give the area. The work might be still
further shortened by graduating the tape according to 3 7? instead of by
equal divisions. There would then remain nothing but the quadrature.
This method might be conveniently applied geometrically in the case
of curves having two axes of symmetry, like the ellipse, to which parabolic
quadrature is not applicable. This is, however, only one of a very great
number of the possible transformations of the independent variable.
Length of « curve-—Draw a chord between its extreme points, divide
the chord into equal parts and draw ordinates at the points of division,
at right angles to the chord. Draw tangents to the curve where these
ordinates cut it, and let these tangents be produced both ways to meet
the ordinates at the extremities. Use the lengths of these tangents as
ordinates, and integrate them by any method of quadrature, dividing by
the number of ordinates. The result will be the length of the curve.*
Curved Surface.—The only general method of dealing with this is first
to construct, and then to integrate between the requisite limits, sec @ da dy,
where ¢ is the angle between the tangent plane and the base, or plane of
(x,y). The construction of the term sec ¢ for any given point is easy
enough, since this is simply the through diagonal of a parallelopiped, of
which the base is given, and the directions of the diagonals of faces are
also given. The number of ordinates, however, for which this calculation
has to be made is large, being in two dimensions, and there is then a
double integration to be performed. Moreover the limits are not neces-
sarily or usually constant, and then again the methods fail where the
surface is parallel to au ordinate, and in either of these cases the surface
has to be specially cut up, presenting in reality several different pieces of
work. All this renders it a very laborious task, and unfortunately the
integral for the surface does not present any such reductions, when treated
by ordinates, as the volume-integral.
In iron shipbuilding, when the work is complete, and a separate
account is taken of every plate, the weight of skin and area of the surface
are of course mere matters of addition. But while the design is in draft,
it sometimes becomes necessary to estimate the surface in a more summary
manner. ‘The usual mode is to obtain the lengths of all the level lines and
transverse sections of the surface, and then to expand the surface on the
flat by means of two sets of strips of paper, which secure equal lengths
for the sides of the quadrilaterals, the angles being allowed to take up
their own adjustment. This is a very coarse representation, even sup-
* posing the expansion to be split where the distortion is great, as it usually
is where the skin of a ship meets the sternpost. This process is occa-
sionally modified by using an orthogonal network on the surface, instead
of orthogonally dividing the plan, and that is probably a little better.
Another more accurate plan has been given by Mr. Crossland + of th
Admiralty. A model of the ship is usually more convenient to work from
* This method is given by Rankine in his Rules and Tables, p. 75, It is nothing
more than the graphical quadrature fs sec >. da.
t See the Annual of the Royal School of Naval Architecture (for 1873) pp. 12-14.
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION. 375
than drawings, although it is quite possible to get the constructions
without much difficulty from these. Nevertheless, it is a laborious and
unsatisfactory process, and quite inapplicable to complex or highly curved
surfaces. It does, however, give a rough approximation, and, as such, is
found both useful and necessary by shipbuilders,
X.—MECHANICAL QUADRATURES.
Rectification.—The only satisfactory mechanical means of doing this is
by running a wheel along the curve, and observing its travel. In the
opisometer it is done by starting the wheel from a stop, running it along
the path to be measured, and then applying it to the scale of the map or
diagram, and running it backwards until the stop is felt. This saves the
trouble of any readings, except the final one upon the scalé, and it also
avoids all conversion of scale. It may be objected to it that it is a little
wanting in minute accuracy, from a small yielding at the stop giving a
considerable error at the edge of the wheel. This, however, can easily be
tested on a plain scale, and careful use of the instrument with a delicate
hand gives very good results.
There is a more elaborate but very convenient form of the machine
sold under the curious name of ‘ Wealemefna.’
Direct mechanical quadrature.—If a disk revolve at uniform velocity,
and a friction wheel roll upon it, having its axis parallel to the plane, aud
meeting the axis of the disk, then it is clear that the travel of the friction
wheel will be directly proportional to its distance from the centre of the
disk. If, therefore, the friction-wheel be made to slide upon the disk, so
that its point of contact shall be separated from the centre by a distance
equal to the varying ordinate of a curve, while the disk rolls along a straight
line base, the travel of the friction-wheel will integrate the area of the
curve. ‘This is the simplest mechanical integrator there is, It is used in
one form as the ‘ continuons indicator’ in steam-engines, and in another
form it is used for integrating the curves of the German tide-gauges. It
is also used in the recording part of Morin’s dynamometer, and in Sang’s
planimeter.
> James Thomson’s integrator—This ingenious instrument was devised
inorder to get rid of the sliding which takes place in ‘the continuous
integrator, and in Amsler’s planimeter. It consists of a plane circular
disk inclined at an angle of 45° to the horizon, and turning freely on
an axis normal to its plane. A cylinder with its axis horizontal and
parallel to the plane of the disk is mounted on journals in front of the
disk, so that they just clear one another. A smooth sphere is dropped into
the trough between the disk and the cylinder, and the machine is so
adjusted that the sphere can just roll over the centre of the disk. The
amount of rotation of the cylinder as the disk turns through a given
angle, will vary as the distance of the point of contact of the sphere and
disk from the centre of the latter. The travel of the sphere laterally is
obtained by means of a fork, which is made to slide in the direction of the
axis of the cylinder, and which nips the sphere between two pads or
cushions, on which it slips easily. If now a flat templet with a straight
base and a curved edge opposite the base, is moved in the plane of the
disk and at right angles to the axis of the cylinder, so that the disk, or a
pinion in gear with it, rolls along the base, while a pin in the fork-handle
376 REPORT—1880.
follows the curve on the other side of the templet, the travel of the
cylinder will effect the quadrature of the curve on the templet. *
The use of the machine is by no means limited to this simple quad-
rature. By putting the fork in gear with the disk through the intervention
of suitable wheel or link-work, or belting; or by gearing two such
machines suitably together, it is possible to obtain the mechanical solution
of differential equations.
Sliding motion is not altogether escaped in this machine, In the first
place, there is sliding motion of the sphere in the fork. Further, the
rolling of the sphere along a small circle is not pure rolling, but, although
not having any actual sliding, is intermediate between sliding and rolling.
For if we separate the pure rolling along a great circle from the twist
necessary to make it describe a small circle, the aggregate of this twisting
is the same as we should get by turning the sphere through a definite
angle about an axis perpendicular to the disk; but instead of being finite
sliding, as it would be on this last supposition, it is in fact distributed
over a line instead of concentrated at a point. It is thus infinitesimal
at every point of the line, along which, however, there ceases to be pure
rolling.t
There is also a source of error in the necessity of giving some clearance
to the fork, which would otherwise not slide on the sphere. This clear-
ance introduces a slight error every time the fork reverses its motion. It
is, however, a constant error; but it is always in the same direction, and
is not compensated on a double reciprocation. This is the chief drawback
to the machine, which is nevertheless a most valuable instrument.
Amsler’s planimeter.—In this wonderful little instrament a pointer is
made to run round the closed curve, which has to be measured, and a
little wheel, which partly rolls and partly slides, gives the area by the
mere reading of its rolling motion. The main principle on which it de-
pends is this: that if a finite right line moves in its own plane, the whole
area swept out by it is measured by the product of the length of the line,
and by the sum of the components of the motion of the middle point
(resolved at every instant) at right angles to the line. A wheel turning
on an axis parallel to the line, and free either to roll or to slide on the
paper or plane, will effect this instantaneous resolution, and its reading
will integrate the required component, When one end of the bar makes
a complete circuit of a closed curve, coming back to the point from
which it started, while the other end reciprocates along an are of any
fixed curve, wholly external to the closed curve, the area of the latter is
given by the difference between the initial and final readings of the wheel.
In this case, moreover, the principle of the separation of the motions of
rotation and translation shows that the total reading of the friction wheel
will be the same, if it be moved from the middle to any other point of the
line, or even of the line produced. The only adjustment required, there-
fore, is that the axis of the rolling wheel should be parallel to the bar
which carries the pointer. This freedom from adjustment is one of the
most valuable properties of the instrument. As a practical matter, the
accuracy of the results which it gives is quite equal to that of the very best
drawings which can be made.
* See Roy. Soc. Proceedings, vol. xxiv. p. 262, On an Integrating Machine having
anew Kinematic Principle,’ by Professor James Thomson.
ft See two papers by Sir Wm. Thomson at pp. 266 and 269 of the same volume.
{ The motion is intermediate, in much the same sense that #¢ (log w)’ is inter-
mediate in dimension to a and a¢+%, See De Morgan’s Diff. and Int. Cale. p. 323.
ON QUADRATURES AND INTERPOLATION, ort
In the usual form of the instrument, the reciprocating curve, traced
by the other end of the bar, is an arc of acircle. This is for facility of
use and construction, and is by no means essential.
Amsler’s Mechanical Integrator—By an ingenious extension of the
principle of his planimeter, Professor J. Amsler-Laffon, of Schaffhausen,
has constructed a machine which, while a pointer describes a closed curye,
records simultaneously its area, its statical moment, and its moment of
inertia about a given axis. In this case the butt end of the bar which
carries the pointer is made to move along aright line. The area is read
off from a wheel mounted on the bar itself, and this part of the operation
is thus the same as in the common planimeter. The moments are read off
from wheels mounted on arms whose centres also describe right lines, but
which are so geared with a wheel rigidly connected with the bar carrying
the pointer, as to turn relatively to it with the fixed velocity ratios of
2:1land3:1. Supposing the angular motion of the pointer-bar to be
0, and the velocity ratio 7:1, the quantity of rotation of the second
circle will be n@ + a, a being an arbitrary constant depending upon the
initial position. When the pointer goes round any closed curve which
does not contain the centre of the first circle, this measurement of this
rotary motion comes to nothing, for the angular movement is the same
forward as backward, and it may therefore be left out of account. But
its angle (n 6+ a) settles the direction of the resolution of which the
component is measured by the instrument, when there is linear motion of
the centre. The rolling wheel records a constant multiple of
— dz cos (n9+ a),
where dz represents the movement parallel to the axis, and its complete
record is
— faa e058 (n 040) =~"
taken over the whole area of the curve. This has to be multiplied by a
numerical factor, which is one of the constants of the instrument.
Where n = 2, if we make a = 0, we have
2
w= fi docos29= fie {1-2 Gino? } = fd (1-2 4)
y being an ordinate perpendicular to the axis of a.
In this case therefore the difference between two readings of the
rolling wheel counter is always proportionate to fy dx, which thus gives
the statical moment.
When n = 3, if we make a = — om
we have
cos (3 0-57 )=sin3 6=3 (ain 6)? — 4-sin 0
3
ES a ig
k3 i
and therefore the reading given by the wheel is
few dx = fory dae
378 REPORT—1880.
that is to say, it gives the difference between a fixed multiple of the
moment of inertia and a fixed multiple of the area. In this way the
moment of inertia is known. The subtraction is not performed by the
machine, but is left to the calculator.*
Sang’s planimeter is described and figured in a paper by Mr. Sang in
the ‘ Transactions of the Royal Scottish Society of Arts’ for 1852, vol. iv.
There is also a paper by Mr. Clerk Maxwell in the same ‘ Transactions’
(for 1855, vol. iv.) describing a planimeter invented by himself, and the
action of which depends on the mutual rolling of two equal spheres.
These are the principal mechanical integrators known to the author.
So far as a draughtsman’s purpose is concerned, Amsler’s instruments
appear to be the most convenient practically.
The French Deep-sea Exploration in the Bay of Biscay.
By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, LL.D., PRS.
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso
among the Reports. ]
I reen that I am indebted for the opportunity of giving an account of
the French expedition, which forms the subject of this paper, to my
esteemed friend and colleague, the Marquis de Folin, of Bayonne, He
was until lately the commandant of that port, and is a most zealous and
excellent naturalist. J may, indeed, say that the expedition originated
with him. For more than ten years he had, at his own expense, assi-
duously and carefully explored the sea-bed lying off Cape Breton, in the
Department of the Landes, as well as could be done in a fishing-boat ;
and the result of his researches among the marine Invertebrata has been
described, with illustrations by his pencil, in a useful work called ‘ Les
onds de la Mer,’ published at Bayonne under his direction. M. de
Folin has from time to time sent me the Mollusca procured in his dredg-
ings for my opinion; and our correspondence, with a visit which I paid
him in December 1878, led to his making an application to the French
Government for the grant of a vessel to explore the depths which were
known to exist at a comparatively short distance from the northern coasts
of Spain in the Bay of Biscay. This evidently could not be done ina
fishing-boat ; and naturalists have much less money than science. It was, in
fact, a project for a nation, and not for an individual. The application was,
; believe: referred to the Dean of the Academy of Sciences, M. Milne.
Edw ards, whose reputation as an eminent zoologist has been universally
/ recognised for more than half a century. His report was favourable ; and
a Government vessel was ordered to be placed at the disposal of a Com-
mission of which M. Milne-Edwards was appointed President. The other
members of the Commission were the Marquis de Folin, Prof. Alphonse
Milne-Edwards, Prof. Vaillant, Prof. Marion of Marseilles, Dr. Paul
Fischer, and M. Périer of Bordeaux. The selection of these savants
* A detailed description and drawings of the machine is given in the volume
of the Zransactions of the Institution of 1 Naval Architects for 1880. It will not
escape the reader that this machine requires several rather nice adjustments which
are not needed in the common planimeter. The machine, as actually made for sale
by Mr. Amsler, is very beautifully contrived, with recard to allits mechanical details,
and it works very smoothly and satisfactorily. The cost is between £16 and £20.
ON THE FRENCH DEEP-SEA EXPLORATION IN THE BAY OF BISCAY. 379
augured well for the success of the expedition, and it has been fully jus-
tified. At the suggestion of M. de Folin, the Minister of Public Instruc-
tion graciously invited me and the Rey. A. M. Norman (a well-known
naturalist) to take part in the expedition. Mr. Norman had been my
valued companion for many years past in similar but less important
excursions to Shetland and Norway. It was to mea great pleasure to
be again associated with him. I regarded the invitation as far more than
a compliment; it was a great honour.
I may here mention that, immediately before the commencement of
the expedition, M. de Folin, Mr. Norman, and myself had some prepara-
tory boat-dredging in the Fosse de Cap Breton. This was done at the
expense of the French Government. When has our own Government
shown such generosity in the cause of science to French naturalists ?
The vessel assigned for the purposes of the expedition was the |
Travailleur, a paddle-wheel steamer of over 900 tons, of 150 horse-power, .
and carrying four guns. She is an aviso, or despatch-boat, and is stationed ‘
at Rochefort for occasional service. She was supplied with a capital
donkey-engine, and immense stores of cordage, sounding-wire, and other
apparatus. She had a very happy name, being an indefatigable worker.
Capt. E. M. F. Richard was the commander, or lieutenant de vaisseau, and
the other officers were Lieuts. Mahieux, Jecquet, Villegente, and Bourget,
Aide-Commissaire Gousselin, and Dr. Duplouy. Let me now express my
sincere thanks to the officers for their great kindness and urbanity. They
took a great interest in the work, and materially promoted the welfare of
the expedition. The crew consisted of 128 men; the usual number was
between 80 and 90, but extra hands were taken in consequence of the
heavy work entailed by sounding during the night, All these men
seemed to be well-conducted, as weil as good sailors ; and, although they
had only two meals a day, their physique was quite equal to that of our
best British seamen. Mr, Norman and I took with us, as dredger, a
steady and intelligent man, John Wilson ; and Prof. Marion had his dredger
named Armand. These men were of great use in sifting the material
brought up by the dredges. For the captain, J can only echo the opinion
expressed by Prof. A. Milne-Edwards in his preliminary Report, that
his arrangements were first-rate, and his skill admirable, especially con-
sidering that the kind of work was new to him, and that he had not
previously made or even seen any deep-sea dredging.
The members of the Commission assembled at Bayonne; and the
Travailleur arrived there on the 16th of July. The next morning she
went to sea, with all the party on board except the President, who was
obliged to return to Paris, and might also have justly claimed exemption
from active service, being in his eightieth year. Until the 1st of August
(with the exception of two days, the 18th and 25th, which we spent at
San Sebastian and Santander,) we were hard at work sounding, dredging,
and trawling. The weather was very fine, and the dreaded Bay of Biscay
lost its stormy character on this occasion.
The principal object of the expedition was to ascertain the nature of
the fauna which inhabits at considerable depths this part of the Bay of
Biscay ; and this object was thoroughly and successfully accomplished.
Twenty-three dredgings were made for that purpose at depths ranging
from 337 to 2600 métres, each métre being about 39 inches, or rather
more than half a fathom. The dredgings between 600 and 1000 fathoms
were the most important. Every department of the Invertebrata was
}
380 REFORT—1880,
well represented, and novelties were discovered in the Mollusca, Crus-
tacea, Nchinoderms, Annelids, Actinozoa, and Sponges.
As regards myself, this expedition had a peculiar charm. Having
had the scientific charge of similar expeditions for the Royal Society in
H.M.S8. Porcupine in 1869 and 1870, and in H.M.S. Valorous in 1875,
and having examined the collections made during the voyages of H.M.SS.
Shearwater and CUhallenger, as well as those made in nearly all the
Swedish, Norwegian, Dutch, and American deep-sea and exploring ex-
peditions in the North Atlantic, I was naturally glad to participate in the
French expedition, and particularly as it embraced that part of the sea
which was at no great distance from the scene of my former labours in the
cruise of the Porcupine along the western coasts of Spain and Portugal, and
which cruise was so unusually productive. Impelled by this recollection,
I made last year a verbai and informal application to the late First Lord
of our Admiralty, for the use of one of her Majesty’s ships to explore
the Bay of Biscay this summer. The answer I received was very favour-
able; but the pecuniary resources of our Government were then at a low
ebb, and I was encouraged to renew the application when commerce
revived and times became more prosperous. I hope our new Govern-
ment will avail itself of the now improved finances, and not neglect this
genuine and beneficial method of instructing the nation, and maintaining
its credit for maritime discovery.
The fauna observed during the Travailleur cruise closely resembled
that which I ascertained during the Porcwpine cruise of 1870 at corre-
sponding depths. This will be shown, so far as the Mollusca are concerned,
in the list of species appended to the present paper; and I have no doubt
that the other branches, when they have been worked out by the experi-
enced naturalists to whom they have been entrusted, will confirm my
opinion.
In a physical and geological point of view this French expedition has
borne good fruit. No less than 103 soundings were made. They have
proved the existence, within a few miles of the coast, of a submarine valley
opening from the Fosse de Cap Breton and extending to a point opposite
Cap Pefias. The large diagram and chart which I now exhibit will give
a better explanation than I can do by any words. The diagram was pre-
pared for me when I presented to the Royal Society my reports of the
Porcupine expeditions of 1869 and 1870; and the chart has been filled up
and given to me by my kind friend the Hydrographer.! The striking in-
equalities of depth within a narrow area which thus appear were noticed
in a Bayonne newspaper of August 4 as ‘des grands fonds sous-marins,
qui continuent sous les eaux de |’Atlantique les vallées pyrénéennes.’ As
a general rule, it may be said that where mountains or high land approach
the sea the depth of water is greater off that coast than where the land lies
low. But this must depend in a great measure on the geological nature
of the land adjacent to the sea. If the formation be granitic or gneissie,
the wear and tear or denudation must be slower than if the formation be
sandstone, cretaceous, or tertiary; and the action of rivers and streams on
the surface of the land must be proportionably increased or diminished, and
cause the sea-bed to be more or less filled up in the course of time. Every-
where during the dredgings of the Travailleur in deep water the sea-bed
was found to be covered by a thick layer of mud, of a different colour from
* See Proceedings of the Royal Society for 1870, and the Admiralty Chart of the
Bay of Biscay.
ON THE FRENCH DEEP-SEA EXPLORATION IN THE BAY OF BISCAY. 38]
that of the Atlantic ooze; and this mud has probably accumulated from
untold ages by the incessant efflux of the Gironde, the Adour, and nume-
rous other rivers and streams into the Bay of Biscay. As may be supposed,
the fauna which inhabits such mnd is very scanty ; and it required a con-
siderable amount of patience and perseverance to extract even a few
organisms from the unpromising material. No wonder that Dr. Carpenter
was discouraged, as a zoologist, by what he termed ‘ the singular barren-
ness of this deposit in regard to animal life,’ when he described the
Mediterranean cruise of the Porcupine in 1870.
Within a few days after the return of the expedition, Prof. A. Milne-
Edwards presented to the Academy of Sciences at Paris a preliminary
report of the zoological results of the expedition, which was published in
the Journal Officiel de la Republique Francaise as well as in the Comptes |
Rendus. As most of the departments of the marine Invertebrata have
been so fully and carefully treated by him in this Report, I will content
myself with a few supplementary remarks as to the Mollusca, which
especially engaged my attention during the cruise. At the request of
Dr. Fischer, who will undertake this department, and with the sanction
of the President, I was entrusted with all the more critical specimens of
Mollusca; and these specimens I have now cleaned, assorted, and com-
pared with my own collection from the Porcupine Expedition of 1870 on
the western coasts of Spain and Portugal. I subjoin a complete list of
the Travailleur Mollusca, distinguishing in separate columns those
species which are Porcupine, those which were previously known to me
from Norway or the Mediterranean only, and those which I consider
new to science. The total number of the species in this list is 198,
out of which 169 are Porcupine, nine only appear to be exclusively
northern, one exclusively southern or Mediterranean, and seventeen
new to science, ‘T'wo of the Porcupine species are northern also. The
results, especially in the last-mentioned category, are most noteworthy.
They serve to show how little we know of the deep-water Mollusca,
when we reflect that the area of the sea-bed lately explored, in a short
period of time and in a necessarily cursory manner, is but a very small
corner of the Atlantic, and that it would take many years to complete
the exploration so auspiciously commenced. The space traversed by
the dredge during this cruise represents probably much less than a ten-
thousandth part of the sea-bed lying between Cap Breton and Cap
Peiias ; and our means of exploration by the dredge are by no means satis-
factory, particularly on muddy ground, of which the deep water zone is
mainly composed. Instead of our being able to scrape a few inches of the
surface of the sea-bed at considerable depths, so as to collect in the dredge
all the animals which inhabit the superficial layer, we find too often, to
our disappointment, that the dredge when it reaches the bottom sinks into
the mud from its own weight and from the momentum given to it by the
motion of the ship, and that it then acts as a subsoil plough and not as a
scraper. I must ask one of my engineering friends to devise some instru-
ment more efficient than the modern dredge.
Although it cannot be positively stated that the abyssal zone, or even
the benthal zone, is inhabited by species of Mollusca peculiar to it, some
species observed by me during the preparatory excursion to Cap Breton
and the Travailleur cruise bear out the statement to some extent. For
instance, Nucula nitida, Dischides bifissus, Rissoa abyssicola (a now inap-
propriate specific name), and Defrancia decussata occurred only in the
382 RnErPorT—1880.
shallow-water excursion, while Nucula corbuloides, Siphodentalium Olivi,
Rissow deliciosa, and Defrancia hispidula occurred only in the deep-water
cruise.
The list of Mollusca will show that several species are supposed to
have been drifted from shallow water. This may have been owing to
the proximity of the coast and to the consequent action of rivers and
tides.
Several deep-water species of Mollusca occurred in this expedition
which had been until lately supposed to be extinct; they are fossils of the
Upper Tertiaries of Europe.!
A curious provision of Nature—if we may in these philosophical days
use such a phrase—was observable in the case of a deep-water mussel of
considerable size, which I propose to name Mytilus luteus. It inhabits the
layer of mud which i have above described, and moors or fixes itself by
means of a large and densely matted byssus which is spun by the foot.
This byssus is capable of being spread over a considerable extent of sur-
face; and it not only prevents the mollusc sinking into the soft mud and
being smothered or buried alive, but enables it to feed comfortably on the
innumerable animalculz which swarm on the surface of the sea-bed. It
is to some extent of the same use to the mollusc as a snow-shoe is to the
Arctic traveller. This species of Mytilus I at first took to be the Modiola
incurvata of Philippi= MW. Martorelli of Hidalgo—which lives on the south
coast of Spain in rather shallow water; but on comparison I am satisfied
that they differ essentially in shape, sculpture, colour, and epidermis.
I cannot conclude this account without tendering my most grateful
acknowledgments to the French Government for their extremely generous
conduct, and for the excellent hospitality which I enjoyed on board the
Travailleur, as well as to the President and members of the Scientific
Commission for their obliging and friendly companionship.
The zoological results of this French expedition are fully equal to those
obtained by Capitaine Baudon in 1801, M. d’Urville in 1829, the Re-
cherche in 1835, the Bonite in 1836 and 1837, the Astrolabe in 1841, and
other expeditions; and I sincerely hope that a further expedition of the
present kind may take place next year in the Mediterranean, where our
good and gallant neighbours have such an important stake.
A List of the Mollusca procured during the cruise of the Travailleur in
the Bay of Biscay, 1880.
a= Bo4o4
‘an| § | & |#8|
No. | Name of Species sg| 5 eto) ES Remasks
| ech Pat sie tes
| Relea | we |7@
S} |
BRACHIOPODA. |
See as to this and
other Mollusca in the
1 Terebratula caput - serpentis, | — |
| | | list the ‘ Proceed-
|
Linné
| 2 T. subquadrata, Jeffreys . °
| 3 | T. cranium, Miiller; afragment | — ingsofthe Zoological
4 | Platydia anomioides, Scacchi | — Society of London’
| and Philippi | / for 1878 and 1879.
5 | Megerlia truncata, L. : 5 — |
6 | Crania anomala, Mill. . el i
1 For the geological definition of this term see British Conchology, vol, i. pp. 315
and 316,
j ON THE FRENCH DEEP-SEA EXPLORATION IN THE BAY OF BISCAY.
-List oF MoLiusca—continued.
Name of Species
Porcupine
| eruise, 187!
Northern
Southern
New to
Science
Remarks
CONCHIFERA.
Anomia ephippium, L. .
Spondylus Gussoni, O. G. Costa,
Pecten pes-lutre, Ee .
P. groenlandicus, G. B. Sowerby
P. fragilis, J. . ‘ 3
P. obliquatus, J. (MS.) .
P. vitreus, Chemnitz °
Pecten similis, Laskey . 4
Amussium fenestratum, Forbes.
A. lucidum, J. . .
Lima elliptica, J.
L. subauriculata, Montacu
L. Jeffreysi, Fischer (MS.)
Mytilus luteus, J.(MS.) .
Mytilus edulis, L. . . .
Modiolaria marmorata, Forbes .
M. Aiceallgrg Libassi ,
M. cuneata, J. (MS.) .
Dacrydium vitreum (Holbill)
Miiller.
Arca pectunculoides, Sc.; var.
septentrionalis.
Arca lactea, L. . 7 °
Leda messanensis, Seguenza
L. pustulosa, J. z :
L. striolata, Brugnone
L. tenuis, Ph. . :
L. lucida, Lovyén 5 -
L. pusio, Ph. . :
L. sericea, J. . 3
L. Jeffreysi, Hid. .
L. expansa, J.
Nucula egeensis, Forb.
N. corbuloides, Seg. . 3 }
N. striatissima, Seg. s
N. tumidula, Malin ,
N. sulcata, Bronn , F
Limopsis cristata, J. °
i
|
|
|
|
P. septemradiatus,
Mill.
And variety abyssorwm.
A single valve ; pro-
bably drifted.
curvata, Philippi =
M. Martorelli, Hi-
dalgo ; but it differs
in shape, sculpture,
epidermis, and co-
lour. Dr. Hidalgo
agrees with me as to
this.
A valve of a young
specimen; probably
drifted.
Same remark.
A single valve; pro-
bably, drifted.
L. acuminata, J. (not
Von Buch).
v. Miinster.
| And a variety.
And variety lation.
L. lata, J. (aot Hinds).
Anda monstrous variety,
Allied to Modiola in- |
DL. pygme@a, auct., not |
383
384 , REPORT—1880.
List oF MoLLUScA—continued.
2& =| S|
SO] 5 =x | So
gn g oO co
No. Name of Species sg| 5 = ES Remarks
Sela | a [40
43 | L. minuta, Ph. : ~|—
44 | Malletia obtusa, M. Sars ‘ .|—
45 | M. cuneata, J. —_
46 | Montacuta ferruginosa, Mont. —
47 | M. tumidula, J. A :
48 | M. ovata, J.(MS.) . ‘ =
49 | Decipula ovata, J. . F of — |
50 | Kellia symmetros, J. ‘ : =) Valorous Expedition,
1750 fathoms; Nor-
wegian Arctic Expe-
dition, 656 and 1200
fathoms.
51 | Laswa rubra, Mont. . a <|— A single valve; pro- |
bably drifted.
52 | L. pumila, $8. V. Wood . A ie A Coralline Crag fossil.
53 | Loripes Jacteus,L. . . .| — Probably drifted.
54 | Axinus flexuosus, Mont. . | —
55 | A. croulinensis, J. . ; .|-— |
56 | A. eumyarius, M. Sars. . || = |
57 | A. ferruginosus, Forb. . 2 |
58 | A. subovatus, J. F . yk |
59 | A. granulosus, J. F A =
60 | A. tortuosus, J.(MS.) . —
61 | Mytilimeria? Fischeri, J. (MS. ) _
62 | Cardita corbis, Ph. . . =
63 | Cardium minimum, Ph. . ‘l=
64 | Isocardia cor, L. . ‘ | — And the fry, which has |
many synonyms.
65 | Woodia digitaria, L. . ei A single valve; pro- |
bably drifted.
66 | Tellina gladiolus, J. (MS.) 2 —
67 | Scrobicularia alba, W. Wood . | —
68 | S. longicallus, Sc. . . |
69 | §. nitida, Mull 5 ~f—
70 | Lyonsia formosa, J. (MS.) -[—
71 | Verticordia insculpta, J.(MS.). | —
72 | Thracia convexa, W. Wood .| — Young.
73 | T. tenera, J.(MS.) . . . i
74 | Newra abbreviata, Forb. . -|—
75 | N. rostrata, Spengler 5 | —
76 | N. cuspidata, Olivi; var. . A
77 | N. bicarinata, J. (MS.) . -|— A fragment.
78 | N. sulcifera, J. (MS.) : |
79 | N. truncata, J. (MS.) < |
80 | N. lamellosa, M. Sars : -{|—
81 | N.striata,J. . . {|
82 | N. imbricata, J. (MS.) . ne
82* Panopea plicata, Mont. . ~|—
83 | Saxicava rugosa, L. . ‘ oo
SOLENOCONCHIA.
84 | Dentalium striolatum, Stimp- | — D. abyssorum, M. Sars;
son. and variety agilis.
85 | D. capillosum, J. : . | = Fragments.
86 | D. gracile, J. . ° ° i Not D. filum, G. B.
Sowerby, jun.
ON THE FRENCH DEEP-SEA EXPLORATION IN THE BAY OF BISCAY.
List oF MoLtLusca—continued.
385
2&
8S| BE) E lose
. g al eae be i
No. Name of Species 5 ee =| es Remar
= z oS An
87 | Siphodentalium lofotense, M. | —
Sars.
88 2 Olivi, Se. ‘ = ;
89 8. tetragonum, Brocchi . — Dentalium quinguan-
gulare, Forb. = S.
pentagonum, M. Sars.
90 | Cadulus semistriatus, J. ig Yr =
91 | C.tumidosus, J... 5 ==
92 | C. artatus,J.(MS.) . . == Ts
93 | C. ovulum, Ph. . ‘ . A Calabrian and Sici-
lian fossil.
94 | C. gibbus, J. (MS.). . : si
95 | C. propinquus, G. O. Sars. ==
96 | C. subfusiformis, M. Sars . =
97 | C. gracilis, J. . % ° a
98 | C. cylindratus, J. . . =
GASTROPODA.
99 | Chiton alveolus,G.O. Sars . = ;
100 | Rimula asturiana, J. (MS.) — |Probably R. radiata,
Libassi, a Sicilian fossil.
101 | Cyclostrema spheroideum, 8.V. | — A Coralline Crag fossil.
Wood.
102 | C. trochoides, J. Pn
103 | Molleria costulata, Méller F =
104 | Trochus gemmulatus, Ph.. — A Sicilian fossil.
105 | Turbo filosus, Ph, , : a A Calabrian and Sici-
lian fossil = Zrochus
glabratus, Ph.
106 | Hela tenella, J. é . —
107 | Rissoa cimicoides, Forb. . _
108 | R. abyssicola, Forb . —
109 | R. deliciosa, J. (MS.) : —
110 | R. subsoluta, Aradas. . S| .
ge) RK. parva, Da Costa .- . . | — A dead specimen ; pro-
bably drifted.
112 | R. semistriata, Mont. — Same remark.
113 | R. tenuisculpta, J. (MS.) . —
114 | Hydrobia ulve, Pennant; var. | —
Barkei
115 | Scalaria Trevelyana, Leach ==
116 | 8. clathratula, Adams =
117 | 8. Cantrainei, Weinkauff . —
118 | Aclis Walleri, J. ‘ =
119 | Odostomia conoidea, Bre. —
120 | O. Lukisi, J. . : -|—
121 | O. prelonga, J. (MS. ) : i) =
122 | O. acicula, Ph.; var. obeliscus. | —-
123 | O. blandula, J. (MS.) R 7a
124 | O. nana, J.(MS.) . ‘ -{|—
iapO. insculpta, Mont. . .° 94) — Probably drifted.
126 | O. nitidissima, Mont. . Same remark,
127 | O. sceptrum, J. (MS.) =
128 | O. lineata, J. (MS.) . : : ==
129 | O. paucistriata, J. (MS.) . ol—
1880. ce
REPORT —1880.
List oF MoLuuscA—continued.
| P. modiolus, De Cr. and Jan
386
] | —]
25
| No. Name of Species a
| 130 | O. fasciata, Forbes . S 5 =
131 | O. scille, Se. a eee ti
{ 132 | O. plicatula, Bre. . 4 ==
; 133 | Ianthina exigua, Bruguitres =
|
134 | Eulima stenostoma, J. “ 4
135 | E. pyriformis, Brugn. . a
136 | E. subangulata, J.(MS.) ; =
| 187 | E. solidula, J. (MS.) : —
138 | E. intermedia, Cantraine . =
139 | E. obtusa, J. (MS.) =
140 | E. distorta, Dishayes =
141 | E. curva, J.(MS.) . =
142 | Natica sordida, Ph. . aa
143 | N. subplicata, J. (MS.). a
| 144 | Solarium pseudoperspectivum, | —
: Bre.
145 | Adeorbis umbilicatus, J. Saige
146 | Sequenzia, elegans, J. t =
147 | Lamellaria perspicua, L? . —
148 | Aporrhais serresianus, Michaud | —
149 | Cerithium metula, Lov. a
150 | Buccinum Humphreysianum, | —
Bennett.
151 | Ranella gigantea, Lamarck . | —
152 | Trophon muricatus, Mont. =
153 | T. rugosus, J. (MS.) . qh
154 | Fusus gracilis, Da Costa . {ie
155 | F. turgidulus, J.(MS.) . “=
156 | F. berniciensis, King =
157 | Cassidaria tyrrhena, Ch. ——
158 | Nassa semistriata, Bre. =
159 | N. incrassata, Strdém =
160 | N. limata, Ch.; var. —
; 161 | Columbella halizeti, J. _-
| 2&2 | C. seripta, L. . - . =
| | |
163 | Taranis cirratus, Brugn. =
| 164 | Defrancia crispata, De Cristofori | —
| and Jan.
165 | D. parvula, J. (MS.) . —
166 | D. formosa, J. (MS.). =
167 | Pleurotoma nivalis, Loy. —
| 168 | P. pinguis, J. (MS.) . =
| 269 —
Northern
Southern
Remarks
|
|
|
|
i
|
‘Trophon Morehi, Malm.
Turbonilla speciosa, H.
Adams.
Brought by Gulf
Stream
And a fragment of per-
haps a new species.
JV. fusea, de Blainville,
may be either this
species or a variety |
of NV. millepunctata.
S. discus, Ph.
Or perhaps a distinct
species. Adriatic
(Stossich).
And a fragment of per-
haps another species.
Fragments.
' Perhaps a variety of
C. echinophora, L.
A fragment of a young |
specimen; probably |
drifted.
| P. carinata, Ph.
ON THE FRENCH DEEP-SEA EXPLORATION IN THE BAY OF BISCAY. 387
List oF Moutuusca—continued.
dredgings.
No.
172 | C. ovata, J..(MS.)
| 175 | U. excavatus, J. (MS.)
| 176 | U. pusillus, J. (MS.)
177 | U. globosus, Lov.
| 178 | Actzeon exilis, J.
| 182 | B. semilevis, J. (MS.)
| 187 | P. catena, Mont. i
Southern
|
Remarks
25| ¢
an|
Name of Species 3 cs) 3
gee
170 | Ringicula leptochila, Brugn. =
171 | Cylichna umbilicata, Mont. sy
173 | Utriculus expansus, J. =
174 | U. obesus, J. (MS.) .
179 | A. ovatus, J.(MS.) . =
180 | Bullina elongata, J. (MS.)
181 | Bulla pinguicula, J. (MS.) =
/ 183 | Scaphanderpunctostriatus, Mig- | —
hels and Adams
184 | Philine scabra, Miill . =
185 | P. striatula, J. (MS.) : | -—
186 | P. quadrata, 8. V. Wood . =
| 188 | Melampus myosotis, Drapar- | —
naud.
‘189 | Carinaria mediterranea, Péron | —
and Lesueur.
PITEROPODA.
190 | Limacina helicoides, J, ee
191 | L. carinata, J. (MS.) .|—
192 | Spirialis retroversus, Fleming . | —
3 | Cavolinatrispinosa, Pér.and Les. | —
194 | C. labiata, D’Orbigny =
195 | Clio pyramidata, Browne . —
196 | C. lanceolata, De Bl. ‘4 =
197 | C. cuspidata, Lam. . =
CEPHALOPODA.
198 | A sucker of a small Octopod
169, 9
17
A young specimen.
S. librarius, Lov.
Young.
A single specimen;
probably drifted.
Brought from the
shore.
| Pelagic.
All these are Pelagic.
4 '
Hyalea inflexa, Pér.
and Les. |
Pelagic.
Supplementary Paper by the Rev. A. M. Norman, F.L.S.
As might have been expected, many of the Crustacea obtained off the
Portuguese coast by the Porcupine occurred in the North Spanish
Among these were Dorhynchus Thomsoni, Norman, Amathia
Carpenteri, Norman, Hbalia nux, Norman, Ethusw granulata, Norman,
Pagurus tricavinatus, Norman, Munida tenwimana, G. O. Sars, and
Apsewdes spinosa, Sars, and grossimana, Norman.
Brachyuran (feryon tridens, Kroyer, which was traced southwards by the
cc2
The large Norwegian
388 REPORT—1880.
Porcupine to the entrance of the Bay of Biscay, was found to be the most
abundant species within the bay, though in size greatly dwarfed as com-
pared with Norwegian specimens. A Thysanopoda, probably norvegica,
was taken several times abundantly, and was probably caught as the
dredge approached the surface. The large, most remarkable, and blood-
red Schizopod Gnathophausia Zoéa, Willemoes-Sahm, which was dis-
covered in the Challenger Expedition near the Azores and off the coast of
Brazil, delighted us with its beauty. Many undescribed species were met
with. Pre-eminent among these were a new genus allied to Dromia;' a
very curious new genus of Galatheide, which is blind, and has the eye-
stalks converted into spine-tipped processes; a new Palemonid, remark-
able for having its carapace girt with a ring of spines; and a Scalpellwm,
apparently new.
Among the Gephyrea were two species recently described by Danielssen
and Koren, from the Norwegian coast, and not hitherto found further
south; the grand Sipunculus priapuloides, which is the largest and most
interesting species of the genus known to me; and the curious little
Ochnesoma Steenstrupii. This latter species I dredged last year in great
abundance at the mouth of the Hardanger Fiord, Norway. A third
Gephyrean obtained is also perhaps the Phascolosoma squamatum of the
same authors.
In the Fosse de Cap Breton the curious Annelid, Sternaspis thalasse-
moides, Otto, which was formerly referred to the Gephyrea, was found
abundantly.
Several examples of the much-disputed Chetoderma nitidulum were
obtained. This is one of those animals which, exhibiting relationship to
more than one class in almost equal ratio, becomes, by its somewhat inter-
mediate characters, of special interest.
Only a single Polyzoon occurred. This was Triticella Boeckiw, or an
allied species. It was infesting the crab Geryon tridens, on which same
host the species just named was discovered by Professor G. O. Sars.
There was a remarkable absence of Hydrozoa.
In no class is the collection finer than among the Actinozoa. Of
Actinians not secreting a corallum there were a new Palythoa parisitic on
the spines of Cidaris papillata; an Actinia (Adamsia ?), parasitic on an
Isis; and two or three other things which were not recognised by us.
Of corals there were Caryophyllia clavus; a Flabellum belonging to the
Flaubellum apertum group, in which the corallum is little or not at all com-
pressed; a Deltocyathus, and Lophohelia prolifera. Of Gorgonian allies
there were Gorgonia verrucosa, and at least two species of Isis, one of
which was of considerable size, and when dredged at night was gorgeously
phosphorescent, exhibiting a blaze of light. Of Virgularians there were
many fine species, including two large forms of Virgularia (or closely allied
genus) ; what appeared to be a Scytaliwm of very elegant form and bright
red, widely separated fins; a genus which, from the curved, flaccid state
of the polyparium, appeared to be devoid of all calcareous axis; Kopho-
belemnon stelliferum, and an example of the genus Umbelluria.? This
genus, first discovered in the Arctic seas in 1753, and admirably figured
by old Ellis, was lost sight of for 120 years, when it was rediscovered by
Lindahl in the Swedish expedition between Greenland and Newfoundland.
1M. Alphonse’ Milne-Edwards had previously seen this among the Crustacea
dredged by A. Agassiz in the Blake, and proposes to name it Dioranodromia ovata,
* Probably U. Thomsoni, Kolliker.
ON THE FRENCH DEEP-SEA EXPLORATION IN THE BAY OF BISCAY. 389
Subsequently the Challenger dredged it in several spots, and as far south
as midway between Cape St. Vincent and Madeira. But the finding of
this most interesting animal within a few miles of the European coast by
Le Travailleur (July 30, in 1,160 métres) leads us to hope that hereafter
it may even be added to the British Fauna.
Echinodermata, as is usual in deep-sea dredgings, were numerous. Of
Holothuroidea there was a form entirely unknown to me furnished with
only two rows of suckers remarkable for their great size, and ten tenta-
cula; a Molpadia, which has generally been regarded as an Arctic genus;
and Echinocucumis typica, an abundant Norwegian type, of which the pre-
sence in the Bay of Biscay was evidenced bya single specimen. A curious
instance occurred of the meeting in the Bay of Biscay of species hitherto
supposed to be confined to Scandinavia with others regarded as eminently
Mediterranean. The trawl had been down in 306 métres, and when taken
up out of it rolled one or two hundred huge Holothurians, each about
a foot long. It was at once evident that they belonged to two species, and
further examination proved about two-thirds of them to be the rosy-coloured
Hoiothuria tremula of Norway, and the remainder, known at a glance by
their light brown colour and flattened side, were Stichopus regalis of the
Mediterranean. They had apparently met on this neutral ground, and
were living together on the most amicable terms.
Sea Urchins were represented by Echinus microstoma, Wyville Thom-
son; Calveria hystrix (or an allied species), of which several fine specimens
occurred; Pourtalesia Jeffreysi; and a new Spatangoid, remarkable on
account of its globular form, and referable perhaps to the genus Agassizia,
Starfishes were not numerous in species, and gave us nothing new.
Archaster tenuispina and bifrons, Astropecter Andromeda, and Brisinga
coronata were the rarer forms.
The Brittle Stars were of much importance, for though the number of
examples was not great the number of species, and perhaps of new forms,
was considerable. The Ophiuridans require attentive study, and cannot
be determined at a glance. It will suffice, therefore, to say that there
were many which were not familiar to me, belonging apparently to the
genera Asteronyx (parasitic on Isis, rather small, and possibly distinct from
Loveni), Ophiomusium, Ophiacantha, Ophioscolex, together with a remark-
ably large and fine form which I was unable to refer to any genus known
tome. An Ophiurid was also met with which I had discovered !ast year
in Norway, and which I propose to name Amphiura Danieisseni.
Sponges, both with respect to the number of species and of specimens
obtained, were scarce. Thenea muricata, Bowerbank (= Wyvillethom-
sonia Wallichit, P. Wright) and Holtenia Carpentert, W. Thomson, only
occurred in a young state; and a little bunch of the strong coarse spicula
of the great Askonema Setubalense, Kent, came up wrapped round the
dredging line; a single Hyalonema Lusitanicwm, Bocage, was dredged in
about 600 fathoms; and a fine, though dead, specimen of Farrea or Lefroy-
ella was procured, though unfortunately in fragments.
The Foraminifera of course could not, from their minute size, be
examined as they were dredged, but among the larger forms noticed in
the sieves were many very interesting and recently described types.
Foremost among these were the largest and most perfect examplee of the
beautiful Orbitolites tenuissimus, Carpenter, I had ever seen ; they equalled
a@ sixpence in size, and were dredged in about 1200 fathoms (July 20) ;
and the very remarkable thread-like Bathysiphon filiformis, G. O. Sars,
390 REPORT—1880.
which had, as far as I am aware, only before been met with in the Nor-
wegian fiords. Arenaceous forms were abundant and fine, and included
the following recently described species :-—
Rhabdammina abyssorum, M. Sars.
Hyperammina ramosa, H. B, Brady.
Saccammina spheerica, M. Sars.
Psammosphera fusca, Schultze.
Storthosphera albida, Schultze.
Astrorhiza arenaria, Norman.
Tituola subglobosa, M. Sars.
Cyclamnvina cancellata, H. B. Brady.
In concluding these rough notes, I must express the deep sense I en-
tertain of the kindness, courtesy, and attention which we received from
the French naturalists who were members of the Commission, and also
from Captain Richard and all the officers of Le Travailleur.
Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir WILLIAM
TuHomson, Dr. J. MERRIFIELD, Professor OSBORNE REYNOLDS,
. Captain DouGLas GaLton, Mr. J. N. SHOoLBRED (Secretary), Mr.
J. F, Deacon, and Mr. Rocers FIELp, appointed for the purpose
of obtaining information respecting the Phenomena of the
Stationary Tides in the English Channel and in the North Sea ;
and of representing to the Government of Portugal and the
Governor of Madeira that, in the opinion of the British Associa-
tion, Tidal Observations at Madeira or other islands in the North
Atlantic Ocean would be very valuable, with the view to the ad-
vancement of our knowledge of the Tides in the Atlantic Ocean. .
ty their last report the Committee requested, that the thanks of the
Association be conveyed, to the First Lord of the Admiralty, the
President of the Board of Trade, the French Minister of Public Works,
the Belgian Minister of Public Works, to the several authorities and
private individuals, both in this country and on the Continent, who have,
gratuitously aided in obtaining tidal observations for the Committee ; and
especially to the French Association for the Advancement of Science for,
the cordial support and assistance it has always afforded to the Committee
in carrying out its task. As this recommendation came too late to be
given effect to at the Sheffield Meeting, the Council during the past year,
in its own name, performed this pleasing duty.
At the Sheffield Meeting, the further consideration of two points in
particular was urged upon the Committee: Ist, the great utility of a re-
cognised datum suitable for international observations, similar to the one
made use of by the Committee ; and 2ndly, the benefit likely to accrue to
science, if the various maritime Governments, of Europe especially, were
to arrange among themselves to carry out a lengthened series of tidal
observations, and extending over a considerable area of coast.
ON THE PHENOMENA OF STATIONARY TIDES IN THE ENGLISH CHANNEL. 391
The Committee, having carefully considered these points, and as they
cordially agreed in them, urged the Council to press them upon the several
Governments with whom they were communicating, respecting the labours
of this Committee. It having also been pointed out, that, although the
form in which the tidal observations as presented in last year’s report
(referred all'to the English Ordnance Datum, and to Greenwich time)
was most suitable for all observers on this side of the Channel, yet that it
was hardly so for those on the Continent who had taken part in those
observations, the Committee therefore decided upon reducing all the
observations to the French official Datum of levelling and to Paris time.
A pamphlet containing these tables, and prefaced by a special report in
the French language, has been prepared for presentation to each of the
foreign Governments, and observers on the Continent; and copies of it
were transmitted through the Council with the thanks of the Association
as above referred to. A copy of this document is appended hereto.
It is with much pleasure that the Committee have to report that the self-
registering tide-gauge, which, at the instance of this Committee, the Board
of Trade established on the Admiralty Pier at Dover, has been working,
apparently with satisfaction, for nearly twelve months. A valuable series
of tidal records may, therefore, now be commenced at this important
station. This is highly desirable; and it is a measure which the Com-
mittee would strongly urge upon the Board of Trade. Seeing that
similar self-registering records have been most carefully collected for some
time back at Ostend, at Dunkerque, at Boulogne, and at Havre, on the
opposite coasts ; while on our own side, already, self-registering gauges
exist at Sheerness, at Ramsgate, and at Portland.
The self-registering tide-gauge at Madeira, which the Portuguese
Government, at the instance of H.M. Secretary of Foreign Affairs, acting
on the request of this Committee, sent out to the Bay of Funchal, has
been recently erected, and, it is understood, will soon be working:
satisfactorily.
The Committee beg to report that the sum of £10 has been expended
in the preparation, printing, and distribution of the pamphlets to foreign
observers. They request that the Committee be reappointed, with a
grant of £10 to cover these expenses.
APPENDIX.
RAPPORT DE LA COMMISSION CHARGSE D’OBTENIR DES OBSERVATIONS. SIMUL-
TANKES SUR LES Maries pe LA Manche ET DE LA Mer pu Nor», er
DES RENSEIGNEMENTS SUR LE PH&NOMENE DES Marfes STATIONNAIRES
QUI ONT LIEU DANS CES MERS.
Les Membres de la Commission sont—Sir WitutaAm THomson (Président),
Je Dr. Merrirtenp, le Professeur Osporne Reyrnoups, le Capitaine
Doveras Gatton, et M. James N. Suoonpred (Secrétaire et Lap-
porteur).
Av Congrés de Plymouth, en 1877, une Commission a été nommée par
YAssociation Britannique dans le but indiqué ci-dessus; et aussi pour
prier le Gouvernement Portugais, par l’intermédiaire du Gouvernement de
sa Majesté Britannique, d’entreprendre un strie d’observations sur les
marées au Nord de l’Ocean Atlantique. Cette derniére demande a été
392 REPORT—1880.
gracieusement accordée par le Gouvernement Portugais ; et afin d’obtenir
les observations d’une maniere reguliere, un marégraphe enregistreur
(systeme de Sir W. Thomson) a été installé dans la Baie de Funchal des
Iles de Madere.
Avant d’entreprendre des observations simultanées dans la Manche et
la Mer du Nord, la Commission s’est adressée, par les soins de son secré-
taire, aux membres de 1|’Association Frangaise pour l’avancement des
Sciences, qui a l’époque du Congrés de Plymouth étaient réunis au Havre.
Un mémoire y fut présenté de sa part, exprimant ‘le désir de voir sa pro-
position acceptée, et demandant, dans l’intérét commun de la Science, un
bon accueil de l’Association Frangaise, et son appui auprés du Ministre
des Travaux Publics 4 Paris.
Grace aux démarches qui furent faites plus tard par M. le Secrétaire
du Conseil de l’Association Francaise, M. C. M. Gariel, auprés de M. A.
Rousseau, Directeur du Département des Routes et de la Navigation au
Ministére, son Excellence le Ministre des Travaux Publics a bien voulu
donner l’autorisation nécessaire, en ce qui concernait les observations 4
faire sur les cétes de la France: et elles furent confiées par M. Rousseau
a MM. les Ingénieurs des Ponts et Chaussées, attachés aux ports de Mer
de la Manche.
Une semblable permission fut gracieusement accordée par son Excel-
lence le Ministre des Travaux Publics de Belgique, grace 4 l’intervention
bienveillante de M. le Chevalier Maus, Inspecteur Général des Ponts et
Chaussées, 4 Bruxelles, pour les observations du maréographe enregistreur
(van Rysselberghe) 4 Ostende.
Le Gouvernement de sa Majesté Britannique accorda aussi la méme
permission, et se chargea de faire les observations nécessaires 4 certains
endroits sur les cétes septentrionales de l’Angleterre. Plusieurs par-
ticuliers voulurent bien aussi se charger de faire des observations aux
endroits indiqués, aussi bien en Hollande qu’en Angleterre.
Le programme suivant fut ensuite dressé pour régler une série d’ob-
servations simultanées en 1878, dans les mois de Février, Mars, Avril,
Juin, et Aott.
Pendant le premier trimestre, ce furent les marées d’équinoxe qu’on
voulait étudier; et dans les deux derniers mois-les marées ordinaires.
L’étendue des cdtes du Continent comprises dans le programme s’étend
depuis le Havre jusqu’a l’entrée du Canal de la Mer du Nord, qui conduit
a Amsterdam; et en Angleterre, depuis Portland, en face du Havre,
jusqu’a Yarmouth, situé 4 peu pres en face d’Amsterdam.
Dans le tableau comparatif qui suit, aussi bien que dans les courbes
qui l’accompagnent, on n’a représenté que les marées d’équinoxe, qui ont
été observées sur tous les points 4 la fois, dans le courant du mois de
Mars. II] peut servir de type a celles des mois de Février et d’Avril, ot
les marées observées ont présenté une grande concordance avec celles qui
sont dans le tableau.
Les observations des mois de Juin et d’Aotit de la méme année, ainsi
que d’autres résultats qu’on espére retirer de cette étude préliminaire sur
les marées de la Manche et de la Mer du Nord, ne sont pas encore en état
d’étre présentées avec ce rapport.
La nécessité s’est bientét fait sentir 4 la Commission de chercher un
plan de comparaison commun, auquel toutes les observations pourraient
étre rapportées. Le seul moyen rationnel de comparer deux séries de
nivellements opérés des deux cdtes de la Manche paraissait de se servir
ON THE PHENOMENA OF STATIONARY TIDES IN THE ENGLISH CHANNEL. 393
du niveau moyen de Ja mer; et cette comparaison ne pouvait étre qu’ap-
proximative. En supposant, en effet, que ‘le niveaw moyen de lV Océan
Atlantique,’ donné par Bourdaloue dans son nivellement général de la
France, représente le méme plan que le ‘ mean sea level of the Ordnance
Survey’ donne pour les cdtes d’Angleterre, on trouve qu’un plan passant
4 5°50 métres en-dessous du zéro de Bourdaloue coincide, 4 0°01 métre prés,
avec celui qui est & 20 pieds au-dessous de 1’*Ordnance Datum’ de la
Grande-Bretagne. En vue de l’approximation de laquelle on est forcé de
se contenter, cette erreur peut étre negligée. Ce plan de comparaison,
outre l’avantage des chiffres ronds qu'il présente, a encore celui-ci qu'il
n’y a que peu de basses mers d’équinoxe (méme dans la Baie de St. Malo)
qui descendent plus bas: et dans les observations qui sont 4 comparer
aucun de ces cas exceptionnels ne se produit.
Dans le tablean comparatif des observations qui suit on a donc adopté
ce plan de comparaison pour les nivellements des deux cdtes de la Manche.
Oeux de la Belgique et de la Hollande sont facilement rattachés au niveau
de Bourdaloue au moyen des nivellements de précision faits dans chaque
pays. C’est sur cette hypothése de la coincidence du niveau moyen de la
mer qu’a été établie l’échelle comparative qui suit (voir Rapport, 1879,
Pl. XIII.).
De l’examen attentif de ce tableau comparatif, on peut facilement con-
clure, que si sur une étendue considérable de cétes et pendant une durée
de temps plus longue, il se faisait d’une maniére reguliére une série
d’observations simultanées sur les marées, soit de quart d’heure en quart
d’heure, ou méme seulement aux moments de Ja haute et de la basse mer,
on en retirerait probablement des résultats trés-importants pour la science :
tant au point de vue d’une connaissance plus exacte de ce qu’on appelle
‘le niveaw moyen’ de la mer, qu’d celui des moments exacts des hautes et
des basses mers. On arriverait ainsi 4se rendre meilleur compte des lois
de la propagation de l’ondemarée dans les mers et détroits qui entourent
nos cotes.
Mais une telle série d’observations ne peut étre enterprise par une
commission scientifique composée seulement de simples particuliers. lle
doit étre la conséquence d’un accord entre les divers gouvernements des
pays interéssés: chacun d’eux devrait se charger des observations a faire
le long de ses propres cétes.
On a vu, qu’il a été nécessaire, dans la redaction des observations qui
font lobjet de cette communication, d’essayer de résoudre le probléme
d’un plan de comparaison commun aux divers nivellements. L’importance
de ce sujet a été déji reconnu plusieurs fois par diverses commissions
internationales. Si, 4 la suite des observations de marée ici rapportées,
chaque gouvernement avait la complaisance de présenter 4 la commission
sa manicre de voir, soit sur le plan de comparaison choisi, soit sur tout
autre qui lui paraitrait préférable, ce serait un pas de gagné ; qui, lui seul,
serait une récompense pour la commission en raison des travaux qu'elle a
enterpris.
Il ne reste plus aux membres de la Commission de 1’Association
Britannique qu’d remercier, en leur nom personnel, les Gouvernements
Frangais et Belge, par l’intermédiaire de leurs Excellences MM. le Minis-
tres des Travaux Publics de chaque pays, aussi bien yue le Gouvernement
Anglais, pour l’appui bienveillant qu’ils ont donné chacun 4 ces obser-
vations des marées. Ils remercieront aussi |’ Association Francaise pour
Vavancement des Sciences, pour le bon accueil qu’elle a fait 4 la propo-
394
REPORT—1880.
sition, et pour les encouragements qu’elle luia donnés. IIs remercieront
encore les observateurs particuliers (trop nombreux pour étre nommés ici)
qui ont si généreusement participé dans l’exécution du projet d’observa-
tions simultanées des marées de la Manche et de la Mer du Nord.
MAREES DE LA MANCHE ET DE LA MER DU NORD.
OBSERVATIONS EN 1878.
1. Observations chaque quart d’heure, de Basse Mer en Basse Mer.
Marée Moment de la haute mer.
‘) Les observations doivent commencer une
terminer qu'une heure apres la derniére
| heure avant la premiére Basse Mer, et ne
de chaque marée.
+ Le moment exact des Hautes et des Basses
(a Douvres).
du 12 Février 5.46 soir.
ao eae | 0.3L,
26 6.37 ;,
13 Mars 5.23 45
20” #3 Oras
27 6.16 ,,
11 Avyrill 5.12) 155
Sa) wis 11.35 matin
ZA A 5.39 soir. )
Mers sera noté ; les autres observations &
chaque quart d’heure exact (de Vhorloge).
Temps moyen de Paris sera observé par-
tout.
2. Observations sur les moments des Hautes et des Basses Mers seulement.
Au mois de Juin
Au mois d’Aott {
i les m,
”
”
”
arées du matin, le 10 au 16 inclusives.
SOU etapa! (imag oe a
matin, , ‘8 ,, 14 a
sont, Tb se23 Be
N.B.—II faudra 4 chaque endroit rattacher le zéro des observations avec le plan
de comparaison des cartes du nivellement de la France. L’état du barométre, et la
direction et force du vent seront notés de temps en temps.
ENDROITS DES
Yarmouth, Douvyres.
Lowestoft. Newhaven.
Harwich. Shoreham.
Sheerness. Portland.
Ramsgate.
OBSERVATIONS,
Mer du Nord, Boulogne.
Entrée du Canal ‘Tréport.
d’Amsterdam. Dieppe.
Flessingue. St. Valéry en Caux.
Ostende. Fécamp.
Dunkerque. Le Havre.
Calais.
1
1
>
o
395
o
ae
os)
| 3
peg
1D
oom AG
Le od
oD 10 bk
19
Drm Oem HY
19 t
cooo MO.
HNO OO1D
ON
219
© 19 15
q
+
_—
19
saqoddeyy
"W'd 09-0 ‘mosgg'g
Wad L¢1 seat bean
‘We 0-1 |upeUoge “
‘Wd 16-€ “ILOS FE" “
"Wd 98-0 soe
‘Wd OL-F *ILOS OT'9 ‘“
‘Nd FOE “ec ame “
Wwaeg.qt |unemggt “
‘Wd 9Z-¢ “ee rag) “
We 16-6 ‘mlos Ze°sL
‘Wd 81-F “ULJVUL OF'9 “
Wd Z-1 “ OF) ec
‘W'd 86-[—| “A108 C3'ST “LS OL
os:
AwN
1
& 1916
ir)
nN
|
| oom
ei
MOM AANA S&
lor or ora)
Heo Ee Ay
‘We 9¢-0—
‘W'd 80:6
Wa 1¢0—
‘Wd )¢.g
‘W'd OF-9
‘Wd 69-:0—
‘Wd 98.g
‘Wd 69-0—
Wd 10-1
"Wd 8[-9
“Wd 96-0
‘Wd 06.4—
“Wd FG-Z
Wd 6Z-g—
‘Wwe TL-0
‘W'd LG-F
‘Wd 8¢.0
‘Wa GE-E
‘Wd 6Z-¢
‘Wd 16-2
“W'd T2.0—
‘Wd 90-2
Wa 96-0—
‘Wd GT
‘WE 8e.9—
So.QI.
ee
“UIqVUL SSE “OB OT
“IPOS ATLL “61 OT
“ULyeU GST T
‘UT;eUr OT
6
‘ILOS 0G'ST
“ULJLUL CFL
“ec
"IPOS CFT
“ULyeU OT'S
“ec
“IOS
“UTPBUL 0)
“ILOS OF F
“ec
“ULPEUL OFF “OZ OT
UTyeUr OS" F ‘TS AT
“ec
“LOS OTF
ee
“UTJVUL OTS “0G OT
Wd 6¢-T “ULJVUL GET ‘8S 2
‘Wd 01-8 ‘Itos gg'g “*
WEHILe | UyVuOrIT “
Wa 16-6 egies
"W'd 6G-¢ ‘It0sOTF
‘Wd GFF | ugeurgg sg “
‘Wd 92.0 <= Og 0 we
| -wag9-T | “os6ry “
‘Wd 91.0 015 0c
| ‘Wd 0G. | UIgeU oE’g ‘16 OT
‘NW'd 7-0 *ILOS OP'S “9 2
$0192
SANaqUB yy sorno yy
saytoddey
axoumbap nee oo] T
axoumbo,p nBd dATA
sina}ney]y
soino}]
6
“
“ee
“
“
ce
‘Wd 9¢.0
“ILOS &'8
(73
(SC) WN
TL-9 ‘Wd 60-1 | as LEIL
16-9 Wa ¢9.Q ‘UyeUr gg")
Folae| Ni 1-G “FFF
‘Wd OF-F Gree
LLL ‘Wd 3&-F “ ere
86-9 | “Wd €8-T “0861
cL ‘Wd 6° “ cee
69-9 Wd OLE ‘IL0S @'ZT
98-2 Wd FE-g | “ULPEUT Ogg
88-L ‘Wd GE.-T Crore
69-G ‘WA Z6-0— “ OF ZI
oF. “W'S GFT “ ZeTL
BLL ‘Wd 18-8 “ILOS ZE'9
06-9 ‘We FZ. | ULVUL FIT
$8:4 ‘Wd 98-6 Sst oh
8E-2 ‘Wd OF-¢ “ILOS JF'S
69-9 Wa $9.7 | UU Z| OT
FE-9 | “Wd €F-0 “ O16
61-9 ‘Wad 88-— | ‘tos ¢q°¢
¢0-9 Wed FI-L “ O0F8
TL-9 Wd 08-1 ‘UTeUL Gard ‘eT ay
FFG =| “Wd €9-0 “ILOS OTL “BI AT
Sol} [Vl
sojroddeyy sanaqne fy somoyy
)
)
:
} + yoruey
)
|
ON THE PHENOMENA OF STATIONARY TIDES IN THE ENGLISH CHANNEL.
AUUTLATONY @ LL)
axouinbda.p nvo o}10JT
* + tuvyeroyg
H
1 + puryytog
J
,
Si
* TOABTMaN
‘ * setanog
ayessulyry
* * ssouro90yg
> *qFO}SOMO'T
* + qqnourre
STOTIVAIOS()
sop s}lorpuyy
a ————
‘SL8T ‘SIV 16 99 ‘0G “ST OT
‘qNON AG NAN VI TO Ia THONVW VI AG SUTUVN SAT UNAS SHANVLTONIS SNOMLVAUASAO
- 6 8
1880.
REPORT
396
DOUBLY Vl Op [VIQUAS JUOUIOT[OATN Np o19Z , Up SNoOssop-ud uwQe.g B Saqtoddva yuos xnwaATU sory
89: ‘W'd 19-§ OG alee ToT Wa OF-0 | UrPVUE ggg “TZ OT
PPL ‘W'd €§-9 ‘mtosgg'q “ 96-6 ‘Wd GL-8 Sieei 8 Ci Giiees
FFF ‘Wd §§- “TROL 'LZ°L| GFT ‘Wd 8E-0 Se CR Qk S
69-F ‘Wd 0€-€ | ULJVUT TS) 8G eT] St-T ‘Wd 91-0 ‘atos 6g'9 SS
91-8 ‘Wd 18-9 ‘Ios QT'9 =“ LO-I1 | ‘Wd 81-6 eet a me
63-F ‘Wd 00-¢ “ GOI ‘L2°| 6F-1 Wa 06-0 |‘unemTgg “
GFF ‘Wad 06-E | ULVUT OST “SZ AT! 6B ‘Wd 000 os OMA es.
$68 ‘Wd 96-9 Se (OO ao. LE-IL | ‘Wad SLO1 ‘0s ¢¢r “
FoF We oS-§ | “AOSOS'ZI ‘LE 9] 9E-T ‘Wa 90-0 |‘uryemEgz9 =“
09-F ‘WE QL-60 | Ulu ep T ‘8g el) TL ‘WE 66-6 te hyOiy
16-2 ‘Wd 93-91 eeogig 0G-0L | ‘Wd 82-8T “mos og'st “
F9-F ‘WE Z6-6L | “MOSCF.Z1 ‘2591, 92-1 ‘Wa FO-OL | UyeugFy,
G9-F ‘Wd G8-O—| ‘UlyeU GGT “8Z OT} OF-G ‘Wa OL-¢— OR pian
09-2 ‘Wd OL-G cesta} age 9F-6 ‘Wd 96- ‘mos gg7er
G6-F Wa g¢.0—| “MOS GT “ZZ9T}| 08-3 ‘Wa 06-E—| Uyeuggy, “
89-F ‘Wd 09-T | ‘ULVUL ZZ.Z ‘8 98T| kag ‘We ST-0 Soe NGG ai aie
EE-L ‘W'd GB.F ie Oude ox" £6-8 ‘W'd 8.9 “MOsgg'er
6L-9 ‘Nd 90-6 “ILOS GT'T ‘2G 9T| 80: WH 00-0 |Unvutog, “
18-4 ‘Wd 86-4 | ‘urgeutga’Z ‘8g eT] 69-¢ We 06-1 69H
Té-L ‘Nd 68-F TN Pig ae 19-8 ‘Wd 81-9 “os gT—T “
TFG ‘Wd 26-6 ‘“II0s g'g = GFE ‘Wd €6-0 PL IOGHN ies
SEL ‘Wd 68-F UP S(O Ee G 11-8 ‘W'd 92.9 - | “ULVU g¢E"( ‘OZ 2]
F9-F ‘Wa 97-6 |uryeurgyT yt = 16-§ ‘WE GFT es +) a a
99-9 ‘Wad 9J.0—| ‘“Mosg¢'g “ 08-8 ‘Nd 66-3 ‘“ItosQZ'G
ThL ‘Wd 0¢-T “ GPL ‘LZ °1| 96-€ ‘We OF. — * 9€'8 ‘06 OT
€9-¢ ‘Wa LOT | ‘Urgvur ggg ‘gg eT} 1F-¢ ‘Wad 98.9 | ‘UlQVUr Qg'0 “TZ 9T
61-9 ‘W'd $3.3 “ogor “ 63-L ‘W'd $1.3 ‘MosoTp “
$8-9 ‘W'S 83-1 ‘mosQgg “ 60-9 ‘Wd $9.0 ‘Ipra osr “
6L-L ‘Wd €9.2 = 09'S) ¥S 66-2 ‘Wd €1-2 CRORES ak
6F- ‘Wa 66-0 | Ulyem g'g‘ZZoT] F1-9 ‘Wa STL | “Uryeargg'¢ ‘0g 2
SAO] So1}oTT
sajtoddy sojaodde
Rare smoynvyT SoANo}T ud Dare sanoqneyy samoyy
*OL1N}OLSUY,p 80390 sap (, [aaa
vag uvop ,) Udfoul nvaATU dT 09AV ONbYUEpT 4so , onDIULTZY We90Q,, op usefOTI neaAIU aT, oOnD yuvsoddns ua ‘Conojepmog ap ausiy)
‘suvq ep mjao 4sa gubrput sdua4 ary —"vit0 N
1o-F ‘We OF-¢ See o
96-9 ‘Wd F8-9 ‘tos ggg =“
GPF ‘Wd GE. |uemcT 64 “
FoF ‘WE OSE “repr. &
Fo-L ‘Wd 63.9 ‘“ulos gg'p
GFF ‘Wd 02-8" “ 89°01 ‘ST eT
TG-F ‘Wa 66-6 | “UlQVUt 0¢'0 ‘FT OT
68-2 ‘Wd 09-9 ‘IOs gt:g =.“
&9-F ‘WE FZ: “ OG TL ‘ET aL
FG-F Wd GS.ZT | UljeU [gO “FI 97
F9-L ‘Wd Z6-ST “aios g¢g"g.
GFT ‘Wd 01-61 | ‘IPlUl O'ZT ‘eT eT
OF-F W'd OT-[—| Ue 09°) ‘FT 21
CFL ‘Wd 96.1 Rot garar — 6
G8-F ‘Wa 89.0—| “IOS [ZI ‘ET 2
6-F ‘Wa FFT | Urea O'T ‘FT eT
StL ‘Wd 9¢.F fo eOIOpe a
80-9 ‘N'd 00-3 *ILOS QTL ‘ST AT
OL-F ‘Wa T9-[ | “ULJVUL ge'y ‘FT eT
16-9 ‘Wd GF-F ae G eine
6L-F ‘WE 06-3 “Mos gTser “
61-L ‘Wd OL-F | UQVUr GT9 “ET OT
L&-F ‘Wd 88-T * 88'°LT ‘ZI OL
9F-9 Wag¢6.0-| “Mosort “
00-8 ‘Wd 69-7 “ 0F'9 ‘ST OT
L¥- ‘Wa 16-0 | UlyVUt OS'F ‘FT OT
6F-9 ‘Wd §6-T 2 AOR
6L-4 ‘Wd $Z-T ‘IL0S (fF «6
FOL ‘Wd 86-3 ON ae
19-9 ‘WE TT-[L | Urywut 09's ‘ET eT
SalI
soq1odde
ot SMojne FT Soine Fy
exournba,p nea 0410]
oxoumba,p nva dATA
DONVUT AC ALE
axoumnba,p nva a0]
.
. * ie
OIAV EL
*oddaiq
+ y10daxy,
ausoTNog
SIEleO
* oenbsoyung
epurysg
ON.SUISSOL IT
tmepr194s
“Ury,p [eur
np s9ayUy
‘PION Np IPL
SUOTIVA.LOSG()
fap S}LoIpury
‘Pani pulogd— AON OG UA VI Xd LH AHONVIT VWI Gd SaaUVI, Sal WAS SHANVLTONIS SNOILVAUASIO
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALHONTOLOGY OF WALES. 397
List of Works on the Geology, Mineralogy, and Paleontology of
Wales (to the end of 1873). By WiLL1aM WuitakeR, B.A., F.G.S.,
of the Geological Survey of England.
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in ewtenso among
the Reports. ]
1. Preratory Norice.
Tats List, in which Monmouthshire is included with Wales, forms one of
a set, the parts published or in the press being as follows :—
CamprincesHire. Pp. 15. Privately printed, University Press, Cam-
bridge (1873). Reprinting, with additions, in the Geological Survey
Memoir on the Neighbourhood of Cambridge.
Cursuire. Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. pp. 127-147 (1876).
Cornwatt. Journ. R. Inst. Cornwall, No. xvi. pp. 61-110 (1875).
DevonsHireE. Trans. Devon. Assoc. (1870), pp. 330-352, and vol. v. pp.
404-415 (1872).
Fentanp. By 8. B. J. Sxerrcuty, pp. 306-313 of the Geological Survey
Memoir on that district (1877).
GLOUCESTERSHIRE and SomerRseTsHirE. By W. Wairaker and H. B.
Woopwarp, pp. 216-255 of the Geological Survey Memoir on the EH.
Somerset and the Bristol Coal-fields (1876).
Hamesuire Basin. Journ. Winchester and Hants Set. and Lit. Soc. (1873),
pp. 108-127.
HertrorpsHire. Trans. Watford Nat. Hist. Soc. vol. i, pt. 3, pp. 78-82
(1876).
Lake District (N. part). By J. C. Warp [and W. Wuiraxer], pp. 113=
125 of the Geological Survey Memoir on the district (1876).
LANCASHIRE (part). Pp. 191-218 of the Geological Survey Memoir on the
Burnley Coal-field (1875).
Lonpon Basin (part). Pp. 393-421 of Geological Survey Memoirs, vol. iv.
(1872).
NorrivcHamsHire. Pp. 47-50 of the Geological Swrvey Memoir on sheet
71, N.E., ed. 2 (in the press).
RorLanp (and parts of adjoining counties). Pp. 294-801 of the Geological
Survey Memoir on the district, sheet 64 (1875).
peace Rep. Rugby School Nat. Hist. Soc. for 1873, pp. 66-76
(1874).
Weatp. By W. Toptey, pp. 446-483 of the Geological Survey Memoir on
the Weald (1875).
Witrsutre. Mag. Wilts. Archeol. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xiv. pp. 107-121
(1873).
Yorksuire. Pp. 281-320 of Prof. J. Pumurrs’ Illustrations of the Geology
of Yorkshire, part 1, ‘The Yorkshire Coast,’ ed. 3 (1875). Partly re-
printed, with additions, in the Geological Survey Memoir on the York-
shire Coalfield, pp. 786-806 (1878).
398
REPORT—1880.
2. Inpex or AUTHORS, WITH THE NOS. PREFIXED TO THEIR WORKS.
Accum, — 141
Adams, W. 511, 550, 551, 596, 597, 618
Aikin, A. 131, 16s, 186
Aitken, J. 598, 599
Anon. 110, 113, 151, 165, 179, 190, 196,
222, 263, 354, 391, 404, 419, 446, 552,
632, 652
Ansted, Prof. D. T. 355
Anstie, J. 83
Aubry, — 109
Aveline, W. T. 2, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13-16, 24,
26, 27, 29-32, 34, 36, 42-46, 55, 57, 58,
67-79, 81, 94, 293
Babbage, C. 228
Banks, R, W. 341
Barrande, J. 307, 619
Barrat, J. 378
Bate, 8. 295
Bauerman, H. 80, 81
Beaumont, E’de. 181, 187
Beckett, H. 434, 653
Beddoes, Dr. T. 129
Bedlington, R. 481
Belt, T. 512, 513
Benson, 8. 296, 297
Bevan, Dr. P. G. 356-358, 367, 368, 379-
381, 392, 447, 553
Bigsby, Dr. J. J. 3869
Bingley. Rev. W. 152
Binney, E. W. 308, 382, 405, 448, 514, 620
Bishop, W. 171
Blake, C. C. 406
Bonney, Rev. Prof. T. G. 515, 516, 575
Booker, ‘T. W. 212, 290° ;
Bostock, R. 554
RBowinanhy J. EH. 229, 248-250, 254
Boyd, C. 140.
Brady, H. B. 614, 654
Bretherton, EH. 342
Bristow, H. W. 1, 2, 15, 16, 25, 66-71, 98,
° 517
Brown, T. F. 449
Buckland, Rev. Prof. W. 172,
251, 255, 256, 264, 269, 298
Burr, ¥. 230, 231, 236, 243
Byres, R. W. 270
LG, ETC
Calvert, J. 323
Carruthers, W. 621, 655
Clark, G. T. 631
Clarke, Dr. E. D. 160
Clement, J. H. 420
Conybeare, Rev: J. J. 169
Conybeare, Rev. W. D. 177, 202, 213
Crutwell, A. 633
Curley, T. 555
Da Costa, E. M. 124
Daniel, E. 99-102
Darbishire, R.
Darlington, G.
Darwin, C. 257
Daubeny, Prof. C. 191, 197
Davidson, T. 329, 393, 422, 482, 518, 557,
576, 622
Davies, D. C. 370, 435, 436, 450-456, 519,
520, ‘600, 656, 657
Davies, W. 147
Davis, J. E. 280, 304
Dawkins, Prof. W. B. 521,
Dean, A.,274, 275
De la Beche, Sir H. T. 2-4, 6-10, 20, 41,
55-57, 64, 65, 88-90, 94-96, 103, 104,
184, 192, 207, 276, 309
Delesse, — 317
Dickinson, J. 281, 631
Donovan, — 138
Duckworth, H. 394, 423
Dufrénoy, P. A. 180, 181, 187
Duncan, Prof. P. M. 507, 522
ci 22;
577
D. 421, 556, 574
407
558, 601
523, 559,
Egerton, Sir P. De M. G. 305
Eskrigge, R. A. 457, 483, 560
Etheridge, R. 98, 106e, 634
Evans, F. G. 602, 635
Evans, Rev. J. 143
Eyton, Miss, 484, 561
Fairbairn, W. 258, 348
Falconer, Dr. H. 383, 437, 562
Farey, J. 148, 149, 154
Flight, Dr. W. 640
Forbes, D. 349, 524, 525, 563, 603
Forbes, Prof. E. 104, 106a, 271, 293
Forster, F. 1.93
Fosbroke, J. 166
Fothergill, W. 604
Fox, R. W. 203
Freeman, E. A. 345
Gages, A. 371
Gilby, Dr. W. H. 161, 167
Glass, N. 395
Glassbrook, — 438
Green, Prof. A. H. 526
Greenwood, Col. G. 485
Gregory, J. R. 354 (?), 396
Griffith, N. R. 605
Griffiths, Rev. H. 527 _
Gruner, — 424
Haime, J. 320, 339
Hall, C. R. 458
Hall, H. F. 486, 564, 606
Ham, J, 237
Harkness, Prof. R. 528, 623
Hassall, C. 144
Hatchett, C. 136
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALHONTOLOGY OF WALES.
Haughton, Rev. Prof. 8. 330-332, 343
Henry, Dr. W. 194
Henslow, Rev. Prof. J. 8. 173
Henwood, W. J. 208, 318, 350, 624
399
Meade, R. 106b
Mello, Rev. J. M. 533, 534
Menteath, J. 8. 204
Meunier, C,. 645
Hicks, H. 439, 473, 487, 529, 530, 541, | Meyrick, 8. R. 142
578-580, 593, 607, 623, 636, 658, 659
Higgins, W. M. 565
Holl, Dr. H. B. 460
Hooker; Dr. W. 104
Hopkins, W. 324
Hopkinson, J. 581, 608, 637, 660
Howell, — 141
Hull, Prof. E. 27, 31, 32, 45, 47, 81, 82,
384, 408-410, 582
Hunt, R. 104, 106b, 459, 566
Huxley, T. H. 106e
James, T. E. 2, 10-12, 15, 59, 60, 66
Jenkins, T. L. 638
Johnson, C. 283
Johnson, W. R. 252
Johnston, Prof. J. F. W. 238
Jones, Prof. T. R. 338, 344, 460, 609, 636
Jones, W. B. 345
Joseph, T. 610, 625
Jukes, J. B. 26, 29, 30-32, 36, 42, 43, 72-
74; 76, 78, 79, 291, 359, 461, 626
Kelly, J. 385
Kidd, Dr. J. 153, 155
Kingsley, W. 661
Kirwan, R. 132
Klaproth, M. H. 135
Lankester, Prof. E. R. 662
Lau, — 424
Lee, J. E. 611, 663
Lentin, A. G. L, 133
Lévy, — 182
Lewis, W. T. 612
Lihwyd, Lloyd or Llwyd, E. 108, 111, 112,
1154119
Linden, Dr. D. W. 121
Logan, Sir W. E. 2, 3, 8, 61-63, 84-87, 90,
239, 259
Lucy, W. C. 664
McConnochie, — 567, 568
M‘Coy, Prof. I’. 299, 306, 310-313, 319, 340
MacCulloch, Dr. J. 189
M‘Cullough, Dr. D. M. 583
Macintosh, A FF. 277
Mackintosh, D. 489-492, 569,
665
Maclauchlan, H. 260
Mallet, R. 411, 425
Manisty, G. E. 585
Marecou, J. 488
Martin, E. 137 -
Maskelyne, Prof. N. 8. 640
Matthews, E. 122
Maw, G. 440, 462-464, 493-495, 5:
* 570, 571, 613
584, 639,
co
rear
or
oo
bo
Miller, Prof. W. H. 261
Milne- Edwards, Prof. H. 320, 339
Moggridge, M. 346
Moore, C. 535, 614
Moore, IT’. J. 536
Morris, Prof. J. 360
Morris, Dr. M, 126
Morton, G. H. 426, 496, 497, 586, 627
Mostyn, R. 107
Murchison, Dr. C. 562
Murchison, Sir R. I. 209, 214-219, 223,
225, 244, 284, 285, 322, 333, 482
Murlon, H. 232
Mushet, D. 139, 145
Muspratt, Dr. 5. 465
Ness, W. 466
Newton, E. T. 106e
Nicholson, Dr. H. A. 615, 641
Nixon, EH. 498
Noad, Dr. — 397
Owen, G. 130
Owen, Prof. R. 265, 467, 587
Paris, Dr. J. A. 163
Pattison, 8. R. 372, 388
Pennant, T. 123, 127
Perceval, 8. G. 499
Perey, Dr. J. 397, 441
Phillips, Prof. J. 1, 4, 6, 7, 56, 57, 95, 96,
104a, 198, 273, 351
Phillips, J. A. 412
Phillips, R. 178
Phillips, W. 174
Phipson, Dr. T. L. 468
Plant, John, 500, 501
Playfair, Dr. L. 104
Prestwich, Prof. J. 383
Prichard, Dr. J. C. 156
Prosser, W. 469
Purton, W. 502, 666
Ramsay, Prof. A. C. 1, 4, 6, 7, 13-20, 23-
27, 29-32, 34-36, 39-43, 46, 55, 57-60,
67-74, 77, 80, 103, 105, 106c, 292, 293,
300, 314, 821, 325, 334, 361, 386, 398,
413, 427, 642
Rawlinson, R. 503
Read, C. 8. 301
Readwin, T. A. 362, 387, 399, 400, 414,
415, 428, 442, 470, 628
Reed, L. E. 199
Reeks, T. 106d
Rees, J. 4, 6, 10, 11, 55, 94
Rees, T. 157
Reynolds, M. 612
| Richards7n, J. 286, 302
400 REPORT—1880.
Ricketts, Dr. C. 537, 572, 629, 643 Thomas, D, 648
Riley, E. 397, 416, 441, 644 Thomas, J. E. 546, 667
Roberts, D. W. 589, 616 Thomson, E. P. 183
Roberts, G. E. 363, 401, 471 Thomson, W. 200
Rogers, H. 373 Tooke, A. W. 234
Rowlands, H. 120 Townshend, Rey. J. 150
Rowlandson, T. 287 Traill, Dr. T. S. 170
Rudler, F. W. 106d Trevelyan, Sir W. C. 279, 328
Rutty, Dr. J. 125 Trimmer, J. 201, 242, 245, 246, 316:
Tylor, A. 595
Salter, J. W. 58, 104a-106a, 293, 315, 325,
326, 335, 347, 352, 374, 388, 396, 429- | Vaux, F. 303
431, 443, 444, 472-475, 487, 504, 505, | Verneuil, — de, 226
530, 538-541, 573, 590-593 Victor-Frére-Jean, F. 185
Samuel, W. 574 Vivian, H. H. 99-102, 631
Sandford, W. A. 558 Vivian, Capt. W. 375, 376 ? ;
Scheurer-Kestner, A. 645 Vivian, W. 649, 650 ht same]
Sedgwick, Rev. Prof. A. 210, 211, 220, | Voelcker, Dr. A. 366, 508
224, 225, 240, 253, 266, 272, 278, 288,
322, 336, 340 Wallace, A. R. 547
Selwyn, A. R. 22, 23, 26, 28, 29, 33-43, | Waller, W. 115
67-74, 77, 291 Watson, Dr. J. J. W. 377
Sharpe, D. 267, 282, 289 Watson, — 337
Sloane, Dr. H. 112 Weston, — 397
Smith, Rev. G. N. 391 (?), 402, 432, 506 Whitley, N. 268
Smith, J. D. 477 Williams, Rev. D. 227
Smith, W. 156, 162, 273 Williams, D. H. 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 31, 82,
Smyth, W. W. 20, 40, 41, 44-47, 103, 104, 45, 55, 64-66, 82, 91-93, 97
106d, 417 Williams, J. 128
Sopwith, T. 262 389
Sorby, H. C. 327, 364, 365 Williams, W. 134
Sowerby, G. B. 241 Williams, W. M. 479
Sowerby, J. 145, 159, 168, 175 Williamson, E. 501
Stanley, Rev. E. 205 ‘ Winwood, Rev. H. H. 480
Steel, T. D. 542 Wood, 8. V. jun. 617
Stoddart, W. W. 476 Woods, 8. 174, 247
Stokes, C. 233 Woodward, H. 651
Struvé, W. P. 62, 294 Woodward, H. B. 2, 3, 83
Symonds, Rev. W. 8. 353, 403, 445, 478, | Wright, Dr. T. 390, 433
543, 594, 630, 646, 647 Wright, T. 418
Wyatt, J. 235
Tate, R. 544, 545 Wyatt-Edgell, H. 509, 510, 548, 549
Tawney, E. B. 507
Taylor, R. C. 221 Yates, Rev. J. 188, 206
Thomas, A. 195
3. GroLocicaL Survey PUBLICATIONS.
I have to thank my colleague, Mr. W. Topley, for aid in this part of the List, which
includes a few works issued after 1873.
Sheets of the Map (scale, an inch to a mile).
(1) 35. N.W. part (Chepstow). By H. D. Witt1ums, J. Paris, and
A. C. Ramsay. 1845. Additions, by H. W. Bristow, 1865.
(2) 36 (Merthyr, Bridgend, Cowbridge, Cardiff, Newport, Pontypool).
By Sir H. T. De ta Becue, Sir W. E. Logan, D. H. Witu1ams, W. T.
AveELINe, and T. E. James. No date. Revisions, by H. W. Bristow and
H. B. Woopwarp, 1873.
(3) 37 (Gower, Swansea, Neath, Llanelly). By Sir W. E. Logan and
Sir H. T. De 1a Brcuz. No date. Revisions (S.E. margin), by H. B.
Woopwarp, 1872.
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALHZONTOLOGY OF WALES. 401
(4) 38 (Milford, Pembroke, Tenby). By Sir H. T. Dr 1a Becue,
A. C. Ramsay, J. Poituirs, D. H. Witiiams, W. T. Avetine, and J. Rens.
No date.
(5) 39 (Bishop and Clerks, islands). No date.
(6) 40 (St. David’s, Haverfordwest, Narberth, Newport). By Sir
H, T. De ta Becuz, J. Paitiips, A. C. Ramsay, H. D. Witurams, W. T.
Aveting, and J. Rezs. 1845. Additional lines, by W. T. AvEtine, 1857.
(7) 41 (Caermarthen, Llandeilo, Llandovery, Neweastle-Emlyn). By
Sir H. T. Dr 1a Becue, J. Puiiurrs, and A. C. Ramsay. 1845. Additional
lines, by W. T. Avetiny, 1857.
(8) 42, S.W. (S.W. Brecknockshire). By Sir H. T. Dr 1a Becnz,
[Sir] W. E. Locan, and D. H. Witurams. No date.
(9) 42, S.E. (Abergavenny, Crickhowel). By Sir H. T. Dr 1a Brcwe
and D. H. Wittiams. No date.
(10) 42, N.W. (Brecknock). By Sir H. T. De 1a Bucun, W. T. Avz-
LINE, J. Reus, and T. EH. Jamus, 1845. Additional lines, by W. T. AveLie.
1857.
(11) 42, N.E., greater part (Talgarth, Hay). By W.T. Aveting, T. E.
James, and J. Rens. No date.
(12) 43, S.W., W. part (Monmouth). By D. H. Wituams and T. E.
JAMES.
(13, 14) 56, S.W. (Builth) and N.W. (Rhayader). By A. C. Ramsay
and W. T. Avetine. 1850.
(15) 56, S.E., greater part (New Radnor). By A. C. Ramsay, W. T.
AvELINE, H. W. Bristow, and T. KE. Jamus. 1850.
(16) 56, N.E., greater part (Knighton). By A. C. Ramsay, W. T.
AYELINE, and H. W. Bristow. 1850.
(17-19) 57, S.W. (Aberafron), N.W., and 8.E. (Tregaron). By A. C.
Ramsay. 1848.
(20) 57, N.E. (Aberystwyth). By A. C. Ramsay. The Lodes by Sir
H. De 1a Becuz and W. W. Smyru. 1848.
(21) 58 (Cardigan). No date.
(22) 59, S.H. (Coast S.W. of Machynlleth). By A. R. Sxtwyy.
1848
(23) 59, N.E. (Coast N.W. of Machynlleth). By A. C. Ramsay and
A. R. Serwyy. 1850. Corrections, 1855.
(24) 60, S.W. (Llanidloes). By A. C. Ramsay and W. T. Avenine.
1850.
(25) 60, S.E., W. part (Montgomery, Newtown). By A. C. Ramsay
and H. W. Bristow. 1850.
(26) 60, N.W. (Dinas, Llanfair). By A. C. Ramsay, A. R. SELwyy,
W. T. Avetine, and J. B. Juxes. 1851. Additions, 1855.
(27) 60, N.E., greater part (Welshpool). By A. C. Ramsay, W. T.
AVELINE, and EH. Hunt. 1850. Additions, 1855.
(28) 73, N.E., small part at N.W. By A. R. Senwyy. 1857.
(29) 74, S.W. (Bala). By A.C. Ramsay, J. B. Juxes, W. T. AVELINE,
and A. R. Senwyy. 1850. Corrections, 1855.
(30) 74, N.W. (Corwen). By A. C. Ramsay, J. B. Juxzs, and W. T.
Avetine. 1850. Corrections, 1855.
(31, 32) 74, S.E., W. half (Llanrhaiadr), and N.E., nearly all (Llan-
gollen, Wrexham). By A. C. Ramsay, J. B. Juxus, W. T. AVELINE, D.
Witiiams, and EK. Hunn. 1850. Corrections, 1855.
(33) 75, S.W. (Pwllheli). By A. R. Sznwyn. 1851.
1880. DD
402 REPORT— 1880.
(34) 75, S.E. (Harlech). By A. C. Ramsay, A. R. Senwyn, and W. T,
Avetinge. 1851. Corrections, 1855.
(35) 75, N.W. (Nevin). By A. C. Ramsay and A. R. Sezwyn. 1850.
(36) 75, N.E. (Tremadoc). By A. C. Ramsay, A. R. Srtwry, W. T.
Avene, and J. B. Juxes. 1851. “Additions, 1854.
- (37, 38) 76, S. and N. (E. end of Carnarvonshire). By A. R. Senwyy.
1850.
(39) 77, N. (Holyhead). By A. C. Ramsay and A. R. Sunwyy. 1852.
(40) 78, S.W. (Carnarvon, S. Anglesea). By A. C. Ramsay, W. W.
Suytg, and A. R. Senwyy. 1852.
(41) 78, N.W. (N. Anglesea). By Sir H. Dr 1a Becun, A. C. Ramsay,
W. W. Smyru, and A. R. Setwyn. 1852.
(42, 43) 78, S.E. (Bangor, Beaumaris, Llanrwst), and N.E. (Conway).
By A. C. Ramsay, W. T. Avetine, A. R. Setwyn, and J. B. Juxes. 1852.
(44) 79, S.W. (Denbigh, St. Asaph). By W.T. Avenine. The Lodes
W. W. Suyre. 1850.
(45) 79, S.E., nearly all (Flint, Mold). By W. W. Smyrna, D. H.
Wituams, W. T. Averine, and E. Hurr. 1850.
(46) 79, N.W. (Abergele). By A. C. Ramsay, W. T. Avetine, and
W. W. Smuyrx. 1850.
(47) 79, N.E., S.W. corner (N. of Holywell). By W. W. Smyru and
EK. Hutn. 1850.
(48) 80, S.W., small piece at S.W. corner. By E. Hunt. 1855.
Sheets of Index Map (scale, 4 miles to an inch).
(49) 9. (St. David’s, Pembroke, Swansea, Llandovery.) 1858.
(50) 10. (Brecon, Monmouth, Newport, Cardiff, Chepstow.) 1858.
New. ed. 1874.
(51) 14. (Aberystwyth, Cardigan.) 1858.
(52) 15. (Montgomery, Builth.) 1858.
(53) 19. (Anglesey, Carnarvon, Bangor.) 1858.
(54) 20. (Flint, Llangollen, Wrexham.) 1858.
Sheets of ‘ Horizontal Sections’ (scale, 6 inches to a mile).
(55) 1. Section 1—From St. Bride’s Bay, near Solva, to the North
Chiff of Ynys-y-Barry. By A. C. Ramsay and W.T. Avetiyn. Section 2
—Across Pembroke from St. Govan’s Head to Dinas Head, near Fish-
guard. ‘By Sir H. De 1a Buca, A. C. Ramsay, W. T. Avetine, J. Rens,
and D. H. Wintiams. 1845.
(56) 2. Section 1—From the sea, near Tenby . . . . to Landewi
Velfrey, Pembroke. Section 2—From near Cil-rhew . .\. . to near
Hendre, Pembroke. Section 3—Through Pant Yiar and Clog-y-Fran,
Caermarthen. Section 4—From Laugharne to the river Dewi-Fawr, Caer-
marthen. Section 5—From Maes Gwrda to Mydrim, Caermarthen.
Section 6—Across the Traps and Conglomerates of Pen-y-Moelfre, S.W.
of Caermarthen. By Sir H. Dr ta Bucur and J. Puups. 1844.
(57) 3. Section 1—Near Llandeilo, from Cerrig-dwfn to Mynydd-
banc-y-ffair. Section 2—From near Llandibie to Llangathen. Section 3
—From the Black. Mountain, near Llangadoc, to Cefn-llwyn-hir, near
Cynfil-Cays. By Sir H. Dm 1a Becue, J. Purnuies, A. C. Ramsay, and
W.T. ‘Avetinge. 1844.
(58) 4. Section from the Old Red Sandstone, Mynydd-Bwlch-y-groes,
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALEONTOLOGY OF WALES. 403
Brecknock, to Craig-ddu, Cardigan Bay. ... . By A.C. Ramsay. 1845.
Correction, by W. T. Avetine, 1856, Notes on the Fossils by J. W.
Satrer, 1857.
(59) 5. Section across the Old Red Sandstone and underlying Rocks,
from the Black Mountain range S.H. of Glasbury, to Allt-wen, Cardigan
Bay, near Aberystwyth. By A. C. Ramsay and T. H, James. 1845.
Additions in 1858.
(60) 6. Section 1—Continuation of Sheet 5. Section 2—Across the
Silurian Rocks, from Gwaun Ceste to Rhiw Gwraidd, Radnor. By A. C.
Ramsay (? and T. E. James). No date (? 1845).
(61) 7. Section 1—Across the Coalfield of South Wales, from the
Mountain Limestone near Mynydd Garreg to the Mountain Limestone near
Spiritsail Tor, Gower. Section 2—On the North Crop of the South
Welsh Coalfield, from Brondyne Hill to the Mountain Limestone near
Yr Hen Coed, Caermarthen. Section 3—From Penclawdd,... . to
Oxwich Point, Gower. By [Sir] W. E. Locay. No date.
(62) 8. Section across the Coal Measures of Caermarthenshire and
Glamorganshire from the Carboniferous Limestone on the north of Cot-
tage Hall, to the Sea, in Caswell Bay. By [Sir] W. HE. Locan and W. P.
Srruve. No date.
(63) 9. Section 1—Across the South Wales Coalfield, from Craig and
Cefn Drim to the Mountain Limestone at Caswell Bay, Gower, Glamor-
‘gan. Section2—From Cilfay Hill, Swansea, to Castell Craig Cennen . . .
By [Sir] W. E. Locay. No date.
(64) 10. Section 1—Across part of the Coalfield of Glamorgan, from
near Bryn Cethin Uchaf to Blaen Afon. Section 2—Across part of the
Coalfield of Glamorgan, from Mynydd Moel Genlam to Mynydd Llandy-
fodwg. Section 3—<Across part of the Coal Field of Glamorgan, from the
Ogmore near Bryn Menyn to Blaen Afou. Section 4—Coal Measures of
Glamorgan, from Trecastell to the Rhondda. By Sir H. De 1a Becun
and D. H. Wiiurams. No date.
(65) 11. Section near the Bendrick Rock, near Barry Island, Glamor-
gan, to Allt Llwyd, Brecknock. By Sir H. T. Dz 1a Becuu and D. H.
Wuitrums. 1848.
(66) 12. Section from the Ebwy River, near Cefn Crib, Monmouth,
across the Forest of Dean... . By T. HE. Jamus, H. W. Brisrow, and
D. H. Witttams. No date.
(67, 68) 26 and 27. From Cardigan ‘Bay over Cader Idris... .
to Fern Hall, 8. of Kington Hereford. By A. C. Ramsay, A. R. Senwyn,
W. T. Avetine, and H. W. Bristow. 1852.
(69-71) 28, 29, and 30. Section from Llanfair-is-gaer, Menai Straits,
over Snowden ... . to the Old Red Sandstone near Ludlow. By
A. C. Ramsay, A. R. Setwyy, W. T. Avenine, and H. W. Bristow. 1853.
(72-74) 31, 32, and 33 (part). Section from the Suspension Bridge
Menai Straits [to the river Camlad, 6 miles 8.E. of Welshpool]. By A.C.
Ramsay, A. R. Senwry, W. T. Avetine, and J. B. Juxes. 1854.
(75) 34, Section from the Vale of Severn, near Welshpool, Mont-
gomeryshire, to Corne Dale, Shropshire. . ... . By W. T. Avetine.
1854.
(76) 35. From Cwm Cywen, 44 miles N.E. of Bala, over Cader Ber-
wyn, the Breidden Hills... .. By J. B. Jukes and W. T. Avetinn.
1853.
(77) 37. Section from Harlech, Cardigan Bay, . , . . over the Ber-
DD2
404 REPORT—1880.
wyns to the Carboniferous Limestone near Oswestry. By A. C. Ramsay,
W. T. Avenine, and A. R. Serwrn. 1854.
(78) 38. Section 1—Continuation of section on Sheet 37. Section 2
—Hrom 33 miles W.N.W. of Meifod, Montgomery, to the head of the Vale
of Clwyd. By J. B. Juxns and W. T. Avenine. 1855.
(79) 39. Section from Arenig-fawr to the Coal Measures, near Wrex-
ham. By J. B. Joxes and W. T. Aveninn, 1855.
(80) 40. Section from Porth Llanlliana ... . across Anglesea to
the Menai Straits. Section across Anglesea from Point Ailianus to the
Menai Bridge. By A. C. Ramsay and H. Baverman. 1857.
(81) 43. Across the Wenlock Shale W. of Ruthin, the .... Vale of
Clwyd; the Flintshire Coal Field between Mold and the Dee. By Wee:
Ave.ine, EK. Huu, and H. Baverman. 1858.
(82) 44. No. 1—Across the Denbighshire Coalfield, through Bwlch
Gwyn and Brymbo; the Permian Rocks North of Wrexham... . . By
D. H. WituaMs and E. Hurt. No. 2—Through Tan-y-Castell across
the Denbighshire Coal-field. . .. . By D. H. Wiriiams. 1858.
(83) 107. Section from Portskewet in Monmouthshire, across the
River Severn at New Passage... . . By J. Aystiz and H. B. Woopwarp.
1875.
Sheets of ‘ Vertical Sections’ (scale, 40 feet to an inch).
(84) 1. Section at Moreb, Pembray, Trim Saran, Cil Rhedyn, and
Mynydd Garreg to the bottom of the Mountain Limestone, Cwn Caer Cefn.
By [Sir] W. E. Locay. No date.
(85) 2. The Coal Measures at Llwehwr and Penclawdd, Glamorgan.
By [Sir] W. E. Locan. No date.
(86) 3. From Werndu Seam of Coal to the Two-feet Seam, Cwm Afon
Section at Brondine, Pont-yates, Maensant, and Yr Hencoed. By [Sir]
W. E. Locay. No date.
(87) 4. Section of the Coal Measures near Llandebie, Caermarthen ;
Cwm Twrch, Brecknock ; Cwm Gwendraeth; Lansamlet, near Swansea ;
Bryn Coch Dyffryn, Neath. By [Sir] W. E. Locay. No date.
(88) 5. The South Welsh Coal Measures from Penllergare, Glamor-
gan, to near Tair Carn, and Pant-y-gwaslad, Caermarthen. By Sir H.
De ta Becue. No date.
(89) 6. The Coal Measures from Penllergare to Bishopston, near
Swansea. By Sir H. De ta Becue. No date. e
(90) 7. The Coal Measures at Llangeinor, Glamorgan. By Sir H. Dr
LA Becue and [Sir] W. E. Locan. No date.
(91) 8. The Coal Measures in South Wales and Monmouth. By D.
H. Wittiams. No date.
(92) 9. The Lower or Ironstone Coal Measures in Glamorgan and
Monmouth, illustrative of their decrease from Aberdare eastward to
Abersychan, By D. H. Wittiams. No date. nan
(93) 10. Diagram illustrating the variation of the principal Coal
Seams in their range from Merthyr Tydvil to Pont-y-pool (scale 3 feet to
aninch). By D. H. Wittiams. No date. ;
(94) 12. Illustrative of the passage of the Old Red Sandstone into the
Carboniferous Limestone in South Wales. By Sir H. Ds ta Becus,
A. C. Ramsay, W. T. Avetine, and J. Rezs.. No date. :
(95) 13. Section of the Old Red Sandstone and Silurian Rocks (of
South Wales). By Sir H. Dr 1a Becue and Prof. J. Purtuirs. No date.
TS, Saas See
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALHONTOLOGY OF WALES. 405
(96) 14. Through the Tilestone and Upper and Lower Silurian Strata ;
at Golden Grove near Llandeilo and in the bed of the Sawdde River,
near Llangadoc. By Sir H. De 1a Browse and Prof, J. Pumuirs. No
date.
(97) 24. Section of the Coal Measures between Sweeney Mountain
near Oswestry and Brymbo N.W. of Wrexham. By D. H. Wuriams.
No date.
(98) 47. Section of the Lower Lias and Rhetic or Penarth Beds
of Glamorgan. By H. W. Bristow and R. Evneripar, 1873.
(99) 53. Section of the Coal-Measures . . . . from Glyncorrwg
Fault to Pembrey Bar Fault; on the South Crop, north of Anticlinal.
By H. H. Vivian and E. Dantet, 1873.
(100) 57. Section of the Coal Measures .... from Glyncorrwg
Fault to Pembury Bar Fault; South of Anticlinal. By H. H. Vivian and
EH. Dante, 1874.
(tor) 58. Section of the Coal Measures... . from Glyncorrwg
Fault to Pembury Bar Fault on the North Crop. By H. H. Vivran and
E. Dante, 1874.
(102) 59. Section of the Coal Measures... . from Glyncorrwg
Fault to Pembury Bar Fault on the North Crop. By H. H. Vivian and
E. Dantet, 1876.
Memoirs (8vo, London).
(103) Vol. i. (1846). Sir H. Dir ta Becur. ‘On the Formation of
the Rocks of South Wales and South-western England,’ pp. 1-296.—
Prof. A. C. Ramsay. ‘On the Denudation of South Wales and the adja-
cent Counties . . . . pp. 297-335.—W. W. Smyru. ‘Note on the Gogo-
fau or Ogofau Mine,’ pp. 480-484.
(104) Vol. ii. part 2 (1848). Dr. W. Hooker. ‘Remarks on the
Structure and Affinities of some Lepidostrobi,’ p. 440 (Wales, pl. 7).—
Prof. E. Forsres. ‘On the Asteriade found fossil in British Strata’
(Wales, p. 463), and ‘On the Cystidexw of the Silurian Rocks of the
British Islands’ (Wales, pp. 512-516, 518, 521-523).—Sir H. De La
Becue and Dr. L, Puayrarr. ‘First Report on the Coals suited to the
Steam Navy’ (Wales, pp. 550, 571-588, 593-600, 610, 621, &c.).—R.
Hunt. ‘Notices of the History of the Lead Mines of Cardiganshire,’ pp.
635-654.—W. W. Smyru. ‘On the Mining Districts of Cardiganshire
and Montgomeryshire,’ pp. 655-684.
(104a) Vol. ii. part 1 (1848). J. Puitures. The Malvern Hills, com-
pared with the Palozoic Districts of Abberly, Woolhope, May Hill,
Tortworth and Usk [refers to South Wales], pp. 1-330. Palzontological
Appendix, by J. Puriurs and J. W. Satrer, pp. 331-386.
(105) Vol. iii. (1866). ‘The Geology of North Wales.’ By Prof.
A. C. Ramsay. With an Appendix on the Fossils. By J. W. Sarrmr.
(106) The Iron Ores of Great Britain. Part 3. South Wales. Pp.
106-236 (1861). Notes on the Fossils. By J. W. Satrer (pp. 219-
236).
(1060) Figures and Descriptions illustrative of British Organic
Remains. Decade I. Asteriade and Echinide, by Prof. H. Forsus, 1849.
Decade II. Trilobites, by Prof. E. Forses and J. W. Sarrer, 1849.
Decade VIT. Trilobites, by J. W. Sanrer, 1853. Decade. XI. Trilobites,
by J. W. Satter, 1864.
(106b) Catalogue of the Contents of the Mining Record Office . . .
406 REPORT— 1880.
consisting of Plans and Sections of Mines and Collieries .... By R.
Hunt and R. Meapr, 1858.
(106c) A Descriptive Catalogue of the Rock Specimens in the
Museum of Practical Geology, with Explanatory Notices of their Nature
and Mode of Occurrence in Place, 1858. By A. C. Ramsay, &e. Ed. 2,
1859; Ed. 3, 1862.
(1067) A Catalogue of the Mineral Collections in the Museum of
Practical Geology, with Introductory and Explanatory Remarks. By
W. W. Suytu, T. Renxs, and F. W. Rupier, 1864.
(106e) A Catalogue of the Collection of Fossils in the Museum of
Practical Geology, with an Explanatory Introduction, 1865. By T. H.
Houxtey and R. Eruerrmce. [Practically a new ed. in parts.—‘‘ A Cata-
logue of the Cambrian and Silurian Fossils in the Museum of Practical
Geology,” and ‘‘A Catalogue of the Tertiary and Post Tertiary Fossils
in the Museum of Practical Geology”? (Moel-y-Tryfan Shells, p. 81).
By T. H. Hoxtzy, R. Ernerrmcs, and EH. T. Newroon, 1878. ]
4. Books, Parrers, &c., CHRONOLOGICALLY ARRANGED.
J
This list does not extend beyond 1873, after which date the yearly Geological Record
notices all works on Geology.
1677
(107) Mostyn, R. A Relation of some strange phenomena, accom-
panied with mischievous effects in a Cole-work in Flint-shire. Phil.
Trans. vol. xii. (No. 136), p. 895.
1684.
(108) Lnoyp, E. An Account of a Sort of Paper made of Linum
Askestinum found in Wales. Phil. Trans. vol. xiv. (No. 166), p. 823.
1697.
(109) Ausry, —. Part of a Letter concerning a Medicated Spring in
Glamorganshire. Phil. Trans. vol. xix. (No. 233), p. 727.
1698.
(110) Anon.? (? Title.) [Old Lead and Silver Mines. A description
of the Lead and Silver Mines worked in 1698, in the vicinity of Eskir
Hir ... .]| Map and plans.
(111) Liawyp, E. Part of a Letter concerning several regularly
Figured Stones, lately found by him. Phil. Trans. vol. xx. (No. 243), p.
279.
1699.
(112) Luwyp, [E.] Part of a Letter concerning a Figured Stone
found in Wales, with a Note on it by Dr. H. Stoang. Phil. Trans. vol.
xxi. (No. 252), p. 187.
1700.
(113) Awnon.? (Old Lead and Silver Mines at Bwlehyr Esker-Hyr.
A Familiar Discourse or Dialogue concerning the Mine Adventure [in
Cardiganshire]... . 8vo. Privately printed (pp. 170).
(114) Water, W. State of the Lead, Silver, and other Mines in
Wales. (? date). 8vo.
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALEONTOLOGY OF WALES. 407
1712.
. (115) Lunwyp, HE. A Letter containing several Observations) in
Natural History, made in his Travels thro’ Wales. Phil. Trans. vol.
. xxvil. (No. 334), p. 462.
(116) Some farther Observations relating to the Natural His-
tory of Wales. Ibid. p. 467.
(117): A Letter giving a farther Account of what he met with
remarkable in Natural History and Antiquities in his Travels thro’
Wales. Ibid. (No. 335), p. 500.
1714.
(118) Luwyp, EK. Extracts of several Letters containing Observations
in Natural History and Antiquities; made in his Travels thro’ Wales, &c.
Phil. Trans. vol. xxviii. p. 93.
(119) An Extract of a Letter containing some remarks on an
Undescribed Plant, and other Particulars, observed in Wales. Ibid. p.
275.
1723.
_ (120) Rownanps, H. Mona Antiqua Restaurata. An Archeological
Discourse on the Antiquities, Natural and Historical, of the Isle of
Anglesey. 4to. Dublin. Another ed. 4to. Lond., in 1766.
1756.
(121) Linpry, Dr. D. W. A Treatise on the Three Medicinal Mineral.
Waters at Llandrindod, in Radnorshire, South Wales, with some Remarks
on Mineral and Fossil Mixtures, in their Native Veins and Beds; At least
as far as respects Their Influence on Water. 8vo. Lond.
1757.
(122) Marrnews, E. An Account of the Sinking of a River near
Pontypool in Monmouthshire. Phil. Trans. vol. xlix (part 2), p. 547.
(123) Pennant, T. An Account of some Fungite and other curious
coralloid fossil Bodies. Ibid. p. 513.
1758.
_ (£24) Da Costa, E. M. An Account of the Impressions of Plants on
the Slates of Coals. Phil. Trans. vol. 1. p. 228.
1761.
(125) Rurry, Dr. J. Of the vitriolic Waters of Amlwch, in the Isle
of Anglesey ; with occasional Remarks on the Hartfell Spaw .... and
their Comparison with other Waters of the same Class. Phil. Trans,
yol. li. p. 470.
1773.
(126) Morris, Dr. M. A short Account of some Specimens of native
Lead found in a Mineof Monmouthshire. Phil. Trans. vol. 1xiii. (part 1),
p-.20.
1778-83.
- (127) Pennant, T, A Tour in Wales. (Mineral. Tract, &c. pp. 415-
424.) 4to. Lond.
408 REPORT—1880.
1789.
(128) WittraMs, J. The Natural History of the Mineral Kingdom.
2 vols. 8vo. Edin. (Wales, vol.i. pp. 274, &c., 357,410.) A 2nd edition.
1791.
(129) Beppors, Dr. T. Observations on the Affinity between Basaltes
and Granite. Phil. Trans. vol. lxxxi. p. 48.
1796.
(130) Owen, G. [? Title.] Oambrian Register (written in 1570).
L197.
(131) Arkin, A. Journal of a Tour through North Wales and part
of Shropshire, with Observations in Mineralogy and other branches of
Natural History. 8vo. Lond. [See also Journ. Nat. Phil. Chem. Arts,
vol. i. pp. 220, 367 (1797), 4to. ]
1798.
(132) Kirway, R. Experiments on the Composition and Proportion
of Carbon in Bitumens and Mineral Ccal. Journ. Nat. Phil. Chem. Arts,
(4to.) vol. i. p. 487.
1800.
(133) Lentin, A. G. L. Briefe tiber die Insel Anglesea, yozuglich
iiber die dasigen Kupferbergwerke und die dazu gehorigen Schmelzwerke
und Fabriken. 8vo. Leipzic.
1802.
(134) WitriaMs, W. Observations on the Snowdon Mountains, &e,
vo.
1803.
(135) Kuarrotu, M. H. Extracts from the third vol. of his Analyses
(Lead Ore of Anglesea). Phil. Mag. vol. xvii. p. 230.
1804.
(136) Harcuerr, C. An Analysis of the magnetical Pyrites; with
Remarks on some of the other Sulphurets of Iron. Phil. Trans. vol. xciv.
p- 315. Reprinted in Phil. Mag. vol. xxi. pp. 133, 213 (1805), and in
Journ. Nat. Phil. Chem. Arts, ser. 2, vol. x. p. 265, and vol. xi. p. 6
(1805).
1806.
(137) Martin, E. Description of the Mineral Bason in the Counties
of Monmouth, Glamorgan, Brecon, Carmarthen, and Pembroke. Phil.
Trans. vol. xevi. p. 342. Reprinted in Journ. Nat. Phil. Chem. Arts, ser.
2, vol. xvi. p. 381 (1807); and vol. xix. p. 361 (1808).
1808.
(138) Donovan, — Account of an extinct Volcano in Britain (Cader
Idris). Jowrn. Nat. Phil. Chem. Arts, ser. 2, vol. xix. p. 237.
(139) Musuet, D. Analysis of various Kinds of Pit-coal. Phil. Mag.
vol. xxxii. p. 140. (Wales, pp. 140, 142.)
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALEONTOLOGY OF WALES. 409
1810.
(140) Boyp, C. Chemical Analyses of Soils, &e. No. 18, Limestone
from Monmouthshire. Letters and Papers Bath W. Engl. Soc. vol. xii. p. 379.
(141) Howe11t, — Analysis of the Carbonated Chalybeate Well lately
discovered at Middleton Hall, near Llanarthney, in Carmarthenshire. The
Analytical Results by Mr. Accum. Phil. Mag. vol. xxxv. p. 179.
(142) Meyrick, 8. R. History and Antiquities of the County of Car-
digan, with its Mineralogical and Agricultural State. (Mineralogy,
p- ceili.) 4to. Lond.
1812.
(143) Evans, Rev. J. The Beauties of England and Wales, vol. xvii.
part 1, North Wales. (Minerals, &c. pp. 82-94.) 8vo. Lond.
(144) Hassatt, C. General View of the Agriculture of the County of
Monmouth. (Account of Soils and Minerals.) 8vo. Lond.
(145) Musuer, D. On certain Points connected with the Super-position
of the Strata of England. Phil. Mag. vol. xl. p. 49.
(146) Sowrrsy, J. The Mineral Conchology of Great Britain, vol. 1.
(p. 80). 8vo. Lond.
1813.
(147) Davies, W. General View of the Agriculture and Domestic
Economy of North Wales. (Account of Soils and Minerals, pp. 33-72.)
8vo. Lond.
(148) Farey, J. Cursory Geological Observations lately made, in
Shropshire, Wales, &. .... Phil. Mag. vol. xlii. p. 53.
(149) Notes and Observations on . . . . Mr. R. Bakewell’s
‘Introduction to Geology.’ . . . . Ibid. vol. xliii. p. 356. (Wales, pp.
359-61.)
(150) TownsHEND, Rev. J. The Character of Moses established for
veracity as an Historian, recording events from the Creation to the Deluge.
4to. Bath and Lond.
1814.
(151) Anon. Stratification of Glamorganshire. Phil. Mag. vol. xliv.
p. 427.
(152) Biyetey, Rev. W. Excursion through all the most interesting
Parts of . . . . North Wales, . . . . with account of the Copper Mines
. in Anglesea. 8vo.
(153) Kipp, Dr. J. Notes on the Mineralogy of the neighbourhood of
St. David’s, Pembrokeshire. Trans. Geol. Soc. vol. ii. p. 79.
1815.
(154) Farny, J. Short Notices of Geological Observations made in
. .. . the South of Yorkshire and in North Wales, and of some Infer-
ences therefrom, as to the Structure of England and Wales. Phil. Mag.
vol. xlv. p. 161.
(155) Kipp, Dr. J. A Geological Essay on the Imperfect Evidence in
support of a Theory of the Earth, &ce. 8vo. Oxford. (Wales, pp. 99, 100—
103, 110, 119, 120.)
(156) Pricuarp, Dr. J.C. Geological Observations on North Wales.
Ann. Phil. vol. vi. p. 363.
(157) Rees, T. The Beanties of England and Wales, vol. xviii. South
Wales. (Notices of Minerals, &e.) 8vo. Lond.
410 REPORT—1880.
(158) Smira, W. A Geological Map of England and Wales... .
on a scale of five miles. to an inch, in 15 sheets. With a Memoir. 4to.
Lond.
1816.
(159) Sowersy, J. The Mineral Conchology of Great Britain, vol. ii.
(Wales, p. 24.) 8vo. Lond.
1817.
(160) Crarke, Dr. E. D. Analysis of one hundred parts of a dark
Bituminous Limestone, from the Parish of Whiteford, in Flintshire, North
Wales. Trans. Geol. Soc. vol. iv. p. 432.
(161) Gritpy, Dr. W. H. Some Observations respecting the Geology
of South Wales. Ann. Phil. vol. ix. p. 114.
(162) Smirx, W. Geological Section from London to Snowdon, show-
ing the Varieties of the Strata, and the correct Altitude of the Hills.
Lond.
1818.
(163) Paris [Dr.}, J. A. A New Substance, found accompanying
‘Welsh Calm.’ Trans. Itoy. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, vol. i. p. 229.
1819.
(164) Arkin, A. Observations on the Vallies and Watercourses of
Shropshire and of part of the adjacent Counties. Trans. Geol. Soc. vol. v.
sige
(165) Anon. Potter’s Clay [Halkin Hills, Flintshire]. Ann. Pll.
vol. xiii. pp. 233, 382.
1820.
(166) Fosproke, J. Geological Description of the Hills which pursue
the Course of the Wye, from Ross to Chepstow, with Remarks upon the
Characteristics of the Herefordshire Formations, and an Outline of the
Stratifications of the Forest of Dean, and the opposite Shores of the.
Severn. Quart. Journ. Sci. Lit. Arts, vol. ix. p. 35.
(167) Giusy, Dr. [W. H.] Account of the Trap and Clay-slate For-
mation extending from Llandegly to Builth in Brecknockshire. din.
Phil. Journ, vol. ii. p, 253.
(168) Sowersy, J, The Mineral Conchology of Great Britain, vol. iii.
(p. 123). 8vo. Lond.
1821.
(169) Conynrare, Rev. J.J. Description of anew Substance (Hatche-
tine) found in Ironstone. Ann. Phil. ser. 2, vol. i. p. 136, and vol. v.
p- 190 (1823).
(170) Tramt, Dr. T. S. Observations on the Mineralogy of Halkin
Mountain, in Flintshire; with a particular account of the recently dis-
covered Buhrstone and Porcelain-Clay of that place. din. Phil. Journ.
vol. iv. p. 246.
1822.
(171) Bisaor, W. On the Porcelain Clay and Buhr-stone of the
Halkin Mountain, Flintshire (from Trans. Soc. Arts, 1821). Phil. Mag.
vol. lix. p. 404.
(172) Bucxuanp, Rev. Prof. W. Account of an assemblage of Fossil
Teeth and Bones, of Elephant, Rhinoceros, Bear, Tiger, and Hyzena, and
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALEONTOLOGY OF WALES. 411
sixteen other Animals; discovered in a Cave at Kirkdale, Yorkshire . .
with a Comparative View of five similar Caverns in various Parts of
England, &c. Phil. Trans. vol. exii. p. 171. Reprinted in Ann. Phil. ser.
2, vol. iv. pp. 133, 173. '
(173) Heystow [Prof.], J. S. Geological Description of Anglesea.
Trans. Cambridge Phil. Soc. vol. 1. p. 359.
(174) Puttites, W. and S. Woops. Sketch of the Geology of Snow-
don and the surrounding Country. Ann. Phil. ser. 2, vol. iv. pp. 32],
401.
* (175) Sowrrsy, J. The Mineral Conchology of Great Britain, vol. iv.
(pp. 31, 32). 8vo. Lond.
1823.
(176) Bucktanp, Rey. Prof. W. Relique Diluviane ; or Observations
on the Organic Remains contained in Caves, Fissures, and Diluyvial Gravel,
and on other Geological Phenomena, attesting the action of an Universal
Deluge. 4to. Lond. (Wales, pp. 80, 166, 177, 206.)
1824.
_ (177) Bucxtayn, Rev. Prof. W., and Rev. W. D. Conysearr. Obser-
vations on the Scuth-western Coal District of England. rans. Geol. Soc.
ser. 2, vol. i. p. 210.
(178) Pups, R. Aberthaw Limestone [Analysis of]. Ann. Phil. °
ser. 2, vol. viii. p. 72.
1825.
(179) Anon. (C. C. C.) On the Geology of Snowdon. Ann. Phil.
ser. 2, vol. ix. p. 74.
(180) Durrtinoy, P. A. Gisement des minerais de Zinc en Angleterre.
Ann. Mines, t. x. p. 481.
(181) and EH. pe Buaumont. Sur Je Gisement, l’exploitation et
le traitement des minerais d’étain et de cuivre du Cornouailles. bid. p.
401. (Anglesey, p. 403.)
_ (182) Livy, — An Account of a new Mineral (Brookite, from Snow-
dou). Ann. Phil. ser. 2, vol. ix. p. 140.
(183) Tomson, E. P. On the discovery of Selenium in the Sulphuric
Acid made from the Pyrites of Anglesey. Ibid. p. 52.
1826.
(184) De ta Becue [Sir] H. T. On the Geology of Southern Pem-
brokeshire. Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. ii. p. 1.
(185) Vicror-Frire-Jean, F. Esquisse géologique de Vile d’Anglesey,
et description de l’exploitation et du traitement des minerais de cuivre
que renferme cette ile. Ann. Mines, t. xiii. p. 229.
1827.
(186) Arx1y, A. Notes on the Geological Structure of Cader Idris.
Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. ii. p. 273. . Reprinted in Phil. Mag. ser. 2,
vol. ii. p. 433.
(187) Durrénoy, P. A., and E. pe Bravmonr. Voyage Métallurgique
en Angleterre. 8vo. Paris. (S. Wales, p. 399.) Hd. 2, vol. i. in 1837,
vol. ii. in 1839.
(188) Yates, Rey. J. Observations on the Structure of the Border
412 REPORT—1880.
Country of Salop and North Wales; and of some Detached Groups of
Transition Rocks in the Midland Counties. Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol.
ii. p. 237.
1828.
(189) MacCuttocu, Dr. J. Ona Figured Variety of Coal, cccurring
in the Coal-field of Glamorganshire. Quart. Journ. Sci. Lit. Art, p. 181.
1829.
(190) Anon. (J. A. H.) A Fossil Shell from a Quarry in Radnorshire,
Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. uu. p. 109.
1830.
(191) Dauseny, Prof. C. Memoir on the occurrence of Iodine and
Bromine in certain Mineral Waters of South Britain. Phil. Trans. vol.
exx. p. 223.
(192) De ta Becue [Sir] H.T. Sections and Views illustrative of
Geological Phenomena. 4to. Lond. (Plate 12.)
(193) Forster, F. Observations on the South Welsh Coal Basin.
Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Northumb. Durham, vol. i. p. 82.
(194) Henry, Dr. W. On the Magnesite discovered in Anglesey.
Edin. Journ. Sci. ser. 2, vol. ii. p. 155.
__ (195) Tuomas, A. Reference to a Geological Map and Section of
Pembrokeshire. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. i. p. 216.
1831.
(196) Anon. ? Geological Facts and Observations, &c., on the
Ancient Mines and Rich Minerals in the Interior of North Wales. 8vo.
(197) Davpeny, Prof. C. Remarks on Thermal Springs, and their
Connexion with Volcanoes. Hdin. New Phil. Jowrn. vol. xii. p. 49.
(198) Putturs [Prof.] J. On some effects of the atmosphere in
wasting the surfaces of buildings and rocks. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. i. p.
323.
(199) Resp, L. E. Fossil Trilobites resembling Butterflies. Mag.
Nat. Hist. vol. iv. p. 4438.
(200) THompson, W. Notices, chiefly Botanical respecting the Natural
History of Llandudno Parish, Caernarvonshire. (Geological pp. 169, 170,
172, 173, 175, 176). Mem. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester, ser. 2, vol. v. p. 165.
(201) Trimmer, J. On the diluvial deposits of Caernarvonshire, be-
tween the Snowdon chain of hills and the Menai Strait, and on the dis-
covery of marine shells in diluvial sand and gravel on the Summit of
Moel Tryfane, near Caernarvon, 1000 ft. above the level of thesea. Proc.
Geol. Soc. vol. i. p. 331.
1832.
(202) Conyprare, Rev. W. D. On the Structure and Extent of the
South Welsh Coal-basin. Phil. Mag. vol. xi. p. 110.
(203) Fox, R. W. Some Observations on Metalliferous Veins, and
their Electro-magnetic properties. rans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, vol.
IVa ppl,
(204) Menrnatn, J. S. Memoir on the Geology of the Snowdon
Range of Mountains, as connected with its Scenery, Soil, and Produc-
tions. Mem. Wernerian Nat. Hist. Soc. vol. vi. p. 209.
(205) Srantuy, Rev. E. Memoir on a Caye at Cefn in Denbighshire.
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALEONTOLOGY OF WALES. 413
Edin. New Phil. Journ. vol. xiv. p. 40. [Abstract under the title ‘On the
Discovery of Bones of a Rhinoceros and a Hyzna in one of the Cefn
Caves, Denbighshire,’ in Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. i. p. 402.]
(206) Yarus, J. A Notice of a Submarine Forest in Cardigan Bay.
Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. i. p. 407.
1833.
(207) De tA Bucuu [Sir] H. T. A Geological Manual, Ed. 3, 8vo.
Lond. (p. 380).
(208) Henwoop, W. J. Observations on the Rise and Fall of Water
in some Wells in Cornwall, with brief notices of other matters bearing
on the Phenomena of Springs. Phil. Mag. ser. 3, vol. iii. p. 417.
(209) Murcuison [Sir] R. I. On the sedimentary deposits which
occupy the western parts of Shropshire and Herefordshire, and are pro-
longed from N.E. to 8.W., through Radnor, Brecknock, and Caermarthen-
shires, with descriptions of the accompanying rocks of intrusive or
igneous characters. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. i. p. 470.
(210) Sepawicx, Rev. Prof. Discussion on Mr. Taylor’s Paper on
Vein-stones. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1832, p. 578.
(211) Geology of Caernarvonshire. Ibid. p. 583 (abstract).
1834.
(212) Booxer, T. W. The Prize Treatise on the Mineral Basin of
Glamorgan and the adjoining District. Svo. Lond. and Cardiff.
~ (213) Conypearz, Rey. W. D. On the probable future Extension of
the Coal-fields at present worked. Phil. Mag. ser. 3, vol. v. p. 44.
(Wales, p. 46).
(214) Murcuison [Sir] R. I. On the Old Red Sandstone in the
Counties of Hereford, Brecknock and Caermarthen, with collateral Ob-
servations on the Dislocations which affect the north-west margin of the
South Welsh Coal-basin. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. ii. p. 11.
(215) On the Structure and Classification of the Transition
Rocks of Shropshire, Herefordshire and part of Wales, and on the Lines
of Disturbance which have affected that series of Deposits, including the
Valley of Elevation of Woolhope. bid. p. 13.
(216) On certain Trap Rocks in the Counties of Salop, Mont-
gomery, Radnor, Brecon, Caermarthen, Hereford, and Worcester, and
the Effects produced by them upon the Stratified Deposits. Ibid. p. 85.
(217) Table of the Order of the Stratified Deposits which con-
nect the Carboniferous Series with the older Slaty Rocks, in the Counties
of Salop, Hereford, Montgomery, Radnor, Brecknock, Caermarthen,
Monmouth, Worcester, Stafford, and Gloucester. Edin. New Phil. Journ.
vol. xvii. p. 365.
1835.
(218) Murcuison [Sir] R. I. The Gravel and Alluvia of S. Wales
and Siluria as distinguished from a northern drift covering Lancashire,
Cheshire, N. Salop, and parts of Worcester and Gloucester. Proc. Geol.
Soc. vol. ii. p. 230.
(219) —— On the Silurian System of Rocks. Phil. Mag. ser. 3,
vol. vii. p. 46. 5
(220) Sepewick, Rey. Prof. A. Remarks on the Structure of large
Mineral Masses, and especially on the Chemical Changes produced in the
414 REPORT—1880.
Ageregation of Stratified Rocks during different periods after their
Deposition. rans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. 11. p. 461.
(221) Taytor, R. C. Notice of Two Models and Sections of ....a
part of the Mineral Basin of S. Wales, in the Vicinity of Pontypool.
Ibid. p. 433,
1836.
(222) Anon.: Short Notes upon the Diluvial and Alluvial Deposits
of the Taffe Valley. W. Engl. Journ. Sci. Lit. vol. i. No. v. p. 261
(223) Murcutson [Sir] R. I. On the geological structure of Pem-
brokeshire, more particularly on the extension of the Silurian system of
rocks into the coast cliffs of that county. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. ii. p. 226.
(224) Sepewick, Rev. Prof. A. xtrait d’une lettre 4 M. H. de
Beaumont. (On the Succession of Rocks in Cumberland and Wales.)
Bull. Soe. Géol. France, t. vii. p. 152.
(225) Sepawicx, Rev. Prof. A. and [Sir] R. I. Murcuison. On the
Silurian and Cambrian Systems, exhibiting the order in which the older
Sedimentary Strata succeed each other in England and Wales. Rep.
Brit. Assoc. for 1835, Sections, p. 59.
(226) Vurnevi, — de. Observations . . dans les parties du pays
de Galles ot se montrent les groupes oéognostiques qui composent les
systemes cambrien, silurien et carbonifére. Bull. Soc. Geol. France, t. vii.
. 126,
: (227) Witutams, Rey. D. On certain Fossil Plants from the opposite
shores of the Bristol Channel. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1835, Sections, p. 63.
1837.
(228) Baspace, C. On Impressions in Sandstone resembling those of
horses’ hoofs (near Merthyr). Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. ii. p. 439
(229) Bowman, J. E. On the Bone Cave in Carboniferous Limestone
at Cefn in Denbighshire. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1836, Sections, p. 88.
(230) Burr, F. On Metalliferous and Mineral Deposits, they General
Structure and Apparent Laws of Developement. Mining Review, No. 10,
p. 165 (Wales, p. 177).
(231 Notice of the Mines and Geological Structure of the
Mineral District of Flintshire. Ibid. p. 255.
(232) Murton, H. On the Geology of the South Wales Coal District.
Proc. Sci. Soc. Lond. vol. i. p- 7, and Mining Review (4to) No. xi. vol. iv.
p. 170 (1838).
(233) Sroxes, C. Notice respecting a Piece of Recent Wood partly
petrified by Carbonate of Lime, with some Remarks on Fossil Woods.
Trans. Geol. Soc., ser. 2, vol. v- p. 207. (Wales, p. 214).
(234) Tooxn, A. W. The Mineral Topography of Great Britain.
(Wales, pp. 55-8). Mining Review, No. 9. p. 39.
(235) Wvart, J. [Letter on] a trap dyke in the Penrhyn Slate Quar-
ries near Bangor, Carmarthenshire. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. i. p. 449,
1838.
(236) Burr, F. Notice of the Localities and General Features of the
Slate Quarries of Great Britain. Mining Review} (4to.) No. x1. yol. iv.
p. 161.
(237) Ham, J. On the Mud deposited by the Tidal Waters of the
t
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALEONTOLOGY OF WALES. 415
Severn, Usk, and Avon, and other phenomena connected with the Waters
of these Rivers. ep. Brit. Assoc. for 1837, Sections, p. 76.
(238) Jounston, Prof. J. F. W. On the Composition of certain Mineral
' Substances of Organic Origin. II. Hatchetine. Phil. Mag. ser. 3, vol.
xii. p. 338.
(239) Logan [Sir] W. On that part of the South Welsh Coal Basin
which lies between the Vale of Neath and Carmarthen Bay. Rep. Brit.
Assoc. for 1837, Sections, p. 83.
(240) Sepewrcr, Rev. Prof. A. A Synopsis of the English Series of
Stratified rocks inferior to the old red sandstone—with an attempt to
determine the successive natural groups and formations. Proc. Geol. Soc.
vol. u. p. 675.
(241) Sowerby, G. B. Locality for Brookite. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser.
2, vol. ii. p. 293.
(242) Trimmer, J. On the Diluvial or Northern Drift of the Hastern
and Western Sides of the Cambrian Chain, &c. Journ. Dublin Geol. Soc.
vol. i. part 4, pp. 286, 335,
1839,
(243) Burr, F. On the Occurrence of the Precious Metals in Great
Britain. Mining Review (4to.), No. xiv. vol. v. p. 17.
(244) Mourcutson [Sir] R. I. The Silurian System, founded on
- Geological Researches in the Counties of Salop, Hereford, Radnor, Mont-
gomery, Caermarthen, Brecon, Pembroke, Monmouth, Gloucester, Wor-
cester, and Stafford ; with Descriptions of the Coal-fields and overlying
Formations. 2 vols. 4to. Lond.
(245) Trrmmer, J, On the Alteration produced in a Conglomerate of
the Poikilitic Series near the Church of Llanfair Iscaer, in Caernarvon-
shire, by the Contact of a Mass of Trap. Journ. Dublin Geol. Soc. vol.
ii. (Part 1), p. 35. ae
(246) On the Discovery of the Northern or Diluvial Drift, con-
taining Fragments of Marine Shells covering the remains of Terrestrial
Mammalia in Cefn Cave. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1838, Sections, p. 86.
1840.
(247) Woops, S. On the Anthracite Coal of South Wales. Phil.
Mag. ser. 3, vol. xvii, p. 211.
1841.
(248) Bowman, J. E. Notes ona Small Patch of Silurian Rocks to
the West of Abergele, on the Northern Coast of Denbighshire. Trans.
Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 195.
(249) Notice of Upper Silurian Rocks in the Vale of Llan-
gollen, North Wales; and of a contiguous eruption of Trap and Compact
Felspar. Trans. Manchester Gleol. Soc. vol. i. p. 194; and, under a different
title, in Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1840, Sections, p. 100.
(250) On the Question, Whether there are any evidences of
the former existence of Glaciers in North Wales? Phil. Mag. ser. 3, vol.
xix. p. 469.
(251) Bucxianp, Rev. Prof. W. On the Agency of Land Snails in
corroding and making deep Excavations in compact Limestone Rocks
(Tenby). Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. iii. p. 430.
(252) Jounsoy, W. R. On the relation between the Coal of South
416 REPORT—1880.
Wales and that of some Pennsylvania Anthracites. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci.
Philadelph. p. 40.
(253) Supawicx, Rev. Prof. A. Supplement to a ‘Synopsis of the
English Series of Stratified Rocks inferior to the Old Red Sandstone,’
with Additional Remarks on the Relations of the Carboniferous Series
and Old Red Sandstone of the British Isles. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. iii. p.
- 545,
1842.
(254) Bowman, J. E. Onthe Upper Silurian Rocks of Denbighshire, ©
Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1841, Sections, p. 59. (? same as 248).
(255) BucxiaAnd, Rev. Prof. W. On the Glacio-Diluvial Phenomena
in Snowdonia and the adjacent parts of North Wales. Proc. Geol. Soc.
vol. iii. p. 579.
(256) On glacial action in England. Proc. Ashmolean Soc.
Oxon. No. xviii. p. 17.
(257) Darwin, C. Notes on the Effects produced by the Ancient
Glaciers of Caernarvonshire, and on the Boulders transported by Floating
Ice. Phil. Mag. ser. 3, vol. xxi..p. 180, and in Hdin. New Phil. Journ.
vol. xxxill. p. 352.
(258) Farrparrn, W. An Experimental Inquiry into the Strength
and other properties of Anthracite Cast Iron, &c. (Analysis of Welsh
iron-ore, pp. 532, 533.) Mem. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester, ser. 2, vol. vi.
. 524.
; (259) Locan [Sir] W. E. On the Characters of the Beds of Clay
immediately below the Coal-seams of South Wales, and on the occurrence
of Boulders of Coal in the Pennant Grit of that district. Trans. Ceol.
Soc. ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 491.
(260) Mactavcuian, H. Notes to accompany some Fossils collected
. .. in Pembrokeshire. Ibid. p. 557.
(261) Miturr, Prof. W. H. On the Specific Gravity of Sulphuret of
Nickel. Phil. Mag. ser. 3, vol. xx. p. 378.
(262) Sopwith, T. On the Evidences of the Former Extension of
Glaciers in Great Britain. Proc. Geol. Polytech. Soc. W. Riding York,
vol. i. p. 419.
1843.
(263) Anon. Wales, Geology of. Penny Cyclopedia, vol. xxvi. p. 1,
fol. Lond.
(264) Bucxianp, Rev. Prof. W. On Ichthyopatolites, or petrified
trackings of ambulatory fishes upon sandstone of the Coal formation
(Flintshire). Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. iv. p. 204.
(265) Owen, Prof. R. Report on the British Fossil Mammalia. ep.
Brit. Assoc. for 1842, p. 54 (Wales, pp. 57, 63).
(266) Sepewick, Rey. Prof. A. Outline of Geological Structure of
North Wales, Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. iv. p. 212.
ees Suarre, D.. On the Bala Limestone. Ibid. p. 10.
268) Wuirtzy, N. The Application of Geology to Agriculture, &.
Appendix B., pp. 160-162, Geological Structure of Cardiganshire (from
Mining Review). 8vo. Lond.
1844.
(269) BucxuanD, Rev. Prof. W. (Note of impressions on flagstone
from Mostyn). Proc. Ashmolean Soc. Oxon. vol. ii. No. 20, p. 22.
(270) Byres, R. W. On the Traces of the Action of Glaciers at ©
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALEONTOLOGY OF WALES. 417
Porth-Treiddyn in Carnarvonshire. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. iv. p. 370, and
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. i. p. 153. (1845.)
(271) Forbes, Prof. E. On two Fossil Species of Criseis (?). Proc.
Geol. Soc. vol. iv. p. 362, and Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc. vol. i. p. 145,
(1845).
(272) Sepawicx, Rey. Prof. A. On the Older Palwozoic Rocks of
North Wales. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. iv. p. 251, and Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.
vol. i. p. 1. (1845). A slight difference between pp. 17-20 and 263-6.
(273) Smire, W. Memoirs of, by Prof. J. Puiuirs. 8vo. Lond.
). ;
(p. 62
1845.
(274) Dean, A. Notice respecting the Discovery of Gold Ores in
Merionethshire, North Wales. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1844, Sections, p- 56.
(275) Observations on the Stratification of Igneous and Sedi-
mentary Rocks of the Lower Silurian Formation in North Wales. Ibid.
(276) Dexa Becue, Sir H. T. Notes concerning a Section through
the Silurian Rocks in the Vicinity of Builth. Ibid. p. 46.
(277) Macryrosn, A. F. On the Supposed Evidences of the former
Existence of Glaciers in North Wales. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. iv. p. 594,
and Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. i, p. 460.
(278) Sepewrcx, Rev. Prof. A. On the Comparative Classification of
the Fossiliferous Strata of North Wales with the corresponding deposits
of Cumberland Westmoreland and Lancashire: Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. iv.
p. 576, and Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. i. p. 442. :
(279) Trevetyan [Sir] W. C. Letter on Glacier Marks in North
Wales. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. iv. p. 482, and Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.
vol. i. p. 300.
1846.
(280) Davis, J. E. On the Geology of the neighbourhood of Trema-
doc, Caernarvonshire. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. ii. p. 70.
(281) Dicxrysoy, J. On the Strata called ‘Jackstones’ at Merthyr
Tydvil. Ibid. p. 131.
(282) Suarez, D. Contributions to the Geology of North Wales.
Ibid. p. 283.
1847.
(283) Jounsoy, C. Infusorial Deposit at Dolgelly, North Wales.
Amn. Nat. Hist. vol. xix. p. 425.
(284) Murcutson, Sir R. I. On the Silurian and Associated Rocks in
Dalecarlia, &c.—‘ Conclusion,’ on the Classification, &c. of the older rocks.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. iii. p. 36.
(285) Remarks on Silurian and Cambrian Classification. Buil.
Soc. Géol. France, 2 ser. t. iv. p. 766.
(286) Ricuarpson, J. On the Ventilation of Mines. (Sections of
South Wales Collieries, Mynnyd Caeran and Llanquicke, pp. 180, é&c.)
Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. vol. vi. p. 160.
(287) Rowzanpson, T. Agriculture of North Wales [with an account
of the Geology and Soils]. Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc. vol. vii. p. 553.
(288) Sepewicx, Rev. Prof. A. On the Classification of the Fossili-
ferous Slates of North Wales, &c.... . Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. iii,
p. 133.
(289) Swarrz, D. . On Slaty Cleavage. Ibid. p. 74.
1880. EE
418 REPORT—1880.
1848,
(290) Booxrr, T. W. A Speech delivered at Swansea, at the Meeting
‘of the British Association . . . . 1848; with Notes containing Analyses
of Coals, Limestones, &c. 8vo. Lond. and Cardiff.
(291) Juxes, J. B.,and A.H. Setwyn. Sketch of the Structure of the
Country extending from Cader Idris to Moel Siabod, North Wales. Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. iv. p. 300.
(292) Ramsay, Prof. A. C. On the Origin of the existing Physical
Ontline of a portion of Cardiganshire. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1847, Sec-
tions, p. 66.
(293) , and W. T. Aveine. Sketch of the Structure of parts of
North and South Wales. Quart. Journ. Ceol. Soc. vol. iv. p. 294. Memo-
randum respecting some Fossiliferous Localities alluded to, by Prof. E.
Forses (p. 297). Note on the Fossils of the lowest Wenlock Shales east
of Llandegle, Builth, by J. W. Satrur (p. 299).
(294) Struvé, W. P. Observations on the Great Anticlinal Line of
the Mineral Basin of South Wales from Newbridge, in the Taff Valley, to
Cefyn Bryn, in Gower. (Brit. Assoc.) 8vo. Swansea.
1849.
(295) Bare, S. On Fossil Remains recently discovered in Bacon
Hole, Gower ; also other Remains from beneath the bed of the River Tawey.
Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1848, Sections, p. 62.
(296) Benson, 8. On a Boulder of Cannel Coal found in a vein of
common bituminous Coal. bid. p. 64.
297) —— On the relative Position of the various Qualities of Coal
in the South Wales Coal-Measures. Ibid. p. 65.
(298) Bucxnanp, Rey. Prof. W. On the former existence of Glaciers
in North Wales. Ibid. p. 78.
(299) M‘Coy.[Prof.] F. On the Classification of some British Fossil
Crustacea, &c. Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 2, vol. iv. p. 392. (Wales, pp. 406-
-412.)
(300) Ramsay, Prof. A. C. On some points connected with the
Physical Geology of the Silurian district between Builth and Pen-y-bont,
Radnorshire. Hep. Brit. Assoc. for 1848, Sections, p. 73.
(301) Reap, C.S. On the Farming of South Wales. (Remarks on
the Soils, &e.) Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc. vol. x. p. 122.
(302) Ricuarpson, J. The Coal-field and the Coal of South Wales.
Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng. vol. viii. p. 82.
(303) Vaux, F. Ultimate Analysis of some varieties of Coal. (Welsh
Anthracite, p. 324.) Quart, Journ. Chem. Soc. vol. i. p. 318.
1850.
(304) Davis, J. E. On the Age and Position of the Limestone of
Nash, near Presteign, South Wales. Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc. vol. vi.
. 432.
(305) Eaurton, Sir P. pe M. G. Palichthyologic Notes. No. 3. On
the Ganoidei Heterocerci. Ibid. p.1. (Anglesey, p. 5.) '
(306) M‘Coy, Prof. F. On some new genera and species of Silurian
Radiata in the Collection of the University of Cambridge. Ann. Nat. Hist.
ser. 2, vol. vi. pp. 270, 474.
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALHONTOLOGY OF WALES. 419
1851.
(307) Barranpe, J. Sur les faunes siluriennes du pays des Galles et
des collines de Malvern. Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 2 ser. t. viii. p. 207.
(308) Biynzy, E.W. A Description of some supposed Meteorites
found in Seams of Coal. Mem. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester, ser. 2, vol. ix.
. 806.
x (309) Dr ta Bucun, Sir H. T. The Geological Observer, 8vo. Lond.
[in great part a new edition of his ‘ Geological Manual’], pp. 101, 520,
586 &e., 578, 586, 590, 613, 669, 689, 711 &c., 718, 743, 757? 762, 785.
(310) M‘Coy, Prof. F. On some new Silurian Mollusca. Ann. Nat.
Hist. ser. 2, vol. vii. p. 45.
311) Descriptions of some new Mountain Limestone Fossils.
(
Ibid. pp. 167 (Wales, p. 173).
(312 On some new Protozoic Annulata. Ibid. p. 394.
(313) —— On some new Cambro-Silurian Fossils. Ibid. vol. viii.
p. 387.
(314) Ramsay, Prof. A.C. On the Geological Position of the Black
Slates of Menai Straits, &e. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1850, Sections, p- 102.
(315) Saurer, J. W. On the Remains of Fish in the Silurian: Rocks
of Great Britain. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. vii. p. 263.
(316) Trimmer, J. On the Agricultural Geology of England and
Wales. Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc. vol. xii. p. 445.
1852.
(317) Detessr, — Recherches sur les Roches globulaires. (Welsh
rock, p. 327.) Mem. Soc. Géol. France, 2 ser. t. 4, 2 part. p. 301.
(318) Henwoop, W. J. Notice of the Copper Turf of Merioneth. 38th
Ann. Rep. Roy. Inst. Cornwall, p. 41.
(319) M‘Coy, Prof. F. Contributions to British Paleontology: Some
new Lower Paleozoic Mollusca. Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 2, vol. ix. p. 189.
(320) Minne-Epwarps, Prof. H., and J. Hamme. A Monograph of the
British Fossil Corals. Third Part. Corals from the . . . . Mountain
Limestone. Paleontograph. Soc. 4to. Lond.
(321) Ramsay, Prof. A. ©. On the Superficial Accumulations and
Surface-markings of North Wales. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. viii.
p. 371.
(322) Sepewick, Rev. Prof. A., and Sir R. I. Murcuisoy. The Cam-
brian and Silurian Discussion. [Three Letters, reprinted from the Literary
Gazette.] Edin. New Phil. Journ. vol. liii, p. 102.
1853.
(323) Canverr, J. Gold Rocks of Great Britain and Ireland, ....
with a treatise on the Geology of Gold. 8vo. Lond.
(324) Hopkins, W. Anniversary Address to the Geological Society of
London: ‘General review of the geological structure of the Paleozoic
rocks of Wales and the adjoining English Counties.’ Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc. vol. ix. p. lxi.
(325) Ramsay, Prof. A.C. On the Physical Structure and Succession
of some of the Lower Paleozoic Rocks of North Wales and part of Shrop-
shire. With Notes on the Fossils, by J. W. Satrer. Ibid. p. 161.
__ (326) Satrer, J. W. On the Lowest Fossiliferous Beds of North
Wales. ep. Brit. Assoc, for 1852, Sections, p. 56.
EE2
420 REPORT—1880.
(327) Sorsy, H.C. On the Origin of Slaty Cleavage. Edin. New
Phil. Journ. vol. lv. p. 137.
(328) TreveLyan, Sir W. C. Indications of Glacial Action in North
Wales. Ibid. p. 193.
1854,
(329) Davivson, T. Observations on the Chonetes comoides (Sowerby).
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. x. p. 202. :
(330) Haveuron, Rev. Prof.S. On the Newer Paleozoic Rocks which
border the Menai Straits, in Carnarvonshire. Journ. Geol. Soc. Dublin,
vol. vi. p. 1. ;
(331) Notices of Fossils from the Carboniferous Limestone.
Tbid. p. 47.
(332) On the Iron Ores of Carnarvonshire. Ibid. p. 128.
(333) Murcutsoy, Sir R. J. Siluria. The History of the Oldest
Known Rocks containing Organic Remains. 8vo. Lond. Hd. 2 in 1859.
Ed. 3 in 1867.
(334) Ramsay, Prof. A. C. On the Geology of the Gold-bearing Dis-
trict of Merionethshire. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. x. p. 242. __
(335) Satrer, J. W. On the Tracks of a Crustacean in the ‘ Lingula
Flags.’ Ibid. p. 208,
(336) Sepewick, Rev. Prof. A. On the May Hill Sandstone and the
ee System of England. Phil. Mag. ser. 4, vol. viii. pp. 301, 359,
472.
(337) Watson, — On Gold Mining in England. 8vo.
1855.
(338) Jones [Prof.] T. R. Notes on Paleozoic Bivalved Entomo-
straca. No. 2, Some British and Foreign Species of Beyrichia. Ann. Nat.
Hist. ser. 2, vol. xvi. p. 163.
(339) Mitnn-Epwarps, Prof. H., and J. Hams. A Monograph of the
British Fossil Corals. Fifth Part. Corals from the Silurian Formation.
(Wales, pp. 247, 253, 257, 270, &e.) Paleontograph. Soc. 4to. Lond. _
(340) Sepewick, Rev. Prof. A. A Synopsis of the British Paleozoic
Rocks. With a Systematic Description of the British Paleozoic Fossils in
the Geological Museum of the University of Cambridge, by Prof. F. M‘Coy.
Ato. Lond. and Cambridge.
1856.
(341) Banks, R. W. On the Tilestones, or Downton Sandstones, in
the Neighbourhood of Kington, and their Contents. Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc. vol. xii. p. 93. : '
(342) Brernerton, E. A Geological Ramble [Ruthin, &c., Denbigh-
shire]. Proc. Init. Phil. Soc. Liverpool, No. x. p. 148. { :
(343) Haveuton, Rev. Prof.S. On Slaty Cleavage, and the Distortion
of Fossils. Phil. Mag. ser. 4, vol. xii. p. 409.
(344) Jones [Prof.] T. R. Notes on the Paleozoic Bivalved Ento-
mostraca. No. 8. Some Species of Leperditia. Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 2,
vol. xvii. p. 81 (Wales, p. 95). bike
(345) Jonss, W. B.,and EH. A. Freeman. The History and Antiquities
of St. David’s. Geology, &. p.2. 4to. Lond. :
(346) Moceripcr, M. On the Section exposed in the Excavation of
the Swansea Docks. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xii. p. 169.
(347) Satrer, J. W. On Fossil Remains in the Cambrian Rocks of
the Longmynd and North Wales. Ibid. p. 246.
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALHZONTOLOGY OF WALES. 421
1857,
(348) Farrparrn, W. On the Comparative Value of various kinds of
Stone, as exhibited by their Powers of Resisting Compression. Mem. Lit.
Phil. Soc. Manchester, ser. 2, vol. xiv. p. 31.
(349) Forses, D. On the Chemical Composition of the Silurian and
Cambrian Limestones. Phil. Mag. ser. 4, vol. xiii. p. 365 (Wales, p. 366).
(350) Henwoop, W. J. Notice of the Copper Turf of Merioneth.
Edin. New Phil. Journ. ser. 2, vol. v. p. 61.
(351) Puitues, Prof. J. Report on Cleavage and Foliation in Rocks,
and on the Theoretical Explanations of these Phenomena. Part 1, Rep.
Brit. Assoc, for 1856, p. 369.
(352) Saxrer, J. W. On some new Paleozoic Star-fishes. Ann. Nat.
Hist. ser. 2, vol. xx. p. 321.
(353) Symonps, Rev. W. 8. Stones of the Valley. 8vo. Lond.
1858.
(354) Anon. [J. R. G(regory?)] Letter on Gold in Wales. (reolo-
gist, vol. i. p. 159.
(355) Anstep, Prof. D. T. Letter on Gold in Wales. bid. p. 154.
(356) Bryan, Dr. P. G. On the Geology of the Beaufort and Ebbw
Vale District of the South Wales Coal-field. . Ibid. pp. 49, 124.
(357) Plant from the Coal-measures of the Elled Patch. Ibid.
p. 448. ;
(358) —— On the Marine Shells of the South Wales Coal-basin.
Ibid. p. 505.
(359) Jukes, J.B. Notes on the Old Red Sandstone of South Wales. —
ftep. Brit. Assoc. for 1857, Sections, p. 73.
(360) Morris, Prof. J. British Fossils, stratigraphically arranged.
1. Paleozoic System. Geologist, vol. i. pp. 1388, 189, 233, 279, 319.
(361) Ramsay, Prof. A.C. The Physical Structure of Merionethshire
and Caernarvonshire. (feologist, vol. i. p. 169.
(362) Reapwin, T. A. Letter on Gold in Wales. Ibid. p. 159.
(363) Roperrs, G. E. The Geology of Llandudno. Ibid. p. 443.
(364) Sorsy, H. C. On some Facts connected with Slaty Cleavage.
Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1857, Sections, p. 92.
(365) On the Microscopical Structure of Crystals, indicating
the Origin of Minerals and Rocks. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xiv. p.
453 (? Wales, p. 485).
(366) Vortcxer, Dr. A. On the Use of Lime, Marl, and Shell-sand in
Agriculture, with special reference to the Soils in the West of England.
(Analyses of Silurian Limestone, Pembrokeshire, pp. 225, 280; of Moun-
tain Limestone, S. Wales, p. 227; of Lias Limestone, Glamorganshire, p.
228; of Caradoc Sandstone and Mountain Limestone, Pembrokeshire, pp.
229, 230.) Journ. Bath W. Engl. Soc. ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 220.
1859.
(367) Brevay, Dr. A Week’s Walk in Gower.
i 368) On the Anthracite-coal of South Wales. Geologist, vol. ii.
: :
p- 75.
(369) Biespy, Dr. J. J. An Inquiry into the Sedimentary and other
External Relations of the Paleozoic Fossils of the State of New York.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xv. p. 251. (Reference to Wales, &c., pp.
253-75, 280-93, 315-35.)
422 REPORT—1880.
(370) Davins, D.C. On the Eastern Boundary of the North Wales
Coal-field near Oswestry. Proc. Geol. Assoc. vol. i. p. 14.
(371) Gacus, A. Ona Method of Observation applied to the Study of
some Metamorphic Rocks, &e. Phil. Mag.
(372) P[arrison], S. R. Glacial Action in Wales. Geologist, vol. ii.
127
: (373) Rocrrs, EH. On the Occurrence of a Metalliferous Vein of Lead,
passing through a Coal bed in South Wales. Trans. 8S. Wales Inst. of
Hing. vol. i. p. 228.
(374) Satter, J. W. On some New Species of Eurypterus; with
Notes on the Distribution of the Species. Quart. Journ. Gleol. Soc. vol. xv.
. 229.
(375) Vivian, Capt. W. On Arborescent Native Copper in the Llan-
dudno Mine, near Great Ormeshead, North Wales. Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc. vol. xv. p. 109.
(376) Observations on the Crystalline forms of Native Metals
(Copper, Llandudno). 26th Ann. Rep. Roy. Cornwall Polytech. Soc. p. 46.
(377). Warson, Dr. J. J. W. The Hematitic Deposits of Glamorgan-
shire. Geologist, vol. ii. p. 241.
1860.
(378) Barrat, J. Analysis of the Water of Holywell, North Wales.
Quart. Journ. Chem. Soc. vol. xii. p. 52.
(379) Bunyan, Dr. G. P. On the South Wales Coal-field. Geologist,
vol. ui. p. 90.
(380) Curious Fossil Plant from the Coal-Measures, South
Wales. Ibid. p. 460.
(381) The Geology, &c., of Murray’s ‘Handbook for Travellers
in South Wales and its Borders.’ 8vo. Lond.
(382) Brynry, E. W. Observations on the Fossil Shells of the Lower
Coal Measures. Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc., vol. ii. (part 7), p. 72.
(383) Fatconer, Dr. H. On the Ossiferous Caves of the Peninsula of
Gower, in Glamorganshire, South Wales.—With an Appendix, on a
Raised Beach in Mewslade Bay, and the Occurrence of the Boulder Clay
on Cefn-y-bryn; by J. Prestwice. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xvi. p.
487. (Abstract.)
(384) Hutt, E. The Coal-fields of Great Britain, &c. 8vo. Lond.
Ed. 2 in 1861. Ed. 3 in 1873.
(385) Ketry, J. On the Graywacke Rocks of Ireland, as compared
with those of England. Journ. Geol. Soc. Dublin, vol. viii. p. 251.
(386) Ramsay, Prof. A. C. The Old Glaciers of Switzerland and -
North Wales. Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers, vol. i. Reprinted separately,
12mo. Lond.
(387) Reapwix, T. A. On the Gold Discoveries in Merionethshire.
Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc. vol. ii. (Part 9), p. 97.
(388) Savrer, J. W. On new Fossil Crustacea from the Silurian
Rocks. Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3, vol. v. p: 153.
(389) Wittiams, J. On the Connection between the West of Eng-
land and South Wales. Journ. Bath W. Engl. Soc. ser. 2, vol. viii. p.
46. J’
(390) Wricut, Dr. T. On the Zone of Avicula contorta, and the
Lower Lias of the South of England. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xvi.
p. 374.
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALEONTOLOGY OF WALES. 423
1861.
(391) Anoy. (A Pembrokeshire Rector [? G. N. Smrru]). On the
Tenby Bone Caves. Lond.
(392) Buvay, Dr. G. P. Murray’s ‘Handbook for North Wales.’
8vo. Lond.
(393) Davipson, T. A Monograph of the British Fossil Brachiopoda.
Part v. The Carboniferous Brachiopoda. No.4. (Wales, Plates 31, 37,
40, 45). Palceontograph Soc. 4to. Lond.
(394) Ducxwortu, H. Report of Excursion to Holywell (Liverpool
Geol. Soc). Geologist, vol. iv. p. 505.
(395) Gass, N. Silurian Strata near Cardiff. Ibid. p. 168.
se Grecory, J. R. New Lingula Fossils. Ibid. p. 212. With
correction by J. W. Sarer, p. 266.
(397) Purcy, Dr. J. Metallurgy [vol. i] Fuel, Fire-Clays, é&c.
(Analysis of Welsh Coal, by Dr. Noap and Mr. Riuny, pp. 100, 102; of
Fireclay, p. 215; of Dinas Clay and of Blown Sand, by Mr. Weston, pp.
237, 8. 8vo. Lond.
(398) Ramsay, Prof. A.C. Glaciers in Wales. (reologist, vol. iv. p.
530.
(399) Reapwiy, T. A. On the Occurrence of Gold in Merionethshire-
(Brit. Assoc.) Ibid. p. 511, and Chem. News, vol. iv. p. 272 (? and printed
separately, ‘ Examiner’ Office, Manchester).
(400) The Gold Discoveries in Merionethshire. ‘Examiner’
Office, Manchester.
(401) Roserts, G. E. Hints for Summer Rambles. Proc. Geol.
Assoc. vol. i. p. 154.
(402) SmirH, Rev. G. N. On three undescribed Bone-Caves near
Tenby, Pembrokeshire. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1860, Sections, p. 101.
(403) Symonps, Rev. W. S. On some Phenomena connected with the
Drifts of the Severn, Avon, Wye, and Usk [Brit. Assoc]. Hdin. New
Phil. Journ. ser. 2. vol. xiv. p. 281.
1862.
(404) Anon. Pembrokeshire Anthracite. Geologist, vol. v. p. 308.
(405) Binney, E. W. On the Drift Deposits found about Llandudno.
Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc. vol. iii. p. 97 (? 1861).
(406) Brake, C.C. On the Crania of the most ancient Races of Men.
Geologist, vol. v. p. 205. (Wales, p. 210.)
: (407) Daruineron, G. Mineral and Geological Sketch of the Minera
Mining Field, Denbighshire, North Wales. Mining and Smelting May.,
vol. i. pp. 207, 269.
(408) Hutt, HE. On Isodiametric Lines, as means of representing the
Distribution of Sedimentary Clay and Sandy Strata, as distinguished from
Caleareous Strata, with special reference to the Carboniferous Rocks of
Britain. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xviii. p. 127.
(409) The Coal Fields of North Wales. Mining and Smelting
Mag. vol. i. p. 295.
(410) On the Vestiges of Extinct Glaciers in the Highlands of
Se Britain and Ireland. Mem. Lit. Phil. Soc., Manchester, ser. 3, vol. i.
p. 151.
(411) Matter, R. Report of the Experiments made at Holyhead
(North Wales), to ascertain the Transit-Velocity of Waves, analogous to
424 REPORT—1880.
Earthquake Waves, through the Local Rock Formations. Rep. Brit.
Assoc. for 1861, p. 201. (Note on the Geology of Holyhead, pp. 204-7,
Section in Plate 3.) Also Phil. Trans., vol. cli. (Part 3), p. 655.
(412) Puinurs, J. A. Gold Mining and the Gold Discoveries made
since 1851. Journ. Soc. Arts (May 16).
(413) Ramsay, Prof. A.C. On the Glacial Origin of certain Lakes in
Switzerland .... Great Britain... . and elsewhere. Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc. vol. xviii. p. 185.
(414) Reapwiy, T. A. The Gold-bearing Strata of Merionethshire.
8vo. [See 428. ]
(415) List of Gold Ores from Merionethshire, North Wales,
exhibited at the International Exhibition, 1862. ‘ Examiner’ Office, Man-
chester.
(416) Ritzy, E. On the Manufacture of Iron (Analyses of Ores and
Coals). Trans. Soc. Eng. for 1861, p. 59.
(417) SuyrH, W. W. Gold Mining at Clogau, North Wales. Mining
and Smelting Mag. vol. i. p. 359.
(418) Wricur, T. Roman Mining Operations on the Borders of
Wales. Intellectual Observer, vol. i. p. 295.
1863.
(419) Anon. Bone-cave at Cefn, Flintshire. Geologist, vol. vi. p. 114.
(420) Ciement, J. H. Notice of Welsh Gold. Proc. Geol. Assoc.
vol. i. p. 279.
(421) Darsisuire, R. D. On Marine Shells in Stratified Drift at
High Levels on Moel Tryfaen, Caernarvonshire. Proc. Lit. Phil. Soc.
Manchester, vol. iii. p. 177.
(422) Davipson, T. A Monograph of the British Fossil Brachiopoda.
Part V. The Carboniferous Brachiopoda. No. 5. (Wales, Plates 51, 55.)
Palceontograph Soc. 4to. Lond.
(423) Duckworrn, H. Report of the Excursion made by the Society
to Holywell. Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. session 3, p. i.
(424) Gruner, — &—Lav. The Iron Mannfacture of South Wales
(from Ann. Mines, 5 ser. t. xx. p. 515). Mining and Smelting Mag.
vol. iii. p. 1.
(425) Matier, R. Appendix to the Account of the Harthquake- Wave
Experiments made at Holyhead. [Compressibility and structure of the
rocks.| Phil. Trans. vol. clii. (Part 2), p. 663.
(426) Morton, G.H. On the Ancient Glaciers of Snowdon. Proc.
Liverpool Geol. Soc. session 4, p. 3.
(427) Ramsay, Prof. A. C. Presidential Address to the Geological
Society of London. Breaks in Succession of the British Palzozoic Strata.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xix. p. Xxxvi.
(428) Reapwix, T. A. On the Gold-bearing Strata of Merioneth-
shire. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1862, Sections, p. 87. (? the same as 414).
(429) Satrer, J. W. On the Discovery of Paradoxides in Britain.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xix. p. 274.
(430) On the Upper Old Red Sandstone and Upper Devonian
Rocks. Ibid. p. 474.
(431) On the Identity of the Upper Old Red Sandstone with
the Uppermost Devonian (the Marwood Beds), and of the Middle and
Lower Old Red with the Middle and Lower Devonian. Rep. Brit. Assoc.
for 1862, Sections, p. 92. (This seems to be the same as 430.)
;
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALZONTOLOGY OF WALES. 425
(432) Smrrn, Rev. G. N. Report of a successful Search for Flint-
implements in a Cave called ‘the Oyle,’ near Tenby, South Wales.
Geologist, vol. vi. p. 47.
(433) Wricut, Dr. T. A Monograph on the British Fossil Echino-
dermata from the Oolitic Formations. Vol.2, Partl. On the Asteroida
(Wales, section, p. 69). Paleontograph. Soc. 4to. Lond.
1864.
(434) Bucxerr, H. On the Recent Discovery of Cannel Coalin North
Wales. Trans. Dudley Geol. Sci. Soc. (vol. i. ?) No. 3, p. 87.
(435) Davies, D. C. Tourists’ Guide to Llangollen and its Vicinity,
&e. Ed. 3 (with notes on the Geology). 12mo. Llangollen.
(436) On the Bala Limestone and its Associated Beds in North
Wales. Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., session 5, p. 21. Reprinted in Rep.
Oswestry Field Club, 1857-64, p. 70 (1865).
(437) Fatconer, Dr. H. On the Asserted Occurrence of Flint Knives
under a Skull of the extinct Rhinoceros hemitcechus, in an Ossiferous
Cave in the Peninsula of Gower. Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 3, vol. xiv. p.
248.
(438) GuassBroox, — On Sinking through a Bed of Quicksand.
Trans. South Wales Inst. Eng. vol. ii. p. 212.
(439) Hicks, H. On the Lower Lingula Flags of St. Davids, Pem-
brokeshire. Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. session 5, p. 12.
5 (440) Maw, G. Preglacial and Glacial Drift, Geol. Mag. vol. i. p.
294.
- (441) Percy, Dr. J. Metallurgy [vol. ii.]. Iron and Steel. (Analy-
sis of Welsh Ore, by Mr. Ritzy, p. 203; others pp. 206, 218-220). 8vo.
Lond.
(442) Reapwin, T. A. On the Recent Discovery of Gold near Bala
Lake, Merionethshire. ep. Brit. Assoc. for 1863, Sections, p. 86.
(443) Satter, J. W. On some New Fossils from the Lingula-flags
of Wales. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xx. p. 233.
(444) A Monograph of the British Trilobites. Part 1. Pale-
ontograph Soc., 4to Lond.
(445) Symonps, Rev. W. 8. Notes ona Ramble through Wales. A
Lecture delivered to the Worcester Nat. Hist. Soc., February 1864. 8vo.
Lond. and Cheltenham.
1865.
(446) Anon. [Accounts of Excursions.] Rep. Oswestry Field Club,
1857-64, (Llanrhaiadr, Glyn-Ceiriog, Coed-y-Gaer, &c.)
(447) Bevan, C. P. [? Dr.G.P.] On the Physical Features of the
Coal-basin of South Wales. Geol. Mag. vol. ii. p. 158.
tt®) Biynzy, E. W. Remarks on the Genus Polyporites. Ibid.
p. 404.
(449) Brown, T. F. The Caerphilly Mineral District. Trans S.
Wales Inst. Eng. vol. iv. p. 86. Discussion p. 128.
(450) Davies, D. C. The Outlier of Carboniferous Limestone near
Corwen, North Wales. Geol. Mag. vol. ii. p. 283.
(451) A Walk over the ‘ Ash-bed’ and ‘Bala Limestones,’
near Oswestry. Ibid. p. 343.
(452) Account of Excursion (Oswestry and Welshpool Nat.
Field Club). Ibid. p. 427.
426 REPORT—1880.
(453) Davies, D. C. Denudation, Unconformability, and the Vale of
Clwyd. Ibid. p. 476.
(454) List of Fossils described from the Bala Limestone and
its Associated Beds of North Wales. Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., session
6, p. 30.
(455) The Geology of Glyn Ceiriog. Rep. Oswestry Field Club,
1857-64, p. 32.
(456) The Mountain Limestone of North Wales. Ibid. p. 50.
(457) Esxricce, R. A. The Geology of the Country around Builth.
Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc., session 6, p. 20.
(458) Hann, C. R. Some conjectural Hints towards determining the
ancient Coast-line of North Wales, between the River Dee and the
Island of Anglesea. Ibid. p. 7.
(459) Hunt, R. British Gold, with Especial Reference to the Gold
Mines of Merionethshire. Quart. Jowrn. Sct. vol. ii. p. 635.
(460) Jones, Prof. T. R. and Dr. H. B. Hotz. Notes on the Paleozoic
Bivalved Entomostraca. No. 6. Some Silurian species (Primitia). Ann.
Nat. Hist. ser. 3, vol. xvi. p. 414.
(461) Juxes, J. B. The Outlier of Carboniferous Limestone near
Corwen. Geol. Mag. vol. ii. p. 326.
(462) Maw, G. On some Deposits of Chert, White Sand, and White
Clay in the Neighbourhood of Llandudno, North Wales. Ibid. p. 200.
(See No. 494.)
(463) Permian Strata in the Vale of Choyd. Tbid. pp. 380,
523. (See No. 493.)
(464) Letter on Quartz at Talargod Mine, Flintshire. Ibid.
p. 428.
(465) Musprart, Dr. S. Analysis of the Water of Llandudno, North
Wales. Chem. News, vol. xi. p. 14 (see also p. 35).
(466) Ness, W. On the Coal-Measures in the Mold Valley, and their
Products. (Brit. Assoc.) Geol. Nat. Hist. Repertory, vol. i. p. 186.
(467) Owen, Prof. R. Description of some Remains of an Air-breath-
ing Vertebrate (Anthrakerpeton crassosteum) from the Coal-shale of
Glamorganshire. Geol. Mag. vol. ii. p. 6. Reprinted in Trans. Cardiff
Nat. Soc. vol. ii. p. 108, pls. i. ii. (1870).
(468) Purpson, Dr. T. L. Analysis of the New Phosphatie Rock
Recently Discovered in Wales. Chem. News, vol. xii. pp. 219, 277.
(469) Prosser, W. The Fossiliferous Character of the Millstone
ae at Sweeney, near Oswestry, Shropshire. Geol. Mag. vol. ii. p.
107.
(470) Reapwin, T. A. The Recent Discovery of Gold at Gwynfynydd,
North Wales. (Brit. Assoc.) Geol. Nat. Hist. Repertory, vol. i. p. 176.
(471) Rogers, G. E. Geological Notes and Queries. Geol. Mag.
vol. ii. p. 89.
(472) Sarrer, J. W. On the Old Pre-Cambrian (Laurentian) Island
of St. Davids, Pembrokeshire. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1864, Sections,
p- 67. (Correction in Geol. Mag. vol. ii. p. 480.)
(473) On some Additional Fossils from the Lingula-flags.
With a Note on the Genus Anopolenus by H. Hicks. Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc. vol xxi. p. 476. :
474) A Monograph of British Trilobites. Part 2. Palcon-
tograph Soc. 4to. Lond.
(475) Notes explanatory of a Map of the Faults of the Dolgelley
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALMONTOLOGY OF WALES. 427
Gold District. 8vo. Manchester. (Brit. Assoc., under the title ‘ Explana-
tion of a Map of the Faults in the Gold Districts of Dolgelley ’).
(476) Sroppart, W. W. On the Cambro-Silurian Strata and Fossils
(Bristol Nat. Soc.) Geol. Mag. vol. ii. p. 222.
(477) Smirn, J. D. Notes on the ‘Analysis of the Phosphatic Rock
recently discovered in Wales,’ by Dr. T. L. Phipson. Chem. News, vol.
xii. p. 254,
(478) Symonps, Rev. W. S. Observations on Certain Drifts and
Ancient River-beds of Siluria and South Wales. (Brit. Assoc.) Geol.
Nat. Hist. Repertory, vol. i. p. 148.
(479) Witu1aMs, W. M. On the Ancient Glaciers on the North and
East of Llangollen, and more particularly of the Neighbourhood of the
Hope Mountain. Ibid. p. 169, and Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1865, Sections,
p- 77 (1866).
(480) Wixwoop, Rev. H. H. Exploration of the ‘Hoyle’s Mouth’
Cave, near Tenby. (reol. Mag. vol. ii. p. 471.
1866.
(481) Beptreton, R. The Duration of the South Wales Coal Field.
Trans. S. Wales Inst. Eng. vol. v. p. 74. Discussion, p. 209.
(482) Davinson, 'T. A Monograph of the British Fossil Brachiopoda.
Part vii. No.1. The Silurian Brachiopoda. With Observations on the
Classification of the Silurian Rocks: by Sir R. I. Murcuison, Paleonto-
- graph. Soc. 4to. Lond.
(483) Eskriacn, R. A. Ona New Locality for Paradoxides Davidis
and associated fossils in North Wales. Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. session
7, p- 43; and Geol. Mag. vol. iii. p. 136.
(484) Eyton, Miss. On an Ancient Coast-line in North Wales. Geol.
Mag. vol. iii. p. 289.
(485) Greenwoop, Col. G. Mackintosh on Welsh Valleys. Geikie on
Scottish Kames. Ibid. p. 519.
(486) Hatt, H. F. Notice of Submerged Forests at Rhos, near Col-
wyn. Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. session 7, p. 31.
(487) Hicks, H. Report on further Researches in the Lingula-flags
of South Wales. With some Notes on the Sections and Fossils, by J. W.
Satter. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1865, p. 281.
(488) Marcov, J. La faune primordiale dans le pays de Galles, &c.
Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 2 ser. t. xxiii. p. 552.
(489) Macxintosu, D. The Sea against Rivers; or the Origin of
Valleys. Geol. Mag. vol. iii. pp. 155, 235.
(490) Denudation. Ibid. p. 280.
491) Results of Observations on the Cliffs Gorges and Valleys
of Wales. Ibid. p. 387.
(492) Ascent of Cader Idris. Intellectual Observer, vol. x. p.
27.
(493) Maw, G. Onsome Fossiliferous Slates occurring between the
Bunter Sandstone and Mountain Limestone of the Vale of Clwyd, North
Wales. ep. Brit. Assoc. for 1865, Sections, p. 67. [? included in 463. |
(494) On an Extensive Distribution of White Sands and Clays
in North Wales antecedent to the Boulder Clay Drift. Ibid. p. 68.
[? included in 462. ]
(495) On the Occurrence of Extensive Deposits of Tufa in
Flintshire. Geol. Mag. vol. iii. p. 253.
428 REPORT—1880.
(496) Morton, G. H. Introductory Remarks on the Geology of the
Country between the Vale of Clwyd and the River Dee. (Liverpool Geol.
Soc.) Ibid. p. 84.
(497) On the Geology of the Country bordering the Mersey
and Dee. Liverpool Naturalists’ Journ. No. 1, p. 15.
(498) Nixon, E. The Coal Fields of Denbighshire and Flintshire.
Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. session 7, p. 46; and Geol. Mag. vol. ii. p. 182.
(490) PrrcevaL, S.G. Discovery of Wulfenite (really Brookite), &c.,
in Pembrokeshire. Geol. Mag. vol. ili. pp. 377, 518.
(500) Puant, Jonny. Notes relating to the Discovery of Primordial
Fossils in the Lingula-flags in the neighbourhood of Tyddyngwladis Silver-
lead Mine. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxii. p. 505 (abstract); and,
under the title ‘On the Discovery of Paradoxides Davidis at Tyddyn-
gwladis, near Dolgelly, North Wales,’ in Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc.
vol. v. p. 76.
(501) and HK. Winiiamson. The Geology and Fossils of the Lin-
gula Flags, or Primordial Zone, of the Gold Districts of North Wales.
Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc. vol. v. p. 220.
(502) Purron [? Rev.] W. Marks of Sea-action on the Cliffs
Gorges and Valleys of Wales. (Geol. Mag. vol. iii. p. 522.
(503) Rawzixson, R. Report on the Supply of Water to Liverpool
from Bala Lake. 8vo.
(504) Saurer, J.W. Letter on Matters relating to Wales. Geol. Mag.
vol. ii. p. 240.
(505) A Monograph of British Trilobites. Part III., contain-
ing Pp. 129-176; Plates xv—xxv. (chiefly Wales). Paleontograph. Soc.
Ato. Lond.
(506) SmirH, Rev. G. N. Recent Researches in a Bone Cave (The
Hoils) near Tenby. Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc. ser. 2, vol. i. pp. 10, 17.
(507) Tawney, E. B. On the Western Limit ‘of the Rhetic Beds in
South Wales, and on the Position of the ‘ Sutton Stone;’ with a Note on
the Corals by P. M. Duncan. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxii. p. 69.
(508) VorLcKer, Dr. A. On Phosphatic Deposits recently discovered
in North Wales. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1865, Sections, p. 37.
~ (509) Wyatt-Eparett,H. On the Arenig and Llandilo Groups. Proc.
Geol. Assoc. p. 24 (published with Geol. Nat. Hist. Repertory).
(510) On a Species of Lichas, and other New Forms from the
Llandilo Flags. Geol. Mag. vol. iii. p. 160.
1867.
(511) Apams, W. On the ‘Coal Brasses’ of the South Wales Coal
Field. ‘Trans. 8. Wales Inst. Eng g. vol. v. p. 190. (Discussion, p. 224.)
(512) Beir, T. On some new Trilobites from the Upper Cambrian
Rocks of North Wales. Geol. Mag g. vol. iv. p. 294.
(513) On the ‘Lingula Flags’ or ‘ Festiniog Group’ of the
Dolgelly District. Ibid. pp. 493, 536; and vol. v. p. 5 (1868).
(514) Biyney, E. W. On the Upper Coal Measures of England and
Wales. Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc. vol. vi. p. 38.
(515) Bonney, Rev. T.G. On Traces of Glacial Action near Tan
dudno. Geol. Mag. vol. iv. p. 289.
es 516) Kitchen-middens on the Great Ormeshead. Ibid. pp. 3438,
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALEONTOLOGY OF WALES. 429
(517) Bristow, H.W. On the Lower Lias or Lias-Conglomerate of a
part of Glamorganshire. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiii. p. 199.
(518) Davipson, T. A Monograph of the British Fossil Brachio-
poda. Part VII. No. ii. The Silurian Brachiopoda. Palwontograph. Soc.
4to. Lond.
(519) Davius, D. C. On a Bed of Phosphate of Lime, N.W. of Llan-
fyllin, North Wales. Geol. Mag. vol. iv. p. 251.
(520) Bala and Hirnant Limestones at Mynyd Fron Frys in
Glen Ceiriog. Ibid. p. 288.
(521) Dawkins [Prof.] W. B. On the Dentition of Rhinoceros
leptorhinus, Owen. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiii. p. 213. (Wales,
eaLo.
; a) Duncan [Prof.] P.M. On the Madreporaria of the Infra-Lias
of South Wales. Ibid. p. 12.
(523) A Monograph of the British Fossil Corals. Second Series.
Part IV. No. 1, Corals from the Zones of Ammonites Planorbis and A.
Angulatus in the Liassic Formation. (S. Wales, pp. 7-23, 27-35.) Pale-
ontograph. Soc. 4to. Lond.
(524) Forses, D. Researches on British Mineralogy. Phil. Mag. ser.
4, vol. xxxiv. p. 329. (Gold, Wales, p. 338.)
(525) The Microscope in Geology. Pop. Sci. Rev. vol. vi. p.
305.
(526) Gruen [Prof.] A. H. On the Lower Carboniferous Rocks of
North Wales. Geol. Mag. vol. iv. p. 11.
(527) Grieritus, Rev. H. Mynydd Troed, Breconshire. Trans. Wool-
hope Nat. Field Club for 1866, p. 152.
(528) Harkness, Prof. R. Diplograpsus teretiusculus in the Upper
Llandovery of Haverfordwest. (Geol. Mag. vol. iv. p. 286.
(529) Hicks, Dr. H. Discovery of a Hysna-den near Laugharne,
Carmarthenshire. Ibid. p. 307.
(530) and J. W. Satter. Second Report on the ‘ Menevian
Group’ and the other Formations at St. Davids, Pembrokeshire. ep.
Brit. Assoc. for 1866, p. 182.
(531) Maw, G. On the Distribution beyond the Tertiary Districts of
White Clays and Sands subjacent to the Boulder Clay Drifts. Geol. Mag.
vol. iv. pp. 241, 299.
(532) Shells on the Great Ormeshead. Ibid. p. 377.
(533) Mertto, Rev. J. M. Note on the Contents of the Pockets in the
Carboniferous Limestone at Llandudno. Ibid. p. 527.
(534) The Kitchen Middens at Llandudno. Ibid. p. 533.
(535) Moorz, C. On Abnormal Conditions of Secondary Deposits
when connected with the Somersetshire and South Wales Coal-basin ; and
on the age of the Sutton and Southerndown Series. (Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc. vol. xxiii. p. 449.
(536) Moore, T. J. Mammalian Remains from Cefn Cave. Part I.
Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. session 8, p. 50.
(537) Ricxerrs, Dr. C. On the Outlier of Carboniferous Limestone
near Corwen, North Wales. Ibid. p. 3.
(538) Saurer, J. W. A Monograph of British Trilobites. Part IV.
(Pp. 177-216). Paleontograph. Soc. 4to. Lond.
539) —— On the May Hill Sandstone. Geol. Mag. vol. iv. p. 201.
540) Bala and Hirnant Limestone. bid. p. 233.
(541) and H. Hicks. On a new Lingulella from the red Lower
430 REPORT—1880.
Cambrian rocks of St. David’s. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiii.
. 339,
> (542) Sruut,T.D. The Tillery Coal Seam and Workings, Abertillery.
Trans. S. Wales Inst. Eng. vol. v. p. 230. Discussion, p. 282.
(543) Symonps, Rev. W. S. The Geology of the District (Builth).
Trans. Woolhope Field Club for 1866, p. 234.
(544) Tare, R. On the Fossiliferous Development of the Zone of
Ammonites angulatus, Schloth., in Great Britain. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.
vol. xxiii. p. 305.
(545) On the oldest known Species of Exogyra, with a Descrip-
tion of the Species [from Leckwith, Glamorganshire]. Geol. Nat. Hist.
Repertory, vol. i. p. 380.
(546) Tuomas, J. HK. Prize Essay upon the Encroachment of the Sea
between the River Mersey and the Bristol Channel. 8vo. Lond.
(547) Watxacr, A. R. Ice Marks in North Wales (with a Sketch of
Glacial Theories and Controversies). Quart. Journ. Sci. vol. iv. p. 33.
(548) Wyarr-Epcrnt, H. On the Genera of Trilobites Asaphus and
Ogygia and the Sub-genus Ptychopyge. Geol. Mag. vol. iv. p. 14.
(549) —— On the Arenig and Llandeilo Groups. Ibid. p. 118.
1868.
(550) Apams, W. Address on the Objects of the Society. Ann. Rep.
Cardiff Nat. Soc. p. 26. [Geology and section at docks referred to,
. 32.
: ( eae) Collection of Fossils [S. Wales Coal-field]. Ibid, p. 53.
(552) Anon. Penlyan Field Meeting. Ibid. p. 38.
(553) Bevan, G. P. Address on the South Wales Coalfield. Ibid.
p. 43; and Trans. Woolhope Nat. Field Club for 1868, p. 35 (1869).
(554) Bostock, R. The probable Source of Holywell Spring. Proc.
Liverpool Geol. Soc. session 9, p. 62.
(555) Curuey, T. On the Geology of Llandrindod; its Mineral
Springs, and Conglomerate Boulders. Truns. Woolhope Nat. Field Club
for 1867, p. 28.
(556) Darsisnirn, R. D. Notes on some Superficial Deposits at Great
Orme’s Head, and as to the Period of its Elevation. Mem. Lit. Phil.
Soc. Manchester, vol. iv. p. 1, and Proc. vol. vii. No. 2, p. 12 (1867).
(557) Davinson, T. On the Earliest Forms of Brachiopoda hitherto
discovered in the British Paleozoic Rocks. Geol. Mag. vol. v. p. 303.
(558) Dawxins, W. B.,and W. A. Sanprorp. The British Pleistocene
Mammalia. Part II. British Pleistocene Felide. Felis spelea. (Wales,
plate ii.) Palcontograph. Soc. 4to. Lond.
(559) Duncan [Prof.] P. M. A Monograph of the British Fossil
Corals. Second Series. Part IV. No. 2 [Liassic]. Appendix, ‘ Note on
the Age of the Sutton Stone and Brocastle, &c., Deposits,’ p. 69. Palcon-
tograph. Soc. 4to. Lond.
(560) Esxriace, R.A. Geological Observations on the Country round
Maentwrog, North Wales. Proc. Inverpool Geol. Soc. session 9, p. 51.
(561) Hyron, Miss. The Drift-Beds of Llandrillo Bay, Denbighshire.
Geol. Mag. vol. v. p. 349.
(562) Fatconnr, Dr. H. Paleontological Memoirs and Notes of the
late, by Dr. C. Murcutson, vol.ii. 8vo. Lond. On the European Pliocene
and Post Pliocene Species of the Genus Rhinoceros, p. 309 (R. hemi-
toechus, Gower Caves, 8. Wales, pp. 311, 348, 351; plates 15-21, 23-25.)
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALZONTOLOGY OF WALES. 431
—Note on the Occurrence of Felis speleea in the Mendip Caverns and else-
where, and on a Species of Felis found in one of the Gower Caves, pp. 4.55,
458.—Note on the Remains of a Hyenoid Wolf from Spritsail-Tor Cave
[Gower], pp: 462, 463—Notes on Fossil Species of Ursus. iv. from De-
borah’s Den [Gower], p. 466, &c.—Observations on the Ossiferous Caves
in the Peninsula of Gower, South Wales, pp. 498-540.—On the Fossil
Remains found in Cefn Cave, near Bryn Elwy, N. Wales, pp. 541, 542.
(563) Forses, D. Researches on British Mineralogy. Il. Phil. Mag.
ser. 4, vol. xxxv. p. 171. (Polytelite, N. Wales, p. 171.)
(564) Hatt, H. F. On the Geology of the District of Creuddyn.
Proc. Iiverpool Geol. Soc. session 9, p. 34.
(565) Hicatns, W.M. The Geological Distribution of the Ores of Iron.
(Reprinted from the Colliery Guardian.) Ato. Lond.
(566) Hunt, R. The Iron Ores of Great Britain. Quart. Jowrn. Sci.
vol. v. p. 3l.
(567) [McConnocuin, —] Section of Bore Hole at the Hast Bute
Docks. 1 Ann. Rep. Cardiff Nat. Soc. p. 34, plate.
(568) Artesian Well, Bute Docks, Cardiff. Ibid. p. 35 [same
thing as the above].
(569) Macxintosu, D. On the Origin of Smoothed, Rounded, and
Hollowed Surfaces of Limestone and Granite. (Minera.) Quart. Jowrn.
Geol. Soc. vol. xxiv. p. 277 (Abstract).
(570) Maw, G. On the Disposition of Iron in Variegated Strata.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiv. p. 351. (Wales, pp. 360, 379, 380-2.)
571) On a New Section of the Cambrian Rocks in a Cutting
of the Llanberis and Carnarvon Railway, and the Banded Slates of Llan-
beris. Geol. Mag. vol. v. p. 121.
(572) Ricxerrs, Dr. C. Remarks on the Upper Silurian Formation.
Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. session 9, p. 62.
(573) Satter, J. W. On Sacocaris: a New Genus of Phyilopoda
from the Lingula Flags. Proc. Geol. Polytech. Soc. W. Riding, York. vol.
iy. p. 588.
(574) Samust, W. Llandilo, Present and Past. .... (Geology, pp.
153-164.) 8vo. Carmarthen.
1869.
(575) Bonnny, Rev. T. G. On the Supposed Occurrence of Pholas
Burrows in the Upper Parts of the Great and Little Ormesheads. (Geol.
Mag. vol. vi. p. 483. Letter on the above, vol. vii. p. 98, and by R. D.
DarsisHire, p. 92. And Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. part xi. pp. 150-152
(1870).
(576) Davinsoy, T. A Monograph of the British Fossil Brachiopoda.
Part VII. No. iii. (Pp. 169-248), The Silurian Brachiopoda. Palconto-
graph. Soc. 4to. Lond.
(577) Duncan, Prof. P. M. First Report on the British Fossil
rome (Sutton and Brocastle, pp. 108, &c.) Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1868,
p: 75.
(578) Hicks, H. On some recent Discoveries of Fossils in the Cam-
brian Rocks [St. Davids]. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1868, Sections, p. 68.
(579) Notes on a Species of Eophyton (?) from the Lower Are-
nig Rocks of St. David’s: Geol. Mag. vol. vi. p. 534.
(580) Notes on the Arenig Rocks in the Neighbourhood of St.
Davids. Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. session 10, p. 72.
432 ‘REPORT—1880.
(581) Hopkinson, J. On British Graptolites. Journ. Quekett Micros.
Club, vol. i. (part 8), p. 151.
(582) Hui, E. On the Evidences of a Ridge of Lower Carboniferous
Rocks crossing the Plain of Cheshire beneath the Trias, and forming the
boundary between the Permian Rocks of the Lancashire Type on the
North, and those of the Salopian Type on the South. Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc. vol. xxv. p. 171.
(583) M‘Cuttoucu, Dr. D. M. The Cornstones of Herefordshire and
Monmouthshire. Trans. Woolhope Nat. Field Club for 1868, p. 8.
(584) Macxintosn, D. The Scenery of England and Wales; its
Character and Origin. 8vo. Lond.
(585) Manisty, G. E. Visit to Esgair [refers to Glaciation]. Rep.
Marlborough Coll. Nat. Hist. Soc. for the half-year ending Midsummer
1869, p. 16.
(586) Morton, G. H. Paleontological Observations on the Carboni-
ferous Limestone in Flintshire. Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. session 10,
BD.
2 (587) Owen, Prof. R. Notes on Two Ichthyodorulites hitherto unde-
scribed. Geol. Mag. vol. vi. p. 482.
(588) Parrison, 8. R. Slate and Slate Quarries, geologically and
commercially considered. (Reprinted from the Mining Journal.) 8vo.
Lond.
(589) Roserrs, D. W. Notice of certain Concretions found in the
Upper Silurian Rocks of Denbighshire, North Wales. Trans. Edin. Geol.
Soe. vol. i. p. 253.
(590) Satter, J. W. On a New Pterygotus from the Lower Old
Red Sandstone. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1868, Sections, p. 78 [a few lines].
(591 Some New Points in the Geology of the Usk District.
Trans. Woolhope Nat. Field Club for 1868, p. 174.
(592) [Notes on] Cephalaspis Asterolepis and Homalonotus
Johannis. Ibid. p. 240.
(593) and H. Hicks. On some Fossils from the ‘ Menevian
Group.’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxv. p. 51.
(594) Symonps, Rev. W. 8S. Address on the Geology of the District
(Penwylt, &c.) Trans. Woolhope Nat. Field Club for 1868, p. 68.
(595) Tynor, A. On Quaternary Gravels. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.
vol. xxv. p. 5/7. (S. Wales, p. 66.)
1870.
(596) Apams, W. The Characteristics of the Cefn-on Tunnel. Trans.
Cardiff Nat. Soc. vol. ii. p. 32.
(597) On the Geological Features of the S. Wales Coalfield.
Journ. Iron Steel Inst. vol. i. p. 18.
(598) Airken, J. The Grit-rocks of the Eastern Border of North
Wales. Geol. Mag. vol. vii. p. 263.
(599) On Productus Llangollensis, from the Eglwseg Rocks,
Llangollen, North Wales. Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc. vol. ix. (No. 1),
pio.
(600) Davies, D.C. On the Millstone Grit of the North Wales Bor-
der. Geol. Mag. vol. vii. pp. 68, 122.
(601) Dawkins, W. B. The Denbighshire Caves. Trans. Manchester
Geol. Soc. vol. ix. (No. 1), p. 31.
(602) Evans, F. G. On some Silicious Stones found in the Coal
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALZONTOLOGY OF WALES. 433
Measures, and on a White Substance found on the Cardiff Moors during a
recent excavation. Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc. vol. ii. p. 55.
(603) Forzes, D. The Structure of Rock Masses (Stratification,
Joints, Cleavage). Pop. Sci. Rev. vol. ix. p. 113.
(604) Fornuraitt, W. The Farming of Monmouthshire [Account of
the Soils, &c.]. Journ. Roy. Agric. Soc. ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 275.
(605) Grirrirs, N. R. On the Flintshire Cannel Seam. Trans. N.
Inst. Mining Eng. vol. xix. p. 75.
(606) Hatt, H. F, On the Glacial and Post-Glacial Deposits in the
Neighbourhood of Llandudno. (Geol. Mag. vol. vii. p. 509, and Rep. Brit.
Assoc. for 1870, Sections, p. 72 (1871).
(607) Hicks, Dr. H. Notes on the Discovery of some Fossil Plants
in the Cambrian (Upper Longmynd) Rocks, near St. David’s. Rep. Brit.
Assoc. for 1869, Sections, p. 90.
(608) Hopkinson, J. On the Structure and Affinities of the Genus
Dicranograptus. Geol. Mag. vol. vii. p. 353.
(609) Jones, Prof. T. R. On some Bivalved Entomostraca from the
Coal-measures of South Wales. Geol. Mag. vol. vii. p. 214. Reprinted in
Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc. vol. ii. p. 112, pl. iu.
(610) Joseru, T. On the Changing Character of the Coal from Bitu-
minous to Anthracite between Tredegar Iron Works and the Venallt in
Glyn-Neath. Proc. S. Wales Inst. Eng. vol. vii. No. 2, p. 137. Discus-
sion in Nos. 4 and 5, pp. 193, 271 (1871), and vol. viii. No. 1, p. 19
(1872).
(611) Len, J. E. Notice of remarkable Glacial Strie lately exposed
at Portmadoc. ep. Brit. Assoc. for 1869, Sections, p. 95.
(612) Lewis, W. T., and’ M. Reynorps. Neath Mineral District.
Proc. 8S. Wales Inst. Eng. vol. vii. No. 2, p. 84. Discussion in No. 5,
p. 264 (1871).
(613) Maw, G. On the Trappean Conglomerates of Middletown Hill,
Montgomeryshire. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1869, Sections, p. 96.
~ (614) Moorn, C. Report on Mineral Veins in Carboniferous Lime-
stone and their Organic Contents. With Notes on the Foraminifera by
H. B. Brapy. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1869, p. 360.
(615) Nicnotson, Dr. H. A. On the British Species of Didymograp-
sus. Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 4, vol. v. p. 337.
(616) Rozerts, D. W. Notice of the occurrence of ‘ Actinocrinus
pulcher’ in the Upper Silurian Flag of Denbighshire, North Wales, being
4 new locality for this Encrinite. Trans. Edin. Geol. Soc. vol. i. p. 329.
(617) Woop, 8. V. jun. Observations on the Sequence of the Glacial
Beds. Geol. Mag. vol. vii. p. 61. f
1871.
(618) Apams, W. On the Geological Features of the South Wales
Coalfield. Jowrn. Tron Steel Inst. No. 1, p. 13.
(619) Barranvs, J. Trilobites. 8vo. Prague and’ Paris. Systéme
Cambrien en Angleterre, pp. 246-254.
(620) Binney, E. W. Observations on the Structure of Fossil Plants
found in the Carboniferous Strata. Part 2 (p. 59), Lepidostrobus and
some allied Cones. Palcontograph. Soc. 4to. Lond.
(621) CarrurHers, W. On some supposed Vegetable Fossils. Quart.
Journ. Gieol. Soc. vol. xxvii. p. 448.
a?) Davipson, T. A Monograph of the British Fossil Brachiopoda.
: FF
434 REPORT—1880.
Part VII. No. iv. (pp. 249-397), The Silurian Brachiopoda, Palconto-
graph. Soc. 4to. Lond.
(623) Harkness, Prof. R., and H. Hicks. On the Ancient Rocks of
the St. David’s Promontory, South Wales, and their Fossil Contents,
With Descriptions of the New Species by H. Hicks. Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc. vol. xxvii. p. 384.
(624) Henwoop, W. J. Observations on Metalliferous Deposits. (N.
Wales, pp. 635-42.) Trans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, vol. viii. part 1.
(625) Joseru, T. On Colliery Explosions. South Wales Coal Field
(with Sections). Proc. S. Wales Inst, Eng. vol. vii. No. 4, p. 208. Dis-
cussion, vol. viii. No. 1, p. 32 (1872).
(626) Jukes, J. B. Letters and Extracts from the Addresses and
Occasional Writings of. Hdited by his sister. 8vo. Lond.
(627) Morton, G. H. On the Mountain Limestone of Flintshire and
part of Denbighshire. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1870, Sections, p. 82.
(628) Reapwin, T. A. Notes ona Merionethshire Gold Quartz Crystal,
and some Stream Gold recently found in the River Mawddach. Ibid. p. 84.
(629) Ricxerrs, Dr.C. Remarks on the Lower Silurian Rocks in the
Neighbourhood of Llanfyllin, and on the Contortions of the Strata. Proc.
Liverpool Geol, Soc. session 12, p. 30.
(630) Symonps, Rey, W. 8S. On the Physical Geology of the Bone-
caves of the Wye. ep. Brit. Assoc. for 1870, Sections, p. 88.
(631) Report of the Commissioners appointed to inquire into the
several matters relating to Coal in the United Kingdom. Vol. i. General
Report, &c.—H. H. Vivian. Report on South Wales Mineral Basin, p. 1.
—G. T. Crarx. South Wales Coalfield. Eastern Division, p, 9.—J.
Dickinson. North Wales, p. 16. Vol. ii. General Minutes and Pro-
ceedings of Committees. Fol. Lond.
1872.
(632) Anon, Observations on certain Districts in North Wales with
reference to the final wasting and disappearance of the Glaciers, (Cam-
bridge Phil. Soc.) Nature, vol. vii. p. 76. [See 661.]
(633) Crutwett, A. The Coal-field of South Wales. Trans. Clifton
Coll, Sci. Soc. part ii. p. 58.
(634) Erueripcr,R. On the Physical Structure and Organic Remains
of the Penarth (Rhetic) Beds of Penarth and Layernock, &e. Trans,
Cardiff Nat. Soc. vol. iii. pt. ii. p. 39, pls.
(635) Evans, F.G. The Carboniferous Limestone. Ibid. pt. i. p, 39.
(636) Hicks, H. On some Undescribed Fossils from the Menevian
Group. With a Note on the Entomostraca by Prof. T, R, Jones. Quart.
Journ, Geol. Soc. vol. xxviii. p. 173.
(637) Hopkinson, J. On Callograptus radicans, a New Dendroid
Graptolite. Ann. Nat, Hist, ser. 4, vol. x. p, 233.
(638) Jenxins, T. L. The Natural History of Tenby. (Geology, p. 21.)
Trans, Clifton Coll. Sei. Soc. part ii. p. 19.
(639) Macxintosu, D. The Age of Floating Ice in North Wales,
Geol. Mag. vol, ix. p. 15,
(640) Maskenyne, Prof. N.S.,and Dr. Fricut. Mineralogical Notices.
12 Analyses of some Pisolitic Iron Ores from North Wales. Jowrn. Chem.
Soc. ser. 2, vol. x. p, 1055.
(641) NicHonson, Prof. H. A. Migrations of the Graptolites. Quart.
Journ. Geol, Soc. vol. xxviii. p. 217.
WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALHONTOLOGY OF WALES. 435
(642) Ramsay, Prof. A. C. On the River-courses of England and
Wales. Ibid. p. 148.
(643) Ricxerrs, Dr. C. Valleys, Deltas, Bays, and Estuaries, (Pre-
sident’s Address.) Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. session 1871-2.
(644) Ritry, E. The Manufacture of Iron and Steel. (Analysis of
Welsh Ironstone, p. 534.) Quart. Journ. Chem. Soc. ser. 2, vol. x. p. 533.
(645) Scururer-Kustner, A., and C. Meuntmr. On the Calorific Value
and Composition of two Welsh Coals (from Comptes Rendus, \xxiii. 1061),
Ibid. p. 91.
(646) Symonps, Rev. W.S. On a New Fish-spine from the Lower
Old Red Sandstone of Hay, Breconshire. ep. Brit. Assoc. for 1871,
Sections, p. 110.
(647) Records of the Rocks; or Notes on the Geology ,...
of North and South Wales, Devon, and Cornwall. 8vo. Lond.
(648) Tuomas, D. On ‘The Avon Valley Mineral District.’ Proc. 8.
Wales Inst. Eng. vol. vii. (No. 6) p. 317.
(649) Vivian, W. The Mwyndy Mines. Trans. Cardiff Nat. Soc, vol.
iii. [pt. 1] p. 79.
(650) Rocks—Do they Grow? Ibid. p. 75, pl. 3 [N. Wales].
(651) Woopwarp, H. A Monograph of the British Fossil Crustacea,
belonging to the Order Merostomata. Part 4. (Wales, pp. 124-126.)
Paleeontograph. Soc. 4to. Lond.
1873.
(652) Anon. The Slate Quarries of North Wales, Reprinted from
the Carnarvon and Denbigh Herald.
(653) Bucxerr, H. The Geology of the Minera District. Trans.
Severn Valley Nat. Field Club, 1865-1870, p. 85.
(654) Brapy, H. B. On Archediscus Karreri,a New Type of Car-
boniferous Foraminifera. Ann. Nat. Hist. ser. 4, vol. xii. p. 286.
(655) CarrutHers, W. On Halonia of Lindley and Hutton, and
Cyclocladia of Goldenberg. (S. Wales, fig.3.) Geol. Mag. vol. x. p. 145.
(656) Davirs, D.C. On the Overlapping of Several Geological For-
mations on the North Wales Border. Proc. Geol. Assoc. vol. ii. No. 8,p. 299.
(657) On Coal Seams in the Permian, at Ifton, Shropshire
(refers to Wales). Ibid. vol. iii. No. 3, p. 138.
(658) Hicks, H. On the Tremadoc Rocks in the Neighbourhood of
St. David’s, South Wales, and their Fossil Contents. Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc. vol. xxix. p. 39. [See Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1872, Sections, p. 107
(1873). ? Abstract of part of above. |
(659) On the Classification of the Cambrian and Silurian Rocks.
Proc. Geol. Assoc. vol. iii. No. 8, p. 99, table.
(660) Hopxinsoy, J. On the Graptolites of the Arenig Rocks of St.
David’s. Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. session 14, p. 36; Rep. Brit. Assoc.
for 1872, Sections, p. 107; and Geol. Mag. vol. ix. p. 467 (1872).
(661) Kinastey, W. On certain facts connected with the wasting
and final disappearance of the Glaciers of North Wales. Proc. Camb.
Phil. Soc. part xiv. pp. 283-285.
(662) Lanxesrer, E.R. On Holaspis sericeus, and on the Relation-
ships of the Fish-genera Pteraspis, Cyathaspis, and Scaphaspis [Mon-
mouthshire]. (feol. Mag. vol. x. p. 241.
(663) Luz, J. E. Notice of Veins or Fissures in the Keuper, filled
with Rhetic Bone-bed, at Goldcliffe, in Monmouthshire. Rep. Brit. Assoc.
for 1872, Sections, p. 116.
FRF2
436 REPORT—1880.
» (664) Lucy, W. C. Notes on the Extension of the Boulder-clay over
the Great and Little Orme, and the Cementing together by Lime of some
large Boulders in the Clay near the Little Orme. Geol. Mag. vol. x.
p. 041.
(665) MackinrosH, D. Observations on the more remarkable Boulders
of the North-west of Hngland and the Welsh Borders. Quart. Journ.
Geol. Soc. vol. xxix. p. 351.
(666) Purron, Rev. W. The Geology of Cader Idris and the Arrans.
(Severn Valley Wield Club, July 3, 1873.) Local Newspaper.
(667) Tuomas, J. E. Prize Essay npon the Mineral Resources of the
Counties of Flint and Denbigh, with Suggestions for their Development.
Pp. iv. 41. 8vo0. Oswestry.
On the recent Revival in Trade. By StePHEN Bourne, F.S.S.
[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso.]
Tue latest issued official accounts of the foreign and colonial trade of the
United Kingdom, together with those of the several preceding months,
bear testimony to a very considerable increase in the quantity and value
of both imports and exports. The figures in which these are set forth
have been received as evidence that a real revival of trade has set in, and
is about to extend beyond the bounds which have been reached in former
years. Such an analysis of these figures as may serve to indicate their
real bearing on the welfare of the country—both present and future—will
not, therefore, be uninteresting, either to those engaged in trade or manu-
facture; nor to those who are any way concerned to understand the
position in which we stand, or that to which we may look forward.
It was during the sitting of the British Association in the manufactur-
ing town of Sheffield last year, that the first gleams of returning prosperity
were distinctly seen. There had been for some months previously more fre-
quent appearances of ‘ paper’ in the London Money Market, of American
origin, which were taken as indications that there was a stir in American
trade ; and many proofs that the depression into which trade on the other side
of the Atlantic had fallen was passing away. Not a few hopes were expressed
that this country would in like manner emerge from the depth into which
its trade had fallen, so soon as prosperity was again brightening the pros-
pects of the United States. The receipt, therefore, of orders for various de-
scriptions of our iron products—and especially for rails—was immediately
viewed as a precursor to manufacturing activity. Nor was the expectation
unwarranted by the results. A spirit of confidence at once sprung up,
and prices rose so high as to show that in addition to that which had a
sound basis, much speculative business was going on. Thus a stimulus
was given to production. Higher prices were asked and given, and for a
time there seemed to be no lack of buoyancy in almost every market.
Prices again gave way, but are now being partially recovered, and the
opinion is almost universally entertained that a new era of prosperity is
being entered upon. Such being the case it may be worth while to com-
pare a year’s transactions with those of the preceding one. The early
date at which the monthly accounts are now issued from the Custom
House gives us the means of taking for such comparison the twelvemonth
ON THE RECENT REVIVAL IN TRADE. 437
ended Jaly 31 last with those which came to a conclusion on the last day
of July in 1879. We can thus place side by side the figures for the worst
year of depression and the first year of recovery.
Before entering into an examination of the details of the last two years,
it may be well to state the totals for each year since 1871— that is, so far
back as they were collected on the same system as now exists; and to
show the difference in value between the goods imported and those ex-
ported, as follows :—
[In millions of £’s to two decimals. ]
Excess
Year ending Imports | Exports| of
) Imports |
£ £ £
July 31,1880 . : : ; j ‘ . | 40431 | 271°24 | 133-07
A) 1879. - : ; : : : . | 345°78 | 239°86 | 105-92
fe LSS: ; , - 3 : ‘ . | 387:35 | 250°59 | 136-76
= STi) eas : ; : ; ; ; . | 389°76 | 254°31 | 135-45
a 1876. ; ; 3 . : : . | 372°37 | 266°81 | 105-56
or 1875. : 4 é : : : . | 369°48 | 288-87 80°61
3, Vi4<. : 2 : ; : é -| 375°12 | 301-23 73°89
_ L873) : : a : : ‘ . | 36643 | 32072 45°71
5 HET: -. : : < ‘ ; .-| 349°85 | 30473 45°12 |
It will thus be seen that of the imports the twelve months just ended
were the highest, and those of the preceding twelve the lowest of the
whole series. Of the exports, the period ending in 1879 was likewise the
lowest, but that just ended was by no means the highest ; whilst as regards
the preponderance of imports, the most recent is very nearly the greatest,
there having been, until 1880, a progressive decline in the value of the
exports. Comparing the years ending in 1880 and 1879 together, they
differ in all these particulars more widely from each other than any of the
preceding years, the growth in imports having been 58°53/., in exports
31381, and in the excess of the former 27°15]. These figures include the
whole of the imports—those again sent away, as well as those retained for
home consumption ; and of the exports both the re-exports and the articles
of British produce and manufacture.
Separating one class of exports from the other, it appears that in the
latter year they have amounted in value to 214,000,000/. British, and about
57,000,0001. foreign and colonial, as against 187,000,0007. of the one and
53,000,000/. of the other. These figures are not exact, for the accounts
of the foreign goods are only shown in total at the proper end of each
year, but they are accurate enough for the present purpose, and tell the
increase of British to have been twenty-seven, and in foreign between four
and five millions of pounds. These foreign and colonial goods show the
activity of trade, and add to the national receipts by the commissions
and profits on their sale, but, as regards the employment of labour and
capital, are of inferior importance to the British.
In estimating the worth of this increase, very much depends upon
whether it has taken place in the quantities of the goods that have been
sold, or in the prices they have realised. From so many of the articles
being shown in the accounts in value only it is not possible to say how
this may have been as regards the whole, but by abstracting the principal
articles that are stated, both quantity and value, the relation of the one to
438 REPORT—1880.
the other may be ascertained for such portion of the exports, and it is not
likely that the proportions of the remainder will vary greatly. Classifying
the articles so abstracted, and calculating how far the difference in value
is due to greater quantities or altered values, the following results appear.
As before, in million pounds to two decimals :—
ites | Increase or Decrease
| Value of | More or due to
| Exports | lessthan}
| 1879-80 | 1878-79 Quantity | Price
) eee | ese
| £5 | £ £ £
Coals . ‘ . : 5 : ; : 8:01 | 96 | 113 — 17
Copper . : 3 3 4 - 2 ail 3:16 | 24 10 14
15 em enarimiames Sauamit oe car ne ian abana Ts Mee de eS, ‘81
Mineral , ; 4 37°29 9°64 8°86 78
Cotton Piece Goods 53-42 730 | 759 |. —-29
Jute ie as 2:12 | 310) 26 04
Linen ,, a 5:03 “49 “44 05
Woollen ,, + 15°95 1219 1:83 — 64
Textile , * ‘ ’ f . ;: 76°52 9°28 10°12 —'$4
|
Cotton and other yams . . . .| 19:02 ‘1 | —58} ~ -59
Alkali . é 3 ; d : : alt 2°32 *38 “24 14
Beer . A : i 3 : é 5 Liss 109 | e==-09 saa
TeArer AL eee OV RA orgie frre 292) —09 | —-23 | 14
Seed-oil x ; : A ; - r 161 ‘OL —°03 “O4
|
TUE re Mate at Oe ee | ORD 22: | —-69 ‘91
| Total specified . . . . . .| 141-41] 1914] 18:29] -85
Since the full value of all the British manufactures exported for the
year is 214 millions, and that of these specified articles is nearly 142, the
evidence thus afforded relates to two-thirds of the whole. In like manner
with the increase, twenty-seven millions for the whole and nineteen for
the enumerated.
Examining these particulars more closely, it will be seen that the
increase of 19°14, is between 15 and 16 per cent. on the exports of the
previous twelve months, and that of this amount 18:291., or 951 per cent.,
as owing to the quantities having been greater, and only ‘85/., or 44 per
cent., has arisen from better prices having been obtained. But whilst
these are the proportions of the whole, the rates on the different classes of
goods differ very much. Thus in coals and metals the increase has been 35
per cent., on textile manufactures 14 per cent., and in the miscellaneous less
than 1 per cent. So in respect to the gain in quantities, the minerals are
greater by 92 per cent., and the prices are better by 8 per cent. In textile
fabrics the increased quantities should have given 9 per cent. more money
than was actually credited, but failed to do so because the prices were less to
this extent. On the contrary, in the few miscellaneous articles shown
above there was a real diminution of quantity, but an increase in price,
whereby what would have been a loss of 24 per cent. became converted into
a gain of something less than 1 per cent. Descending more into detail,
ON THE RECENT REVIVAL IN TRADE. 439
. iron figures for very nearly one-third of the whole year’s gain, viz., 844d.
out of 271., and cotton piece goods for 7°301., or one-fourth. Of the gain
_ in iron, one-tenth only is due to price, whilst cotton goods have sold for a
- trifle less than the previous price. On the other hand, cotton yarn has
decreased in quantity but somewhat gained in price, and woollen piece
goods, though increasing 13 per cent. in quantity have fallen 4 per cent.
in price.
‘Taking the whole of the exports together, these figures establish the
fact that the very low prices of manufactured goods which prevailed in
the latter part of 1878 and the earlier part of 1879, have continued to
rule since that time; and that for very nearly all the addition to the values
of that which left our shores before the revival, we have had to give extra
quantities, the advantage in point of prices obtained having been incon-
siderable. If, therefore, the business of selling has yielded any better
return, it must have been because the manufacturer received less; and if
the manufacturer gained at all, it must have been either from the lesser
value of money or a reduction in the wages of his labourers. Further, as
will be shown in dealing with the imports, in the cost of the raw materials
from abroad from which most of our textile fabrics are woven there has
been, especially in cotton, a decided increase.
Turning now to the imports, and separating those retained at home
from those re-exported, we find a total value of about 347,000,000/., as
against 293,000,000. in 1879. Abstracting, as with the exports, the chief
articles, and classifying them according to their uses, the following figures
present themselves :—
Increase or Decrease
Value of | More or due to
| Imports, | lesa than |e. ee
| Lets 80) | Tape Quantity | Price
£ £ £ £
Meat, live anddead . ; : ° Poll ewe at 406 3°70 36
Butter and cheese 3 : i 3 2] 16°34 118 1:15 “03
Corn and flour ‘ - i ‘ 4 64:35 13:96 6°32 7:64
Potatoes 4 F . 2 . : 3 3°68 1:93 1:95 —*02
Coffee, tea, and sugar , : C - - 32°66 "26 — 68 94
Spirits and wine . : : 2 = Q 8:24 1°69 1:18 BL
Tobacco r : 6 “4 7 “ 1:95 —'58 — 18 — 40
Food 7 : 4 . c 4 . | 149-94 22°50 13°44 9°06
Cotton, raw : ; ; F 3 .| 37°63 10°50 7-21 3:29
Flax, hemp, and jute . : : : sain 2°66 2:03 63
Ee Ny 2-64 ‘76 92 | *—-16
Wool, sheep's - A ; - : ; 11:77 1:79 2:02 —°23
Textile , . ‘ 4 . : c 61°35 1571 12°18 3°53
Tron, ore and manufactured . is : : 5°80 1:86 178 “08
Copper . : ° ; ; ( é ; 4:13 B34 _— “B34
Wood . < ; : 4 ; ; : 12°38 2:03 2:28 —'25
Hides and leather : . - - - 5°02 1:36 1:03 33
Metals, &e, . . . . . . 27°33 5°59 5:09 “50
Total specified , ° ’ . A - | 238°62 43°80 30°71 13°09
440 REPORT—1880,
As with the exports, these selected articles form about two-thirds of
the whole of the importations retained for home consumption or manu-
facture—namely, 238 millions out of 347; but they absorb more than that
proportion of the increase over the previous year—namely 44 out of 54,
which is equal to four-fifths.
Coming to details, it will be seen that this increase of 43-80 is 224 per
cent. on the value of the previous year, whereas on the exports it was not
much more than 15 per cent., from which it is clear that the value of the
additional goods received for home use has exceeded that of the deliveries
for sale abroad in the proportion of very nearly 3 to 2. Of this amount.
30°711., or 70 per cent., is owing to the quantities having been greater, and
13°091., or 30 per cent., from better prices having been obtained.
The first division in the foregoing table, consisting of food, with which
are included beverages and tobacco, is by far the largest, taking more
than one-half of the articles—150 millions out of 239; and its share of
the increase for the year is nearly in the same proportion (224 out of 44),
the increase itself being 17} per cent. beyond last year’s supplies. In the
raw material for textile manufactures—61°35/., which is rather more than
a fourth of the whole, shows an increase over last year of 15°711., equal to 34
per cent. In the remaining glass, including the principal metals, wood
and leather, 27°33/., comprising one-sixth of the whole, the increase in the
year is 5'59/., or 26 per cent. Dividing then the surplus between volume
and value, it appears that the increase of food has been 60 per cent.,
in textile materials 77 per cent., and in the others 91 per cent. on the
quantities. So, in respect to the prices paid, which have been 40 per
cent. on food, 23 on textile materials, and 9 per cent. on metals, &c,
It needs no very close observation of these figures to discover the
marked contrast they present to those for the exports—in that, whilst
those showed the rise of prices to have been comparatively little, these
manifest a decided advance, particularly in almost every article of food
proper. We have not only consumed more, but that consumption has
been more costly, as well as more abundant. In proof that this is really
the case, two articles may be singled: out, sharing between them in nearly
equal portions rather more than half the whole increase in outlay. These
are wheat—the food for the body, that on which more than on anything
else we depend for the power to manufacture; and cotton, the food for
our mills, on which vastly more than on any other article we depend for
the maintenance of our power to produce that which we can exchange for
food. Of wheat we have consumed within the year, or are storing up
for consumption, that which has cost us 12,000,000/. more than in
the previous year; and of this amount 7,000,000/. has been spent because
our growth at home was deficient in quantity, and 5,000,000J. because
that deficiency enhanced the price the consumers have had to pay. Of
cotton wool we have imported and kept that which has cost us 10,500,000. ;
and of this 7,250,000/. has gone to provide the additional weight, and
3,250,000/. the extra price at which it has been procured. Of this addi-
tional cotton as nearly as possible one-half has gone away again in the
shape of manufactured goods, the other half being added to the stocks on
hand, or consumed for home purposes.
Thus far we have been considering the articles in which the country
has traded, and the money value they represent; but an important branch
of the inquiry relates to the countries with which that trade has been
|
|
|
ON THE RECENT REVIVAL IN TRADE. 441
carried on, and the altered conditions in which it stands. The figures
that may serve to illustrate these points are not so complete as those with
which we have been dealing, for it is only at the close of each year that
the necessary accounts are published, and these do not show the trans-
actions of the respective months which must form a portion of any period
ending otherwise than on December 31. The quarterly accounts farnish
materials for compiling the value of the whole imports for the twelve-
month ending in June, but not for those re-exported; and those for the
exports contain only the values of British produce and mannfacture.
From these data, however, it is possible to obtain a pretty clear idea of
the directions which the trade has been taking, and the differences between
its progress during each of the twelvemonths completed on June 30, 1879
and 1880.
The following is a condensed account of the value of the United
Kingdom manufactures which have been exported to the British posses-
sions and foreign countries.
Excess
1879-80 | 1878-79 of
former
£ £ £
To British India . y : F : 2 5 4 28°68 23°39 5:29
a Africa ; : F : F $ : 8:46 8-05 | “41
33 Australia . ‘ sy : g t F 15°48 18:46 | —2:98
43 North America . d : ‘ ‘ 3 6°50 5-70 “80
753 1:14
Other Possessions ‘ a R : : 8°67
To Foreign Countries in Europe . - : - : 79°88 80°72 — 84
a A Asia. - : : F 11:20 8-78 2°42
os an Africa . aN “ : 4°26 3:97 29
-,, United States of America. . i ; f 30-49 15-14 15°35
Other Countries in ditto 4 - ; : F 17:05 16°43 62
Total to British Possessions and Foreign Countries . | 210-67 | 188°17 22°50 |
If we except Australia, to which there has been so marked a decline—
the effect, doubtless, of her protective tariff —the only countries that show
a great difference in the two years—and these hoth in the way of increase
—are British India and the United States of America. India has taken
from us in cotton yarn and piece goods to the value of 18:99/. against
14°72/., thus nearly accounting for the above excess, and going far
towards repaying us for the raw cotton purchascd from her. The United
States have drawn upon us for iron and other metals to the value of
11-031. against 3:14/., and for cotton and other textiles 9'56/. against
5°34/., thus more than returning the increased sums paid by us for her
wheat and flour.
Following the same arrangement, the imports for the same period
show thus :—
449 REPORT—1880.
| Excess
1879-80 | 1878-79 of
former
£ £ £
From British India . fs ‘ ° c . 7 35°51 31°64 3°87
pag tine kerio : “ ° ‘ 5 - 6°67 6:01 “66
,» Australia : 2 - : : : 23°26 22-80 “46
;, North America J ; ‘ F 3 10°69 971 98
Other Possessions . ‘ ; P ‘ 7 10°30 8-42 1:88
86°45 78:58 7:85
161°88 | 14650 15°38
17°35 16°23 1:12
14°19 8°67 5°52
. . | 100°92 81:63 19:29
. : 20°62 19-74 “88
From Foreign Countries of Europe
= rs Asia
+ Atrica
United States of America
Other Countries in ,,
”
”
314:°96 | 272-77 42-19
Total from British Possessions and Foreign Countries | 401°39 | 351-35 50°04
These figures indicate that the expansion of our import trade has been
a benefit to almost every country, though here India and the United
States, with Egypt, have been the most prominent. In all these the two
great articles of corn and cotton have had the principal part. That with
the various countries of Europe is so large that a slight addition to each,
arising in great measure from our demands for corn, makes up a con-
siderable total. The chief interest, however, centres in the supplies we
have drawn from the United States. Wheat and flour together amounted
in 1878-9 to 17°46/., and in 1879-80 to 26°58/.; cotton to 22°682. in the
former, to 28°371. in the latter.
The analysis to which these figures have been submitted serves to
bring out many points of especial interest connected with the present
revival, and should afford much food for thought as regards its probable
course and duration.
In the first place, it shows that, great as has been the increase in our
exportations, that in our import trade is far greater. If we have sold in
the last twelve months to the value of 82,000,0007. more than we did in
the previous twelve, we have also received more goods to the value of
59,000,0001., thus leaving a greater balance to be provided for. No doubt
a considerable portion of that 27,000,000. will remain with us in payment
for freights, commissions earned, or profits realised; but an ample allow-
ance for these must still leave a large amount to be met either by payments
in bullion, the transfer of securities, or as deferred obligations. Nor must
it be forgotten that there is a continual stream of capital flowing from
this country for investment in our colonies and in foreign lands, which
going out mostly in goods, or in bills which serve as payment for goods,
the actual receipts for our exports are lessened thereby. There is, on the
other hand, capital returning for investment here, which in like manner
is represented by imports; but all our experience justifies the supposition
that the influx from this cause is less than the efflux. Much of the former
is held here on foreign account, liable at any moment to be withdrawn ;
ON THE RECENT REVIVAL IN TRADE. 443
hence the doubts so freely expressed at the present moment whether a
drain of gold may not soon set in.
Secondly, it is evident that on the whole the prices obtained for our
exports are only to a trifling extent better than they were, whilst the
prices paid for our imports are considerably enhanced. Thus the revival
has been much more to the advantage of the sellers of the goods we have
consumed than to that of those who sold our own produce or manufacture.
In the complicated state of trade transactions it is impossible to say whether
any or how much of this advantage belongs to our merchants, since this
‘depends upon the ownership at the time when the sales are effected. As
between the actual producers and consumers it is clear that a higher rate
of payments for imports, with nearly stationary receipts for exports,
cannot increase the prosperity of either one or the other. It would seem
to be the case that sales are effected because prices are low, and that
purchases are made because we need them although prices are high.
Take, for instance, the fact that the cotton used up in the manufacture
of our piece-goods has failed to bring in the higher price which the
advanced cost of the raw material would justify or require.
Thirdly, the whole excess in the value of the exports is scarcely equi-
-yalent to the extra cost of the food we have imported. Unless we can
suppose that large stocks of produce and manufacture, or the means of
producing them, are prepared for future sale, in readiness to obtain a
profit when parted with, it follows that, asa whole, all the gain of extended
foreign outward trade has but gone in the sustenance of those by whom
the goods have been produced, leaving nothing wherewith to recompense
capital or for the accumulation of wealth.
This brings us to the really important consideration whether the food
question is not truly at the bottom of the recent fluctuations in trade.
For a series of years our own supplies have been scanty, and the bad
harvest of last year rendered us more than ever dependent upon the pro-
duce of foreign countries, particularly of America. Purchasing largely
from the Western growers, and giving them remunerative prices, they
have large profits to expend upon our manufactures. Encouraged by
the successive annually increasing quantities they were able to sell, they
have been laying themselves out to meet our wants, and, anticipating an
ever-growing call for their produce, they have determined by means of
new railways to bring larger quantities, and at lesser cost, from the distant
fields in the West to the seaboard in the East. Hence the sudden demand
for rails and for the iron to make them which the pits and the mills of
their own country could not supply, but which the diminution of prices
here enabled them to obtain sufficiently low to counteract the otherwise
prohibitory duties of their own tariff. Trade thus started in one direction
speedily spread in others, and thus extended far beyond the boundaries
in which it emanated. The repeated adversities of former years have
caused the depression of 1878-9 to be greater than the causes warranted,
and with the changes of last autumn confidence became restored, and this
of itself creates trade.
The supposition that this revival is greatly owing to the failure of our
_ home crops derives much confirmation from the fact, that whilst the best
authorities estimate the diminished growth of wheat last year at from five
_ to six million quarters, worth some eleven or twelve millions of money,
our purchases of corn from the United States alone were fully that amount
» im excess; to compensate for which they took from us iron and other
444 REPORT—1 880.
metals and textile manufactures together to the value of twelve millions
more than in 1878-9. We have here a beautiful illustration of the way
in which Nature—rather let us say the Author of Nature’s laws, the Divine
Ruler, who orders the course of Nature for the welfare of His creatures—
counteracts one disturbing element by the restorative power of another.
When the fertilising influence of the sun’s heat failed us last year, vege-
tation languished and our fields failed to yield their accustomed supplies.
From whence did relief come but from the latent heat, which ages back
became imprisoned in the depths of our coal-pits, being brought forth and
utilised for the production of those manufactures wherewith we purchased
corn elsewhere ? Where can we look for a more convincing argument in
favour of free trade than is to be found in the blessings it procured for us
in permitting this unrestricted exchange of the commodities absolutely
necessary to our existence, and of special importance to our brethren in
America? Whilst we sympathise with our agriculturists in the loss of
their substance and the severe trials which they are enduring, let.us rejoice
that the evil was stayed from spreading to our manufacturers and traders,
and thereby involving them in the like suffering. Let us not, however,
be led away by undue expectations for the future. A good harvest at
home—still more a succession of them, if combined with greater produc-
tiveness abroad—would so far depress prices as to lessen the purchasing
power of the food-growers at home, whilst we shall not need to buy so
largely from abroad. Thus those who have latterly supported our markets
will fail to purchase as they have done, and if our manufacturing industries
are to be sustained we must not rely on a repetition of the demands that
have latterly been made upon them.
There is too much danger at present that we shall drawn into wild
speculations and expectations, such as led up to the fictitious prosperity
of seven years back, and culminated in the depression of more recent
years. Let us not delude ourselves with the belief that the inflation of
1871-3 is about to return—that fortunes are going to be made as rapidly
as then, or wages to rise to the same level. Let us not, however, give
way to gloomy fears. Cheap food will foster cheap production, and,
though our old customers may under its influence be enabled to supply
their own wants, there are new races of purchasers to be found or called
into being, and new homes to be founded by those who are cumbering the
ground here rather than tilling it in the distant parts of the Empire.
The judicious transferal of much of our capital and labour to places abroad,
where there is ample room for its profitable employment, together with
greater thrift—individual, family, and national—at home, are the true
sources on which to rely for the maintenance or restoration of our manu-
facturing and commercial supremacy. .
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
anti. auure’ ‘fo AON
Piss ial
TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS.
Sectron AAW—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor W. GRYLLS ADAMS, M.A.,, F.R.S.,
F.G.S., F.C.P.S.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 26.
The Prusrpent delivered the following Address :—
Ir has been said by a former President of this Section of the British Association
that the President of a Section ought to occupy your time, not by speaking of
himself or his own feelings, but by a review ‘more or less extensive of those
branches of science which form the proper business of this section.’ He may give a
rapid sketch of the progress of mathematical science during the year, or he may
select some one special subject, or he may take a middle course, neither so extensive
as the first nor so limited as the second.
There are many branches of science which have always been regarded as pro-
perly belonging to our Section, and the range is already wide ; but it is becoming
more and more true every day that the sciences which are dealt with in other
sections of the Association are becoming branches of Physics, z.e. are yielding results
of vast importance when the methods and established principles of Physics are
applied to them. I wish to direct your attention to investigations which are being
made in that fertile region for discovery, the ‘ border land’ between chemistry and
physics, where we have to deal with the constitution of bodies, and where we are
tempted to speculate on the existence of matter and on the nature of the forces by
which the different parts of it are bound together or become so transformed that
all resemblance to their former state is lost. It is not long since the theory of
exchanges became thoroughly recognised in the domain of Radiant Heat, and
yet so rapid is the progress of science that it is already recognised and accepted
in the theory of Chemical combination. Just as the molecules of a body which
remains at a constant temperature are continuously giving up their heat-motion to
surrounding molecules, and getting back from them as much motion of the same
kind in return, so in a chemical compound which does not appear to be undergoing
change, the combining molecules are continuously giving up their chemical or com-
bining motions to surrounding molecules, and receiving again from them as much
combining motion in return, We may say that each molecule is, as far as we can
see, constantly dancing in perfect time with a partner, and yet is continuously
changing partners, When such an idea of chemical motion is accepted, we can
the more easily understand that chemical combination means the alteration of
chemical motion, which arises from the introduction of a new element into the space
already occupied, and the consequent change in the motion of the new compound as
revealed to us in the spectroscope. We can also the more readily understand that
in changing from the old to the new form or rate of motion, there may be a deve-
lopment of energy in the shape of heat-motion which may escape or become dis-
sipated wherever a means of escape presents itself. We know from the experiments
of Dr. Joule and of M. Favre that as much heat is absorbed during the decomposi-
tion of an electrolyte as is given out again by the combination of the substances
composing it,
448 REPORT—1880.
We are making rapid strides towards the exact determination of those relations
between the various modes of motion or forms of energy which were so ably
shadowed forth, and their existence established long ago, by Sir William Grove in
his ‘Correlation of the Physical Forces,’ where, in stating the conclusion of his com-
parison of the mutual interchange of physical forces, he distinctly lays down the
principles of energy in this statement: ‘Each force is definitely and equivalently
convertible into any other; and where experiment does not give the full equivalent,
it is because the initial force has been dissipated, not lost, by conversion into other
unrecognised forces. The equivalent is the limit never practically reached.’
The laws of Faraday, that (1) when a compound is electrolysed the mass
of the substance decomposed is proportional to the quantity of electricity which has
produced the change, and that (2) the same current decomposes equivalent quanti-
ties of different substances, 7.e. quantities of their elements in the ratio of their
combining numbers, have given rise to several determinations of the relation between
chemical affinity and electromotive force. Ina paper lately communicated to the
Physical Society, Dr. Wright has discussed these several determinations, and has
given an account of a new determination by himself. The data at present extant
show that when ] gramme of hydrogen unites with 7-98 grammes of oxygen there
are about 34,100 units of heat given out, making the latent heat of dissociation of
1 gramme of water equal to 8797 units. The results obtained are compared with
the heat given out by the combustion of hydrogen and oxygen, and the value of
the mechanical equivalent of heat is deduced from these determinations.
The value of this mechanical equivalent obtained by Dr. Wright, which depends on
the value of Clark’s standard cell, and therefore depends on the value of the ohm,
agrees fairly well with Joule’s determination from the heat produced by an electric
current in a wire, but is greater than Joule’s value as obtained from his water-friction
experiments. This may be accounted for by supposing an error in the value of the
ohm or B.A. unit, making it too large by 1°5 or 2 per cent. Kohlrausch has also
made comparisons of copies of the B.A, unit with standard coils, and comes to the
conclusion that the B.A. unit is 1:96 per cent. too large. On the other hand, Pro-
fessor Rowland, in America, has made a new determination, and finds that accord-
ing to his calculations the B.A. unit is nearly 1 per cent. too small. These
differences in the values obtained by different methods clearly point to the necessity
for one or more new determinations of the unit, and I would venture to suggest
that a determination should be made under the authority of this Association, by
a Committee appointed to carry out the work. And it is not sufficient that this
determination should be made once for all, for there is reason to think that the
yesistance of standard coils alters with time, even when the material has been care-
fully selected, It has been found that coils of platinum silver which were correct
copies of the standard ohm haye become so altered, and have their temperature
coefficients so changed, that there are doubts as to the constancy of the standards
themselves. Pieces of platinum-silver alloy cut from the same rod have been
found to have different temperature-coeflicients. The value ‘031 for 1° C. is given
by Matthiessen for this alloy, yet two pieces of wire drawn from the same rod
have given, one ‘021 per cent. and the other -04 per cent. for 1° C. Possibly this
irregularity in the platinum-silver alloys may he due to something analogous to
the segregation which Mr. Roberts has found to take place in copper-silver alloys
in their molten state, and which Matthiessen in 1860 regarded as mechanical
mixtures of allotropic modifications of the alloy.
A recommendation has been made that apparatus for determining the ohm
should be set up in London, and that periodically determinations be made to test
the electrical constancy of the metals and alloys used in making coils. A com-
mittee should be authorised to test coils and issue certificates of their accuracy,
just as is done by the Kew Committee with regard to meteorological instruments.
The direct relation between Heat and Chemical work has been established, and the
principles of Conservation of Energy been shown to be true in Chemistry by the
experiments of Berthelot and of Thomsen, so that we may say that when a system
of bodies passes through any succession of chemical changes, the heat evolved or
absorbed when no external mechanical effect is produced depends solely upon the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 449
-
initial and final states of the system of bodies, whatever be the nature or the
order of the transformations. The extension of this principle to the interaction of
the molecules and atoms of bodies on one another is of vast importance in relation
to our knowledge of the constitution of matter, for it enables us to state that each
chemical compound has a distinct level or potential which may be called its own,
and that when a compound gives up one of its elements to another body, the heat
eyolyed in the reaction is the difference between the heat of formation of the first
compound, and that of the resulting product.
We have become accustomed to regard matter as made up of molecules, and
those molecules to be made up of atoms separated from one another by distances
which are great in comparison with the size cf the atom, which we may regard as
the smallest piece of matter that we can have any conception of. Each atom has
been supposed to be surrounded by an envelope of ether which accompanies it in
all its movements. The density of the ether increases rapidly as an atom is
approached, and it would seem that there must be some force of attraction between
the atom and its ether envelope. All the atoms have motions of translation
in all possible directions, and according to the theories of Maxwell and Boltzmann,
and the experiments of Kundt, Warburg, and others on the specific heat of
vapours, in one-atom molecules in the gaseous state there is no motion of rotation.
According to the theory of Pictet, the liquid state being the first condensation
from the gaseous state must consist of at least two gaseous atoms combined.
These two atoms are bound to one another through their ether envelopes. Then
the solid state results from the condensation of a liquid, and so a solid molecule
must consist of at least two liquid molecules, #.e. at least four gaseous molecules,
each surrounded by an atmosphere of ether. M. Pictet imagines these atoms to be
centres of attraction; hence in the solid with four such centres the least displace-
ment brings into action couples tending to prevent the molecule from twisting as
soon as external forces act upon it. All the molecules constituting a solid wiil be
rigidly set with regard to one another, for the least displacement sets in action a
couple or an opposing force in the molecules on one another.
Let us now follow the sketch which M. Pictet has given of changes which we
may consider it to undergo when we expend energy upon it. Suppose a solid body
is at absolute zero of temperature, which may be regarded as the state in which the
molecules of a body are in stable equilibrium and at rest, the application of heat
gives a vibratory motion to the molecules of the solid, which increases with the
temperature, the mean amplitude of vibration being a measure of the temperature.
We may regard the sum of all the molecular forces as the specific heat of the body,
and the product of the sum of all the molecular forces by the mean amplitude of
the oscillations ; i.e. the product of the specific heat and the temperature will be
the quantity of heat or the energy of motion of the body. As more and more heat
is applied, the amplitude of vibration of the molecules increases until it is too great
for the molecular forces, or forces of cohesion, and the melting point of the solid is
reached. Besides their vibratory motion, the molecules are now capable of motions:
of translation from place to place among one another. To reduce the solid to the
liquid state, 7c. to make the amplitude of vibration of the molecules sufficient to
prevent them from coming within the sphere of the forces of cohesion, requires a
quantity of heat which does not appear as temperature or molecular motion, and
hence it is termed the latent heat of fusion. The temperature remains constant until
the melting is complete, the heat bemg spent in bursting the bonds of the solid.
Then a further application of heat increases the amplitude of vibration, or raises the
temperature of the liquid at a rate depending on its specific heat until the succession
of blows of the molecules overcomes the external pressure and the boiling point is.
reached. An additional quantity of heat is applied which is spent in changing the
body to a gas, te. to a state of higher potential, in which the motion of translation
of the molecules is enormously increased. When this state is attained, the tempe-
rature of the gas again begins to increase, as heat is applied, until we arrive at a
certain point, when dissociation begins, and the molecules of the separate substances
of which the body is composed haye so large an amplitude of vibration that the
bond which unites them can no longer bring them again into their former positions,
1880. G@
450 REPORT—1880.
The potential of the substances is again raised by a quantity which is proportional
to its chemical affinity. Again, we may increase the amplitude of vibration, z.c. the
temperature of the molecules, and imagine the possibility of getting higher and
higher degrees of dissociation.
If temperature means the amplitude of vibration of the molecules, then we
might expect that only those bodies which have their temperatures increased hy
the same amount when equal amounts of heat are applied to them can possibly
combine with one another; and so the fact that the increase of temperature bears
a fixed ratio to the increase of heat may be the cause in virtue of which bodies
can combine with one another. Were other bodies to begin to combine together
at any definite temperature, they would immediately be torn to pieces again when
the temperature is even slightly raised, because the amplitudes of vibration of their
molecules no longer remain the same. This idea of temperature is supported by
the fact that a combining molecule of each substance requires the same amount of
heat to raise its temperature by the same number of degrees, the atomic weights
being proportional to the masses of the combining molecules. The celebrated dis-
covery of Faraday, that in a voltameter the work done by an electric current
always decomposes equivalent quantities of different substances, combined with
the fact that in the whole range of the physical forces work done is equivalent to
the application of heat, is quite in accordance with the view that no molecule can
combine with another which has not its amplitude of vibration altered by the same
amount when equal quantities of heat are applied to both. As soon as we get
any divergence from this state of equal motions for equal increments of heat, then
we should expect that a further dissociation of molecules would take place, and
that only those which are capable of moving together can remain still associated.
Just as in the change of state of a body from the solid to the liquid, or from
the liquid to the gas, a great amount of heat is spent in increasing the motion of
translation of the molecules without altering the temperature, so a great amount
of heat is spent in producing dissociation without increasing the temperature of the
dissociated substances, since the principle of conservation of energy has been shown
by M. Berthelot to hold for the dissociation of bodies. We may conveniently. male
use of the term latent heat of dissociation for the heat required to dissociate a
unit of mass of a substance.
‘We may thus sum up the laws of physical and chemical changes :—
1. All the physical phenomena of change of state consist in the subdivision of
the body into molecules or particles identical with one another.
2. The reconstitution of a body into a liquid or a solid being independent of the
relative position of the molecules, only depends on the pressure and temperature.
3. Dissociation separates bodies into their elements, which are of different kinds,
and the temperature remains constant during dissociation.
4, The reunion of dissociated bodies depends on the relative position of the
elements, and so depends on the grouping of the molecules. The atomic weight
being the mass of a molecule as compared with hydrogen, the specific volume, ze.
the atomic weight divided by the density, is the volume or mean free path of a
molecule.
Building up his theory of heat on these principles, M. Pictet arrives at a de-
finite relation between the atomic weight of a body, its density, its melting point,
and its coetlicient of expansion, which may be stated thus—
The volume of a solid body will be increased as the temperature rises by an
amount which is proportional to the number of molecules in it, and inversely as its
specific heat. At a certain temperature peculiar to each body, the amplitude of
the heat oscillation is sufficient to melt the solid, and we are led to admit that for
all bodies the intermolecular distance corresponding to fusion ought to be the same,
The higher the point of fusion of a body, the shorter, on this theory, must be its
heat-vibrations. The product of the length of swing (the heat-oscillations) by the
temperature of fusion ought to be a constant number for all solid bodies.
A comparison of the values of the various quantities involved in these state-
ments shows a very satisfactory agreement between theory and experiment, from
which it appears that the product of the length of swing by the temperature of
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 451
fusion lies between 3°3 and 3:7 for many ‘substances. Not mary values of the
latent heat of dissociation have been obtained. ‘In order to determine it, say, for
the separation of oxygen and hydrogen, we should have to determine the amount of
work required to produce a spark in a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, and to
measure the exact amount of water or vapour of water combined by the spark,
as well as the range of temperature through which it had passed after its forma-
tion. Very few such determinations have been made.
Our usual mode of producing heat is by the combination of the molecules of
different substances, and we are limited in the production of high temperatures, and
in the quantity of available heat necessary to dissociate any considerable quantity
of matter. If we heat vapours or gases, we may raise their temperatures up to a
point corresponding to the dissociation of their molecules, and we are limited in our
ehemical actions to the temperatures which can be obtained by combining together
the most refractory substances, as we are dependent on this combination for our
supply of heat.
The combination of carbon and hydrogen with oxygen will give us high tem-
peratures, so that by the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe most of the salts and oxides are
dissociated. The metalloids bromine, iodine, sulphur, potassium, &c., are the results
of the combination of two or more bodies bound together by internal forces much
stronger than the affinity of hydrogen or carbon for oxygen, for approximately
they obey the law of Dulong and Petit.
For higher temperatures, in order to dissociate the most refractory substances,
we require the electric current, either a continuous current, as in the electric arc
from a battery, or a dynamo-machine, or, more intense still, the electrical discharges
from an electrical machine or from an induction coil.
This electric current may be regarded as the most intense furnace for dissociating
large quantities of the most refractory substances, and the electric spark may be
regarded as something very much hotter than the oxyhydrogen blow-pipe, and
therefore of service in reducing very small quantities of substances which will yield
to no other treatment. The temperature of the electric are is limited, and cannot
reach above the temperature of dissociation of the conductor, and in the case of the
constant current, which will not leap across the smallest space of air unless the
carbons have first been brought in contact, the current very soon ceases when the
point of fusion has been reached. Yet in the centre of the are we haye the gases of
those substances which form the conductor; and, as Professor Dewar has shown,
we have the formation of acetylene and cyanogen and other compounds, and there-
fore must have attained the temperature necessary for their formation, z.e, the tem-
perature of their dissociation. The temperature of the induction spark, or, at least,
its dissociating power, is higher than that of the are. We know that the spark
will pass across a space of air or a gaseous conductor, and we are limited by the
dissociation of the gaseous conductor, and get only very small quantities of the
dissociated substances, which immediately recombine, unless they are separated. If
the gases formed are of different densities they will diffuse at diflerent rates through
a porous diaphragm, and so may be obtained separated from one another. As the
molecules of bodies vibrate they produce vibrations of the ether particles ; the period
of the oscillations depends on the molecules of the body, and these periodic vibra-
tions are taken up by their ether envelopes and by the luminiferous ether, and their
wave-length determined by means of the spectroscope. As the temperature is
increased, the amplitudes of oscillation of the molecules and of the ether increase,
and from the calculations of Lecoq de Boisbaudran, Stoney, Soret, and others,
it would appear that many of the lines in the spectra of bodies may be regarded
as harmonics of a fundamental vibration. Thus Lecoq de Boisbaudran finds that
in the nitrogen spectrum the blue lines seen at a high temperature correspond
to the double octave of certain vibrations, and that, at a lower temperature, red
and yellow lines are seen which correspond to a fifth of the same fundamental
vibrations.
The bright line spectrum may be regarded as arising from the vibratory motions
of the atoms. A widening of the lines may be produced at a higher temperature
by the backward and forward motions of the molecules in the direction of the
: GG 2
452 ti gta REPORT— 1880.
observer. A widening of the lines may also be produced by increase of pressure,
because it diminishes the free path of the molecules, and the disturbances of the
ether arising from collisions become more important than vibrations arising from
the regular vibrations of the atoms.
Band spectra, or channelled space spectra, more readily occur in the case of
bodies which are not very readily subject to chemical actions, or, according to
Professors Liveing and Dewar, in the case of cooler vapours near the point of
liquefaction.
The effects of change of temperature on the character of spectra is very well
illustrated by an experiment of M. Wiedemann with mixtures of mercury with
hydrogen or nitrogen in a Geissler’s tube. At the ordinary temperature of the air
the spectrum of hydrogen or nitrogen was obtained alone ; but on heating the tube
in an air-bath the lines of mercury appeared and became brighter as the tempera~-
ture rose, and at the same time the hydrogen lines disappeared in the wider portion
of the tube and at the electrodes. The hydrogen or nitrogen lines disappeared first
from the positive electrode and in the luminous tuft, and as the temperature rose
disappeared altogether. With nitrogen in a particular experiment, up to 100° C.,
the nitrogen lines were seen throughout the tube, but from 100° to 230° the nitrogen
lines appear towards the negative pole, and the mercury lines are less bright at the
negative than at the positive pole, while at about 230° C. no nitrogen lines appear.
The experiments of Roscoe and Schuster, of Lockyer and other observers, with
potassium, sodium, and other metalloids in vacuum tubes, from which hydrogen is
pumped by a Sprengel pump, also show great changes in the molecular condition of
the mixture contained in the tubes when they are heated to different temperatures.
The changes of colour in the tube are accompanied by changes in the spectrum. Thus,
Mr. Lockyer finds that when potassium is placed in the bottom of the tube, and the
spark passes in the upper part of it, as the exhaustion proceeds and the tube is slightly
heated, the hydrogen lines disappear, and the red potassium line makes its appearance ;
then as the temperature is increased, the red line disappears, and three lines in the
yellowish-green make their appearance, accompanied by a change in the colour of the
tube, and at a higher temperature, and with a Leyden jar joined to a secondary
circuit of the induction coil, the gas in the tube becomes of a dull red colour, and
with this change a strong line comes out in the spectrum, more refrangible than the
usual red potassium line. In this case, on varying the conditions, we get a variation
in the character of the spectrum, and the colours and spectra are different in different
parts of the tube. In Lockyer’s experiments, at the temperature of the are obtained
from a Siemens dynamo-machine, great differences appear in different parts of the
are: for instance, with carbon poles in the presence of calcium, the band spectrum
of carbon, or the carbon flutings and the lines of calcium, some of them reversed,
are seen separated in the same way as mercury and hydrogen, the carbon spectrum
appearing near one pole and the calcium near the other, the lines which are strongest
near that pole being reversed or absorbed by the quantity of calcium vapour sur-
rounding it. On introducing a metal into the are, lines appear which are of different
intensities at different distances from the poles, others are strong at one pole and
entirely absent at or near the other, while some lines appear as broad as half-spindles
in the middle of the arc, but are not present near the poles. Thus, the blue line of
calcium is visible alone at one pole, the H and K lines without the blue line at the
other.
We may probably regard these effects as the result, not of temperature alone,
but must take into account that we have powerful electric currents which will act
unequally on the molecules of different bodies according as they are more or less
electro-positive. It would seem that we have here something analogous to the
segregation which is observed in the melting of certain alloys to which I have
already referred.
The abundance of material in some parts of the arc surrounding the central
portion of it gives rise to reversal of the principal lines in varying thicknesses over
the are and poles, so that bright lines appear without reversal in some regions, and
reversals or absorption lines without bright lines in others. The introduction of a
substance into the are gives rise to a flame of great complexity with regard to colour
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 453
and concentric envelopes, and the spectra of these flames differ in different parts of
the arc. Thus, in a photograph of the flame given by manganese, the line at wave-
length 4234°5 occurs without the triplet near 4030, while in another the triplet is
present without the line 4234:5.
The lines which are reversed most readily in the arc are generally those the
absorption of which is most developed in the flame; thus the manganese triplet in
the violet is reversed in the flame, and the blue calcium line is often seen widened
when the H and K lines of calcium are not seen at all. In consequence of the
numerous changes in spectra at different temperatures, Mr. Lockyer has advanced
the idea that the molecules of elementary matter are continually being more and
more broken up as their temperature is increased, and has put forward the hypothesis
that the chemical elements with which we are acquainted are not simple bodies, but
are themselves compounds of some other more simple substances. This theory is
founded on Mr. Lockyer’s comparisons of spectra and the maps of Angstrom, Thalén,
Young, and others, in which there are coincidences of many of the short lines of the
spectra of different substances. These short lines are termed basic lines, since they
appear to be common to two or more substances. They appear ut the highest tem-
peratures when the longest lines of those substances and those which are considered
the test of their presence are entirely absent.
Mr. Lockyer draws a distinction between weak lines, which are basic, .e. which
would permanently exist at a higher temperature in a more elementary stage, and
other weak or short lines which would be more strongly present at a lower tempe-
rature, in a more complex stage of the molecules. ‘I'hus, in lithium, the red line
is a low temperature line, and the yellow is feeble; ata higher temperature, the red
line is weak, the yellow comes out more strongly, and the blue line appears; at a
higher temperature still, the red line disappears, and the yellow dies away; whilst
at the temperature of the sun the violet lithium line is the only one which comes
out strongly. These effects are studied by. first producing the spectrum of the
substance in the Bunsen flames, and observing the changes which are produced on
assing a spark through the flame; thus, in magnesium a wide triplet or set of three
lines (5209°8, b! and b*) is changed into a narrow triplet (b', b?, and b*) of the same
character. We have here what some observers regard as a recurrence of the same
harmonic relation of the vibrations of the same body at a higher temperature.
If the so-called elements are compounds, they must have been formed at a very
high temperature, and as higher and higher temperatures are reached the dissocia-
tion of these compound bodies will be effected, and the new line spectra, the
real basic lines of those substances which show coincidences, will make their
appearance as short lines in the spectra. In accordance with this view, Mr.
Lockyer holds that the different layers of the solar atmosphere may be regarded as
a series of furnaces, in the hottest of which, A, we have the most elementary
forms of matter capable of existing only in its uncombined state; at a higher and
cooler level, B, this form of matter may form a compound body, and may no longer
exist in a free state at the lower temperature; as the cooler and cooler levels, C, D,
and B, are reached, the substances become more and more complex and form
different combinations, and their spectra become altered at every stage. Since the
successive layers are not at rest, but in a state of disturbance, we may get them
somewhat mixed, and the lines at the cooler levels D and E may be associated with
the lines of the hotter levels; these would be basic or coincident lines in the
spectra of two different compounds which exist at the cooler levels D and E. We
might even get lines which are not present in the hottest furnace A coming into
existence as the lines of compounds in B or C, and then extending among the lines
belonging to more complex compounds which can only exist at a lower temperature,
when they might be present as coincident weak lines in the spectra of several
compound bodies. Thus Mr. Lockyer regards the calcium lines H and K of the
solar spectrum as evidence of different molecular groupings of more elementary
bodies. In the electric are with a weak current the single line 4226 of calcium,
which is easily reversed, is much thicker than the two lines H and K; but the three
lines are equally thick with a stronger current, and are all reversed. With a spark
from a large coil and using a condenser the line 4226 disappears, and H and K are
454 REPORT—1880.
strong lines. In the sun, the absorption bands H and K are very broad, but the
band 4226 is weak. Prof. Young, in his observation of the lines of the chromo-
sphere, finds that H and K are strongly reversed in every important spot and in
solar storms; but the line 4226, so prominent in the arc, was only observed three
times in the chromosphere.
One of the most interesting features among the most recent researches in
Spectrum Analysis is the existence of rhythm in the spectra of bodies, as has been
shown by.M. Mascart, Cornu, and others, such as the occurrence and repetition of sets
of lines, doublets, and triplets in the spectra of different substances and in different
‘parts of the spectrum of the same body. Professors Liveing and Dewar, using the
reversed lines in some cases for the more accurate determination of wave-lengths,
have traced out the rhythmical character in the spectra of sodium, potassium, and
lithium, They show that the lines of sodium and potassium form groups of four
lines each, which vecur ina regular sequence, while lithium gives single lines, which,
including the green line, which they show really to belong to lithium, though it
was ascribed. to cesium by Thalén, also recur in a similar way. In these three
metals the law of recurrence seems to be the same, but the wave-lengths show that
the whole series are not simple harmonics of one fundamental, although between
some of the terms very simple harmonic relations can be found. Between the lines
G and H are two triplets of iron lines, which, according to Mr. Lockyer, do not belong
to the same molecular grouping as most of the other lines. In many photographs
of the iron spectrum these triplets have appeared almost alone. Also the two
triplets are not always in the same relation as to brightness, the more refrangible
being harely visible with the spark; combining this with Young’s observatiens, in
which some short weak lines near G appear in the chromosphere 30 times, while
one of the lines of the less refrangible triplet only appears once, and with the fact
that in the solar spectrum the more refrangible triplet is much the more prominent
of the two, Mr. Lockyer is led to the conclusion that these two triplets are again
due to two distinct molecular groupings.
There is one difficulty which must be taken account of in connection with
Mr. Lockyer’s theory with regard to the production of successive stages of disso-
ciation by means at our command.
At each stage of the process there must be a considerable absorption of heat to
produce the change of state, and our supply of heat is limited in the electric arc
because of the dissociation of the conductors, and more limited still in quantity in
the electric spark or in the discharge through a vacuum tube, also we should
expect a recombination of the dissociated substances immediately after they have
-been first dissociated. Hence it seems easier to suppose that at temperatures which
we can command on the earth, the dissociation of molecules by the arc or the spark
is accompanied by the formation of new compounds, in the formation of which heat
and light, and especially chemical vibrations, would be again given out, giving rise
to new spectra, rather than to suppose that we can reach the temperatures neces-
sary for successive stages of dissociation. BIR a
To the lines C, F, the line near G, and h belonging to hydrogen, which have
a certain rhythmical character, Mr. Lockyer adds D, and Kirchoff's line ‘1474,’
regarding ‘1474’ (wave-length 5315:9) as belonging to the coolest or most complex
form, rising to F at a higher temperature, which is again subdivided into C and G,
using the spark without a condenser, which again gives h with the spark and con-
denser, which is again split up and gives D,,a more simple line than h, in the Chro-
mosphere. Professors Liveing and Dewar, on the other hand, trace a rhythmical
character or ratio between three of the brightest lines of the chromosphere, two
of which are lines ‘ 1474’ and ‘f’ of Lorenzoni, similar to the character of C, F,
and h of hydrogen, and.also trace a similar relation between the chromospheric line
D, and ‘1474’ to the ratio of the wave-lengths of F and the line near @. They
infer the probability that these four lines are due to the same at present unknown
‘substance as-had- been suggested by Young with regard to two of them. The
harmony of this arrangement is somewhat disturbed by the fact that D, lies onthe
wrong side of ‘1474’ to correspond with the line near G of the hydrogen spectrum.
If we inquire what our sun and the stars have to say to these changes of
iti
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 455
spectra of the same substance at different temperatures, Dr. Huggins gives us the
answer.
_ In the stars which give a very white light, such as Sirius or a Lyre, we have
the lines G and h of hydrogen and also H, which has been lately shown by Dr.
Vogel to be coincident with a line of hydrogen ; but the K line of calcium is weak
in a Lyre, and does not appear in Sirius. In passing from the white or hottest
stars to the yellow stars like our sun, the typical lines diminish in breadth and are
better defined, and K becomes stronger relatively to H, and other lines appear. In
Arcturus we have a star which is probably cooler than our sun, and in it the line K
is stronger in relation to H than it is in the solar spectrum, both being very strong
compared with their state in the solar spectrum.
Professors Liveing and Dewar find that K is more easily reversed than H in the
electrie are, which agrees with the idea that this line is produced at a lower
temperature than H. ;
Besides the absence or weakness of K, the white stars have twelve strong lines
winged at the edges, in which there are three of hydrogen, viz. G, h, and H, and
the remaining nine form a group which are so related to one another that Dr.
Huggins concludes they probably belong to one substance. Three of these lines are
said by Dr. Vogel to be lines of hydrogen.
Professors Liveing and Dewar have made considerable progress in determining
the conditions and the order of reversal of the spectral lines of metallic vapours.
They have adopted methods which allow them to observe through greater thick-
nesses of vapour than previous observers have generally employed. For lower
temperatures tubes of iron or other material placed vertically in a furnace were
used, and the hot bottom of the tube was the source of light, the absorption being
produced by vapours of metals dropped into the hot tube and filling it to a greater
or less height. By this means many of the more volatile metals, such as sodium,
thallium, iridium, cesium, and rubidium, magnesium, lithium, barium, strontium,
and calcium, each gave a reversal of its most characteristic line or pair of lines,
i.c, the red line of lithium, the violet lines of rubidium and calcium, the blue line
of strontium, the sharp green line of barium (5535), and no other lines which can
certainly be ascribed to those metals in the elementary state,
For higher temperatures tubes bored out in blocks of lime or of gas carbon,
and heated by the electric arc, were used. By keeping up a supply of metal and
in some eases assisting its volatilisation hy the admixture of a more volatile metal,
such as magnesium, and its reduction by some easily oxidisable metal, such as
aluminium, or by a current of coal gas or hydrogen, they succeeded in maintaining
a stream of vapour through the tube so as to reverse a great many lines. In this
way the greater part of the bright lines of the metals of the alkalies and alkaline
earths were reversed, as well as some of the strongest lines of manganese, alu-
minium, zinc, cadmium, silver, copper, bismuth, and the two characteristic lines of
iridium and of gallium. By passing an iron wire into the are through a perforated
carbon electrode they succeeded in obtaining the reversal of many of the lines
of iron. In observing bright line spectra they have found that the are produced
by a De Meritens machine arranged for high tension gives, in an atmosphere of
hydrogen, the lines C and F, although the arc of a powerful Siemens machine does
not bring them out, and they have observed many metallic lines in the are which
had not been previously noticed. The temperature obtained by the De Meritens
machine is thus higher than that obtained in the Siemens machine.
From observations on weighed quantities of sodium, alone and as an amalgam,
introduced into a hot bottle of platinum filled with nitrogen, of which the pressure
was varied by an air-pump, they conclude that the width of the sodium lines
depends rather on the thickness and temperature of the vapour than upon the
whole quantity of sodium present. Very minute quantities diffused into the cool
part of the tube give a broad diffuse absorption, while a thin layer of compressed
vapour in the hot part of the tube give only narrow absorption lines. Professors
‘Liveing and Dewar have obseryed the reversal of some of the well-known bands of
the oxides and chlorides of the alkaline earth metals. The lines produced by
-magnesium in hydrogen form a rhythmical series extending all across the well-
456 REPORT—1880.
known B group, having a close resemblance in general character to the series of
lines produced by an electric discharge in a vacuum tube of olefiant gas.
The series appears at all temperatures except when a large condenser is em-
ployed along with the induction coil, provided hydrogen is present as well as
magnesium, while they disappear when hydrogen is excluded, and never appear in
dry nitrogen or carbonic oxide. ‘
From their experiments on carbon spectra they conclude with Angstrom and
Thalén that certain of the so-called ‘ carbon bands’ are due to some compound of
carbon with hydrogen, probably acetylene, and that certain others are due toa
compound of carbon with nitrogen, probably cyanogen.
They describe some ultra-violet bands: one of them coincides with the shaded
band P of the solar spectrum which accompanies the other violet bands in the
flame of cyanogen as well as in the are and spark between carbon electrodes in the
nitrogen, All the bands which they ascribe to a compound of carbon and nitrogen
disappear when the discharge is taken in a non-nitrogenous gas, and they reappear
on the introduction of a minute quantity of nitrogen.
They appear in the flame of hydrocyanic acid, or of cyanogen, even when
cooled down as much as possible as shown by Watts, or when raised to the highest
temperature by burning the cyanogen in nitric oxide; but no flames appear to
give these bands unless the burning substance contains nitrogen already united
with carbon. As the views of Mr. Lockyer with regard to the multiple spectra of
carbon have very recently appeared in the pages of ‘ Nature,’ I need only say that
these spectra are looked upon as supporting his theory that the different flutings
are truly due to carbon, and that they represent the vibrations of different molecular
groupings. The matter is one of very great interest as regards the spectra of comets,
for the bands ascribed to acetylene occur in the spectra of comets without the bands
of nitrogen, showing that either hydro-carbons must exist ready formed in the
comets, in which case the temperature need! not exceed that of an ordinary flame,
or else nitrogen must be absent, as the temperature which would produce acetylene
from its elements would also produce cyanogen, if nitrogen were present.
Quite recently, Professors Liveing and Dewar have, simultaneously with Dr.
Huggins, described an ultra-violet emission spectrum of water, and have given maps
‘of this spectrum. It is not a little remarkable that by independent methods these
observers should have deduced the same numbers for the wave-lengths of the two
strong lines at the most refrangible end of this spectrum.
Great attention has been paid by M. Mascart and by M. Cornu to the ultra-
violet end of the solar spectrum. M. Mascart was able to fix lines in the solar
spectrum as far as the line R (3179), but was stopped by the faintness of the
photographic impression. Professor Cornu has extended the spectrum still farther
to the limit (2948), heyond which no further effect is produced, owing to complete
absorption by the earth’s atmosphere. A quartz-reflecting prism was used instead
of a heliostat. The curvature of the quartz lens was calculated so as to give mini-
mum aberration for a large field of view. The Iceland spa prism was very care-
fully cut. A lens of quartz was employed to focus the sun on the slit. Having
photographed as far as possible by direct solar light, Professor Cornu compared the
solar spectrum directly by means of a fluorescent eyepiece with the spectrum of
iron, and then obtained, by photography, the exact positions of the iron lines
which were coincident with observed lines in the solar spectrum. M. Cornu states
that the dark absorption lines in the sun and the bright iron lines of the same
refrangibility are of the same relative importance or intensity in their spectra, indi-
cating the equality between the emissive and the absorbing powers of metallic
vapours; and he thinks that we may get by the comparison of bright spectra with
the sun some rough approximation to the quantity of metallic vapours present in
the absorption layers of the sun’s atmosphere. He draws attention to the abun-
dance of the magnetic metals—iron, nickel, and magnesium—and to the fact that
these substances form the composition of most meteorites. M. Cornu has studied
the extent of the ultra-violet end of the spectrum, and finds that it is more extended
in winter than in summer, and that, at different elevations, the gain in length of
the spectrum for increase of elevation is very slow, on account of atmospheric absorp-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 457
tion, so that we cannot hope greatly to extend the spectrum by taking elevated
observing stations. The limit of the solar spectrum is reached very rapidly, and
the spectrum is sharply and completely cut off at about the line U (wave-length
2948). From photographs taken at Viesch in the valley of the Rhone and at the
Riffelberg, 1910 métres above it, M. Cornu finds the limits to be at wave-lengths
2950 and 2930 respectively.
In the actual absorption of bright line spectra by the earth’s atmosphere,
M. Cornu observed among others three bright lines of aluminium, which M. Soret
calls 30, 31, and 32 (wave-lengths about 1988, 1930, and 1860), and he found
that 32 could not be seen at the distance of 6 métres; but on using a collimator,
and reducing the distance to 1} métres, the line 32 became visible, notwithstand-
ing the absorption of the extra lens; at 1 métre, line 32 was brighter than 31, and
at a quarter of a métre 32 was brighter than either 30 or 31.
With a tube 4 métres in length between the collimator and prism ray 32 is not
seen; but when the tube is exhausted, ray 31 gains in intensity and 32 comes into
view, and gradually gets brighter than 31, whilst 30 changes very little during
the exhaustion. With the same tube he found no appreciable difference between
the absorption by air very carefully dried and by moist air, and concludes that this
absorption is not due to the vapour of water, and it follows the law of pressure of
the atmosphere which shows it to be due to the whole mass or thickness of the air.
Also, M. Soret has shown that water acts very differently on the two ends of the
spectrum, distilled water being perfectly transparent for the most refrangible rays,
since a column of water of 116 cm. allowed the ray 2060 in the spectrum
of zinc to pass through: on the other hand, water is so opaque to the ultra-
red rays that a length of 1 cm. of it reduces the heat spectra of metals
to half their length and one quarter of their intensity.
In concluding my address, I wish to draw attention to some of those magnetic
changes which are due to the action of the Sun, and which are probably brought
about by means of the ether which conveys to us his radiant heat and light.
In his discussion of the magnetic effects observed on the earth’s surface, General
Sabine has shown the existence of diujnal variations due to the magnetic action of
the sun; also the magnetic disturbances, aurora and earth currents, which are now
again beginning to be large and frequent, have been set down to disturbances in
the sun.
Although iron, when raised to incandescence, has its power of attracting a
magnet very greatly diminished, we have no proof that it has absolutely no mag-
netic power left, and with a slight magnetic action the quantity of iron in the sun
would be sufficient to account for the diurnal variations of the magnetic needle.
During the last few weeks I have been engaged in examining the declination
curyes for the month of March 1879, which have been kindly lent to the Kew
Committee by the Directors of the Observatories of St. Petersburg, Vienna, Lisbon,
Coimbra, and Stonyhurst. On comparing them with the Kew curves for the
the same period, I find the most remarkable coincidences between the curves
from these widely distant stations. It was previously known that there was a
similarity between disturbances at different stations, and in one or two cases a
comparison between Lisbon and Kew had been made many years ago by Senor
Capello and Professor Balfour Stewart; but the actual photographic magnetic
records from several stations have never heen previously collected, and so the
opportunity for such comparisons had not arisen. Allow me to draw attention to
a few of the more prominent features of these comparisons which I have made.
On placing the declination curves over one another, I find that in many cases there
is absolute agreement between them, so that the rate of change of magnetic
disturbances at widely distant stations like Kew, Vienna, and St. Petersburg is
precisely the same; also similar disturbances take place at different stations at the
same absolute time. It may be stated generally, for large as well as small disturb-
ances, that the east and west deflections of the declination needle take place at the
same time and are of the same character at these widely distant stations.
There are exceptions to this law. Some disturbances occur at one or two stations
and are not perceived at another station. Many instances occur where, up to a
458 ; REPORT—1880.
certain point of time, the disturbances at all the stations are precisely alike, but
suddenly at one or two stations the disturbance changes its character: for instance,
on comparing Kew and St. Petersburg, we get perfect similarity followed by de-
flections of the needle opposite ways at the same instant, and in some such cases
the maxima in opposite directions are reached at the same instant, showing that the
opposite deflections are produced by the same cause, and that the immediate cause
or medium of disturbance in such a case is not far off; probably it is some change
of direction or intensity of the earth’s magnetism arising from solar action upon it.
Generally, after an hour or two, these differences in the effects of the disturbance
vanish, and the disturbances again become alike and simultaneous. In such cases
of difference, if the curve-tracing of the horizontal or the vertical force be examined,
it is generally found that, at the instant when these opposite movements begin there
is an increase or a diminution in the horizontal force, and that the horizontal force
continues to change as long as there is any difference in the character of the
declination curves. It is clear, then, from these effects that the cause or causes
of magnetic disturbances are in general far distant from the earth’s surface, even
when those disturbances are large; but that not unfrequently these causes act on
magnetic matter nearer to the surface of the earth, and therefore at times between
two places of observation, and nearer to one than another, thus producing opposite
effects on the declination needle at those places; in such cases, the differences
are probably due to changes in the earth’s magnetic force. Now, if we imagine
the masses of iron, nickel, and magnesium in the sun to retain even a slight degree
of magnetic power in their gaseous state—and we know from the researches
of Faraday that gases. are some of them magnetic—we have a sufficient cause
for all our terrestrial magnetic changes, for we know that these masses of metal
are eyer boiling up from the lower and hotter levels of the sun’s atmosphere to the
cooler upper regions,where they must again form clouds to throw out their light
and heat, and to absorb the light and heat coming from the hotter lower regions ;
then they become condensed and are drawn again back towards the hody of the
sun, so forming those remarkable dark spaces or sun-spots by their downrush to-
wards the lower levels.
In these vast changes, which we know from the science of energy must be
taking place, but of the vastness of which we can have no conception, we have
abundant cause for those magnetic changes which we observe at the same instant
at distant points on the surface of the earth, and the same cause acting by induc-
tion on the magnetic matter within and on the earth may well produce changes in
the magnitude or in the direction of its total magnetic force. These magnetic
changes on the earth will influence the declination needles at different places, and
will cause them to be deflected; the direction of the deflection must depend on
the situation of the earth’s magnetic axis or the direction of its motion with regard
to the stations where the observations are made. Thus both directly and indi-
rectly we may find in the Sun not only the cause of diurnal magnetic. variations,
but also the cause of these remarkable magnetic changes and disturbances over
the surface of the Earth.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
l. Report of the Committee for the Measurement of the Lunar Disturbance
of Gravity.—See Reports, p. 25.
2. Report of the Committee upon the present state of our Knowledge of Spec-
trum Analysis. (Influence of Temperature and Pressure ow the Spectra
of Gases.)—See Reports, p. 258.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 459
8. On determining the Heights and Distances of Clouds by their reflexions in
a low pool of water, and in a mercurial horizon. By Francis Gatton,
M.A., IRS.
The calm surface of a sheet of water may be made to serve the purpose of a
huge. mirror in a gigantic vertical range-finder, whereby a sufficiently large
parallax may be obtained for the effective measurement of clouds. The observation
of the heights and thicknesses of the different strata of clouds, and of their rates of
movement, is at the present time perhaps the most promising, as it is the least
explored branch of meteorology. As there are comparatively few places in
England where the two conditions are found of a pool of water well screened
from wind, and of a station situated many feet in height above it, the author hopes
by the publication of this memoir to induce some qualified persons who have
access to fayourable stations, to interest themselves in the subject, and to make
observations.
The necessary angles may be obtained with a sextant and mercurial horizon,
but itis convenient, for reasons shortly to be explained, to have in addition a
tripod stand, with a bar of wood across its top to support the mercurial trough,
and some simple instrument for the rapid and rough measurement of altitudes. I
have used the little pocket instrument sold by Casella, of Holborn Bars, London,
called a ‘pocket alt-azimuth, and have employed Captain George’s mercurial
horizon on account of its steadiness and ease in manipulation.
The observer has to determine :—
1. The difference of level in feet between the mercury and tke pool of water
(call it d).
2. The angle between the reflexions of a part of a cloud in the mercury and in
the pool (call itp). This should be carefully measured.
3. The angle between the portion of the cloud and its reflexion in the mercury
(call it 2a). This may he roughly measured ; its altitude a may most conveniently
be taken at once by the pocket alt-azimuth or other instrument. The subjoined
tables will then give the required result with creat ease.
If p be not greater than 3°, and if 2 be the number of minutes of a degree in p,
the error occasioned by writing n sin 1’ for sin n’, will never exceed six inches in a
thousand feet, and may be disregarded. Other errors of similar unimportance,
due to the eye not being close to the mercury, may also ke ignored. Under these
conditions, since log. sin. 1’ = 646373, it can be easily shown that
distance of cloud = x 6875°5 cos (a +p).
u
vertical height of cloud = distance x sin a.
The following table has been calculated for these values when Dove 1. To use
n
it, multiply the tabular numbers by d (the difference.in feet between the level of
‘the mercury and that of the pool) and divide by (the number of minutes of a
degree in the angle between the reflexion in the mercury and that in the pool).
The result will be the distance, or height, as required in feet.
TaBxe for calculating distances and height of clouds by their reflexions from a
mercurial horizon, and from a pool of water at a lower level.
a= Altitude of cloud, (being half the sextant angle between the cloud and its
reflexion as seen in the mercury, not pool).
p= Angle between the reflexion of the cloud in the mercury and that in the
pool.
d=Vertical height of mercury above fool.
n= Number of minutes of a degree in the angle p.
Then the distances and heights of clouds = tabular numbers x “
n
460 REPORT—1880.
; Vertical Height of Cloud above Observer
Distance
we — nop n=60 n=120 ‘| n=180
Observer 1 (orp=0°) | (orp=1°) | (orp=2°) | (orp=8°)
10° 6771 1176 1059 942 825
15° 6641 1719 1607 1494 1381
20° 6461 2210 2103 1997 1889
25° 6231 2633 2534 2435 2334
30° 5954 2977 2886 | 2795 2703
35° . 5632 3230 3149 3067 2985
40° 5267 3386 3314 3243 3170
45° 4862 3438 3377, «|. B8iG 3253
50° 4419 3386 3335 | 3284 3232
55° 3o44 3230 arog. <teiean 3108
60° 3438 2977 2947 2915 2883
65° 2906 2633 2612 2597 2566
70° 2352 2210 2195 2180 2165
The observation of the angle between the two reflexions is perfectly easy with
a full-sized sextant, if the trough of mercury be so propped up that the reflexion
from the pool can be viewed underneath the trough. For this purpose I use a
tripod stand with a bar of rough wood, say 18 inches long, 3 wide, and 2 thick,
secured horizontally across its top. I lay the mercurial horizon on one of its pro-
jecting ends and between a few studs that have been driven in to prevent its
accidentally slipping off. The edge of the bar is bevelled, and its thickness is
reduced at the place where the mercury trough is set. Then the observation is
taken, just as any other sextant observation would be. The reflexion from the
mercury falls upon the index-glass, and that from the pool is viewed directly
through the object-glass below the trough and its supporting bar.
Unless the sextant be a full-sized one, this operation cannot be effected, be-
cause the index-glass will not stand high enough above the line of sight to catch
the reflexion from the mercury. It will simply reflect the side of the trough.
If there be no tripod stand, and it becomes necessary to lay the trough on
the ground, an observation can still be made, but in an inconvenient fashion.
The sextant will have to be held topsy-turvy, that the brighter reflexion of the
cloud from the mercury, and not the feebler one from the pool, should fall
on its index-glass. The angle read will be negative; it will be what is com-
monly called an ‘off’ angle. A small sextant may be used in this method,
because the rim of the trough is narrow that intervenes between the further
edge of the mercury and the objects seen beyond and over it.
The most convenient method of measuring the rate of movement of clouds, after
the height of the cloud plane has been once determined, is to watch the movements
of a patch nearly overhead, and passing away from the zenith, as seen reflected
in the mercury, and measuring its angle of depression (=its altitude) with some
simple and suitable instrument, such as the pocket alt-azimuth already mentioned.
Two measurements, a, and a, are taken, as well as the intervening time, ¢ seconds,
whence we obtain rate of movement = height of cloud x (cotan a,— cotan a,) in
¢ seconds.
When the water is almost wholly calm, I find that 2’ of error is the utmost
that need be feared. If wholly calm 1’ would be ample to make allowance for
in a set of three or four observations. Now suppose we wish that our determina-
tion shall never be more than, say, 10 per cent. in error, we can easily find from
the tables what the minimum height of the station must be in any given case,
to secure this result. In the first instance we should require a parallax of 10’ and
in the second of 20’. This is obtained by an elevation of 10 or 20 feet as the case
may be, when the height of the clouds in feet corresponds to the tabular numbers ;
that is, when it is between 2000 and 3000 feet. At 100 or 200 feet elevation,
clouds of ten times that height could be observed with equal accuracy. Numerous
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 461
stations exist whence mountain tarns can be seen lying at a much lower level
than this, and where even the highest cirrus could be measured with satisfactory
precision.
Useful regular work might be done by a meteorologist whose station was at a
height of even 50 feet above a pool, supposing it to be so well sheltered from the
wind as to frequently afford perfectly good reflexions with, say, 1’ maximum error.
Very shallow water is much stiller than deep water, as waves cannot be propagated
over it ; thus we may often see wonderfully good reflexions in road-side splashes and
puddles, in the intervals between puffs of wind. The most stagnant air is in the
middle of a high and broad plantation, where there is also plenty of dense under-
wood. Detached puddles of water in broad ruts wonld be a good equivalent for
a pool. As regards the size of the pool, if we let fall a perpendicular & from the
mercury trough to the level of the water, the utmost portion of the surface of the
ool that can be used with effect extends between the distances of about 34 and
4k from the base of the perpendicular. The angles of depression would be then from
64° to 14° about, or say, a range of 50°. The usual limits would be from x to 3h,
or between 45° and 18°, being a range of 27°,
Improved Heliograph or Sun Signal. By Temprst AnpErsoy, M.D., B.S.c
The author claims to have contrived a heliograph, or sun-telegraph, by which
the rays of the sun can be directed on any given point with greater ease and
certainty than by those at present in use. —
When the sun’s rays are reflected at a small plane surface considered as a point,
the reflected rays form a cone, whose vertex is at the reflector and whose vertical
angle is equal to that subtended by the sun. Adding to the size of the mirror
adds other cones of light, whose bounding rays are parallel with those proceeding
from other points of the mirror, and only distant from them the same distance as
the points on the mirror from which they are reflected. Hence increasing the size
of the mirror only adds to the field to which the sun’s rays are reflected a diameter
equal to the diameter of the mirror, and this at any distance at which the sun-
signal would be used is quite inappreciable. Adding to the size of the mirror adds
to the number of rays sent to each point, and hence to the brightness of the visible
flash, but not to the area over which it is visible.
By the author’s plan, an ordinary field-glass is used to find the position of the
object to be signalled to, and to it is attached, in the position of the ordinary sun-
shade, a small and light apparatus, so arranged that when the mirror is turned to
direct the cone of rays to any object within the field of view of the glass, an image
of the sun appears in the field, at the same time as the image of the distant object,
and magnified to the same degree, and the part of the field covered by this image
is exactly that part to which the rays are reflected, and at which some part of the
sun’s disc is visible in the mirror.
A perfectly plane silvered mirror, A, takes up the rays of the sun, and when in
proper position reflects them parallel with the axis of D, which is one barrel of an
ordinary field-glass. The greater part of the light passes away to the distant
object, but some is taken up by the small silvered mirror E, which is placed at an
angle of 45° to the axis of D, and reflected at a right angle through the unsilvered
plane mirror, I’, and the convex lens, K, by which it is brought to a focus on the
white screen, H, which is placed in the principal focus of K. The rays from this
image diverge in all directions, and some are taken up by the lens K and restored
to parallelism ; some of these are reflected by the unsilvered mirror, F', down to the
field-glass, D, and if this is focussed for parallel rays, as is the case in looking at
distant objects, an image of the sun is seen projected on the same field of view as
that of the distant object. As the mirrors E and F are adjusted strictly parallel,
the rays proceeding from F into the field-glass are parallel and in the opposite
direction to those going from the mirror A to E, which form part of the same
pencil as those going to the distant object. Hence the image of the sun seen in
the field exactly covers the object to which the sun-flash is visible, and in whatever
462 , REPORT—1880.
direction the mirror A is moved so as to alter the direction in which rays are
reflected to the distant object, and the angle at which part impinge on E and are
reflected through the lens K, the image visible in tne glass moves in the same
direction. Several attempts to produce this result were made by the use of mirrors
and prisms, before the lens K was introduced, but they all failed. It was easy to
make the image of the sun cover the object when the two occupied the centre of
the field of view, but directly the mirror was inclined so as to direct the rays not
strictly parallel to the axis of the field-glass, the apparent image diverged generally
in the same direction along one co-ordinate, and in the opposite along one at right
angles to it, so that nowhere, but in one line across the field, did the image lie in
the desired position. The mirrors K and F are adjusted parallel once for all, by
noticing the position on a screen of the small spot of light reflected from the front
of F as the light passes from E to K. The mirrors are moved by the adjusting
screws till this spot has, to the bright reflection from the mirror A, the same
relative position that the centre of mirror F has to the mirror A.
In actual use the field-glass is first fixed in position pointing to the object,
either by holding steadily in the hand, or better by a clamp attached, by which it
can be screwed into a tree or post, or fixed in the muzzle of a rifle. The instru-
ment is turned on the barrel of the glass till the sun is in the plane passing through
the two axes of the instrument, and. the mirror A is turned till the bright image of
To DISTANT
OBJECT
the sun is seen on the screen H, through a hole left for the purpose in the side of
the tube. On looking through the glass the sun’s image is seen, and by then slightly
rotating the instrument or moving the mirror, is made to cover the object. The
mirror A is connected not directly to the body of the instrument, but to a lever B,
on which it works stiffly, so as to retain any position in which it is placed. Lever
B works easily and has a limited range of motion, to one end of which it is pressed
by a spring; slight pressure with the finger moves it and its attached mirror, so as
to throw the light on and off the object in a succession of long and short flashes
by which letters and words may be indicated.
Mr. F. Galton said that the steadiness of aim required would be so great that
it would be impossible with the instrument exhibited to give signals with precision
without using a stand. He proposed that a convex or concave lens, of about 30
feet focus, should be attached near KE, in the path of the rays from the mirror to
the distant object, so as to disperse them over a field about three times the apparent
diameter of the sun. This would render free-handed signalling practicable, though
it would diminish the brightness of the flashes, and the instrument without the
lens could be used to attract attention.
The above instrument answers well for all positions of the sun except when
very low behind the observer’s back. or this case another mirror is provided by
which the light is reflected on to the mirror A.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 463
5. Improved Apparatus for the Objective Hstimation of Astigmatism.
By Tempest Anperson, M.D., B.Sc.
Astigmatism has been defined as that condition of the eye in which refraction
is unequal in the different meridians. In order to obtain suitable spectacles for
correcting this defect, it is necessary to know accurately the focal adjustment of
the meridians of maximum and minimum curvature, whence the focal lengths of
glasses, generally either cylindrical or cylindrical on one side and spherical on the
oxher, are readily calculated. Many plans have been adopted for determining this ;
some subjective, depending on observations made by the eye itself, and generally
using a point of light or a series of radiating lines as an object. From their
appearances when viewed at different distances, and with lenses of different powers,
the focal adjustment of the different meridians is at last obtained.
WD Plan il,
References to both figures :—
A, Observed eye. w, Wire screen, seen edgeways.
B. Observing eye. y. Principal lens.
m. Mirror. x. Correcting lens.
1. Lamp. Plan I.—C. Graduated bar.
c. Condensing lens. Plan I1.—D. Tube.
The advantage of this group of methods is their theoretical delicacy, as they
work by judging of the perfection of certain images refracted on the retina in a
manner not very dissimilar to that in which they are usually formed; the prac-
tical disadvantage, that accurate observations are required from one who has never
been accustomed to make them. Hence objective methods have been introduced.
Their adyantages are, substituting trained for untrained observation. Their
disadvantages—(1) The vessels of the retina and the optic nerves, which are
mostly employed as objects, are seldom in exactly the position desirable for
estimating the refraction in different meridians, and are often at a different distance
from the optical system of the eye from that at which the sensitive layer of the
retina lies.
(2) They mostly require the optical defects, if any, and the accommodation of
the observing eye to be taken into account and allowed for, thus introducing risk
of error.
In the author's two instruments, an image ofa suitable object thrown on the
retina of the observed eye, is used as an object by the observer, with the following
advantages :—
464 REPORT— 1880.
(1) The patient’s sensations may be entirely disregarded, or only used as con-
firmatory.
(2) The image used is necessarily at the retina, and not before or behind it.
(3) The accommodation, or any defects in the refraction of the observer's eye,
does not enter into the result, as the only function of this eye is to observe the
formation of the image on the retina.
In the first plan a lamp 7 is provided with a condensing: lens c, and a series
of radiating wires w (supposed to be seen edgeways in the figure), thus giving a
bright field with black lines on it.
The whole slides on a graduated bar, C, at the other end of which is a convex
lens, y [4 and 10 dioptrics are the most convenient powers, ¢.e. 10 and 4 inch focus].
Close to the lens, and at an angle of 45° to its axis,is a plane mirror (m), which
reflects the rays at right angles to their former path. The instrument is to be
held so that this pencil of rays enters the observed eye, and when the wire screen
is at the proper distance, an image of it is formed on the retina. The mirror has
the centre left unsilvered, as in an ordinary ophthalmoscope, and has a dise of
correcting lenses behind it, to render the retina, and the image on it, visible by the
direct method. The observed eye should have its accommodation relaxed by
atropine.
The bar is so divided that when an image of the whole or part of the screen
is sharp on the retina, the graduation expresses the refractive error of the corre-
sponding meridian. Hence, if the image of the whole screen is seen to be equally
sharp, the eye is known to be not astigmatic, and the graduation gives the number
of dioptrics by which it is myopic or hypermetropic. If the lines be not all
equally sharp, then the most distant point at which a distinct image of any
of the wires is formed on the retina gives the refractive error of the meridian
of minimum refraction expressed in dioptrics, and the point at which the line
at right angles to this is best defined, gives that of the meridian of maximum
refraction. The least of these gives the spherical element of the correcting lens
required for distant objects, and the difference between the two gives that of the
cylindrical part. The meridian of maximum refraction is that in which the line is
visible when the wires are at the greatest distance.
In the second plan the lamp, /, condensing lens, c, and wire screen, w, are
similar, and only differ in size, the front lens, y, and mirror, m, are also similar,
but the lamp and wires are permanently fixed by a tube, so that the wires are
accurately in the principal focus of the front lens, y. By this means the rays
from the wires (or rather from the interval between them), after refraction through
the lens and reflection by the mirror, are parallel. If received by an eye whichis
emmetropic, and with its accommodation relaxed, an image of the wires is formed
on the retina. The light radiating from this image passes out through the optical
system of the eye; is rendered parallel and able to form an accurate image on the
retina of an emmetropic eye observing through the hole in the mirror.
If the observed eye be not emmetropic, it is only necessary to introduce lenses
of different powers close in front of it, so as to correct the rays both entering and
leaving the eye. If the refraction be the same in all meridians, the image of all
the wires is sharp with the same lens, and this lens is the one required to correct
the ametropia. If any astigmatism exists, different lenses are required for render-
ing the images of the different wires sharp.
The strongest and weakest of these are the measures of the errors of refraction
of the two principal meridians, and the difference of their numbers of dioptrics
gives the cylindrical element of the correcting glass required.
In this form of apparatus a dise of correcting lenses behind the mirror is not
required, as the single correcting lens near the observed eye corrects the rays both
entering and leaving the eye.
For rapidly finding the proper lens a disc of lenses is used, each a centimétre
in diameter, and with intervals of one dioptric; a smaller disc is attached contain-
ing the quarter dioptrics, so that by their combination intervals of one quarter of a
dioptric can be read—a degree of accuracy greater than the estimation is generally -
susceptible of,
-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 465
The proper lens being calculated, its spherical and cylindrical elements are
combined and put together before the eye. If it be the correct one, all the lines
are seen sharp at the same time. If not, further examination is made.
The principal advantage of the first plan is that the adjustment, being made by
the motion of the wire screen, is continuous, and correcting lenses are not required
for measuring the refraction, but only for rendering the retinal image visible ; its
disadvantage that, as the rays are not parallel as they pass from the front lens,
past the mirror to the eye, it is necessary for the apparatus to be very near, and at
a determinate distance from the observed eye, otherwise the readings of the scale
are vitiated. This, however, is not a serious objection.
In the second plan the rays in the corresponding position are parallel, and the
instrument can be held at any convenient distance, say 1 or 2 feet from the
observed eye, and the observer can get a view of the cornea at the same time as he
views the image, so that he can estimate the refraction at different points of the
the cornea.
It is hoped that this may eventually lead to the determination of the refraction
at different parts of conical cornea and other eyes with irregular astigmatism,
and the application of suitable lenses to them.
Since writing the above, I find mention of an instrument by Coccius Stimmel,
with an optical arrangement on the same plan as my second, but I have not heard
of its being in use in this country. The makers are T, Cooke & Sons, York.
6. On the Length of the Sun-spot Period.|. By Henry Mutrunap, M.D.
It is well known to all who take an interest in the phenomena of sun-spots that
men of science are far from being agreed as to the length of the period intervening
between one maximum epoch and another. I should think, however, that those
who wish to prove that our rain, our storms, terrestrial magnetism, harvests of
grain and vintage, with commercial crises, &c., depend a good deal on how the face
of the sun is covered, should first of all make sure of the real length of the sun-
spot period. To help towards its fixation I beg to bring under the notice of the
Section the following table arranged from Wolt’s atest corrected relative sun-spot
numbers, from 1770 till 1877, with accompanying tracing. The numbers are ar-
ranged to correspond with Jupiter's period of 11:863 years. Each vertical column
(save one) commences with the year in which Jupiter’s heliocentric longitude is
2633°, The last column is the summation. The dates of the cycles were
chosen on the supposition that much of the sun’s radiance arises from matter im-
pinging on his atmosphere—just as so-called star-showers light up ours—and that
when Jupiter is in or near the front of the sun’s march in space (?.e. hel. long. 2633°)
he intercepts a good deal of the meteoric aggregations which would otherwise im-
pinge against the sun’s envelopes, giving rise to sun-spots till sublimated. We
now that comets whose aphelia are about as distant as Jupiter’s orbit have periods
‘ of about five years; so meteoric matter may be supposed to take about two and a
half years to come from Jupiter to the sun. Now please observe that the average
minimum sun-spot epoch occurs about two and a half years after Jupiter is at
R.A. 2633°, and the maximum about six years after the minimum, that is, when
we might expect Jupiter’s intercepting influence to be least. But leaving out of
account this hypothesis, the fact remains—as the table and tracings? show—that
the sun-spot period is not 10 years, nor 11, nor 11°1, but seemingly 11-863, corre-
sponding with Jupiter’s period. It is to this conclusion that I wish to call the
attention of meteorologists and others, who wish to show a correspondence
between their various periodicities and those of sun-spots. In 1875 I brought
this before the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, and also produced evidence to
1 Will be published tm ewtenso in the Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of
Glasyow, vol. xii. 1880-81.
2 A diagram extending horizontally was also shown
1880. HH
466 REPORT—1880.
show Jupiter’s influence on terrestrial magnetism. I then further said: ‘On my
hypothesis we may expect the decrement of the sun-spots to go on till some two
yeurs after Jupiter’s passing nearest the sun’s future path in April, 1877,—‘ Proc.
Phil. Soc. Glasg.’ vol. x. p. 55.
co
: A seta) eas = S Tlie Nevis
b Ss ass 2 Ps : me) BS ()
1 . 79 33 384 26 34 54 430° 38 31
2 43°. 22) 22) ib 22° 59 20° 29 16
3 49 DENT 389 O39) OF oth ff
4 40 21 Sila ho me ot Paes lds Aeon
Bek ACCS 1d Atcupi OSS eBl, B88. Tre
Goes), LOb. Ome 1 11 47 51 139
ofc) coo LOS U8) Mob: a 46 49 96 TIL
8 63 111 39 14 17 97 100 96 102
<, 95 84 58 20 29 111 96> 77 66
10 90 53 65 35 40 83 64 59 45
11 73 #47 75 45 53 68 62 44 173:
12. 68 40 50 44 52 52 47 11
Dec. 29,
1817.
7. Sur la Calculation des Phénoménes périodiques. Par le Professeur RAGONA.
L’auteur fait connaitre un perfectionnement qu'il a introduit dans l’usage de la
formule de Bessel, c’est-a-dire de la formule des phénoménes périodiques. I] con-
siste 4 établir le schema des valeurs calculées par la formule, jusqu’aux secondes
différences, et 4 trouver les instants dans lesquels les secondes différences changent
de signe. La demi-somme de deux de ces instants successives, donne un maximum
en passant d’un changement de + @ — d’un changement de — @ +. Elle donne un
minimum en passant d’un changement de — @ +, 4 un changement de + @--.
Si on fait usage d’un nombre d’observations pas suffisamment étendues, ou d’ob-
servations exécutées dans une époque de disturbations atmosphériques, la formule
donne toujours des résultats qui sont plus proches a expression de la véritable loi
de phénoméne, si les maximum et les minimum sont déduits par la méthode que
Vauteur a proposé, et qu'il appelle méthode des znflexions.
L’auteur a plusieurs fois traité, @ priori et a posteriori, de Yutilité de la méthode
des inflexions. Une de ces démonstrations est relative 4 la vitesse du vent. La
loi annuelle de cette vitesse est exactement connue 4 Modéne. Dans le cours de
Vannée se développent trois maximum et trois minimum, qui correspondent inverse-
ment au trois maximum et trois minimum que manifeste la pression barométrique
dans la période annuelle. En faisant usage d’une série de 12 années de bons obser-
vations auteur a établi deux formules, la premiére sur 6 années et la seconde sur
tous les 12 années. La derniére donne exactement les trois maz. et trois min.
annuels, tandis que la premiére donne, et d’une maniére trés-imparfaite, seulement
deux max. et deux min. Mais si dans la premiére pn fait usage de la méthode des
inflexions, on obtient d’elle avec beaucoup d’exactitude la véritable distribution
des max. et des min. de la vitesse du vent.
+
:
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 467
L’auteur expose 4 la section un autre exemple de J’utilité de la méthode qu'il
@ proposé.
Le prof. Mascart, a derniérement publié 4 Paris les résultats d’une série
d’observations sur l’électricité atmosphérique. La loi moyenne diurne de I’électricité
atmosphérique est bien connue 4 Modéne. II s’agit de deux maa. et deux min.
qui correspondent & peu prés aux heures critiques barométriques. M. Mascart dit
que ses observations ont été exécutées dans une époque de fortes perturbations
atmosphériques. Calculant les observations de M. Mascart par la formule de
Bessel, auteur a obtenu seulement un maz. et un mzn., mais en faisant usage de
la méthode des inflexions, a obtenu exactement le deux maz. et les deux min.
diurnes de ]’électricité atmosphérique.
L’auteur donne notice d'une série d’observations qu'il a exécutées sur la période
diurne de l’électricité atmosphérique. Ila obtenu les deux maw. et les deux min.
presque en coincidence avec les valeurs déduits des observations de M. Mascart
par la méthode des inflevions, ce qui est remarquable & cause de la différence des
Tieux et des 6poques. Il fait noter qu'il s’agit toujours de la marche diurne de
Vélectricité positive, parce que l’auteur a, comme M. Mascart, eliminé tous les jours
delectricite négative.
L’auteur fait connaitre aussi un résultat digne d’attention de ses observations
sur la période diurne de I’électricité dynamique, c’est-d-dire des courants qui montent
ou descendent dans les hautes édifices. Sur la tour de l’'Observatoire de Modéne il
a placé un excellent galvanométre, dont les deux poles étaient en communication
un ayec le terrain et l’autre avec le toit de la tour. En considérant seulement
Vintensité du courant ascendant, il a trouvé que son période diurne est exactement
inverse de celui de l’électricité atmosphérique ; c’est-d-dire que les max’. d’intensité
du courant ascendant correspondent aux min. d’intensité de l’électricité libre
positive de l’atmosphére, et inversement.
8. On the Laws of the Change of Speed and Direction of the Wind.
By Professor Racona.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 27.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee on Underground Temperature.
See Reports, p. 26.
2. Report of the Committee appointed to devise and construct an improved
form of High Insulation Key for Electrometer Work.
See Reports, p. 29.
3. Comparison of Ourves of the Declination Magnetographs at Kew, Stony-
hurst, Coimbra, Lisbon, Vienna, and St. Petersburg. By Professor W.
Grytis Apams, M.A., F.R.S.—See Reports, p. 201.
4, On the best form of Magnet for Magneto-electric Machines.
By W. Uavp, F.R.A.S.
At the British Association Meeting at Dundee, in 1867, I made some remarks
upon different forms of magnet, and exhibited diagrams, showing by the ‘lines
HH 2
468 REPORT—1880.
of force ’—naturally arranged—the great superiority of the circular magnet, where
an armature is to be employed.
Since that time some thousands of that form of magnet have been made for
medical, mining, and other purposes.
Some months ago, when in conversation with M. Breguet of Paris, I showed
him these same diagrams, and he was very much impressed with their importance.
He has since then constructed a machine, using the Gramme armature; and witha
smaller quantity of steel in the magnets he has made a far more powerful machine
than hitherto constructed with either the Jamin or the ordinary horse-shoe form.
It is also more symmetrical in appearance and occupies less space.
With this machine I can heat to incandescence 19 inches of platinum wire
by four turns of the handle; while to heat 14 inches of the same sized wire by a
machine haying a Jamin magnet took ten turns of the handle.
5. An Account of some Experiments in Photo-electricity.
By G. M. Mincuin, M.A.
The two objects aimed at primarily in photo-electricity are—
(a) the production, at a distance, of effects due, in the first instance, to the
photographic action of light ;
(6) the continuous daily registration of the intensity of sunlight of any
selected wave-length.
The first of these is the problem of constructing what the author has called
the Telephotograph, and some of the fundamental conditions of success have been
attained.
The second problem will, in all probability, soon attain a satisfactory solution,
much progress having been already made towards it.
The author investigated, in the first instance, the photo-electric currents pro-
duced by the action of light on silver plates, coated with the ordinary emulsions
Ee silver salts in use among photographers—viz., the chloride, bromide, and iodide
of silver.
In a cell containing tap water (or slightly acidulated water, or distilled water
with a few grains of common salt), if a chloride plate is immersed in presence of
an uncoated plate, the current runs from the latter to the former in the cell.
The same is the direction of the current when the chloride is replaced by a
bromide plate. .
But if the sensitised plate is an iodide plate (the conducting liquid being dis-
tilled water with a few grains of iodide of potassium), the direction of the current
is reversed.
In carrying out an idea about phosphorescence as a photo-electric source, it
appeared to be of importance to study sulphide of silver. If any emulsion of this
salt is made with collodion, and a silver-plate sensitised with it be immersed, as
above, ina glass cell, the direction of the current given by magnesium light (or
sunlight), agrees with that of the iodide plate; and by passing the light incident
on the plate through coloured glasses, it will be found that the red and the blue
rays give strong results in the same direction, while the green light gives a com-
paratively trifling action. For this salt there is therefore a point of minimum
sensibility in the middle of the spectrum. A silver plate coated with nitrate of
silver (shaken up in a test-tube with thin photographic gelatine), gave with blue
rays a strong current in the iodide and sulphide direction; and with red rays a
very small result in the opposite direction, though whether this latter result is due
to the action of the red rays on the emulsion or on the plate itself is not
certain. .
It was found in several of these experiments that the observation of Grove to
the effect that light sets up a current in the direction of some previously existing
current, being incapable of setting up one of its own, was not confirmed. The
experiments of Grove which gave rise to this statement are referred to, From
TRANSACTIONS. OF SECTION A. 469
even a purely logical consideration we might conclude that his statement cannot
be accepted.
The photographic effect of a current which is passed through a sensitised
plate is a point of fundamental importance. By placing two plates, each coated
with Liverpool Emulsion, in a cell containing distilled water and a few grains of
bromide of potassium, and putting this cell into the circuit of a bichromate cell
for a few seconds, it will be found that—
(a) the plate connected with the carbon pole is, without the employment of a
developer, visibly blackened in its immersed portion ;
(b) no visible change comes on the other plate ; but when this plate is developed
by pyrogallic acid, its immersed portion also becomes dark.
This fundamental result was also obtained (though in a less marked degree) by
the action of a photo-electric cell, instead of the bichromate cell. To produce the
effect with greater ease in this case, expose the two bromide plates to gas-light for
about ten seconds before immersion. The localisation of the effect on the plate
through which the current passed was further shown by placing several silver
strips on the same plate of glass, coating all of them with a layer of Liverpool
Emulsion, and throwing some of them out of the circuit of the current. Only
those in circuit exhibit the photographic effect. Assuming that fluorescence ought
to operate a change of luminous energy into that of an electric current, the
author next replaced the silver salts by fluorescent substances. LHosine gave the
best results, but it is very easily soluble and it leaves the plate rapidly. A very
permanent eosine plate was obtained by making a mixture of eosine solution and
thin gelatine, pouring this over the plate, and then pouring a layer of collodion
over it. This was exceedingly sensitive to even dull sunlight, and when connected
with a galvanometer, indicated the faintest change in the light which it received.
As a perfect photometer it has a drawback. When the light is suddenly shut off,
the spot on the scale does not immediately return to zero. It was found that this
irregularity was due (partly at least) to the action of light on collodion, and this
latter was specially examined. A less sensitive, but more regular, plate was made
by mixing eosine with thin gelatine and rendering the layer insoluble by immersion
in alum solution.
Naphthalene red gives also yery good results, and comes near satisfying the
requirements of a perfect photometer for continuous registration. Strong light
gives opposite results by the action of red and blue rays. Iodine-green—an
aniline dye—gives very strong currents, in the direction opposed to that of the
current given by an emulsion of iodide of silver—a result for which a theoretical
reason may be given.
The E.M.F. of this cell for strong but oblique sunlight was in one experiment
found to rise so high as 3th of a Daniell.
To prevent the solubility of several of the substances employed, mordants—
such as chloride of aluminium and borax—were employed ; but though the layers
on the plates were rendered insoluble, their sensitiveness to light was almost
destroyed.
A very curious case of inverse currents presented itself. Two clean silver
pe were immersed in a glass cell containing a solution of eosine. When light
ell on one plate a current was suddenly set up in the direction opposite that given
by a plate coated with eosine and immersed in water. This was a small jerky
current, lasting for a second or so, and it was immediately succeeded by a_ large
current in the opposite direction which varied with the light intensity. When
the light was suddenly shut off a further jerk in the latter direction took place,
and then the spot moved towards its zero position. The two plates having been
then left immersed in the cell for a fortnight>were again used in the same manner
and it was found that the jerk had enormously increased ; but, although the light
was kept up, the spot steadily came back and moved in its normal direction beyond
its zero position—far beyond it if the light was strong, such as that of a candle at
a distance of three or four inches. These contrary currents appear to the author
to point to a mechanical action of light on the eosine in solution, as distinct from
the chemical action set up between the eosine layer and the silver plate in contact
470 REPORT—1 880.
with it. The immersed plates become each coated with a layer of a darkish appear-
ance (eoside of silver ?), and this layer will give a current in the same direction as
that given by a silver plate coated in the old way with any emulsion of eosine.
Platinum plates always give in these experiments much smaller results than
silver plates; but this fact may be due to the circumstance that, with the substances:
employed, silver may be a better vehicle for the transference of the energy than
platinum—apart from the consideration of chemical action.
Several other substances, such as fluorescine, fuchsine, sulphate of quinine, &c.
were used, the results being less marked.
Phosphorescence was studied by coating a platinum plate with a mixture of
gelatine and sulphide of calcium, and currents were produced by the action of
magnesium light.
Experiments of the class last referred to are in progress.
6. Electric Convection-Currents. By Stryanus P. Taompson, D.Sc., B.A.,.
Professor of Experimental Physics in University College, Bristol.
In a paper ‘On the Action of Magnets on Mobile Conductors of Currents,’ read
before this Section a year ago, the author discussed a number of cases of the flow
of electricity across a magnetic field. These included cases of true metallic con-
duction, of electrolytic conduction, and of those less-understood Jinds of conduc-
tivity which occur in the voltaic are, in the discharges in rarefied media, and in
the luminous brush-charge at a point. For the case of convection of electricity,
either automatically, by self-repulsion between electrified particles of a gas, or
mechanically, the electro-magnetic effect is identical with that of a current in
which the same quantity of electricity would be transferred in the same time; the
‘ rate of convection ’ “2 being in these cases the equivalent of ‘the strength of the
current.’
Maxwell's theory (vol. ii. art. 768) concerning the virtual identity of a current
sheet and of an electrified sheet moving in its own plane with a velocity equal to
‘y,’ may be extended to the case of linear currents. The identity may be
generalised to all cases of convection-currents.
Last year the author predicted that the brush discharge at a point would
experience a spiral twist when taking place in the magnetic field. He has since
found this to be experimentally the case.
The author also pointed out the similarity between the magnetic distortion
found by Reitlinger and Wichter in electric ring-figures, and that found by himself
to be produced by the presence of a magnet on Nobili’s figures. He also referred to
Maxwell’s theory as explaining some of the phenomena observed in the exhausted
tubes of Mr. Crookes, in which the discharges from the negative electrode behave
like convection-currents haying a velocity less than the velocity of light.
7. On a peculiar behaviour of Copper. By Witu1AM Henry PREECE.
From some experiments made in Dr. Warren De La Rue’s laboratory it appeared
that in some cases copper wires did not acquire their normal resistance until currents
of electricity had passed through them. In several instances the resistance of
virgin copper was far higher than it was after electricity had passed through.
—_—_—
8. On the proper form of Lightning Conductors. By Wii1AM Henry PREECE.
The question of the relative value of surface and sectional area in lightning-
conductors never having been satisfactorily solved experimentally, the author, with
the aid of Dr. De La Rue’s gigantic battery, endeayoured to do so. He obtained
wire tubes and ribbons of copper and lead of similar lengths and weight, and
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 471
passed very powerful charges of electricity through them, observing their thermic
effects upon platinum and silver wires. It was found that change of form pro-
duced no difference whatever in the character of the discharge, and it was proved
that the discharges of electricity of high potential obey the laws of Ohm. No
more efficient lightning conductor can be devised than a cylindrical rod or a wire
rope.
9. On the necessity for a regular Inspection of Lightning Conductors.
By Ricwarp Anperson, £.0.8., A. Inst.C.E.
The author referred to a paper by M. W. de Fonvielle, ‘On the advantage of
keeping records of Physical Phenomena connected with Thunderstorms, read
before this Association in 1872. M. de Fonvielle recommended to the attention of
the members the steps which had been taken by the French Government for
obtaining information regarding thunderstorms, and suggested that the Association
should institute some organisation for the collection of such data; arguing that it
would be of much value to science, as well as to the public. Nothing, however,
has been done by the Association since 1872; and the author not only confirmed
the conclusions at which M. de Fonvielle arrived as to the desirability of collecting
such data, but was of opinion that the organisation should go further, and arrange
for a regular inspection of all public buildings which had lightning-conductors
applied.
PP the necessity for this he demonstrated by adducing a number of striking cases
where damage, more or less severe, had occurred to buildings, even though having
lightning conductors attached to them. The cases.now cited, he explained, were
supplementary to those communicated in his paper on a similar subject to the
Association in 1878. A few of the cases were as follows :—
In October, 1878, an elevated building situated at the back of Victona Station,
occupied as a furniture repository, was struck by lightning and sustained damage,
although furnished with a 3-inch by }-inch copper-band lightning conductor and
a tube of §-inch diameter rising above the iron crestings on tower. The lightning
shattered the cresting and bent the point of the lightning-rod, besides doing other
damage to the building. On testing, the author found the resistance very great,
and on opening out the earth-terminal found it embedded in concrete.
In June last St. Mark’s Church, Skelton, was struck by lightning, when the
air-terminal of a §-inch diameter copper-rope conductor was slightly bent. On
testing, the author found the resistance great, and on opening the ground, the
conductor was found to be carried from the building about 14 feet and buried
among brick and stone rubbish. The conductivity of the copper was 52°50 instead
of 92 to 94 per cent.
On June 26 last lightning struck All Saints’ Church, Lambeth, doing con-
siderable damage, although there was a 32-inch diameter copper-rope conductor on
the west gable, with a copper tube rising 18 inches above. A stone cross about 50
feet from the conductor was thrown down, injuring the roof of the north aisle.
On testing the conductor, the author found that it had no ‘earth’ whatever, the
rope being simply placed in 2 inches of loose rubbish. The copper was of very
inferior quality ; conductivity being 32°10 per cent., or about double that of iron.
The author quoted also a few cases from his recent work on ‘ Lightning Con-
ductors, their History, &c.’ :—
In August, 1878, the Powder Magazine at Victoria Colliery, Burntcliffe, York-
shire, was struck by lightning, though furnished with a conductor 13 feet above
the building and terminating in 13 feet of clayey soil. The building was blown to
pieces. On testing the conductivity of the copper it was found to be 39:2, instead
of 92 to 94 per cent. The conductor was insulated from the building and from a
large iron door, which it ought not to have been.
The author concludes from this evidence that it is not sufficient merely that
rods of copper should be attached to a building, but it is necessary that after being
fixed they should be regularly inspected, to see if they are in good order, so as to
be really efficacious,
472 REPORT—1880.
10, Note on the Theory of the Induction Balance. By Lorv Rayusren,
F.R.S., Professor of Experimental Physics in the University of Cambridge.
This subject has been treated by Dr. Lodge in the ‘ Phil. Mag.’ for February,
1880, who has arrived at several interesting results. The investigation may be
considerably simplified by taking the case of pure tones, as is usual in acoustics.
We may also suppose, for distinctness of conception, that the current in the primary
circuit (v,) is sensibly unaffected by the reaction of derived currents, though our
results will be independent of this hypothesis.
If x, ,....be the currents, #, R,... the resistances, M,, M,, M,,.....
the coefficients of self-induction, and of mutual induction, the equations for three
circuits are
Me Ota M. dis Jitsu aaah 4 M dx,
dt *8 dt “dt
di. da. i dx
My, cia + M;, ai ce R, vs = SS M,; dt
We now assume that 7, v7,.... are proportional to e”’, where n+27 is the
frequency of vibration. Thus:—
in (IM, x, + M,, 25) + Ry 2, = —m M,, x,
in (M,, t, + Mj,x,) + R, x,= — mM, 2,
whence by elimination of 2’,
< M?,., v7 . 1? MG Magi
4 in M,, + R, + ——™"__ > = -im M,, 2, — ——8— 841
J in M,, + R, in M,, + Rs
From this it appears that a want of balance depending on M,, cannot compen-
sate for the action of the tertiary circuit, so as to produce silence in the secondary
(telephone) circuit, unless R, be negligible in comparison with x M,,, that is unless
the time-constant of the tertiary circuit be very great in comparison with the period
of the vibration. Otherwise the effects are of different phases, and therefore in-
capable of balancing.
We will now introduce a fourth circuit, and suppose that the primary and
secondary circuits are accurately conjugate, so that M,,=0, and also that the
mutual induction between the third and fourth circuits (M,,) may be neelected.
Thus
mM (Mogg Xo + Mog Xz, + My, x) + Ry 2%, =0
. nr (Mg ty + Mgz 3) + Ry x, = — in M,, 2,
in (Myy 2, + My, v,) + Ry t= —m M,, 2,
y(t n*? M*,. n* M*,, )
rain aE as ealgece wk hae STE
=~? 2, (Mg Mas Mig Mas)
*\in Ma, + R, mM,,+ R,
Two conditions must be satisfied to secure a balance, since both the phases and
the intensities of the separate effects must be the same. The first condition
requires that the time-constants of the third and fourth circuits he equal, unless
both be either very great or very small in comparison with the period. If this
condition be satisfied, a balance may be obtained by shifting the circuits so as to
bring M,, M,, into equality with M,, M,,.
For a coil of mean radius a, and radius of section equal to a+ 3:22, the coefficient
of self-induction (Z) is * 12 7 n? a, n being the number of turns. Also, if » be the
specific resistance,
whence
Qmna ,,_ 2 (3:22)? n? r
wd a
* Maxwell, Electricity and Magnetism, § 707.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 473
For copper 7 = 1640, so that
peo eit ails, the C, G. S. system.
R 1810
In the case of a shilling the time-constant can scarcely be so high as a ten-
thousandth of a second, but periods smaller than this may be concerned when a
microphone clock is employed.
For similar discs or coins the time-constant varies as a® r—1, a being the linear
dimension and r the specific resistance. Equal coins cannot in general be balanced
if the specific resistances are different. To obtain a balance, a* should vary as ».
In this case
M,, M, ; a : a .
—_18__28 __ varies as 1 Varles a8 — varies as a,
m M,,+R r a~ r
on the supposition that the positions of the coins relatively to the primary and
secondary coils are the same.
A perfect balance is not to be expected in general without two adjustments,
though in some cases a fair approximation may be obtained with the sliding
wedge employed by Hughes.
If the condition of equality of time-constants be satisfied, the remaining condition
is independent of the value of n, so that a perfect balance for one pitch secures a
perfect balance for all pitches. From this it follows that the results are not
limited to simple tones, and that the two conditions are sufficient to secure a
balance in all cases. It should be remembered, however, that this indifference to
pitch does not apply to approximate balances, which may be satisfactory with one
sound, but quite inadequate when another is substituted.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 28.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1, Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables.
See Reports, p. 30.
2. Report of the Committee appointed to calculate Tables of the Funda-
mental Invariants of Algebraic Forms.—See Reports, p. 38.
3. Report on the present state of knowledge of the application of Quadratures
and Interpolations to Actual Data. By C. W. Murnririexp, F.R.S.
See Reports, p. 321.
4, On Maximum and Minimum Energy in Vortex Motion.
By Professor Sir Witt1am Tuomson, M.A., F.B.S.
I. A finite volume of incompressible inviscid fluid being given, in motion, filling
a fixed, simply continuous, rigid boundary, the fact of its being in motion implies
molecular rotation, or (as it may he called for brevity) vorticity. ‘Helmholtz’s
law of conservation of vorticity shows that, whether the boundary be kept fixed as
given, or be moved or deformed in any way, and brought back to its given shape
and position, there remains in every portion of the fluid which had molecular
rotation a definite constant of vorticity ; and his formula for calculating energy for
‘any given distribution of vorticity allows us to see that the energy may be varied
‘hy the supposed operation on the boundary.
474 REPORT—1880.
II. The condition for steady motion of an incompressible inviscid fluid filling a
finite fixed portion of space (that is to say, motion in which the velocity and direc-
tion of motion continue unchanged at every point of the space within which the
fluid is placed) is that, with given vorticity, the energy is a thorough maximum,
or a thorough minimum, or a minimax. The farther condition of stability is secured
by the consideration of energy alone for any case of steady motion, for which the
energy is a thorough maximum or a thorough minimum ; because when the boun-
dary is held fixed the energy is of necessity constant. But the mere consideration
of energy does not decide the question of stability for any case of steady motion in
which the energy is a minimax,
III. It is clear that, commencing with any given motion, the energy may be
increased indefinitely by properly-designed operation on the boundary (understood
that the primitive boundary is returned to). Hence, with given vorticity, there is
no thorough maximum of energy in any case. There may also be complete annul-
ment of the energy by operation on the boundary (with return to the primitive
boundary), as we see by the following illustrations :—
1, The case of two equal, parallel, and oppositely rotating vortex columns
terminated perpendicularly by two fixed parallel planes, which, by proper operation
on the boundary, may be so mixed (like two eggs ‘whipped’ together) that, in-
finitely near to any portion of either, there shall be some of the other.
2. The case of a single Helmholtz ring, reduced by diminution of its aperture to
an infinitely long tube coiled within the enclosure.
3. The case of a single vortex column, with two ends on the boundary, bent
till its middle meets the boundary; and farther bent and extended, till it is broken
into two equal and opposite vortex columns; and then farther dealt with till these
two are whipped together to mutual annihilation.
IV. To avoid for the present the extremely difficult general question illustrated
(or suggested) by the consideration of such cases, confine ourselves now to two-
dimensional motions in a space bounded by two fixed parallel planes and a closed
cylindric surface perpendicular to them, subjected to changes of figure (but always
truly cylindric and perpendicular to the planes). It is obvious that, with the
limitation to two-dimensional motion, the energy cannot be either infinitely small
or infinitely great with any given vorticity and given cylindric figure. Hence,
under the given conditions, there certainly are at least two stable steady motions.
We shall, however, see farther (XI. below) that possibly in every case, except cases
of a narrow, well-defined character, and certainly in many cases, there is an infinite
number of stable steady motions.
V. In the present case, clearly, though there are an infinite number of unstable
steady motions, there are only two stable steady motions—those of absolute maxi-
mum and of absolute minimum energy.
VI. In every steady motion, when the boundary is circular, the stream lines
are concentric circles, and the fluid is distributed in co-axial cylindric layers
of equal vorticity, In the stable motion of maximum energy, the vorticity ‘is
greatest at the axis of the cylinder, and is less and less outwards to the circumfer-
ence. In the stable motion of minimum energy the vorticity is smallest at the
axis, and greater and greater outwards to the circumference. To express the con-
ditions symbolically, let 7’ be the velocity of the fluid at distance » from the axis
(understood that the direction of the motion is perpendicular to the direction of 7) ;
the vorticity at distance 7 is—
(2422),
yr dr
If the value of this expression diminishes from 7 = 0 to r = a, the motion is stable,
and of maximum energy. If it increases from 7 = 0 to 7 = a the motion is stable
and of minimum energy. If it increases and diminishes, or diminishes and in-
creases, as 7 increases continuously, the motion is unstable.
VII. As a simplest subcase, let the vorticity be uniform through a given por-
tion of the whole fluid, and zero through the remainder. In the stable motion of
greatest energy, the portion of fluid haying vorticity will be in the shape of a circular
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 475
cylinder rotating like a solid round its own axis, coinciding with the axis of the
enclosure ; and the remainder of the fluid will revolve irrotationally around it, so
as to fulfil the condition of no finite slip at the cylindrical interface between the
rotational and irrotational portions of the fluid. The expression for this motion in
symbols is
T=Cr fromr =O0tor = 0b;
2
and T=“ from r = b tor = a.
VIII. In the stable motion of minimum energy the rotational portion of the
fluid is in the shape of a cylindric shell, inclosing the irrotational remainder, which
in this case is at rest. The symbolical expression for this motion is
T = 0, when r < ,/ (a? — 6°) and T=¢(r-*=*),
when r > / (a? — 6°).
IX. Let now the liquid be given in the configuration VII. of greatest energy, and
let the cylindrical boundary be a sheet of a real elastic solid, such as sheet-metal
with the kind of dereliction from perfectness of elasticity which real elastic solids
present; that is to say, let its shape when at rest be a function of the stress applied
to it, but let there be a resistance to change of shape depending on the velocity of
the change. Let the unstressed shape be truly circular, and let it be capable of
slight deformations from the circular figure in cross section, but let it always re-
main truly cylindrical. Let now the cylindric boundary be slighly deformed and
left to itself, and held so as to prevent it from being carried round by the fluid.
The central yortex column is set into vibration in such a manner that longer and
shorter wayes travel round it with less and greater angular yelocity.* These waves
cause corresponding waves of corrugation to travel round the cylindric bounding
sheet, by which energy is consumed, and moment of momentum taken out of the
fluid. Let this process go on until a certain quantity of moment of momentum has
been stopped from the fluid, and now let the canister run round freely in space, and,
for simplicity, suppose its material to be devoid of inertia. The whole moment of
momentum is initially
n CB? (a?—4 0);
7 CB? (@?-$0*)—M,
and continues constantly of this amount as long as the boundary is left free in space.
The consumption of energy still goes on, and the way in which it goes on is this:
the waves of shorter length are indefinitely multiplied and exalted till their crests
run out into fine laminz of liquid, and those of greater length are abated. Thus a
certain portion of the irrotationally revolving water becomes mingled with the cen-
tral vortex column. The process goes on until what may be called a vortex sponge
is formed ; a mixture homogeneous on a large scale, but consisting of portions of
rotational and irrotational fluid, more and more finely mixed together as time ad-
vances, The mixture is, as indicated above, altogether analogous to the mixture of
the substances of two eges whipped together in the well-known culinary operation.
Let 5’ be the radius of the cylindric vortex sponge, b being as before the radius of
the original vortex column
M
Cb"
It is now
$07 =30? +
X. Once more, hold the cylindric case from going round in space, and continue
holding it until some more moment of momentum is stopped from the fluid. Then
leave it to itself again. The vortex sponge will swell by the mingling with it of an
additional portion of irrotational liquid. Continue this process until the sponge
occupies the whole enclosure.
* See Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh for 1880, or Philosophical Maga-
vine for 1880: ‘ Vibrations of a Columnar Vortex:’ Wm. Thomson,
476 REPORT—1880.
After that continue the process further, and the result will be that each time the
containing canister is allowed to go round freely in space, the fluid will tend to a
condition in which a certain portion of the original vortex core gets filtered into a
position next to the boundary, and the fluid within it tends to a more and more
nearly uniform mixture of vortex with irrotational fluid. This central vortex-sponge,
on repetition of the process of preventing the canister from going round, and again
leaving it free to go round, becomes more and more nearly irrotational fluid, and the
outer belt of pure vortex becomes thicker and thicker. ‘The final condition towards
which the whole tends is a belt constituted of the original vortex core now next the
boundary; and the fluid which originally revolved irrotationally round it now
placed at rest within it, being the condition (VIII. above) of absolute minimum
energy. Begin once more with the condition (VII. above) of absolute maximum
energy, and leave the fluid to itself, whether with the canister free to go round
sometimes, or always held fixed, provided only it is ultimately held from going
round in space ; the ultimate condition is always the same, viz., the condition ( VIII.)
of absolute minimum energy.
XJ. That there may be an infinite number of configurations of stable motions,
each of them having the energy of a thorough minimum as said in IV. above, we
see, by considering the case in which the cylindric boundary of the containing can-
ister consists of two wide portions communicating by a narrow passage, as shown in
the sketch. Ifsuch a canister be completely filled with irrotationally moving fluid
of uniform vorticity, the stream lines must be something like those indicated in the
sketch,
Hence if a small portion of the whole fluid is irrotational, it is clear that there
may be a minimum energy, and therefore a stable configuration of motion, with the
whole of this in one of the wide parts of the canister; or the whole in the other ;
or any proportion in one and the rest in the other; or a small portion in the elliptic
whirl in the connecting canal, and the rest divided in any proportion between the
two wide parts of the canister.
5. On Inverse Figures in Geometry. By Professor H. J. S. Suita, M.A.,
F.B.S..
6. On a Mathematical Solution of a Logical Problem. By Professor
H. J. 8. Surrs, M.A., F.R.S.
7. On the Distribution of Circles on a Sphere. By Professor H. J. 8.
Suirn, M.A., F.R.S.
8. Notes on Non-Euclidian Geometry. By Rosert S. Bau, LL.D., F.R.S.
The problem I propose to consider relates to the kinematics of a rigid body in
non-Euclidian space. I can hardly say that the communication is exactly novel, as
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 477
the same problem has been considered by Lindemann. I think, however, that a
purely geometrical method of looking at the question may be of interest.
The most general displacement of a rigid body is a rotation about an axis
combined with a rotation about the polar axis with regard to the absolute. These
two rotations form the unit of displacement. My problem is the determination of
the single unit of displacement, which is equivalent to the joint effect of two
displacements, all being small. This, it will be observed, includes every problem
of the composition of forces or rotations in non-Huclidian space.
Each of the component units involves a pair of conjugate polars, A,A’ and B,B’,
and we require to find a pair of conjugate polars 0,0’ the rotations around which
shall be equivalent to the given rotations about A,A’ and B,B’.
Draw the common transversals X and X’ to the four rays A,B,A’,B’, then it
can easily be shown that the effect of the given displacements on four points
P Q RS on X will move those points on right of lines directed towards P’ Q/
R’ 8 on X’, so that the anharmonic ratio of PQ RS is equal to that of P’ Q’
RS’.
On X there are two critical points, L and M, which are characterised by the
circumstance that they start in the same direction whether the displacement be
A, A’ or B, B’. It is therefore necessary that C,C’ shall be such as to start L and
M in the same direction. This condition will enable C and C’ to be determined.
Let the two given displacements convey L and M to L’ and M’, then C and C’
are two generators of the hyperboloid of which X, X’, and L’ M’, are three genera-
tors of the other system. But when two hyperboloids are such that a pair of
generators of one system on one hyherboloid are conjugate polars of the other,
then a pair of generators of the other system are also conjugate polars. Obser-
ving that X and X’ are conjugate polars of the absolute we therefore have C and
C’ completely determined.
9. On the deduction of Trigonometrical from Elliptic Function Formule.
By J. W. UL. Guatsuer, M.A., F.R.S.
In any elliptic function identity, connecting sn’s, cn’s, and dn’s, we may, of
course, as is well known, put & = 0, when the sn’s and cn’s become respectively
sines and cosines and the dn becomes unity. But we may also expand the elliptic
functions in powers of k?, and equate the coefficients of A?, k*, &e., to zero.
Considering only terms as far as /?, it can be shown that
amu =u—tkh*u + df’ sin Qu
so that
sow = sinu — ¢k?wcosu + $k sin 2ucos u
cnu = cosu + +/7usin u — $k sin 2u sin wu
dnu=1-—#' sin?u
Now the terms — 3/?w cosu and 1 ?wsinu, in which the argument appears, out-
side, will generally lead to terms which, on this account, are separately equal
to zero, so that in deducing trigonometrical from elliptic function formule (in
which the arguments do not appear as external factors), we may put
sow = sinu(1 + +h cos? u)
enw = cosu(1 — tesa)! par)
dnu = 1 — $i? sin? u
and equate the powers of i? to zero.
As an example, consider the elliptic function identity
sn 8 sn ysn(8 — y) + snysnasn(y— a) + snasnfsn (a —§)
+ sn (8 — y) sn (y — a) sn(a — 8) = 0;
putting / = 0, we obtain the well-known trigonometrical identity
sin 8 sin y sin (8 -- y) + sinysinasin (y — a) + sinasin sin (a —8)
+ sin (8 - y) sin(y — a) sin (a — B) = 9,... (2)
478 REPORT—1880.
pat substituting for the sn’s by (1), and equating the coefficient of /? to zero, we
ao sin 8 siny sin (8 — y) [cos?B8 + cos *y + cos *7(B — y) |
+ sinysin a gin (y — a) [cos *y + cos*a + cos *(y — a) ]
+ sinasin f sin (a — 8) [cos *a + cos 78 + cos *(a — ) |
+ sin (8 — y) sin (y — a) sin (a —8) [cos*(8 — y) + cos*(y—a) + cos*(a — 8) ] = 0,
which, in virtue of (2), may be written
sin 8 sin ysin (8 — y) [sin?8 + sin*y + sin*(8 — y)]
+ sinysinasin (y — a) [sin *y + sin*a + sin*(y — a) ]
+ sina sin #sin(a — #) [sin *a + sin*8 + sin*(a — 8) |
+ sin (@ — y) sin (y — a) sin (a — 8) [sin*(8 — y) + sin*(y — a) + sin*(a — B)]
= 0.,.,..(3)
Similarly from
snasn (8 — y) + sn@sn(y — a) + snysn(a — f)
+ k* snasn@snysn(8 — y)sn(y — a) sn(a — 8) = 0
we have, by putting & = 0,
sina sin (8 — y) + sin@sin(y — a) + sinysin (a — 8) = 0,
and, by equating to zero the coefficient of i’,
sina sin (8 — y) [sin?a + sin*(8 — y) |
+ sin Bsin (y — a) sin’ + sin *(y — a) |
+ sinysin (a — 8) [sin*y + sin*(a — 8) ]
—Asinasinfsiny sin (8 — y) sin(y — a)sin(a — 8B) = 0
If the object be, not to deduce trigonometrical formule from elliptic function
formulz, but to verify the latter, the formule deduced by equating to zero the
coefficient of k* obtained by means of (1), generally afford a much better verifica-
tion than is obtained by merely putting & = 0.
It may be mentioned that (3) may be easily verified by use of (2) and of the
formula
sin2z + sin*y.+ sin?(x — y) = 2 — 2cosxrcosycos(z — y).
y
10. On Plane and Spherical Curves of the Fourth Olass with Quadruple Foci.
By Henry M. Jerrery, F.R.S.
I, On Prane CrAss-QUARTICS.
1, All quartics with quadruple foci may be expressed by the geometrical rela-
tion
kpt=qr+Xr
if the line-coordinates p, g, 7 denote the quadruple focus P, and Q, R the foci of
the satellite-conic.
It is proposed to examine every possible quartic in a group, in which P,Q, R
remain unaltered, while the parameters, x, A, vary indefinitely,
2. When there are critical bitangential quartics in a group, the mutual relation
of x, will be exhibited in a plane curve, of which they are the coordinates.
This locus will be hereinafter designated the bounding curve, by which plane
space will be divided into regions, In some regions no quartic is possible, and if
x, A represent points on the bounding curve, critical quartics exist. with real or
imaginary bi-tangents. If two branches intersect in a node or unite in a cusp, two
bi-tangents will unite to form some higher singularity. In the remaining regions
quartics will occur, which alter their character as x or A becomes zero, i.e, as the
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 479
bounding curve intersects the axes, and in other transition-cases, which will be
explained in § 8.
8. Order-quartics, whether singular or non-singular, have been classified by Dr.
Zeuthen, of Copenhagen (‘ Mathematische Annalen, 1874), according to their
depressions, characterised by a bi-tangent and two points of inflexion; such pits
are termed by that eminent geometer, folia (although fovee might be thought more
expressive). So class-quartics may have four or fewer stirrup-like excrescences.
Def.—A stapes or stapete is characterised by two cusps and a erunode. By a
stapete-point is meant such an excrescence in its nascent state, just as a folium-point
(foveate) or a point of undulation is an incipient depression. The stapetes and
folia are reciprocal, and either do or do not constitute singularities, just as the curve
is regarded by its class or order.
Ex. at + 488y = 0; 27 (ap)* + 64 (bg)% cr = 0.
These equations denote the same quartic, with one stapete-point and one folium-
point. In passing from one form to the other, 8 dimensions are lost: for (a, 8) isa
triple stapete-point with three singularities, and (a, y) is a point of undulation with
none. Contrariwise g is the same folium point with a triple tangent, and r a
point with no singularity. The same contradiction and parallelism occur in cusped
cubics, which are always inflexional. So that these conclusions may be gene-
ralised. Since
a® + uBr-ly =o) (n a 1)" (ap)” = (- nbgq)"1 cr,
denote the same curve, n(n —:2) dimensions are lost by the mergence of cusps and
nodes, or of stationary and bi-tangents at the points B, C.
4, The positions of the quadruple focus P, and of the foci Q, R of the satellite-
conic, will be distinguished in five families of groups.
I. P, Q, R collinear: Q, R coincident in the centre of a satellite circle,
Il. P, Q, R collinear: Q, R the foci of a satellite conic.
III. P, Q, R not collinear, but Q, R at an infinite distance.
IV. P, Q, BR not collinear, but Q or R at a finite distance.
V. P, Q, R unrestricted.
The special forms should be noted, when P is at an infinite distance.
5. The process adopted will be exemplified in family I., thus represented by the
Boothian equation.
n= aby? + 9°) +A + 0).
P is the origin; PQ = a, the distance of the double focus of the satellite conic.
By partial differentiation,
o = &(1 — af)? + QE (E + 7°) — a(1 — a) (& + 7’)
0 = (1 — a€)? + 2hy (E+ 77),
The factor (n = 0) alone yields bitangential values,
If n = 0, 2k = & (1 - a€)
20 + (1 — a€) (1 — 2a€) = 0,
Tf it be thought necessary, the equation to this unicursal bounding curve will be
found explicitly to be a quintic
a = 1 2
(< — 182° + 36x) = (- Be) ON 4) (a? — 8X)
K K
But hereafter the explicit equation to the bounding curves will be rarely deter-
mined. é
6. Ata singular point on the quintic a =0 =, there are two cusps, one
at infinity, when & = 0, at the extremity of the (A) axis, and another, when
8a& = 2, 8A = a*, Wak = 2.
480 REPORT— 1880.
There is a single asymptote \ + a = 0, when € = ». No points of inflexion,
distinct from the cusps, satisfy the condition
@kdy ddd
dB dé ~ a de
7. By the aid of this bounding quintic all quartics may be exhibited, which have
a quadruple focus and a satellite-circle.
If in such a group of §5, 8A = a’, 27a’ = 2, so that («,A) is a ceratoid cusp
on the bounding quintic, the quartic
ahr (4 2EX __ oe alee 2Noee
rayt + (Fae 2aé + 1)n + (ag + 2) (¢-2) ae
is inflexional.
In a family of such groups, the locus of the point of inflexion is the hyperbola
(108 kA = 1).
For values of («,) on points in the neighbourhood of the cusp, the quartics are
veribantangential with two cusps of the cardioid type, or acubitangential, as
(x, A) is situated on one or other of the branches which meet at the cusp. For points
within this space, the quartics consist of an oval, pierced by the hyperbolic branches
of another non-stapete or smooth oval. For points beyond this space the quartics
are bistapete with four, two, or no asymptotes, and also become smooth according
to the position of (x,A). It may suffice here to state, that for other critical values
of (x, A), one or other negative, the quartics are limagonoid, i.e. unistapete in the
nascent form, or have bicusped bi-tangents, the reciprocals of biflecnoids, i.e., are
bistapete in the nascent state.
8. Non-singular quartics may change their stapetes, without passing through
critical values; the stapete-points of transition are determined by aid of the
Hessian of the group, or by means of the invariants 8, T, equated to zero,
‘Let the centre of the satellite circle be at infinity. Such a group
R= EE +) + AE + 9°)?
has no critical bitangential quartics, but its stapetes vary with A. The Hessian of
the group is
(4A? + 6A + 2) & + (8A? + BA — 1) Ey? + (AA? + 2A) nt = .
The real values of these points, which constitute the Hessian, and of the coincident
stapete-points, depend upon the auxiliary quadratic
32? + 32d = 1,
whose roots are ‘03033 and — 1:038033.
Other transition-values of A are 0, — ‘5, —1.
If \ = 03 or — 1:03 the quartics have four stapete-points.
X = — ‘5, there are two stapete-points.
X = 0 or —1, there is a tacnode at infinity,
or the quadric is bistapete in its nascent state.
For intermediate or external values the quartics are quadristapete, bistapete,
or nonstapete.
9. This slight sketch may suffice to explain the plan of this chapter of Plane
and a corresponding chapter in Spherical Class-Quartics, which, it is hoped, may
shortly find a place in the ‘Quarterly Journal of Mathematics,’ illustrated by the
necessary diagrams.
11. On the equations to the real and to the imaginary directrices and latera
recta of the general conic (a,b,c,e,f,9,h) (v,y1)? = 0; with a note on a
property of the director circle. By Professor R. W. Gunesz, M.A.
Let u == aa? + Qhay + by? + 2gn+ 2fy+e=o be the equation to a conic referred
to rectangular axes: let (a8) be the codrdinates of a focus, rcos6+ysin 6 = p
the corresponding directrix, and e the excentricity of the conic. The equation to
the conic may therefore be written
(x — a)? + (y—8)? =e? (x cos + ysin 8 — p)?
i (=
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 481
comparing with u = o we get
1—e’cos’@ _ 1—e*sin?d _ —e* sin@cosd _ e*pcosd —a
a 7 i Shaw “ee h Pe
_@psind — B bes a? +B? — e’p* wid say
if a c r ;
Eliminating e and 6 we get
W — (a+b) A+ab—-h? =O..... (A)
Since zy are the codrdinates of any point on a directrix, by eliminating p, 6, a8, e
from w cos 8+ ysin 6 = p and the above equalities, we shall get the equation to the
directrices
The result of the elimination is
ay" (i) 420 sa et ER
I do not exhibit the work, because a quicker method of obtaining it will be given
in the note.
Using (A), (B) may be shown to represent two parallel straight lines.
Thus one value of X from (A) gives the real directrices, and the other the
imaginary.
I find further that B may be resolved into
\ du = ds —
VX=b7 + Vi-a Gy = BA tf 12 (0)
|ahg
where A= |hOf
gfe
and the sign between the radicals on the left side is that of ~~,
It follows that
du du
— o> ig = 0) re aD
MS Ua tia Na 2 (D)
is the equation to an axis of the conic.
Tn virtue of (A) this is equivalent to
=H) M1 = 0
ae y eats CE
du du
== _— ~ =
- ay (A a) dy 0
Having obtained the equations to an axis and to a directrix we can obtain the
equation to a latus rectum (the polar of their intersection). Using Dr. Salmon’s
notation for the reciprocal coefficients the result is
Vi —b (Or — G) + WX —a Cy — F) = + @+b-2) Vac... . ®)
The quantity a+b — 2 may be shown to be the expression denoted by R in
Dr. Salmon’s conics (Ex. 3, Art 157, and elsewhere).
Note.
The form of the equation to the director circle of u = 0, viz. with Dr. Salmon’s
notation,
v=C (a? +y*?) —-2Gax—-2Fy+A+B=0
shows that the straight lines joining any point on it to the circular points at infinity
are conjugate with respect to the conic.
This is a particular case of the following theorem :—If from two fixed points
in the plane of a conic straight lines be drawn conjugate with respect to the
conic, the locus of their intersection is, in general, a conic passing through the
two given points. Also since a tangent is conjugate to any straight line passing
1880. EY
482 REPORT—1880.
through its point of contact, the above locus must pass through the points of
contact of the tangents to the conic from the given points. This theorem enables
us to write down the equation to the known conic passing through two given
points, and the points of contact of tangent from those points to a given conic.
To return to the particular case of the director circle. The tangents from
the circular points at. infinity intersect in the foci: the points of contact must
therefore lie on the polars of the foci, ie. on the directrices. Hence the director
circle of a conic passes through the intersections of the directrices with the conic,
In other words, the directrices of a conic are the chords of intersection of the conic
with its director circle.
Their equation is therefore of the form
iWin Wi = O}e Laurette eal (Ch) ¢
The conditions that this should represent parallel straight lines are found, after
rejecting a factor C, F or G, each to reduce to
pw? —p(a+6)+(ab — h*) = 0
the quadratic (A) obtained for A.
I have identified (G) with (B), only \ and » must be taken as different roots of
the quadratic A.
12. Note on the Skew Surface of the Third Order, By Professor
H. J. 8. Suita, M.A., F.R.S.
13. On a kind of Periodicity presented by some Elliptic Functions.
By Professor H. J. 8S. Surru, W.A., FBS.
14. On Algebraical Expansions, of which the fractional series for the cotangent
and cosecant are the limiting forms. By J. W. L. GuaisHer, V.A.,
ERS.
The expansions in question are :—
1 us pet
a(1?—2?) (22—a2"),.. .(n®?—2) nin! wx
1 il 1
(n=l)! (+1)! es =i eel
l ( bia 15)
(n— 2)! (n +2)! \w-2 w4+2
waaay ] f Re )
(n—r)!(n+r)!\e—9r 2x +r
(1 — 282%) (8° 2%)... {Qn 1)?— 2%" }
“Tg (Pae) Gar yn os 2 — 2")
1 Cn)! Qn)!
= — 2 PPR
Q2n~ n! n! ( z
a A
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 483
(2n — 2)! (2n + 2)! ( T T
1
ta) BRO eee ere eg aS
Ste 2% |@=D1 q+! eho nak I
. . . . .
(2n — 27)! (2n + 27)!
1 meri |
* pe J@=n@antt Bite)
HS MRE 8!
1 MO te Al
+ Oe ) 2m)! + ae “) ee
Multiplying (1) and (2) throughout, by :—
1 dee pa ok Ae
2.92 : ,
at HS Sos Seer (in Ts
respectively, they become :—
if
Sone eS YE bg |
PD Po BY = — +- )
r(1-4) (1-%).--(1-4) a ee are
= ; caer
(1+) (1+2) (1+) a= “+35
nN nv n
1
1 22 (a i
Dalsccreity li vw-1l wxr+i1
n Qn
+
CY ae a Ml + )
TER a ras)
(a+2)Q+2 G-+) (1-3) 2 xv+2
n n Qn 2Qn
+ &e.
which, when z is made infinite, give in the limit
eS go 2 DD Gil pals 2 i SS Be
sin 72 xv “x-1 w+1 vy —2 vt+2
= cot mr = 1 + 1 1 d + L + &e,
n z—-l1 x+1 u—2 vt+2
; ae v“
‘viz., on writing ~~ for x,
sin v v L— 1 Ltr wv — 2 v + Qn :
484 REPORT—1880.
I 1 1 1
+
+ ——— + ——
v—T t+ av -— 20 u+ 20
which are the fractional series referred to in the title.
The formule (1) and (2) may be established by the ordinary process for re-
solying an expression into partial fractions ; or by means of the theorem :—If
AG, a + Has ary Bite
ah z+1 Te u+n
where A,, A,,... An, are any coefficients independent of 2, be denoted by ¢ (x),
then
+ &e.
Ph eels +
a
- af (2) $(-2) =A + Aga) }—ti+— |
z+}
1 1
Bes mee |
Sef oh ey gia
Peat he rs |
1 ee
+ ma,ot) beri.
This theorem applied to the expansions
rnd) eR As ee as aN a 1 =p
u(vt ly... (v+n) n! « (n—1)! x41 2!(m—2)! x+2
al 1
inl eam
(2z'+ 1) (Qh 48)... @n+2n=—1)_ 1 (Qn)t 1 1 21 Q@n=—2)1 1
av + 1)s.. (+7) 2” (n!)? 27 (1! (m—1)!)? +1
_1 @)! Qn — 29)! if 1 (Qn)! 1
To (Fiq@—r)!)? z+r Wal? cen
gives at once the formule (1) and (2).*
15. Note on a Trigonometrical Identity involving products of Four Sines.
By J. W. L. Guatsuer, M.A., F.B.S.
In a paper in the ‘ Messenger of Mathematics’ (vol. x. p. 26), the author had
drawn attention to the following identity :—
sna sind sine sind
= sind sind’ sinc’ sind’
+ sina” sin 6” sin ce” sind”
where a, 6, c, d are any four quantities, and a’, b’, c’, d’, w”’, b”, c’”’, d’” eight quan=
tities derived from them by the equations
a=t(-a+bie+d), a’ =4t(a+b+e+d),
Hot a—b+e+d), b’=i(a+b-—c-dad),
f=4( a+b-c+ad), fm ae eas
d@=3( ‘a+b+e-—d), d’=34(a—b-c+r+d),
and in this note he pointed out that this was a particular case of a more general
formula involving products of four sines.
The foregoing identity may be written
sin asin b sine sind
= sin (o — a) sin(o — 4) sin (o — ¢) sin (o —@)
+ sing sin(o — b—c)sin(o —b—d)sin(o—e—d)......()
* The paper is printed in extenso in the Quarterly Journal of wanes vol..
XVii, pp. 211-226.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 485
where
o=43(a+b+e+ a)
and the more general identity is
sina sin B sin ysin 8
— sin (a + A) sin(8 + d) sin (y + A) sin (6 + A)
+ snAsin(a + 6+ A)sn(B +6 +A)sn(y + 6+ dr)
— sinSsindsin(S + A)sm(a+B+y+t+4+ 2A) =0 stalbllayenoiieds. a (2)
where a, B, y, 5, \ are any five quantities. The formula (1) is the particular case
of (2) obtained by putting
A= —-t(at+h+y+ 9)
The formula (2) may be written
sin (a — f) sin (a — g) sin (a — h) sin (6 — ¢)
+ sin (6 —f) sin (6 — g) sin(b — h) sin (e — a)
+ sin (c — f) sin (e — g) sin (e — ’) sim (a — b)
+ sin (b —‘c)sin (¢ — a) sin (a — 6) sm(a +b + € —f-g-h) =9.(3)
and in this form it is in effect due to Prof. Cayley and Mr. R. F. Scott: viz., in
the ‘Messenger, vol. v. p. 164, Prof. Cayley stated that a certain determinant was
equal to zero, if a condition, equivalent to @ + b+ec=f+g +h, was fulfilled ;
and in vol. viii. p. 155, Mr. R. F. Scott evaluated this determinant, without this
restriction, the developed result being equivalent to (8).
16. On the Periods of the First Class of Hyper-elliptic Integrals.
By Wit R. Roserrs, M.A.
I investigate the periods of hyper-elliptic functions by a method analogous to
that which has been adopted by Schloemilch for the determination of the periods
of elliptic integrals. By this method I determine the periodicity of hyper-elliptic
integrals without integrating the equations.
yn) Akin F (@.) dz
1 . . . . 2 (z,) di, + £4 2) 5. 3 3
@) f (%) 272, * f (Z_) %2"dzy i SF (5) ds
0
0
where
il
PO = Tame 1 -W#) 18) 2")
s
a
I first determine the general value of the integral f(s)dz, and find it de-
pends on four integrals, which I call respectively, 2¥, Dz, 210, and 2i¥ ; and in
a similar manner I arrive at the general value of the integral “#(2)e2dz. The
mode of investigation which I adopt for the determination of these ‘integrals affords
a proof that the equation
1
z= (-1) ae
satisfies both the transcendental equations.
b4 2
f f (adz + QIN + Amz + 210 + 2 at be f @dz
0 : 0
Zz ,
st a°f (2)dz + Qv’ + Qmz’ + 2WiO! + Aww’ = St ; of (z)dz
ote
tt)
By a series of transformations I proceed to show that the following equations :—
Viet =} ae J/1—2”
(2) .
JT a We = (-1)**™ STW
486 REPORT—1880.
J1-k?@ = (-1L) TF Vine
re 1
Vi-Be = (-1)P* Vie
are agreeable to both the transcendental equations (2).
I then consider the transcendental system :-—
(4) Af is (2)dz of cf (s)dz + 2IY + 2nzB + QO + Qniv
0 0
a / ie
= f- “f(2)d +f ?f @dz
ex 0
tie 2f (a)de of "2 .2f (a)dz + QI! + Qmz’ + QiO! + Qi!
0 0
~ / oe”
cs heey de:
ah * fF (2)dz +f aif (s)dz
. . . 0 0
and deduce its equivalent algebraic system.
Finally I put U = S "1 F (2)de +f "2 P (2)de
0
Ved 5) “1 52 f (2)da +f *2 62 £ (a)da
10) 0
and I write z,z, = F (U,V), and show that F (U,V) is a periodic function of two
variables U and V, each of which has four periods, two real and two imaginary ;
the nature of the periodicity of which I discuss in the investigation of the general
values of the integrals f : Tf (@)dz and fo *2f (2) dz.
e’ 0 0
17. On the Integral of Laplace’s Equation in Finite Terms.
By the Rey. 8. Earnsuaw, M.A.
Tue InTEGRAT oF LAPLACE’s EQuaTIon.
The equation to which this title refers is the following :—
PE Woo Oy aly
da® dy? da?
and I am desirous of the three following propositions being communicated to Sec=
tion A, at the meeting of the British Association at Swansea.
Prop. A.—The independent variables x, y, z are in this equation not necessarily
the coordinates of some point P, in space referred to a fixed rectangular system of
codrdinate axes Ox, Oy, Oz. We shall, however, hypothetically treat them as
such; and therefore we say that .
OP = =r gy? + 24,
Now from O draw any two lines, OA, OB, at right angles to each other, and let &,
7 represent the lengths of the rectangular projections of OP upon these two
arbitrary lines; then will the following be a general integral of Laplace’s equation
given above,
u = Ae“ cos (an + b).... (2)
in which A, a, 6 are arbitrary constants which haye no reference whatever to the
arbitrary positions of OA, OB.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 487
It will also be noticed that, 6 being arbitrary, the integral (2) is equivalent to
two conjugate integrals, and may be more completely written thus,
u = Be (A cos an + Bsin an).
The generality of this integral is due to the circumstance that the two lines OA, OB
(on which &, 7 are the projections of 7) are perfectly arbitrary as to their direc-
tions in space, while &, 7 are entirely dependent, for their values in terms of 2, y,
2, on the positions of OA, OB.
Every different position of OA, OB, or of either of them, will give a special
integral, though every such special integral will be of the common type (2). Each
special integral will have its own arbitrary (or special) constants in the place of A,
a, b; and any of such special integrals may be formed by addition into a group,
which group will be an integral of equation (1).
There is no limit to the number of groups, but every group will be composed of
integrals of the type (2); and it is in reference to this property that we designate
(2) the general integral. We may mention that € = rcos AOP andy = rcos BOP,
and these cosines are easily expressed in terms of 2, y, 2, and the arbitrary angles
which OA, OB make with the codrdinate axes.
Prop. B.—If now a third line OC be drawn at right angles to both the lines
OA, OB; and if ¢ be the length of the projection of 7 on OC, then will the
following differential equation hold good always, t.e. whatever be the positions of
OA, OB, OC,
Mu , du i du _¢
2 an de :
from which it follows, that if we possess any integral F (x,y,z) of the equation
(1) we may write in this integral, instead of x, y, x, the values of &, 7, ¢ in terms
of x, y,2; and the integral F, though much changed thereby, will still be an
integral of the equation (1).
As a very simple example we may mention this, that if F(a, y,z) be an
integral, so likewise will F (wcosa + ysina,ycosa — xsina,z) be an integral of
equation (1), though we have written «cosa + ysina andy cosa — «sina instead
of « and y; and a= is an arbitrary constant. And, thus, if the integral F
(x,y, 2) be only a particular integral this introduction of an additional arbitrary
constant a, which it did not possess before, will advance it a step towards
generality.
Prop. C_—The independent variables of equation (1) have usually been changed
by assuming two angles, 6, d, such that « =7sn@cosd,y = rsinésing, and
s=rcos@. It is somewhat more convenient in the work of integration to change
the angle @ for its complement to a right angle. Thus we shall make the following
change of independent variables,
x = rcosécosdh,y = 7 cos @ sind, 2 = 7 sin 8.
The transformed equation on these assumptions is
du. du du au
tease eet eed EE ee 26 — =
ir or * dB and =, + sec OG ,=9,
and of this the following is the general integral,
uw=F (r-cos 6 : “'?) + =f (r sec 6 : e?) aiatere| (a)
7 is defined by the equation 7? = — 1, and F, f are arbitrary functions,
The form of the transformed differential equation shows that oe is also an in-
tegral of it. Hence we may replace the second term of (3) by its differential
coefficient with regard to @; so that we may present (8) in the following form :—
“= F (reoso. <'?) +e ~% sec 6 f(r sec 6. %), -+e(4),
488 REPORT—1880.
I am not aware that the integral of the above equation has ever before been
presented in finite terms; on which account I make this communication to the
British Association.!
MONDAY, AUGUST 30.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations in the English Channel, fe.
See Reports, p. 390.
2. Report of the Committee on Luminous Meteors.—See Reports, p. 39.
3. Report of the Committee on the question of Improvements in Astronomical
Olocks.—See Reports, p. 56.
4. On a Septum permeable to Water and impermeable to Air, with practical
applications to a Navigational Depth-gauge. By Professor Sir WILLIAM
Tomson, M.A., F.B.S.
A small quantity of water in a capillary tube, with both ends in air, acts as a
perfectly air-tight plug against difference of pressure of air at its two ends, equal
to the hydrostatic pressure corresponding to the height at which water stands in
the same capillary tube when it is held upright, with one end under water and the
other in air. And if the same capillary tube be held completely under water, it is
perfectly permeable to the water, opposing no resistance except that due to viscidity,
and permitting a current of water to flow through it with any difference of pressure
at its two ends, however small. In passing it may be remarked that the same
capillary tube is, when not plugged by liquid, perfectly permeable to air.
A plate of glass, or other solid, capable of being perfectly wet by water, with a
hole bored through it, acts similarly in letting air pass freely through it when
there is no water in the hole; and letting water pass freely through it when it is
held under water; and resisting a difference of air-pressures at the two sides of it
when the hole is plugged by water. The difference of air-pressures on the two
sides which it resists is equal to the hydrostatic pressure corresponding to the rise
of water in a capillary tube of the same diameter as the narrowest part of the
hole. Thus a metal plate with a great many fine perforations, like a very fine rose
for a watering-can for flowers, fulfils the conditions stated in the title to this com-
munication. So does very fine wire cloth. The finer the holes, the greater is the
difference of air-pressures balanced, when they are plugged with water. The
shorter the length of each hole the less it resists the passage of water when com-
pletely submerged; and the greater the number of holes, the less is the whole re-
sistance to the permeation of water through the membrane.
Hence, clearly, the object indicated in the title is more perfectly attained the
thinner the plate and the smaller and more numerous the holes. Very fine wire
cloth would answer the purpose better than any metal plate with holes drilled
‘through it; and very fine closely-woven cotton cloth, or cambric, answers better
than the finest wire cloth. The impenetrability of wet cloth to air is well known
to laundresses, and to every naturalist who has ever chanced to watch their
operations. The quality of dry cloth to let air through with considerable freedom,
and wet cloth to resist it, is well known to sailors, wet sails being sensibly more
1 The original paper is ready for the press, and will shortly be published.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 489
‘effective than dry sails (and particularly so in the case of old sails, and of sails of
thin and light material).
An illustration was shown to the meeting by taking an Argand lamp-funnel,
with a piece of very fine closely-woven cotton cloth tied over one end of it. When
the cloth was dry, and the other end dipped under water, the water rose with
perfect freedom inside, showing exceedingly little resistance to the passage of air
through the dry cloth. When it was inverted, and the end guarded by the cloth
held under water, the water rose with very great freedom, showing exceed-
ingly little resistance to the permeation of water through the cloth. The cloth
being now wet, and the glass once more held with its other end under water, the
cloth now seemed perfectly air-tight, even when pressed with air-pressure corre-
sponding to nine inches of water, by forcing down the funnel, which was about
nine inches long, till the upper end was nearly submerged. When it was wholly
‘submerged, so that there was air on one side and water on the other the resistance
to permeation of air was as decided as it was when the cloth, very perfectly wet,
had air on each side of it.
Once more, putting the cloth end under water; holding the tube nearly hori-
zontal, and blowing by the mouth applied to the other end :—the water which had
risen into the funnel before the mouth was applied, was expelled. After that no
air escaped until the air-pressure within exceeded the water pressure on the outside
of the cloth by the equivalent of a little more than nine inches of water ; and when
blown with a pressure just a very little more than that which sufficed to produce a
bubble fronfany part of the cloth, bubbles escaped in a copious torrent from the
whole area of the cloth.
Water indicated by horizontal shading ; air by white paper.
The accompanying sketch represents the application to the Navigational Depth-
gauge. The wider of the two communicating tubes, shown uppermost in the
sketch, has its open mouth guarded by very fine cotton cloth tied across it. The
tube shown lower in the diagram is closed for the time of use by a stopper at its
lower end. A certain quantity of water (which had been forced into it during the
descent of the gauge to the bottom of the sea) is retained in it while the gauge is
being towed up to the surface in some such oblique position as that shown in the
sketch. While this is being done the water in the wide tube is expelled by the
expanding air. The object of the cloth guard isto secure that this water is expelled
to the last drop before any air escapes; and that afterwards, while the gauge is
being towed wildly along the surface from wave to wave by .a steamer running at
fourteen or sixteen knots, not a drop of water shall re-enter the instrument.
5. On the Effect of Oil in destroying Waves on the Surface of Water.
By Professor Osporne Reynoups, M.A., F.R.S.
This paper contained a short account of an investigation from which it ap-
peared that the effect of oil on the surface of water to prevent wind-waves and
destroy waves already existing, was owing to the surface-tension of the water over
which the oil spread varying inversely as the thickness of the oil, thus introducing
490 REPORT—1880.
tangential stiffness into the oil-sheet, which prevented the oil taking up the tan+
gential motion of the water beneath. Several other phenomena were also men-
tioned, The author hopes shortly to publish a full account of the investigation.
6. Experiments on thin Films of Water, with regard to their absorption of
Radiant Heat. By the Hon. F. A. R. Russet.
The experiments, the general results of which are given below, were made
with the object of ascertaining the diathermancy of water in yery thin films, and
these experiments afforded incidentally an opportunity of observing the behaviour
of films subject to varying conditions.
The arrangement of instruments was similar to that illustrated at p. 383 of
Prof. Tyndall’s ‘ Heat as a Mode of Motion,’ The instruments used were: a dead-
beat mirror galyanometer and scale, a thermopile, and a screen. The soap film
was carried by a piece of a cork sole perforated by a hole slightly larger than the
hole inthe screen, about 13 inches in diameter. The sources of heat were (1) a
copper or iron ball heated from behind by a small gas flame ; (2) a common gas
flame from a Bunsen burner, and (3) a hydrogen flame in air.
The film was mostly made from a solution of about half a drachm of shavings
of Castile soap, dissolved 5 to 15 minutes in about 5 cubic inches of water, at 60°
Fahrenheit.
The film soon after being placed perpendicularly at the orifice im the screen
exhibited coloured bands, which descended in regular succession until the last
band appeared, which contained a bright blue line. The descent of the bands
continued at a slackened rate till the grey, and finally the black, occupied a portion
of the upper half of the film, which half was alone subject to experiment. A
condition more or less of equilibrium then prevailed, the tension of the black
portion counteracting the force of gravity. A light yellow or bronze was always
the last colour to appear, and preceded the white or grey, which again was
succeeded by black. When there was any black in the film, the bursting of the
film was marked by a slight click or snapping sound. The best films lasted
frequently between 10 and 30 minutes, and sometimes the black portion alone
was under observation 15 or 20 minutes.
The following table shows the absorption per cent. for each of the three sources
of heat, and the thickness of the film, as derived from a table in Watts’s ‘ Dictionary
of Chemistry,’ giving Newton’s thicknesses of thin films of air, water, and glass. A
table in Cooke’s ‘ New Chemistry’ gives the thicknesses of soap-films as consider-
ably greater than those stated in Newton's table. The ‘light film’ of Cooke
corresponds to my ‘grey,’ and his ‘grey’ to my ‘fine grey.’ Newton’s ‘ white’
corresponds to my ‘grey.’ The refractive index of the solution used by me was
1:34 and 1°35, a little higher than that of pure water.
Coal Thickness of Film
State of Film Metal Gas Hydrogen in millionths
of an inch
Last band alone! . 5 : 4 9? 82 — 8:3
Bronze . : . ; 6 57 —_— 52
All grey (white) . : Fs : 4-7 — 4:5 39
Fine grey ‘ : . - ‘ — 3-4 — 18
Half grey, half black. : : — 2°9 -- 2°3
Two-thirds black, one-third grey . — 16 16 1:8
Half fine grey, half black A : 0-7 — — 134
Black and slight fine grey . ; — aa 12 ;
Fine grey and black, or all black . 0:29 — — 0-75
All black F 5 : . ; 0:29 15 06 \
1 The absorption in this case is deduced from that of a film containing a portion
of grey, the absorption of the grey being known,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 491
7. On an Experimental Illustration of Minimum Energy in Vortex Motion.
By Professor Sir Wiiutiam Tuomson, M.A., F.R.S.
This illustration consists of a liquid gyrostat of exactly the same construction
as that described and represented by the annexed drawing, repeated from ‘ Nature,’
February 1, 1877, pp. 297-298,
with the difference that the figure
of the shell is prolate instead of
oblate. The experiment was in
fact conducted with the actual
apparatus which was exhibited
to the British Association at
Glasgow in 1876, altered by the
substitution of a shell having its
equatorial diameter about = of
its axial diameter, for the shell
with axial diameter 3; of equato-
rial diameter which was used
when the apparatus was shown
as a successful gyrostat. The
oblate and prolate shells were
each of them made from the
two hemispheres of sheet copper
which plumbers solder together
to make their globular floaters.
By a little hammering it is easy
to alter the hemispheres to the
proper shapes to make either the ~--------------- DNMINGHE Sara
prolate or the oblate figure. ? “euctats ie
Theory had pointed out that the rotation of a liquid in a rigid shell of oval figure,
being a configuration of maximum energy for given vorticity, would be unstable
if the containing vessel is left
to itself supported on imperfectly
elastic supports, although it would
be stable if the vessel were held
absolutely fixed, or borne by per-
fectly elastic supports, or left to
itself in space unacted on by ex-
ternal force ; and it was to illus-
trate this theory that the oval
shell was made and filled with
water and placed in the appara-
tus. The result of the first trial
was literally startling, although
it ought not to have been so, as
it was merely a realisation of
what had been anticipated by
theory. The framework was held
as firmly as possible by one per-
son with his two hands, keeping
it as steady as he could. The spinning by means of a fine cord' round a small
1 Instead of using along cord first wound on a bobbin, and finally wound up on
the circumference of the large wheel, as described in Watwre, February 1, 1877, p.
297, I have since found it much more convenient to use an endless cord a little more
than half round the circumference of the large wheel, and less than half round the
circumference of the V pulley of the gyrostat ; and to keep it tight enough to exert
whatever tangential force on the V pulley is desired by the person holding the
framework in his hand, After continuing the spinning by turning the fly-wheel for
492 REPORT—1880.
V pulley of 3-inch diameter on the axis of the oval shell, and passing round a
large fly-wheel of three feet diameter turned at the rate of about one round per
second, was continued for several minutes. This in the case of the oblate shell,
as was known from previous experiments, would have given amply sufficient rota-
tion to the contained water to cause the apparatus to act with great firmness like a
solid gyrostat. In the first experiment with the oval shell the shell was seen to be
rotating with great velocity during the last minute of the spinning ; but the moment
it was released from the cord, and when, holding the framework in my hands, I com-
menced carrying it towards the horizontal glass table to test its gyrostatic quality,
the framework which I held in my hands gave a violent uncontrollable lurch, and
in a few seconds the shell stopped turning. I saw that one of the pivots had
become bent over, by yielding of the copper shell in the neighbourhood of the
stiff pivot-carrying disk, soldered to it, showing that the liquid had exerted a very
strong couple against its containing shell, in a plane through the axis, the effort to
resist which by my hands had bent the pivot. The shell was refitted with more
strongly attached pivots, and the experiment has been repeated several times. In
every case a decided uneasiness of the framework is perceived by the person holding
it in his hands during the spinning; and as soon as the cord is cut and the person
holding it carries it towards the experimental table, the framework begins, as it
were, to wriggle round in his hands, and by the time the framework is placed on
the table the rotation is nearly all gone. Its utter failure as a gyrostat is pre-
cisely what was expected from the theory, and presents a truly wonderful contrast
to what is observed with the apparatus and operations in every respect similar,
except having an oblate instead of a prolate shell to contain the liquid.
8. On a Disturbing Infinity in Lord Rayleigh’s Solution for Waves in a
Plane Vortex Stratum. By Professor Sir Wituiam Tuomson, W.A.,
ERS.
Lord Rayleigh’s solution involves a formula equivalent to
&T
2 ape
= m* + dy v=0
dy Ta%
\ m
Where v denotes the maximum value of the y-component of velocity ;
» my, aconstant such that 27 is the wave-length ;
m
T ,, the translational velocity of the vortex-stratum when undis-
turbed, which is in the z-direction, and is a function of y ;
n ,, the vibrational speed, or a constant such that 27 is the period.
n
”
Now a vortex stratum is stable, if on one side it is bounded by a fixed plane,
and if the vorticity (or value of a) diminishes as we travel (ideally) from this
c
plane, except in places (if any) where it is constant.
To fulfil this condition, suppose a fixed bounding plane to contain ox and be
perpendicular to oy; and let oe have its greatest value when y = 0, and decrease
4
continuously, or by one or more abrupt changes, from this value, to zero at y = a
and for all greater values of y.
It is easily proved that the wave-velocity, whatever be the wave-length, is in-
termediate between the greatest and least values of 7. Hence for a certain value
of y between 0 and a, the translational velocity is equal to the wave-velocity, or
as long a time as is judged proper, the endless cord is cut with a pair of scissors and
the gyrostat is released.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 493,
T= ™. Hence for this value of y the second term within the bracket in Lord
m
2
We evade entirely the consideration of this infinity if we take only the case of
a layer of constant vorticity (~ = constant from y = 0 toy = a) , as for this case
y
the formula is simply = = m?v, but the interpretation of the infinity which
Rayleigh’s formula is infinite unless, for the same value of y, es vanishes.
occurs in the more comprehensive formula suggests an examination of the stream-
lines by which its interpretation becomes obvious, and which proves that even in
the case of constant vorticity the motion has a startlingly peculiar character at the
place where the translational velocity is equal to the wave-velocity. This pecu-
liarity is represented by the annexed diagram, which is most easily understood if
SSS SS SS oe ee
ee —>
Y/
we imagine the translational velocities at y = 0 and y =a to be in opposite direc-
tions, and of such magnitude that the wave-velocity is zero; so that we have the
case of standing waves. For this case the stream lines are as represented in the
annexed diagram, in which the region of translational velocity greater than wave-
propagational velocity is separated from the region of translational velocity less
than waye-propagational velocity by a cat’s-eye border pattern of elliptic whirls.
9. Supplement to a Paper on the Synchronism of Mean Temperature and
Rainfall in the Climate of London. By H. Courrmnay Fox, M.R.C.8.
In the Report of the British Association for 1879, page 277, is an abstract of a
paper on the above subject which I had the pleasure of reading last year. The
yainfall-data which I then used were of two kinds—namely, first, the monthly
yainfall at the Royal Observatory back to the year 1841; and, secondly (for the
years 1813 to 1840), the rainfall for every month collected by Mr. Dines from
sundry observations about London. After I had presented this paper, Mr. Glaisher
kindly favoured me with a table of the monthly rainfall at Greenwich, going back
to the year 1815.
I have since gone carefully through my paper with it, and am glad to state
that the results which I ventured to offer to the Association are, with small excep-
tion, fully confirmed.
Conclusion No. 1 is confirmed, with the exception that February loses the
synchronism of cold with dry, although that of warm with wet is retained.
Conclusions Nos. 2 and 3 are confirmed.
Conclusion No. 4:—The results for April and November are unchanged. The
four remaining months, though in some respects they presented ‘slight’ tendencies
to the association of extremes of rainfall and temperature, were more or less
indefinite in character. This is still the case as regards March, September, and
October, but in May the tendency is for the synchronism of cold with wet to
prevail.
A94 REPORT—1880.
' TUESDAY, AUGUST 31.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee for commencing Secular Huperiments on the
Elasticity of Wires.—See Reports, p. 61.
2. On the Elasticity of Wires.
By J. T. Borromtzy, M.A., F.R.S.L.
3. Report of the Committee on the Specific Inductive Capacity of a good
Sprengel Vacuum.—See Reports, p. 197.
4. On a method of measuring Contact Electricity.
By Professor Sir Witu1Am Tuomson, M.A., F.R.S.
In my reprint of Papers on ‘ Electrostatics and Magnetism,’ section 400 (of date
January 1862), I described briefly this method, in connection with a new physical
principle, for exhibiting contact electricity by means of copper! and zinc quadrants
substituted for the uniform brass quadrants of my quadrant electrometer. I had
used the same method, but with movable discs for the contact electricity, after the
method of Volta, and my own quadrant electrometer substituted for the gold-leaf
electroscope by which Volta himself obtained his electric indications, in an extended
series of experiments which I made in the years 1859-61.
I was on the point of transmitting to the Royal Society a paper which I had
written describing these experiments, and which I still have in manuscript, when I
found a paper by Hankel in Poggendorff’s ‘ Annalen’ for January 1862, in which
results altogether in accordance with my own were given, and I withheld my paper
till I might be able not merely to describe a new method, but, if possible, add some-
thing to the available information regarding the properties of matter to be found in
Hankel’s paper. I have made many experiments from time to time since 1861 by
the same method; but have obtained results merely confirmatory of what had been
published by Pfaff in 1820 or 1821, showing the phenomena of contact electricity
to be independent of the surrounding gas, and agreeing in the main with the
numerical values of the contact differences of different metals which Hankel had
published ; and I have therefore hitherto published nothing except the slight state-
ments regarding contact electricity which appear in my ‘ Electrostatics and Magne-
tism.’ As interest has been recently revived in the subject of contact electricity,
the following description of my method may possibly prove useful to experimenters.
The same method has been used to very good effect, but with a Bohnenberger
electroscope instead of my quadrant electrometer, in researches on contact electricity
by Monsieur H. Pellat, described in the ‘ Journal de Physique’ for May 1880.
The apparatus used in these experiments was designed to secure the following
conditions :—To support two circular discs of metal about four inches in diameter
in such a way that the opposing surfaces should be exactly parallel to each other
and approximately horizontal; and that the distance between them might be
varied at pleasure from a shortest distance of about =; of an inch to about a
quarter or half an inch. The lower plate, which was the insulated one, was fixed
in a glass stem rising from the centre of a cast-iron sole plate. The upper plate
was suspended by a chain to the lower end of a brass rod sliding through a steady-
ing socket in the upper part of the case. A stout brass flange fixed to the lower
end of this rod bears three screws, one of which, S, is shown in the drawing, by
which the upper plate can be adjusted to parallelism to the lower plate. The other
apparatus used consisted of a quadrant electrometer and a gravity Daniell’s cell of
the form which I described in ‘ Proce. R.S.’ 1871 (pp. 253-259) with a divider by
which any integral number of per cents. from 0 to 100 of the electromotive force
of the cell could be established between any two mutually insulated homogeneous
metals in the apparatus,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A,
495
496 ; REPORT—1880.
I had a smaller apparatus, with Volta discs of only about half an inch diameter,.
and with gas-tight enclosing case, constructed in the year 1871; and I have made
many experiments with it, of which I hope soon to publish an account.
Connections.
The insulated plate was connected by a stiff brass wire passing through a wide-
enough hole-in the case of the Volta condenser to the electrode of the insulated
pair of quadrants. The upper plate was connected to the metal case of the Volta
condenser and to the metal case of the electrometer, one pair of quadrants of which
were also connected to the case. One of the terminals of the divider, which con-
nected the poles of the cell through a graduated resistance coil, was connected to
the case of the electrometer, and to the other terminal was attached one of the con-
tact wires, which was a length of insulated copper wire having soldered to its outer
end a short piece of platinum. The other contact piece was a similar short piece of
platinum fixed to the insulated electrode of the electrometer. Hence it will be seen
that metallic communication between the two plates was effected by putting the
divider at zero and bringing into contact the two pieces of platinum wire.
Order of Experiment.
The sliding piece of the divider was put to zero, and contact made and broken
and the upper plate raised, and the deflection of the spot of light was observed.
These operations were repeated with the sliding piece at different numbers on the
divider scale until one was found at which the make-break and separation caused
no perceptible deflection. The number thus found on the divider scale was the
number of hundredths of the electro-motive force of the cell, which was equal to
the contact electric difference of the discs in the Volta condenser.
[ Addendum, November 23, 1880.—Since the communication of this paper to the
British Association, I have found that a dry platinum disc, kept for some time in
dry hydrogen gas, and then put into its position in dry atmospheric air in the
apparatus for contact electricity, becomes positive to another platinum dise which
had not been so treated, but had simply been left undisturbed in the apparatus.
The positive quality thus produced by the hydrogen diminishes gradually, and
becomes insensible after two or three days. |
5. On a method of determining without mechanism the limiting Steam-
Liquid Temperature of a Fluid. By Professor Sir Wit1iam THomson,
M.A., FBS.
A piece of straight glass tube—60 centimétres is a convenient length—is to be
filled with the substance in a state of the greatest purity possible. It is to contain
such a quantity of the substance that, at ordinary atmospheric temperatures, about
3 or 4 centimétres of the tube are occupied by steam of the substance, and the re-
mainder liquid. Fix the tube in an upright position, with convenient appliances
for warming the upper 10 centimétres of the length to the critical temperature, or
to whatever higher or lower temperature may be desired; and for warming a length
of 40 centimétres from the bottom to some lower temperature, and varying its
temperature conveniently at pleasure.
Commence by warming the upper part until the surface of separation of liquid
and steam sinks below 5 centimétres from the top. Then warm the lowest part
until the surface rises again to a conyenient position. Operate thus, keeping the
surface of separation of liquid and solid at as nearly as possible a constant position of
3 centimétres below the top of the tube, until the surface of separation disappears.
The temperature of the tube at the place where the surface of separation was seen
immediately before disappearance is the critical temperature.
It may be remarked that the changes of bulk produced by the screw and mercury
in Andrews’ apparatus are, in the method now described, produced by elevations
and depressions of temperature in the lower thermal vessel. By proper arrange-
ments these elevations and depressions of temperature may be made as easily, and
in some cases as rapidly, as by the turning of a screw. The dispensing with all
mechanism and joints, and the simplicity afforded by using the substance to be ex-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 497
perimented upon, and no other substance in contact with it, in a hermetically sealed
glass vessel are advantages in the method now described. It is also interesting to
remark that in this method we have continuity through the fluid itself all at one
equal pressure exceeding the critical pressure, but at different temperatures in
different parts, varying continuously from something above the critical temperature
at the top of the tube to a temperature below the critical temperature in the lower
part of the tube.
The pressure may actually be measured by a proper appliance on the outside of
the lower part of the tube to measure its augmentation of volume under applied
pressure. If this is to be done, the lower thermal vessel must be applied, not
round the bottom of the tube, but round the middle portion of it, leaving, as already
described, 10 or 20 cms. above for observation of the surface of separation between
liquid and vapour, and leaving at the bottom of the tube 20 or 30 cms. for the
pressure-measuring appliance. :
This appliance would be on the same general principle as that adopted by Pro-
fessor Tait in his tests of the Challenger thermometers under great pressure (‘ Proceed-
ings Royal Soc. Edin.,’ 1880); a principle which I have myself used in a form of
depth-gauge for deep-sea soundings ; in which the pressure is measured, not by the
compression of air, but by the flexure or other strain produced in brass or glass or
other elastic solid.
6. On the possibility of originating Wave-disturbances in the Ether by
Electro-magnetic Forces. By G. F. FivzGERawp.
7. On the Number of Electrostatic Units in the Electro-magnetic Unit.
By R. Sura, M.L., Imperial College of Engineering, Tokio, Japan.
The object of this paper is to explain measurements made during the month of
July last for an evaluation of ‘»,’ the number of electrostatic units in the electro-
magnetic unit—a question which has much engaged the attention of the British
Association. We can evaluate ‘v’ by determining the electrostatic and also
the electro-magnetic measure of any one of the following terms: Electro-motive
Force, Resistance, Current, Quantity and Capacity. It is the first of these terms
that I measured in the two systems of units, and the EH. M. F. was that of Sir
Wm. Thomson’s gravity Daniell, which is very constant. The question divides itself
into two parts.
(A). Absolute electrostatic measurement of the K. M. F.
This measurement was made by means of Sir Wm. Thomson’s Absolute
Electrometer, the most perfect instrument of the kind hitherto invented. As the
description and principle of this instrument will be found fully given in Sir
Wm. Thomson’s ‘Electrostatics and Magnetism,’ I need not enter into these
explanations. I may mention, however, that the instrument, perfect as it is, will
not give accurate results unless considerable care be taken in using it.
In measuring an E. M. F. by this instrument, it is important that the potential
of the jar or the guard ring or disc should be kept constant during the experiment.
It was observed, however, that the jar was losing its charge, though very slowly,
on account of the pieces of ebonite in the replenisher insulating imperfectly. Of
course I could keep the potential of the jar the same during the experiment by
means of the replenisher; but I found it very difficult to work the replenisher, and
to take at the same time accurate readings. For this reason I thought it better,
when the experimentis done by one experimenter, (oreven when, I venture to think,
there are more experimenters thun one) to proceed in the following manner. First,
connect one pole, say zinc, to the continuous plate, and the other pole to the outside
of the jar, and take a reading; then reverse the poles and take another reading.
Repeat the same operation—that is to say, take a great number of readings by
successive reversals. If the experimenter be well practised, the time each reading
will take him will be very nearly the same. Let D,, D,, D,, &c., be the readings
1880. KK
498 REPORT—1 880.
corresponding to zinc, and D’,, D’,, D’,, &c. be those corresponding to copper, then
the difference of the two readings of zinc and copper would be the difference
between the mean of any consecutive readings of one pole and the reading of the
other taken between those two consecutive readings, such, for example, as
/ /
mats — D’,,or mat — D,,&c. Thus we get many yalues very nearly the
same, if not exactly the same, of the true difference in question; if, therefore, we
take the mean of all these, the error due not only to a small loss of charge, but also
to a little inaccuracy in the readings, will be avoided. This is the method I used
in measuring the E. M. F. of 30 Daniell cells, and the result I obtained is the mean
defined as above = 13:283 divisions of the micrometer screw-head, As regards the
mathematical calculation we have
V-W=20-D)/7 4,
1 2
where V — V’ is the E. M. F. of the battery, D — D! the difference of the
distances corresponding to the readings of the two poles, F the attracting force of
the continuous plate on the disc, R, the radius of the disc, and R, that of the
aperture. Since, now, one division of the micrometer screw-head corresponds to a
distance of aon cm, we get, V — V’ = ‘904187 (C. G. 8.)
?
The E. M. F. of Thomson’s gravity Daniell was measured by comparing it
before and after the above experiment directly with that of the above battery
by means of Sir Wm. Thomson's Quadrant Electrometer. The E. M. F. e of the
cell was
- V—V" _ 0.034381 (C. G. 8.) electrostatic unit
£1 .961909 = 0:03 (C. G. 8.) electrostatic units,
(B). Absolute electro-magnetic measurement of the E. M. F.
This measurement was made by determining the strength of the current given
by the E. M. F. by means of a tangent galvanometer, and then measuring the
resistance of the circuit in the way to be described presently.
The tangent galyanometer employed consists of a circular coil of mean radius
18:2 c.m., containing 400 turns in 19 layers of insulated copper wire, the breadth
and the depth of the coil being 2 and 1:5 ¢.m. respectively. The needle of the
galvanometer consists of a magnet only about 3 c.m. long, made of hard tempered
steel wire, and suspended in the centre of the coil by a single silk fibre. To the
needle is attached a very fine straight glass fibre, of such a leneth that its ends
travel round a graduated dial of radius a little less than that of the coil, thus
serving for taking readings.
The mathematical theory show: that in a tangent galvanometer,
. BA 7, + 6 tana ee Gatne (1);
2a n HGS est ge eee ‘
where ¢ is the current streneth, H the horizon comp. of earth magnetism, a the
angle of deflection, » the number of turns of wire in the coil, 7, the mean radius of
the coil, 6 half the breadth of the coil in the plane at right angles to the plane of
the coil, d half the depth of the coil in its plane, g the number of layers in the coil.
If E be the E. M. F. producing the current ¢ in a circuit of resistance R, then by
Ohm’s law and from the preceding equation we get
ec
uh _'RH Jr + b? tana : = Bd He - eeee (2)
oe Bere + GF —
The formula (2) shows that in order to measure an HK. M. F. in absolute
electro-magnetic units we have to determine, (a) the deflection a, (6) the resistance
R, and (ce) the horizontal component of earth-magnetism H.
(a) To determine a. The formula (2) also shows that whatever be the value
of R the product R tan a is a constant quantity as long as E is kept constant,
which furnishes this important suggestion that by varying the resistance R we
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 499
vary a and thus get many values, very nearly equal, if not equal, of the product
R tan a, the mean of which would be the more accurate value of the product. The
determination of a therefore was performed as follows. The current from the
gravity cell was passed through the tangent galvanometer g and a variable re-
sistance 7, and the deflection a was noted. The object of introducing the variable
resistance is (1) to enable us to alter the resistance R, and (2) to obtain the
deflection giving minimum error, which is 45°.
(6) To determine R(= 9 +6+ 7). The resistance g of the galvanometer was
measured by Wheatstone’s bridge-method, and was equal to 30°86 ohms. The
resistance b of the battery was measured by measuring the deflections produced
on the scale of Sir Wm. Thomson’s Quadrant Electrometer by connecting the
electrodes of the cell to those of the electrometer—first when the cell was unshunted ;
and, secondly, when it was shunted by a known resistance; the resistance b in
this case is equal to the product of the difference of the two readings into the shunt
divided by the second reading. It was exactly equal to 202 ohms, So that we have
a iE R
45°—15' . 80o0hms. 107'88
42° — 45’ . 100 ,, . Has th mean value of R tana = 104-73 x 10°.
igre BO), 82588
It must, however, be remembered that in all these measurements the ohm,
or B.A. unit of resistance, is assumed to be exactly 10° C. G. S. units, which is
unfortunately doubtful, as was well remarked by Professor Adams, the President
of this Section, in his address.
(c) To determine H. The method of determining this element consisted in (1)
observing the period of vibration of a magnet under H; and (2), observing the
deflection of a magnetometer placed in the magnetic meridian by the action of the
magnet placed at a fixed distance in a line at right angles to the magnetic meridian
and passing through the centre of the magnetometer. . I made the experiment with
two different magnets made out of very hard tempered steel wire about 0:97 ¢.m.
in diameter, and also experimented with each magnet by varying the distance of
the magnet, and found the results to agree very closely with one another. The
mean value of H obtained with one magnet is ‘15955, and the mean value obtained
with the other is ‘15937, so that the mean of these two is
H = '15947
The formula used in the calculation of H is
2 Tha
H = a OUND
‘ t(k — 2) (k + 1) tan p
where ¢ is period of vibration of magnet under H; & distance of the centre of the
magnet from the magnetometer; 7 half the length of magnet; 7 the moment of
inertia of the magnet; the angle of deflection of the magnetometer.
We haye now come to the evaluation of ‘v.’ The formula (II.) gives
e = 101172 x 10° (C. G. S.) electro-magnetic units.
Hence
v = 294-4 x 10® centimétres per second,
which agrees well with the latest value obtained hy Sir Wm. Thomson, namely,
293° x 10°.
Although I took as much care as possible in making all the above measurements
leading to this evaluation of ‘ v,’ yet since, from want of time, it was only on one
occasion that I was able to make the complete measurements, there may have
heen some cause or causes of error unnoticed. I intend, therefore, to repeat the
whole experiment, and hope to be able to make a further communication.
In conclusion, I must say—and I say with extreme gratitude—that if the
experiment be in any way satisfactory, it is chiefly due to the very able and kind
instructions given me by Sir Wm, Thomson and his assistants in carrying out the
experiment,
KK2
500 REPORT—1880.
8. On an Hlectro-magnetic Gyroscope.
By W. DE FonvigLLe.
9, Sur les Transformations successives desImag es photographiques, et les
Applications al Astronomie. ParM. J. Janssun, de V Institut, Directeur
de V Observatoire de Meudon.
Les études que je poursuis 4 Meudon sur l’application de la photographie a
V’étude de la constitution du soleil, m’ont conduit 4 étendre nos connaissances sur
les transformations de image photographique par l’action seule de la lumiére.
On avait déji reconnu depuis longtemps que l'image photographique pouvait étre
renversée, soit par l’effet de certains réactifs, soit par l'action simultanée ou succes-
sive de lumiéres de réfrangibilité différentes. MM. Draper, C* Abney, Vogel,
notamment ont accompli, dans cette direction, de remarquables travaux. Tout
derniérement on reconnut en Allemagne que la seule prolongation d’action de la
lumiére pouvait amener l’inversion de limage pour des plaques au gélatino-bromure
ou au tannin.
De notre coté, & Meudon, nous obtenions, en juin dernier, des images positives
du soleil sur plaques au gélatino-bromure, au tannin, etc., par la seule action pro-
longée de la lumiére méme qui donne l'image. Mais bientdt ce premier résultat
fut complété, et nous avons été conduit 4 reconnaitre que la seule action prolongée,
ou suffisamment intense, de la lumiére, améne six phases successives et bien
distinctes dans l’état de la plaque photographique.
1° La phase de négativité, c’est la phase de l'image ordinaire.
2° La premiére phase de neutralité. Dans cette phase, image négative a
disparu ; la plaque est presque uniformément obscure.
3° La phase de positivité. Pendant cette phase, l'image négative a_été rem-
placée par une image exactement inverse, c’est-i-dire positive. Cette phase est
beaucoup plus longue que la phase négative qui précéde.
4° A cette phase succéde une nouvelle phase de neutralité, mais qui différe de
la premiére en ce que la plaque devient ici uniformément claire au développement,
au lieu d’étre obscure.
5° L’action lumineuse continuant, une nouvelle image négative apparait, image
que nous nommons du second ordre, pour la distinguer de la premiére image
négative qui s'est formée sur la plaque. Cette phase est encore beaucoup plus longue
que la positive précédente. 5
6° Enfin, l’action lumineuse se prolongeant toujours, cette image disparait a
son tour, et la plaque devient, aprés développement, presque uniformément obscure.
C’est la phase d’obscurité du second ordre.
Tl suit de ces résultats que l’action de la lumiére sur les substances examinées
est périodique ; que pour une certaine durée de son action elle provoque, par le
développement, un dépdt métallique ; que pour une action plus longue, elle cesse
de le provoquer ; qu'elle le provoque de nouveau pour un temps d’action encore
plus considérable, etc.
Je me propose de déterminer les rapports qui existent entre ces durées d’actions
différents et si remarquables. Déja j’ai pu constater approximativement que le
temps d’action qui donne l'image négative du deuxiéme ordre doit étre plus d’un
million de fois celui qui donne celle du premier.
C'est la puissance de nos appareils de photographie céleste qui nous a permis de
réaliser, dans de courtes périodes, des différences aussi considérables dans les actions
lumineuses.
Nous avons obtenu, 4 l’observatoire de Meudon, des images positives directes
du soleil de 4, 10, 830 centimétres de diamétre. Ces images directes montrent le
soleil comme il est vu dans les lunettes.
Ces images sont entourées d’un cercle noir, sur la signification duquel nous
aurons & reyenir.
En variant convenablement le temps de l’action lumineuse par une disposition
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 501
spéciale, nous avons pu obtenir des images solaires ou une partie est positive, une
|i Saad . : imp Ee ee et ad ’
partie neutre-claire, une partie négative du deuxiéme ordre, etc.
J’ai Vhonneur de joindre a cette note:
1° Une image solaire de 10 centimétres (boite) de diamétre, positive.
2° Une image solaire de 4 centimétres de diamétre, positive.
. 5 . . . ?
3° Une image solaire avec partie neutre-claire.
4° Une image solaire ayant une partie positive, une neutre-claire, une négative
A taf J / ’ ? o
du deuxiéme ordre, ete,
5° Un paysage négatif avec soleil positif dans un ciel négatif.
6° Un paysage coupé en trois parties, obtenu par contact avec un cliché
négatif.
Premier tiers : négatif 1° ordre.
Deuxiéme tiers: positif.
Troisiéme tiers: négatif, 2™° ordre (les apparences sont inverses, parce
ae tof ? AN 7
que le cliché producteur est négatif).
7° Une photographie de taches solaires obtenue d’un cliché de 50 centimétres de
diamétre pour un grossissement de trois fois. Cette photographie montre les stries
P i PONE
de la pénombre et les granulations de la surface. envirennante.
fo}
10. On Improvements in Electro-Motors.! By THEODOR WIESENDANGER.
1. The inventors of the most recent electro-motive engines have worked—
perhaps unconsciously—upon the idea, that the construction and action of electro-
motors are based altogether upon the same laws as those of dynamo and magneto-
machines and in accordance with that assumption the field-magnets of the Desprez-
Motor are made to consist of large and heavy masses of magnetised steel.
2. Experimenters have also for a long time past clung to the idea that the
efficiency of an electro-motor, or the amount of energy to be obtained from such
a machine, by means of a current of given strength circulating in the coils of its
armature only, bears a definite and direct proportion to the magneto-inductive
power of its field-magnets, and that an increase of power in the field-magnets
alone must necessarily produce greater capabilities of the machine.
3. This, however, is a mischievous theory, because erroneous in its very
principles, and its development would only lead to the hypothesis of perpetual
motion. On the contrary, starting from a consideration of the facts that a very
small magnetic needle, if acted upon by one of the poles of another and very
powerful magnet, has its polarity destroyed or reversed, and that, if one of its
poles, say the N pole, is presented to a similar (N) pole of the large magnet, the
former will completely lose its characteristic qualities and be attracted by its over-
powering opponent, we can only come to the one rational conclusion, that the
power of the field-magnets of an electro-motor, as compared with that of the magnet
or magnets constituting its armature, should not surpass the limit of some certain
ratio, yet to be determined by experiments carefully conducted, and that, if it sur-
passes that limit, the capabilities of the machine must be impaired. Acting on
this principle the inventor constructed a motor (the motor was shown in motion) in
which the power of the field-magnets is as nearly as possible equal to that of the
armature, the core of the former being very light and made entirely of soft iron;
and the satisfactory results obtained from this machine are a sure sign that a
further investigation of the subject, and experiments made with a view of deter-
mining the exact ratio, will lead to further improvement. Another very important
consideration in the construction of electro-motors is the method of motion of
the revolving armature, with regard to the approach to, or the receding of its
poles from the poles of the field magnets. The greatest amount of power will
be derived from a motor if attention is paid, not merely to the one condition
that the armature should revolye in the most highly concentrated magnetic
1 Published in exrtenso, with illustrations, in the Hnglish Mechanic; also in
Design and Work, September 18, 1880.
502 REPORT—1880.
field possible, but also to the other, of no less moment, that nearly the entire
motion of the revolving armature should be either one of approach to or of
withdrawal from the poles of the field-magnets. [Various methods of accom-
plishing this object were described and illustrated by drawing models.] Electro-
motive engines with field-magnets of more than two poles are more _ perfect
in their action than others with field-magnets of two poles only, mainly be-
cause in the former the line of attraction, as exercised between the two systems
of poles is at angles varying from 80 to 1 degrees from the motion of the poles
of the armature, while in the latter the line of attraction very nearly coincides
with the line of motion. The relative positions to each other of the axes of the
systems of field-magnets and the magnets constituting the armature, and the ratio
of power of the two systems, are both matters awaiting careful investigation from
men of science, and further researches in this most important and interesting field
of work must lead to immediate progress. With regard to the former question
we have as yet only the vague, unsatisfactory hypothesis of ‘lines of force,’ and
the latter point appears to have escaped altogether the notice of hoth inventors
and investigators.
11. On a New Mode of Illuminating Microscopic Objects,
By Purr Brana, F.C.S.
12. On an Instrument for the Detection of Polarised Light.
By Pup Brann, F.C.S.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 503
Section B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—JOSEPH HENRY GILBERT,
Ph.D., F.B.S., F.C.S., F.L.S.
[For Dr. Gilbert’s Address see page 507. ]
THURSDAY, AUGUST 26.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee on the Best Means for the Development of Light
from Coal Gas of different qualities. Part II.—See Reports, p. 241.
2. On some Relations between the Atomic Volumes of Certain Elements and
the Heats of Formation of some of their Compounds. By WATER
WELDON, F.R.S.L.
3. On the Influence of Water on the Union of Carbonic Oxide with Oxygen
at High Temperatures. By Haronp B. Dixon, M.A., F.C.8.
When a spark from a Leyden jar is passed through a mixture of two volumes
of carbonic oxide and one volume of oxygen, which has been thoroughly dried, no
explosion is caused. It is very difficult to dry the gases thoroughly enough to
prevent the explosion under atmospheric pressure; but by a reduction of pressure
it is easy to show that a mixture of dry gases will not explode under the influ-
ence of the spark, which mixture readily explodes on addition of a minute trace of
moisture. It was found that, when the pressure in a dried eudiometer was gra-
dually increased until the passage of the spark caused the gases to combine, the
disc of flame passed quite slowly down the tube, whereas when the tube was satu-
rated with moisture the flame travelled too quickly to be followed by the eye.
Some of the mixture sealed up in a glass tube with anhydrous phosphoric acid
under atmospheric pressure, would not explode on passing a succession of sparks
through it. On opening the sealed end under water, the spark caused the gases to
unite. Into a similar tube containing anhydrous phosphoric acid, a piece of potash
was fused to the glass; when filled with the mixture and sealed up, the gases
would not combine on passing the spark. On gently heating the potash with a
Bunsen flame, the spark caused an explosion.
It was found that a small admixture of dry carbonic acid with the gases
had no effect in determining the explosion. Neither dry nitrogen nor dry cyanogen
had any effect, while the smallest admixture of hydrogen or ether vapour caused
the gases to explode on passing a spark. From these experiments it appears
probable that the oxidation of carbonic oxide is really caused by the alternate re-
duction and oxidation of water molecules, according to the equations :—
(1) CO + H,O = CO, + H,
(2) 2H, +0, = 2H,0.
A comparatively small number of water molecules suffices to determine the explo-
sion; but the explosion gains in intensity the greater the number of water molecules
present, It was shown by experiments at 52°C. that the force of the explosion was
504 REPORT— 1880.
greater when the number of water molecules was equal to the number of carbonic
oxide molecules, than when a fewer number of water molecules were present, and
their place taken by molecules of nitrogen, whose specific heat is less than half that
of steam,
4. On Metallic Compounds containing Divalent Organic Radicals. Part I.
By J. Saxurat.!
With the view of isolating metallic combinations of olefiant gas, Wanklyn and
Von Than (‘ Jour. Chem. Soc.’ xii, 258) studied the action of mercury and zinc upon
ethylene iodide ; but they failed in obtaining even a trace of organometallic com-
pounds. I repeated their experiments not only with iodide and chloride of ethylene,
but also with the bromide and the chloriodide, and under various conditions; but
the results obtained are essentially the same as those described by the above-named
chemists. Olefiant gas is given off in abundance, and metallic chloride, bromide,
or iodide is formed at the same time.
At the suggestion of Professor Williamson, methylene iodide was next tried ;
for it appeared probable that with this compound the decomposition into metallic
iodide on the one hand, and into the hydrocarbon on the other, would be impos-
sible, or, at any rate, would not take place under such circumstances as those which,
while easily allowing the ethylene compound to decompose, are, at the same time,
favourable for, or essential to, the formation of organometallic compounds.
This anticipation was realised. By leaving methylene iodide in contact with
metallic mercury and some mercurous iodide for a few days, combination takes
place without any evolution of gas. One point of interest in’ the reaction consists
in the part played by the mercurous iodide. This, under the influence of light,
decomposes into metallic mercury and mercuric iodide: the former enters into
combination with methylene iodide ; and the latter, taking up fresh mercury, repro-
duces mercurous iodide ready for decomposition.
Chiefly two products are formed. One of these, when properly purified, is a
white crystalline substance, insoluble in water, cold alcohol, ether, chloroform,
ethylic iodide, or benzene. It is somewhat soluble in boiling alcohol, from which
it erystallises out, on cooling, in white slender needles. But by far the best solvent
for it is methylene iodide, which, when hot, takes up a considerable quantity of the
substance, and allows a part of it to crystallise out on cooling. From the mother
liquor, ether precipitates it almost completely in the form of fine crystals. The
substance melts at 108° to 109° C. to a clear yellow liquid, in which state it remains
up to a considerably higher temperature. On cooling, it solidifies to a yellow
crystalline mass, and re-melts at the original temperature.
The following numbers were obtained on analysis :—
I. 0:2075 gr. of the substance gave 0:1030 gr. of mercuric sulphide.
TT MO:09100 5 x55 5 0:0455_—,, -
and 0:0910__,, __ silver iodide,
Thus—
Found.
_ —--—_ + Cale. for
I. u. CH,Hgl,
Mercury . . 42-790 43:100 42735
Iodine . . = 54.040 54-273
Heated with iodine, the substance is decomposed into mercuric and methylene
iodide. Quantitative determinations show that for every 100 parts by weight of
the substance, 54°54 parts by weight of iodine are needed ; that is, as much iodine
as is contained in 100 parts of the substance. Now, if the compound contains in
its molecule nothing but a molecule of methylene iodide and an atom of mercury,
it ought to require, as it does, for the completion of the reaction, ze. for the pro-
duction of methylene iodide and mercuric iodide, just as much iodine as it contains,
apraarr CH,Hgl, + I, = CH,J, + Hel,. .
Bromine and chlorine act upon the body in a manner similar to that of iodine.
1 Journal of Chemical Society, September 1880.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 505
The simplest, and indeed the most reasonable, constitutional formula that can
be assigned to this new body, which may be termed monomercurie methylene iodide,
is I(CH,)’Hgl, the divalent radical methylene (CH,)”, combining to the extent of
half of its power with iodine on the one hand, and to the same extent on the other,
with Hel, which plays the part of a monatomic radical. The novelty of the com-
pound is revealed in the fact just stated, inasmuch as all the so-called organo-
metallic bodies hitherto known are characterised by the monatomic nature of the
alcohol radicals which they contain, viz. methyl, ethyl, amyl, and allyl.
It has already been stated that two products are formed by the action of mer-
cury upon methylene iodide. This second compound has not yet been obtained in
the pure state. It was, however, analysed; and from the results, as well as from
some of its reactions, there is reason to believe that this body is dimercuric methylene
todide, CH,(Hgl),.
The action of zinc, as well as of sodium amalgam in presence of acetic ether,
upon methylene iodide were tried, and the results of these experiments will be the
subject of a future paper. Ifthe zinc compound be successfully isolated, it cannot
fail to be of great service in building up bodies of the homologous series, where
the consecutive members differ by CH,, and we may thus be able to synthesise
higher alcohols by a comparatively simple process.
5. On the Application of Organic Acids to the Buamination of Minerals.
By Professor H. Carrinaton Bourton, Ph.D.
The following research into the behaviour of the commoner minerals with or-
ganic acids was prompted by the difficulty of transporting the liquid mineral acids
on mineralogical and geological journeys. A careful study of the action of citric
acid on 200 mineral species has established the fact that this organic acid possesses
a power of decomposing minerals only slightly less than that of hydrochloric acid.
The manner of conducting the investigation was briefly as follows: the mineral
to be examined was yery finely pulverised, and treated in a test-tube with a satu-
rated solution of the organic acid in the cold, and then the contents were heated
to boiling. Preference is given to citric acid, because it appears to have greater
decomposing power than either tartaric or oxalic, owing probably to the greater
solubility of metallic citrates.
In order to increase the power of the organic acid, two other reagents have
been employed in connexion with it; these are sodium nitrate and potassium
iodide. These are added, in solid form, to saturated solutions of the citric acid at
the moment of using.
Minerals belonging to several groups were submitted to these processes, and
gave phenomena which may be summarised as follows:—
Ist. More or less complete decomposition and solution of oxides, phosphates, &c.,
without formation of precipitates or liberation of gases.
2nd. Complete solution of carbonates, with liberation of carbonic anhydride.
8rd, Decomposition of certain sulphides with evolution of sulphuretted hydrogen.
4th. Decomposition of certain sulphides, with oxidation of the sulphur.
5th. More or less perfect decomposition of silicates, with separation of either
slimy or gelatinous silica.
6th. Decomposition of certain species by reagents forming characteristic pre-
cipitates.
7th. Wholly negative action.
The exact behaviour of each species is shown in the annexed table.
The application of this method of examining minerals to field work is obvious ;
and this newly developed power of organic acids has undoubtedly an important
bearing on the chemistry of geological changes. The quiet work of the organic
acids of the soil in decomposing rocks and minerals demands greater recognition
than is usually accorded.
1880.
REPORT
506
“sozturyepoy), }
‘aqtooyos “ozrysiwueg ‘opquinjoy “oyopldryy ‘uoey ‘oper, ‘oyMomog ‘oqrjomeyg ‘oplUegL Ty, ‘zedoy, ‘oymud yy
-O51[0 ‘azttopraquy ‘oqyryytowy ‘oyJoneT ‘oqeuIO MA ‘oyTjopIderT ‘ayAoosnyy ‘071901 “OF 1[OT ‘aqtsto7, ‘oqrWBLANS A
‘opm ‘ogrreqissup “TAroqosarp ‘aqrmo.xyH ‘aurdg “umpuns0g ‘aytokapy ‘agtonpy ‘oQSNorg ‘ayruapqAToy
"POV OFGIO el} Wry paatsap st poapoaa “OD on, +
‘T pun Ty “YT
A‘ ‘0 ‘a
ut a80y}
Jo ysou pun
‘oqoprd gy
‘ayruoydopop
‘adoas gq
‘ayIpurwpy
“OUTATI()
« O}ISVILVT
+ OPOUTO VW
» OpUaTquIo;T
, ouauinpodg
‘ayiony
‘guoyysrad (Fy
‘oyTUIsUTT
‘opruneag
“OUT ULAYT
+ O}JOUSe YY
4097004
~BUryse AA
» 8} TawOOUT Ne
+ OW POWO TT
j Steqvaaip
x Juaw1d1g
IBS [VOT
M+)
UQTAN Suyprog
&q pasoduosaq
x
Peri
UL asoyy pun
‘aqrouqn iy
j ‘oyruruet yy
j ayLore Uy
j ‘ayisuq Apog
‘ayruvydayg
{ ‘oyjuvauay,
j OJLIpayRayay,
aq (S.eld gq
jo MOryI0g
jOMT[IAoD
‘ay SvADV N
j eyttAdoues.ry
j eVISBoIe pT
j oyrameu
i eqaTeqoD
j ‘ay greutg
‘oylovuULy
j ‘oyttAdoopeyd,
j fayd gy
‘}1T0901N
1 SPOT
j ‘oyrUUB WOT,
j eypoooe yD)
‘OUISSOT]
‘ayquesiy
j oyryAout0g
OPUTY NST
x tnydng
“yqnuustg,
‘Auoupuy
‘otuas1y
‘raddoy
‘AMO.
STOATIS
*ON®N +0
TTA BuTog
Aq peaTossi(y
I
*squahna,
“payougqe A[qQoaT x
UFIA POULUUX 2.18 paAlOAd SosUs OL L—"A "No
—— — ——-'0006WO 8 HH ——— eee
*“paafosstp 10 pasoduioosap Ajaqarduroy j
(‘sorods parpuny oT) oypAyy ‘oy 4sa[99 ‘opLeg,
PNITIOR NO
*OILOTYOO.A J
" MW asoyp ‘0 uw asoyz "g U1 asoyy “FUL asoyy. ‘opp AOMacy
pup pun pun a) “OUIQTS
t ‘oytpoyoss0 fy
‘aqisequyd
‘ayo[euy
i OP }0Se TN.
x OJTUOSL TT tj foytporqenr 4 VL
‘AyIStIAya sr: j ‘o}TWOSUIOY J, j foUTORTR
« 2} EOasary) ,gumsday | ‘ayrpAqdody j ‘ayIssn.1a(-),
“aq TyJUaL) ‘ayooory | tj fourteen jo} T8003 Avg
‘ayyseg ‘aytuazn AA | [SB ]fooosAg j ‘egluviyu0y4g
‘OyTRULIaYy sopra | f j‘eyQuOMINET {‘OOqIE A
‘attosAayyy | OVApIS ~waoA | Tj *e9t[0}00g | ‘oyuosvry
‘auiquad.aag j ‘opIsouSe oud y ayporipuoyy x OPLUOSTALUG
| oypurpnoyy +i Pear | Ce)‘ouuerry | “Huzey sidey 4 O}18
, OPTUYaL ‘oyIsouloy | | jfeurpauopisg | ,‘oyruowryT ‘anpoydan | ‘oyoymadg -orooporyy
| fy ‘oqroyeq | ‘opwesuemog | j‘ayruvsueyy | ,‘oynpjoorn | tj foyrmoarytAy | ‘oztaopeydg 4 O}LOYUV
|, eytdosopyg | ,‘o}ytuoumog | {j oysnpor<g | ‘azraoovyayy ‘oytposAayy | {‘oyrpurqepy 7 ‘oqgoy.ny
‘oyreaty | ,*o}1Uosoure ¢ 4‘ojra ‘OWOULT j ‘oyLuOpoy yy ‘ayrmapes) 4/0} U0 [0G
t ‘o;toaqday, ‘aqruog -uvlusne yy j foytadny | ‘o}1U0yseTTO AK ‘ayaqnyg j ‘eyTO[BD
“OIg Jo wor S°H Jo “09 Jo sey Jo WorNy “OIS Jo SH Jo uo1g “0 Jo
~eredas TIM | WOIyeseqr] TQtA | WorzeseqT] WIA | -oae qnoy{AA | Moreredes WIM | -vaoqtt YALA | WorQULAqTT TITAN
H 2) Tl W a 0 a
‘OPOIQIA “opsuyepwy ‘ourpeutmoy, ‘osepooyyAO ‘oxqQTy ‘osB[o
‘noon, ‘[Arog ‘snqsaqsy “aqteqag ‘aprsdorg ‘oy TeA ‘z9.ven?)
faqmmdey—'syuahnat aacgn ay) fig pasodiuovap 10u spnuaury “7
j ‘oy Quryporg
‘ayIsopsuy
i ‘oytyd
~tout0y dcr
i OUEXeT)
‘oyTunny
‘O{TULIaq.10,J,
] ‘eyLtep
-Isoovuley
“OUTPAT AL
‘aqryo
-v[vUOpnesg
i ‘e7tuaAT[O
j ‘oyrmateqry
j‘OyLUBrAT A
‘oqdiry,
‘aqrpAqdrry,
“OTOL
«ary
-1OWloIA J
‘aq tuns)
‘ayronag
‘opueony
‘ayrahdoono'T
“oyreyysney)
sBy Jo u0ry
NOAA QNOYGIM
Vv
ato) GH NI
dy OLIN 10 NOMLAIOS GULVUALYS V Ad (UAAMOd ANIA NI) Aasoawoou
‘d'Ud ‘SoLiog NOLONIUAVD “FY Jorg Ag
£ YR pun auopp ‘prop aiUgyD YR sym
Maur wn7.taa Jo
nonnyag ay7 Bunoys 2797,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 507
FRIDAY, AUGUST 27.
_ The Presrpent delivered the following Address :—
Somz of my predecessors in this Chair, whose duties as teachers of chemistry lead
them to traverse a wide range of the subject every year, have appropriately and
usefully presented to the Section a 7éswmé of the then recent progress in the mani-
fold branches of the science which have now such far-reaching ramifications, Such
a course has, however, come to be of much less importance and interest of late years,
since the systematic publication by the Chemical Society of abstracts of chemical
papers in home and foreign journals as soon as possible after their appearance.
Some, on the other hand, have confined attention to a department with which
their own inquiries nave more specially connected them. And, when the Council
of the Association request a specialist like myself to undertake the Presidency of
the Section, it is to be supposed they take it for granted that he will select for his
opening address some branch of the subject with which he is known to be mainly
associated.
But it seems to me that there is a special reason why I should bring the subject
of Agricultural Chemistry before you on the present occasion. Net only is the
application of chemistry to agriculture included in the title of this Section; but in
1887 the Committee of the Section requested the late Baron Liebig to prepare a
report upon the then condition of Organic Chemistry, and it is now exactly forty
years since Liebig presented to the British Association the first part of his report,
which was entitled ‘ Organic Chemistry in its Application to Agriculture and Physi-
ology ;’ and the second part was presented two years later, in 1842, under the title
of ‘Animal Chemistry, or Organic Chemistry in its application to Physiology and
Pathology.’. Yet, so far as I am aware, no President of the Section has, from that
time to the present, taken as the subject of his address the Application of Chemistry
to Agriculture.
Appropriate as, for these reasons, it would seem that I, who have devoted a very
large portion of the interval since the publication of Liebig’s works, above referred
to, to agricultural inquiries, should occupy the short time that can be devoted to
such a purpose in attempting to note progress on that important subject, it will be
readily understood that it would be quite impossible to condense into the limits of
an hour's discourse anything approaching to an adequate account, either of the
progress made during the last forty years, or of the existing condition of agricultural
chemistry.
For what is agricultural chemistry? It is the chemistry of the atmosphere ;
the chemistry of the soil; the chemistry of vegetation; and the chemistry of
animal life and growth. And but a very imperfect indication of the amount of
labour which has been devoted of recent years to the investigation of these various
branches of what might at first sight seem a limited subject will suffice to convince
you how hopeless a task it would be to seek todo more than direct attention to a
few points of special interest. Indeed, devoting to the purpose such leisure as I have
been able to command, the more I have attempted to become acquainted with the
vast literature which has been accumulated on the subject, the more difficulty have
I felt in making a selection of illustrations which should not convey an idea of the
limits, rather than of the extent, of the labour which has been expended, and of the
results which have been attained, in agricultural research.
The works of Liebig to which I have referred have, as you all know, been the
subject of a very great deal of controversy. Agricultural chemists, vegetable
physiologists, and animal pavniolegiits have each vehemently opposed some of the
conclusions of the author, bearing upon their respective branches. But if the part
which has fallen to my own lot in these discussions qualifies me at all to speak for
others as well as myself, I would say that those who, having themselves carefully
investigated the points in question, have the most prominently dissented from any
508 REPORT—1880.
special views put forward in those works, will—whether they be agricultural —
chemists, vegetable physiologists, cr animal physiologists—be the first to admit
how vast has been the stimulus, and how important has been the direction, given
to research in their own department, by the masterly review of then existing
knowledge, and the bold, and frequently sagacious, generalisations of one of the
most remarkable men of his time !
Confining attention to researches bearing upon agriculture, it will be well,
before attempting to indicate either the position established by Liebig’s first works,
or the direction of the progress since made, to refer very briefly to the early history
of the subject.
From what we now know of the composition and of the sources of the con-
stituents of plants, it is obvious that a knowledge of the composition of the atmo-
sphere and of water was essential to any true conception of the main features
of the vegetative process; and it is of interest to observe that it was almost simul-
taneously with the establishment, towards the end of the last century, of definite
knowledge as to the composition of the air and of water, that their mutual rela-
tions with vegetation were first pointed out. To the collective labours of Black,
Scheele, Priestley, Lavoisier, Cavendish, and Watt, we owe the knowledge that
common air consists chiefly of nitrogen and oxygen, with a little carbonic acid;
that carbonic acid is composed of carbon and oxygen; and that water is composed
of hydrogen and oxygen; whilst Priestley and Ingenhousz, Sennebier and Wood-
house, investigated the mutual relations of these bodies and vegetable growth.
Priestley observed that plants possessed the faculty of purifying air vitiated by
combustion or by the respiration of animals; and, he having discovered oxygen,
it was found that the gaseous bubbles which Bonnet had shown to be emitted
from the surface of leaves plunged in water consisted principally of that gas. In-
genhousz demonstrated that the action of light was essential to the development of
these phenomena; and Sennebier proved that the oxygen emitted resulted from
the decomposition of the carbonic acid taken up.
So far, however, attention seems to have been directed more prominently to
the question of the influence of plants upon the media with which they were sur-
rounded, than to that of the influence of those media in contributing to the in-
creased substance of the plants themselves. ‘Towards the end of the last century,
and in the beginning of the present one, De Saussure followed up these inquiries ;
and in his work entitled, ‘Recherches Chimiques sur la Végétation,’ published in
1804, he may be said to have indicated, if not indeed established, some of the most
important facts with which we are yet acquainted regarding the sources of the
constituents stored up by the growing plant. De Saussure illustrated experi-
mentally, and even to some extent quantitatively, the fact that in sun-light plants
increase in carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, at the expense of carbonic acid and of
‘water ; and in the case of his main experiment on the point, he found the increase
in carbon, and in the elements of water, to be very closely in the proportion in
which these are known to exist in the carbohydrates. He further maintained the
essentialness of the mineral or ash constituents of plants ; he pointed out that they
must be derived from the soil; and he called attention to the probability that the
incombustible constituents so derived by plants from the soil were the source of
those found in the animals fed upon them.
With regard to the nitrogen which plants had already been shown to contain,
Priestley and Ingenhousz thought their experiments indicated that they absorbed
free nitrogen from the atmosphere; but Sennebier and Woodhouse arrived at an
opposite conclusion. De Saussure, again, thought that his experiments showed
rather an evolution of nitrogen at the expense of the substance of the plant than
any assimilation of it from gaseous media. He further concluded that the source
of the nitrogen of plants was more probably the nitrogenous compounds in the soil,
and the small amount of ammonia which he demonstrated to exist in the atmo-
sphere.
a Upon the whole, De Saussure concluded that air and water contributed a
much larger proportion of the dry substance of plants than did the soils in which
they grew. In his view a fertile soil was one which yielded liberally to the plant
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 509
nitrogenous compounds, and the incombustible or mineral constituents ; whilst the
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, of which the greater proportion of the dry substance
of the plant was made up, were at least mainly derived from the air and water.
Perhaps I ought not to omit to mention here that, each year for ten successive
ars, from 1802 to 1812, Sir Humphry Davy delivered a course of lectures on the
‘Blements of Agricultural Chemistry,’ which were first published in 1815, were
finally revised by the author for the fourth edition in 1827, but have gone through
several editions since. In those lectures, Sir Humphry Davy passed in review
and correlated the then existing knowledge, both practical and scientific, bearing
upon agriculture. He treated of the influences of heat and light; of the organisa-
tion of plants; of the difference, and the change, in the chemical composition of
their different parts; of the sources, composition, and treatment of soils; of the
-ecomposition of the atmosphere, and its influence on vegetation ; of the composition
and the action of manures; of fermentation and putrefaction; and finally of the
principles involved in various recognised agricultural practices.
With the exception of these discourses of Sir Humphry Davy, the subject
seems to have received comparatively little attention, nor was any important addi-
tion made to our knowledge in regard to it, during the period of about thirty years,
from the date of the appearance of De Saussure’s work in 1804 to that of the com-
mencement of Boussingault’s investigations.*
About 1834, Boussingault became, by marriage, joint proprietor with his
brother-in-law of the estate of Bechelbronn, in Alsace. His brother-in-law, M.
Lebel, was both a chemical manufacturer and an intelligent practical farmer,
accustomed to use the balance for the weighing of manures, crops, and cattle.
Boussingault seems to have applied himself at once to chemico-agricultural
research ; and it was under these conditions of the association of ‘ practice with
science’ that the first laboratory on a farm was established.
From this time forward, Boussingault generally spent about half the year in
Paris, and the other half in Alsace; and he has continued his scientific labours,
sometimes in the city, and sometimes in the country, up to the present time. His
first important contribution to agricultural chemistry was made in 1836, when he
published a paper on the amount of nitrogen in different foods, and on the eqitiva~
lence of the foods, founded on the amounts of nitrogen they contained ; and he
compared the results so arrived at with the estimates of others founded on actual
experience. Although his conclusions on the subject have doubtless undergone
modification since that time, the work itself marked a great advance on previously
existing knowledge, and modes of viewing the question.
In 1837, Boussingault published papers—on the amount of gluten in different
kinds of wheat; on the influence of the clearing of forests on the diminution of the
flow of rivers; and on the meteorological influences affecting the culture of the vine.
Tn 1838 he published the results of an elaborate research on the principles under-
lying the value of a rotation of crops. He determined by analysis the composition,
both organic and inorganic, of the manures applied to the land, and of the crops
harvested. In his treatment of the subject he evinced a clear perception of the
most important problems involved in such an inquiry; some of which, with the
united labours of himself and many other workers, have scarcely yet received an
undisputed solution.
Thus, in the same year (1838), he published the results of an investigation om
the question whether plants assimilate the free or uncombined nitrogen of the
atmosphere ; and although the analytical methods of the day were inadequate to
the decisive settlement of the point, his conclusions were in the main those which
much subsequent work of his own, and much of others also, has served to confirm.
As a further element of the question of the chemical statistics of a rotation of
crops, Boussingault determined the amount and composition of the residues of
yarious crops ; also the amount of constituents consumed in the food of a cow and
1 Some reference should have been made in the text to the labours and writings
of Dr. Carl Sprengel, late Professor of Agriculture at Brunswick, who made numerous
analyses of agricultural materials, and published numerous papers in connection with
Agricultural Chemistry, during a series of years, commencing about 1826.
510 REPORT—1880.
of a horse respectively, and yielded in the milk and excretions of the cow, and in
the excretions of the horse. Here, again, the exigencies of the investigation he
undertook were beyond the reach of the known methods of the time. Indeed, rude
as the art of agriculture is generally considered to be, the scientific elucidation of
its practices requires the most refined, and very varied, methods of research ; and
a characteristic of the work of Boussingault may be said to be, that he has fre-
quently had to devise methods suitable to his purpose, before he could grapple with
the problems before him.
In 1839, chiefly in recognition of his important contributions to agricultural
chemistry, Boussingault was elected a member of the Institute; and in 1878,
thirty-nine years later, the Council of the Royal Society awarded to him the
Copley Medal, the highest honour at their disposal, for his numerous and varied
contributions to science, but especially for those relating to agriculture.
The foregoing brief historical sketch is sufficient to indicate, though but in broad
outline, the range of existing knowledge on the subject of agricultural chemistry
prior to the appearance of Liebig’s memorable work in 1840. It will be seen that
some very important and indeed fundamental facts had already been established in
regard to vegetation, and that Boussingault had not only extended inquiry on that
subject, but he had brought his own and previous results to bear upon the elucida-
tion of long-recognised agricultural practices. There can be no doubt that the data
supplied by his researches contributed important elements to the basis of established
facts upon which Liebig founded his brilliant generalisations, Accordingly, in
1841, Dumas and Boussingault published, jointly, an essay which afterwards
appeared in English under the title of ‘The Chemical and Physiological Balance of
Organic Nature;’ and, in 1843, Boussingault published a larger work, which
embodied the results of many of his own previous original investigations.
But there can be no doubt that the appearance of Liebig’s two works, which
were contributions made in answer to a request submitted to him by the committee
of this Section of the British Association, constituted a very marked epoch in the
history of the progress of egricultural chemistry. In the treatment of his subject
he not only called to his aid the previously existing knowledge directly bearing
upon it, but he also turned to good account the more recent triumphs of organic
chemistry, many of which had been won in his own laboratory. Further, a marked
feature of his expositions was the adoption of what may be called the statistical
method—I use the word statistical rather than quantitative, as the latter expression
has its own technical meaning among chemists, which is not precisely what I wish
to convey.
It seems that, notwithstanding the conclusive evidence afforded by the direct
experiments of De Saussure and his predecessors, vegetable physiologists continued
to hold the view that the humus of the soil was the source of the carbon of vege-
tation. Not only did Liebig give full weight to the evidence of the experiments of
De Saussure and others, and illustrate the possible or probable transformations
within the plant by facts already established in organic chemistry, but he demon-
strated the utter impossibility of humus supplying the amount of carbon assimilated
over a given area. He pointed out that humus itself was the product of previous
vegetable growth, and that it could not therefore be an original source of carbon ;
and that, from the degree of its insolubility, either in pure water or in water con-
taining alkaline or earthy bases, only a small portion of the carbon assimilated by
plants could be derived from the amount of humus that could possibly enter the
plant in solution, He maintained that, so far as humus was beneficial to vegeta-
tion at all, it was only by its oxidation, and a consequent supply of carbonic acid
within the soil; a source which he considered only of importance in the early stages
of the life of a plant, and before it had developed and exposed a sufficient amount
of green surface to the atmosphere to render it independent of soil supplies of
carbonic acid.
With regard to the hydrogen of plants, at any rate that portion of it contained
in their non-nitrogenous products, he maintained that its source must be water;
and that the source of the oxygen was either that contained in carbonic acid or
that in water.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 511
| With regard to the nitrogen of vegetation, both from the known characters of
' free nitrogen, and as he considered a legitimate deduction from direct experiments,
he argued that plants did not take up free or uncombined nitrogen, either from the
_ atmosphere, or dissolved in water and so absorbed by the roots, The source of the
/ nitrogen of vegetation was, he maintained, ammonia; the product of the putrefaction
' of one generation of plants and animals affording a supply for its successors. He
| pointed out that, in the case of a farm receiving nothing from external sources, and
_ selling off certain products, the amount of nitrogen in the manure derived by the con-
sumption of some of the vegetable produce on the farm itself, together with that due
to the refuse of the crops, must always be less than was contained in the crops
- grown; and he concluded that though the quantity so returned to the land was
important, a main source of the nitrogen assimilated over a given area was that
brought down from the atmosphere in rain.
There can be no doubt that, owing to the limited and defective experimental
evidence then at command on the point, Liebig at. that time (as he has since)
greatly over-estimated the amount of ammonia available to vegetation from that
source. In Boussingault’s réclamation already referred to, he gave much more
prominence to the importance of the nitrogen of manures. In Liebig’s next edition
(in 1843) he combated the notion of the relative importance of the nitrogen of
manures ; maintained, in opposition to the view put forward in his former edition,
that the atmosphere afforded a sufficient supply of nitrogen for cultivated as well as
for uncultivated plants ; that the supply was sufficient for the cereals as well as for
leguminous plants; that it was not necessary to supply nitrogen to the former;
and he insisted very much more strongly than formerly on the relative importance
of the supply of the incombustible, or, as he designated them, the ‘inorganic’ or
‘mineral,’ constituents.
As to the incombustible or mineral constituents themselves, Liebig adduced
many illustrations in proof of their essentialness, He called attention to the
variation in the composition of the ash of plants grown on different soils; and he
assumed a greater degree of mutual replaceability of one base by another, or of one
acid by another, than could be now admitted. He traced the difference in the
mineral composition of different soils to that of the rocks which had been their
source; and he seems to have been led by the consideration of the gradual action
of ‘ weathering, in rendering available the otherwise locked-up stores, to attribute
the benefits of fallow exclusively to the increased supply of the incombustible
constituents which would, by its agency, be brought into a condition in which they
could be taken up by plants.
The benefits of an alternation of crops Liebig considered to be in part explained
by the influence of the excreted matters from one description of crop upon the
growth of another. He did not attach weight to the assumption that such matters
would be directly injurious to the same description of crop; but he supposed rather
that the matters excreted were those which the plant did not need, and would
therefore be of no avail to the same description of plant, but would be of use to
another. He, however, attributed much of the benefits of a rotation to different
mineral constituents being required from the soil by the respective crops.
Treating of manure, he laid the greatest stress on the return by it of the potass.
and the phosphates remoyed by the crops. But he also insisted on the importance
of the nitrogen, especially that in the liquid excretions of animals, and condemned
the methods of treatment of animal manures by which the ammonia was allowed
to be lost by evaporation, It is curious and significant, however, that some of the
passages in his first edition, in which he the most forcibly urges the value of the
nitrogen of animal manures, are omitted in the third and fourth editions.
The discussion of the processes of fermentation, decay, and putrefaction, and
that of poisons, contagions, and miasms, constituted a remarkable and important
part of Liebig’s first report. It was the portion relating to poisons, contagions,
and miasms that he presented te this Section as an instalment, at the meeting of
the Association held at Glasgow in 1840. It was in the chapters relating to the
several subjects here enumerated that. he deyeloped so prominently his views on
the influence of contact in inducing chemical changes. He cited many known
512 REPORT—1880.
transformations, other than those coming under either of the heads in question, in
illustration of his subject ; and he discussed with great clearness the different con-
ditions occurring, and the different results obtained, in various processes—such as
the different modes of fermenting beer, the fermentation of wine from different
kinds of grapes, the production of acetic acid, &c. As is well known, he claimed
a purely chemical explanation for the phenomena involved in fermentation. He
further maintained that the action of contagions was precisely similar. In his latest
writings on the subject (in 1870), he admits some change of view; but it is by no
means easy to decide exactly how much or how little of modification he would wish
to imply.
Licbie’s second report, presented at the meeting of this Association in 1842,
and published under the title of ‘ Animal Chemistry, or Organic Chemistry in its
applications to Physiology and Pathology,’ perhaps excited even more attention than
his first, and, probably from the manner as much as from the matter, aroused a great
deal of controversy, especially among physiologists and physicians. Liebig was
severe upon what he considered to be a too exclusive attention to morphological
characters in physiological research, and at any rate too little attention to chemical
phenomena, and, so far as these were investigated, an inadequate treatment of the
subject according to strictly quantitative methods.
He combated the view that nervous action, as such, could be a source of any
of the heat of the body; aud he adduced numerous illustrations and calculations
in support of the view that the combustion of carbon and hydrogen in the system
was sufficient to account for, and was the only source of, animal heat.
He compared and contrasted the general composition of plants and animals.
In accordance with Mulder, he pointed out that whilst plants formed the nitro-
genous bodies which they contain from carbonic acid, water, and ammonia, animals
did not produce them, but received them ready-formed in their vegetable food;
that, in fact, the animal begins only where the plant ends. But, going beyond
Mulder, and beyond what had then, or has since, been established, he maintained the
identity in composition of the admittedly analogous nitrogenous compounds in plants
and in the blood of animals.
Omitting the fat which the carnivora might receive in the animals they con-
sumed, he stated the characteristic difference between the food of carnivora and
herbivora to be, that the former obtained the main proportion of their respiratory
material from the waste of tissue ; whilst the latter obtained a large amount from
starch, sugar, &c. These different conditions of life accounted for the comparative
leanness of carnivora and fatness of herbivora.
He maintained that the vegetable food consumed by herbivora did not contain
anything like the amount of fat which they stored up in their bodies; and he
showed how nearly the composition of fat was obtained by the simple elimination
of so much oxygen, or of oxygen and a little carbonic acid, from the various carbo-
hydrates. Much less oxygen would be required to be eliminated from a quantity
of fibrine, &c., containing a given amount of carbon, than from a quantity of carbo-
hydrates containing an equal amount of carbon. The formation of fatty matter in
plants was of the same kind; it was the result of a secondary action, starch being
first-formed from carbonic acid and water.
He concluded from the facts adduced that the food of man might be divided
into the nitrogenised and the non-nitrogenised elements. The former were capable of
conversion into blood, the latter incapable of such transformation. The former might
be called the plastic elements of nutrition, the latter elements of respiration. From
the plastic elements, the membranes and cellular tissue, the nerves and brain, car-
tilage, and the organic part of bones, could be formed ; but the plastic substance
must be received ready-made. Whilst gelatine or chondrine was derived from
fibrine or albumen, fibrine or albumen could not be reproduced from gelatine or
chondrine. The gelatinous tissues suffer progressive alteration under the influence
of oxygen, and the materials for their re-formation must be restored from the blood.
It might, however, be a question whether gelatine taken in food might not again
be converted into cellular tissue, membrane, and cartilage, in the body.
At that time, adopting and attaching great importance to Mulder’s views in
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 513
regard to proteine, he says:—‘ All the. organic nitrogenised constituents of the
body, how different soever they may be in composition, are derived from proteine.
They are formed from it by the addition or subtraction of the elements of water
or of oxygen, and by resolution into two or more compounds.’
He seeks to trace the changes occurring in the conversion of the constituents of
food into blood, of those of blood into the various tissues, and of these into the
secretions and excretions,
He states that the process of chymification takes place in virtue of a purely
chemical action, exactly similar to those processes of decomposition or transforma-
tion which are known as putrefaction, fermentation, or decay. Thus, the clear
gastric juice contains a substance in a state of transformation, by the contact of
which with the insoluble constituents of the food they are rendered soluble, no
other element taking any share in the action excepting oxygen and the elements of
water. All substances which can arrest the phenomena of fermentation and putre-
faction in liquids, also arrest digestion when taken into the stomach. Putrefying
blood, white of eg, flesh, and cheese produce the same effects in a solution of
sugar as yeast or ferment; the explanation being, that ferment, or yeast, is nothing
but vegetable fibrine, albumen, or caseine, in a state of decomposition.
Referring to the derivation of the animal tissues, he says they all contain, for a
‘given amount of carbon, more oxygen than the nitrogenous constituents of blood.
In hair and gelatinous membrane there is also an excess of nitrogen and hydrogen,
and in the proportions to form ammonia. We may suppose an addition of these
elements, or a subtraction of carbon, the amount of nitrogen remaining the same.
The gelatinous substance is not a compound of proteine ; it contains no sulphur, no
phosphorus ; and it contains more nitrogen, or less carbon, than proteine.
He next, as he says, attempts to develop analytically the principal metamor-
phoses which occur in the animal body. He adds that the results have surprised
himself no less than they will others, and have excited in his own mind the same
doubts as others will conceive. He nevertheless gives them, because he is con-
vinced that the method by which they have been obtained is the only one by which
we can hope to acquire an insight into the nature of organic processes.
Referring to the animal secretions, he argues that they must contain the pro-
ducts of the metamorphosis of the tissues. He says a starving man with severe
exertion secretes more urea than the most highly fed individual in a state of rest ;
and he combats the idea that the nitrogen of the food can pass into urea without
having previously become part of an organised tissue.
Having shown the chemical relations of bile and urine to the proteine bodies,
he illustrates, by formule, the connection between allantoine and the constituents
of the urine of animals that respire. He insists that in the herbivora the carbo-
hydrates must take part in the formation of bile; and he calculates the number
of equivalents of proteine, starch, oxygen, and water, which would yield a given
number of equivalents of urea, choleic acid, ammonia, and carbonic acid. The non-
nitrogenous constituents in the food of the herbivora retard the metamorphosis of
the nitrogenous bodies, rendering this less rapid than in the carnivora. It may be
said that proteine, starch, and oxygen give the secretions and excretions—carbonic
acid by the lungs, urea and carbonate of ammonia by the kidneys, choleic acid by
the liver. Itis the study of the phenomena which accompany the metamorphoses
of the food in the organism, the discovery of the share which the atmosphere and
the elements of water take in these changes, by which we shall learn the conditions
necessary for the production of a secretion or of an organised part.
Ile traces the possible formation of taurine from caffeine or asparagine by
their assumption of oxygen and of the elements of water. And from the com-
position of the vegetable alkaloids he suggests the possibility of their taking a
share in the formation of new, or the transformation of existing, brain and nervous
matter.
Finally, in reference to these various illustrations and considerations, he says,
however hypothetical they may appear, they deserve attention in so far as they
point out the way which chemistry must pursue if she would really be of service
to ae and pathology. Chemistry, he says, relates to the conversion of food
. Li
514 REPORT—1880.
into the various tissues and secretions, and to their subsequent metamorphosis into
lifeless compounds,
After this lapse of time, it will certainly be granted that, quite irrespectively of
the admissibility or otherwise of the particular illustrations adduced, or of the
truth or error of any of the conclusions drawn—and some at least are so true that
they seem to us now all but truisms, and you may be disposed to ask me why I
should tell you over again a story so often told before—there is no doubt that
Liebig’s manner of treating the subject did exert an immense influence, by stimu-
lating investigation, by fixing attention on the points to be investigated, and on
the methods that must be followed, and thus, by leading to the establishment or
the correction of any special views he put forward, and to a vast extension of our
knowledge on the complicated questions involved.
In the third part of Liebig’s second volume he treats of the phenomena of
motion in the animal organism. It is to his views in regard to one aspect only of
this very wide and very complicated subject that I propose to call your attention
here, as it is chiefly in so far as that aspect is concerned that the question is of
interest from the point of view of the agricultural chemist. He says :—
‘We observe in animals that the conversion of food into blood, and the contact
of the blood with the living tissues, are determined by a mechanical force, whose
manifestation proceeds from distinct organs, and is effected by a distinct system of
organs, possessing the property of communicating and extending the motion which
they receive. We find the power of the animal to change its place and to produce
mechanical effects by means of its limbs dependent on a second similar system of
organs or apparatus.’
He points out that the motion of the animal fluids proceeds from distinct
organs (as, for example, that of the blood from the heart), which do not generate
the force in themselves, but receive it from other parts by means of the nerves; the
limbs also receive their moving force in the same way. He adds: ‘ Where nerves
are not found, motion does not occur.” Again:—
‘As an immediate effect of the manifestation of mechanical force, we see that a
part of the muscular substance loses its vital properties, its character of life; that
this portion separates from the living part, and loses its capacity of growth and its
power of resistance. We find that this change of properties is accompanied by
the entrance of a foreign body (oxygen) into the composition of the muscular
fibre. . . ; and all experience proves that this conversion of living muscular fibre into
compounds destitute of vitality is accelerated or retarded according to the amount
of force employed to produce motion.’ He adds that a rapid transformation of
muscular fibre determines a greater amount of mechanical force, and that conversely
a greater amount of mechanical motion determines a more rapid change of matter.
‘The change of matter, the manifestation of mechanical force, and the absorp-
tion of oxygen, are, in the animal body, so closely connected with each other that
we may consider the amount of motion and the quantity of living tissue transformed
as proportional to the quantity of oxygen inspired and consumed in a given time
by the animal.’ Acain:—
‘The production of heat and the change of matter are closely related to each
other; but although heat can be produced in the body without any change of
matter in living tissues, yet the change of matter cannot be supposed to take place
without the co-operation of oxygen.’
Further, on the same point :—‘ The sum of force available for mechanical pur-
poses must be equal to the sum of the vital forces of all tissues adapted to the
change of matter. If, in equal times, unequal quantities of oxygen are consumed,
the result is obvious in an unequal amount of heat liberated, and of mechanical
force. When unequal amounts of mechanical force are expended, this determines
the absorption of corresponding and unequal quantities of oxygen.’
Then, more definitely still, referring to the changes which take place coincidently
ee the exercise of force, and to the demands of the system for repair accordingly,
€ says :—
‘The amount of azotised food necessary to restore the equilibrium between waste
and supply is directly proportional to the amount of tissues metamorphosed. The
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 515
amount of living matter, which in the body loses the condition of life, is, in equal
temperatures, directly proportional to the mechanical effects produced in a given
time. The amount of tissue metamorphosed in a given time may be measured by
the quantity of nitrogen in the urine. The sum of the mechanical effects produced
in two individuals, in the same temperature, is proportional to the amount of nitro-
gen in their urine, whether the mechanical force has been employed in the voluntary
or involuntary motions, whether it has been consumed by the limbs, or by the heart
and other viscera.’
Thus, apparently influenced by the physiological considerations which have been
adduced, and notwithstanding in some passages he seemed to recognise a connection
between the total quantity of oxygen inspired and consumed and the quantity of
mechanical force developed, Liebig nevertheless very prominently insisted that the
amount of muscular tissue transformed—the amount of nitrogenous substance oxi-
dated—was the measure of the force generated. He accordingly distinctly draws
the conclusion that the requirement for the azotised constituents of food will be in-
creased in proportion to the increase in the amount of force expended.
It will be obvious that the question whether in the feeding of animals for the
exercise of mechanical force—that is, for their labour—the demands of the system
will be proportionally the greater for an increased supply of the nitrogenous or of
the non-nitrogenous constituents of food, is one of considerable interest and prac-
tical importance. To this point I shall have to refer further on.
So far, I have endeavoured to convey some idea of the state of knowledge on the
subject of the chemistry of agriculture prior to the appearance of Liebig’s first two
works bearing upon it, and also briefly to summarise the views he then enunciated
in regard to some points of chief importance. Let us next try to ascertain some-
thing of the influence of his teaching.
Confining attention to agricultural research, it may be observed that in 1845—
that is, very soon after the appearance of the works in question—the Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England first appointed a consulting chemist. At that date
Dr. Lyon Playfair was elected ; in 1848, Professor Way ; and in 1858 Dr. Voelcker,
who continues to hold the office with much advantage to that union of ‘ Practice
with Science’ which the Society by its motto recognises as so essential to progress
Also in 1843 there was established the Chemico-Agricultural Society of Scotland,
which was, I believe, broken up, after it had existed between four and five years,
because its able chemist, the late Professor Johnston, failed to find a remedy for the
potato disease. In 1845, the Chemico-Agricultural Society of Ulster was estab-
lished, and appointed as its chemist, Professor Hodges, who still ably performs
the duties of the office. Lastly, the very numerous ‘ Agricultural Experimental
Stations’ which have been established, not only in Germany, but in most Conti-
nental States, owe their origin directly to the writings, the teachings, and the
influence of Liebig. The movement seems to have originated in Saxony, where
Stéckhardt had already stimulated interest in the subject by his lectures and his
writings. After some correspondence, in 1850-1, between the late Dr. Crucius
and others on the one side, and the Government on the other, the first so-called
Agricultural Experimental Station was established at Méchern, near Leipzig, in
1851-2. In 1877, the twenty-fifth anniversary of the foundation of that institu-
tion was celebrated at Leipzig, when an account (which has since been published)
_ was given of the number of stations then existing, of the number of chemists engaged,
and of the subjects which had been investigated. From that statistical statement
we learn that in 1877 the number of stations was :—
In the various German States : orice
In Austria . ; , ‘ c q yee
In Italy : ; : ; F - yk)
In Sweden . ; , ‘ 1 e whined
In Denmark . p F 5 sigh
In Russia. 2 : : ; P wre
In Belgium - : ; . ‘ : pisene
In Holland . : i , ? . it,
516 REPORT— 1880.
Brought forward . : ; : . 116
In France . ‘ : iE ‘ Any?
In Switzerland . 5 ‘ j , Y TRS:
In Spain. ‘ 7 : ; wel
Total ‘ : : . 192
Besides these 122 stations on the Continent of Europe, the United States are
credited with 1, and Scotland also with 1.
Each of these stations is under the direction of a chemist, frequently with one
or more assistants. One special duty of most of them is what is called manure-
or seed- or feeding-stuff-control ; that is, to examine or analyse, and report upon
such substances in the market; and it seems to have been found the interest of dealers
in these commodities to submit their proceedings to a certain degree of supervision
by the chemist of the station of their district.
But agricultural research has also been a characteristic feature of these institu-
tions. It is stated that the investigation of soils has been the prominent object
at 16 of them; experiments with manures at 24; vegetable physiology at 28;
animal physiology and feeding experiments at 20; vine-culture and wine-making at
13; forest-culture at 9; and milk-production at 11. Others, according to their
locality, have devoted special attention to fruit-culture, olive-culture, the cultivation
of moor, bog, and peat land, the production of silk, the manufacture of spirit, and
other products.
Nor does this enumeration of the institutions established as the direct result of
Liebig’s influence, and of the subjects investigated under their auspices, complete
the list either of the workers engaged, or of the work accomplished in agricultural
research. To say nothing of the labours of Boussingault, which commenced some
years prior to the appearance of Liebig’s first work, and which are fortunately still
at the service of agriculture, important contributions have been made by the late
Professors Johnston and Anderson in Scotland, and in this country both by Mr. Way
and Dy. Voelcker, each alike in his private capacity, and in fulfilment of his duties as
Chemist to the Royal Agricultural Society of England. Nor would it be fair to
Mr. Lawes (who commenced experimenting first with plants in pots, and afterwards
in the field, soon after entering into possession of his property in 1834, and with whom
Ihave myself been associated since 1845) were I to omit in this place any mention
of the investigations which have been so many years in progress at Rothamsted.
So much for the machinery; but what of the results achieved by all this
activity in the application of chemistry to agriculture ?
As I have already intimated, and as the foregoing brief statistical statement
will have convinced you must be the case, it will be utterly impossible to give,
on such an occasion as this, anything approaching to an adequate review of the
progress achieved. Indeed, I have to confess that the more I have looked at the
subject with the hope of treating it comprehensively, the more I have been impelled
to substitute a very limited plan for the much more extended scheme which I had
at first hoped to be able to fill up. I propose then to confine attention to a few
special points, which have either some connection with one another, or to which
yecent results or discussions lend some special interest.
First as to the sources and the assimilation of the carbon, the hydrogen, and the
oxygen of vegetation. From the point of view of the agricultural chemist, the hydro-
ven and the oxygen may be left out of view. For, if the cultivator provide to the
plant the conditions for the accumulation of sufficient nitrogen and carbon, he may
leave it to take care of itself in the matter of hydrogen and oxygen. That the hydro-
gen of the carbo-hydrates is exclusively obtained from water, is, to say the least, pro-
bable ; and whether part of their oxygen is derived from carbonic acid, and part from
water, or the whole from either of these, will not affect his agricultural practice.
With regard to the carbon, the whole tendency of subsequent observations is to
confirm the opinion put forward by De Saussure about the commencement of the
century, and so forcibly insisted upon by Liebig forty years later—-that the greater
part, if not the whole of it, is derived from the carbonic acid of the atmosphere.
Indeed, direct experiments are not wanting—those of Moll, for example—from
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 517
which it has been concluded that plants do not even utilise the carbonic acid which
they may take up from the soil by their roots. However this may be, we may
safely conclude that practically the whole of the carbon which it is the object of
the cultivator to force the plants he grows to take up is derived from the atmo-
sphere, in which it exists in such extremely small proportion, but nevertheless large
actual, and constantly renewed amount.
Judging from the more recent researches on the point, it would seem probable
that the estimate of one part of carbon, as carbonic acid, in 10,000 of air, is more
probably too high than too low as an estimate of the average quantity in the
ambient atmosphere of our globe. And, although this would correspond to several
times more in the column of air resting over an acre of land than the vegetation of
that area can annually take up, it represents an extremely small amount at any
one time in contact with the growing plants, and it could only suffice on the suppo-
sition of a very rapid renewal, accomplished as the result, on the one hand of a con-
stant return of carbonic acid to the atmosphere by combustion and the respiration
of animals, and on the other of a constant interchange and equalisation among the
constituents of the atmosphere.
It will convey a more definite idea of what is accomplished by vegetation in the
assimilation of carbon from the atmosphere if I give, in round numbers, the resu'ts
of some direct experiments made at Rothamsted, instead of making general state-
ments merely.
In a field which has now grown wheat for thirty-seven years in succession, there
are some plots to which not an ounce of carbon has been returned during the whole
of that period. Yet, with purely mineral manure, an ayerage of about 1000 pounds
of carbon is annually removed from the land; and where a given amount of nitro-
genous manure is employed with the mineval manure, an average of about 1500 pounds
per acre per annum more is obtained; in all an average of about 2500 pounds of
earbon annually assimilated over an acre of land without any return of carbonaceous
manure to it.
In a field in which barley has been grown for twenty-nine years in succession,
quite accordant results have been obtained. There, smaller amounts of nitrogenous
manure have been employed with the mineral manure than in the experiments with
wheat above cited ; but the increase in the assimilation of carbon for a given amount
of nitrogen supplied in the manure is greater in the case of the barley than of the
wheat.
With sugar-heet, again, larger amounts of carbon have been annually accumu-
lated without the supply of any to the soil, but under the influence of a liberal
provision of both nitrogenous and mineral manure, than by either wheat or barley.
Lastly, with grass, still larger amounts of carbon have been annually accuma-
lated, without any supply of it by manure.
ii) Many experiments have been made, in Germany and elsewhere, to determine the
amount of the different constituents taken up at different periods of the growth of
various plants. But we may refer to some made at Rothamsted long ago to illus-
trate the rapidity with which the carbon of our crops may be withdrawn from the
atmosphere.
In 1847, we carefully took samples from a growing wheat crop at different stages
of its progress, commencing on June 21, and in these samples the dry matter, the
mineral matter, the nitrogen, &c., were determined. On each occasion the produce
of two separate eighths or sixteenths of an acre was cut and weighed, so that the
data were provided to calculate the amounts of the several constituents which had
been accumulated per acre at each period. The result was that, whilst during
little more than five weeks from June 21, there was comparatively little increase
in the amount of nitrogen accumulated over a given area, more than half the total
carbon of the crop was accumulated during that period.
Numerous experiments of a somewhat similar kind, made in another season, 1856,
concurred in showing that, whilst the carbon of the crop was more than doubled
after the middle of June, its nitrogen increased in a much less degree over the same
eriod.
s Similar experiments were also made, in 1854 and in 1856, with beans. The
518 REPORT—1880.
general tesult was that a smaller proportion of both the total nitrogen and the total |
carbon was accumulated by the middle or end of June than in the case of the wheat; »
though the actual amount of nitrogen taken up by the beans was much greater, both
before and after that date. The nitrogen of this leguminous crop increased in a
much greater proportion during the subsequent stages of growth than did that of
the gramineous crop; but the carbon increased in a larger proportion still, three-
fourths or more of the total amount of it being accumulated after the middle of June.
I should say that determinations of carbon, made in samples of soil taken from
the wheat field at different periods during recent years, indicate some decline in the
percentage of carbon in the soils, but not such as to lead to the supposition that the
soils have contributed to the carbon of the crops. Besides the amount of carbon
annually removed, there will, of course, be a further accumulation in the stubble
and roots of the crops; and the reduction in the total carbon of the soil, if such
have really taken place, would show that the annual oxidation within it is greater
than the annual gain by the residue of the crops.
Large as is the annual accumulation of carbon from the atmosphere over a given
area in the cases cited, it is obvious that the quantity must vary exceedingly with
variation of climatal conditions. It is, in fact, several times as great in the case of
tropical vegetation—that of the sugar-cane for example. And not only is the
greater part of the assimilation accomplished within a comparatively small portion
of the year (varying of course according to the region), but the action is limited
to the hours of daylight, whilst during darlmess there is rather loss than gain.
But it is remarkable that whilst the accumulation of carbon, the chief gain of
solid material, takes place under the influence of light, cell-division, cell-multipli-
cation, increase in the structure of the plant, in other words, what, as distinguished
from assimilation, vegetable physiologists designate as growth, takes place, at any
rate chiefly, during the night ; and is accompanied, not with the taking up of carbonic
acid and the yielding up of oxygen, but with the taking up of oxygen and the giving
upof carbonic acid. This evolution of carbonic acid during darkness must obviously
be extremely small, compared with the converse action during day-light, coinciden-
tally with which practically the whole of the accumulation of solid substance is ac-
complished. But,as the product of the night action is the same asin the respiration .
of animals, this is distinguished by vegetable physiologists as the respiration of plants.
I suppose I shall he considered a heretic if I venture to suggest that it seems in a
sense Inappropriate to apply the term growth to that which is associated with actual
loss of material, and that the term respiration should be applied to so secondary an
action as that as the result of which carbonic acid is given off from the plant. It
may, I think, be a question whether there is any advantage in thus attempting to
establish a parallelism between animal and vegetable processes; rather would it
seem advantageous to keep prominently in view their contrasted, or at any rate
complementary characteristics, especially in the matter of the taking up of carbonic
acid and the giving up of oxygen on the one hand, and the taking in of oxygen
and the giving up of carbonic acid on the other,
But it is obvious that in latitudes where there is comparatively continuous
daylight during the periods of vegetation, the two actions—designated respectively
assimilation and growth—must go on much more simultaneously than where
there is a more marked alternation of daylight and darkness. In parts of Norway
and Sweden, for example, where, during the summer, there is almost continuous
daylight, crops of barley are grown with only from six to eight weeks intervening
from seed-time to harvest. And Professor Schiibeler, of Christiania, after making
observations on the subject for nearly thirty years, has recently described the
characteristics of the vegetation developed under the influence of short summers
with almost continuous light. He states that, after acclimatisation, many gar-
den flowers increase in size and depth of colour; that there is a prevailing tinge
of red in the plants of the fjelds; that the aroma of fruits is increased, and their
colour well developed, but that they are deficient in sweetness; and that the deve-
lopment of essential oils in certain plants is greater than in the same plants grown
in other latitudes. Indeed, he considers it to be an established fact that light bears
the same relation to aroma as heat does to sweetness.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 519
In connection with this question of the characters of growth under the influence
of continuous light, compared with those developed with alternate light and dark-
ness, the recent experiments of Dr. Siemens on the influence of electric light on
vegetation are of considerable interest.
In one series of experiments, he kept one set of plants entirely inthe dark, a second
he exposed to electric light only, a third to daylight only, and a fourth to daylight,
and afterwards to electric light from5 to 11 p.m. Those kept in the dark acquired
a pale yellow colour, and died; those exposed to electric light only, maintaimed a
light green colour, and survived; those exposed to daylight were of a darker green
colour, and were more vigorous; and, lastly, those submitted to alternate daylight
and electric light, and but a few hours of darkness, showed decidedly greater
vigour, and, as he says, the green of the leaf was of a dark rich hue. He concluded.
that daylight was twice as effective as electric light ; but that, nevertheless, ‘ elec-
tric light was clearly sufficiently powerful to form chlorophyll and its derivatives
in the plants.’
In a second series of experiments one group of plants was exposed to daylight
alone ; a second to electric light during eleven hours of the night, and was kept in
the dark during the day; and a third to eleven hours day, and eleven hours electric
licht. The plants in daylight showed the usual healthy appearance; those in
alternate electric light and darkness were for the most part of a lighter colour ;
and those in alternate daylight and electric light far surpassed the others in dark-
ness of green and vigorous appearance generally,
I have carefully considered these ‘general descriptions with a view to their
bearing. on the question whether the characters developed under the influence of
electric light, and especially those under the influence of almost continuous light,
are more prominently those of assimilation or of growth; but I have not been able
to come to a decisive opinion on the point. From some conversation I had with
Dr, Siemens on the subject, I gather that the characteristics were more those of
dark colour and vigour than of tendency to great extension in size. The dark green
colour we may suppose to indicate a liberal production of chlorophyll; but if the
depth of colour was more than normal, it might be concluded that the chlorophyll
had not performed its due amount of assimilation work. In regard to this point,
attention may be called to the fact that Dr. Siemens refers to the abundance of the
blue or actinic rays in the electric arc, conditions which would not be supposed
specially to fayour assimilation. On the other hand, the vigour, rather than charac-
teristic extension in size, would seem to indicate a limitation of what is technically
called growth, under the influence of the almost continuous light.
Among the numerous field experiments made at Rothamsted, we have many
examples of great variation in depth of green colour of the vegetation growing on
plots side by side under known differences as to manuring ; and we have abundant
evidence of difference of composition, and of rate of carbon-assimilation, coincidently
with these different shades of colour, One or two instances will strikingly illus-
trate the point under consideration,
There are two plots side by side in the series of experiments on permanent grass
land, each of which received during six consecutive years precisely the same amount
of a mixed mineral manure, including potass, and the same amount of nitrogen in
the form of ammonia salts. After those six years, one of the two plots was still
manured in exactly the same way each year; whilst the other was so, with one
exception—namely, the potass was now excluded from the manure. Calculation
shows that there was a great excess of potass applied during the first six years ;/
and there was no marked diminution of produce during the five or six years suc-
ceeding the cessation of the application. But each year subsequently, up to the
present time, now a period of fourteen years, or of nineteen since the exclusion of the
potass, the falling off in produce has been very great.
The point of special interest is, however, that all but identically the same.
amount of nitrogen has been taken up by the herbage growing with the deficiency
of potass as by that with the continued supply of it. The colour of the vegetation,
with the deficiency of potass has-been very much darker green than that with the
full supply of it.. Nevertheless, taking the average of the eight years succeeding:
520 REPORT— 1880.
the first six of the exclusion of the potass, there has been nearly 400 lbs. less carbon
assimilated per acre per annum; and in some of the still later years the deficiency
has been very much greater than this.
We have here, then, the significant fact that an equal amount of nitrogen was
taken up in both cases, that chlorophyll was abundantly produced, but that the full
amount of carbon was not assimilated. In other words, the nitrogen was there, the
chlorophyll was there, there was the same sun-light for both plots; but the assimi-
lation-work was not done where there was not a due supply of potass.
Again, in the field in which barley has now been grown for twenty-nine years
in succession, there are two plots which have annually received the same amount of
nitrogen—the one in conjunction with salts of potass, soda, and magnesia; and the
other with the same, and superphosphate of lime in addition. The plot without
the superphosphate of lime always maintains a darker green colour. At any given
period of growth the dry substance of the produce would undoubtedly contain a
higher percentage of nitrogen ; but there has been a deficient assimilation of carbon,
amounting to more than 500 lbs. per acre per annum, over a period of twenty-eight
years. Here again, then, the nitrogen was there, the chlorophyll was there, the
sun-light was there, but the work was not done.
It may be stated generally that, in comparable cases, depth of green colour, if
not beyond a certain limit, may be taken to indicate corresponding activity of carbon
assimilation ; but the two instances cited are sufficient to show that we may, so far
as the nitrogen, the chlorophyll, and the light are concerned, have the necessary
conditions for full assimilation, but not corresponding actual assimilation.
It cannot, I think, fail to be recognised that in these considerations we have
opened up to view a very wide field of research, and some of the points involved
we may hope will receive elucidation from the further prosecution of Dr, Siemens’s
experiments. He will himself, I am sure, be the first to admit that what he has
already accomplished has done more in raising than in settling important questions.
I understand that he proposes to submit plants to the action of the separated rays
of his artificial light, and the results obtained cannot fail to be of much interest.
But it is obvious that the investigation should now pass from its present initiative
character to that of a strictly quantitative inquiry. We ought to know not only
that, under given conditions as to light, plants acquire a deeper green colour and
attain maturity much earlier than under others, but how much matter is assimi-
lated in each case, and something also of the comparative chemical characters of
the products. As between the action of one description of light and another, and
as between the greater or less continuity of exposure, we ought to be able to form 2
judgment whether the proper balance between assimilation on the one hand, and
growth and proper maturation on the other, has been attained; whether the
plants have taken up nitrogen and mineral matter, and produced chlorophyll, in a
greater degree than the quantity and the quality of the light have been able to
turn to account; or whether the conditions as to light have been such that the
processes of transformation and growth from the reserve material provided by
assimilation have not been normal, or have not kept pace with the production of
that material.
But one word more in reference to Dr. Siemens’s results and proposed extension
of his inquiries. Even supposing that by submitting growing crops to continuous
light by the aid of the electric light during the night, they could be brought to
maturity within a period shorter than at present approximately in proportion to
the increased number of hours of exposure, the estimates of the cost of illuminating
the vegetation of an acre of land certainly do not seem to hold out any hope that
agriculture is likely to derive benefit from such an application of science to its
needs. If, however, the characters of growth and of maturation should prove to
be suitable for the requirements of horticultural products of luxury and high value,
it may possibly be otherwise with such productions.
The above considerations obviously suggest the question : What is the office of
chlorophyll in the processes of vegetation? Is it, as has generally been assumed,
confined to effecting, in some way not yet clearly understood, carbon assimilation,
and, this done, its function ended ? Or is it, as Pringsheim has recently suggested,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 521
chiefly of avail in protecting the subjacent cells and their contents from those rays
of light which would be adverse to the secondary processes which have been dis-
tinguished as growth ?
Appropriate as it would seem that I should attempt to lay before you a résumé
of results bearing upon the points herein involved, so numerous and so varied have
been the investigations which have been undertaken on the several branches of the
question in recent years, that adequately to discuss them would occupy the whole
time and space at my disposal. I must therefore be content thus to direct atten-
tion to the subject and pass on to other points.
It has been shown that the plant may receive abundance of nitrogen, may pro-
duce abundance of chlorophyll, and may be subject to the influence of sufficient
light, and yet not assimilate a due amount of carbon. On the other hand, it has
been seen that the mineral constituents may be liberally provided, and yet, in the
absence of a sufficient supply of nitrogen in an available condition, the deficiency in
the assimilation of carbon will be still greater. In fact, assuming all the other
necessary conditions to be provided, it was seen that the amount of carbon assimi-
lated depended on the available supply of nitrogen.
In a certain general sense it may be said that the success of the cultivator may
be measured by the amount of carbon he succeeds in accumulating in his crops.
And as, other conditions being provided, the amount of carbon assimilated depends
on the supply of nitrogen in an available form within the reach of the plants, it is
obyious that the question of the sources of the nitrogen of vegetation is one of first
importance. Are they the same for all descriptions of plants? Are they to be
sought entirely in the soil, or entirely in the atmosphere, or partly in the one
and partly in the other?
These are questions which Mr. Lawes and myself have discussed so frequently
that it might seem some apology was due for recurring to the subject here, espe-
cially as 1 referred to it in some of its aspects before this Section at the Sheffield
Meeting last year. But the subject still remains one of first importance to agri-
culture, and it could not be omitted from consideration in such a review as I have
undertaken to give. Moreover, there are some points connected with it still un-
settled, and some still disputed.
It will be remembered that De Saussure’s conclusion was that plants did not
assimilate the free or uncombined nitrogen of the atmosphere, and that they
derived their nitrogen from the compounds of it existing in the atmosphere, and
especially in the soil. Liebig, too, concluded that plants do not assimilate nitrogen
from the store of it existing in the free or uncombined state, but that ammonia
was their main source, and he assumed the amount of it annually coming down in
rain to be much more than we now know to be the case.
Referring to our previous papers for full details respecting most of the points
in question, I will state, as briefly as I can, the main facts known—first in regard
to the amount of the measurable, or as yet measured, annual deposition of combined
nitrogen from the atmosphere; and secondly as to the amount of nitrogen annually
assimilated over a given area by different crops—so that some judgment may
be formed as to whether the measured atmospheric sources are sufficient for the
requirements of agricultural production, or whether, or where, we must look for
other supplies ?
First, as to the amount of combined nitrogen coming down as ammonia and
nitric acid in the measured aqueous deposits from the atmosphere.
Judging from the results of determinations made many years ago, partly by
Mr. Way, and partly by ourselves, in the rain, &c., collected at Rothamsted ; from
the results of numerous determinations made much more recently by Professor
Frankland in the deposits collected at Rothamsted, and also in rain collected
elsewhere; from the results obtained by Boussingault in Alsace; from those of
Marié-Davy at the Meteorological Observatory at Montsouris, Paris; and from
those of many others made in France and Germany—we concluded, some years
ago, that the amount of combined nitrogen annually so coming down from the
atmosphere would not exceed 8 or 10 Ibs. per acre per annum in the open country
in Western Europe. Subsequent records would lead to the conclusion that this
522 REPORT—1880.
estimate is more probably too high than too low. And here it may be mentioned
in passing, that numerous determinations of the nitric acid in the drainage water
collected from land at Rothamsted, which had been many years unmanured, indicate
that there may be a considerable annual loss by the soil in that way; indeed, pro-
bably sometimes much more than the amount estimated to be annually available
from the measured aqueous deposits from the atmosphere.
It should be observed, however, that the amount of combined nitrogen, especially
of ammonia, is very much greater in a given volume of the minor aqueous deposits
than it is in rain; and there can be no doubt that there would be more deposited
within the pores of a given area of soil than on an equal area of the non-porous
even surface of a rain-gauge. How much, however, might thus be available beyond
that determined in the collected and measured aqueous deposits, the existing
evidence does not afford the means of estimating with any certainty.
The next point to consider is—What is the amount of nitrogen annually
obtained over a given area, in different crops, when they are grown without any
supply of itin manure? ‘The field experiments at Rothamsted supply important
data relating to this subject.
Thus, over a period of 32 years (up to 1875 inclusive), wheat yielded an average
of 20:7 lbs. of nitrogen per acre per annum, without any manure; but the annual
yield has declined from an average of more than 25 lbs. over the first 8, to less than
16 lbs. over the last 12, of those 32 years; and the yield (it is true with several
bad seasons), has been still less since.
Over a period of 24 years, barley yielded 18°5 lbs. of nitrogen per acre per
annum, without any manure; with a decline from 22 lbs. over the first 12, to only
14°6 lbs. over the next 12 years.
With neither wheat nor barley did a complex mineral manure at all materially
increase the yield of nitrogen in the crops.
A succession of so-called ‘root crops’—common turnips, Swedish turnips, and
sugar beet (with 3 years of barley intervening after the first 8 years)—yielded,
with a complex mineral manure, an average of 26°8 lbs. of nitrogen per acre per
annum over a period of 31 years. The yield declined from an average of 42 Ibs.
oyer the first 8 years, to only 13:1 Ibs. (in sugar beet) over the last 6 of the 51 years ;
but it has risen somewhat during the subsequent 4 years, with a change of crop to
mangolds.
With the lezuminous crop, beans, there was obtained, over a period of 24 years,
31:3 lbs. of nitrogen per acre per annum without any manure, and 45:5 lbs. with a
complex mineral manure, including potass (but without nitrogen). Without
manure the yield declined from 48:1 Ibs. over the first 12 years to only 14°6 Ibs.
over the last 12; and with the complex mineral manure it declined from 61:6 Ths.
over the first 12, to 29°5 lbs. over the last 12, years of the 24.
Again, an ordinary rotation of crops—of turnips, barley, clover or beans, and
wheat—save over a period of 28 years an average of 36°8 lbs. of nitrogen per acre
per annum without any manure, and of 45:2 lbs. with superphosphate of lime alone,
applied once every four years, that is for the root crop. Both without manure, and
with superphosphate of lime alone, there was a considerable decline in the later courses.
A very remarkable instance of nitrogen yield is the following—in which the
results obtained when barley succeeds barley, that is when one gramineous crop
succeeds another, are contrasted with those when a leguminous crop, clover, inter-
venes between the two cereal crops. Thus, after the growth of six grain crops in
succession by artificial manures alone, the field so treated was divided, and, in 1875,
on one half barley, and on the other half clover, was grown. The barley yielded
37:3 lbs, of nitrogen per acre, but the three cuttings of clover yielded 151°3 Ibs.
In the next year, 1874, barley succeeded on both the barley and the clover portions
of the field. Where barley had previously been grown, and had yielded 37:3 Ibs.
of nitrogen per acre, it now yielded 39:1 lbs. ; but where the clover had previously
been grown, and had yielded 151°3 Ibs. of nitrogen, the barley succeeding it gave
69:4 lbs., or 80:3 Ibs. more after the removal of 151°3 lbs. in clover, than after the
removal of only 37:3 lbs. in barley.
Nor was this curious result in any way accidental. It is quite consistent with
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 523
agricultural experience that the growth and removal of a highly nitrogenous
leguminous crop should leave the land in high condition for the growth of a grami-
neous corn crop, which characteristically requires nitrogenous manuring ; and the
determinations of nitrogen in numerous samples of the soil taken from the two
separate portions of the field, after the removal of the barley, and the clover, respec-
tively, concurred in showing considerably more nitrogen, especially in the first
9 inches of depth, in the samples from the portion where the clover had been
grown, than in those from the portion whence the barley had been taken. Here,
then, the surface soil at any rate, had been considerably enriched in nitrogen by the
growth and removal of a very highly nitrogenous crop.
Lastly, clover has now been grown for twenty-seven years in succession, on a
small plot of garden ground which had been under ordinary garden cultivation for
probably two or three centuries. In the fourth year after the commencement of the
experiment, the soi! was found to contain, in its upper layers, about four times as
much nitrogen as the farm-arable-land surrounding it; and it would doubtless be
correspondingly rich in other constituents. It is estimated that an amount of nitro-
gen has been removed in the clover crops grown, corresponding to an average of not
far short of two hundred pounds per acre per annum ; or about ten times as much as
in the cereal crops, and several times as much as in any of the other crops, growing
on ordinary arable land; and, although the yield continues to be very large, there
has been a marked decline over the second half of the period compared with the
first. Of course, calculations of the produce of a few square yards into quantities
per acre can only be approximately correct. But there can at any rate be no doubt
whatever, that the amount of nitrogen annually removed has been very great ; and
very far beyond what it would be possible to attain on ordinary arable land ; where,
indeed, we have not succeeded in getting even a moderate growth of clover for more
than a very few years in succession.
One other illustration should be given of the amounts of nitrogen removed from
a given area of land by different descriptions of crop, namely, of the results obtained
when plants of the gramineous, the leguminous, and other families, are growing
together, as in the mixed herbage of grass-land.
It is necessary here to remind you that gramineous crops grown separately on
arable land, such as wheat, barley, or oats, contain a comparatively small percentage
of nitrogen, and assimilate a comparatively small amount of it over a given area.
Yet, nitrogenous manures have generally a very striking effect in increasing the
growth of such crops. The highly nitrogenous leguminous crops (such as beans and
clover), on the other hand, yield, as has been seen, very much more nitrogen over a
given area, and yet they are by no means characteristically benefited by direct
nitrogenous manuring; whilst, as has been shown, their growth is considerably
increased, and they yield considerably more nitrogen over a given area, under the
influence of purely mineral manures, and especially of potass manures. Bearing
these facts in mind, the following results, obtained on the mixed herbage of grass
land, will be seen to be quite consistent.
A plot of such mixed herbage, left entirely unmanured, gave over twenty years,
an average of 33 pounds of nitrogen per acre per annum. Over the same period
another plot, which received annually a complex mineral manure, including potass,
during the first six years, but excluding it during the last fourteen years, yielded
46°3 lbs of nitrogen; whilst another, which received the mixed mineral manure,
including potass, every year of the twenty, yielded 55-6 Ibs. of nitrogen per acre
per annum. Without manure, there was some decline of yield in the later years;
with the partial mineral manuring there was a greater decline ; but with the com-
plete mineral manuring throughout the whole period, there was even some increase
in the yield of nitrogen in the later years.
Now, the herbage growing without manure comprised about fifty species, repre-
senting about twenty natural families; that growing with the limited supply of
potass comprised fewer species, but a larger amount of the produce, especially in
the earlier years, consisted of leguminous species, and the yield of nitrogen was
greater. Lastly, the plot receiving potass every year yielded still more leguminous
herbage, and, accordingly, still more nitrogen.
524 REPORT—1880.
The most striking points brought out by the foregoing illustrations are the
following :—
First. Without nitrogenous manure, the gramineous crops annually yielded, for
many years in succession, much more nitrogen over a given area than is accounted
for by the amount of combined nitrogen annually coming down in the measured
aqueous deposits from the atmosphere.
Second. The root crops yielded more nitrogen than the cereal crops, and the
leguminous crops very much more still.
Third. In all cases—whether of cereal crops, root crops, leguminous crops, or a
rotation of crops—the decline tn the annual yield of nitrogen, when none was supplied,
was very great.
How are these results to be explained ? Whence comes the nitrogen? and
especially whence comes the much larger amount taken up by plants of the
leguminous and some other families, than by the graminee? And, lastly, what is
the significance of the great decline in the yield of nitrogen in all the crops when
none is supplied in the manure ?
Many explanations have been offered. It has been assumed that the combined
nitrogen annually coming down from the atmosphere is very much larger than we
have estimated it, and that it is sufficient for all the requirements of annual growth.
It has been supposed that ‘ broad-leaved plants’ have the power of taking up nitro-
gen in some form from the atmosphere, in a degree, or in a manner, not possessed
by the narrow-leaved gramineze. It has been argued that, in the last stages of
the decomposition of organic matter in the soil, hydrogen is evolved, and that this
nascent hydrogen combines with the free nitrogen of the atmosphere, and so forms
ammonia. It has been suggested that ozone may be evolved in the oxidation of
organic matter in the soil, and that, uniting with free nitrogen, nitric acid would he
produced. Lastly, it has by some been concluded that plants assimilate the free
nitrogen of the atmosphere, and that some descriptions are able to do this in a
greater degree than others.
We have discussed these various points on more than one occasion ; and we have
given our reasons for concluding that none of the explanations enumerated can be
taken as accounting for the facts of growth.
Confining attention here to the question of the assimilation of free nitrogen by
plants, it is obvious that, if this were established, most of our difficulties would
vanish. This question hasbeen the subject of a great deal of experimental inquiry,
from the time that Boussingault entered upon it, about the year 1837, nearly up to the
present time. About twenty years ago it was elaborately investigated at Rotham-
sted. In publishing the results of that inquiry, those of others relating to it were
fully discussed ; and although the recorded evidence is admittedly very conflicting,
we then came to the conclusion, and still adhere to it, that the balance of the direct
experimental evidence on the point is decidedly against the supposition of the assi-
milation of free nitrogen by plants. Indeed, the strongest argument we know of in
its favour, is, that some such explanation is wanted.
Not only is the balance of direct experimental evidence against the assumption
that plants assimilate free or uncombined nitrogen, but it seems to us that the
balance of existing indirect evidence is also in favour of another explanation of our
difficulties.
I have asked what is the significance of the gradual decline of produce of all
the different crops when continuously grown without nitrogenous manure? It
cannot be that, in growing the same crop year after year on the same land, there is
any residue left in the soil that is injurious to the subsequent growth of the same
description of crop; for (excepting the beans) more of each description of crop has
been grown year after year on the same land than the average yield of the country
at large under ordinary rotation, and ordinary treatment—provided only, that suit-
able soil-conditions were supplied. Nor can the diminishing produce, and the
diminishing yield of nitrogen, be accounted for on the supposition that there was a
deficient supply of available mineral constituents in the soil. For, it has been
shown that the cereals yielded little more, and declined nearly as much as without
manure, when a complex mineral manure was used, such as was proved to be ade-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 525
quate when available nitrogen was also supplied. So far as the root crops are con-
cerned, the yield of nitrogen, though it declined very much, was greater at first, and
on the average, than in the case of the cereals. As to the leguminose, which re-
quire so much nitrogen from somewhere, it is to be observed that on ordinary arable
land the yield has not been maintained under any conditions of manuring; and the
decline was nearly as marked with mineral manures as without any manure. Com-
pared with the growth of the leguminosx on arable land, the remarkable result with
the garden clover would seem clearly to indicate that the question was one of soil,
and not of atmospheric supply. And the fact that all the other crops will yield
full agricultural results even on ordinary arable land, when proper manures are
applied, is surely very strong evidence that it is with them, too, a question of soil,
and not of atmospheric supply.
But we have other evidence leading to the same conclusion. Unfortunately
we have not reliable samples of the soil of the different experimental fields taken at
the commencement of each series of experiments, and subsequently at stated inter-
vals. We have, nevertheless, in some cases, evidence sufficient to show whether or
not the nitrogen of the soil has suffered diminution by the continuous growth of the
crop without nitrogenous manure.
Thus, we have determined the nitrogen in the soil of the continuously unmanured
wheat plot at several successive periods, and the results prove that a gradual reduc-
tion in the nitrogen of the soil is going on ; and, so far as we are able to forma judg-
ment on the point, the diminution is approximately equal to the nitrogen taken out
in crops; and the amount estimated to be received in the annual rainfall is approxi-
mately balanced by the amount lost by the land as nitrates in the drainage water.
In the case of the continuous root-crop soil, on which the decline in the yield of
nitrogen in the crop was so marked, the percentage of nitrogen, after the experiment
had been continued for twenty-seven years, was found to be lower where no nitrogen
had been applied than in any other arable land on the farm which has been
examined.
In the case of the experiments on the mixed herbage of grass land, the soil of
the plot which, under the influence of a mixed mineral manure, including potass,
had yielded such a large amount of leguminous herbage and such a large amount of
nitrogen, showed, after twenty years, a considerably lower percentage of nitrogen
than that of any other plot in the series.
Lastly, determinations of nitrogen in the garden soil which has yielded so much
nitrogen in clover, made in samples collected in the fourth and the twenty-sixth
years of the twenty-seven of the experiments, show a very large diminution in the
percentage of nitrogen. The diminution, to the depth of 9 inches only, represents
approximately three-fourths as much as the amount estimated to be taken out in
the clover during the intervening period ; and the indication is, that there has been
a considerable reduction in the lower depths also. It is to be supposed, however,
that there would be loss in other ways than by the crop alone.
I yrould ask, Have we not in these facts—that full amounts of the different crops
can be grown, provided proper soil-conditions are supplied ; that without nitrogenous
manure the yield of nitrogen in the crop rapidly declines; and that, coincidently
with this, there is a decline in the percentage of nitrogen in the soil—have we not
in these facts cumulative evidence pointing to the soil, rather than to the atmosphere,
as the source of the nitrogen of our crops ?
In reference to this point, I may mention that the ordinary arable soil at Rotham-
sted may be estimated to contain about 3000 lbs. of nitrogen per acre in the first
9 inches of depth, about 1700 Ibs. in the second 9 inches and about 1500 Ibs. in
the third 9 inches—or a total of about 6200 lbs. per acre to the depth of 27
inches.
In this connection, it is of interest to state that a sample of Oxford clay, obtained
in the sub-Wealden exploration boring, at a depth of between 500 and 600 feet
(and which was kindly given to me by the President of the Association, Professor
Ramsay, some years ago), showed, on analysis at Rothamsted, approximately the
same percentage of nitrogen as the subsoil at Rothamsted taken to the depth of
bout 4 feet only.
526 : RErORT— 1880.
Lastly, in a letter received from Boussingault some years ago, referring to the
sources whence the nitrogen of vegetation is derived, he says :—
‘From the atmosphere, because it furnishes ammonia in the form of carbonate,
nitrates, or nitrites, and various kinds of dust. Theodore de Saussure was the first
to demonstrate the presence of ammonia in the air, and consequently in meteoric
waters. Liebig exaggerated the influence of this ammonia on vegetation, since he
went so far as to deny the utility of the nitrogen which forms a part of farm-yard
manure. This influence is nevertheless real, and comprised within limits which
have quite recently been indicated in the remarkable investigations of M. Schlésing.
‘From the soil, which, besides furnishing the crops with mineral alkaline sub-
stances, provides them with nitrogen, by ammonia, and by nitrates, which are
formed in the soil at the expense of the nitrogenous matters contained in diluvium,
which is the basis of vegetable earth ; compounds in which nitrogen exists in stable
combination, only becoming fertilising by the effect of time. If we take into
account their immensity, the deposits of the last geological periods must be con-
sidered as an inexhaustible reserve of fertilising agents. forests, prairies, and
some vineyards haye really no other manures than what are furnished by the
atmosphere and by the soil. Since the basis of all cultivated land contains
materials capable of giving rise to nitrogenous combinations, and to mineral sub-
stances, assimilable by plants, it is not necessary to suppose that in a system of
cultivation the excess of nitrogen found in the crops is derived from the free nitro-
gen of the atmosphere. As for the absorption of the gaseous nitrogen of the air by
vegetable earth, I am not acquainted with a single irreproachable observation that
establishes it; not only does the earth not absorb gaseous nitrogen, but it gives it
off, as you have observed in conjunction with Mr. Lawes, as Reiset has shown in
the case of dung, as M. Schlésing and I have proved in our researches on nitri-
fication.
‘Tf there is one fact perfectly demonstrated in physiology, it is this of the non-
assimilation of free nitrogen by plants; and I may add by plants of an inferior
order, such as mycoderms and mushrooms (Translation).’
If, then, our soils are subject to a continual loss of nitrogen by drainage, pro-
bably in many cases more than they receive of combined nitrogen from the atmo-
sphere—if the nitrogen of our crops is derived mainly from the soil, and not from
the atmosphere—and if, when due return is not made from without, we are draw-
ing upon what may be termed the store of nitrogen of the soil itself—is there
not, in the case of many soils at any rate, as much danger of the exhaustion of
their available nitrogen as there has been supposed to be of the exhaustion of their
available mineral constituents ? ‘
I had hoped to say something riore about soils, to advance our knowledge re-
specting which an immense amount of investigation has been devoted of late years,
but in regard to which we have yet very much more to learn. I must, however,
now turn to other matters,
I have thus far directed attention to some points of importance in connection
with the sources of the constituents of our crops, and I must now briefly refer to
some in connection with the composition, and to some relating to the uses, of the
crops themselves.
As to composition, I must confine myself to indicating something of what is
known of the condition of the nitrogen in our various crops; though I had intended
to say something respecting the carbo-hydrates, and especially respecting the
various members of the cellulose group.
As to the nitrogen—in our first experiments on the feeding of animals, made in
1847, 1848, and 1849, the results of which were published in the last-mentioned year
—we found that, in the case of succulent roots used as food, not only were they not
of value as food in proportion to their richness in nitrogen, but when the percentage
of it was higher than a certain normal amount, indicating relative succulence and
immaturity, they were positively injurious to the animals. So marked was the
variation of result according to the condition of maturity or otherwise of the
foods employed, that, when reviewing the results of the experiments which had up
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 527
to that time been conducted, in a paper read before this Section of the British
Association at the Belfast Meeting in 1852 (and which was published in full in the
annual volume?), we stated that the mode of estimating the amount of proteine
compounds by multiplying the percentage of nitrogen by 6°53 was far from accurate,
especially when applied to succulent vegetable foods, and that the individual com-
pounds ought to be determined. The Rothamsted Laboratory staff was, however,
much smaller then than it is now, and with the pressure of many other subjects
upon us, it was at that time quite impossible to follow up the enquiry in that
direction.
It is, indeed, only within the last ten years or so, that the question has been
taken up at all systematically ; but we are already indebted to KH. Schulze, A.
Urick, Church, Sachsse, Maercker, Kellner, Vines, Emmerling, and others, for
important results relating to it.
Our knowledge in regard to the subject is, however, still very imperfect. But
it is in progress of investigation from two distinctly different points of view—from
that of the vegetable physiologist, and that of the agricultural chemist. The
vegetable physiologist seeks to trace the changes that occur in the eermination of
the seed, and during the subsequent life-history of the plant, to the production of
‘seed again. The agricultural chemist takes the various vegetable products in the
condition in which they are used on the farm, or sold from it. And as a very large
proportion of what is grown, such as grass, hay, roots, tubers, and various green
crops, are not matured productions, it comes to be a matter of great importance to
consider whether or not any large proportion of the nitrogenous contents of such
roduets is in such condition as not to be of avail to the animals which consume
them in their food ?
We cannot say that the whole of the nitrogen in the seeds with which we have
to deal exists as albuminoids. But we may safely assume that the nearer they
approach to perfect ripeness, the less of non-albuminoid nitrogenous matters will
they contain; and, in the case of the cereal grains at any rate, it is probable that if
really perfectly ripe they will contain very nearly the whole cf their nitrogen as
albuminoids. “With regard to some leguminous and other seeds, which contain
peculiar nitrogenous bodies, the range may, however, be wider.
But whatever the condition of the nitrogenous bodies in the seeds we grow or
sow, with germination begins a material change. Albuminoids are transformed
into peptones, or peptone-like bodies, or degraded into various amido- or other com-
pounds. Such change into more soluble and more diffusible bodies is, it is to be
supposed, essential to their free migration, and to their subserviency to the purposes
of growth. In the case of the germination, especially of some leguminous seeds,
asparagine has been found to be a very prominent product of such degradation of
the albuminoids; but it would seem that this disappears as the green parts are
developed. But now the plant begins to receive supplies of nitrogen from the
soil, as nitrates or ammonia, and it would seem that amides constitute a consider-
able proportion of the produced nitrogenous bodies, apparently as an intermediate
stage in the formation of albuminoids. At any rate, such bodies are found to exist
largely in the immature plant; whilst the amount of them diminishes as the plant,
or its various parts, approach to maturity.
But not only have we thus, in unripened vegetable productions, a greater or
‘less, and sometimes a very large, proportion of the nitrogenous bodies formed within
the plant, existing as amido-compounds, but we may have a large amount existing
in the juices as nitric acid, and some as ammonia, &c. Thus, E. Schulze determined
the nitric acid in various ‘roots;’ and he found that, in some mangolds, more than
one-third of the total nitrogen existed in that form, and about one-tenth as much
as ammonia. In a considerable series at Rothamsted, we have found an extremely
variable proportion existing as nitric acid, according to the size, succulence, or
degree of maturity, of the roots; the amount being, as a rule, the least with the
ripest and less highly nitrogenous roots, and the most with the most succulent,
unripe, and highly nitrogenous ones. In some cases it reached as much as from
1<On the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and the Feeding of
Animals.’
528 REPORT—1880.
20 to nearly 30 per cent. of the total nitrogen. In many other immature vegetable
products nitric acid and ammonia have been found; but, so far as I remember, in
none in anything like so large a proportion as in the so-called ‘ root-crops,’ es-
pecially manoglds, In many, however, the quantity appears to be immaterial ; and
it is remarkable that whilst there is so much in the ‘ roots,’ little or none is found
in potatos.
No wonder that, in the experiments already referred to, we found the feeding
result to be the worse the more succulent and immature the roots, and the higher
their percentage of nitrogen, accordingly.
But it.is to the difference in amount of the albuminoid bodies themselves, in
different descriptions of vegetable produce, that I wish specially to direct attention,
making, however, some reference to what is known of the proportion of the
nitrogen existing as amido-compounds.
In some mangolds E. Schulze found only from about 20 to 22 per cent. of their
total nitrogen to exist as insoluble and soluble albumin. But he found in one case
32:5, and in the other 40'8, per cent. of the total nitrogen as amides. In a large
series of determinations at Rothamsted, by Church’s method, we found a variation
of from under 20 to over 40 per cent. of the total nitrogen of mangolds to exist as
albuminoids; or, in other words, from nearly 60 to over 80 per cent. of it in the
non-albuminoid condition.
In potatos Schulze found from under 50 to 66 per cent. of the total nitrogen
as soluble and insoluble albumin, and from 27:7 to 49:1 per cent. as neutral and
acid amides. In a series of potatos grown at Rothamsted, under very various
conditions as to manuring, and in two different seasons, we found the nitrogen as
albuminoids to range from little over 50 to more than 71 per cent. of the total
nitrogen; leaving, of course, from less than 30 to nearly 50 per cent. to be
accounted for in other ways.
Kellner determined the amount of nitrogen as albuminoids, and as amido-com-
pounds, in a considerable series of green foods, both leguminous and gramineous, cut
at different stages of their growth. The proportion of the total nitrogen not as
albuminoids was, upon the whole, greater in the leguminosze than in the graminee.
In both, however, the proportion as albuminoids increased as the plants approached
to maturity. The proportion as albuminoids was in all these products very much
larger than in roots, and generally larger than in potatos. In the case of first-crop
meadow hay, we found in the separated gramineous herbage 76:4, in the leyuminous
herbage 82, and in the miscellaneous herbage 80°3 per cent of the nitrogen as
albuminoids; and in the second crop 86:2 per cent. in the gramineous, 88°3 per
cent, in the leguminous, and 88:1 per cent. in the miscellaneous herbage. How far
the higher proportion of the nitrogen as albuminoids in the second crops is to he
taken as any indication of the characteristics of the autumn growth, or how far it is
to be attributed to the accidental condition of the weather, may be a question.
These illustrations are sufficient to give some idea of the range and proportion
of the nitrogen in different feeding crops which does not exist as albuminoids; and
they are sutlicient to show that a very large proportion of the non-albuminoid
matter exists as various amido-compounds. The question arises, therefore, whether
these bodies contribute in any way to the nutrition of the animals which feed upon
them ? We have but little experimental evidence on this point. As green herbage
is the natural food of many descriptions of animal, we might suppose that charac-
teristic constituents of it would not be without some value as food; but the culti-
vated root crops are much more artificial productions, and it is in them that we
find such a very large proportion of non-albuminoid nitrogen. With respect to
some of the amido-compounds, at any rate, direct experiments seem to show that
they are digested in the animal body, and increase the elimination of urea. Weiske
and Schrodt found that rabbits receiving, as their only nitrogenous food, either
asparagine or gelatin, wasted and died; but a rabbit receiving both asparagine and
gelatin increased in weight and survived to the end of the experiment, which
lasted seventy-two days. From the results of other experiments made with sheep,
they concluded that both asparagine and gelatin protect the albuminoids of the
body from oxidation.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B, 529
These considerations lead me, in conclusion, to refer briefly—and I promise
it shall be as briefly as is consistent with clearness—to the two very much disputed
questions of the origin of muscular power, and the sources of the fat of the animal
body. These subjects Mr. Lawes and myself have frequently discussed elsewhere ;
but as the controversy has assumed a new phase quite recently, it seems desirable
and appropriate that I should recur to it on the present occasion.
With regard to the question of the sources in the food of the fat of the animal
body, Liebig originally maintained that although fat might be formed from the
nitrogenous compounds within the body, the main source of it in the herbivora
was the carbo-hydrates. In his later writings, he sharply criticised the experi-
ments and arguments of those who have maintained the formation of fat chiefly
from the proteine compounds; but he at the same time seems to attach more
importance to that source than he formerly did. He gives it as his opinion that
the question cannot be settled by experiments with herbivora. He adds that what
we know with certainty is that, with these animals, albuminates and carbo-
hydrates work together to produce fat ; but whether the non-nitrogenous product,
fat, has its origin in the albumin or in the carbo-hydrate, h considers it not easy
to determine.
At the time when we commenced our experiments on the feeding of animals in
1847, the question whether the fat of the animals fed for human food was mainly
derived from albuminoids or from carbo-hydrates had been scarcely raised, or at
least it was not prominent. The question then was rather—whether the herbivora
received their fat ready formed in their food, or whether it was produced within
the body—the latter view being that which Liebig had so forcibly urged, at the
same time maintaining that at any rate its chief source was the carbo-hydrates.
Accordingly, our experiments were not specially arranged to determine whether
or not the whole of the fat produced could or could not be derived from the albu-
minoids.
For each description of animal, oxen, sheep, and pigs, such foods as had been
established by common experience to be appropriate were selected. The general
plan of the experiments was—to give to one set a fixed amount of a recognised good
food, containing known quantities of nitrogen, fatty matter, &c.; to another set the
same amount of another food, of different characters in these respects; to other
sets also fixed amounts of other foods in the same way ; and then there was given,
to the whole series, the same complementary food ad libitum. Or, to one set was
supplied a uniform food rich in nitrogen, and to others uniform foods poorer in
nitrogen, and so on, in each case ad libitum.
It will be seen that, in this way, a great variety of dietaries was arranged ; and
it will be observed that in each case the animals themselves fixed their consumption,
according to the requirements of the system.
As already indicated, the individual nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous compounds
of the foods were not determined. As a rule, the constituents determined were
—the total dry matter, the ash, the fatty matter, and the nitrogen; from which last
the amount of nitrogenous compounds it might represent was calculated by the
usual factor. But, as already intimated, the results so obtained were only used with
considerable reservation, especially in the case of all immature vegetable produce.
Nor was the crude fibre determined ; but, as in the case of the estimated nitro-
genous substance, when interpreting the results, it was always considered whether or
not the food contained much or little of probably indigestible woody matter.
The animals being periodically weighed, we were thus able to calculate the
amounts of the so-estimated nitrogenous substance, and of the total non-nitrogenous
substance, including and excluding fat, consumed—for a given live-weight within a
given time, and to produce a given amount of increase in live-weight.
Experiments were made with a large number of sheep, and a large number of
pigs. And, even without making allowance for the different condition of the nitro-
genous or of the non-nitrogenous constituents, in comparable foods, the results ob-
tained uniformly indicated that both the amount consumed by a given live-weight of
animal within a given time, and that required to produce a given amount of increase,
were determined much more by the amount of the non-nitrogenous than by that of
MM
530 REPORT—1880.
the nitrogenous constituents’ which the food supplied. And when allowance was
made for the different condition of the nitrogenous constituents, and for the greater
or less amount of the non-nitrogenous ones which would probably be indigestible
and effete, the indications were still more remarkable and conclusive.
In very many cases the animals were slaughtered, and carefully examined as to
whether the tendency of development had been more that of growth in frame ‘and
flesh, or in fatness. Here, again, the evidence was clear—that the tendency to growth
in frame and flesh was favoured by a high proportion of nitrogen in the food, and
that to the production of fat by a high proportion of digestible non-nitrogenous
constituents. :
In a few cases the actual amount of fat in the animals in the lean, and in the fat
condition, was determined ; and the results admitted of no doubt whatever that a
very large proportion of the stored-up fat could not have been derived from the
fatty matter of the food, and must have been produced within the body.
So decisive and consistent were the very numerous and yery varied results in
regard to these points, that we had no hesitation in concluding—not only that much
of the fat stored up was produced within the body, but that the source of much,
at any rate, of the produced fat must have been the non-nitrogenous constituents of
the food—in other words, the carbo-hydrates.
As already stated, however, as the question whether the source of the produced
fat was the proteine compounds or the carbo-hydrates was not then prominent, we
had not so arranged the experiments as to obtain the largest possible increase in fat
with the smallest possible supply of nitrogenous compounds in the food; nor did we
then even calculate whether or not there was sufficient nitrogenous matter consumed
to be the source of the whole of the fat produced.
This question, indeed, excited very little interest, until, at a meeting of the
Congress of Agricultural Chemists held at Munich in 1865 (at which I happened
to be present), Professor Voit, from the results of experiments made in Pettenkofer’s
respiration apparatus with dogs fed on flesh, announced his conclusion that fat
must have been produced from the nitrogenous substance, and that this was probably
the chief, if not the only, source of the fat, even of herbivora—an opinion which he
subsequently urged much more positively.
In the discussion which followed the reading of Professor Voit’s paper, Baron
Liebig forcibly called in question his conclusions ; maintaining not only that it was
inadmissible to form conclusions on such a point in regard to herbivora, from the
results of experiments made with carnivora, but also that direct quantitative results
obtained with herbivorous animals had afforded apparently conclusive evidence in
favour of the opposite view.
Voit’s paper excited considerable controversy, in which Mr. Lawes and myself
joined. We maintained that experiments to determine such a question should be
made, not with carnivora or omnivora fed on flesh, but with herbivora fed on their
appropriate fattening food, and on such herbivora as common experience showed
to be pre-eminently fat-producers. We pointed out1 that the pig comprised, for a
given live-weight, a comparatively small proportion of alimentary organs and con-
tents; that, compared with that of the ruminants, his food was of a high character,
yielding, for a given weight of it, much more total increase, much more fat, and
much less necessarily effete matter; that, in proportion to his weight, he consumes
a larger amount of food, and yields a larger amount, both of total increase and of
fat, within a given time; and, lastly, that he contains a larger proportion of fat,
both in a given live weight and in his increase whilst fattening.
It is obvious that, with these characteristics, there is much less probable range
of error in calculating the amount and the composition of the increase in live-weight
in relation to the amount and composition of the food consumed, than in the case
of the ruminants ; and that, therefore, the pig is very much more appropriate for
the purpose of experiments to determine the sources in its food of the fat it pro-
duces.
Accordingly, we calculated a number of our early experiments made with pigs,
to determine whether or not the nitrogenous substance they consumed was sutfli-
1 ¢QOn the Sources of the Fat of the Animal Body,’ Phil. Mag., December 1866.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 531
cient for the formation of the fat they produced. For simplicity of illustration, and
to give every possible advantage to the view that nitrogenous substance might have
been the source of the produced fat, we assumed the whole of the crude fat of the
food to have been stored up in the animal—thus estimating a minimum amount to
be produced. Then, again, we supposed the whole of the nitrogenous substance of
the food to be perfectly digested, and to become available for the purposes of the
system. Lastly, after deducting the amount of nitrogenous substance estimated to
be stored up as such, the whole of the remainder was reckoned to be so broken up
that no other carbon-compounds than fat and urea would be produced.
The result was, that, even adopting these inadmissible assumptions, in all the
cases in which, according to common experience, the food was admittedly the most
appropriate for the fattening of the animal, the calculation showed that a large
amount of fat had been produced which could not have been derived from the
nitrogenous substance of the food, and must therefore have had its source in the
carbo-hydrates. Such a result is, moreover, entirely accordant with experience in
practical feeding.
Reviewing the whole subject in great detail in 1869, Professor Voit refers to
these results and calculations. He confesses that he has not been able to get a
general view of the experiments from the mass of figures recorded, and from his
comments he shows that he has on some points misunderstood them. He admits,
however, that, as the figures stand, it would appear that fat had, in some instances,
been derived from the carbo-hydrates. Still, he says, he cannot allow himself to
consider that a transformation of carbo-hydrates into fat has thus been proved.
Professor Emil yon Wolff, again, in his ‘ Landwirthschaftliche Fiutterungslehre,’
referring to the same experiments, admits that they are almost incomprehensible
unless we assume the direct concurrence of the carbo-hydrates in the formation of
fat. He,nevertheless, seems to consider that evidence of the kind in question is
inconclusive; and he suggests that experiments with pigs should be made in a
respiration apparatus to determine the point.
Mr. Lawes and myself entertained, however, the utmost confidence that the
question was of easy settlement without any such apparatus, provided only suit-
able animals and suitable foods were selected. I, accordingly, gave a paper on the
subject in the Section fiir Landwirthschaft- und Agricultur-Chemie, at the Natur-
forscher Versammlung held at Hamburg in 1876.! | The points which I particu-
larly insisted upon were—that the pig should be the subject of experiment; that he
should be allowed to take as much as he would eat of his most appropriate fattening
food, so that his imerease, and the fat he produced, should bear as large a proportion
as possible to his weight, to the total food, and to the total nitrogenous substance
consumed. Finally, it was maintained that, if these conditions were observed, and
the constituents of the food determined, and those of the increase of the animal
estimated according to recognised methods, the results could not fail to be perfectly
conclusive, without the intervention, either of a respiration apparatus, or of the
analysis of the solid and liquid matters voided.
Results so obtained were adduced in proof of the correctness of the conclusions
arrived at. We at the same time admitted that, although, for reasons indicated,
we had always assumed that fat was formed from the carbo-hydrates in the case of
ruminants as well as of pigs, yet, as.in our experiments with those animals we had
supplied too large amounts of ready formed fat, or of nitrogenous matter, or of
both, it could not be shown so conclusively by the same mode of calculation in
their case as in that of pigs.
In the discussion which followed, Professor Henneberg agreed that it seemed
probable that fat could be formed from the carbo-hydrates in the case of pigs. In
the case of experiments with other animals, however, the amount of fat produced
was too nearly balanced by the amount of fat and albuminous matters available, to
afford conclusive evidence on the point.
Quite recently, Professor Emil yon Wolff (‘ Landwirthschaftliche Jahrbiicher,’
1 The substance of that communication is given in the Journal of Anatomy an’
Physiology, vol. xi. part iv.
MM 2
532 REPORT—1850
Band vii. 1879, Supplement) has applied the same mode of calculation to results ob-
tained by himself with pigs some years ago. He concluded that the whole of the body
fat could not have been formed without the direct co-operation of the carbo-hydrates
of the food. But what is of greater interest still is, that he also calculated, in the
same way, the results of some then quite recent experiments of Henneberg, Kern,
and Wattenberg, with sheep. He thus found that, even including the whole of the
estimated amides with the albumin, there must have been a considerable production
of fat from the carbo-hydrates; and, excluding the amides, the amount reckoned to
be derived from the carbo-hydrates was of course much greater.
I will only add, on this point, that, on re-calculating some of our early results
with sheep, which did not afford sufficiently conclusive evidence when the whole of
the nitrogen of the food was reckoned as albumin, these show a yery considerable
formation of fat from the carbo-hydrates, if deduction be made for the probable
amount of non-albuminoid nitrogenous matter of the food.
We have now, then, the two agricultural chemists of perhaps the highest
authority, both as experimenters and writers on this subject on the Continent,
giving in their adhesion to the view, that the fat of the herbivora, which we feed
for human food, may be, and probably is, largely produced from the carbo-hydrates.
I dare say, however, that some physiologists will not change their view until Voit
gives them sanction by changing his, which, so far as I know, he has not yet done.
The question which has been currently entitled that of ‘ The Origin of Muscular
Power, or ‘The Sources of Muscular Power, has also been the subject of much
investigation, and of much conflict of opinion, since the first publication of Liebig’s
views respecting it in 1842.
As I have already pointed out, he then maintained that the amount of muscular
tissue transformed, the amount of nitrogenous substance oxidated, was the measure
of the force generated in the body. He accordingly concluded that the requirement
for the nitrogenous constituents of food would be increased in proportion to the in-
crease of the force expended. In his more recent writings on the subject, he freely
criticises those who take an opposite view. He nevertheless grants that the secretion
of urea is not a measure of the force exerted; but, on the other hand, he does not
commit himself to the admission that the oxidation of the carbo-hydrates is a source
of muscular power.
The results of- our own early and very numerous feeding experiments were, as
has been said, extremely accordant in showing that, provided the nitrogenous con-
stituents in the food were not below a certain rather limited amount, it was the
quantity of the digestible and available non-nitrogenous constituents, and not that
of the nitrogenous substance,that determined—both the amount consumed by a given
live-weight within a given time, and the amount of increase in live-weight produced.
They also showed that one animal, or one set of animals, might consume two or
three times as much nitrogenous substance in proportion to a given liye-weight
within a given time as others in precisely comparable conditions as to rest or exercise.
It was further proved that they did not store up nitrogenous subtance at all in
proportion to the greater or less amount of it supplied in the food, but that the
excess reappeared in the liquid and solid matters voided.
So striking were these results, that we were led to turn our attention to human
dietaries, and also to a consideration of the management of the animal body under-
going somewhat excessive labour, as, for instance, the hunter, the racer, the
cab-horse, and the foxhound, and also pugilists and runners. Stated in a very few
words, the conclusion at which we arrived from these inquiries (which were sum-
marised in our paper given at Belfast in 1852) was—that, unless the system were
overtaxed, the demand induced by an increased exercise of force was more charac-
terised by an increased requirement for the more specially respiratory, than for the
nitrogenous, constituents of food.
Soon afterwards, in 1854, we found by direct experiments with two animals in
exactly equal conditions as to exercise, both being in fact at rest, that the amount
of urea passed by one feeding on highly nitrogenous food was more than twice as
great as that fed on a food comparatively poor in nitrogen.
It was clear, therefore, that the rule which had been laid down by Liebig, and
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 53
which has been assumed to be correct by so many writers, even up to the present
time, did not hold good—namely, that ‘The sum of the mechanical effects pro-
duced in two individuals, in the same temperature, is proportional to the amount of
nitrogen in their urine; whether the mechanical force has been employed in volun-
tary or involuntary motions, whether it has been consumed by the limbs or by the
heart and other viscera’—unless, indeed, as has been assumed by some experi-
menters, there is, with increased nitrogen in the food, an increased amount of
mechanical force employed in the ‘involuntary motions’ sufficient to account for
the increased amount of urea voided.
The question remained in this condition until 1860, when Bischoff and Voit
published the results of a long series of experiments made with a dog. They found
that, even when the animal was kept at rest, the amount of urea voided varied
closely in proportion to the variation in the amount of nitrogenous substance
given in the food—a fact which they explained onthe assumption that there must
have been a corresponding increase in the force exercised in the conduct of the
actions proceeding within the body itself in connection with the disposal of the
increased amount of nitrogeneous substance consumed. Subsequently, however,
they found that the amount of urea passed by the animal was, with equal condi-
tions as to food, &c., no greater when he was subjected to labour than when at
rest; whilst, on the other hand, the carbonic acid evolved was much increased
by such exercise. They accordingly somewhat modified their views.
In 1866 appeared a paper by Professors Fick and Wislicenus, giving the results
obtained in a mountain ascent. They found that practically the amount of urea
voided was scarcely increased by the labour thus undertaken. Professor Frankland
gave an account of these experiments in a lecture at the Royal Institution in the
same year; and he subsequently followed up the subject by an investigation of the
heat. developed in the combustion of various articles of food, applying the results in
illustration of the phenomena of the exercise of force.
Lastly, Kellner has made some very interesting experiments with a horse at
Hohenheim, the results of which were published last year. In one series, the ex-
periment was divided into five periods, the same food being given throughout; but
the animal accomplished different distances, and drew different weights, the draught
being measured by a horse-dynamometer. The changes in live-weight, the amount
of water drunk, the temperature, the amount of matters voided, and their contents
in nitrogen, were also determined.
The result was, that with only moderate labour there was no marked increase
in the nitrogen eliminated in the urine, but that with excessive labour the animal
lost weight and eliminated more nitrogen. Kellner concluded, accordingly, that,
under certain circumstances, muscular action can increase the transformation of
albumin in the organism in a direct way; but that, nevertheless, in the first line
is the oxidation of the non-nitrogenous matters—carbo-hydrates and fat, next comes
in requisition the circulation-albumin, and finally the organ-albumin is attacked.
In reference to these conclusions from the most recent experiments relating to
the subject, we may wind up this brief historical sketch of the changes of view
respecting it, with the following quotation from our own paper published in
1866:'—‘. . . all the evidence at command tended to show that by an increased
exercise of muscular power there was, with increased requirement for respirable
material, probably no increased production and voidance of urea, unless, owing to
excess of nitrogenous matter in the food, or a deficiency of available non-nitrogenous
substance, or diseased action, the nitrogenous constituents of the fluids or solids of
the Lob drawn upon in an abnormal degree for the supply of respirable
material.
In conclusion, although I fully agree with Voit, Zuntz, Wolff, and others, that
there still remains much for both Chemistry and Physiology to settle in connection
with these two questions of ‘ The Sources of the Fat of the Animal Body’ and ‘ The
Origin of Muscular Power,’ yet I think we may congratulate ourselves on the re-
establishment of the true faith in regard to them, so far at least as the most im-
portant practical points are concerned.
1 ¢ Food in its relation to various exigencies of the animal body.”— Phil. Maq., July
1866.
534 REPORT—1880.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee wpon the Present State of our Knowledge of .
Spectrum Analysis (Spectra of Metalloids).—See Reports, p. 258.
2. Report of the Committee upon the Present State of owr Knowledge of
Spectrum Analysis (Ultra-violet Spectra).—See Reports, p. 258.
3. An Improved Volumetric Apparatus was exhibited
by J. W. Srarwine.
4, On the Coal Seams of the Eastern Portion of the South Wales Basin
and their Chemical Composition. By J. W. THomas.
5. On a New Mode for the Purification of Sewage. By P. Spencs.
The question of the disposal of sewage is still an unsettled one, and is becom-
ing daily more pressing.
To our large towns it is now a most serious matter; the rivers that flow past
many of them are assuming the character of pestiferous sewers; fish have ceased
to live in them, and are gradually dying out trom others; and, excepting where
towns are near the sea, the rivers will become nuisances to an extent that will be
unbearable,
Many schemes have been tried and some are now in operation, by which
sewage has been partially or completely purified ; filtration and irrigation can be
made to effect the object, but have chiefly been tested in small localities, and they
are, I believe, tacitly given up as applicable to large populations.
Precipitation by lime is now practically the mode by which, not purification,
but partial clarification is conducted, and by which the demands of the law are
not met, but merely evaded. Dr, Angus Smith, one of the Government in-
spectors under the Rivers Pollution Act, gives as the result of many analyses of
lime-effluents, that while the solid sludge of the sewage is precipitated and the
liquid is thereby clarified, it still contains nearly all the soluble putrefiable matter,
and is really a very impure fluid.
Where, in addition to lime-clarification, subsequent irrigation with the effluent
is practicable, it is rendered nearly pure; and where, in connection with lime, salts
of alumina are used in sufficient quantity, the water or effluent is pure, limpid in
appearance, free from colour, smell, and putridity.
Having been engaged for some years in producing, in a cheap form, a sulphate
of alumina suitable for purifying sewage, and which is at the present moment
used by nearly all who are purifying by alumina, I have necessarily had my
attention directed to the problem of the best mode of precipitation by which the
aluminous salt, which is still an expensive substance, could be economised, and the
sewage completely purified at the smallest cost. Where alumina is used various
other substances have been and are now used in connection with it ; these are blood,
clay, charcoal, iron salts, and other bodies of more or less efficiency: none of these
substances are, I believe, essential to the process, and some of them are probably
useless.
Lime is in nearly all cases needful to the efficiency of the aluminous salts,
excepting in those where the sewage is decidedly alkaline; but as this condition
cannot be depended upon, it may be taken for granted that lime should always be
used,
In the new scheme which I shall now describe, I commence on the basis of
the lime-process as now conducted, and assume that it is so far useful and is a
preparation for real purification, and I propose to take the effluent as it comes
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 535
from that process, and by the use of a solution of alumina to effect its complete
purification.
In operating upon this clarified lime-effluent, I find two great advantages. . The
first of these is that the effluent always contains a portion of lime in solution
sufficient to decompose the small quantity of aluminous salt which is required,
When this salt is added, the lime-effluent, invariably opalescent, generally
coloured, and never transparent, at once changes its appearance, the alumina in
precipitating unites with the albumen and colouring matters, and in a few minutes
coagulates and slowly descends, leaving the fluid transparent, colourless, and free
from smell, this effluent or water being now fit for any purpose except potable
uses.
The second advantage of this new process is that the precipitate which con-
tains all the alumina of the salt used settles to the bottom of the tanks as a light
floceulent body, and can from thence be pumped up into suitable reservoirs, and
when we add to it the equivalent quantity of sulphuric or hydrochloric acids re~
quisite for combination, then in the cold and however largely diluted, all the
alumina is dissolved, and the same quantity of aluminous salt in solution is formed
‘a8 was originally used, and after allowing the very small quantity of coloured
albuminous residuum to subside, the solution is run. into a new quantity of lime
effluent, thus using the alumina over and over again, and reducing the cost of the
‘aluminous compound to that of the cost of the acid needful for-its resolution.
I have fully verified the facts that all the alumina is-in these circumstances
thrown down, and that when so precipitated it is again all dissolved without using
any excess of acid.
The cost of the process is thus reduced to a very small sum when. compared.
-with any mode of purifying now in use. While nearly all the modes which really
purify are impracticable, the new plan only requires a small extension of the
apparatus where lime-clarification is adopted, and. that process has come largely
‘into use on the ground of its cheapness, while it is only a mitigation of a great
evil, yet its cost is not less than 50s. to 70s, for every million of gallons operated
upon, and some of those who are now doing their best with it are threatened with
prosecution and probably injunction.
If the new process in such cases were added to it, I estimate that it would not
‘add more than one-fifth to their expenses, and Ihave no hesitation in giving the
»assurance that nothing else in sewage-purification will be required when the plan
now proposed is fully carried out.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 28.
The Section did not meet.
MONDAY, AUGUST 30.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Refraction-equivalent of Diamond and the Carbon Compounds.
By J. H. Guapstone, Ph.D., FBS.
- It was shown by Mr. Dale and the author, in 1863 (‘ Phil. Trans.’ p. 317), tha.
the specific refractive energy of a substance was a very important property; for it is
a constant, little, if at all, affected by changes of temperature, of aggregate condition
536 REPORT—1880.
or, to a considerable extent, by chemical combination. It is the refractive index —1
divided by the density, It was originally reckoned, both for the theoretical limit of
the spectrum according to Cauchy’s formula, and for Fraunhofer’s lines B, F, & H.
But in all subsequent work, the author has calculated the specific refractive energy
for the line A, as least affected by dispersion (# s =) For purposes of cal-
culation among compound bodies, it is more convenient to adopt what Landolt
terms the refraction-equivalent ; that is, the specific refractive energy multiplied by
the atomic weight (P P Le *).
Uncombined carbon as found in diamond has a refraction-equivalent varying
from 4°85 to 5:18; the mean may be taken at 5:0. It has the same value in the
large majority of its compounds, such as bisulphide of carbon, cyanogen, sugar,
tartaric acid, alcohol, and the whole of the ordinary bodies of the fatty acid series.
It was very early observed, however, that there were exceptions, and it is now
known that the whole of the bodies belonging to the aromatic series, the terpenes,
the pyridine series of bases, cinnamyl compounds, and hydrocarbons which are
peculiarly rich in carbon, such as naphthalene, anthracene, &c., give an excessive
refraction. This peculiarity, so far as the aromatic bodies and naphthalene are
concerned, was sought to be explained in a lecture at the Royal Institution, in
March 1877, by the fact that the usual atomicity of the carbon is not satisfied, as
illustrated by the graphic formulz usually employed for this class of bodies.
Briihl has lately published a series of papers in which, by careful experiments,
he has confirmed and extended previous observations, and he endeavours to prove
that wherever there is a double carbon atom with bonds latent, the refraction-equi-
valent is raised by about 2:0. This view answers satisfactorily for the great aro-
matic group, for the allyl compounds, for picoline and its congeners, and for
amylene, the refraction-equivalent of which is 1:95 above the normal, although
the halogen compounds of ethylene, propylene, and amylene are normal. This
theory, however, does not seem equally adequate to account for certain other phe-
nomena. Ist. The essential oils which belong to the C,,H,, or the C,,H,, group,
have a refraction which is neither 2 nor 4 above the normal, but somewhere be-
tween these numbers. 2nd. The cinnamyl compounds, such as the well-known
oil of cassia, have an abnormal refraction; cinnamene acetate, O,,H,,O, has a
refraction of 85:0, which is 13:4 above the calculated amount, while its isomer,
phenyl-ethyl acetate, has only the excess of 6:6 which is usual in phenyl compounds.
3rd. The hydrocarbons, which have a greater number of atoms of carbon than of
hydrogen, increase in refraction, with the excess of carbon, at a rate which is far
more rapid than the theory will admit of, as will be seen from the subjoined table,
in which the last column represents the excess of the refraction-equivalent over
that calculated from carbon =6 and hydrogen =1°3,
Substance Formula Refraction-equivalent Excess
Naphthalene C,,Hs 768 16-4
Anthracene . : Cy 114°7 317
Pyrene’ , . - Cito 126°2 33:2
It is a remarkable fact that, whereas the value of the carbon increases rapidly
as the proportion of hydrogen diminishes, its value reverts to the normal 5:0 in
diamond where there is no hydrogen at all.
The author expressed his belief that the specific refractive energy of a carbon
compound is a property which must be taken into account in determining its consti-
tution ; and he hoped that some of those chemists who have paid particular attention
to the theory of organic chemistry, would take up this line of investigation,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 537
2. The Position of Agricultural Education and Research in this Country and
on the Continent of Hurope briefly compared and considered. By J.
- Macponatp Cameron, F.0.8., Sc.
Part I,
1. General View of Chemical Agricultural Education in this country and tts
hindrances.
The unparalleled development of almost every branch of manufactures during
the past quarter of a century is mainly due to the desire which our manufacturing
population have shown to turn to account the discoveries of modern science.. A
striking instance of this development is found in the dyeing industry. Twenty-two
years ago plants, and in some instances animals, supplied man with all the colouring
matters necessary for his purposes, but in 1855 Mr. W. H. Perkin, F.R.S., then
engaged in one of the laboratories of the Royal College of Chemistry, investigating
coal-tar residues, discovered that when these residues were submitted to certain treat-
ment they yielded a beautiful colouring matter which he named mauve, and which
could be used for dyeing textile fabrics. This discovery encouraged others to take
up the researches on the coal-tar colours, as they have been called, which in 1878
culminated in the manufacture of three and a quarter millions sterling worth of
these materials, Did our agricultural population but have faith in what science
can do for them, and more readily accept its discoveries and conclusions, we should
hear less of depression, and protection would not be so often pointed to as the
haven of refuge for what I believe to be largely due to ignorance and incapacity.
Yet, in the face of agricultural apathy, chemists pursue their investigations, en-
couraged by the fact that they are increasing our store of knowledge, and that the
day is not distant when their work must be utilised.
There are many reasons for this apathy and opposition to the chemist and his
work. 1st. Many of our past chemists lacked a knowledge of practical agriculture.
2nd. The farmer’s ignorance of even the most elementary scientific principles in-
volved in his yocation. 3rd. The time necessarily taken up in making field and
other experiments from which to deduce principles for the future guidance of the
farmer, 4th. The want of confidence between the chemist and the farnier—the
farmer thinking that the chemist, when he suggests or assists him, does so with a
view to some hidden advantage which may be detrimental to his (the farmer's)
interests—this can only be obviated by a better knowledge of each other.
2. Farmers’ Societies and Agricultural Education.
We have in Great Britain—I omit Ireland in the following calculation as it is well °
provided with the means of Agricultural Education—in round numbers 255 agricul-
tural societies; and, if we except the good work done by the Royal and Highland
and Agricultural Societies, nothing has been done by these 255 societies to encourage
and develop scientific agriculture, if we except the prizes given at their respective
shows for cattle, breeding, feeding, &c., and a few other exhibits remotely related
to agriculture. A very different state of things obtains in Holland for example,
where the societies not only hold shows and give prizes, but grant annual subsidies
to teachers in elementary schools and other qualified persons to teach the principles
of agriculture to their pupils, and during the winter months to audiences chiefly
composed of labourers. And what is the result? In this country seven-eighths of
the farmers cannot tell the difference between soluble and insoluble phosphate, nor
between ammonia and nitrate of soda. In the majority of Continental countries
both farmers and labourers enter upon life with an intelligent grasp of the principles
involved in their daily work, with the inevitable result that the agricultural re-
sources of these countries are pushed to their utmost limit, and their surplus pro-
duce comes pouring in upon us, we wondering how they do it !
538 REPORT—1880.
3. Relation of Landed Proprietors to Agricultural Education.
The proprietors of the land ought to be most interested, in its, development, and
decidedly are to blame for not taking that lead which their social position and
territorial influence entitle them to, in initiating every movement having for its
object the development of the soil-produce as well as the intelligence of their
tenantry. Had they done so the position of scientific agriculture would he a very
different one.
Part II,
The facilities for acquiring a knowledge of Scientific Agriculture in this country,
and on the Continent.
1. England :—
(a). The Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester.
(6). The Science and Art Department, which encourages agricultural education
in its usual way by payment on results and by summer courses of lectures
to teachers.
(c). The Wilts and Hants Agricultural College, Downton.
This institution, recently established by Professor Wrighton, late of the Royal
Agricultural College, to supply to the southern counties education similar to that
at Cirencester.
(d). The Laboratory of Agricultural Chemistry, 52 Lime Street, London, where
a course of lectures with laboratory practice is given in connection with
agriculture, commencing in October annually.
2, Scotland :—
(a). The Chair of Agriculture in the University of Edinburgh, subsidized and
supported by the Government and the Highland and Agricultural Society of
Scotland.
(6). The North of Scotland School of Chemistry and Agriculture, Aberdeen,
originally established in connection with the Science and Art Department,
but now developing into an independent institution which grants diplomas of
its own.
3. Ireland :—
The Albert Institution, Glasnevin, Dublin, and several other institutions of
a kindred nature, besides about 240 institutions of less importance.
Institutions which encourage Agricultural Education by Subsidies and Prizes.
1. England :-—
(a). The Royal Agricultural Society’s Examinations and Scholarships.
This Institution encourages agricultural education by four money prizes of 25/.,
15/., 10/7., and 5/., and ten scholarships of 20/., tenable for one year.
(6). The Society of Arts, by means of examinations and prizes.
2. Scotland :—
Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland.
Like its English neighbour, this Society supports agricultural education by
granting 1507. per annum to the Chair of Agriculture in Edinburgh University, 104.
in ees to the class, as well as granting ten bursaries of 207, each, and five of 107.
each,
3. Ireland :—
The Royal Irish Agricultural Society.
As the lines upon which this society works are much the same as the English
and Scotch National Societies, I need not give any special account of its work.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 539
Part III,
State of Agricultural Education in the following Countries.
There is a most complete system of agricultural education in the following
countries:—Austro-Hungary, Belgium, Holland, France, Denmark, Norway,
Sweden, Italy, Switzerland, Germany.
The system of agricultural education in Germany being more complete than that
of the other Continental countries, I shall allude to it only.
In the German Empire there are 17 High Schools, or Institutes, 31 Middle,
45 Lower, 49 Agrarian, 5 Meadow, 15 Hor ticultural, besides 1138 other s—such as
Winter schools—where the scientific principles of agriculture, are taught.
In addition to these schools there were in existence, at the close of 187 8, 2,652
agricultural societies distributed over the German Empire, engaged in special agyi-
cultural work, besides supporting agricultural education... All these schools have
experimental stations attached to them, where the theoretical principles expounded
in the class room and laboratory are verified in the field. They are partly subsi-
dized by the Government, and partly by the provinces in which they are situated.
See Table No. 1.
Parr IV.
Agricultural Research in this Country.
1. General view of its position.
2, Experimental stations.
(A). England :-—
(a). The Experimental Station at Rothamsted. Were it not for the great
and important work done at this station by Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, I fear
that I should have little to credit research with in this country. From 1847
to 1880 inclusive, 51 original memoirs have been published on field experi-
ments and experiments on vegetation, and 28 papers and reports on the
feeding of animals, utilisation of sewage, &c.
(6). The experimental station of the Royal Agricultural Society at Woburn,
Established in 1877 to test the valne of unexhausted manures, &c.
(c). The experimental station at Wickhurst Frant, Sussex—established by the
author in conjunction with the Tunbridge Wells Farmers’ Club to inquire into
the causes of the failure of the hop crop.
(d). The experimental station at Oxon-Hoath, Tunbridge—established by W.
Nevill Geary, Esq., and the author for a similar purpose, and to check the
results of the Aberdeenshire experiments with soluble and insoluble phos-
phates.
(B). Scotland :—
(a). The experimental stations of the Highland and Agricultural Society at
Harelaw and Pumpherston—established in 1877 for the purpose of obtaining
an answer to the various questions constantly cropping up as to the money and
other value of the different manures used in raising crops.
<6). The experimental stations of the Aberdeenshire Agricultural Association.
They are five in number, and were established in 1875 for the purpose of
ascertaining the best manure for the turnip crop.
(c). The experimental station at Ardross, Alness, Rosshire—established by
K. J. Matheson, Esq., younger, of Ardross, and the author, to test the value
of the experiments made by the Aberdeenshire Agricultural Association,
under different climatic and soil conditions, and to extend scientific agriculture.
It being impossible, in a short abstract like this, to give even an idea of the
researches now being conducted in agriculture in the several Continental countries
above named, I must, therefore, refer persons interested in the subject to my paper
about to be published at length.
Parr V.
Concluding Remarks and Suggestions.
Notwithstanding the apathy of the past, progress is relies hems, made in
agricultural education, and the desire for it is increasing.
540 : REPORT—1880.
In 1876, 150 candidates presented themselves for the Science and Art Depart-
ment’s certificate, of whom 9:4 per cent. failed. In 1880, 3,062, or 200 times more,
presented themselves, and of these 216 per cent. failed.
The Department should encourage the teaching of the principles of scientific
agriculture in elementary schools to a class composed of children in the last year
of their compulsory attendance ; and no teacher should be considered eligible for
such a position who has not the Department’s Agricultural Certificate. Further,
there ought to be a central school in each parish, where the principles and practice
of agriculture should be taught. Such schools might, with good management, be
made almost self-supporting ; ; but if not, the deficiency should be made up partly by
the State and partly by the parish. Proprietors should take the lead in organising
committees to encourage popular lectures, and every effort should be made by them
to increase our agricultural knowledge. Every restriction should be removed which
at present hampers production: and with institutions to guide our agricultural
population, such as I have endeavoured to sketch in the foregoing pages, the pro-
ducing powers of our soil would be considerably increased, as well as the intellec-
tual resources of those who till it, while, as a consequence, higher aims and aspira-~
tions would be held out to the latter.
In conclusion, I haye to tender my most sincere thanks to Count Giovanni
Gigliueci, Lieut. -Col. Donnelly, R.E. ; Professor Wilson, Edinburgh University ; the
Principal of the Royal Agricultur al College, Cirencester ; Dr. Gilbert, and other
gentlemen for statistical and other knowledge relating to this most important subject.
TABLE I,
SHOWING THE POPULATION, REVENUE, SUBSIDIES GRANTED, PERCENTAGE OF
REVENUE, AND AMOUNT PER HEAD OF POPULATION PAID TOWARDS AGRICUL-
TURAL EDUCATION IN THE FOLLOWING COUNTRIES :—
| < Total % of Amount
| Population Revenue Subsidy | Revenue| per Head
£ £
England and Wales. . | 22,712,266 412 zag or $d.
Scotland .. . . »-| 3,360,018 562 ib
Ireland 2) ea) © | Ose aLO 6,069 + of ald.
United Kingdom . . . | 31,483,700 | 85,399,000 7,043 008 | #,0f aid.
Germany. . » . . «| 42,727,360 | 33,087,529 | 33,582 ‘1 aa may
SICHUAN ASH oe PORE ey 3,579,527 9,652,058 9,640 ‘1 zxfid
Austria... . . .| 35,904,435 | 39,256,514 | 14,888 ‘037 jo»
Beloim~ 2 ess ot 5,336,185 11,148,483 800 007 | + »
Nihal y Weenie ig ee eke ee lee Or OOlelDs 57,023,358 | 10,048 03 oa)
France ... . . .| 36,905,788 | 108,043,200 5,798 005 | +3»
TABLE II.
°/, of -
Propor-| Passed Agric,| | mei oee
Agricul- | tion of | Govnt, | P°PY-|Schools) “Fy ay
Total tural former |Exam.in lation} for la-
Population Se sy |passed| Agri- | POPU
" Population} to | Agricul. G ik tion to
latter | 1879 E Esa ER: tae Texoh
cam school
1879
Scotland . . . 3,360,018 378,609 | 9:1 271 | :07 2 | 189,304
Ireland) "57% 5,411,416 902,421 | 6:1 | 15,699 | 1:7 240 3,706 4
England & W: ales 22,712,266 | 2,010,454 | 11:1 340 | -O1 3 | 670,151
United Kingdom . | 31,483,700 | 3,291,484 |10:1 |16,301 | °5 245 | 13,206
Germany. . . . | 42,727,360 | 3,000,000 | 14:1 1,305 2,298 -
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 541
3. On the Specific Rotatory Power of Cane and Invert Sugar.
By Aurrep H. Auten, F.C.S.
The angular rotation produced by a plate of quartz of 1 mm. in thickness is 24
degrees for the mean yellow ray or transition tint. In Soleil’s polarising sacchari-
meter the 24 angular degrees are graduated into 100 divisions, and in using the
instrument, a solution of cane sugaris employed of such concentration that a column
of 2 decimétres in length shall cause a deviation of exactly 24 degrees, or 100
divisions.
If S be the apparent specific rotatory power of an optically active substance in
solution; @ the angular rotation observed; 7 the thickness in decimétres of the
solution traversed by the ray of polarised light; and ¢ the number of grammes of
solid in each 100 c.c. of solution, the value of S.can be found by the’ following
equation :—
Sh
c
”* 700
It is agreed by numerous observers that the apparent specific rotatory power of
cane sugar in aqueous solutions, containing at least 10 per cent. of the solid, is
+ 73°8° for the transition tint. Substituting this value for S im the above equation,
24° for a, and 2 for 7, we obtain—
24
be ieee whence ¢c = 16:26.
prea Ke
Hence the proper weight of sugar to be taken for use with Soleil’s saccharimeter is
16:26 grammes, and not 16:19, 16°35 grammes, or any different weight. If it be
contended that either of these alternative quantities is the right one to employ, it
follows that + 78°8° is not the correct apparent specific rotatory power of cane
sugar.
eee cntiur to Tuschmidt, Casamajor, and many other observers, a solution of
cane sugar which, before inversion, shows a deviation of + 100 Soleil divisions,
gives after inversion a negative rotation of 44 divisions at 0° C., decreasing by 1
division for each rise of 2° C., so that the inverted solution will show a deviation of
— 37 at 14°C., and — 36°56 at 15° C.
Many writers on the rotatory power of invert sugar have overlooked the fact
that inversion causes an increase in the weight of solid matter in the solution, 95
parts of cane sugar yielding 100 parts of invert sugar. This increase of weight
ought to be taken into account in calculating the specific rotatory power of invert
sugar, which at 15° C. is really — 25°6°:—
_ — 8656 x 24 256
9g x 16260 © aie
x
95
This number corresponds to a value of — 25:94° for 8; at 14° C., instead of — 25:0,
as generally stated. If 16:19 grammes be adhered to as the normal weight of
sugar per 100 c.c., the value of 8; at 14° C. becomes — 26:05°, against — 250° as
usually taken.
If the value of 8; for invert sugar be taken at — 26° (the mean of the above
values), and O’Sullivan’s figure + 57°6° be adopted as the value of S; for dextrose,
then the specific rotatory power of levulose at 14°C, is — 109°6°, instead of — 106°,
as usually taken.
26 x 2 + 576 = 109°6.
To sum up, the corrected values of 8; are as follow :-—
J
Cane Sugar. : . : . + 73°8.
Invert Sugar ‘ : . — 256 at 15° 0,
Dextrose . : ‘ : . . + 576.
Levuloees . «© «8 s « = 1088 at 15° 0,
542 REPORT—1880.
The deviation, according to the average of the results of various observers, produced.
by a plate of quartz, 1 mm. in thickness, is 24° for the mean yellow or transition
tint, and 21:66° for the sodium ray. Hence the above values for 8; may be calcu-
lated to the corresponding values for Sp, by multiplying these by the factor
21°66
a 9025,
4. On the Identification of the Coal-tar Colours. By Joun Sritumr, F.C.8.
Dyers and others who are in the habit of using the coal-tar colours are familiar
with a number of chemical reactions by which the members of the series may
generally be classified and identified. Differences are remarked in their relative
affinities for various sorts of fibres, some colours being taken up freely by silk,
others fixing better upon wool, and some few, like saffranin, exhibiting a special
affinity for cotton. Again, as with the yellows, great differences are observed when
the operator proceeds to work with a free acid or a weak alkali in the dye bath,
primrose (naphthalene yellow), requiring the former, but not so phosphine (cry-
saniline yellow), which demands a neutral or even slightly alkaline bath.
By the study of these conditions, aided by a few characteristic tests, it is often
possible to identify colouring matters of unknown or doubtful origin, and it is with
the view of extending the number of such readily available tests that I recommend
a more frequent appeal to the colour-reactions with sulphuric acid.
For this purpose but small quantities of material are required, a few grains
serving to impart a distinct colour to a comparatively large bulk of sulphuric acid,
and the resulting indications are in many cases both specific and permanent. Oil
of vitriol, which so readily destroys nearly all organic structures, does not carbonise
any of the coal-tar colours, or does so only under severe conditions, as at high
degrees of heat. Even indigo and madder, although of true vegetable origin, are
known to yield up their colouring matters to sulphuric acid, the old processes of
dyeing depending upon this fact. In the manufacture of garancine from madder
the woody fibre and organised tissues are destroyed by the action of sulphuric acid,
whilst the alizarin glucoside survives, and with it Turkey-red goods may be dyed.
Instances might be multiplied as proof that colouring matters, both natural and
artificial, resist the attack of oil of vitriol, and the large class of sulphonates
(Nicholson blues, ‘acid roseine, &c.), may be cited as establishing the fact that
colouring matters are not so destroyed, but form combinations with sulphuric acid.
If, then, the body under examination be dissolved in strong oil of vitriol, a
colour-test is at hand, whereby useful inferences may be derived as to the nature
of the dye, and often its exact identity disclosed. A few direct confirmatory tests
may then be applied.
The most remarkable colour-reactions are the following :-—
Magdala (naphthalene pink) . givesa_ blue black.
Saftranin é . : . ” erass-ereen, becoming indigo blue on
strongly heating.
Crysdidin . : . . ny deep orange, turning almost to scarlet on
heating.
Alizarin . . : . : s ruby red or maroon,
Eosin . cn golden yellow.
Primrose (naphthalene yellow) : difficultly soluble, first yellow, and colour
discharged on heating.
Crysaniline . : . . givesa yellow or brown solution of marked fluo-
rescent character.
Aurin . 3 ; F ° a yellowish-brown, non-fluorescent.
Atlas orange . : 5 : “ rose colour, turning to scarlet on heating.
Atlas scarlet. . . F c Y scarlet solution, very permanent on heat-
ing.
‘ See W. H. Perkin’s ‘History of Alizarin,’ Jown. Society of Arts, May 1879,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 543
Biebrich scarlet, R.
2. ”
Aniline scarlet
gives a blue-black or deep purple.
bluish-green.
” i
golden yellow, permanent on heating.
”?
Indulin.s . ’ A slaty-blue to indigo, according to shade
i of the dye.
Rosaniline, Regina, and all violets ,, yellow, or brownish-yellow.
‘Phenyl and Diphenylamine blues _,, dark brown solutions.
Iodine green . , : APL ys bright yellow solutions, the former giving
Malachite green. , , ; \ off iodine on heating.
Citronine + gives a pale cinnamon or neutral tint.
After vitriol the action of concentrated hydrochloric acid may be next tried, which
distinguishes at once between saffranin and Biebrich scarlet, the former giving a
violet solution, and the latter being precipitated as a red flocculent powder.
Proceeding in this way, and combining the observations with the dyer’s usual
test, every one of the substances named can be readily identified, and much time
sayed in the examination of dye-stuffs.
5. On the Density of Fluid Bismuth. By W. Cuaypier Roserts, F.2.S.,
and THomas WrigutTson, C.H.
Some time since one of us described the results of experiments made to de-
termine the density of metallic silver and of certain alloys of silver and copper
when in a molten state.!’ The method adopted was that devised by Mr. R. Mallet,’
and the details were as follows :— ,
A conical vessel of best thin Low-Moor plate (1 millimétre thick), about 16
centimétres in height, and having an internal volume of about 540 cubic centi-
métres, was weighed, first empty, and subsequently when filled with distilled water
at a known temperature. The necessary data were thus afforded for accurately
determining its capacity at the temperature of the air. Molten silver was then
poured into it, the temperature at the time of pouring being ascertained by the
calorimetric method. The precautions, as regards filling, pointed out by Mr. Mallet,
were adopted ; and as soon as the metal was quite cold, the cone with its contents
was again weighed.
Experiments were at the same time made on the density of fluid bismuth, and
two determinations gave the following results :—
tions } mean, 10039.
The invention of the oncosimeter* appeared to afford an opportunity for re-
suming the investigation on a new basis, more especially as the delicacy of the
instrument had already been proved by experiments on a considerable scale on the
density of fluid cast-iron, The following is the principle on which this instrument
acts :—
If a spherical ball of any metal be plunged below the surface of a molten bath
of the same or another metal, the cold ball will displace its own volume of molten
metal. Ifthe densities of the cold and molten metal be the same there will be
equilibrium, and no floating or sinking effect will be exhibited. If the density of
the cold be greater than of the molten metal, there will be a sinking effect, and if
less a floating effect when first immersed, As the temperature of the submerged
ball rises, the volume of the displaced liquid will increase or decrease according as
the ball expands or contracts. In order to register these changes the ball is hung
on a spiral spring, and the slightest change in buoyancy causes an elongation or
contraction of this spring which can be read off on a scale of ounces, and is re-
corded by a pencil on a revolving drum. A diagram is thus traced out, the ordinates
1 Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. xxiii. p. 493.
2 Proc. Roy. Soc. vol, xxii. p. 366 and vol. xxiii. p. 209.
3 Journ. Iron and Steel Inst. No, 2. (1879), p. 418.
4 Ibid. No. 1, (1880), p. 11.
544 REPORT—1880.
of which represent increments of volume, or, in other words, of weight of fluid
displaced, the zero line or line corresponding to a ball in a liquid of equal density
to that of the ball, being previously traced out by revolving the drum without
attaching the ball of metal itself to the spring, but with all other auxiliary attach-
ments. By a simple adjustment the ball is kept constantly depressed to the same
extent below the surface of the liquid, and the ordinate of this pencil line, measuring
from the line of equilibrium, thus gives an exact measure of the floating or sinking
effect.
If the weight and specific gravity of the ball be taken: when cold, we then have
sufficient data for determining the density of the fluid metal for = - = the
volumes being equal. And remembering that W (weight of liquid) = W’ (weight
of ball), + x (where x is always measured as a + or — floating effect), we have
, tf »
D (density of fluid) = Ue
The following table shows the results of six experiments made by the authors
in the laboratory of the Royal Mint. The bismuth was kept just above its melting
point, and this was ensured by placing pieces of metal in the molten mass which
were observed just to melt.
‘ Weight
R Diameter peas Epes say eran ae
« |, ofball | cluding aes shee first im- | gravity of Remarks
© jin inches | thin stem ‘ic akon mersion fluid
Ss for attach- ; inTr.oz.| metal
ment
, ; . - Bismuth ball in
1 2 23°33 9°72 10 10°13 fluid bismath
2 2:25 33°46 9°755 1:3 10-11 do.
3 do. 33°37 9°757 06 9°94 do.
4 do. 33°53 9-774 0-7 9°98 do.
5 | do. | 92184 | 699(Iron)| 93 ggg | {ental ee
6 do. 22°184 7:02 (do.) 10:2 10°25 do.
Mean, 10°055.
Specific gravity of solid bismuth, 9°82.
It will be seen that, considering the difficulties of manipulation, the results are
remarkably concordant, and their mean agrees very closely with that obtained by
Mallet’s method. We venture to think, therefore, that the amount of the change
of density of bismuth in passing from the solid to’ the fluid state may now be
considered to be definitely settled.
6. On Orystals of Mercury. By Puiipe Brauam, F.C.8.
7. On a New Process for the Metallurgic Treatment of Complea Ores
containing Zinc. By Epwarp A. PaRnett, F.C.S.
The presence of zinc in considerable quantity in ores containing lead, copper, and
silver, is a great impediment to the extraction of the latter more valuable metals by
the ordinary smelting processes, and thus tends to reduce considerably the value of
such ores to the smelter. Immense quantities of these complex ores exist in
which the zinc (present as sulphide of zinc or blende) is so intimately mixed with
the sulphides of other metals that it cannot be separated by mechanical means
“dressing’). These ores haye hitherto remained unproductive, because the
highest price offered for them by the smelter would not be remunerative to the
miner. By a peculiar combination, however, of wet and dry processes, such ores
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 545
are now profitably treated, all the metals being extracted in a marketable form,
including zinc, which was previously entirely lost whenever the working of such
ores was attempted.
The process is briefly the following: The ore, having been ground, is calcined
in a muffle furnace, so as to convert the sulphides of the various metals into sul-
phates and oxides. The sulphurous acid produced in this operation is conveyed to
leaden chambers for conversion to sulphuric acid in the usual manner. The cal-
cined ore is then agitated with weak sulphuric acid, which dissolves the zine and
most of the copper, while all the lead, silver, and gold remain undissolved in the
residue. Sufficient hydrochloric acid is generally present in the sulphuric acid to
conyert all the sulphated silver into insoluble chloride. Separation of the zinc
being then effected by lixiviation, the insoluble portion is smelted for the extrac-
tion of its metals in the usual way. The sulphate of zine liquor thus obtained
contains very little iron, provided the ore had been calcined sufficiently to convert
all the iron to peroxide. All the copper contained in the liquor is next
precipitated by metallic iron or zinc,after which the liquor is concentrated by
evaporation and mixed, when it begins to thicken, with a small quantity of finely
ground blende (1 eq. of sulphide of zine to 3 eqs. of sulphate of zinc), After
further desiccation this mixture is heated to redness in a muffle furnace when
the sulphide and sulphate by mutual reaction become changed to oxide of zine
and sulphurous acid gas (3 ZnSO,+ZnS=4ZnO and 4SO,). The former is in
a condition well adapted for the manufacture of spelter by distillation in the
usual way ; the latter is conveyed to leaden chambers for reproduction of sulphuric
acid. .
The conversion of sulphate of zinc into oxide of zine may be effected by other
reducing agents than blende. Coal and charcoal may be used for that purpose,
but as the sulphurous acid is then mixed with carbonic acid, it is not so well
adapted for conversion to sulphuric acid in the chamber process, as the gas de-
rived from the mixture of sulphate of zinc with blende.
The operations here described are now being extensively carried on at the
works of the Swansea Zinc Ore Company, near Swansea.
Another sulphate which is easily convertible into oxide in an analogous manner
is that of magnesia. Pure wood charcoal should be used as the reducing agent,
and the mixture heated to dull redness. The magnesia thus prepared corresponds
in density to the variety known as ‘ heavy’ calcined magnesia.
8. On a New Process for the Production, from Aluminous Minerals contain-
ing Iron, of Sulphate of Alumina free from Iron. By J. W. Kyyaston,
F.C.8., F.LC.
In this paper the author gives an account of an investigation undertaken for
the purpose of devising a means for the production, on a large scale, of sulphate
of alumina so pure that it may he used in the arts for all purposes for which pure
soluble alumina is required, and so to prevent the loss of the large quantities of
potassa or ammonia and sulphuric acid required in the manufacture of the crys-
tallised alums.
He gives a historical statement of the methods in actual use to produce alum
substitutes, and of the attempts that have been made to utilise for this purpose the
newly-discovered rich aluminous mineral, Bauxite. The great difficulty in the
production of pure alumina salts from this mineral arises from the presence in the
ore of a comparatively large proportion of peroxide and some protoxide of iron,
which dissolves with the alumina when the ore is attacked with acids.
The author states that he has found that a solution of oxalic acid possesses the
power of dissolving the oxides of iron contained in Bauxite without materially
attacking the alumina, and gives in detail the mode of carrying out the operations,
together with the process adopted for recovering the oxalic acid employed for re-
peated use for the same purpose. He then states the difficulties in the practical
working of any process of purifying Bauxite from iron which involves the repeated
1880. NN
546 REPORT—1880.
washing of the ore, and goes on to describe some reactions which permit of the
separation of dissolved iron from aluminous solutions. ;
In a solution of alumina obtained by treating Bauxite with sulphuric acid,
there is contained iron to the extent of 0°80 to 1:00 per cent., about three-fourths
of which exists as peroxide and the remaining one-fourth as protoxide. The iron
existing as peroxide is rendered insoluble, and precipitated from the solution by
converting it into arsenite by the addition of arsenious acid, and then, by means
of carbonate of lime, neutralising any free acid, and at the same time producing
in the solution a little tetrabasic sulphate of alumina, Under such circumstances,
the whole of the iron existing as peroxide falls out of the solution.
The remaining ferrous iron is then removed by the addition of ferrocyanide of
calcium, a reaction which, though so well known, has not hitherto been successfully
applied for the purpose, by reason of the difficulty of separating the impalpable
precipitate of Prussian blue from the solution.
The author has found that the addition to the blue mixture of a mere trace of
either the sulphate of copper or of zinc, induces an aggregation of the previously
imponderable particles of Prussian blue, which then rapidly fall out of the solution.
This precipitate is collected and washed, and by treatment with lime the ferro-
cyanide of calcium is regenerated and again used to remove more iron.
The solution of sulphate of alumina now freed from iron is lastly treated with
sulphide of calcium to remove the excess of arsenic, and then boiled down until of
such a density that it solidifies on cooling. The result is a sulphate of alumina,
neutral, practically free from iron, and containing about 16 per cent. of alumina,
- compared with 10°83 per cent. contained in the ordinary crystallised potash
alum. :
A description is then given of the mode of carrying out these reactions in the
actual process of manufacture as carried on at St, Helens, and, finally, attention is
drawn to the probability of an extensive consumption of sulphate of alumina, in
the future, in the process of refining beetroot sugar. A large quantity of potash is
contained in sugar from this source, and it prevents the crystallisation of much of the
sugar. It has been known for some years that by means of sulphate of alumina
potash might be removed from the syrup, but the process has not been extensively
adopted by reason of the difficulty of obtaining sulphate of alumina sufficiently
pure for the purpose.
9. On a New Process for separating Silver from Copper contained in
Copper Ores and Reguluses. By Witt1am Henperson,
The latest literature on: this subject seems to award the palm of aceuracy and
cheapness to Zeir-vogel, who proposes by calculation of reguluses to form in the
first place sulphates of iron and copper which are gradually decomposed by further
calcination into the state of oxides, leaving argentic sulphate, which stands a much
higher temperature undecomposed, and which is soluble in pure water.
The difficulty always remains, in calcining reguluses or ores, to do it in such a
way as to convert the whole of the silver into sulphates. To ensure the result
with certainty I have called in the aid of a bisulphate, and I have taken bisulphate
of soda as the cheapest and as carrying a large proportion of available sulphuric
acid. The theory of the process is, that bisulphate of soda cannot be reduced to
sulphate by simple fusion, but parts with its second equivalent of sulphuric acid to
several metals at a comparatively low temperature. I thus ensure at once, and
early in the process, sufficient imprisoned sulphuric acid to make sure that the
whole of the silver will be converted into sulphate at the end of the process after
the other metallic sulphates are decomposed.
If the reguluses are comparatively free from arsenic and antimony the bi-
sulphate may be at once mixed with them, and the calcination proceed at once, as
in the Zeir-vogel process.
For several years I have again and again taken up this subject without suc-
cessful results ; at all events the results were, as a rule, imperfect and no improve-
ment upon those at present inuse. In the early part of 1879 my attention was
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 547
again attracted by the circumstance that some mines in Central Spain were offered
to me which produce copper ores rich in silver and a small quantity of cobalt, and
it was desirable if possible to devise some cheap and simple process whereby these
metals could be perfectly separated from each other.
A series of experiments led to the adoption of bisulphate of soda for this pur-
pose, which gives for silver very perfect results with reguluses. I have not been so
successful with ores, for obvious reasons.
Therefore, on November 3, 1879, I took out a patent, No. 4481 of that year,
‘for treating certain ores and reguluses,’ and I have since made a good many
experiments which, I regret to say, are principally crucible experiments, not having
at hand any reguluses rich in silver to work with on a large scale.
My last results are, however, so exact that I venture now to lay them before
the Chemical Section of the British Association. ;
The ore I had to deal with was from Spain, and contained a very large
quantity of arsenic, the calcination of the ore leaving a loss of 28 to-37 per cent.
I found in my first experiments with this new process that both arsenic and
antimony very much interfered with the results obtained. I therefore continued
the calcination until I had arrived at what is technically known as calcined ‘ dead.’
My aim was to produce a regulus of about 50 per cent. copper, and to accomplish
this I added a corresponding proportion of the ordinary Spanish pyrites, rich in
sulphur, and this produced a regulus containing not more than | per cent. of
arsenic, but contained besides a small quantity of lead which existed in the Spanish
ore I had to deal with.
The regulus as produced gave 285 ozs. 16 dwts. 16 grs. of silver per ton of
regulus, and of copper 42 per cent.
In previous experiments I had come to the conclusion that, provided the
yegulus did not contain much arsenic or antimony, as good and even better results
were obtained from the raw regulus. To test this, equal quantities of the same
regulus—Ist, calcined ‘dead’; 2nd, half-calcined, 3rd, raw reoulus—each with
20 per cent. of bisulphate of soda, were added. The three crucibles were placed in
the same five and calcined at a gradually increasing heat, and finished at a bright
ved heat when gases had ceased to be given off. This occupied one hour and
twenty minutes. The results were as follows :—
ozs. dwts. grs.
Ist silver soluble 0:7615 per cent.=248 15 4
nd , 4 08265 , =269 19 20
Ordy 5s » 0°8765 2 ee Pn
This last result I consider very perfect, and I regret much that I have not been
in a position to place before you anything more than laboratory experiments.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 31,
The following Papers were read :—
1. Further Notes on Petrolewm Spirit and Analogous Liquids.
By Aurrep H. Auten, F.C.8.
In a paper read before the Section at the Sheffield Meeting, the author de-
scribed cestain tests by which the ordinary ‘benzoline’ or petroleum spirit of
commerce could be distinguished from and approximately estimated when in
admixture with coal-tar naphtha or crude benzene.
Extending his researches in this direction, the author now described methods
by which the above-named products could be distinguished from the very similar
liquid known as ‘shale naphtha,’ obtained as a secondary product in the manu-
facture of paraffin wax from bituminous shale.
NN2
548 REPORT—1880.
The following table shows some of the leading distinctive characters of the
three liquids :—
— Petroleum spirit Shale naphtha Coal-tar naphtha
Specific gravity . | ‘690. ‘718. "860.
Boiling point . | 55 to 60° C, 55 to 60° C. 80° C.
: s Very slight solvent | Same as _ petro- | Readily dissolves
ae ‘ee, ote us action. Liquid leum spirit. pitch, forming a
Ip scarcely coloured. deep brown
liquid.
Reaction when 3 Liquids donot mix, | Liquids form a | Miscible inall pro-
| measures are and remain ap- homogeneous portions.
| shaken with 1 parently un- mixture.
measure of changed.
fused crystals
of absolute car-
| bolic acid
It is evident, therefore, that while shale naphtha resembles the petroleum pro-
duct in its general physical characters and its slight solvent action on pitch, it is
sharply distinguished from it by its reaction with carbolic acid.
The burning oils from petroleum and from shale resemble each other very
closely. Neither product is miscible with absolute carbolic acid, but that from
petroleum gradually turns the acid violet and ultimately black.
The different behaviour of petroleum and shale naphthas with carbolic acid
suggested that they were not quite so similar in composition as is commonly
assumed to be the case, and further experiments showed that while petroleum
spirit had but little tendency to combine with bromine, and was only with great
difficulty acted on by nitric acid, the shale naphtha presented a marked difference
in these respects. These facts of course point to a probability, almost amounting
to certainty, that shale naphtha contains a large proportion of olefines or hydro-
carbons of the general formula C,f1,,, while petroleum spirit consists chiefly of
paraffins or hydrocarbons of the formula C,H, Quantitative experiments
with nitric acid show that while shale naphtha contains only 15 to 25 per cent.
of parafiins, the balance being olefines, in petroleum spirit these proportions are
reversed.
The burning oil from shale also consists chiefly of olefines, while in kerosene
or petroleum burning oil paraffins predominate.
The following table shows the general composition of the products from shale
and petroleum :—
— Petroleum Shale
Naphtha . , | At least 80 per cent. paraffins, | 75 to 90 per cent. of paraffins,
the remainder probably ole- the remainder olefines. No
fines. Distinct traces of ben- benzene or its homologues.
zene and its homologues.
| Photogene . | 55 to 80 per cent. of higher | Apparently 60 to 65 per cent.
paraffins, the remainder ap- of olefines, the rest paraftins.
parently olefines.
| Lubricating oil. Consists almost wholly of
higher olefines. No naph-
thalene.
Wax. : . | Solid paraffins. Solid paraffins.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 549
2. On the so-called ‘ Normal’ Solutions of Volumetric Analysis.
By Atrrep H. Auten, F.C.8.
3. On the Determination of the Loss of Heat in Steam-Boilers arising
from Incrustation. By Wittiam Tuomsoy, F.R.S.E.
On evaporating large quantities of water in small vessels I was surprised to find
that some samples evaporated away much more rapidly than others, although the
same sizes of flames were allowed to play on the bottoms of each of the vessels ;
and I afterwards found that the rapidity of evaporation was in the inyerse pro-
portion to the quantity of incrustation which had formed on the bottoms; I
was further impressed by the small quantity of incrustation which was required
to make a great difference in the quantity of water evaporated. Based on this
fact, I have constructed an apparatus in which four small vessels are set so that
the bottom of each dips into paraffin contained in a large vessel, heated by
one lamp from the centre; by this means the same quantity of heat is given to
each yessel, and it is evident that on measuring the quantity of water evaporated
by each in a given time, the amount of heat lost by the incrustation may be
determined.
In the arrangement of this apparatus I use one of the small vessels to
evaporate pure distilled water, and the others to evaporate waters to be tested for
boiler purposes ; these samples are placed in flasks or vessels arranged mouth down-
wards, on Bischoff’s principle, so that the water in the small vessels is always
kept at the same height until the whole in the flask is evaporated. When the
distilled water is evaporated to a certain point the operation is stopped, and the
amount of water left is in each case accurately measured. It is evident that the
quantities of the different samples which remain in excess of the distilled water
would represent in water the quantity of heat lost by the incrustation produced by
a given quantity of any sample.
4. On the Identification of the Ink used in writing Letters and Documents
as Hvidence in Cases of Libel, Forgery, §c. By Witu1am THomson,
FLRS.E.
Most of a large number of inks on envelopes sent to the author by different
persons, when tested by reagents, were found to differ from each other to a large
extent, whilst no two were precisely similar when minute comparisons were made.
The reagents which I have found to give best results are :—
1. Dilute sulphuric acid.
2. Strong hydrochloric acid.
3. Slightly diluted nitric acid.
4. Sulphurous acid solution.
5. Caustic soda solution,
6. Cold saturated solution of oxalic acid.
7. Solution of bleaching powder.
8. Solution of protochloride of tin.
9. Solution. of perchloride of tin.
As an example of the results produced by reagents, some inks when treated, for
instance, with sulphuric acid are changed to bright crimson, some to deep red,
whilst others become blue, green, violet, or grey, of different shades, and some
remain practically unaltered ; and when, as sometimes happens, the same or nearly
the same colour is produced by one reagent, the colours produced by others are
very different.
By testing inks in this way on libellous letters, or in cases of forgery, the ink
may, under some combinations of circumstances, possess as much individuality
about them as the faces of their owners.
I have found that the same ink when put on different kinds of paper gives pre-
550 REPORT—1880.
cisely similar results with reagents, and also that the same kind of ink made by
the same maker at different times gives different results.
Lastly, persons treat and use inks so differently that although two persons may
be supplied with precisely the same ink, yet when it has been in use by them for
some time, the character of each may become different, being altered by the user
leaving his steel pen in the ink, or by leaving it exposed to the light, or by filling
the bottle up with one kind of ink before another kind has been entirely finished,
or by mixing with it fluids such as water, beer, wine, &c., when the ink is nearly
dried up. Thus, as most people have in their ink-bottles fluids which are very
characteristic, the testing of the ink on papers or documents to discover the writer
may become of the highest importance, although it is seldom that this mode of in-
vestigation is adopted.
5. Note on Silver Sulphate. By Purp Branam, F.C.8.
The silver sulphate was shown as brilliant transparent crystals of regular octahe-
dral shape and of high refractive power. They were produced by pouring strong sul-
phuric acid on a plate of silver, and adding a few drops of nitric acid. At first there
was a slight chemical action, bubbles of gas being liberated. In a day or two the
whole of the sulphuric acid acquires a deep purple tint, probably due to the for-
mation of some oxide of nitrogen. After a lapse of two to three weeks the purple
tint sinks towards the silver, and a slight brown tint can be seen on the surface,
the layer of liquid above the silver being colourless. About this period long crystals
form, which re-dissolve, and the liquid becomes colourless. In the course of a few
days brilliant specks are seen, which develop into perfect crystals; those shown
had taken over six months in forming.
6. The Effects of Magnesia on Vegetation. By Major-General Scorr,
CBee. >
Not among the least wonderful of the anomalies in the conduct of human beings
is the persistence, in opposition even to their own interests, with which they adhere
to a prejudice long after it has been overturned by experience. The erroneous
views of the effects of magnesia on vegetation afford a notable instance. Eminent
cultivators have given their testimony from actual practice of its favourable effects,
yet the prejudice continues so strong that farmers will often carry other limes
from a long distance, and at a much greater cost, rather than employ those made
from dolomite. Its slower absorption of carbonic acid, or some defect in the mode
of using it, had given in the first instance an unfavourable impression regarding
magnesian lime, and this impression has been handed down from one author to
another, and has been accepted by the unthinking agriculturist without question.
Instances occur even in which men of science have contributed to the propagation
of the error.
Now and again there has been some slight protest against the assumption that
magnesian lime had qualities noxious to vegetation, but these protests have pro-
duced little effect, and the substance, though known to be an important constituent
of plants, has seldom been made a component of manures. Thus Professor Johnston
recommends the making of experiments both with caustic and mild or carbonate of
magnesia, and states, in 1849, that, ‘in consequence of previous recommendations
it (carbonate of magnesia) has been tried in numerous experiments by Mr. Gardner
at Barochan in Renfrewshire, and by Mr. Main at Whitehill in Midlothian. This
was never applied alone by these gentlemen, but always as an ingredient of mixed.
manures, in which it formed only a small proportion. These experiments, there-
toes throw no light upon the special effects of this substance on our different crops
and soils,’
Thirty years after this we still find Mr. Jamieson thus writing in the report of
the proceedings of the Aberdeenshire Agricultural Association for 1878. Speaking
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 551
of the essential ingredients of plants, he says that they ‘may benefit or injure plants
according to the combination in which they are applied ; thus chloride of lime and
carbonate of magnesia are said to be plant-poisons, although composed of ingredients
which are beneficial in other forms, such as carbonate of lime, sulphate of magnesia,
chloride of potash, &c.’ And again, ‘ As to magnesia, it may be put down quite as
a neglected substance in manures. Judging from examination of soils its appli-
cation is called for in many cases more urgently than most of the other essential
ingredients.’ It is true also that Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert introduced 16:3 per
cent. of sulphate of magnesia (=2 per cent. of magnesia) into the mixed mineral
manures employed in their experiments at Rothamsted, and small quantities were
used in the trials of manures made in 1841 and 1842 in Scotland; but one of the
most eminent authorities on the question of manures, M. Ville, whose work has been
justly received with much appreciation by agriculturists in America and England
as well as in his own country, does not think it necessary to introduce magnesia
into manures at all, not because he does not consider it to be an essential element
in vegetation, but because, as he states, ‘it is found in the soil’ ‘naturally,’ and of
course he means in sufficient abundance for the requirements of plants.
How far the accuracy of this opinion is borne out by the facts he cites is, I
think, open to question, and I therefore place the whole matter, almost in his own
words, before you, and it will form an appropriate introduction to my paper.
M. Ville gives in-his work the analysis, by Davy, of six samples of earth
from different sources, ‘all renowned for their fertility,’ and states that ‘all six
possess the same degree of fertility.’ Now Sir Humphry Davy, in his work on
Agricultural Chemistry, gives the analysis of three of them, and of these he says
that one was from a hop garden, another from a ‘good turnip soil, and a third
from an excellent wheat soil.’ In none of the six samples, excepting that from the
‘hop garden, did Sir Humphry Davy find any magnesia, and in that he found
7 per cent. of magnesic carbonate (=°33 magnesia). M. Ville gives also the
analysis of a soil from Chalons-sur-Marne, by M. Rivot, which showed only traces
of magnesia. At the same time they contained, with one exception (which had
only ‘6 of calcic carbonate), a fair proportion of lime, viz. from 4°7 to 57:2 of calcic
carbonate. It is true that in the days of Davy methods of analysis were not so
accurate as at present, and that magnesia might have been, and most probably
was, present in some of the five samples in which it was not detected or noted by
him; but the magnesic element must have been present in insignificant proportion
in comparison with the calcic.
At the end of his work M. Ville gives tables for calculating the relative exhaus-
tion of soils under different crops, but in these tables no mention whatever is made
of magnesia as an element abstracted from the soil by plants, though it is an un-
doubted fact that the seeds of peas, beans, rape, and wheat carry off a comparatively
large proportion of it. In 100 parts of the seed crop of wheat there are 12. parts
of magnesia and only 4 of lime, and in the straw of this plant the quantity of mag-
nesia is about one-half that of the lime, yet M. Ville omits magnesia from his normal
manure for cereals, though lime, in the somewhat soluble condition of sulphate, forms
nearly one-half of the whole compound recommended for a wheat crop. And this
fact appears the more remarkable when we examine the experiments made with
the different mineral elements of plants by M. Ville. With reference to these
experiments, he says: ‘This time a fixed and invariable quantity of nitrogenous
matter was mixed with the [calcined] sand [soaked with distilled water] as a
constant ingredient, and all the other mineral ingredients were added by turns
except one. The experiments were repeated as many times as there were different
mineral ingredients, in order that each might be excluded in its turn, the deviation
between the crops obtained with the ten mineral ingredients and those in which
they were reduced to nine, being taken to indicate the degree of importance of the
suppressed ingredients.
‘Magnesia was submitted to the same method of exclusion. The defects were
as disastrous as in the case of potash.
‘There are some plants, particularly buckwheat, on which the effects of this
552 REPORT—1880.
suppression are immediate ; on wheat they are manifested a little more slowly, but
are still very significant, and when magnesia is excluded. from the soil the yield
falls to about 128 grains instead of 337.
‘The suppression of the lime produces a less sensible effect—the yield is then
about 307 instead of 337.
‘Leaving the culture in calcined sand, I extended my investigations to various
natural soils.
‘On submitting them to the same experimental system we found that... .
the yield is maintained at the same level as when sulphur, silica, soda, magnesia,
iron, and chlorine are added, which explains to you why I did not go further into
the effects of those bodies,
‘Experience, therefore, shows that the four ingredients—nitrogenous matter,
phosphate, potash, and ime—are the only ones that need be admitted into manures.’
(Ville, pp. 153-5.)
‘T give the name, therefore, of normal manure to the mixture of phosphate of
lime, potash, lime, and a nitrogenous material.
‘In so domg, I do not intend to deny the utility of the other ingredients; I
exclude them from the manure because the soil is provided with them naturally.
‘If we pass from these fundamental data to the function of each mineral
ingredient in particular, the results are neither less expressive or less explicit. The
soil being provided with nitrogenous matter as a constant ingredient :—
wt. of crops.
‘ With all the mineral matter except phosphate ; Suir
+, ws » potash . : . 138
A - » Magnesia. ; ~- 107
y 3s », soluble silica . . 128
A N without any suppression . 276 to 537.’
, —pp. 156-157.
M. Ville’s conclusions respecting magnesia, and indeed silica, appear to me to be
far from conyincing. If the above results can be said to demonstrate anything, they
demonstrate that magnesia comes next to phosphate in importance as an element of
mineral manures, and, as I shall show eventually, this is not far from the truth. I
shall, however, now proceed to show that there are experiments recorded indicating
that considerable advantage is derived by adding to very many soils more magnesia
than they naturally contain, and we shall find also important testimony to its value
where it naturally occurs.
Sir Humphry Davy in opposing the common notion of the noxious qualities of
magnesian lime, and accounting for this prevalent and erroneous opinion, states
that :—
‘Magnesia in its mild state, ¢.e. fully combined with carbonic acid, seems to me
to be always a useful constituent of soils. I haye thrown carbonate of magnesia
upon grass, and upon growing wheat and barley, so as to render the surface white,
but the vegetation was not injured in the slightest degree; and one of the most
fertile parts of Cornwall—the Lizard—is a district in which the soil contains mild
magnesian earth. The Lizard Downs have a short and green grass which feeds
sheep, producing excellent mutton, and the cultivated parts are amongst the best
of corn lands in the country.’ (‘Davy’s Agri. Chem,’ pp. 299-300.)
Davy also found that wheat grew better in a soil with which he had mixed
peat and magnesia than in either the ‘pure soil,’ or the pure soil and peat alone.
It grew very well in the pure soil, and nearly as well as with magnesia in the
mixture of peat and pure soil, but peat often contains a notable quantity of
magnesia. The ashes of the hrown herbaceous peat in the neighbourhood of Troyes
contain 14 per cent. of magnesia, and those of a peat from the frontiers of Bavaria
and Bohemia contain 3°5 per cent of it. Gelatinous silica and sulphate of lime are
also frequent constituents of peat, and the fact, therefore, that the mixture of peat
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 553
and pure soil gave better results than the pure soil, derogates little, if at all, from
the evidence of improvement given by magnesia,
Again, Morton in his ‘ Encyclopedia of Agriculture,’ in opposing the erroneous
opinions current against the use of magnesian lime, mentions that ‘ In the neigh-
bourhood of Castellamonte and Baldissiro, the most luxuriant vegetation is met
with on a soil which contains a very large quantity of magnesia, and in our own
country many very fertile soils are found in the New Red Sandstone formation,
which likewise is rich in magnesia.’
John Donaldson, the author of a ‘Treatise on Manures, having been engaged
in the cultivation of land in the immediate neighbourhood of Breedon Magnesian
Rock in Leicestershire, says :—‘ I had occasion to use considerable quantities of lime,
and consequently had a fair opportunity of proving the quality of that rock for
agricultural purposes.’ On two fields (the farm he tells us had been most miserably
scourged and impoverished by the preceding tenants) he spread the magnesian lime
at the rate, of 200 bushels an acre, and in another field ‘a double allowance of lime,
or 400 bushels per acre . . . . which, being both a large quantity and in a caustic
state, would test the supposed noxious quality of the lime. In every case the green
crops were good; .. . one field was sown with barley, which yielded a most
beautiful crop of 74 quarters per acre, and the other produced 5 quarters of wheat,
both very great crops when the exhausted state of the land was considered.
When the wheat braided in November, the space which had got 400 bushels
to an acre immediately showed a great superiority, which continued to the day of
reaping, being much thicker on the ground, of a darker colour throughout the
winter, and afforded more produce as the shocks were thicker on the ground, and
discernible on the first view of the field. The succeeding crop of hay on that space
showed an equal superiority, and for several years in succession.
‘The same lime was used in the same quantity, of 200 bushels to an acre, and
with the same beneficial results, without a single exception. On the headland where
the lime lay, and where any damage might have been expected, there grew a very
close and heavy crop of beet, with roots not equalled in size and weight. Many
eminent cultivators join in the same opinion of magnesian lime derived from actual
practice.’ (‘A Treatise on Manures,’ by J. Donaldson, pp. 157-8.)
This experiment is very instructive and conclusive, for on comparing the results
obtained with the constituents of each of the various crops, it will be observed that
the beneficial results were in proportion to that of the magnesia which the ash
contains. Though the green crops were good, it is specially mentioned by Donaldson
that the space which had the double allowance of magnesian lime ‘showed no
difference in the turnip crop.’
The following table, extracted from ‘How Crops Grow’ (Eng. ed. by Church
and Dyer), gives the percentage of magnesia and lime in the ashes of the crops
alluded to :—
Magnesia Lime
Turnips (mean of 3 sorts) . : ; - 2°9 11:2:
Hay. : ; : : ; - : 4:9 116
Barley straw . : x : : : 2-4 76
aye seeds tS : ; : - ; 85 2°5
Beet . : 4 : : ; ; : 89 6:3
Wheat straw . : A : : : 26 6:2
sh seeds.) * - : £ reid 31
We here see that Donaldson’s results are exactly in accord with what would
have been predicted from a consideration of the mineral constituents of the different
crops. The turnip, containing the smallest proportion of magnesia, is not benefited
by the presence in the soil of a double proportion of that substance; probably the
200 bushels to the acre of Breedon lime supplied quite enough lime and more
magnesia than was necessary for that crop: but in the case of wheat, where for
the formation of the seed a very large supply of magnesia was necessary, the dose
of 200 bushels to the acre was insufficient to enable the roots to find the requisite
amount of magnesia for the full development of the crop, and yet, if, in this
matter, we are to follow-M. Ville’s prescription, all the soils naturally contain enough
554 REPORT—1880.
magnesia to supply all the wants of wheat, though analysis shows the presence of
mere traces of it only, or none at all. Mr. N. Whiteley, land surveyor, the author
of a treatise ‘On the application of Geology to Agriculture, whilst receiving as
well founded the common prejudice against the magnesian lime in its hot state,
does full justice to the fertilising effects of magnesia in its mild condition. He says,
speaking of land near St. Kevern, in Cornwall: ‘If we seek for a soil theoretically
perfect it may be found in this formation. The large amount of magnesia which
this fruitful soil contains (9 per cent.) is worthy of observation.’ Of the magnesian
limestone formation he says that ‘much of it is thin, light, and dry,’ and ‘ we are
prepared therefore to meet with a soil of medium quality ; much of the soil on the
magnesian limestone is in arable culture, but from Standrop to Darlington the soil
may be considered the best and richest grazing land in the North.’ Strong con-
firmation of the views I am seeking to establish is to be derived from a considera-~
tion of the cases of soils, which are either abundantly supplied with, or are very
deficient in magnesia.
In the following table are given the proportions of lime and magnesia found in
both fertile and barren soils. I give the lime as well as the magnesia, because that
substance is considered, very rightly, a most important ingredient of manures,
although usually its proportion in soils is considerably in excess of the magnesia:—
PROPORTION OF LIME AND MAGNESIA IN 1000 PARTS OF VERY FERTILE AND
FERTILE SOILS.
Exceptionally fertile Fertile
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
|
Lime . . | 260 | 9:3 | 12:6 | 61:6 | 12:29 | 42°71 | 12:9 | 74 | 5:3 | 5:6
Magnesia . 9°5 | 11°6 88 88 | 10°82 61 BT 7653 «[eas9l 07k
No. 1 is from the analysis of the celebrated black earth of Russia. This remark-
able soil is ‘ the finest in Russia, whether for the production of wheat or grass.’ It
nourishes, on 60,000 square geographical miles, a population of more than twenty
millions of souls, and yet ‘exports upwards of fifty millions of bushels annually.’
This very properly stands first in my table, as it contains a very large amount of
magnesia, and is the most fertile, probably, of any which the table includes.
No. 2. From an analysis by Sprengel of the soil of Nebstein, near Olmutz in
Bavaria, which had been cropped in 1847 for nearly 160 years successively ‘ with-
out either manure or naked fallow.’
No. 3. By Boussingault, a soil from Calvario near Tacunga, Ecuador, South
America. It ‘ possesses extraordinary fertility.’
No. 4. ‘A very fertile alluvial soil from Honighpolder, analysed by Sprengel;
no manure has ever been applied to it. The subsoil contains to a great depth the
same composition as the surface soil.
No. 5. Soil from Midlothian, analysed by Dr. Anderson, It produces excellent
wheat.’
No. 6. From an analysis by Sprengel of a very fertile alluvial soil in East
Friesland formerly overflowed, but which had been in 1863 cultivated for sixty
years with corn and pulse crops without manure.
Nos. 7, 8, 9, 10. From soils at Gottingen, from near Hanover, from Alt-Arenberg
in Belgium, and from a virgin soil on the banks of the Ohio respectively. The
analyses are by Sprengel.
I do not, of course, assume that the fertility of these soils is due entirely or
chiefly to the magnesia they contain; the black earth of Russia, for instance,
contains also more than 2 per cent. of nitrogen ; nor do I suppose that in very
many cases the addition of magnesia where the proportion of it is less, cannot be
dispensed with; but Ido say, seeing the disastrous effects which accompany its
absence, as shown by Ville, the question merits the serious attention of agriculturists.
This will be more apparent from the following table of
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 555
BARREN SOILS SHOWING THE PROPORTION OF LIME AND MAGNESIA IN 1000
PARTS OF SOIL.
| 11 12 13 | 14 | 15
Lime . $ , “96 ‘OL traces 2°9 32
Magnesia traces traces 12 cf 1:3
No. 11. Refers_to a soil which Dr. Sendtner characterises as the most: sterile
soil in Bavaria.
Nos, 12 and 13. Soils from the neighbourhood of Friesland, also barren.
No. 14. A very barren soil from Luneberg. This soil is wanting in many
other elements besides magnesia, and is probably too rich in iron.
No. 15. Also from Luneberg, analysed by Sprengel, as also was the case with
the three preceding numbers. Here again I deprecate the supposition that I hold
the barrenness of these soils to be solely, or even principally, due to the absence or
scarcity of magnesia. Many of the other constituents of plants, not considered by
Ville as essential to a manure, are also wanting, as well as some that he deemed to
be indispensable.
Probably the opinion of Dr. Liebig may carry with it more weight with the
generality of persons than any of the foregoing evidence in fayour of making a
more extended use of magnesia in manures. In his ‘ Natural Laws of Husbandry’
(pp. 257-8), he says, with reference to guano, the best probably of manures now in
the market: ‘If we compare the composition of the ashes of various seeds we at
once see that the incombustible constituents of guano do not altogether replace the
soil constantly carried off in the seeds.’
‘In 100 parts of seed-ash are contained :
| Wheat Peas and Beans Rape
| ie wath Doren :
Potash . . ‘ . 30 40 24
Lime . 5 “ 4 6 10
Magnesia é . 12 6 10
Phosphoric acid. . 45 36 36
whereas guano ash contains in each 100 parts:
Potash . : : . - 1:56 to 2:03
Lime . . . : : . 340 to 37:0
Magnesia. : ; . 256 to 2-00
Phosphoric acid . - : . 41:0 to 40:0
‘The principal difference between the ash of guano and that of those seeds lies
in the deficiency of potash and magnesia in the former. Agriculturists are gene-
rally agreed about the necessity of potash for vegetation, and that a supply is
required by fields poor in that ingredient, or drained of it; but the question as to
the importance of magnesia for seed-formation has not, as yet, met with the same
attention, and special experiments in this direction would be very desirable.
‘The fact that much more magnesia is found in the seeds than in the straw
unmistakably shows that it must play a definite part in the formation of the seed,
which might, perhaps, be ascertained by a careful examination of seeds of the
same variety of plants containing different amounts of magnesia. It is a well-
known fact that the seeds of the several species of cereals, having the same pro-
portion of nitrogen, do not always contain the same nitrogenous compounds, and it
is possible that the nature of the latter may, in the formation of the seeds, be
essentially influenced by the presence of lime or of magnesia, so that the difference
in the proportion of both of their alkaline earths may have a certain connection with
the presence of the soluble nitrogenous compounds (albumen and casein), or of the
insoluble gluten or vegetable fibrine.’
556 ; REPORT—1880.
To pursue this subject further in the direction indicated by Liebig is a task for
which I feel myself unequal ; but it encourages me to examine narrowly the records
of experiments in which magnesia has been made an element of manures, or has
been tried alone, or in conjunction with an acid.
Of experiments made with magnesia wlone I know of no further instances of a
definite and reliable kind than those of Donaldson, above quoted ; but concerning
experiments with sulphate of magnesia, both alone and combined with other con-
stituents, there are records to which I can refer for further proof of my argument.
Before doing so, however, I wish to call attention to a fact which has a con-
siderable bearing on the case. Both Liebig and Ville hold that farm-yard manure—
excellent manure as it is—must be supplemented with mineral substances if full
value is to be given to it, and that additional phosphoric acid is necessary to make
all of its nitrogen available for plant life. Now, in 100 parts of farm-yard manure
there is less than ‘14 per cent. of magnesia, and of its mineral constituents the
magnesia forms only 1:7 per cent. Donaldson tells us ‘the quality of earthy
composts and of farm-yard manure is prodigiously improved by a mixture of
seaweed. . . . During the seasons of the seaweed coming on shore the farmers
haye heaps of dung or soil in readiness to receive the immediate benefit of the
“‘wrack,” and these heaps, along with any lands which may be in a state fit to
receive it, afford a ready application of this invaluable article. Farm-yard manure
for turnips is improved by it almost beyond description, and never fails to vindicate
the expectations of its effects.’ (Donaldson, p. 123.)
Now, what are the components of the ash in seaweed? No less than from 7
to 204 per cent. of magnesia are found in different kinds of it, and the ashes of the
seaweed at the mouth of the Mersey contain upwards of 15 per cent. No doubt
in the growth of the turnip crops the advantage is largely derived from the great
amount of potash the seaweed contains, but of this substance the ash of dung itself
yields upwards of 9 per cent., whereas it yields only, as stated, 1:7 per cent. of
“ _, potash 53. . 4
magnesia. In the ash of dung, therefore, ~__ — —%; in that of the turnip
magnesia = 1
8 : Oe ore
potash __ 5. In seaweed it = 72; it is reasonable, therefore, to suppose that the
Inagnesia = L iL
turnip, if manured with seaweed as well as dung, derives more of the benefit from
the magnesia added by the seaweed, than from the potash thus supplied.
We will now proceed to examine some of the experiments made in 1842, and
reported by Professor Johnston, which have been already briefly referred to.
Results of Experiments with Sulphate of Magnesia.
1. On Yellow Turnips, by Mr. McLean, Braidwood, Midlothian, 1842.
Farmyard manure, 30 carts ; . . produced, per acre, 24 tons.
“ is with 3-cwt. of sul- 25
phate of magnesia mixed with it ; 2 v7 mee 2)
Or the increase gained by }-cwt. of sulphate of magnesia was 4 per cent.
2. On Yellow Turnips, by Mr. Fleming, Barochan, Renfrewshire, 1842. Variety,
‘ Karly Liverpool.’
Nothing, Ist plot - : ; : : 4 11-4.
2nd plot .. - : . : ; 12°85.
Sulphate of magnesia, lewt. . : : : 14°85.
Here 1 cwt. of sulphate of magnesia alone gives an increase of upwards of from
12 to 80 per cent. (mean, 21 per cent.); but as the sulphate of magnesia was not
tried in duplicate, less reliance can be placed on this experiment.
3, On Potatoes, variety ‘Early Americans,’ carried out by Mr. Fleming, Barochan,
in 1842.
Intended to test the comparative advantage of sulphate of magnesia when
applied as a top dressing to the young plant, and when mixed with the manure at
the time of its application.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. aie
As Top Dressing.
Brite : Quantity of Produce in
No. Description of manure manure per acre tons per acre
1 Nothing but dung . 5 : ‘ 40 c. yards 12°75
2 Sulphate of magnesia . 4 c 13 cwt. 13°25
3 Sulphate of soda . E , , Dah 33 12°75
4 Nitrate of soda. - - 2 14» 16:0
5 | { Nitrate of soda } Dajiatss 1 29-5
Sulphate of magnesia ape J
Manure mixed with dung at time of planting.
6 Farmyard dung alone . : 5 35 c. yards. 8°75
7 Sulphate of magnesia . 4 : 2 ewt. 11°35
8 Sulphate of soda . 3 . : Dinos 8:00
These results are very interesting. It might be supposed that the increase in the”
crop was due to the sulphuric acid, and not to the magnesia; but, inasmuch as
sulphate of soda gave no advantage, the effect is plainly not due to the sulphuric
acid, unless we suppose the soda to have been injurious, which is not likely to have
been the case. An increase of sulphate of magnesia appears also to improve the
crop. When 1} cwt. of the salt was used, as a top dressing, with the dung, the
increase was only 4 per cent.; but when 2 cwt. was used with the dung, at the
time of planting, the increase was close upon 30 per cent. The result of this ex-
periment appears, moreover, to confirm the view that the mixture of the ashes of
sea-weed and dung derives no unimportant advantage from the quantity of magnesia
thus introduced into the plant. Z
4, On Clover and Rye Grass cut for hay by Mr. McLean, Braidwood, Mid-
lothian, 1842.
Nothing : : . gave 125 stones per acre.
Sulphate of magnesia, 1} cwt. ,, 290 e
Gypsum, 3cwt. . : Sy hs) 200
Here the use of 14 cwt. of sulphate of magnesia gave the enormous increase of
upwards of 130 per cent., whilst 3 cwt. of gypsum (sulphate of lime) gave an
increase of 60 per cent. only. It will be of interest at this point to refer to the
composition of the mineral constituents of the turnip, potato, clover, and hay, as
respects the proportions in them of lime and magnesia, for we shall then see that
the advantage gained by the crops experimented on has been in general accordance
with what might have been expected from the components of their ashes. I have
given also the percentage of sulphuric acid for reasons stated below.
PERCENTAGE OF SULPHURIC ACID, LIME, AND MAGNESIA IN THE ASHES OF
| Sulphuric Acid Lime Magnesia,
fTurnips, the bulbs. . : ‘ 13°60 13°60 5°34
oF entire plants . : : 12°52 23°27 3°09
J Potatoes, tubers = * : 3 13°65 2-09 6°28
iL » entire plants . : 4 12°52 13°11 5°55
f Clover ¢ ‘ 4 - - - | 3°33 32°80 8-40
» rye-grass hay . c : : 3°25 6°50 401
es Steed... > Wetaicens 3-24 1924 | 551f
The entire plants of the turnip and potatoes require in the ash 3-09 per cent.
and 5:55 per cent. of magnesia, and clover and rye-grass crops (taken in the average
proportion of the ashes of their respective crops, viz. 400 lbs, to 220 Ibs. per acre,)
558 REPORT—1880.
require 7'3 per cent. of that substance, The advantage gained by the use of sul-
phate of magnesia, as shown by these experiments, was :—
Magnesia
in Ash being
For Turnips . - : = 152 per cent. 3:09
For Potatoes : : . 50 * 5°65
For Clover and Rye Grass . 180 Bs 7:3
If this coicidence is accidental it is extraordinary. Another point to which I
wish to call attention is the fact that the advantage gained is manifestly largely
due to the magnesia, and not to the sulphuric acid only ; for where the advantage
was the greatest by far, the sulphate of lime did not produce an equivalent effect,
though the 3 cwt. of calcic manure carried to the soil upwards of six times the
amount of sulphuric acid that the 15 cwt. of the magnesic salt supplied, and
though the latter is far more soluble than the former, gypsum is sufficiently soluble
for all the requirements of plants.
A third point remains for remark, and. that is the relative effect produced on
potatoes in the above experiments of Mr. Fleming, of Barochan, by the use of dung
No. 1, of sulphate of magnesia No, 2, of sulphate of soda No. 8, of nitrate of soda
No, 4, and of a mixture of nitrate of soda and sulphate of magnesia No. 5. A
comparison of these results can leave little doubt in the mind of the immense value
of magnesia as an ingredient of a manure for potatoes. By the addition of 2 ewt.
of sulphate of soda to the dung no advantage was gained; when 1} ewt. of nitrate
of soda was added to the dung, the extra supply of nitrogen in its nitric acid
increased the produce 30 per cent.; but when | cwt. of sulphate of magnesia was
added to the dung, together with 1 cwt. only of nitrate of soda, the amount of
produce rose upwards of 76 per cent. upon what was given by dung alone. More-
over, it is quite clear that as the 1} cwt. of nitrate of soda alone gave an increase of
only 30 per cent., and when sulphate of magnesia was added to the manure, the
nitrate at the same time being reduced by 50 per cent., the produce rose to 76 per
cent., more than one-half of the advantage was due to the sulphate of magnesia.
I have before shown and my conclusions are confirmed by these experiments, that
the benefit is chiefly attributable to the magnesia, and not to the sulphuric acid
combined with it. There is, deed, one other possible supposition at variance with
this conclusion, viz. that the 1} ewt. of nitrate of soda was too large a quantity to
use per acre; but all experience contradicts this idea.
The following are the results recorded by Professor Johnston of the experiments
on cereals, as far as they affect our investigation, The quantities of manure and
the crops are, per acre :—
With Barley, Common White.
Nothing gave 3400 lbs of straw and 47:25 bushels of grain.
G ewt. sulphate of soda 3928 B49, i
magnesia a
2 ” ”
With Oats, 2nd crop after old lea, the Manure applied as top dressing
two months after sowing.
Nothing gave 2896 lbs. of straw and 54 bushels of grain.
16 cwt. rape dust yy 2092 ss 44-96
1 cwt. sulphate of soda ,, 2792 + 38:56 s
With Spring Wheat after Turnip.
Nothing gave 4056 Ibs. of straw and 47°68 bushels of grain.
16 cwt. rape dust », 4600 ri 51:05
1 ewt. sulphate of soda ,, 3864 ys 38:00 %
With Winter Wheat as top dressing.
Nothing gave 2560 lbs. of straw and 24:93 bushels of grain.
28:4 .
84 Ibs. sulphate of magnesia , 8200 7
5 ewt, rape dust
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 559
As the above crops were not the same, and the quantities of manure employed
differed and were applied at different times, no exact results may be deducible from
the above trials; but as the experiments were all with cereals, we are able to draw
general conclusions from them, which are not unimportant, as to the effects of
magnesia as a manure, and
First.—As sulphate of soda, when used alone, proved in each case prejudicial,
we may assume that at least it did not materially assist the result when mixed with
rape dust or sulphate of magnesia.
Secondly.—As rape dust, when used alone, gave only a certain increase to the
crop, any further increase when used with sulphate of magnesia must be due to
the influence of the latter substance, and
Thirdly.—As rape dust used alone with oats decreased the crop of grain 16°6 per
cent., and with spring wheat only increased the crop of grain by 7 per cent., whereas
when used in conjunction with 84 lbs. only per acre of sulphate of magnesia
(=15°6 Ibs. of magnesia), as a top dressing with winter wheat the increase rose to
nearly 16 per cent., it is reasonable to suppose that some portion—indeed a con-
siderable portion—-was due to the influence of the sulphate of magnesia, small as it
was, and not to the rape dust as a single agent. So far as the rape dust improved
the result it may be supposed to be attributable to the influence of the magnesia,
to which substance Liebig, as we have seen, assigns a very definite part in the
formation of the seed.
It must be borne in mind in considering the question, how far a soil is likely to
be improved by an increase of the amount of magnesia in it, that crops remove
from the soil the greater portion of their mineral constituents within a short space
of time as compared with the whole duration of the existence of the plants, and
that, therefore, it must be of the greatest moment that they should be able to
gather them from the soil within this period. After a certain time a cultivated
plant advances little in size and weight, although great changes occur in the dis-
tribution of its constituents.
Liebig says, with manifest truth; ‘As a soil may contain far more potash, or
magnesia, or lime than the crop may require, yet, being diffused through a large
quantity of earth, the roots may be unable to collect the ingredients fast enough to
_ supply the growing wants of the plant—to such a soil it will be necessary to add
a further portion of what the crop requires.’
The last experiments to which I shall refer are those of Dr. Pincus, of Insterburg,
which Liebig characterises as most important, both on account of the careful manner
in which they were conducted and the conclusions drawn from them. Three plots
of ground were selected lying close together, each of about five-eighths of an acre in
extent, from the middle of a large clover field. The clover crop had a very promising
appearance and the plants were then about one inch high; one of the plots was
manured with 1 ewt. of gypsum, the second with the same quantity of sulphate of
magnesia, und the intervening plot was left unmanured. When all were in flower
the clover was mown, and the following were the results :—
Per # acre.
Without manure. . : A : - . 216
With gypsum (sulphate of lime) . : 3 . 806
With sulphate of magnesia : 5 - » 824
Or the gain with the use of the magnesic salt as a manure was just 50 per cent.
It is to be observed that the stems were developed by both the sulphates much
more than the leaves and flowers. The experiment also showed that there was no
proportion between the quantities of sulphuric acid found in the crops and in those
supplied by the two sulphates. The quantity of sulphuric acid in the two sulphates
was 31:12 lbs. in the sulphate of magnesia, and 44°18 in the sulphate of lime, which
is about 6 : 8:8. The quantities of sulphuric acid in the two crops obtained severally
by sulphate of lime and sulphate of magnesia were as 6 : 8; and on the plot manured
with sulphate of magnesia, which had received less sulphuric acid than the gypsum
plot, the amount of vegetable matter was 8 per cent. higher than on the latter,
Liebig, from experiments made on arable soils, came to the conclusion that
dressing a field with sulphate of lime makes the magnesia in the soil soluble and
560 REPORT—1880.
distributable. An experiment made to test this conclusion showed that the contact
of arable earth with the solution of sulphate of lime is attended by an actual sub-
stitution of magnesia for lime. If this notion be correct, it points to a cheaper
mode of supplying magnesia to the soil than to add sulphate of magnesia to manures,
for it follows that the use of gypsum in conjunction with comparatively small doses
of magnesian lime will effect all that is necessary in cases in which heavy carriage
interferes with the use of an abundant supply of that substance.
In conclusion, though any one of the above proofs of the value and importance
of magnesia in a manure may not carry conviction with it, yet taken altogether the
evidences are overwhelming against the notion that soil naturally contains so much
magnesia that an extra supply will be of little or no benefit. Moreover, there are
strong grounds for supposing, as we have already indicated, that magnesia, like
phosphoric acid, is not only an essential ingredient of plants, and aids in their
nutriment, but that it determines also the beneficial action of the other ingredients.
7. On the Action of Oils on Metals. By Wru11am H. Warson, F.C.S.
Referring to a previous paper read by him at the’ last Plymouth meeting, on
the action of oils on copper, the author now makes the comparison between the
action of various oils on copper and on iron, and shows that they act very diffe-
rently on the two metals. He finds in several instances that those oils which act
little on copper act proportionately greatly on iron, while those which act little on
iron act greatly on copper. Thus linseed and olive oils, which act the most on
copper, act much less than either sperm or colza on iron. Almond oil also acted
very slightly on iron (in fact, with the exception of paraffin and the special lubri-
cating oil, it had the least action of any of the oils examined), but on copper the
action was great.
Five hundred-grain measures of each oil were poured over a piece of bright
sheet iron, exposing 8 square inches of surface. After bemg kept thus exposed in
beakers during twenty-four days, the appearances were noted and determinations
made of the iron in the oils, with the following results :—
Neatsfoot (English) oil . : . 0:0875 grain.
Colza oil. - ; : : SPT OHMS UTOY es
Sperm oil . : : : : . 0:0460 _,,
Lard oil. 5 : : : . 0:0250 _,,
Olive oil. ; : 3 : op 00062 nase
Linseed oil . ; ; : 5 eat 0 OUO0MEE,
Seal . : : : : ; a O;00500 oe
Paraffin oil x : 5 ; . 0:0046 _ ,,
Almond oil : : ; : . 0:0040 ,,
Special lubricating oil : : pp OOOLB SS,
8. On Bleaching Powder Residue. By Frepurick W. Hopass,
F.LC., F.C.S. Berlin.
PRELIMINARY JNVESTIGATION.
Persoz,! in describing the preparation of a solution of chloride of lime for
bleaching purposes, has laid great stress on the necessity for allowing the solution
to rest, so that the insoluble matters may subside; as, he says, without this precau-
tion great risk is run in employing a solution which is not perfectly clear and trans-
parent, as he has perceived that the small insoluble particles held in suspension are
liable to find their way into the interstices of the fabrics being bleached, and on
these being afterwards passed through the acid bath these particles are decom-
posed, and chlorous and hypochlorous acids are liberated, which burn the goods,
producing holes in numerous places. This, he says, is of frequent occurrence in
1 Traité théorique et pratique de U Impression des Tissues.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 561
the bleaching of muslin. Persoz does not agree with M. Edouard Schwartz, that
this damage to the goods, perceived by the former, arises from small bubbles of
chlorine gas, as he determined by direct experiment that muslin in a wet condition
could be submitted to chlorine gas for a considerable period without undergoing
sensible alteration ; but he believed that there existed in the insoluble portion of
the bleaching powder of commerce a basic compound of unknown composition, and
that to this compound the destruction of the fibre was due. In proof of this, he
mentions that.on washing a sample of bleaching powder till he could no longer
detect any bleaching agent, he obtained a residue containing more or less lime and
carbonate of lime, and on the addition of hydrochloric acid to this residue there
was evolved a most energetic oxidising agent. He also relates that, on spreading
this residue on woven fabrics, and afterwards passing these fabrics through an acid
solution, holes were produced in them in many places. Now, as these statements
of Persoz are considered correct by many eminent chemists, though they have, as
far as could be ascertained, not been verified, and as they are, if correct, of serious
importance to the bleacher, Professor Lunge suggested the advisability of submit-
ting the matter to careful investigation, and with that object a series of experiments
was undertaken, the results of which are here described :—
The investigation was divided into several parts.
(1.) Could bleaching powder be deprived by washing with cold or tepid water
of its power to act on iodine and starch paper ; and if so, how much water is
required for a definite weight of powder ?
(2.) What is the percentage of residue after the complete extraction of the
bleaching agent ?
(3.) If the residue in which iodine and starch paper failed to detect any bleach-
ing agent would evolve any oxidising body on the addition of an acid ?
(4.) eee is the effect of the residue with the addition of an acid on textile
fabrics P
(5.) What is the percentage of chlorine left in the residue of bleaching powder
which has been dissolved for the preparation of a bleaching solution by Irish
= and what effect has this residue with and without an acid on
fabrics
The apparatus employed for the solution of the first question were merely (Ist)
glass funnels, into which fitted small cones of De La Rue’s parchment paper, over’
which were placed cones of Swedish filter paper; the funnels were now attached
to Bunsen’s filter pump bottles, and the filter paper allowed to become thoroughly
dry ; (2nd) newly-prepared iodine and starch paper.
Three samples of bleaching powder having been reduced to a uniform degree of
fineness were examined for the percentage of chlorine, with the following results :—
1st. English bleach . » . contained 35°399 per cent. chlorine.
2nd. Swiss a A 35°760 o %
3rd. Specimen prepared in laboratory Be 43-180 3 Rs
The sample No. 3, which contained such a high percentage of chlorine, was pre-
Sia by a student of Professor Lunge’s, and an account of its manufacture will, I
elieve, after some time be published.
Having weighed carefully 10 grammes of each sample, they were placed in the
funnels, and 100 c.c. of distilled water, at 15° C., was poured overeach. The pumps
were then set in action, and when all the water had completely passed through,
each filtrate was examined for chlorine by Penot’s arsenious acid process, after
which the filter bottles, having been thoroughly washed and dried, another 100 c.c.
of distilled water was added to each 10 grammes, and the pumps again set in action.
This operation was repeated until each sample had been washed with 600 c.c. of
distilled water, and though the filtrates still gave a most decided reaction with the
iodine and starch paper, almost all the chlorine had been washed out, as can be
seen by the following table :—
1880. 00
562 REPORT—1880.
English B. Swiss B. Laboratory B.
% Chlorine. % Chlorine. % Chlorine,
With Ist 100 c.c. extracted 14:0 13:72 34:39
ag iltlnspegy 10-900 11-60 3:19
» ord : 9 6-000 5:91 3:06
erin... He 3-220 2:99 1:52
» Oth ss a ‘910 *89 31
vp lial re 5 118 192 27
Total chlorine . . 385:148 85°33 42:74
By the above table it can be perceived that in the English sample there was
only *251, and in the Swiss ‘43, and in the laboratory sample ‘44 per cent. of chlorine
yet to be accounted for, and on washing the samples twice with distilled water,
each time with 200 c.c., and again estimating the chlorine in the filtrates, they
were found to contain as follows:
Tnglish Bleach, Swiss Bleach. Laboratory Bleach,
Per cent. Per cent. Per cent,
Chlorine in Ist 200 e.c. ‘198 ‘270 19
" Qnd ,, ‘007 051 12
Though the samples were now washed with successive 100 c.c. of water up to
1500 c.c., only *0392 per cent. of chlorine could be estimated in the English bleach,
09 per cent. in the Swiss, and ‘112 per cent. in the laboratory bleach. After this
the filtrates were not examined ; but an accurate account was kept of the quantity
of water used, and when each sample had been washed with 1800 ¢.c. the reaction
with the iodine and starch paper was very uncertain; but on adding iodine and
starch solution to the filtrate, together with acetic acid, an immediate reaction
occurred, which was the case with these particular samples until 3000 c.c. of water
had been used to wash each 10 grammes of bleaching powder; after that quantity
of water had been used, chlorine could no longer be detected, either with the starch
paper or starch solution and acetic acid, though each sample was kept covered with
100 c.c. of water for many hours, by closing the bottom of the funnels. This part
of the investigation was repeated many times, and the quantity of water used to
extract the chlorine varied widely with different samples, as well as the rate at
which it was extracted (that depending greatly on various circumstances: Ist, On
the percentage of chlorine in the sample; 2nd, On the temperature of the water,
and degree of fineness of the sample; 3rd, On the speed at which it is washed by
the pump). On various occasions the quantity of water required to extract the
chlorine from 10 grammes amounted to as much as 5000 ¢.c. This probably arose
from not having the cone of parchment paper large enough, thereby allowing a
small quantity of suspended matter to be carried through the Swedish filter paper ;
or it not improbably arose from the difficulty of preventing the first portions of the
strong hypochlorite solution from coating the inside of the tube of the funnels, and
thereby contaminating the latter filtrates. But eyen when more than 5000 c.c. of
water had been employed to wash 10 grammes, the filtrate, which had long ceased
to give a reaction with starch paper, still continued to do so very decidedly with
the iodine and starch solution together with an acid; but on the addition of an
extra cone of Swedish paper to the one already in the funnel, the reaction no
longer appeared. It was considered advisable to estimate the remaining chlorine
in the residue of various samples when they no longer gave a reaction with the
starch paper, but continued to do so with the acid and starch solution. This was
done by washing the residue into a beaker and dissolving it by the addition of as
small a quantity of acetic acid as possible, and then diluting, after which the chlorine
was estimated by the arsenious acid process as rapidly as possible.
Though numerous residues were examined at this stage of the washing, the
highest percentage of chlorine found was only ‘007 per cent., and the lowest "0032
er cent.
; The percentage of residue in the various samples was determined in two stages:
(1st) When the samples had been washed till they no longer gaye a decided reaction
with the starch paper; (2nd) After complete washing.
The percentage of residue in the partially washed samples was found to
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 563
vary largely with each sample, as is to be expected; indeed, so largely did they
diverge from one another, that no definite percentage could be given as likely to
exist in a partially washed sample of bleaching powder. The samples which were
examined in this investigation ranged between 22 and 30 per cent. The percentage
of residue in the completely washed samples did not show such a large variation,
In the particular samples, the percentage of chlorine in which is given above, there
was found in the English sample 8:1 per cent. residue, in the Swiss sample 79 per
cent. And an examination of various samples of bleaching powder of different
strengths showed that the percentage only varied between 7 per cent. and 9 per
cent.
The remaining part of this investigation presented many difficulties. The residue,
which had failed to give a reaction with the iodine and starch solution, together
with acetic acid, when dried, certainly did evolve, on the addition of a few drops of
hydrochloric or sulphuric acid, a most minute quantity of a body which slightly
acted on wet iodine and starch paper; but so small was the quantity of this body
which could be obtained, though several pounds of residue were experimented with,
that no correct idea of its nature could be formed; but the results of the numerous
experiments made with it went to prove that it is not a basic chlorate, as stated by
Persoz, but simply a trace of a soluble hypochlorite which escaped being removed
from the residue by washing.
Many attempts were made to estimate, in the completely washed residue, this
trace of a bleaching agent, in a manner similar to that adopted for its estimation in
the partially washed residue, but without success.
As to Persoz’s statement that, when the residue is completely deprived of its
bleaching power, and then spread over woven fabrics in such a manner as to find
its way into their interstices, if the fabrics be then submitted to a bath of hydro-
chloric acid, so energetic is the gas evolved from this supposed basic chlorate, that
the fabrics are burnt into holes in many places;—this statement, so far as these
experiments go, is certainly without foundation, though the residue was tortured
in eyery conceivable manner in the endeayour to detect in it any body capable of
se textile fabrics, Among the experiments made with it, the following are
a few :—
Ist. A certain weight of the residue was mixed with just sufficient water to
allow it to penetrate through the fabric being experimented with; this mixture
was then pasted on one end of a piece of fine unbleached cotton, The same weight
of a mixture of lime and carbonate of lime as of the residue was mixed with the
same quantity of water, and then pasted on the other end of the piece of cotton.
The cotton was now set aside until the residue and lime mixture had dried on it,
after which, by means of a fine dropping tube, the same quantity of a normal hydro-
chloric acid solution was poured over the residue and lime mixture, and when all
effervescence had ceased, a few drops more acid were added, and the piece of cotton
allowed to rest for some time, after which it was washed; and on examination the
result was found to be the same with the lime as with the residue—both ends of
the cotton were slightly yellow, but in no way bleached or damaged.
This experiment was repeated many times in various ways, and with a variety
of fabrics, such as unbleached linen, bleached linen, calico, and cotton printed with
fugitive colours ; but though the unbleached linen and cotton were boiled in a solu-
tion of the residue, and then passed through an acid bath, no more effect could be
perceived than when a piece of the same goods was boiled in a solution of the same
quantity of the mixture of lime and carbonate of lime, and then passed through the
acid bath. In case it might be considered that boiling had a neutralising effect on
any basic chlorate existing in the residue, various pieces of different fabrics were
allowed to steep in a solution of the residue for over a week, and then placed for
several hours in an acid bath, without being in the least degree injured. When
the fugitive colour on the printed calico was not altered by lime, neither was it
affected by the bleaching powder residue. In order to correctly investigate the
remaining question, queries were addressed to several of the best known proprietors
of Irish linen bleach-greens, as to the exact method adopted by them for the manu-
facture of the hypochlorite of lime solution, and also the quantity of water used to
002
564 REPORT—1880.
wash a certain weight of powder. From the answers received, it was ascertained
that no general rule was followed, everyone doing what he considered best for his
purpose ; but it was considered probable that the damage to fabrics noticed by
Persoz arose from minute particles of unwashed, or imperfectly washed, bleaching
powder finding their way into the interstices of the fabrics, which afterwards had
been so imperfectly washed that when they were passed through the acid bath an
energetic bleaching agent was evolved, and so the fabric was destroyed. To deter-
mine whether this was likely to be the case, bleaching powder was dissolved, and
the residue washed in the manner adopted at cne of the largest greens in Ireland;
and in the residue thus prepared, pieces of linen and cotton were steeped for twenty-
four hours, after which they were found to be still sound, but decidedly altered in
colour, and after being passed through an acid bath, both samples were of that
shade of colour known in the trade as a ‘low cream.’
On washing bleaching powder according to the manner adopted at several
greens, and then estimating the chlorine remaining in the residues, it was found to
vary from 2 per cent. to 7 per cent.; and from these figures and the above experi-
ments there can be no doubt but that the damage, if any, arises, not from a basic
chlorate, but from a number of infinitesimal particles of the undissolved bleaching
powder becoming lodged in the interstices of the fabrics ; and, of course, those parts
where they were lodged would require a great deal more washing than the remain-
ing portions of the fabric ; and if, either by carelessness or any other cause, the goods
happened to be imperfectly washed, then, when soured, they would not unlikely be
damaged in the parts containing the undissolved particles by the evolved gas, while
the remaining portions would be unaltered.
In conclusion, I must, take this opportunity of thanking Professor Lunge, under
whose supervision these experiments were carried out, for the many valuable sug-
gestions which he was kind enough from time to time to make.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. é 565
Section C.—GEOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—H. CLirron Sorsy, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 26.
The PrestDEnT delivered the following Address :—
In selecting a subject for an address to be given in accordance with the custom of
my predecessors, I was anxious that it should be, in some way or other, connected
with the locality in which we have met. If I had been adequately acquainted with
the district, I should have thought it incumbent on me to give such an outline of
the general geology of the surrounding country as would have been useful to those
attending this meeting. I am, however, practically a stranger to South Wales,
and must therefore leave that task to others. On reflecting on the various subjects
to which I might have called your attention, it appeared to me that I could select
one which would be eminently appropriate in a town and district where iron and
copper are smelted on so large a scale, and, as I think, also equally appropriate
from a geological point of view. This subject is the comparative structure of artifi-
cial slags and erupted rocks. In making this choice I was also influenced by the
fact that in my two anniversary addresses as President of the Geological Society
I have recently treated on the structure and origin of modern and ancient stratified
rocks, and I felt that, if in the present address I were to treat on certain pecu-
liarities in the structure of igneous rocks, I should have described the leading
conclusions to which I have been led by studying the microscopical structure of
nearly all classes of rocks. It would, however, be impossible in the time now at
disposai to treat on all the various branches of the subject. Much might be said
on both the purely chemical and purely mineralogical aspects of the question; but
though these must not be ignored, I propose to draw your attention mainly to
another special and remarkable class of facts, which, so far as I am aware, have
attracted little or no attention, and yet, as I think, would be very instructive if we
could fully understand their meaning. Here, however, as in so many cases, the
observed facts are clear enough, but their full significance somewhat obscure,
owing to the want of adequate experimental data or sufficient knowledge of general
physical laws.
A considerable amount of attention has already been paid to the mineral con-
stitution of slags, and to such peculiarities of structure as can be learned indepen-
dently of thin microscopical sections. A very complete and instructive work,
specially devoted to the subject, was published by Von Leonhard about twenty-two
years ago, just at the time when the microscope was first efficiently applied to the
study of rocks. Since then Vogelsang and others have described the micro-
scopical structure of some slags in connexion with their studies of obsidian and
other allied volcanic rocks, At the date of the publication of Von Leonhard’s
work the questions in discussion differed materially from those which should now
claim attention. There was still more or less dispute respecting the nature and
origin of certain rocks which have now been proved to be truly volcanic by most
unequivocal evidence; and I am not at all surprised at this, since, as I shall show,
there is such a very great difference in their characteristic structure and that of the
artificial products of igneous fusion, that, but for the small portions of glass inclosed
in the constituent crystals, described by me many years ago under the name of
566 : REPORT—1880.
‘ glass-cavities,” there would often be no positive proof of their igneous origin.
There was also considerable doubt as to the manner in which certain minerals in
volcanic rocks had been generated. The observed facts were sufficient to prove
conclusively that some had been formed by sublimation, others by igneous fusion,
and others deposited from more or less highly heated water; but it was difficult or
impossible to decide whether in particular cases certain minerals had been formed
exclusively by one or other process, or sometimes by one and sometimes by the
other, or by the combined action of water and a very high temperature. I must
confess that, even now that so much may be learned by studying with high magni-
fying powers the internal structure of crystals, I should hesitate very much in
deciding what were the exact conditions under which certain minerals have been
formed. This hesitation is probably as much due to inadequate examination and
to the want of a complete study of typical specimens, both in the field and by
means of the microscope, as to the unavoidable difficulties of the subject. Such
doubt, however, applies more to the origin of minerals occurring in cavities than
to those constituting a part of true rock-masses, to which latter I shall almost
exclusively refer on the present occasion. In the formation of these it appears to
me that sublimation has occurred to a very limited extent. In many cases true
igneous fusion has played such a leading part that the rocks may be fairly called
zgneous, but in other cases, water, in some form or other, has, I think, had so much
influence that we should hesitate to call them igneous, and the term erupted would
be open to far less objection, since it would adequately express the manner of
their occurrence, and not commit us to anything open to serious doubt.
In studying erupted rocks of different characters, we see that at one extreme they
are as truly igneous as any furnace-product, and, at the other extreme, hardly, if
at all, distinguishable from certain deposits met with in mineral veins, which
furnish abundant evidence of the preponderating, if not exclusive, influence of
water, and have very little or nothing in common with products certainly known
to have been formed by the action of heat, and of heat alone. Between these
extremes there is every connecting link, and in certain cases it is almost, if not
quite impossible to say whether the characteristic structure is due more to the
action of heat than of water. The great question is, whether the presence of a
small quantity of water in the liquid or gaseous state is the true cause of very well-
marked differences in structure; or whether greater pressure, and the necessarily
slower rate of cooling, were not the more active causes, and the presence of water
in one state or another was merely the result of the same cause. This is a question
which ought to be solved by experiment; but I fear it would be almost impossible
to perform the necessary operations in a satisfactory manner.
What I now propose to do is to describe a particular class of facts which have
lately attracted my attention, and to show that the crystalline minerals in products
known to haye been formed by the action of heat alone, have a certain very well-
marked and characteristic structure, which is gradually modified as we pass
through modern and more ancient volcanic to plutonic rocks, in such a manner as to
show at once that they are intimately related, and yet differ in such characteristic
particulars that I think other agencies than mere heat must have had great
influence in producing the final result.
In dealing with this subject, I propose, in the first place, to describe the
characteristic structure of products formed artificially under perfectly well-known
conditions, and then to pass gradually to that of rocks whose origin must be.
inferred, and cannot be said to have been completely proved.
Crystilline Blowpipe Beads,
Some years ago I devoted a considerable amount of time to the preparation and
study of crystalline blowpipe beads, my aim being to discover simple and satis-
factory means for identifying small quantities of different earths and metallic
oxides, when mixed with others; and I never supposed that such small objects
would throw any light on the structure and origin of vast masses of natural rock,
The manner in which I prepared them was as follows: A small bead of borax was
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 567
so saturated with the substance under examination at a high temperature, that it
became opaque either on cooling or when slowly re-heated. It was again fused so
as to be quite transparent, and then very slowly cooled over the flame. If pro~
perly managed, the excess of material held in solution at a high temperature
slowly crystallised out, the form and character of the crystals depending on the
nature of the substance and on the presence of other substances added to the bead
as test reagents. By this means I proved that in a few exceptional cases small
simple solid crystals are formed. More frequently they are compound, or occur
as minute needles, but the most characteristic peculiarity is the development of
complex skeleton crystals of extreme beauty, built up of minute attached prisms, so
as to give rise to what would be a well-developed crystal with definite external
planes, if the interspaces were all filled up. In many cases the fibres of these
skeletons are parallel to three different axes perpendicular to one another, and it
might be supposed that the entire skeleton was due to the growth of small needle-
shaped crystals all uniformly elongated in the line of one crystalline axis, so that
the resulting mass would be optically and crystographically complex ; but in some
cases the different systems of fibres or needles are inclined obliquely, and then the
optical characters enable us to prove that the separate prisms are not similar to
one another, but developed along different crystalline planes, so as to build up one
definite crystal, mechanically,complex, but optically and crystallographically simple,
or merely twinned. In a few special cases there is a well-pronounced departure
from this rule, and truly compound groups of prisms are formed, In the centre
there is a definite simple prism; but instead of this growing continuously in the
same manner, so as to produce a larger prism, its ends, as it were, break up into
several smaller prisms, slightly inclined to the axis of the first; and these secon-
dary prisms, in like manner, break up into still smaller, so as ultimately to give
rise to a curious complex brush-like growth, showing in all positions a sort of fan-
shaped structure, mechanically, optically, and crystallographically complex.
I have done my best to describe these various kinds of crystals seen in blowpipe
beads as clearly as can be done without occupying too much time, but feel that it
is impossible to make the subject as simple as it really is without numerous illus+
trations. However, for the purpose now in view, it will, I trust, suffice to have
established the fact that we may divide the crystals in blowpipe beads into the
following groups, which on the whole are sufficiently distinct, though they neces-
sarily pass one into the other,
1. Simple crystals. 3. Fan-shaped compound groups,
2. Minute detached needles, 4, Feathery skeleton crystals,
It must not be supposed that crystals of one or other of these groups occur
promiscuously and without some definite relation to the special conditions of the
case. Very much depends upon their chemical composition. Some substances
yield almost exclusively those of one group, and other substances those of another,
whilst in some cases a difference in the rate of cooling and other circumstances
give rise to variations within certain limits; and, if it were possible to still:
further vary some of the conditions, these limits would probably be increased.
Thus, for example, the earliest deposition of crystalline matter from the glassy
solvent is sometimes in the form of simple solid prisms or needles, but later on in
the process it is in the form of compound feathery tufts; and if it were possible to
cool the beads much more slowly whilst they are very hot, I am inclined to
believe that some substances might be found that in the early stage of the process
would yield larger and more solid crystals than those commonly met with. This
supposition, at all events, agrees with what takes place when such salts as potas-
sium chloride are crystallised from solution in water. Some of my blowpipe beads
rove most conclusively that several perfectly distinct crystalline substances may
e contemporaneously deposited from a highly heated vitreous solvent, which is an
important fact in connection with the structure of igneous rocks, since some
authors have asserted that more than one mineral species cannot be formed by the
slow cooling of a truly melted rock. The great advantage of studying artificial
568 ; REPORT—1880.
blowpipe beads is that we can so easily obtain a variety of results under conditions
which are perfectly well known, and more or less completely under control.
Artificial Slags.
I now proceed to consider the structure of slags, and feel tempted to enter into
the consideration of the yarious minerals found in them which are more or less
perfectly identical with those characteristic of erupted rocks; but some of the
most interesting, like the felspars, occur in a well-marked form only in special
cases, where iron ores are smelted with fluxes seldom, if ever, employed in our
own country, so that my acquaintance with them is extremely small. My
attention has been mainly directed to the more common products of our blast-
furnaces. On examining these, after having become perfectly familiar with the
structure of blowpipe beads, I could see at once that they are very analogous, if
not identical in their structure. In both we haye a glassy solvent, from which
crystals have been deposited; only in one case this solvent was red hot, melted
borax, and in the other glassy, melted stone. Thus, for example, some compounds,
like what I believe is Humboldtilite, crystallise out in well-marked solid crys-
tals, like those seen occasionally in blowpipe beads, whereas others crystallise
out in complex feathery skeletons, just like those so common in and characteristic
of the beads. In both we also often see small detached needles, scattered about
in the glassy base. These skeleton crystals and minute needles have been de-
scribed by various writers, under the names, crystallites, belonites, and trichites.
Though we have not the great variety of different forms met with in the beads,
and cannot so readily vary the conditions under which they are produced, yet we
can, at all events, see clearly that their structural character depends both on their
chemical constitution and on the physical conditions under which they have
crystallised. None of my microscopical preparations of English slags appear to
contain any species of felspar, but several contain what I believe is some variety of
augite, both in the form of more or less solid prisms, and of feathery skeletons of
great beauty and of much interest in connection with the next class of products to
which I shall call your attention, viz., rocks artificially melted and slowly cooled.
Rocks artificially melted.
Ihave had the opportunity of preparing excellent thin microscopical sections of
some of the results of the classic experiments of Sir James Hall. I have also
carefully studied the product obtained by fusing and slowly cooling much larger
masses of ‘the basalt of Rowley, and have compared its structure with that of the
original rock. Both are entirely crystalline, and, as far as I can ascertain, both
are mainly composed of the same minerals. Those to which I would especially
call attention are a triclinic felspar and the augite. The general character of the
crystals is, however, strikingly different. In the artificial product a considerable
part of the augite occurs as flat, feathery plates, like those in furnace slags, which
are quite absent from the natural rock, and only part occurs as simple solid
erystals, analogous to those in the rock, but much smaller and less developed. The
felspar is chiefly in the form of elongated, flat, twinned prisms, which, like the
prisms in some blowpipe beads, commence in a more simple form and end in
complex fan-shaped brushes, whereas in the natural rock they are larger than in
the artificial, and exclusively of simple character. On the whole, then, though the
artificially melted and slowly cooled basalt is entirely crystalline, and has a mineral
composition closely like that of the natural rock, its mechanical structure is very
different, being identical with that of blowpipe beads and slags.
Volcanic Rocks.
Passing now to true natural igneous rocks, we find some, like obsidian, which
closely correspond with blowpipe beads, slags, and artificially melted rocks, in
having a glassy base, through which small crystalline needles are scattered; but
the more completely crystalline volcanic rocks haye, on the whole, a structure
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 569
very characteristically unlike that of the artificial products. I have most care-
fully examined all my sections of modern and ancient volcanic rocks, but cannot
find any in which the augite or magnetite is crystallised in feathery skeletons. In
the case of only one single natural rock, from a dyke near Beaumaris, have I
found the triclinic felspar arranged in just the same fan-shaped, brush-like groups
as those in similar rocks artificially melted and slowly cooled. The large solid
crystals in specimens from other localities sometimes show that towards the end of
their growth small flat prisms were developed on their surface, analogous to those
first deposited in the case of the artificial product. In slags composed almost ex-
elusively of what I believe is Humboldtilite, the crystals are indeed uniformly as
simple and solid as those in natural rocks, but the examination of different blow-
pipe beads shows that no fair comparison can be made between altogether different
substances. We must compare together the minerals common to the natural and
the artificial products, and we then see that, on the whole, the two classes are only
just distinctly connected by certain exceptional crystals and by structural cha-
racters which, as it were, overlap enough to show that there is a passage from one
type to the other. In the artificial products are a few small, solid crystals of both
augite and a triclinic felspar, which closely correspond to the exceptionally small
crystals in the natural rocks; but the development of the great mass of the
crystals is in a different direction in the two cases. In the artificial products it is
in the direction of complex skeletons, which are not seen in the natural rock; but
in the natural rock it is in the direction of large simple solid crystals, which are
not met with in the artificial products. There is a far closer analogy in the case
of partially vitreous rocks, which, independent of the true glassy base common to
them and the artificial products, often contain analogous crystalline needles. Even
then, however, we see that in the artificial product the crystals tend to develop
into complex skeletons, but in the natural rocks into simple solid crystals.
It must not be supposed that these facts in any way lead me to think that
thoroughly crystalline modern and ancient volcanic rocks were never truly fused.
The simple, large, and characteristic crystals of such minerals as augite, felspar,
leucite, and olivine, often contain so many thoroughly well-marked glass en-
closures, as to prove most conclusively that when the crystals were formed they
were surrounded by, and deposited from, a melted glassy base, which was caught
up by them whilst it was still melted. This included glass has often remained
unchanged, even when the main mass became completely crystalline, or has been
greatly altered by the subsequent action of water. I contend that these glass
enclosures prove that many of our British erupted rocks were of as truly igneous
origin as any lava flowing from a modern voleano. The difference between the
structure of such natural rocks and that of artificial slags must not, in my opinion,
be attributed to the absence of true igneous fusion, but to some difference in the
surrounding conditions, which was sufficient to greatly modify the final result,
when the fused mass became crystalline on cooling. The observed facts are clear
enough, and several plausible explanations might easily be suggested, but I do not
feel at all convinced that any single one would be correct. That which first
suggests itself is a much slower cooling of the natural rocks than is possible in the
case of the artificial products; and I must confess that this explanation seems so
plausible that I should not hesitate to adopt it, if certain facts could be accounted
for in a satisfactory manner. Nothing could be more simple than to suppose that
skeleton crystals are formed when deposition takes place in a hurried manner, and
they so overgrow the supply that they develop themselves along certain lines of
growth before there has been time to solidly build up what has been roughly
sketched in outline. I cannot but think that this must be a true and, to some
extent, active cause, even if it be inadequate to explain all the facts. What
makes me hesitate to adopt it by itself is the structure of some doleritic rocks
when in close contact with the strata amongst which they have been erupted.
In all my specimens the effects of much more rapid cooling are perfectly well
marked. The base of the rock when in close contact is sometimes so extremely
fine-grained that it is scarcely crystallised, and is certainly far less crystalline and
finer grained than the artificial products to which I have called attention, and yet
570 REPORT—1880.
there is no passage towards those structures which are most characteristic of slags,
or at least, no such passage as I should have expected if these structures depended
exclusively on more rapid cooling.
We might well ascribe something to the effect of mass, but one of my speci-
mens of basalt melted and slowly cooled in a small crucible is quite as crystalline
as another specimen taken from a far larger mass, though I must confess that what
difference there is in this latter is in the direction of the structure characteristic of
natural rocks, The presence or absence of water appears to me a very probable
explanation of some differences. When there is evidence of its presence in a
liquid state during the consolidation of the rock we can scarcely hesitate to con-
clude that it must have had some active influence ; but in the case of true voleanic
rocks the presence of liquid water is scarcely probable. That much water is
present in some form or other, is clearly proved by the great amount of steam
given off from erupted lavas. I can scarcely believe that it exists in a liquid
state, except at great depths, but it may possibly be present in a combined form
or as a dissolved vapour under much less pressure, and the question is whether
this water may not have considerable influence on the growth of erystals formed
prior to eruption, before it was given off as steam. Ido not know one single
fact which can’ be looked upon as fairly opposed to this supposition, and it is even
to some extent supported by experiment. M. Daubrée informs me that the
crystals of augite formed by him at a high temperature by the action of water
have the solid character of those in volcanic rocks, and not the skeleton structure
of those met with in slags. The conditions under which they were formed were,
however, not sufficiently like those probably present during the formation of
erupted lavas to justify our looking upon the explanation I have suggested as
anything more than sufficiently plausible, in the absence of more complete ex-
perimental proofs,
Granitic Rocks.
I now proceed to consider rocks of another extreme type, which for distinction
we may call the granitic. On the whole, they have little or nothing in common
with slags, or with artificial products similar to slags, being composed exclusively
of solid crystals, analogous in character only to slag-crystals of very different
mineral nature, As an illustration, I would refer to the structure of the products
formed by fusing and slowly cooling upwards of a ton of the syenite of Grooby,
near Leicester, Different parts of the resulting mass differ very materially, but
still there is an intimate relation between them, and a gradual passage from one to
the other. The most characteristic feature of those parts which are completely
crystalline is the presence of beautiful feathery skeleton-crystals of magnetite, and
of long flat prisms of a triclinic felspar, ending in complex, fan-shaped brushes.
There are no solid crystals of felspar, hornblende, and quartz, of which the natural
rock is mainly composed, to the entire exclusion of any resembling those in the
melted rock. As looked upon from the point of view taken in this address, the
natural and artificial products have no structural character in common, so that I
think we must look for other conditions than pure igneous fusion to explain the
greatly modified results. We have not to look far for evidence of a well-marked
difference in surrounding circumstances. The quartz in the natural rock contains
vast numbers of fluid-cavities, thus proving that water was present, either in the
liquid state or as a vapour so highly compressed that it afterwards condensed into
an almost equal bulk of liquid. In some specimens of granite there is indeed clear
proof that the water was present as a liquid, supersaturated with alkaline chlorides,
like that inclosed in the cavities of some minerals met with in blocks ejected from
Vesuvius, which also have to some extent what may be called a granitic structure.
In the case of one very exceptional and interesting granite, there is apparently
good proof that the felspar crystallised out at a temperature above the critical
point of water—that is to say, at a temperature higher than that at which water
can exist as a liquid under any pressure—and it caught up highly compressed
steam, comparatively, if not entirely, free from soluble salts; whereas the quartz
crystallised when the temperature was so far lowered as to be below the critical
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 571
point, and the water had passed into a liquid, supersaturated with alkaline
chlorides, which have crystallised out as small cubes in the fluid-cavities, just as in
the case of minerals in some of the blocks ejected from Vesuvius.
Confining our attention, then, to extreme cases, we thus see that rocks of the
granitic type differ in a most characteristic manner from the products of artificial
igneous fusion, both in the structure of the crystals and in containing liquid water,
inclosed at the time of their formation. The question then arises, whether these
differences were due to the presence of the liquid water, or whether its presence
and the characteristic structure were not both the effects of the great pressure of
superincumbent rocks, I do not see how this can be decided in a perfectly satis-
factory manner, but must confess that I am inclined to believe that, whilst great
pressure was necessarily the reason why the water did not escape as vapour, the
presence of liquid water during final consolidation must have had a very consider-
able influence in modifying the structure of the rock, and had a great share in
developing what we may call the granitic type.
It would be very instructive to follow out the gradual passage from one
extreme type to another far more completely than is possible on the present
occasion. The most interesting examples of rocks intermediate between the
granitic and volcanic types that I have been able to examine in adequate detail,
are the various Cornish elyans and other quartz felsites, which furnish all but a
complete passage from pitchstone to granite. Some specimens prove that quartz
may crystallise out from and inclose a perfectly glassy base, without a trace of
liquid water; and at the same time other specimens prove equally well that, as we
approach the granitic type, the quartz was not deposited from a glassy solvent, but
inclosed more or less water. In the few intermediate cases there appears to be
evidence of the conjoint presence of uncombined water and melted stony matter.
On the whole, if we take into consideration only the external form of the larger
crystals, rocks of the granitic type are very much as though the crystals met with
in truly volcanic rocks had been strained out from the glassy or fine-grained base,
and the intermediate spaces filled with quartz. The internal structure of the
crystals is, however, very different, the cavities in one class containing glass, and
in the other water. This most essential and characteristic difference proves that
rocks of the true granitic type cannot have been formed simply by the more com-
plete crystallisation of the general base of the rock. If the crystals in granite were
analogous to those developed in volcanic rocks, and the only essential difference
was that the residue crystallised out more slowly and completely, so as to give
rise to a more coarsely crystallised base, the crystals first formed ought not, as I
think, to differ so essentially as that in one case they should inclose only glass, and
in the other only water. Taking all into consideration, we can therefore scarcely
suppose that the crystals in granitic rocks were deposited from a truly-melted, dry,
glassy solvent, like those in volcanic rocks or in slags,
General Results.
I have, I trust, now said enough to show that the objects here described may
be conveniently separated into three well-marked groups, viz., artificial slags,
yoleanic rocks, and granitic rocks, My own specimens all show perfectly well-
marked and characteristic structures, though they are connected in some cases by
intermediate varieties, Possibly such connecting links might be more pronounced
in other specimens that have not come under my notice. I must, however, base my
conclusions on what I have been able to study in an adequate manner, by examining
my own preparations, and leave it for others to correct any errors into which I may
have been led from lack of more numerous specimens. In any case the facts seem
abundantly sufficient to prove that there must be some active cause for such a
common, if not general, difference in the structural character of these three different
types. ‘The supposition is so simple and attractive, that I feel very much tempted
to suggest that this difference is due to the presence or absence of water as a gas
or.as a liquid. In the case of slags it is not present in any form, Considering how
large an amount-of steam is given off from erupted lavas, and that, as a rule, no
572 “ REPORT—1880.
fluid-cayities occur in the constituent minerals, it appears to me very plausible to
suppose that those structures which are specially characteristic of voleanic rocks
are in great measure, if not entirely, due to the presence of associated or dissolved
vapour. The fluid-cavities prove that water was sometimes, if not always, present
as a liquid during the consolidation of granitic rocks; and we can scarcely hesitate
to conclude that it must have had very considerable influence on the rock during
consolidation. Still, though these three extreme types appear to be thus charac-
terised by the absence of water, or by its presence in a state of vapour or liquid, I
think we are scarcely in a position to say that this difference in the conditions is more
than a plausible explanation of the differences in their structure. At the same time,
I do not know any facts that are opposed to this conclusion, and we should,
perhaps, not greatly err in thus correlating the structures, even though the water
was not the essential and active cause of the differences.
Confining our attention to the more important crystalline constituents which are
common to the different types, we may say that the chief structural characters of
the crystals are as follows:—
a, Skeleton crystals.
6. Fan-shaped groups.
Glass-cavities.
. Simple crystals.
e. Fluid-cavities.
XS
These different structural characters are found combined in different ways in the
different natural and artificial products; and for simplicity I will refer to them by
means of the affixed letters.
The type of the artificial products of fusion may generally be expressed by a+b
or b +c, that is to say, it is characterised by skeleton crystals and fan-shaped groups,
or by fan-shaped groups and glass-cavities. In like manner the volcanic type may
be expressed occasionally by b+c, but generally by c+d; and the granitic by
d+e. These relations will be more apparent if given in the form of a table,
as follows :—
Slag type : { sig
Voleanic type. . { bit A if
Granitic type . : : . d+te.
Hence it will be seen that there is a gradual passage from one type to the other
by the disappearance of one character and the appearance of another, certain
characters the meanwhile remaining common, so that there is no sudden break,
but an overlapping of structural characteristics. It is, I think, satisfactory to find
that, when erupted rocks are examined from such a new and independent point of
view, the general conclusions to which I had been led are so completely in accord
with those arrived at by other methods of study.
Conclusion,
And now I feel that it is time to conclude. . I have necessarily been compelled
to give only a general account of the subject, and perhaps, for want of adequate
description, many facts may appear more complex than they really are. Some are,
indeed, of anything but simple character, and their full explanation is, perhaps,
beyond our present power. The greater part are, however, much more simple
and easy to observe than to describe; and, even if I have failed to make every-
thing as plain as I could wish, I hope I have sueceeded in making the principal
point sufficiently clear to show that the structure of slags and of analogous artificial
products throws much light on the structure and origin of the various groups of
erupted rocks. I feel that very much still remains to be learned, and, as I think,
could be learned, by the further extension of this method of inquiry. What
strikes me most is the great necessity for the more complete application of experi-
mental methods of research ; but to carry out the experiments necessary to clear up
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 573
the essential difficulties of the subject would, I fear, be a most difficult undertaking.
In the meantime all that we can do is to compare the structure of known artificial
products with that of natural rocks, and to draw the best conclusions we can from
the facts, as viewed in the light of-our present knowledge of chemistry and physics.
My own impression is that there is still much to be learned respecting the exact
conditions under which some of our commonest rocks were formed.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Sivth Report on the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the Per-
mian, New Red Sandstone, and Jurassic Formations of England, and the
Quantity and Character of the Water supplied to towns and districts from
those formations.—See Reports, p. 87.
2. Notes on the Submarine Geology of the English Channel off the Coast of
South Devon.' By Artaur Roope Hunt, M.A., F.G.S.
The author described and exhibited hand specimens of the large detached blocks
of serpentine, gabbro, conglomeratic grit, granite, hornblendic granite, and other
ranitic or gneissic rocks that are occasionally trawled by the Brixham fishermen
in the English Channel, off the southern headlands of Devonshire. From the fact
that the nearest known rocks on the north-west are the gneisses of the Eddystone,
and those on the north and north-east are the micaceous slates of the Start and
Bolt district, it would seem probable that the detached blocks indicate similar rocks
in sitti, and that they are not erratics.
3, On the Action of Carbonic Acid on Limestone.
By Professor W. Boryp Dawxtns, M.A., F.R.S.
Caves in limestone are to be looked upon as subterranean watercourses, which
are produced partly by the dissolving action of the carbonic acid in the rainwater,
and partly by the mechanical action of the streams flowing through the caves. The
insoluble carbonate of lime in the rock is changed into the soluble bi-carbonate, and
is carried away in solution. The additional atom of carbonic acid, however, is in a
condition of unstable chemical combination, and if it be removed, either by evapo-
ration or by the action of the free current of air, the insoluble carbonate of lime is
at once deposited. Hence it is that some caverns have their walls covered with a
drapery of stalactite, and the little straw-like pendants from the roof formed round
the edges of each drop gradually become developed into columns of various sizes.
The stalagmitic pedestals also rise from the floor where a line of drops falls from
the roof, and ultimately unite with the column let down from above. On the
surface, too, of the pools an ice-like sheet of stalagmite gradually shoots across
from the sides, and sometimes, where the water is still, covers the whole surface.
Admirable illustrations of all these processes are to be seen in the caves of Pem-
brokeshire, and especially in the Fairy Cave on Caldy Island.
The rate of the accumulation of carbonate of lime, depending primarily upon the
access of water and the free access of air, both being variable, varies in different
places. Sometimes it is very swift, as for example in the Ingleborough Cave;
where a series of observations by Professor Phillips, Mr. Farrar, and myself, extend~
ing over the years from 1845 to 1873, give the annual rate at ‘2946 inch. It is
obvious, therefore, that all speculation as to the antiquity of deposits, in cases
which are based on the view that the accumulation is very slow, are without value,
The narrow mountain-limestone ravines and passes are to be viewed, in the
main, as caverns formed in the manner above stated, which have lost their roofs
by the various sub-aéreal agents which are ever at work attacking the surface
1See Transactions Devonshire Association for 1880.
574 REPORT—1880.
of the limestone. If any of these ravines be examined, it will be seen that the
tributary caves open on their sides, and in some cases the rayine itself is abruptly
terminated by a cavern.
4. On the site of a Paleolithic Implement Manufactory, at Crayford, Kent.
By F.C. J. Spurret, F.G.8.
The remains exhibited were found by Mr. Spurrell in March last in the chalk
pit half a mile north-east of Crayford Church. The flakes and hones associated
with them were found under a deposit of brick earth, lying against an ancient chalk
cliff of the river Thames, about forty feet below the present surface of the ground.
They consist mainly of waste flakes, flakes used at the broad end, an unfinished
hache, cores, and stones employed as hammers. From the fact that the edges are
sharp, that the chips belonging to individual blocks of flint lie together and can be
joined to one another, and that they lie in a layer together with the finest chippings
scarcely mixed with the sand, it is clear that the work was carried on where the
débris lay.
The hacks of flint were derived from the weathering of the chalk cliff, and
were not mined; they were of a very inferior quality; and probably it isto this
piece of luck, and the consequent excess of waste material, that the find was not
overlooked.
Portions of the bones of mammoth, tichorhine, rhinoceros, horse, &c., lay
among the flakes and immediately upon them, and present the appearance of having
been broken by man—perhaps for food.
5. On the Hiatus said to have been found in the rocks of West Cork.
By G. H. Kivanan, R.A, Pres. Royal Geological Society, Ireland,
The author gave a table of the classifications of the Cork rocks—
GRIFFITH. JUKES. Hott.
Carboniferous slate. Carboniferous slate. } Goan inblons oe
Yellow sandstone. Upper Old Red sandstone. Kiltorcan beds.
Old Red sandstone. Lower Old Red sandstone, ] Glengariff beds
Silurian. Glengariff grits, (Silurian).
from which it was seen that Griffiths’ and Jukes’ classifications were essentially
similar, while Professor Hull’s was materially different; the difference bemg greater
than at first appears from the nomenclature employed.
He pointed out that the supposed hiatus rested on the statements of Professor
Hull, all of which were reviewed. The fist series of statements was that the
hiatus in the neighbourhood of Kenmare and Glengariff bays was found by Messrs.
O'Kelly and McHenry ; but the first of these geologists contradicts this, while the
second declined to give an opinion. The author then pointed out that the Glengariff
section, in which this ‘great hiatus’ is said to exist, was Jukes’s type section, to
which he brought Professor Ramsay and Salter on their visit to the country, and
by which he taught his assistants, Messrs. Foot, O’Kelly, and the author, the
classification of the West Cork rocks. The second series of statements was con-
cerning well-known unconformabilities ; but as these are outside the limits of the
area occupied by the West Cork rocks, they prove nothing in connection with
them. The third set of statements was that the plotting of the folded and flexuous
strata proved unconformabilities. These the author showed to be only conven-
tional lines, which are explained by the published sections and writings of Jukes
and his colleagues, The fourth statements were abrupt changes from one of
Professor Hull's groups to the others. This the author showed could not be
correct, as the Carboniferous slate graduated so imperceptibly into the Yellow
Sandstone, and the latter into the Old Red Sandstone, that the respective boundaries
are most arbitrary, and depend only on the colours of certain beds,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION CG. - ey As)
In conelusion the author pointed out the difficulties in understanding the prin~
ciples of Professor Hull’s classification. THe also showed that Professor Hull’s use
of Jukes’ and Griffiths’ names and terms, in a sense different from that in which
they were understood by those authors, had introduced confusion,
6. Note on the Range of the Lower Tertiaries of Hast Suffolk.
By W. H. Darron, L.G.S., of the Geological Survey of England.
The Crags and Drifts of East Suffolk prevent more than an approximate delinea-~
tion of the outcrop of the Chalk from beneath the Lower Tertiary beds.
The London Clay disappears from the surface a little west of Orford; but the
deep boring at Sir E. Lacon’s brewery in Yarmouth, made in 1840, passed through
170 feet of estuarine deposits, and then no less than 305 feet of London Clay and
51 of Reading Beds before reaching the Chalk. There could therefore be hardly a
doubt of the continuity of the Eocene beds between Orford and Yarmouth, although
their boundary-line might be for some part of its length outside of the present
coast ; indeed, in published maps, most of the interval is coloured as Chalk.
The inhabitants of Suffolk are, however, awaking to the disadvantages of a
water-supply derived from ponds and sewage-tainted sands, and consequently
Artesian wells, carried down into the Chalk, are increasing in number.
The accounts of these wells (which will duly appear in the Memoirs of the
Geological Survey) give the following indications of the position of the outcrop of
the Chalk :—
At Easton Park, Framlingham, Beccles, and Norwich, the Chalk is coyered
directly by Crag or Drift.
At Woodbridge, Saxmundham, Bramfield, and Yarmouth a greater or less
thickness of Lower Tertiary beds is present, and their boundary is probably three or
four miles inland from these points.
At Hoxne, a few feet of ‘green clay’ lying directly on the Chalk may possibly
be an outlier of the Reading Beds.
The Lower Tertiaries, thus outlined, possess no special interest, except that, being
impervious clays, they cut off impure surface waters, and are easier to bore through
- than the loose sands, &c., overlying them.
The plane of the Chalk surface, whether under or beyond the Lower Tertiaries,
is sufficiently uniform to render calculation of its depth in any part of the district
an easy process. In the Bramfield boring, the latest of the series, the Chalk was
reached at 48 feet below the Ordnance Datum, calculation from the three nearest
points—Beccles, Framlingham, and Saxmundham—indicating 52 feet,
FRIDAY, AUGUST 27.
The following Reports and Papers were read ;:—
1, Stwteenth and Concluding Report on the Exploration of Kent's Cavern,
Devonshire.—See Reports, p. 62.
2. Report on the Exploration of Caves in the South of Ireland.
See Reports, p. 209.
3. Report on the Viviparous Nature of the Ichthyosauria.
See Reports, p. 68.
576 REPORT—1880.
4, Report on the Carboniferous Polyzoa.—See Reports, p. 76.
5. Report on the ‘ Geological Record.’—See Reports, p. 87.
6. On the relation to be established between Coast-line Directions represented
‘by Great Circles on the Globe, and the Localities marked by Earth-
quakes in Europe. By Jos. P. O’Rettiy, C.H., Professor of Mining
and Mineralogy, Royal Colleye of Science, Dublin.
This memoir, based on the following memoirs published by the Royal Irish
Academy—
No. 1. ‘ Explanatory Notes and Discussion of the Nature of the Prismatic Forms
of a Group of Basalts, Giant’s Causeway.’-—R.I.Ac. Transactions XXII. Nov.
1879.
No, 2. ‘On the Correlation of Lines of Direction on the Earth’s surface.’ Read
before the British Association (1878).—R.I.Ac. Transactions XXI. June 1879.
No. 3. ‘On the Directions of Main Lines of Jointing observable in the Rocks
about the Bay of Dublin.—&.L.Ac. Proceedings. 2nd Ser. Vol. III.
has for object to compare the earthquakes which have occurred during the years
1870-1878 with certain coast-line great circles of direction which traverse Europe,
and which, originally traced by the author on a globe from the theoretical considera-
tions contained in the memoir No, 2, have been transferred to the map of Europe.
The memoir shows that certain relations of position do exist between the earth-
quake localities and the great circles. Thus, that between two of these great
circles, called by him 8.E. Sofala Coast-line Direction, and E. Coast of England
Direction, there is defined a band of Europe in which lie the earthquake coun-
tries: Holland, district about Cologne, Westphalia, Rhine provinces, Odenwald
district, Upper Rhine district, Switzerland, Tyrol, Upper and Lower Italy (nearly
entirely), and Sicily; that is, the greater part of Europe markedly affected by
earthquakes. That other great circles traverse them, forming bands equally re-
markable as regards earthquale-movements, and, finally, that a very great number
of earthquake localities are situated upon these great circle directions, or near their
intersections. That there is evidence of these localities tending to develop into
rectilineal directions, and, lastly, that outside Europe those great circles traverse
districts markedly seismic in character, so that localities thus characterised, and
situated on the same great circle of direction, present a certain connection, and may
thus be brought into relation with it and with one another, as regards the earth-
quakes which may occur at them.
The author further proposes to define extents of globe-surface affected by earth-
quakes by considering them as being limited by such great circle directions
traceable @ prior? on the globe, as proposed by him in his Memoir No. 2.
7. On the Island of Torghatten. By Professor W. J. Soutas,
M.A., F.RS.L., F.G.S.
The author described the results of a visit which he made to this island in
July 1880.
The platform from which the peak of the island rises is a narrow plain of marine
denudation, produced when the island was submerged 375 feet below its present
level. The tunnel which traverses it is a sea-cave, excavated between two master-
joints. The floor of the cave is covered with angular blocks of gneiss, which have
fallen from the roof since the elevation of the cave-floor above the sea-level. The
blocks have fallen far more rapidly at the entrances of the cave than in the interior,
and, as a consequence, the roof rises from the middle towards each end of the tunnel,
and so does the angular débris, which thus forms at each entrance a vast sloping
mound. The vast quantity of fallen material is an interesting indication of what
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 577.
has been accomplished by simple mechanical disintegration since the island was
raised above the 875 feet level. The joints are the most important factors in
denudation ; excepting moutonnée faces, the author consider’ most of the bare rock
faces which constitute the surface of Northern Norway as merely exposed joint
planes. He has seen joints in the same rock, and having the same direction, ex-
tending from a few feet to over a thousand, and surface features in parallelism with
them, from a facet not a yard across to precipices over a thousand feet high,
8. On a Fragment of Mica Schist.
By Professor W. J. Sounas, M.A., F.RS.H., F.G.S.
The author called attention to some appearances presented by a fragment of
mica schist pointed out to him by Prof. Wm. Ramsay, Ph.D., while walking
on the beach at Bod, Norway. It is a tabular fragment, showing fine foliation
laminz, and traversed by an undulating vein of quartz. The undulations are very
high and narrow, eight complete ones occurring along a distance of 10 inches in a
straight line. The planes of foliation correspond to the bedding in the rocks of the
neighbourhood (amongst which the same phenomenon was afterwards noticed).
The folded quartz vein was originally straight, and cut across the lamine at right
angles; the folding must have been accomplished by compression of the schist at
right angles to its folie ; and by measuring the length of the quartz vein between
two points, along its undulations (26 inches), and directly along its path (10
inches), one finds the amount of compression which has taken place (13:5). The
argument is the same as that used by Dr. Sorby for the bed of quartzite folded
in the slate of Devonshire.
9. On the Geological Age and Relations of the Siwalik and Pikermi Ver-
tebrate and Invertebrate Faunas. By W. T. Buanrorb, F.R.S., F.G.S.
There is much similarity between the two collections of organic remains found
in the Siwalik beds of Northern India and the strata of Pikermi in Attica. Both
consist chiefly of mammalian remains, and amongst the forms represented there is
an immense preponderance of large animals, that is, of mammals ranging from the
size of a sheep to that of a large elephant, and a great deficiency of smaller species,
the micro-mammalia (small rodents, bats, and insectivores) being almost unrepre-
sented. In both, some bones of birds and reptiles and a few mollusca accompany
the mammals. Finally, both have been generally referred to the Miocene epoch.
The Siwalik rocks are the upper strata of the Tertiary fringe, extending almost
throughout the western and northern margins of the great Indo-Gangetic plain
from Sind to Assam. The mass of the typical Siwalik fossils were found in the
north-eastern Punjab, in the country between the Sutlej and Jumna, not far from
Simla. The Tertiary beds here consist of—
Upper.
Siwalik series | Middle.
Lower (Nahan).
Upper (Kasauli).
Sirmur series | Middle (Dagshai).
Lower (Subathu).
These two series roughly correspond to Upper and Lower Tertiary, the best-defined
horizon being that of Subathu, which is Nummulitic (middle or upper Eocene). The
Siwalik fossils are from the upper and middle Siwaliks. None of the beds, except
the Nummulitics of Subathu, contain marine fossils.
The rocks of Sind have recently been examined in detail, and the number of
well-marked fossiliferous marine beds is much greater than in the sub-Himalayan
region. The tertiary beds are thus sub-divided :—
Upper . . Pliocene (?).
Manchhar Lower . . Upper miocene.
1880. PP
578 REPORT—1880.
Giaijienin! eth wets Miocene.
f Upper ; ‘ Lower miocene (?),
Nari ‘ . 1 Lower . . Oligocene. A
‘ } Upper .
.. Khirthar. * 1. Lower . Eocene.
Ranikot . . . . ‘
There is little doubt that the upper Manchhars, 5000 feet thick, correspond to
upper and middle Siwalik.
The G4j marine fauna is clearly Miocene, and rather upper than lower. My
original view of the age, based chiefly on the Echinodermata, has been confirmed
by Professor Martin Duncan’s examination of the corals. A considerable number
of mammalia have been found in the lower Manchhar beds, which pass downwards
into the G4j, and consequently cannot be older than upper Miocene.
Turning now to the Siwalik mammalian fauna, it is, I believe, with the addition
of the species lately described by Riitimeyer and Bose, composed of 48 genera, com~
prising about 93 species, 23 genera being extinct, and 25 recent.
Amongst the fossil genera, 12 are unknown elsewhere; 4—Pseudelurus, Amphi-
cyon (the occurrence of this in true Siwalik beds is doubtful), Listriodon and Dor-
catherium are not Inown in beds later than Miocene in Europe, (Pseudclurus: is
found in Pliocene beds in America) ; 7 are Miocene and Pliocene of the recent genera ;
9 range back in Europe to upper Miocene; 10 only to Pliocene; and 6 are only
known elsewhere as living genera, or are found in Post-pliocene deposits. The very
large proportion of species belonging to recent genera, like Felis, Canis, Ursus,
Elephas (Euelephas and Loxodon), Equus, Cervus, Bos, Antilope and Capra, gives a
singularly late aspect to the fauna.
Now, in the lower Manchhars of Sind no recent genera have been found except
Rhinoceros, Sus and Manis (the generic identification of the latter being excessively
doubtful), whilst Dinotherium, Anthracotherium, Hyopotamus, Hyotherium, and’
two new genera allied to Merycopotamus are found, none of which occur in the
Siwaliks proper, and the species common to the two, excluding Amphicyon, are
8 in number, consisting of forms of Mastodon, Rhinoceros, Acerotherium, Sus, Chali-
cotherium, and Dorcatheritum. There are 10 extinct genera to two recent (Manis
being omitted as doubtful). There can be no question that the Manchhar fauna is
decidedly older than Siwalik, But Manchhar cannot be older than upper Miocene,
therefore Siwalik is Pliocene.
This conclusion is supported by the facts that out of six forms of reptiles suffi-
ciently known to afford means of comparison, three are recent species; that amongst
the four or five kinds of birds hitherto determined, one is probably identical with
the living ostrich; and that all the land and fresh-water shells fonnd are forms
still existing. No such connexion with the recent fauna is known in any true
Miocene rocks. The geological evidence is also in favour of a newer age for the
fossiliferous Siwalik beds, as they form the upper members of the series; whilst
the lower Manchhar rocks are at the base of formations which apparently represent
the Siwalilk series.
The singularly Miocene aspect of a portion of the Siwalik mammalian fauna finds
a parallel in the case of Pikermi, in Attica; although the age of the one does not
necessarily determine that of the other. The superb collection of remains made
and admirably described by Professor Gaudry has constantly been classed as Miocene
by the describer. It comprises 30 genera, of which 19 are extinct. Of these 30
genera, 13, besides Helladotherium, which is very possibly identical with Stvathertwm,
are found in the Siwaliks of India. The ruminants are in both very much more-
numerous in proportion to the other artiodactyle ungulates than is usual in Miocene
strata; in the Siwalik, 33 against 10; in the Pikermi beds, 15 ruminants to 1 pig
and 1 Chalicotherium. Nevertheless, out of 42 species found at Pikermi, no less
than 15 are common to Miocene deposits in other parts of Europe. The connexion
between Pikermi beds and typical Miocene is thus very similar to that between
Siwalik and Manchhar beds. ;
But the Pikermi beds at their base contain three characteristically Pliocene
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 0. 579
marine. shells. The question is, are the marine shells or the mammalia to be
accepted as deciding the age of the beds?
__Lagree so far with M. Gaudry, who at once accepts the evidence of the shells
and considers the beds Pliocene. But he thinks the mammalia were of Miocene
age, and that they died after the close of the epoch; their bones being subsequently
washed down into.the Pliocene formations. In this view I cannot concur, because
bones decay when exposed to the atmosphere; and I can only conclude that the
animals as well as the beds are of Pliocene age.
_ | If these views be admitted, it will be seen that the evidence afforded by land
mammalia as to geological age cannot be accepted with the same confidence as that
of marine mollusca, It has long been found that the evidence of fossil plants is
very liable to mislead ; but in their case the difficulty is greater, because the remains
do not always furnish equally clear proof of the relations of the fossils. There is,
however, some reason to believe that the age of certain mesozoic beds in India, con-
taining, land or fresh-water reptiles and fishes, is not the same as that of strata
characterised by the same animals in Europe; and generally land and fresh-water
organisms do not seem so characteristic of age as marine fossils,
__ The explanation of the occurrence of so many Miocene forms in the Siwalik and
Pikermi beds is very possibly the migration southwards of the palearctic Miocene
fauna,,, Some of the relations between the Siwalik animals and those of the penin-
sula of India at the present day, and the close connection between the fauna, of
Pikermi and that now found in Africa may be due to a further southern migratory
movement in Post-pliocene times.1 ;
10. On the Sandstones and Grits of the Lower and Middle Series of the
Bristol Coalfield. By Howarp Weruerep, F.G.S., F.C.8.
The Bristol coalfield is noted for its series of grits and sandstones, and these pro-
bably have their equivalents, in the South Wales and Forest of Dean coalfields, as
well as in that of Somersetshire. They serve as stratigraphical landmarks ; and it
was the object of the paper (1) to compare the grits of the above coalfield with
- one another, with a view of ascertaining whether there were distinguishing features
which might enable them to be respectively determined, and assist in correlation,
(2) To examine the chemical and physical conditions. (3) To note chances
which occur when rocks are in contact with carbonaceous matter. The first point
raised was the application of the term grit and sandstone. The author confirmed
the statement of Mr. Sorby, in his presidential address to the Geolocical Society
in 1880, to the effect that the Carboniferous sandstones were composed of angular
grains. Of those examined by the author, the grains of the millstone grit ‘were
the least angular. It was also pointed out, that as rocks show such variation of
coarseness in the same deposit, this could not be taken into consideration as a
test for grit. It was therefore suggested that the term grit should be confined to
those rocks which show angularity of grains, irrespective of coarseness; and the
term sandstone to those which are composed of rounded grains (de. from which
the angularity has been removed). In any case, the term grit must be more gene-
rally applied to Carboniferous rocks than has been the case hitherto,
Reference was then made to ‘duns,’ which was defined as those Carboniferous
beds intermediate between grit or sandstone and clay. In mining operations
where the ‘driving’ of branches was by contract, questions arose between employer
and employed, in the case of ‘hard duns, as to whether it is ‘stone’ or ‘duns.’
double price being paid for working in the former. It was also important for
geological purposes, in the construction of sections, that there should be an easy
and ready test for this determination. The author suggested that the scratching
of glass would be a suitable one, which would represent a hardness of 7 for
“ stone” (that which scratches glass).
’ For a fuller discussion of the subjects here mentioned, see Manual of the
Geology of India, chap. xxiv, 1879.
PP2
580 : REPORT—1880.
The chief deposits of rock in the coalfield were then referred to: in ascending
order, commencing with the Millstone grit. Several samples of this, taken from
Brandon Hill, gave from 97:4 to 98°5 per cent. of silica. In places it is used for
brick-making, being mixed with the other material to increase the proportion of
silica. It was pointed out that there were other beds higher up in the coal-
measures which would do equally well,.and in some cases better, for this purpose.
The paper next referred to the ‘ Pennant grit.’ There is considerable difficulty in
defining the limits of this deposit, but it was certainly not 2000 feet thick, as some
authors had stated. The paper places the thickness at about 970 feet; but the
middle or Pennant series of coal measures, so called on account of the Pennant
being so extensively developed in this division, was about 2000 feet thick, and
this, probably, was the origin of the mistake regarding the thickness of the Pennant.
The 970 feet of rock above referred to as the Pennant grit, was only entitled to
that name as a local distinction. It was nothing more than an extraordinary de-
velopment of a coal measure grit; the ‘ Doxall grit’ of the lower series, for
instance, was quite as much a Pennant, if that term is to distinguish a certain class
of rock,
After a careful examination of the rocks of the coalfield, the author had come
to the conclusion that, owing to the great similarity of Carboniferous arenaceous
rocks, occurring at different horizons, it was at the risk of serious error to rely
upon them for correlation or stratigraphical landmarks. The proportion of silica
could be sometimes used as a guide in determining one from another, but little
reliance could be placed on it over a large area, as so many contained nearly about
the same amount.
The author's analysis showed the first 50 feet of the Pennant to contain 90 per
cent. of silica; but after this, for a considerable thickness, the proportion varied
from 84 to 89 per cent.
The paper then referred to changes in the grits when in contact with carbo-
naceous matter. The author found that the proportion of alumina increased to
the whole, and this mostly as a silicate. By comparing the analysis of duns and
shale from the district with that of these rocks, the same constituents were found to
be present, the great difference being in the greater proportion of alumina in duns
and shale. Asa rule, the latter beds always overlie seams of coal; but in cases
where rock followed, the author found that as it neared the coal it became more
fissile and argillaceous.
This change was ascribed to the action of carbonic acid gas, generated by de-
eomposing vegetation on silicates. The analysis of the rocks given showed them
to have been formed from the denudation of older silicate rocks, and the action of
carbonic acid on such sediment would be to readily decompose all silicates with
the exception of silicate of alumina, which would thus increase in proportion to
the whole, and give rise to beds of the composition of duns and shale,’ To this
cause the author attributed the formation of the latter deposits, and contended
that where they occur apart from carbonaceous matter is no proof that it was
never there, and destroyed by decomposition.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 28.
The Section did not meet.
1 The author was not dealing with the hydrocarbons which shales sometimes
contain. .
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 581
MONDAY, AUGUST 30.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On a Raised Beach in Rhos Sili Bay, Gower. By Professor Prestwicu,
M.A., P.R.S.
The author called attention to this as a remarkably fine instance of a raised beach
having some peculiar and unusual features. It extends the whole length of the
cliff in Rhos Sili Bay, facing the bay for a distance of 14 miles. The top of the
cliff consists of angular rubble of Old Red Sandstone, sometimes showing traces of
rough stratification, and varying in thickness from 20 to 60 feet, overlying a beach
5 to 8 feet thick, consisting of well-rounded pebbles of various local, carboniferous
and other rocks, and containing in places many Twrritella communis, with a few
Nassa incrassata, whereas in the more exposed raised beach at Mewslade before
described by the author, the shells were Patella vulgata, Littorina (2 spec.) and
Purpura lapillus. Under the beach, which is 8 to 12 feet above the present sea-
level, there is another rubble of Old Red Sandstone fragments, with in one place
blocks of a quartzose conglomerate, without stratification. Its thickness is not
known. The author considered the upper rubble to have been washed down from
the red sandstone hills which rise behind the beach by the water as the land rose
after submergence, as described in the next paper, while to the lower bed of rubble
he would ascribe a glacial origin.
2. On the Geological Evidence of the temporary Submergence of the South-
west of Hurope during the early Human Period. By Professor Prestwicu,
M.A., F.R.S.
The author stated that, in the long course of investigation of the Quaternary Beds
in which he had been engaged, after referring the greater part of these beds to old
river, sea, or glacial action, there remained a residual set of phenomena which
could not be accounted for by any of these agencies. In few cases were these re-
sidual drifts of any stratigraphical importance, and in character and structure
they differed greatly. They had been referred to various causes and to various
times, but he thought they were all due to a common cause, that being the tem-
porary submergence of the land after the formation of the latest of the river gravels,
and after palzolithic man had spread over Europe and the greater part of England,
The submergence having been extremely slow and only temporary, while it is
supposed that the emergence took place with greater rapidity and by intermittent
movements, the effects of such changes lie as much in their denuding action on
loose materials as in the formation of any deposits. The latter, in fact, are com-
paratively insignificant. They include, besides the ‘ Warp’ of Trimmer, the ‘Trail’
of Fisher and the ‘Head’ of Godwin-Austen, and a series of loam and gravel
beds of greater dimensions, These various drifts all have certain features in
common, They are at their first origin always angular, they have their origin in
the adjacent valley or hills, and are therefore entirely local, and they contain nothing
but the débris of a terrestrial surface. The author showed that such deposits could
not be referred either to river or marine action, or to rain-wash, snow or ice, and
he gave reasons to show that they were in all probability the result of this dilwvat
action.
_ The author relied greatly on the evidence of the angular rubble (Head), over-
lying the raised beaches on both sides of the Channel, in which remains of the
mammoth, rhinoceros, and other quaternary animals were not unfrequently found,
and he further. showed that in some instances paleolithic flint implements had been
found in the same beds. In river valleys the same diluvial beds overlaid valley
deposits with flint implements.
The author supposes that by this submergence paleolithic man was removed,
at all events from all the lower lands, and the great extinct mammalia destroyed ;
and that the great superficial bed of gravel occupying the centre of our valleys,
and which is the result of the final off-flow of the waters, defines and limits the
582 REPORT—1880.
period of paleolithic man, while, with the alluvial beds, neolithic man (whether or
not a descendant of paleolithic tribes, who may have escaped to higher levels,
or whether introduced by migration) makes his appearance.
The author gave some reasons to show that the effects of this submergence are
probably to be found over the greater part of Europe, ;
3. Proofs of the Organic Nature of Hozoon Canadense.
By Cuartes Moors, F.G.S.
After noticing the views of authors on both sides of the controversy, which had
now extended to sixteen years, he remarked that his entering upon it was much
by accident and under considerable disadvantages. Whilst others had possessed
hundreds of cut and polished and other specimens for examination, he was possessed
of only two slices, and two small blocks weighing but twelve ounces, both in their
original conditions. From one of these he separated twenty grains, which on being
decalcified revealed to him the presence of clear siliceous-looking fibroid growth.
It was to be remembered that the material to be examined was scarcely more sub-
stantial than the motes or fibres seen floating in the sunbeam. Soon he obtained
others of various colours, black, green, and olive, but so like the fibre of to-day that
he suspected they must have got on the slide by some accident, and threw away
many such specimens. At last he was encouraged by the presence of minute
curled specimens whose genuineness and organic origin could not be doubted, and
which could only be compared to the finest possible bits of polished golden wire.
Their shapes first led to the supposition that they were the shells of a Laurentian
annelid, but others followed of various forms, several of them tufted at their ends.
One of the above is a very remarkable specimen, Seen under the microscope—for
they are all invisible to the naked eye—it is formed of three round golden close-set
coils. That this body is not a parasitic shell is evidenced by the fact that although
when dry it is rigid, when moist both curved and curled specimens are flexible ;
they are substantial-looking objects as compared with others on the slide, and from
their form and colour stand out conspicuously. What office they occupy if con-
nected with the ancient animal has yet to be determined. They are possibly a
portion of its fibroid growth. They are not unlike the pedicle to which the capsule
of some Rhizopoda are attached, but in such a case they must have been devoured
by the Eozoon, which is not probable.
In addition to the clear crystalline fibre previously mentioned, a close examina-
tion occasionally revealed another form not thicker than a spider’s web, like myce-
lium growth of the present day.
Mention was made of palmated or dendritic-like serpentinous casts, of probably
the canal system. Not unlike these, but differing in structure and much more
delicate, were two fan-shaped bodies, with four long straight slender branches,
equal in width throughout, of a brown colour, and springing from the same base;
they appear to have been longer originally.
Although he might mention other points connected with Eozoon, he should
conclude by remarking that amidst the material examined there occasionally
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ©. 583
appeared bits of an amber-coloured or yellow semi-transparent film, and very rarely
a round yellow circular body surrounded by a broad band, which he thought might
possibly be Diatomacee. At another time he recognised a group of eleven much
smaller forms, showing annular structure, which, under the circumstances, were
most interesting and important; but whilst he was preparing to protect them by a
cell-coyering they dried, shrivelled up, and were lost. From what was said below
he believed the latter to be ova or gemmules, and the coloured film possibly even
an outer membrane, which hitherto had not been recognised in Foramimifera,
through which the pseudopodial tubuli passed into the water.
The evidence thus adduced that the Eozoon Canadense is organic was to himself
most convincing, and may be to the most sceptical; but should it be replied, ‘ It is
true you have found traces of organic life in the Laurentian beds, but does it neces-
sarily follow that they belong to Eozoon, and that it is a member of the animal
kingdom ?’ to such objectors he had. further confirmatory evidence of a most inte~
resting character to offer. Amongst his duplicate fossils he had several specimens
of Nummulites levigatus, to which Dr. Carpenter and others consider Eozoon to be
allied, and some smaller forms, possibly the young of that shell, but of which he
was not quite certain. An examination of their structure showed the mycelium
growth, fine as the finest spider’s web, as in Hozoon, which appeared to be attached
to the outer wall of the shell, and also, as in Eozoon, there appeared to be a membrane
of the thinnest kind, through which the sarcode of the animal passed as pseudopodia.
Transparent crystalline alga-like fibre was abundant, and in a partly decalcified
specimen he had this standing out freely. Then he had separated from the shell
closely-packed bands like a transparent network, or compressed together like a bit
of recent woollen fibre. Very minute in size may be seen yellow worm-like rami-
fying fibres, which at first he thought might be parasitic fungi, but he was at present
disposed to think they were too much mixed up with the animal sarcode to admit
of this supposition.
There are, then, continual larger patches of yellowish branching ramified fibre,
passing into broader or thinner bands, with network meshes, together with sarcode
or protoplasmic matter, so that it appears as if the whole or the greater portion of
the body of the Tertiary Nummulite was preserved. Scattered with these materials
there are numerous amber-coloured granules, either single or in patches, which
‘were supposed to be the gemmules or ova of the. animal. There were also present
pieces of the deep yellow, emerald green, and olive-coloured fibre, absolutely undis-
tinguishable from those obtamed from Eozoon. And lastly, in a mineralised speci-
men there were casts in iron pyrites of the tubes, cells, and chambers of the interior
of the Nummulite, including many minute rounded spheres. These appear to
represent, and to be identical with, the infiltrated serpentinous casts which are
present under the same circumstances in Kozoon.
Rather from curiosity than expecting to make any favourable comparisons he
had just examined the minute cells of Globigerina, brought up by the Challenger
from the bottom of the Atlantic, and in them he also found traces of fibre and
minute coloured fungi-like bodies, similar to those above referred to.
- From the evidence thus adduced it will be seen that there is an actual parallelism
between Eozoon and Foraminifera of more recent times, even to the minutest struc-
ture of the animals themselves. That the muscular fibre, the soft body, and
possibly even the ova of a creature, which as yet reveals to us the earliest trace of
animated existence, should have been preserved, is more than we could have antici-
pated. Although ages have passed away, and many miles of rock have interyened
between it and its living representatives, it tellsus that the same natural law which
regulates all life has been continuous and permanent throughout.
Eozoon is at present happily named, but there seems no reason why, if we could
discover beds still older than the Laurentians, we should not find earlier and still
earlier dawns of animal life. Nor did he think that Eozoon lived alone, but that
not only contemporary with it, but in the enormous thickness of beds intervening
between it and the Cambrian rocks, connecting links of organic life may still reward
the geological investigator.
584 REPORI—1 880.
4, On some Pre-Cambrian Rocks in the Harlech Mountains, Merionethshire.
By Henry Hicks, M.D., F.G.S.
During an excursion into the Harlech Mountains in the summer of last year, I
recognised, near the centre of the well-known anticlinal of Cambrian rocks, another
group of rocks which appeared to me to underlie the former, and to be part of a
pre-existing formation. On further examination, I noticed also that many of the
fragments in the conglomerates at the base of the Harlech grits seemed to be iden-
tical with the rocks below, and to have been derived from some such pre-existing
group. Subsequent microscopical examination of some of the fragments and of the
underlying rocks tended strongly to confirm this view. In order, however, to satisfy
myself more fully on this point, I revisited the area this summer, accompanied by
my friends, Professor Hughes, Mr. Tawney, and Dr. -R. D. Roberts, and the result
has been to entirely confirm my previous conclusions. This discovery is of consider-
able importance, as it enables us to compare the thickness of the Cambrian rocks
of North Wales more satisfactorily than has been hitherto possible with those of
South Wales, and to realise more clearly the early physical conditions of the areas.
Hitherto it seemed doubtful what the actual thickness of the Harlech group could
be, and very different estimates have been given. It now becomes possible to give a
perfectly correct estimate, and it is satisfactory to find that it approximates far
more nearly with that made out in other Welsh areas than was previously sup-
posed. The points where these older rocks come to the surface mainly occur along
a line running nearly due N. and S. from Llyn-Cwmmynach to about two miles to
the S.W. of Trawsfynnydd. Along this line the anticlinal of Cambrian rocks is
considerably broken, and denudation has taken place to a very considerable extent.
It is mainly in consequence of this that the pre-Cambrian rocks are exposed. The
so-called intrusive felstones marked here on the survey maps are part of the pre-
Cambrian group, and are not intrusive in the Harlech rocks, They are highly
felsitic rocks, for the most part a metamorphic series of schists alternating with
harder felsitic bands, probably originally volcanic ashes. They alternate with
bands of purplish slates, which I once supposed might have been dropped amongst
them by faults, but which I now think also belong to the pre-Cambrian group, as
in the Pebidian rocks at St. Davids, and elsewhere. There are also some other
exposures of the pre-Cambrian rocks in the adjoining areas, and one very interesting
-section was carefully examined by Professor Hughes and myself to the east of the
Trawsfynnydd road between Caean Cochion and Penmaen, where the Cambrian
conglomerates could be seen resting unconformably upon the older series, and large
masses of the latter found plentifully in the conglomerates.
5. On the Fault Systems of Central and West Cornwall.
By J. H. Couns, £.G.8.
The author remarked that the faults and fault-systems of the district in question
‘were very numerous, but that they were much more important, on account of their
mineral contents, than for their mechanical effect in displacing the strata. After
referring to the eight systems of faults—all being mineral veins—which were defined
by Mr. Jos. Carne in 1818, the author brought forward evidence to prove that no
fewer than fifteen distinct fault-systems of as many different ages could still be
traced, all having been produced in post-carboniferous times. The fifteen systems
were detailed as follows :—
1. Granite junction faults, the filling generally schorlaceous, and often stan-
niferous.
2. The older Elvan faults (the Little Elvan at Polgooth, &c.), more or less
granitic in their filling.
3. The oldest tin lodes (Polgooth, &c.), heaved by the Great Elvan.
4, Newer Elvan faults (Polgooth, Great Elvan, &c.).
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 585
5. Newer tin lodes (Trevaunance, &c.), underlying northwards mostly.
6. Newest tin lodes (Trevaunance, Wheal Owles, &c.) mostly underlying
southwards. :
7. Older east and west copper lodes producing tin in depth (Dolcoath, &c.)
8. Older caunter copper lodes.
9, Older cross-courses.
10, Newer east and west copper lodes (Wheal Peevor).
11. Newer caunter copper lodes.
12. Newest copper lodes (Wheal Peevor).
13. Newer cross-courses and flucans.
14, Newest flucans and slides.
15, Alluvial faults.
The author showed that the older fissures were occupied either with quartz,
together with tourmaline or stanniferous deposits (1, 3, 5), or else with granite and
felsitic matter (2, 4); that the fissures of intermediate age were occupied chiefly by
oxidised and sulphuretted copper ores near the surface, and by tin ores in depth
(6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12), or else by quartz, with small quantities of ores of nickel, cobalt,
uranium, &c. (9); while the newer fissures contained only quartz, oxide of iron,
galena, and blende (13, 14); while the newest of all contained little besides
clay (15). In all (except 2 and 4) there are evidences of the partial mechanical
infilling of open fissures.
In many cases the absolute amount of vertical displacement is small, in others
it cannot be exactly ascertained, the most marked effects in this respect being pro-
duced by the cross-courses and cross-flucans (9, 13, 14). These cross-courses, &c.,
occur in great numbers between Hayle and Padstow, and owing to the fact that
the downthrows are nearly always on the east sides of the respective faults, the
total vertical displacement between these points cannot be less than 2000 feet, and
is probably much. more. . In this way, older and still.older rocks appear at the
present surfdce as one proceeds westward.
The author concluded by briefly calling attention to the physical effects of these
fault systems as developed in coast-lines and valleys.
6. On the Geology of the Balearic Islands.
By Dr. Puent, F.S.A., F.G.S.
In the two preceding years I have had the honour of drawing the attention of the
Section to the magnificent effects of lime deposits in the Grottos of Antiparos, and
to the almost mountainous dimension of the external deposits, called Pambuk
Kalesi, at Hierapolis, in Anatolia.
There are some remarkable features in the geology of Minorca, in which
that science has a beneficially sanitary effect, though it is probable that experience
rather than scientific research produced in the first instance the effect, and then
influenced popular opinion. ok
The island is geologically divided into two complete sections, which face each
other in a continuous and very slightly deviating line from north-west to south-
east. The southern portion isan almost uniform rock of Miocene formation, which
occupies an area of more than half the island; the more northern begins on the
east with a sea-coast of Devonian rocks running continuously to the north coast,
with a mean breadth of three miles, succeeded by Lower Triassic beds, which crop
up again further west, between which two portions is a broad Jurassic belt, curi-
ously meandered by Upper Trias, and succeeded again by a broad field of Devonian
formation. The large area of these various formations is-‘found to be unhealthy for
abode, though this may be entirely the result of latitude; but here at least they
seem to contract the.moist vapours which often hover over all the islands, while
the rocky surface of the Miocene is much drier. All the large towns are erected
Sy ae latter, as Mahon, Cuidadella, Alayor, St. Cristobal; and Ferrerias is on the
order.
In Majorca, to the north-west side of the island, the Jurassic formation rises
586 REPORT—1880.
into a lofty cordillera, the highest peak of which attains an elevation of nearly
4400 feet above the sea. In this series of elevations are many eruptive rocks. The
centre of the island is occupied by a fertile plain of rich soil on a base of Miocene
(moyen) in the area of which are lacustrine beds. There are cretaceous beds, some
abundant fossiliferous deposits, and some magnificent conglomerates of rich gold,
red, and black colours. Some of the limestones exhibit the richest colours of
marble.
This slight general sketch is sufficient probably to interest the practical investi-
gator, and the Grotto del’‘Homme Mort, with its abundant fossils, would alone well
repay an examination.
There are some fine caves in Minorca, but the beautiful effects of the Cueva de
la Hermita in the larger island tend speedily to make them forgotten.
The entrance to this cave is at a considerable elevation on the coast, which
peing attained the descent is easy. The dimensions are unusual, and the inspection
occupies some hours. At intervals Bengal lights are burned, when a view opens
which puts even the elegant tracery of Gothic and Moorish architecture aside.
Long lines of light, straight, and uniform columns seem to multiply the effects of
Westminster Abbey, while there is hardly a form, from magnificent organs, to
pulpits, side chapels, and even mural monuments, that the eye does not figure to
itself as realities, The progress of the stalactitic formation has evidently been
arrested for centuries here, though still going on slightly in the caves in Minorca.
With the exception of one or two small but good springs, there is no water on
either island. Rain is collected in the winter in tanks and drawn up from:wells.
In some places, however, water is to be obtained by boring.
The author then gave some analyses of lignite, and referred to the metalliferous
mines in Iyiza and elsewhere.
7. On a Striated Stone from the Trias of Portishead.
By Professor W. J. Sotuas, IA., F.RS.L., £.G.S.
This was a description of a striated fragment of carboniferous limestone from
the Triassic breccia of Portishead. The striation was, however, not due to glacial
action, but it is of the nature of ‘slickenside.’ The fragment was derived from the
neighbourhood of the great fault which traverses the carboniferous rocks of the
vicinity. It is interesting, since it shows that slickensided fragments, when occur-
ring in a breccia, can be at once distinguished from true glaciated fragments, and
could never deceive any experienced geologist. At the same time it might serve as
a caution in receiving statements with regard to the finding of striated fragments
which had not been submitted to competent authorities.
8. On the Action of a Lichen on Limestone.
By Professor W. J. Sottas, W.A., F.R.S.#., F.G.S.
The author referred to the presence of minute hemispherical pits sprinkled over
the surface of many exposed limestone faces. These he showed were produced by the
apothecia of a lichen, Verrucarta rupestris, as noticed by Sowerby. They are inte-
resting as showing that the action of lichens is not purely conservative, but to some
extent denuding, and also as proving that very similar cavities to those made by
Cliona, which have been attributed to mechanical action, may be made by a vege-
table which has no hard parts, and is almost as motionless as the stone on which
iigrows. Here all other agencies being eliminated, we have a case of excavation
by purely chemical action,
9. On Sponge-spicules from the Chalk of Trimmingham, Norfolk.
By Professor W. J. Soutas, M.A., F.RSE., £.G.S.
This was an account of some sponge-spicules from the chalk of Trimmingham,
Norfolk. They occur in association with flmt nodules which have been incompletely
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 587
silicified. By treating the flints with dilute acid, a siliceous sediment remains,
consisting of silicified tests of foraminifera, valves of entomostraca and crinoidal
network, siliceous and glauconitic casts of foraminifera, and sponge-spicules.
Amongst the siliceous casts of foraminifera is a dumbbell-shaped form, derived
from two chambers of a Nodosaria, and mistaken by Zittel for a sponge-spicule.
The sponge-spicules are snow-white and opaque by reflected light, but when
mounted in Canada balsam so transparent as to be nearly invisible. They have
become crypto-crystalline, give colours with polarised light, and have correspond-
ingly acquired a higher refractive index than they possessed in the fresh state
(Sollas, ‘Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 1877, vol. xix. p. 20). They are eroded super-
ficially, and sometimes covered with little hemispherical pits ; occasionally dendrites
of iron pyrites are seen shooting through their substance, the first stage of a replace-
ment which is found completed in spicules from other deposits.
The spicules belong chiefly to Hexactinellid and Tetractinellid sponges. Of the
latter forms Lithistids are frequent ; they resemble the recent forms Corallistes mz=
crotuberculatus, Lyidium torquilla, Discodermia polydiscus, Rhacodiscula asterovdes,
and Kaliapsis cidaris; and are allied to the cretaceous genera described by Zittel
under the names Pachinion scriptum, Scytalia turbinata, Dorydermia dichotoma,
Callopegma acaule, and Ragadinia rimosa. The forms resembling Kaliapsis may
be termed Compsapsis cretacea. The depth at which the living Lithistids most
nearly related to the fossil ones have been found, varies from 74 to 375 fathoms.
Of other Tetractinellids there are stellate globules referable to Tethya, and
scarcely distinguishable from those of Tethya lyncurium; these may be known as
Tethylites cretaceus, a genus not in any way related to Zittel’s Tethyopsis, as that
is placed by him with Tetilla cranium. Calthrop-like spicules referable to Carter’s
Dercitites Haldonensis are common, also others probably related to Zittel’s Pachas-
trella primeva. Tuberculated globules, similar to the characteristic globules of
Pachastrelia geodoides, Carter, occur. This living species was brought up from a
depth of 292 fathoms, near St. Vincent’s.
Ordinary geodid globules of various sizes are exceedingly common in various
stages of decay, similar to those which the author has produced artificially in
recent sponge-spicules by the action of caustic potash. With the globules were
associated the usual geodid anchors, grapnels, and acerate spicules. Many are of
the same forms as Carter’s Geodites Haldonensis, and find their nearest ally in the
existing Geodia McAndrewi?, which has been dredged from 100 to 270 fathoms.
A club-shaped spicule, ¢.e. generally conical, rounded at the ends, and tubercu-
lated all over, #.-inch long, and ;3,; broad where largest, is not unfrequent ; it is quite
unlike any existing spicule, and may be provisionally termed Rhopaloconus cretaceus.
Many other forms not mentioned here occur plentifully, and the number of
different species found in the same flint is remarkable, but in this connection it may
be remembered that Carter has described no less than seven entirely different
species of sponge growing together on a thin fragment of Lophohelia prolifera, not
quite two square inches in extent.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 31,
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report on the Tertiary (Miocene), Flora of the Basalt of the North of
Treland.—See Reports, p. 107.
2. Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland.
See Reports, p. 110,
588 REPORT— 1880.
3. Inst of Works on the Geology, Mineralogy, and Paleontology of Wales
(to the end of 1873). By W. Wuiraker, '.G.S.—See Reports, p. 397.
4. Sketch of the Geology of British Columbia. By Grorcn M. Dawson,
D.Sc., A.RS.M., F.GS., Asst. Director Geol. Survey of Canada.
British Columbia includes a certain portion of the length of the Cordillera region
of the west coast of America, which may be described as consisting here of four
parallel mountain ranges running in a north-west and south-east bearing. Of these
the south-western is represented by Vancouver and the Queen Charlotte Islands,
and may be referred to as the Vancouver Range; while the next, to the north-east,
is the Coast or Cascade Range, a belt of mountainous country about 100 miles in
width. This is succeeded by the interior plateau of British Columbia, relatively
a depressed area, but with a height of 8000 to 3500 feet. To the north-east of
this is the Gold Range, and beyond this the Rocky Mountains proper, forming
the western margin of the great plains of the interior of the continent.
Tertiary rocks, which are probably of Miocene age, are found both on the coast
and on the interior plateau. They consist on the coast of marine beds, generally
littoral in character, which are capped, in the Queen Charlotte Islands, by volcanic
rocks. The interior plateau has been a fresh-water lake,in or on the margin of
which, clays and sandstones, with occasional lignites, have been laid down. These
are covered by very extensive volcanic accumulations, basaltic or tufaceous.
Cretaceous rocks from the age of the Upper and Lower Chalk to the Upper
Neocomian, and representing the Chico and Shasta groups of California, occur on
Vancouver and the Queen Charlotte Islands. Beds equivalent to the Chico group
yield the bituminous coals of Nanaimo, while .anthracite occurs in the somewhat
older beds of the Queen Charlotte Islands. Within the Coast Range the Cretaceous
rocks are probably for the most part equivalent in age to the Upper Neocomian.
The Cretaceous rocks are of great thickness, both on the coast and inland, and
include extensive contemporaneous volcanic beds.
The pre-Cretaceous beds have been much disturbed and altered before the
deposition of the Cretaceous, and their investigation is difficult. On Vancouver
Island, beds probably Carboniferous in age include great masses of contemporaneous
voleanic material, with limestones, and became altered to highly crystalline rocks
resembling those of parts of the Huronian of Eastern Canada. In the Queen
Charlotte Islands also these beds probably occur; but an extensive calcareous
argillite formation is there found, which is characterised by its fossils as triassic.
The Coast Range is supposed to be built up chiefly of rocks like those of Van-
couver Island, but still more highly altered, and appearing as gneisses, mica-schists,
&c., while a persistent argillaceous and slaty zone is supposed to represent the
triassic argillites of the Queen Charlotte Islands.
The older rocks of the interior plateau are largely composed of quartzites and
limestones; but still hold much contemporaneous volcanic matter, together with
serpentine. Carboniferous fossils haye been found in the limestones in a number
of places. The triassic is also represented in some places by great contemporaneous
voleanic deposits with limestones.
In the Gold Range, the conditions found in the Coast Range are supposed to be
repeated ; but it is probable, that there are here also extensive areas of archzean
rocks. Some small areas of ancient crystalline rocks supposed to be of this age
have already been discovered.
The Rocky Mountain Range consists of limestones with quartzites and shaly
beds, dolamites and red sandstones. The latter have been observed near the 49th
parallel, and are supposed to be triassic in age. The limestones are, for the most
part, Carboniferous and Devonian, and no fossils have yet been discovered indica-
ting a greater age than that of the last-named period. On the 49th parallel, how-
ever, the series is supposed to extend down to the Cambrian, and compares closely
with the sections of the region, east of the Wahsatch, on the 40th parallel, given by
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 589
Clarence King. Volcanic material is still present in the Carboniferous rocks on the
49th parallel.
The oldest land has been that of the Gold Range, and the Carboniferous deposits
laid down east and west of this barrier differ widely in character. The Carboni-
ferous closed with a disturbance which shut the sea out from a great area east of
the Gold Range, in which the red gypsiferous and saline beds of the Jura-trias were
formed. In the Peace River region, however, marine triassic beds are found on both
sides of the Rocky Mountains.
A great disturbance, producing the Sierra Nevada and Vancouver ranges, closed
the Triassic and Jurassic period. The shore line of the Pacific of the Cretaceous in
British Columbia lay east of the Coast Range, and the sea communicated by the
Peace River region with the Cretaceous Mediterranean of the great plains. The
Coast Range and the Rocky Mountains are probably in great part due to a post-Cre-
taceous disturbance, though the last-named range existed before the Cretaceous
period in the Peace River region.
- No Eocene deposits have been found in the province. The Miocene of the
interior plateau is probably homologous with that of King’s Pah-Ute lake of the
40th parallel. In the Pliocene epoch the country appears to have stood higher above
the sea-level than at present, and during this time the fiords of the coast were
probably worn out.
5. On the Post-Tertiary and more recent deposits of Kashmir and the Upper
. Indus Valley. By Lt.-Col. H. H. Gopwin-Austey, F.R.S., £.G.S., §c.
1. Tertiary and Karewa Deposits of Kashmir. Describes the Tertiary (Pleis-
tocene) Hirpur Series on northern flank of the Pir Panjal, and gives measured
section showing the changes of conditions that were going on during their deposi-
tion, Divides the post-tertiary Karewa deposits into an older series (Islamabad),
and a newer in the low-level terraces toward Baramula. The successive lacustrine
deposits of Kashmir owe their origin apparently to the gradual elevation of the
gneissic axis of the Pir Panjal and Kajnag- ranges to the south and south-west, which
axis crosses the main drainage line of the Jhelum below Baramula.
2. Alluvial deposits of Skardo. Gives measured section of a portion of the above
deposits near Kepchun, and shows the existence of two periods of glacial conditions
in the Himalayas.
' 3. Lacustrine deposits of the Indus Valley. That from time to time the valley
of the Indus has presented at different portions of its course a precisely similar
appearance as we see now in the Pang-Kong Lake. That the coarse irregularly
stratified gravels of Mulbi, Khurbo, &c., are older than the fine stratified silt
of the Indus, near Lamayuru, and that they bear the same relation to them as
those of the Chang-chingmo do to the Pang-Kong valley lacustrine beds.
4, Glacial action. On the very probable extension of glaciers from the Kajnag
Range as far down as the Jhelum yalley.
The absence of strizee marks on rocks in parts of the Himalayas that were once
subjected to ice action, is no proof that such glacial conditions never existed ;
greater denudation than in Europe, and the greater distance in time, having oblite-
rated such record and altered the valley sections.
6. Notes on the occurrence of Stone Implements in the Coast Laterite, south
of Madras, and in high-level gravels and other. formations in the South
Mahratta Country. By R. Bruce Foorr, F.G.S., of the Geological
Survey of India.
The author, after alluding to the area over which these chipped implements were
Inown to occur in the Coast Laterite, when he read a paper to the Geological
Society of London, in June 1868 (which area extended from the Palar river near
Madras, nearly to the Kistna river), and pointing out that no such implement had
590 REPORT—1880.
then been found south of the former river, proceeds to enumerate various localities
within the Coast Laterite areas south of the Palar, in which he had been success-
ful in discovering implements. He shows that as the material, quartzite, used in
the more northerly parts is not found south of the Palar river, the southern
makers had recourse to various other materials, generally chert, sometimes
granular quartz rock of gneissic age. The presence of implements artificially made
remains as then the sole positive proof of the existence of man. The new localities
yielding implements are: 1. Minniyur, 40 miles N.E. of Trichinopoly, in talus-
débris of the Wodiarpalliam Laterite plateau. 2. Vallam, 7 miles south-west of
Tanjore, several large flakes in sitw in lateritic conglomerate. 3. Shuragudi, 16
miles south of Pudu-kotai, a large rude hatchet in lateritic débris close to the
boundary of the great Shah-kotai laterite plateau. 4. Madura, ina coarse lateritic
shingle-bed, apparently an outlier of the Sivaganga laterite area, several rude oval
implements. Besides the above the author obtained a chert flake knife with one
edge serrated, from a river gravel newer than the laterite at Tripatur in Madura
district ; also from the surface, associated with scattered lateritic débris, a chert~
flake of arrowhead shape, and a well-shaped core of chert, believed to be the first
of its kind found in South India.
The author then describes certain high-level, partly lateritic, gravels of fluvia~
tile and lacustrine origin in the basins of the Gatprabha and Malprabha tributaries
of the Kistnain the South Mahratta country, which yielded large numbers of fine
quartzite implements of several types :—
Lastly, the occurrence is mentioned of well-shaped implements, chiefly of the
pointed oval type, and made of hard siliceous limestone, in a great talus of lime~
stone and Deccan trap blocks, cemented by calcareous tufa into a great breccia
conglomerate. This occurs along the foot of the hills north of the Kistna, and
west of Soorapoor, in the Nizam’s territory. These implements were found washed
out in gullies,
7. On the Pre-Glacial Contours and Post-Glacial Denudation of the North-
West of England. By C. E. De Rancs, F.G.S.
The country described is that lying between the Silurian mountains of North
Wales and the Lake District, and bounded east by the Carboniferous hills of the
Pennine chain. The plains of Lancashire and Cheshire lying at their feet are
deeply covered with Glacial drift, reaching in one instance, near Ormskirk, a thick-
ness of no less than 230 feet. The deep valleys of the Lake District had attamed
their present proportions before the Glacial epoch, during which the lake-basins
were excavated—in the case of Windermere to a depth of 230 feet, or deeper than
the English Channel between Boulogne and Folkestone, the bottom of the lake
being 100 feet beneath the sea-level. In the valleys of the mountain country the
marine Glacial deposits are not present, having been re-excavated out by later
glaciation, where originally present. In Lancashire, Cheshire, and Flintshire the
marine drift occupies an extensive area, and valleys like those of the Ribble and
the Irwell,.nearly 200 feet in depth, have been excavated in and through them.
Occasionally the bottom of the valley is beneath the sea-level, pointing to the land
being higher in pre-glacial times. A terrace of post-glacial deposits fringes the
glacial area at, and often below, the sea-level, consisting of peat, with a forest at
the base, resting on a marine post-glacial deposit. The peat bands are found beneath
the sea-level to an extent, in one case, of about 70 feet, and it was pointed out that
an elevation of this amount would connect Lancashire, Cheshire, and much of North
Wales with the Isle of Man.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 591
Section D.—BIOLOGY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcrion—A, C. L. Ginruer, M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S.,
F
pte
DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY,
THURSDAY, AUGUST 26.
The PRreswEnt delivered the following Address :—
SIXTEEN years ago, at the meeting of the British Association in Bath, the duty
which I am endeavouring to discharge to-day was entrusted to my predecessor and
old friend, the late Dr. John Edward Gray. In the address which he then de-
livered before this Section, he spoke on ‘ Museums, their Use and Improvement,
and he who had devoted a whole lifetime to the formation and management of one
of the greatest zoological collections in the world, was well qualified to give an
opinion and advice on this subject. Indeed, when I read now what he then insisted
on as a necessary change in the system of Museums, I feel compelled to pay a
passing tribute to his memory.
Zoology, geology, botany were to him not distinct and independent studies ; the
views advanced by a Lamarck, by a Treviranus, viz., that our knowledge of these
sciences would remain fragmentary and one-sided as long as they were not studied in
their mutual relations, found in him one of the earliest advocates in this country.
Against all opposition he tried to unite the Zoological and Paleontological col-
lections in the British Museum, giving up this attempt only after having convinced
himself of the impracticability of the scheme; and he readily joined the band of
men who demanded that a Museum should be not merely a repository for the
benefit of the professed student and specialist, but serve in an equal measure for
. the recreation of the whole mass of the people and for their instruction in the
principles of Biology. This was the spirit in which he worked, and in the last
years of his life he had the satisfaction of being able to say that there was no other
collection in existence more accessible and more extensively used than the one
under his charge.
Tam encouraged to return to-day to the same subject, because I have daily
the opportunity of observing that the public more and more comprehend the use of
Museums, and that they appreciate any real improvements, however slight. Para-
graphs, leaders, articles published in the public journals and periodicals, references
made in speeches or addresses, questions put in the Houses of Parliament whenever
an opportunity offers—all testify that the progress of Museums is watched with
interest. Not long ago a Royal Commission entered deeply and minutely into the
subject, and elicited a mass of evidence and information invaluable in itself, though
you may differ from some of the conclusions and views expressed in their final
report. Biological Science has made rapid strides: not only do we begin to under:
stand better the relations of the varieties of living forms to each other, but the
number of varieties themselves that haye been made known has also been increased
beyond all expectation, and the old repositories have everywhere been found too
narrow to house the discoveries of the last forty years. Therefore you find that
the United States, Austria, Prussia and Saxony, Denmark and Holland, France
on
592 . REPORT—1880.
and Great Britain have erected, or are building anew, their National Museums, not
to mention the numerous smaller museums which are more or less exclusively
devoted to some branch of Biological Science.
The purposes for which Museums are formed are threefold: 1. To diffuse
instruction among, and offer rational amusement to the mass of the people; 2. To
aid in the elementary study of Biology, and 3. To supply the professed student of
Biology or the specialist with as complete materials for his scientific researches as
can be obtained, and to preserve for future generations the materials on which
those researches have been based. ‘
Although every museum has, as it were, a physiognomy of its own, differing
from the others in the degree in which it fulfils one or two or all three of those
objects, we may divide museums into three classes, viz.: (1) National; (2) Pro-
vincial; and (3) Strictly educational museums: a mode of division which may
give to those of this assembly who are not biologists an idea of what we mean by
the term ‘species.’ The three kinds pass into each other, and there may be hybrids
between them.
The museum of the third class, the Strictly Educational institutions, we find
established chiefly in connection with universities, colleges, medical and science
schools. Its principal object is to supply the materials for teaching and studying
the elements and general outlines of Biology; it supplements, and is the most
necessary help for, oral and practical instruction, which always ought to be com-
bined with this kind of museum. The conservation of objects is subservient to
their immediate utility and unrestricted accessibility to the student. The collec-
tion is best limited to a selection of representatives of the various groups or ‘ types,’
arranged in strictly systematic order, and associated with preparations of such
parts of their organisation as are most characteristic of the group. Collections of
this kind I have seen arranged with the greatest ingenuity, furnishing the student
with a series of demonstrations which correspond to the plan followed in some
elementary textbook. This, however, is not sufficient for practical instruction ;
besides the exhibited permanent series, a stock of well-preserved specimens should
be kept, for the express purpose of allowing the student to practise dissection and
the method of independent examination ; and in this latter I am inclined to include
the method of determining to what order, family, genus, or species any given
object should be referred. By such practice alone can the student learn to under-
stand the relative value of taxonomic characters and acquire the elementary Inow-
ledge indispensable for him in the future. Finally, in the educational museum
should be formed a series of all the animals and plants which are of economic
value or otherwise of importance to man. The proposal to unite living and extinct
forms in one series, which has been urged by eminent men with such excellent
reasons, might be tried in the educational museum with great advantage to the
student, as the principal objections that are brought forward against this plan being
carried out in larger collections, do not apply here.
A museum which offers to the teacher and student the materials mentioned
fulfils its object; its formation does not require either a long time or heavy ex-
ense ; but the majority of these institutions outgrow in time their original limits
in one or the other direction; and if such additions do not interfere with the
general arrangement of the museum, they neither destroy its character nor do they
add to its value as a strictly educational institution.
The principal aim of a Provincial Museum ought, in my opinion, to be popular
instruction. I do not mean that it should be merely a place for mild amuse-
ment and recreation; but that it should rank equal with all similar institutions
destined to spread knowledge and cultivate taste among the people. To attain this
aim, it should contain an arranged series of well-preserved specimens, representing
as many of the remarkable types of living forms as are obtainable; a series of useful,
as well as noxious, plants and animals; of economic products obtained from the ani-
mal and vegetable kingdoms; and last, but not least, a complete and accurately
named series of the flora and fauna of the neighbourhood. The majority of Pro-
vincial Museums with which I am acquainted are far from coming up to this ideal.
One of the first principles by which the curator of such a museum should be guided
;
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 6593
is to admit into his collection no specimen, unless it be well mounted, and a fair
representative of its species. He has not the excuse of his colleague in charge of a
large museum, who has to retain those monsters which are literally his bétes-noires,
viz., specimens to which a history is attached, and the removal of which would
sooner or later be resented by some of his fellow-labourers. The only too frequent
presence of such badly mounted specimens in Provincial Museums is not always
the fault of the curator. The slender means with which he is provided are generally
insufficient to encourage taxidermists to bestow the necessary amount of skill and
time on their work. Besides, taxidermy is an art which depends as much on
natural gift as drawing or modelling; and as long as we are obliged to be satisfied
with receiving into our collections mediocre specimens, mediocre stuffers will take
up taxidermy as a trade without there being one among them who is naturally
qualified for it.
The direct benefit of a complete collection of the flora and fauna of the district
in which the Provincial Museum is situated, is obvious, and cannot be exaggerated.
The pursuit of collecting and studying natural history objects gives to the persons
who are inclined to devote their leisure hours to it a beneficial training for whatever
their real calling in life may be: they acquire a sense of order and method; they
develop their gift of observation ; they are stimulated to healthy exercise. Nothing
encourages them in this pursuit more than a well-named and easily accessible collec-
tion in their own native town, upon which they can fall back as a pattern and an
aid for their own. This local collection ought to be always arranged and named
according to the plan and nomenclature adopted in one of those numerous mono-
graphs of the British Fauna and Flora in which this country excels ; and I consider
its formation in every Provincial Museum to be of higher importance than a collec-
tion of foreign objects.
The majority of Provincial Museums contain not only biological collections, but
very properly, also, collections of art and literature. It is no part of my task to
speak of the latter ; but before I proceed to the next part of my address, I must
say that nothing could more strikingly prove the growing desire of the people for
instruction than the erection of the numerous Free Libraries and Museums now
spread over the country. ‘he more, the healthier their rivalry, the safer their
growth will be, especially if they avoid depending on aid from the State, or placing
themselves in the hands of a responsible minister; if they remain what they are—
municipal institutions, the children and pride of their own province.
Tflowever great, however large a country or a nation may be, it can have, in
reality, only one National Museum truly deserving of the name. ‘Yours is the
British Museum ; those of Scotland and Ireland can never reach the same degree of
completeness, though there is no one who wishes more heartily than I do that they
may approach it as closely as conditions permit. The most prominent events in the
recent history of the British Museum (to which I must confine the remainder of my
remarks) are well known to the majority of those present :—that the question either
of enlarging the present building at Bloomsbury, or of erecting another at South
Kensington for the collections of Natural History, was fully discussed for years in
its various aspects; that, finally a Select Committee of the House of Commons
reported in favour of the expediency of the former plan; that the Standing Com-
mittee of the Trustees, than whom there is no one better qualified to give an opinion,
took the same view; and that, nevertheless, the Government of the time decided
upon severing the collections, and locating the Natural History in a separate build-
ing, as the more economical plan.
The building was finished this year at a cost of 400,000/. exclusive of the
amount paid for the ground on which it is erected. It is built in the Romanesque
or round-arched gothic style, terra-cotta being almost exclusively employed in its
construction. It consists of a basement, ground floor, and two storeys, and is
divided into a central portion, and a right and left wing. Its principal (southern)
facade is 675 feet long. As you enter the portal you come into a cathedral-like
hall, called the ‘Index Museum,’ 120 feet long, 97 feet wide, and 68 feet high;
behind this there is a large side-lighted room for the British Fauna. On each side
of the hall there isa side-lighted gallery, each 278 feet long, by 50 feet in width ;
1880. QQ
594 rnerort— 1880. .
‘seven other galleries of various widths, and, therefore adapted for various exhibi-
tions, join at right angles the long gallery of the ground floor. The first and
second storeys are occupied by galleries similar to the main gallery of the ground
floor.
The collections are distributed in this building thus:—The western wing is
occupied by Zoology, the eastern by the three other departments, viz. the ground-
floor by Geology, the first-floor gallery by Mineralogy, and the second-floor gallery
by Botany. The central portion is, as mentioned above, divided into the room for
British Zoology and into the ‘Index Museum,’ that is, ‘an apartment devoted to
specimens selected to show the type-characters of the principal groups of organized
beings.’ The basement consists of a number of spacious, well-lit rooms, well
adapted for carrying on the different kinds of work in connection with such large
collections.
There is no doubt that the building fulfils the principal condition for which it
was erected, viz., space for the collections. The Zoological collections gain more
than twice as much space as they had in ‘the old building, the Geological and
‘Mineralogical about thrice, and the Botanical more than four times. This increase
‘of space will enable the keeper of the last-named department to bring the collec-
tions correlated with each other into close proximity, and to prepare a ‘much greater
number of objects for exhibition than was possible hitherto. The Mineralogical
Department, already so admirably arranged in the old building, has now been sup-
plied with the space requisite for a collection of rocks, with a laboratory and gonio-
metrical room. (Geology is now in a position to exhibit a great part of the
Invertebrata, which hitherto had to be deposited in private studies, besides devoting
one or two of the new galleries to a stratigraphical series. On the Zoological side
we have been great gainers (not with regard to the proportion of space), but inas-
much as we were’ more impeded by the crowded state of our collections, than any
of the other departments: we are enabled to avoid the exhibition of heterogeneous
objects in the same room or gallery; mammals, birds, reptiles, fishes, mollusks,
insects, echinoderms, corals, and sponges haye each a smaller or larger gallery to
themselves. With the exception of the specimens preserved in spirits, the study-
series can be located in contiguity with, or at least, close vicinity to, the exhibition-
series. -There is ample and convenient accommodation for students; besides a
spacious room, centrally situated, and arranged for the exclusive use of students,
this class of visitors can be accommodated at four other different localities imme-
diately adjoining the several branches of the collection.
I believe that some of the members of the British Association will feel some-
what disappointed that the Zoological and Botanical collections on the one hand, and
the Paleontological on the other, continue to be kept distinct. Who will, who
can, doubt that the two branches of Biological science would be immensely
benefited by being studied in their natural mutual relations? and that Palon-
tology more especially would haye made surer progress if its study had been con-
ducted with more direct application to the series of living forms? But to study
the series of extinct and living forms in their natural connection is one thing, and
to incorporate in a museum the collection of fossil with that of recent forms,
is another. The latter proposal, so excellent in theory, would offer in its prac-
tical execution so many and-insuperable difficulties that we may well hesitate
before we recommend the experiment to be tried in so large a collection as the
British Museum. I have meutioned above that in a small collection such an
arrangement may be feasible to a certain degree; but in a large collection you can-
not place skins, bones, spirit-preparations, and stones in the same room, or, perhaps,
in the same case, exposing them to the same conditions of light and temperature,
without injuring either the one or the other, Each kind of those objects requires for
its preservation special considerations and special manipulations ; and by represent-
ing them in each of the several departments, you would have to double your staff of
skilled manipulators with their apparatus, which means multiplying your expenses.
Departmental administration generally, and especially the system of acquisition
by purchase or exchange, would become extremely complicated, and could not be
earried on without a considerably greater expenditure in time and money. Thus,
Oe
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 595
even if the old departmental division were abandoned for one corresponding to the
principal classes of the animal kingdom, each of the new departments would still
continue to keep, for consideration of conservation, those different kinds of objects,
at least locally, separate. The necessity of this has been so much felt in the British
Museum, that the Trustees resolved to store the spirit-specimens at South Ken-
sington, in a building specially adapted for the purpose, and separated from the
main building, as the accumulation of many thousand gallons of spirits is a source
of danger which not many years ago threatened the destruction of a portion of the
present building in Bloomsbury.
1 could never see that by the juxtaposition of extinct and living animals the
student would obtain particular facilities for study, or that the general public
would derive greater benefit than they may obtain, if so inclined, from one of the
numerous popular books ; they would not be much the wiser if the Archeopteryxr
were placed in a passage leading from the reptile- to the bird-gallery. And it cer-
tainly cannot be said that the separation of living and extinct organisms so univer-
sally adopted in the old museums, has been a hindrance to the progress of our
knowledge of the development of the organic world. This knowledge originated
and advanced in spite of museums-arrangements. What lies at the bottom of the
desire for such a change amounts, in reality, to this, that museums should be the
practical exponents of the principle that zoologists and botanists should not be
satisfied with the study of the recent fauna and flora, and that paleeontologists
should not begin their studies or carry on their researches without due and full
reference to living forms, To this principle every biologist will most heartily sub-
scribe ; but the local separation of the various collections in the British Museum
will not offer any obstacles whatever to its being carried out. The student can
take the specimens (if not too bulky) from one department to the other; he may
examine them in the gallery without interference on the part of the public; or he
may have all brought to a private study, and, in fact, be in the same position with
regard to the use of the collections as those who have charge of them, A plan
which has been already initiated in the old building will probably be further
developed in the new, viz., to distribute in the paleontological series such examples
of important living types as will aid the visitor in comprehending the nature and
affinities of the creatures of which he sees only the fragmentary remains.
With regard to the further arrangement of the collections in the new building, it
has been long understood that the exhibition of all the species, or even the majority of
them, is a mistake ; and that, therefore, two series of specimens should be formed, viz.,
one for the purposes of advanced scientific study—the study-series; and the other
comprising specimens illustrative of the leading points both of popular and scientific
interest ; this latter—the exhibition-series—hbeing intended to supply the require-
ments of the beginner in the study of natural history, and of the public. As the
zoological collections are better adapted for exhibition than the others, the follow-
ing remarks refer principally to them. The bulk of our present exhibition-series is
the growth of many years, and to convert it into one which fulfils its proper
purpose, is a gradual and slow process; nor can it be expected to reveal its character
until it has been removed into the new locality.. The exhibition will probably
be found more liberal than may ‘be deemed necessary by some of my fellow-
labourers; but if a visitor should, on leaving the galleries, ‘take nothing with him
but sore feet, a bad headache, and a general idea that the animal kingdom is a
mighty maze without plan,’ I should be inclined to believe that this state of bodily
and mental prostration is the visitor’s, and not the curator’s fault. The very fact
that the exhibition-series is intended for a great variety of people, renders it
necessary to make a liberal selection of specimens, and I simply follow the principle
of placing in it all those objects which, in my opinion, the public can understand and
appreciate, and which therefore must contribute towards instruction. The public
would receive but an inadequate return for keeping up a National Museum if they
were shown, for instance, a dozen so-called ‘types’ of the family of parrots or
humming birds; they require a good many more to see what Nature can produce
in splendour and variation of colour, in grotesqueness of form; or to learn that
whilst one of these groups of birds is spread all over the countries of the tropical
QQ2
596 REPORT—1 880.
zone, the other is limited to a portion of a single continent. To render such an
exhibition thoroughly useful, two additional helps are required, viz. a complete
system of explanatory labels, and a popularly written and well-illustrated hand-
book, which should not only serve as a guide to the more important and interesting
specimens, but give a systematic outline of the all-wise plan which we endeavour to
trace in God’s creation.
There is one part of the Museum which I intend to treat in a different manner
from the rest, and that is the collection of British animals. For the same rea-
sons for which I have in a former part of this address insisted on District Faunas
being fully represented in Provincial Museums, I consider a complete exhibition of
the British Fauna to be one of the most important objects of the National Museum.
Its formation is, strange as it may appear to many of you, still a desideratum, and
a task which will occupy many years. It will not be easy (especially when you are in
danger of infringing an Act of Parliament), to form a complete series of British
birds showing their changes of plumage, their young, their eggs, their mode of
nidification ; it is a long work to collect the larve and chrysalides of insects,
and to mount the caterpillars with their food-plants; and we shall require the
co-operation of many a member of the British Association when we extend the
collection to the marine animals and their metamorphoses. But all the trouble,
time, and labour spent will be amply repaid by the direct benefits which all classes
will derive from such a complete British collection.
My time is becoming short, and yet I find that I am far from haying completed
the task I had set to myself. Therefore let me briefly refer only to a few points
which of late have much agitated those who feel a direct or indirect interest in
the progress of the National Museum.
In the first place we must feel deeply concerned in everything relating to the
conservation of the collections. If the objects could speak to you as they do to
those familiar with their history, many of them would tell you of the long hours
of patient inquiry spent upon them; many might point with pride at the long
pages written about them—alas! not always with the even temper which renders
the study of natural science a delight and a blessing ; others would remind you of
having been objects of your wonder when you saw them depicted in scientific
books, or in some household work; whilst not a few could tell you pitiful tales of
the enthusiastic collector who, braving the dangers of a foreign climate, sacrificed
health or life to his favourite pursuit. Collections thus obtained, thus cherished,
representing the labours of thousands of men, and intended to instruct hundreds of
thousands, are worth preserving, displaying, and cultivating. No cost has been
spared in housing them; let no cost be spared in providing proper fittings to
receive them, a sufficient staff to look after them, and the necessary books to study
them.
What we chiefly require in a well-constructed exhibition-case is that it should
be as perfectly dust-proof as possible, that it should lock well and easily, and yet
that it should be of a light structure. Everyone who has gone through a gallery
of our old-fashioned museums, must have noticed how much those broad longi-
tudinal and transverse bars of the wooden frame of the front of a case interfere
with the inspection of the objects behind them, hiding a head here, a tail there, or
cutting an animal into two more or less unequal portions. Il-constructed cases
have brought zoological collections as much into bad repute as bad stuffers; and
if it be thought that a pound could be saved in the construction of a case, that
pound will probably entail a permanent expense of a pound a year. Now, all the
requisites of a good exhibition case can be obtained by using metal wherever it
can be substituted for wood ; and, although its use is more expensive than that of
wood, you will join with me in the hope that no mistaken desire of economy will
prevail now as the time has arrived to furnish our priceless collections with
adequate fittings.
* Probably all of those present are aware that the formation of a Natural History
Library has been urged almost from the very first day on which the remoyal of
the Natural History collections to South Kensington was proposed. But the cost
and extent of such a library have been very variously estimated. And I am ~
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 997
sorry to say that it is, I believe, owing to expressions of opinion on the part of
those who ought to know better, that the cost of this library was considerably
underrated when the removal to South Kensington was determined upon. We
cannot blame the Government that they hesitated for years before they acceded to
the pressing representations of the Trustees of the British Museum, to begin with
its formation, when they were told by naturalists that the cogffof such a library
would be something between 10,000/. and 20,0007. I could hardly believe my
eyes when I read only a few weeks ago in the leader of a weekly periodical
specially devoted to science, ‘that had the Trustees put aside a thousand a year
for this purpose when it was first determined to remove the Natural History col-
lections ten years ago, there would have been by this time in existence a library
fully adequate to the purpose.’ The writer must have either a very poor idea of
the objects and work of a National Museum, or an imperfect knowledge of the
extent of the literature of Natural History. 10,000/. might suffice to purchase a
good ornithological library, and 1,000/. would purchase the annual additions to all
the various branches of natural history ; but the former sum would be much too
small if the purchase of those works only were intended which are required for
the technical work of naming animals, plants, fossils, and minerals. A better cal-
culation was made by the Select Committee of the House of Commons on the
British Museum in 1860, who stated that ‘the formation of a Natural History
Library would cost about 30,0007. at the present time’ (1860). Considering that
twenty years have elapsed since, and that this part of the literature has shown
year by year a steady increase, we must put our estimate considerably higher than
the writer of that article.
With the aid of some of my friends who know, from their daily occupation, the
market value of Natural History works, I made a calculation some years ago,
and we came to the conclusion that a complete Natural History Library will
cost 70,0007. : and, unpalatable as this statement may be to those who have advo-
cated the removal of the Natural History collections, and therefore, must be held
responsible for this concomitant expense, it will be found to be true. It will
be satisfactory to you to learn that the Government have at last sanctioned the
expenditure of half that amount.
Now, in my opinion, such a library formed in connection with the National
Museum, should not be reserved for the use of the officials, but I would recommend
that it should be accessible to the general class of students in the same manner as
any other part of the collections. It is for this reason that I wish to see it rendered
as perfect as possible with respect to the older publications (many of which are
getting scarcer year by year), as well as to the most recent. Whether or not a
similarly perfect collection of Natural History books exists in some other place in
London, is another question with which I am not concerned. The general
National Library evidently ought to contain a perfect set of books on Natural
History, irrespective of other claims; but to have Natural History collections in
one place, and the books relating to them in another miles away, will produce as
much inconyenience as is experienced ‘by the person who puts the powder into
the one barrel of his gun and the shot into the other.
If the British Museum (for the collections will remain united under this old
time-honoured name, though locally separated) continues to receive that support
from the Government to which it is justly entitled, I have no doubt that it will not
only fulfil all the aims of a National Collection, but that it will be also able to give
to the kindred provincial institutions the aid which has recently been claimed on
their behalf. Under an Act of Parliament which was passed in the previous
session, and which empowers the Trustees to part with duplicate specimens, several
of those museums have already received collections of zoological objects. But I
consider it my duty to caution those who are in charge of those Museums to be
careful as to the manner in which they avail themselves of this opportunity. Well-
preserved duplicates of the rarer and more valuable vertebrate animals are very
scarce in the British Museum, the funds for purchase being much too small to permit
the acquisition of duplicates. What we possess of this kind of duplicates are
generally deteriorated specimens, and therefore ought not to be received by Pro-
598 |. REPORT—1880.
vincial Museums. On the other hand, our invertebrate series, especially of Mollusks
and Insects, will always offer a certain number of well-preserved duplicate specimens
and a sufficient inducement for Provincial Museums to select their desiderata.
It has been suggested that, as the British Museum has correspondents and col-
lectors in almost every part of the globe, and has, therefore, greater facilities for
obtaining specimers than any other institution, it should systematically acquire
duplicates, and form a central repository, from which Provincial Museums could
draw their supplies. If the necessary funds to carry out this scheme were granted,
I cannot see any objection to it on the part of the British Museum, which, on
the contrary, would probably derive some benefit. But there is'one, and in my
opinion a very serious, objection, viz. that this scheme would open the door to the
employment of curators of inferior qualifications; it would relieve the curator of a
Provincial Museum of an important part of his duty, viz. to study for himself the
requirements of his Museum, the means of meeting them, and to become well ac-
quainted with the objects themselves. A curator who has to be satisfied with the
mechanical work of displaying and preserving objects acquired, prepared and named
for him by others, takes less interest in the progress of his Museum than he whose
duty it would be to form a collection; he is not the person in whose charge the
Museum will flourish.
In speaking of the claims of Provincial Museums on the National Museum, the
kindred Colonial institutions should not be forgotten. We owe to them much of our
knowledge of the Natural History of the Colonies; they are the repositories of the
collections of the temporary and permanent surveys which have been instituted in
connection with them, and they have concentrated and preserved the results of
manifold individual efforts which otherwise most likely would have been lost to
science. The British Museum has derived great benefit from the friendly relations
which we have kept up with them; and, therefore, they are deserving of all the
aid which we can possibly give them, and which may lessen the peculiar difficulties
under which they labour in consequence of their distance from Europe.
I am painfully aware that in the remarks which I have had the honour of
making before you, I have tried the patience of some, and not satisfied the expecta-
tions of others. But so much I may claim :—that the views which I have expressed
before you as my own are the results of many years’ experience, and therefore
should be worthy of your consideration; and that I am guided by no other desire
than that of seeing the Museums in this country taking their proper place in regard
to ere and as one of the most important aids in the instruction of the
people.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report on the present State of owr Knowledge of the Crustacea. Port V.
By C. Spence Bare, F.R.S.—See Reports, p. 230.
2. Report of a Oommittee for conducting Paleontological and Zoological
Researches in Mevico.—See Reports, p. 254.
3.. Report of the ‘ Close Time’ Comimittee—See Reports, p. 257.
4, Report of the Committee on the Zoological Station at Naples.—See
» Reports, p. 161. Sale
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT: ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 599
5. On the Development of Lepidosteus.
By F. M. Batrour, F.2B.S., and W. N. Parker.
The paper contained an account of the observations of the authors on some pre-
.served material supplied to them by Al. Agassiz. The following are the chief
points to which attention was called :—
(1) The segmentation is complete as in the Sturgeon, but the segments at the
lower pole of the ovum soon fuse into a single mass which forms the yolk sack.
(2) The epiblast is divided into a nervous and an epidermic layer.
(8) The cerebro-spinal cord is formed, from a solid keel-like thickening of the
epiblast, as in Teleostei and Petromyzon. In this respect Lepidosteus contrasts
strikingly with the Sturgeon, in which the cerebro-spinal cord is formed in the usual
vertebrate fashion.
(4) There is a pronephros (head-kidney) of the Teleostean type.
The authors further called attention-to the structure and homologies of a pro-
visional suctorial dise in front of the mouth, of which Agassiz has already given an
account,
6. On the Classification of Oryptogams.'. By Aurrep W. Bennett, M.A.,
B.Sc., F.L.S., Lecturer on Botany at St. Thomas’s Hospital.
In the most recent classification of cryptogams, that by Sachs, in the 4th ed.
of his ‘ Lehrbuch,’ he divides thallophytes (including characez) into four classes of
equal rank, Protophyta, Zygosporece, Oosporeze, and Carposporex. It is proposed
in the present paper to retain Sachs’s class of Protophyta for the lowest forms of
vegetable life ; but to restore the primary division of the remainder of thallophytes
into fungi and ale, as being more convenient to the student and at least as much
in accordance with probable genetic affinities.
As regards minor points, the characez are removed altogether from thallo-
phytes, and again constituted into a separate group of the first rank; the myxo-
mycetes are regarded as presenting a low type of structure, scarcely raised above
the protophyta, and not exhibiting true sexual conjugation ; volvox and its allies
are removed from the zygospore to the oosporeze; and the phzosporex are
separated off as a distinct order from the fucaceze.
The thallophytes are therefore first of all divided into three primary classes :—
Proropuyta, Funer, and Atem. The protophyta are divisible into two sub-
classes, Protomycetes and Protophycee. The protomycetes consist of a single
order, the Schizomycetes, of which saccharomyces is regarded as an aberrant
form. The protophycez are composed of the protococcacez (including palmellacese
and scytonemacez), nostocacee, oscillatoriex, and rivulariese. The Myxomycetes
are treated as a supplement to the protophyta. The fungi are made up of three
sub-classes, employing in the main the same characters as Sachs, but, in their
terminology, using the syllable ‘sperm’ instead of ‘spore.’ The first division, the
Zygomycetes (or zygospermez achlorophyllacez), is composed of the mucorini
only (including the piptocephalide). The second, the Oomycetes (or oospermex.
achlorophyllacee), comprises the peronosporez and saprolegnieze (including the
chytridiaces). The third, the Carpomycetes (ov carpospermez achlorophyllacee),
is made up of the uredinez, ustilaginez, basidiomycetes, and ascomycetes, the
lichenes being included in the last as a sub-order. The algee are arranged under
three corresponding sub-classes. The Zygophycee (or zygospermee chloro-
phyllacez) is made up of the following orders :—Pandorinez, hydrodictyex, con-
fervacee (under which the pithophoracesee may possibly come), ulotrichacez,
ulvyacew, botrydies, and conjugate (the last comprising the desmidiez, diato-
macefe, zygnemacew, and mesocarpee). The Oophycee (or oospermee chloro-
phyllacez)*include the volvocines, siphonez (with the nearly allied.dasyelades),
.! Published in ewtengo in, the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, for
Oct. 1880. ,
600. REPORT—1 880.
spheropleacew, cedogoniacer, fucacee, and pheosporer. The Carpophycee (or
carpospermez chlorophyllacez) is made up of the coleochetev and floridez.
The Cuaracex constitute by themselves a group of primary importance. The
MUSCINE® are unchanged, comprising the Hepatice and Musci (including sphag-
nace). In VascuLaR CRYPToGAMS it is proposed to revert to the primary dis-
tinction into Isosporta and Heterosporia, as most in accordance with probable’
genetic affinities. The isosporia consist of the filices (including ophioglossacee),
lycopodiacez, and equisetacee. The heterosporia comprise the rhizocarpez and
selaginellacez. In the terminology of the heterosporia the inconvenience and
incorrectness are pointed out of the use of the terms ‘macrospore’ and ‘ macro-
sporangium’; and it is proposed to call the two kinds of spores and their recep-
tacles respectively microspore, megaspore, microsporangium, and megasporangium ;
or better, in reference to their sexual differentiation, androspore, gynospore, andro-
sporangium, and gynosporangium.
7. A Reformed System of Terminology of the Reproductive Organs of
Thallophytes.' By Atrrep W. Brynett, M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., Lecturer
on Botany at St. Thomas’s Hospital, and Georce Morray, F.L:S.,
Assistant, Botanical Department, British Musewm.
After giving illustrations of the present chaotic state of cryptogamic termi-
nology, the authors proceed to state that the object they have kept in view is to
arrive at a system which shall be symmetrical and in accordance with the state of
knowledge, and which shall at the same time interfere as little as possible with
existing terms. A few new terms are introduced, but the total number is greatly
reduced,
In the 4th edition of his ‘ Lehrbuch,’ Sachs defines a ‘spore’ as ‘a reproductive
cell produced directly or indirectly by an act of fertilisation,’ reserving the term
‘gonidium’ for those reproductive cells which are produced without any previous
act of impregnation. The practical objections to this limitation of terms are
pointed out, and it is proposed to restore the term spore to what has been in the
main hithérto its ordinary signification, viz., any cell produced by ordinary processes
of vegetation and not by a union of sexual elements, which becomes detached for the
purpose of direct vegetative reproduction. The spore may be the result of ordinary
cell-division or of free cell-formation. Tn certain cases (zoospores) its first stage is
that of a naked mass of protoplasm ; in rare instances it is multicellular, breaking
up into a number of cells (polyspores, composed of merispores, or breaking up
into sporidia). Throughout thallophytes the term is used in the form of one of
numerous compounds expressive of the special character of the organ in the class
in question. Thus, in the protophyta and mucorini we have chlamydospores ; in the
myxomycetes, sporangtospores; in the peronosporeze, conidiospores; in the sapro-
legniex, oophycez, and some zygophycez, zoospores ; in the urediner, teleutospores,
ecidiospores, wredospores, and sporidia ; in the basidiomycetes, basidiospores; in the
ascomycetes (including lichenes), conidiospores, stylospores, ascospores, polyspores,
and merispores; in the hydrodictye, megaspores; in the desmidiex, auxospores ;
in the volvocinez and mesocarpez, parthenospores; in the siphones and botrydiew,
hypnospores; in the cedogoniacese, androspores; in the floridese, tetraspores and
octospores. The cell in which the spores are formed is in all cases a sporangium.
In the terminology of the male fecundating organs very little change is
necessary. The cell or more complicated structure in which the male element is
formed is uniformly termed an antheridium, the ciliated fecundating bodies
antherozoids (in preference to ‘spermatozcids’). In the floridese and lichenes,
the fecundating bodies are destitute of vibratile cilia; in the former case they are
still usually termed ‘antherozoids, in the latter ‘ spermatia,’ and their receptacles
‘spermogonia.’ In order to mark the difference in structure from true anthero-
zoids, it is proposed to designate these motionless bodies in both cases pollinords ;
* Published in extenso in the Quarterly Journal of Microscopical Science, for
October 1880.
eee
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 60}
the term ‘spermogonium’ is altogether unnecessary, the organ being a true
antheridium.
A satisfactory terminology of the female reproductive organs presents greater
difficulties. The limits placed to the use of the term spore and its compounds
require the abandonment of ‘oospore’ for the fertilised oosphere in its encysted
stage anterior to its segmentation into the embryo. The authors propose the
syllable sperm as the basis of the various terms applied to all those bodies which
are the immediate result of impregnation. It is believed that this will be found to
supply the basis of a symmetrical system of terminology which will go far to
redeem the confusion that at present meets the student at the outset of his
researches. For the unfertilised female protoplasmic mass, it is proposed to retain
the term oosphere, and to establish from it a corresponding series of terms ending
in sphere. The entire female organ before fertilisation, whether unicellular or
multicellular, is designated by a set of terms ending in goniwm.
In the zygomycetes and zygophycee, the conjugated zygospheres, or contents of
the zygogonia, constitute a zygosperm; in the oomycetes and oophycee the fer-
tilised oosphere, or contents of the oogontum, is an oosperm; in the carpophyces
the fertilised carposphere, or contents of the carpogonium, constitutes a carposperm.
In this last class the process is complicated, being effected by means of a special
female organ which may be called the trichogonium (in preference to ‘ trichogyne’).
The ultimate result of impregnation is the production of a mass of tissue known as
the cystocarp (or ‘sporocarp ’), within which are produced the germinating bodies
which must be designated carpospores, since they are not the direct results of
fertilisation. Any one of these bodies which remains in a dormant condition for
a time before germinating is a hypnosperm. In the cormophytes (characez, musci-
ne, and vascular cryptogams) the fertilised archesphere, or contents of the arche-
gomum, is an archesperm. In the proposed system zygosperm will replace Stras-
burger’s ‘ zygote,’ and the ‘gametes’ of the same writer will be zygospheres, his
‘zoogametes’ or ‘ planogametes’ being <oozygospheres.
In the basidiomycetes, ascomycetes, and some other classes, it is proposed to
substitute the term fructification for ‘receptacle,’ for the entire non-sexual genera-
tion which bears the spores.
A list is appended of the terms in more frequent use which are disused in the
proposed system.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 27.
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee for the investigation of the Natwral History
of the Island of Socotra.—See Reports, p. 212.
2. On the French Deep-sea Exploration in the Bay of Biscay. By
J. Gwyn Jerrreys, DL.D., F.R.S.—See Reports, p. 378.
3. Further Remarks on the Mollusca of the Mediterranean.
By J. Gwyn Jerrreys, LD.D., F.R.S.
At the Bradford meeting of the Association in 1873, I made some remarks or
the Mollusca of the Mediterranean, and gave a list of those species which had not
yet been noticed, as Atlantic, being then 222 in number. Since that time many of
the species have been discovered in the Atlantic, or been ascertained to be varieties
of other well-known Atlantic species. This list will be found in pages 113 to 115
of the Report for 1873. I will now give a list of those Mediterranean species
602 REPORT—1880. AT
which are also Atlantic or varieties of other species, on the authority of the
Marquis de Monterosato, the Marquis de Folin, Dr. Fisher, the Rey. Mr. Watson,
and myself.
i BRACHIOPODA.
Argiope cordata, Rtsso. “
Thecidium mediterraneum, P7sso.
- CONCHTFERA.
Pleuronectia levis, Jeffreys. A monstrosity of Pecten similis.
Mytilus minimus, Pol. _.
Nucula conyexa, J.=N. wegeensis, Forbes ; young, ,
Leda oblonga, J. = L, micrometrica, Seguenza. 4
subrotunda, J.=L. minima, Seg.
Solenella cuneata, J. (Malletia).
Venus cygnus, Lamarck = V. nux, Gmelin.
Pecchiolia insculpta, J. (Verticordia).
GASTROPODA.
Emarginula adriatica,-O.°G. Costa.
Trochus scabrosus, J.=T. gemmulatus, Philippi.
Fossarus costatus, Brocchz.
Rissoa caribeea, D’ Orbigny.
—— rudis, Ph.
—— maderensis, J.
Czcum chiereghinianum, Brusina—C. elabrum, Montagu ; variety.
Vermetus triquetra, Bivona.
Scalaria Cantrainei, Weinkauff.
Odostomia polita, Biv.
—— tricincta, J.
fasciata, Ford.
Eulima microstoma, Brus.
Jeffreysiana, Brus.
Natica Dillwynii, Payraudeau.
—— marmorata, H. Adams.
Solarium pseudoperspectivum, Bre. ~
Xenophora mediterranea, Trber?.
Cerithium costatum, Da Costa.
—— elegans, De Blainville.
Triton seguenzze, Aradas and Benoit =T. nodifer, Lam. ; var
Lachesis Folineze, (Delle Chiaje) Ph. f
Cassidaria echinophora, Linné; probably C. tyrrhena, Chemnitz is a variety.
Defrancia hystrix, De Cristofori and Jan.
Pleurotoma pusilla, Scacchi=P. multilineolata, Deshayes; var.
Cypreea physis, Bre. ?
Utriculus striatulus, J.
Akera fragilis, J.
Diphyllidia lineata, Ofto.
—— pustulosa, Se.
Total, 41 species.
This reduces the number of supposed exclusively Mediterranean species from
222 to 181; and it must be borne in mind that the Atlantic Nudibranchs and
Cephalopods: have never been completely worked out. Philippi’s list of Mediter-
ranean Nudibranchs and Verany’s list of Mediterranean Cephalopods amount to.58
out of the above residue of 181. When further researches by dredging. have been
made in the North Atlantic, I believe the difference between the Mollusca, in
that extensive ocean and in the Mediterranean will be still more diminished, if it
do not in time altogether disappear.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 603
SATURDAY, AUGUST 28.
The Department did not meet.
MONDAY, AUGUST 30.
~ The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report on Accessions to our Knowledge of the Chiroptera during the past
two years (1878-1880). By G. E. Dosson, M.A., M.B., 5c.—See
-. Reports, p. 169.
2. The Cruise of the ‘Knight Errant.’
By Professor Sir C, Wrvitte Tomson, F.R.S.
This paper was mainly physical, and related. to the temperature-conditions of
the sea-bed lying between our northern coasts.and the Faroe Isles,, Certain parts
of this submarine district had been ascertained by the author and Dr, Carpenter
during the cruises of the Lightning and. Porcupine in 1868 and 1869 to have
remarkably different temperatures; and they had distinguished these parts by the
names ‘cold area’ and ‘warm area,’ It had been inferred from observations in
H.M.S. Challenger that the phenomenon depended in this and similar cases upon
the interruption of the flow of the undercurrent by a raised submarine ridge.
The author, being desirous of working out this problem more completely, ap-
plied to the Admiralty for the use of a surveying vessel; and, in compliance with
his request, the Knight Errant was placed this summer at his disposal. Two
sectional lines of soundings were taken at an average intermediate distance of ten
miles. The following were the results :—
First LIne,
Bottom | Bottom
No. | Depth in fathoms | Temperature. || No. |. Depth in fathoms |-- Temperature.
Fahr. Fahr.
1 88 49° 5’ |g 405 46° 5’
2 178 49° 6’ i) 355 43° 8!
3 400 45° 8! 10 270 43° 5/
4 560 45° 2! 11 335 41° 0!
5 540 46° 0’ 12 245 41° 8!
6 300 47° 5 13 120 ‘ 47° 5!
7 305 46° 5’ 14 130 46° 0!
SECOND LINE.
Bottom , Bottom
No. | Depth in fathoms | Temperature. No. | Depth in fathoms Temperature.
Fahr. Fahr.
1 370 » 35° 5! 7 285 45° 8! ©
2 375 31° 0° 8 255 48° 0’
3 375 31° 0! a 460 > 46° 0!
4 285 32° 6! 10 202 _. 48° -2/-
5. 210 47° 0! 11 145-+ ¢ 49° Bo. or,
6 260 47° 5! 12 93 50° 0’
A serial temperature-sounding was also taken in 540 fathoms,
604 REPORT—1880.
The weather, however, was unfavourable; and the author expressed a hope
that the exploration might be renewed next summer, in order to examine the fauna
on the northern slope of the Scotch coast, which had been proved to be very
abundant and peculiar.!
3. On the Relation of the Lepidoptera of Great Britain to those of other
Countries. By Captain H. J. Ewes.
The author pointed out that Great Britain is very poor in the number of species
of butterflies, compared with almost any part of the Palearctic region, but is rela-
tively much more rich in moths, though deficient in some of the day-flying genera.
Secondly, that the number of species in any part of Europe is proportionately
greater near the south coast, though in France, Italy, and Austria, the numbers are
much increased by a large proportion of purely Alpine forms. Thirdly, that the
generic character of the butterflies remains unchanged throughout North Asia and
North America, though in the former case there is a considerable infusion of Oriental
forms in Japan and North-east Asia ; whilst in the southern and warmer parts of
the United States are found many species belonging to neotropical genera mixed up
with species belonging to the dominant Palearctic groups. But on the whole, the
butterflies of the United States, and especially of Colorado, are very nearly allied
to those of Europe, and the differences are not enough to separate the two regions,
so far as butterflies are concerned.
4. On the Double Malar Bone. By Professor G. Rottrston, M.D., F.1.S.
5. On the Classification of Rodents.
By Professor G. Routrston, M.D., F.R.S.
6. On the ‘Drumming’ of the Snipe.
By Captain W. V. Lecer, ft.A., F.D.S., F.Z.8.
The writer spoke of the interest taken in the snipe’s breeding habits, owing to its
being such a favourite bird, and to the fact of its disposition during the nesting
season being demonstrative and excitable, the very opposite of what it is at other
times. Reference was made to the extraordinary noise made by the bird when
flying over its nest or young, to the variety of opinion as to its origin, and to Herr
Meeves’s paper, published in the ‘ Proceedings of the London Zoological Society,’
1858, in which a yery ingenious theory was propounded, setting forth the idea
that the noise was made by the vibration of the outer tail feather. Herr Meeves’s
reasons for his theory were alluded to, and his experiment with the tail feathers
of the snipe, tied to a wire and stick, and moved through the air, was repeated by
the writer, who also gave a description of the feathers in the bird’s tail. Mr.
Hancock’s paper, in the ‘Catalogue of the Birds of Northumberland and Durham,’ was
then reviewed, and its author’s opinion that the ‘ drumming’ was made alone by the
wings commented upon, as well as his refutation of Herr Meeves’s theory noticed.
In support of Mr. Hancock's argument that the isolated tail-feather attached to the
wire but feebly represents the same feather in its place in the living bird, the writer
demonstrated that though a peculiar noise, somewhat like the vibrations heard
during the ‘drumming’ of the snipe, could be made when the feather was moved
to and fro with a radius of motion of 4 or 5 feet, it was not possible to produce the
same sound when the feather was moved with a radius of only 32 inches, which
would be all that it would have in the living bird. Mr. Hancock's statements that
the bird descended with firm-set tremulous wings was, however, contradicted by
' The original paper has been published in full in Nature for September 2,
1880, p. 405,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 605
the writer, who went on to relate his own experiences, and gave an account of
observations he had made this summer on the bogs of Central Wales. An instance
was mentioned in which a snipe, on a still evening in June last, had drummed for
fifty minutes, flying round the writer’s head, and this very favourable opportunity
had enabled the closest observations to be made. The actions of the bird were
minutely described, and it was shown that in the downward sweep of the bird,
when it ‘drummed,’ the wings were beaten very rapidly with regular strokes, and
the vibratory sounds falling on the ear at the time were evactly coincident with
those strokes ; at the same time the tail was spread out like a fan, and the writer
contended that the sound was produced by the air being driven by the wings at
each stroke through the rigid feathers of the tail, as when they are blown on with
with quick puffs, emitted from the lips, a sound resembling the ‘ drumming’ noise is
heard. Were the sound produced alone by the wings, it would be heard continually
throughout the bird’s aérial course ; but as this is not the case, it can only be due
to the combined action of the wings and tail, when the latter is spread.
7. On the Migration of Birds, and Messrs. Brown and Cordeauz’s Method of
obtaining Systematic Observations of the same at Lighthouses and Light-
ships. By Aurrep Newton, M.A., F.R.S.
Citing a passage from an article by the Duke of Argyll (‘ Contemporary Review,’
July 1880, p. 1), the author met with a direct denial the Duke’s assertion that of
‘the army of the birds’ it may be said that ‘it cometh not with observation,
pointing out that all we know of the migration of birds arises from observation,
and all we do not know, from the want of it ; remarking, also, that if it were not
for observation, we should not know that birds migrate at all, and that it is by
renewed observation alone that we can hope to know more of their migratory
movements. The author then proceeded to describe briefly the nocturnal passage
of birds, as noticed by himself at Cambridge for the past seventeen years, and urged
the importance of similar but more systematic observations at other stations.
Remarking upon the especial advantages of lighthouses and lightships for this
purpose, he called attention to the successful attempt made last year, with the
sanction of the authorities of the Trinity House and the Commissioners of Northern
Lights, by Mr. J. A. Harvie Brown and Mr. Cordeaux, to obtain a series of obser-
vations from the lighthouses and lightships on the coasts of Scotland and the east
coast of England, the results of which were embodied by those gentlemen in a
Report (printed in the ‘ Zoologist’ for May 1880), and showed that returns were
received from two-thirds of the English stations, and as regards the Scottish, from
about two-thirds of those on the west, and one-half of those on the east coast, thus
evincing the intelligent interest taken by the men there employed in the inquiry.
This single report naturally did not throw any new light on the subject; but it
would be contrary to all experience if a series of such reports did not do so, and
he therefore urged the Association to lend its countenance to the renewed attempts
which Messrs. Brown and Cordeaux were making, and to encourage with its
approval those gentlemen and their fellow-workers—the men of the lighthouses
and lightships—who would best answer the question, whether knowledge of the
subject ‘cometh not with observation.’
606 REPORT— 1880.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 31.
1. Evhibition of some of the Zoological Reports of the ‘ Challenger’
Expedition. By P. L. Sctater, M.A., Ph.D., F.B.S.
Mr. Sclater, on behalf of Sir C. Wyville Thomson, who was unable to attend
the meeting, laid on the table specimen copies of the following reports on the
zoological results obtained during the voyage of H.M.S. ‘Challenger.’ These
reports would ultimately form the first volume of the ‘ Zoology ’ of the expedition,
which would yery shortly be ready for general issue :—
List of ‘ Challenger’ Reports.
Report on the Development of the Green Turtle (Chelone viridis, Schneid.) By
William Kitchen Parker, F.R.S.---- :
Report on the Bones of Cetacea collected during the Voyage of H.M.S. ‘Challenger,’
in the years 1873-6. By William Turner, M.B., F.R.S., &e.
Report on the Shore Fishes procured during the Voyage of H.M.S. ‘Challenger,
in the years 1873-6. By Albert Giinther, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., &e
Report on the Brachiopoda dredged by H.M.S. ‘Challenger’ during the years
1873-6. By Thomas Davidson, F.R.S., F.L.S., &c.
Report on the Pennatulida dredged by H.M.S. ‘Challenger’ during the years
1873-6. By Professor Albert V. Kolliker, F.M.R.S., &c., &e.
Report on the Ostracoda dredged by H.M.S. ‘ Challenger ’ during the years 1873-6,
By George Stewardson Brady, M.D., F.L.S.
Report on Certain Hydroid, Alcyonarian, and Madreporarian Corals procured
during the Voyage of H.M.S. ‘Challenger,’ in the years 1873-6. By H.N.
Moseley, M.A., F.R.S., &c.
,
The following Papers and Report were read :—
2. On the Classification of Birds.
By P. LU. Souarer, M.A. Ph.D., F.R.S.
THE author commenced by a short account of the principal modes of arranging the-
Class of Birds put forward by naturalists since the days of Linneus, who, in: the.
first edition of the ‘Systema Nature’ (1766), had divided them into six orders (table
i). This had been quite superseded in 1817 by the more natural system propounded by
Cuvier in his ‘ Répne Animal’ (table ii.) which, with slight modifications, had met
with almost universal adoption—at least in this country—up to a recent period. In
spite of the assaults made upon it by the anatomists and osteologists of Germany,’
and notwithstanding, in particular, the advanced views of Nitzsch, put forward in his.
various writings (see table iii.) and especially in his celebrated ‘ Pterylography,’ in
which the mode of arrangement of the feathers on the bodies of birds was first pro-
posed to be taken into consideration, the Cuvierian system had held its own, and.
in’ fact was still in use by the great majority of ornithologists. About twelve years
ago, however, Prof. Huxley had taken up the subject of the classification of Birds
in his usual zealous and original way, and from quite a new point of view. Prof.
Huxley, treating birds mainly from their bones and as if they were extinct animals
of which these parts of their structure only were known, had proposed an entirely
new plan of arrangement (table iv.), based mainly upon the characteristic variations
of the palatal bones, which had passed almost unnoticed by previous writers. The
author, who had long been dissatisfied with the Ouvierlan system, which with
certain modifications he had employed up to 1872, had in that year been constrained
to consider the whole subject in order to decide what arrangement should be
adopted in the ‘Nomenclator Avium Americanarum’ (a joint work by Mr. O.
Salvin and himself), then ready for publication. Having, as already stated, long
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.— DEPT. ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 607
entertained serious doubts as to the yalidity of the Grayian arrangement, especially
as to the groups associated together in the orders Gralle and Anseres, he had been
pleased to find available an alternative which had the sanction of high authority.
Whatever might be the case as regards the four principal divisions of the Carinate,
based solely upon the palatal structure, and upon which sundry more or less effective
criticisms had been made by subsequent investigators, there seemed to be no doubt
to the author that the minor divisions of the Huxleyan system, by which the
whole class of birds was divided into about 23 families, constituted a much more
natural system than that of Cuvier and his followers. Prof. Huxley had commenced
his system with the lowest and_most reptilian birds, and had ended it with the
highest and most specialized. But it seemed to the author that by exactly re-
versing this arrangement he would obtain a scheme which would not very far
deviate from that which he had previously employed for the first three orders,
and would offer many improvements on the Grayian system in the remaining ones.
Such a scheme had accordingly been promulgated in the Introduction to the
‘Nomenclator’ and had been used in that work. In the various subsequently issued
editions of the ‘List of Vertebrated Animals in the Zoological Society’s Gardens’
a nearly similar arrangement had been followed. A certain amount of adhesion
having been secured to this system, the author had been recently induced to devote
some labour to its improvement and development. As.now elaborated it did not
profess to be in any respects original, except as regarded certain small details on
points to which he had devoted special attention. The arrangement was in fact
simply that of Huxley reversed, with slight modifications consequent upon the
recent researches of Parker and Garrod on the anatomy and osteology of little
known forms. ,
The author then proceeded to explain further the ‘Systema Avium’ thus ad-
vocated, as shown in the subjoined table, in which the approximate number of
known species was added after each order.
ORDERS OF EXISTING BIRDS.
Susctass Carinata# (10,121 sprcrss).
Species Species
I. Passeres ‘ r . 5,700 XIII. Gallinz : ‘ - 320
II. Picarize . 1,600 XIV. Opisthocomi . A E 1
Til. Psittaei. ad. 400 XV. Hemipodii . .. pe ney
IV. Striges ‘ . .. 180. . XVI. Fulicarie . - . 150
V. <Accipitres’ . & : 330 XVII. Alectorides . : tn OO
VI. Steganopodes Pee GO’) EVES Lamieolssry jai?) cay oo Pram OO
VII. Herodiones . es er! 3.0 XIX. Gavie ° : . 130
VIII. Odontoglossze - 8 XX. Tubinares ,. F . 100
IX. Anseres ; : » 180 XXI. Pygopodes . : . 65
X. Palamedee . . , 3. XX, Impennes . 2-20
XI. Columbee : . ood XXII. Crypturi 2 . . 40
XII. Pterocletes . 15
Supctass Ratirm (18 spxEcrss).
XXIV. Apteryges - < . 4 XXXVI. *Stiruthiones" , aeety: |
XXY. Casuarii . . ; lO
In submitting this arrangement, as one which on the whole he was disposed to
regard as the best to be adopted.after many years’ study of the Class of Birds, the
author observed that it should he recollected that, although a linear system is an
absolute necessity for practical use, it could never be a perfectly natural one. It
would always be found that certain groups were nearly equally related to others in
different places in the linear series, and that it was a matter of difficulty to decide
with which of the allied forms they were best located. But, a linear arrangement
being an absolute necessity, it hecame our duty to endeayour to make it as natural
as possible,
608
REPORT—1880.
TABLE I.
Classification of Lrynus (1766).
I. Accipitres
II. Picx
III. Anseres
IV. Gralle
V. Gallina
VI. Passeres
TABLE II.
Classification of Cuvier (1817).
I. Oiseaux de Proie
II. Passereaux
III. Grimpeurs
IV. Gallinacés
V. Echassiers’
VI. Palmipédes
Nocturnes
Dentirostres
Fissirostres
Conirostres
Tenuirostres
b Syndactyles
Diurnes
TABLE III.
Classification of Nrrzscu (1829).
A, A. ¢c. aeree,
1. Accipitrine
2. Passerine
3. Macrochires
4, Cuculine
5. Picine
6. Psittacinze
7. Lipoglossz
8. Amphibole
B
. A. c. terrestres.
1. Columbine
2, Gallinaceze
I. Aves CaRinatZz.
C. A. ec. aquatice.
Alectorides
Gruinee
Fulicarinze
Herodiz
Pelargi
Odontoglossie
Limicolee
Longipennes
Nasutze
10. Unguirostres
11. Steganopodes
12. Pygopodes
$5 GOIN S23 Sule co bS
II. Aves Ratrrm.
TABLE IV.
Classification of Huxtey (1867).
I. Savrurm (Archeopteryx)
II.
1. Struthio
2. Rhea
RatiTzx
4. Dinornis
5. Apteryx
3. Casuartus et Dromeus
«a. DROMMOGNATHD
I. Tinamide
4, ScHIZOGNATHE
1. Charadriomorphee
2. Geranomorphe
3. Cecomorphe
4, Spheniscomorphee
5. Alectoromorphee
6. Peristeromorphie
III, CarinarZ.
ce. DESMOGNATH
Chenomorphze
Amphimorphe
Pelargomorphe
Dysporomorphze
Aetomorphee
Psittacomorphe
Coceygomorphee
aay > Su Oo BOE
TRANSACIIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPYT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 609
d. ASGITHOGNATH2.
1. Celeomorphze
2. Cypselomorphe
3. Coracomorphee
3. Notes on the French Deep-sea Exploration in the Bay of Biscay. By
the Rey. A. M. Norman, ’.L.S. Incorporated with Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys’
Paper on the same subject.—See Reports, p. 378.
4. Report on the Marine Zoology of South Devon._-See Reports, p. 160.
DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY.
CHAIRMAN OF THE DppartmEenT—F. W. Ruptgr, I'.G.S. (Vice-President of the
Section).
THURSDAY, AUGUST 26.
The CHArrMAN delivered the following Address :—
APFTER an absence of more than thirty years the British Association has again
assembled in South Wales. To the student cf anthropology it is always refresh-
ing to visit a province of the United Kingdom in which the inhabitants still retain,
in large measure, their peculiarities of language and of race. But in that part of
the Principality which we are now visiting, these characteristics have for many
generations been growing fainter and fainter. In fact the local circumstances
which render a meeting of the British Association possible are precisely those
circumstances which tend to obliterate ethnical distinctions. The material pros-
perity of any locality naturaily draws towards it a stream of immigration from less
prosperous districts, and thus produces an artificial mixture of population. If the
influx into Swansea had come only from the agricultural parts of Wales, there
would have been comparatively little ethnical confusion; but, as a matter of fact,
all the large towns of Glamorganshire, such as Swansea, Cardiff, and Merthyr,
have received strong accessions to their population from various parts of England
and of Ireland. The anthropologist would, therefore, be ill advised if he resorted
to any of these flourishing centres for the purpose of studying the typical Weish-
man,
Glamorganshire probably contains, at the present time, more than one-third of
the entire population of Wales; yet the area of the county is but little more than
one-ninth of the total area of the Principality.'. This concentration of the people
is due, directly or indirectly, to the gigantic development of those mining and
1 At the last census the population of Glamorganshire was 397,859, and that of
the entire Principality only 1,216,775. The area of Glamorganshire is estimated to
be about 547,070 acres, while the total area of Wales is said to be 4,722,323 acres.
1880. RR
610 REPORT—1880.
metallurgical industries which are centred in this county. The temptation of
high wages, offered in seasons of prosperity, has attracted hither a large number
of settlers from different parts of the United Kingdom. Occasionally, too, recourse
has been had to the technical skill of foreigners; and thus ethnical elements have
been introduced, to a limited extent, from outside the British Isles. yen the
typical industries of the district have not always been of indigenous growth.
Colonel Grant-Francis, who acted at the Swansea meeting of 1848 as secretary to
the ethnological sub-section, the equivalent of our present anthropological depart-
ment, has written an interesting history of Welsh copper-smelting,'—an industry
which is pre-eminently characteristic of the Swansea district. It appears from
this historical sketch that the art was introduced in the reign of Queen Elizabeth
by ‘ that very honest and skilfull man,’ Ulricke Frosse, and his ‘ Right worshipfull
and very singuler good M’r,” Thomas Smith. The very names mentioned here as
those of the founders of the industry indicate a commingling of nationalities which
is typical of what so frequently occurs in our great manufacturing districts, to the
undeniable benefit of society at large, but nevertheless to the embarrassment of the
anthropologist.
It is worth while noting that the movement of population towards South
Wales has been mainly determined by the geological structure of the district. It
was the occurrence of coal that originally tempted Ulricke Frosse to bring his cargo
of copper-ore across from Cornwall to be smelted in the Vale of Neath; and it is
still the working of coal which maintains the local industries and supports the
vast population of Glamorganshire. The connection between the geological struc-
ture of a district and the social and ethnic characteristics of its inhabitants has
been recognized by no one more clearly than by the distinguished geologist who
is presiding over the present meeting of this Association.*
Had it not been for the abundant occurrence of coal and iron ores in South
Wales, the land of Morganwg might have been at the present day a peaceful agri-
cultural district. But even then the ethnologist would have found it hard to study
the racial characteristics of its native population aloof from all disturbing in-
fluences. For it is matter of history that as far back as the twelfth century
South Wales was colonized at several points by Flemish settlers. Most of these
colonists settled in Pembrokeshire, where they helped to disturb the ethnology of
the county, and ultimately obliterated from certain districts most of the Welsh
characteristics. Their Low-Dutch speech would be readily assimilated with the
English, while it refused to blend with the Welsh, and thus the English-speaking
people remained sharply separated from their Welsh-speaking neighbours—the
‘Englishry’ distinct from the ‘ Welshery.’ Possibly the Teutonic element may be
partly due to an earlier settlement of Northmen.* Camden mentions the English-
speaking part of Pembrokeshire under the name of Anglia Transwalliana, and
everyone knows that it is still referred to as ‘ Little England beyond Wales,’
It is generally supposed that what took place in Pembrokeshire was repeated
on a smaller scale in the promontory of Gower, and thus it happens that we still
find ‘Flemings’ in the immediate neighbourhood of Swansea. The English-
speaking people of Gower,’ composed probably of Norse, Flemish, Norman, and
English elements, were so distinct from the neighbouring Welsh, that the districts
1 «The Smelting of Copper in the Swansea District, from the Time of Elizabeth
to the Present Day.’ Printed fromthe Cambrian for private circulation. Swansea :
1867.
2 One of the most charming chapters of Professor Ramsay’s Physical Geology and
Geography of Great Britain is devoted to this subject, and especially to the Ethno-
logy of Wales.
3 «Tn the swaynes and labourers of the countrey you may often trace a Flemish
origin.’ So wrote the observing antiquary, George Owen, two centuries and a half
ago, as quoted by Fenton in his Historical Tour through Pembrokeshire.
4 The Land of Morgan. By G. T. Clark, Esq. Archeological Journal, vol. xxxiv.
1877, p. 18. On the occupation of Gower by the Danes, see A History of West Gower,
by the Rey. J. D. Davies, M.A., 1877, Part 1, chap. ii. p. 16.
5 The vocabulary of Gower is said to contain no exclusively Flemish elements.
See Dr. Latham’s English Language, vol. i. 4th ed. p. 424.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 611
inhabited by the two nationalities are often distinguished in old records as Gower
Anglicana and Gower Wallicana.' But, I believe that the barriers between the
two peoples have in modern times been considerably relaxed, and that there is at
the present day more or Jess intermixture of blood.
Apart, however, from all foreign admixture, there is still in Glamorganshire,
especially in the outlying districts, a very large proportion of the population who may
be fairly regarded as typically Welsh. If we can strip off all extraneous elements
which have been introduced by the modern settler and the medieval Fleming,
possibly also by the Norman baron and even the Roman soldier, we may eventually
lay bare for anthropological study the deep-lying stratum of the population—the
original Welsh element. What then are the ethuical relations of the typical man
of South Wales ?
Nine people out of every ten to whom this question might be addressed would
unhesitatingly answer that the true Welsh are Celts or Kelts.?7 And they would
seek to justity their answer by a confident appeal to the Welsh language. No one
has any doubt about the position of this language as a member of the Keltic
family. The Welsh and the Breton fall naturally together as living members of a
group of languages to which Professor Rhys applies the term Brythonic, a group
which also includes such fossil tongues as the old Cornish, the speech of the
Strathclyde Britons, and possibly the languages of the Picts and of the Gauls.
On the other hand, the Gaelic of Scotland, the Irish, and the Manx arrange them-
selves as naturally in another group, which Professor Rhys distinguishes as the
Gordelic branch of the Keltic stock. But does it necessarily follow that all the
peoples who are closely linked together by speaking, or by having at some time
spoken, these Keltic languages, are as closely linked together by ties of blood ?
Great as the value of language unquestionably is as an aid to ethnological classi-
fication, are we quite safe in concluding that all the Keltic-speaking peoples are
one in race P
The answer to such a question must needs depend upon the sense in which the
anthropologist uses the word Kelt. History and tradition, philology and ethnology,
archeology and craniology, have at different times given widely divergent defi-
nitions of the term. Sometimes the word has been used with such elasticity as to
cover a multitude of peoples who differ so widely one from another in physical
characteristics that if the hereditary persistence of such qualities counts for any-
thing, they cannot possibly be referred to a common stock. Sometimes, on the
other hand, the word has been so restricted in its definition, that it has actually
excluded the most typical of all Kelts—the Gaulish Kelts of Czesar. According
to one authority, the Kelt is short; according to another tall: one ethnologist
defines him as being dark, another as fair; this craniologist finds that he has a
long skull, while that one declares that his skull is short. It was no doubt this
ambiguity that led so keen an observer as Dr. Beddoe to remark, nearly fifteen
years ago, that ‘ Kelt and Keltic are terms which were useful in their day, but
which haye ceased to convey a distinct idea to the minds of modern students.’ *
1 The History and Antiquities of Glamorganshire. By Thomas Nicholas, M.A.
1874, p. 47.
? Whether this word should be written Celt or Kelt seems to be a matter of
scientific indifference. Probably the balance of opinion among ethnologists is in
the direction of the former rendering. Nevertheless it must be borne in mind that the
word ‘celt’ is so commonly used nowadays by writers on prehistoric anthropology
to designate an axe-head, or some such weapon, whether of metal or of stone, that it
is obviously desirable to make the difference between the archxological word and
the ethnological term as clear as possible. If ethnologists persist in writing
‘Celt,’ the two words differ only in the magnitude of an initial, and when spoken
are absolutely indistinguishable. I shall therefore write, as a matter of expediency,
‘Kelt.’ It may be true, as Mr. Knight Watson has pointed out, that there was
originally no justification for using the word ‘celt’ as the name of a weapon, but it
is too late in the day to attempt to oust so deeply-rooted a word from the vocabulary
of the archeologists.
8 Lectures on Welsh Philology.’ By John Rhys, M.A., 2nd edition, 1878, p. 15.
4 Mem, Anthrop. Soc. Lon., vol. ii. 1866, p. 348.
RR2
612 REPORT—188&0.
No anthropologist has Jaboured more persistently in endeayouring to evoke
order out of this Keltic chaos than the late Paul Broca. . . . Permit a momentary
pause at the mention of one who has so recently and so unexpectedly been lost to
science. By Broca’s death anthropology has suffered a loss which is literally
irreparable, and it would ill become us who are assembled in this department to
mention his name at such a time without a passing expression of emotion and a
tribute of respect. Let me remind you that it was Broca who not only founded,
but untiringly sustained that brilliant school of Parisian anthropologists, who have
done so much within the last twenty years to advance the Science of Man. From
the Société d’Anthropologie there sprang, a few years ago, the Ecole d’Anthro-
pologie, an institution officially recognised by the State for the cultivation of
anthropological studies. It was in the laboratory of this school, with its admir-
ably arranged museum, and its convenient lecture theatre, that Broca, surrounded
by his pupils, pursued his labours in so devoted a spirit as at last to over-reach the
limits of his strength. Unsparing of himself in work, an eloquent speaker and a
powerful writer, at once an anatomist, a scholar, and a mathematician—Broca,
exercised a singular fascination over the younger men who gathered around him,
and thus the work which he initiated will not be allowed to perish. Fortunately,
he secured in Dr. Topinard a colleague who fully caught the spirit of the master ;
but still the master’s loss can only be expressed by the one word which I employed
before—irreparable !
What, let us ask, was the opinion of this distinguished anthropologist on the
Keltic question?! Professor Broca always held that the name of Kelt should be
strictly limited to the Kelt of positive history—to the people, or rather confedera-
tion of peoples, actually seen by Czesar in Keltic Gaul—and, of course, to their
descendants in the same area. Every schoolboy is familiar with the epitome of
Gaulish ethnology given by Julius in his opening chapter. Nothing can be clearer
than his description of the tripartite division of Gaul, and of the separation be-
tween the three peoples who inhabited the country—the Belew, the Aquitani, and
the Celtz. Of these three peoples the most important were those whom the
Romans called Galli, but who called themselves, as the historian tells us, Celte.
The country occupied by the Keltic population stretched from the Alps to the
Atlantic in one direction, and from the Seine to the Garonne in another; but it is
difficult to find any direct evidence that the Kelts of this area ever crossed into
Britain. Broca refused to apply the name of Kelt to the old inhabitants of Belgic
aul, and as a matter of course he denied it to any of the inhabitants of the
British Isles. Writing as late as 1877, in full view of all the arguments which
had been adduced against his opinions, he still said: ‘Je continue 4 soutenir,
jusqu’a preuve du contraire, ce que j'ai avancé il y a douze ans, dans notre
premiére discussion sur les Celtes, savoir, qu'il n’existe aucune preuve, qu’on ait
aka dans les Iles-Britanniques l’existence d’un peuple portant le nom de
eltes.’?
Nevertheless, in discussing the Keltic question with M. Henri Martin, he
admitted the convenience, almost the propriety, of referring to all who spoke Keltic
languages as Keltie peoples, though of course he would not hear of their being
called Kelts. ‘On peut trés-bien les nommer les peuples celtiques. Mais il est
entiérement faux de les appeler les Cé/tes, comme on le fait si souvent.’> As to
the eminent historian himself, I need hardly say that M. Martin adheres to the
popular use of the word Kelt, and even goes so far as to speak of the county in
which we are now assembled as ‘le Glamorgan, le pays aujourdhui le plus celtique
de l’Europe.’*
} The following are Broca’s principal contributions to this vexed question :—
‘Qu’est-ce que les Celtes?’ Bulletins de la Société d’ Anthropologie de Paris, t. v. p.
457 ; ‘Le Nom des Celtes,’ 2bid. 2 sér. t. ix. p.662; ‘Surles Textes relatifs aux Celtes
dans le Grande-Bretagne,’ ibid. 2 sér. t. xii. p. 509; ‘La Race Celtique, ancienne et
moderne,’ Revue d’ Anthropologie, t. ii. p. 578 ; and ‘Recherches sur 1’Ethnologie de
la France,’ Mém de la Soc. Anthrop., t. i. p. 1.
? Bulletins de la Société d’ Anthropologie de Paris, 2 séx. t. xii. 1878, p. 511.
3 Ibid, t. ix. 1874, p. 662. 4 Thid. t. xii. p. 486.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 613
Whether we use the word Kelt in its wide linguistic sense or in the narrower
sense to which it has been reduced by the French anthropologists, it is important
to remember that the Welsh do not designate, and never have designated them-
selves by this term or by any similar word. Their national name is Cymry, the plural
of Cymro. My former colleague, the Rev. Professor Silvan Evans, kindly informs
me that the most probable derivation of this word is from cyd- (the d being
changed to m for assimilation with the following 8, like the n of its Latin cognate
con) and bro-, ‘country,’ the old form of which is brog, as found in Allobroge, and
some other ancient names. The meaning of Cymry is therefore ‘fellow-country-
men,’ or compatriots. Such a meaning naturally suggests that the name must
have been assumed in consequence of some foreign inyasion—possibly when the
Welsh were banded together against either the Romans or the English. If this
assumption be correct it must be a word of comparatively late origin.
At the same time, the similarity between Cymry and Cimbri—the name of
those dread foes of the Romans whom Marius eventually conquered—is so close as
to naturally suggest a common origin for the two names, if not for the people who
hore the names! The warlike Cimbri have generally been identified with the
people who inhabited the Cimbric peninsula, the Chersonesus Cimbrica, now called
Jutland. Whether they were connected or not with the Avmmerioi, who dwelt in
the valley of the Danube and in the Tauric Chersonesus, or Crzmea, is a wider
question with which we are not at the moment concerned. As to the ethnical
relations of the Cimbri, two views have been current, the one regarding them as
of Germanic, the other as of Keltie stock. Canon Rawlinson, in summing up the
evidence on both sides, believes that the balance of opinion inclines to the Keltic
view.” These Cimbri are described, however, as having been tall, blue-eyed, and
ale or flaxen-haired men. Can we trace anything like these characters in the
symry
: All the evidence which the ethnologist is able to glean from classical writers
with respect to the physical characters and ethnical relations of the ancient in-
habitants of this country, may be put into a nutshell, with room to spare. The
exceeding meagreness of our data from this source will be admitted by anyone
who glances over the passages relating to Britain which are collected in the
Monumenta Historica Britannica. As to the people in the south, there is the
well-known statement in Czesar that the maritime parts of Britain, the southern
parts which he personally visited, were peopled by those who had crossed over
from the Belge, for what purpose we need not inquire. Of the Britons of the
interior, whom he never saw, he merely repeats a popular tradition which repre-
sented them as aborigines. They may, therefore, have been Keltic tribes, akin to
the Celtiof Gaul, though there is nothing in Cesar’s words to support such a view.
Tacitus, in writing the life of his father-in-law, Agricola, says that the Britons
nearest to Gaul resembled the Gauls. If he refers here to the sea-coast tribes in
the south-east of Britain, the comparison must be with the Belgic and not with
the Keltic Gauls. But his subsequent reference to the resemblance between the
sacred rites of the Britons and those of the Gauls suggests that his remarks
may be fairly extended to the inland tribes beyond the limits of the Belgic Britons,
in which case the resembance may be rather with the Gaulish Kelts. Indeed, this
inference, apart from the testimony of language, is the chief evidence upon which
ethnologists have based their conclusion as to the Keltic origin of the Britons.
Our data for restoring the anthropological characteristics of the ancient Britons
1 Prof. Rhys, however, has pointed out that there is no relation between the
names. See British Barrows, by Canon Greenwell and Prof. Rolleston, 1877, p. 632.
? «On the Ethnography of the Cimbri.’ By Canon Rawlinson, Journ. Anthrop.
Tnst., vol, vi. 1877, p. 150. See also Dr. Latham’s paper, and postscript, ‘On the
Evidence of a Connection between the Cimbri and the Chersonesus Cimbrica,’ pub-
lished in his Germania of Tacitus.
3 « Britannie pars interior ab iis incolitur, quos natos in insula ipsi memoria
proditum dicunt : maritima pars ab iis, qui pred ac belli inferendi causa ex Belgis
transierant.’— De Bello Gallico, lib. v. c. 12.
‘ «Proximi Gallis et similes sunt.’— Agricola, c. xi.
614 REPORT—1880.
are but few and smiull. It is true that a description of Bunduiea; or Boadicea, has
been left to us by Xiphiline, of Trebizond ; but then it will be objécted that he
did not write until the twelfth century. Yet it must be remembered that he
merely abridged the works of Dion Cassius, the historian, who wrote a thousand
years earlier, | and consequently we have grounds for believing that what Xiphiline
describes is simply a description taken from the lost books of 'an early historian
whois supposed to have drawn his information from original sourees. Now Boadicea
is described in these terms: ‘She was of the largest size, most terrible of’ aspect,
most savage of countenance and harsh of voice, having a profusion of yellow hair
which fell down to her hips.’ Making due allowance for rhetorical exaggeration,
making allowance too for the fact that in consequence of her royal descent she is
likely to have been above the average stature, and even admitting that she dyed her
hair, it is yet clear that this British queen must be regarded as belonging’ to the
xanthous type—tall and fair. The tribe of the Iceni, over which’ this blonde
amazon ruled, is generally placed beyond the limits of the Belgic Britons; though
gome authorities have ar eued in favour of its Belgic origin. If ‘the latter view be
correct, we should expect the queen to be tall, light-haired, and blue-eyed; for,
from what we know of the Belgie, such were their features, 'Cxesar asserts that the
majority of the Belgze were derived from the Germans.’ But notwithstanding this
assertion, most ethnolosists are inclined to ally them with the Celti, without, of
course, denying a strong Teutonic admixture. Strabo says* that the Belgze
and Celti had the same Gaulish form, though both differed widely in physical
characters from the Aquitanians. As to language, Czesar’s statement that the
Belgic and Keltic differed, probably refers only to dialectical differencesi* If a close
ethnical relationship can be established between the Celti and the Belgz, British
ethnology clearly gains in simplification. To what extent the Belgic “settlers in
this country resembled the neighbouring British tribes must remain a moot point.
According to Strabo,® the Britons were taller than the Celti, with hair less yellow,
and they 3 were slighter in build. By the French school of ethnologists the Belew
are identified with the Cymry, and are described as a tall fair people, similar to the
Cimbri already mentioned ; and Dr. Prichard, the founder of English anthropology,
was led long ago to describe the Keltic type in similar terms.®
Yet, as we pass across Britain westwards, and advance towards those parts
which are reputed to be predominantly Keltic, the proportion of tall fair folk,
speaking in general terms, diminishes, while the short and dark element in the
population increases, until it probably attains its maximum somewhere in this
district. As popular impressions are apt to lead us astray, let us turn for accuracy
to the valuable mass of statistics collected in Dr. Beddoe’s well-known paper ‘ On
the Stature and Bulk of Man in the British Isles,’’ a paper to whieh every student
refers with unfailing confidence, and which will probably remain our standard
authority until the labours of our own Anthropometric Committee ave sufficiently
matured for publication. Dr. Beddoe, summing up his observations om the physical
characters of the Welsh as a whole, defines them-as of ‘short stature, with good
weight, and a tendency to darkness of eyes, hair, and skin.’. With regard to this
tendency to darkness, it is well to look more searchinel at the district in which
we are assembled. Dr. Beddoe, in another paper,® indicated the tendency by a
numerical expression which he termed the ide. of nigrescence. » “it the: coast-
1 Mon. Hist. Brit., Excerpta, p. lvi.
? «Plerosque Belgas esse ortos ab Germanis.’— De Bello Gall. lib. li. ¢. 4.
* Lib. iv. c. i.
"4 ‘Quand César dit : Hi omnes lingua, institutis, ae! inter sé differunt, il faut
traduire ici le mot lingua par dialecte.—Les Dernicrs Bretons. Pax Emile Souvestre,
vol. i. p. 141.
® Lib. iv. c. 5.
& Researches into the Physical History of Mankind. By J.C. Prichard, aye F.B.S.,
vol. iii. p. 189. :
7 Mem. Anthrop. Soc. Lord. vol. iii. 1870, p. 384.
§ «On the Testimony of Local Phenomena in the West of England to the Per-
manence of Anthropological Types,’—JZdid. vol. ii, 1866, p. 37,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 615
districts and low-lands of Monmouthshire and Glamorgan, the ancient seats of
Saxon, Norman, and Flemish colonisation, I find,’ says this observer, ‘ the indices
of hair and eyes so low as 83°5 and 63; while in the interior, excluding the children
of English and Irish immigrants, the figures rise to 573 and 109°5—this last ratio
indicating a prevalence of dark eyes surpassing what I have met with in any other
part of Britain’ (p. 43).
Many years ago, Mr. Matthew Mogeridge, whose scientific work is well known
in this district, furnished the authors of the ‘Crania Britannica’ with notes of the
physical characteristics of the Welsh of Glamorganshire. He defined the people
as having ‘eyes (long) bright, of dark or hazel colour, hair generally black, or
a yery dark brown, lank, generally late in turning grey.’ *
There can be no question, then, as to the prevalence of melanism in this district.
Nor does it seem possible to account for this tendency, as some anthropologists have
suggested, by the influence of the surrounding media. Even those who believe
most firmly in the potency of the environment will hardly be inclined to accept the
opinion seriously entertained some years ago by the Rey. T. Price, that the black
eyes of Glamorganshire are due to the prevalence of coal fires.” Long before coal
came into use there was the same tendency to nigrescence among the Welsh. This
may be seen, as Dr. Nicholas has pointed out, in the bardic names preserved in
ancient Welsh records, where the cognomen of du, or ‘ black, very frequently occurs.
Thus, in the ‘ Myvyrian Archaiology of Wales,’ between A.D. 1280 and 1330, there
are registered four ‘blacks’ to one ‘red’ and one ‘grey’—namely, Gwilym Ddu,
Llywelyn Ddu, Goronwy Ddu, and Dafydd Ddu.$
The origin of this dark element in the Welsh is to be explained, as everyone
will have anticipated, by reference to the famous passage in Tacitus, which has been
worn threadbare by ethnologists. Tacitus tells us that the ancient British tribe
of Silures—a tribe inhabiting what is now Glamorganshire, Monmouthshire, Here-
fordshire, and parts at least of Brecknockshire and Radnor—had a swarthy com-
plexion, mostly with curly hair, and that from their situation opposite to Spain
there was reason to believe that the Iberians has passed over the sea and gained
possession of the country.* It will be observed that although Tacitus speaks of
their dark complexion, he does not definitely state that the hair was dark; but
this omission has, curiously enough, been supplied by Jornandes,a Goth who, in the
sixth century, wrote a work which professes to be an extract from the lost history
of Cassiodorus, wherein the very words of Tacitus are reproduced with the neces-
sary addition.» With these passages before us, can we reasonably doubt that the
swart blood in the Welsh of the present day is a direct legacy from their Silurian
ancestors ?
Setting what Tacitus here says about the Silures against what he says in the next
sentence about the Britons nearest to Gaul (p. 5), it is clear that we must recognise
a duality of type in the population of Southern Britain in his day. This fact has
been clearly pointed out by Professor Huxley as one of the few ‘fixed points in
British ethnology.’® At the dawn of history in this country, eighteen centuries ago,
the population was not homogeneous, but contained representatives both of Professor
Huxley’s Melanochrot and of his Xanthochrot. If we have any regard whatever
1 Cran. Brit. vol. i. p. 53.
2 Essay on the Physiognomy and Physiology of the Present Inhabitants of Britain,
1829.
3 The Pedigree of the English People, fifth edition, 1878, p. 467.
4 ¢Silurum colorati vultus et torti plerumque crines, et posita contra Hispania,
Tberos veteres trajecisse, easque sedes occupasse, fidem faciunt.’—Agricola, c. xi.
5 ¢ Sylorum (= Silurum) colorati vultus, torto plerique crine, e¢ nigvo nascuntur.’—
De Rebus Geticis, c. ii.; quoted in Mon. Hist. Brit., Excerpta, p. lxxxiii. It is
conjectured that the classical word Silwres is derived from the British name Zssyl-
lwyr, the people of Essyllwg. See Nicholas’s History of Glamorganshire, 1874, p. 1.
It is difficult to determine how far and in what respects the Silures resembled, or
differed from, the other inland tribes. Of the Caledonians and of the Belge we
know something, but of the other inhabitants we are quite ignorant.
6 Critiques and Addresses, p. 166.
616 REPORT—1880.
for the persistence of anthropological types, we should hesitate to refer both of
these to one and the same elementary stock. We are led, then, to ask, Which of
these two types, if either, is to be regarded as Keltic ?
It is because both of these types, in turn, have been called Keltic that so much
confusion has been imported into ethnological nomenclature ; hence the common-
sense conclusion seems to be that neither type can strictly be termed Keltic, and
that such a term had better be used only in linguistic anthropology.1 The Kelt is
merely a person who speaks a Keltic language, quite regardless of his race, though
it necessarily follows that all persons who speak similar languages, if not actually of
one blood, must have been, at some period of their history, in close social contact.
In this sense, all the inhabitants of Britain, at the period of the Roman invasion,
notwithstanding the distinction between Xanthochroi and Melanochroi, were pro-
bably to be styled Kelts. There can be little doubt that the xanthous Britons
always spoke a Keltic tongue; but it is not so easy to decide what was the original
speech of their melanochroic neighbours.
The existence of two types of population, dark and fair, side by side, is a phe-
nomenon which was repeated in ancient Gaul. As the Silures were to Britain so
were the Aquitani to Gaul—they were the dark Iberian element. Strabo states
that while the natives of Keltic and Belgic Gaul resembled each other, the Aqui-
tanians differed in their physical characters from both of these peoples, and
resembled the Iberians. But Tacitus has left on record the opinion that the
Silures also resembled the Iberians; hence the conclusion that the Silures and the
Aquitanians were more or less alike. Now it is generally believed that the relics of
the old Aquitanian population are still to be found lingering in the neighbourhood
of the Pyrenees, being represented at the present day by the Basques. A popular
notion has thus got abroad that the ancient Silures must have been remotely affined
to the Basque populations of France and Spain. Nevertheless, the modern
Basques are so mixed a race that, although retaining their ancient language, their
physical characters have been so modified that we can hardly expect to find in
them the features of the old Silurians. Thus, according to the Rev. Wentworth
Webster, the average colour of the Basque hair at the present day is not darker
than chestnut.?
Neither does language render us any aid towards solving the Basque problem.
If the Silures were in this country prior to the advent of the Cymry, and if they
were cognate with the Basques, it seems only reasonable to suppose that some
spoor of their Iberian speech, however scant, might still be lingering amongst us.
Yet philologists have sought in vain for the traces of any Euskarian element in
the Cymraeg. Prince Louis Lucien Bonaparte, perhaps the only philologist in this
country who has a right to speak with authority on such a subject, has obligingly
informed me that he knows of no connexion whatever between the two languages.
Still it must be remembered that the Iberian affinity of the -Silures, suggested by
the remark of Tacitus, does not necessarily mean Basque affinity. Some philo-
logists have even denied that the Basques are Iberians.? All that we seek at
present to establish is this—that the dark Britons, represented by the tribe of
Silures, although they came to be a Keltic-speaking people, were distinct in race
from the fair Britons, and therefore in all likelihood were originally distinct in
speech. Nor should it be forgotten that relics of a pre-Keltic non-Aryan people
have been detected in a few place-names in Wales. Thus, Professor Rhys is
inclined to refer to this category such names as Menapia, Mona, and Mynwy *—
the last-named being a place (Monmouth) within the territory of the old Silures,
where we are now assembled. We may also look for light upon this subject from a
1 An excellent argument against the employment of national names by anthropo-
logists will be found in a paper by Mr. A. L. Lewis ‘On the Evils arising from the
use of Historical National Names as Scientific Terms.’—Jowrn. Anthrop. Inst. vol.
Viii. 1879, p. 825.
? «The Basque and the Kelt.’—Journ. Anthrop. Inst. vol. v. 1. 76, p. 5. ;
’ «Ta Langue Iberienne et la Langue Basque.’ Par M. Van Eys. Rerue de
Linguistique. July, 1874.
* ‘Lectures on Welsh Philology,’ 2nd ed., p. 181.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 617
paper which will be laid before the Department by Mr. Hyde Clarke. On the whole
it seems to me safer to follow Professor Rolleston in speaking of the dark pre-Keltic
element as Silwrian rather than as Basque or as Iberian.' (‘ British Barrows,’ p. 680.’)
There is, however, quite another quarter to which the anthropologist who is
engaged in this investigation may turn with fair promise of reward. I need
scarcely remind anyone in this department of the singularly suggestive paper which
was written more than fifteen years ago by the late Dr. Thurnam, ‘On the Two
Principal Forms of Ancient British and Gaulish Skulls’? The long-continued
researches of this eminent archeological anatomist led him to the conclusion that
the oldest sepulchres of this country—the chambered and other long barrows which
he explored in Wilts and Gloucestershire—invariably contained the remains of a
dolichocephalic people, who were of short stature, and apparently were un-
acquainted with the use of metals. The absence of metal would alone raise a
suspicion that these elongated tumuli were older than the round, conoidal, or bell-
shaped barrows, which contain objects of bronze, if not of iron, with or without
weapons of stone, and commonly associated with the remains of a taller brachy-
cephalic people.
Even before Dr. Thurnam forcibly pointed attention to this distinction, it
had been independently observed by so experienced a barrow-opener as the late
Mr. Bateman,? whose researches were conducted in quite another part of the
country—the district of the ancient Cornavii. Moreover, Professor Daniel Wilson’s
studies in Scotland had led him to conclude that the earliest population of Britain
were dolichocephalic, and possessed, in fact, a form of skull which, from its boat-
like shape, he termed kumbecephalic. Nor should it be forgotten that as far back
as 1844 the late Sir W. R. Wilde expressed his belief that in Ireland the most
ancient type of skull is a long skull, which he held to belong to a dark-com-
plexioned people, probably aboriginal, who were succeeded by a fair, round-headed
race.
But while this succession of races was recognised by several observers, it re-
mained for Dr. Thurnam to formulate the relation between the shape of the skull
and that of the barrow in a neat aphorism which has become a standing dictum in
anthropolory—‘ Long barrows, long skulls: round barrows, round skulls; dolicho-
taphic barrows, dolichocephalic crania; brachytaphic barrows, brachycephalic
crania.’ No doubt exceptional cases may occur in which round skulls have been
found in long barrows, but these have generally been explained as being due to
secondary interments. On the other hand, the occasional presence of long skulls
in round barrows presents no difficulty, since no one supposes that the early doli-
chocephali were exterminated by the brachycephali, and it is therefore probable
that during the bronze-using period, when round tumuli were in general use, the
two peoples may haye dwelt side by side, the older race being, perhaps, in a state
of subjugation.
It is not pretended that Thurnam’s apophthegm has more than a local appli-
cation. ‘This axiom,’ its author admitted, ‘is evidently not applicable unless
with considerable limitations, to France.” Although it is here called an ‘axiom,’
it is by no means a self-evident proposition, the relation between the shape of the
skull and the shape of the burial-mound being purely arbitrary. The proposition
which connects the two is simply the expression of the results of accumulated
observations, and it is of course open to doubt whether the number of observations
was sufficiently great to warrant the generalisation. But the only test of the
validity of any induction lies in its verification when applied to fresh instances,
1 W. yon Humboldt in his famous essay, ‘ Priifung der Untersuchungen tiber die
Urbewohner Hispaniens vermittelst der Vaskischen Sprache,’ does not admit, on
philological evidence, any extension of the Iberians to this country. Seec. 44: ‘ Ueber
den Aufenthalt Iberischer Voélkerschaften ausserhilb Iberien ; in den von Celten
bewohnten Liindern.’
2 Memoirs of the Anthrop. Soc. Lond. vol. i. 1865, p. 120; vol. iii. 1870, p. 41.
% Ten Years’ Diggings, 1861, p. 146.
4 Prehistoric Annals of Scotland, 1851.
5 On the Ethnology of the Ancient Irish.
618 REPORT—1880.
and it is remarkable that when long barrows and chambered tumuli have since
been opened in this country the evidence has tended in the main to confirm Dr,
Thurnam’s proposition.
It is commonly believed that the brachycephali of the round barrows came in
contact with the dolichocephali as an invading, and ultimately as a conquering,
race. Not only were they armed with superior weapons—superior in so far as a
metal axe is a better weapon than a stone axe—but they were a taller and more
powerful people. ‘Thurnam’s measurements of femora led to the conclusion that
the average height of the brachycephali was 5 feet 8:4 inches, while that of the
long-headed men was only 5 feet 5:4 inches.!_ Not only were they taller, but they
were probably a fiercer and more warlike race. In the skulls from the round
barrows the superciliary ridges are more prominent, the nasals diverge at a more
abrupt angle, the cheek-bones are high, and the lower jaw projects, giving the face
an aspect of ferocity, which contrasts unfavourably with the mild features of the
earlier stone-using people.
On the whole, then, the researches of archxological anatomists tend to prove
that this country was tenanted in ante-historic or pre-Roman times by two peoples
who were ethnically distinct from each other. It is difficult to resist the tempta-
tion of applying this to the ethnogeny of Wales. Does it not seem probable that
the early short race of long-skulled, mild-featured, stone-using people may have
been the ancestors of the swarthy Silurians of Tacitus; while the later tall race
of round-skulled, rugged-featured, bronze-using men may have represented the
broad-headed, Keltic-speaking folk of history? At any rate, the evidence of
craniology does not run counter to this hypothesis. For Dr. Beddoe’s observa-
tions on head-forms in the West of England have shown that ‘heads which are
ordinarily called brachycephalic belonged for the most part to individuals with
light hair,’ while the short dark-haired people whom he examined were markedly
dolichocephalic.? At the same time it must be admitted that his observations lend
‘no support to the view that the Keltic skull has been or weuld be narrowed by an
admixture of the Iberian type.’ It should not, however, be forgotten that the
same observer, in referring to a collection of crania from the Basyue country pre-
served in Paris, says ‘the form of M. Broca’s Basque crania was very much that of
some modern Silurian heads.’*
According to the view advocated by Thurnam we have a right to anticipate
that the oldest skulls found in this country would be of dolichocephalous type;
and such I believe to be actually the case. Dr. Barnard Davis, it is true, has
stated in the Crania Britannica that the ancient British skull must be referred to
the brachycephalic type ; and such an induction was perfectly legitimate so long as
the craniologist dealt only with skulls from the round barrows or from similar
interments. But the long-barrow skulls examined hy Professor Rolleston,* and
the Cissbury skulls recently studied by the same anatomist, are decidedly doli-
chocephalic, as also are all the early prehistoric skulls which have been found of
late years in France. While referring to craniology in this country, I may perhaps
be allowed to remark that the eminent Italian anthropologist, Dr. Paolo Mante-
gazza, in a suggestive paper which has just appeared in his valuable journal, the
Archivio per 1 Antropologia, has referred to the Englishman’s contempt for cranio-
logical work—work but little worthy of the practical spirit of the Anglo-Saxon
race. No doubt it is desirable to increase the number of our observations, but still
1 Mem. Anthrop. Soc. Lond. vol. iii. 1870, p. 73.
? Ibid. vol. ii. 1866, p. 350.
3 Thid. p. 356.
4 ©On the People of the Long Barrow Period,’ Journ. Anthrop. Inst., vol. v. 1876,
p. 120.
5 Ibid. vol. vi. 1877, p. 20; vol. viii. 1879, p. 377.
® The whole passage so amusingly refers to the national idiosyncrasies of cranio-
logists, that it is well worth reproduction. ‘In Francia, Broca, il pontefice massimo
dell’ ipercraniologia moderna, col suo ardore eternamente giovanile, non studia pit
icrani, ma i-cervelli; in Germania si prendono ancora misure sui teschi, ma con
rationabile obsequio, quasi si dovesse adempiere ad un dovere noioso; in Inghilterra
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 619
the good-humoured remark about despising craniology can hardly be applied to a
country which numbers among its living men of science such eminent craniologists
as Professor Busk, Professor Cleland, Dr. Barnard Davis, and Professors Flower,
Huxley, and Rolleston.
It may naturally be asked whether the researches of archeologists in Wales
lend any support to Thurnam’s hypothesis. Nothing, I conceive, would be easier
than to show that very material support has come from this quarter; but I have
abstained, of set purpose, from introducing into this address any remarks on the
prehistoric archeology of Wales. For I have not forgotten that we are to have
the privilege of hearing an evening lecture on ‘ Primeval Man’ by so distinguished
an archeologist and naturalist as Professor Boyd Dawkins. No one has done
more in this country to forward Thurnam’s views, whether by actual exploration
or by writing, than Professor Dawkins; and if I have not referred to his work,
especially to his discoveries in Denbighshire, it has been simply because I was
anxious to ayoid trespassing on any subject which he is likely to bring forward.}
Setting aside, then, any archeological evidence derived from the bone-caves,
barrows, or other sepulchres in Wales, we may finally look at the outcome of our
inquiry into Welsh ethnogeny. If we admit, as it seems to me we are bound to
admit, the existence of two distinct ethnical elements in the Welsh population,
one of which is short, dark, and dolichocephalic—call it Silurian, Atlantean, Iberian,
Basque, or what you will; and the other of which is tall, fair, and brachycephalic,
such as some term Cymric, and others Ligurian ; ‘then it follows that by the cross-
ing of these two races we may obtain not only individuals of intermediate character,
but occasionally more complex combinations; for example, an individual may have
the short stature and long head of the one race, associated with the lighter hair of
the other; or again, the tall stature of one may be found in association with the
melanism and dolichocephalism of the other race. It is, therefore, no objection to
the views herein expressed if we can point to a living Welshman who happens to be
at once tall and dark, or to another who is short and fair.
At the same time, I am by no means disposed to admit that when we have
recognised the union of the xanthous and melanic elements in Wales, with a pre-
dominance of the latter in the south, we have approached to anything like the
exhausting limit of the subject. Still earlier races may have dwelt in the land, and
have contributed something to the composition of the Welsh. In fact, the anthro-
pologist may say of a Welshman, as a character in ‘Cymbeline’ says of Posthu-
mus when doubtful about his pedigree,
‘T cannot delve him to the root.’
It is possible that the roots of the Welsh may reach far down into some hidden
primitive stock, older mayhap than the Neolithic ancestors of the Silurians; but of
such pristine people we have no direct evidence. So far, however, as positive
investigation has gone, we may safely conclude that the Welsh are the representa-
tives, in large proportion, of a very ancient race or races; and that they are a com-
posite people who may perhaps be best defined as Silw70-Cymric.
Many other questions relating to Welsh ethnology press for consideration—
such as the hypothesis that the Kymro was preceded, in parts at least of Wales,
by the Gael; but such questions must be dismissed from present discussion, for
I fear that my remarks have already overrun the limits of a departmental
address. Let us hope, however, that much light may be thrown upon a variety of
questions bearing upon local anthropology in the course of the discussions which
will arise in this department during the present session of the Association.
si continua a sprezzare la craniologia, come cosa poco degna dello spirito pratico
della razza anglosassone ; e in Italia, paese pit scetticc di tutti, perché pid antico e
piu stanco di tutti, si continua a misurare, pur sorridendo dell’ improba e pur inutile
fatica.’—La Riforma Craniologica ; Archivio, vol. x. 1880, p. 117.
1 For Prof. Boyd Dawkins’ contributions to the subject see his interesting works
on Cave-hunting, 1874, and on Karly Man in Britain, 1880.
620 REPORT—1880.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Notes on the Origin of the Malagasy. By O. Sraninanp Wake.
After referring to the traces of early Arab influence in Madagascar, the paper
proceeded to show the close agreement in manners and customs between the Mala-
gasy and the Siamese and other peoples of the Indo-Chinese peninsula. The
Malagasy were then shown not to have any special connection, in either customs or
physical characters, with the islanders of the Pacific, their agreement in certain par-
ticulars being due to their common origin in South-eastern Asia, a conclusion
which is confirmed by the evidence of language. The author considered that the
peculiarities presented by the Hovas and allied tribes, as distinguished frem the other
Malagasy, were due to the Arab element which was introduced into South-eastern
Madagascar, perhaps indirectly, from the Indian Archipelago, about the eighth
century, A.D. Traces of Hindu influence are also perceptible among the Malagasy,
owing to intercourse with the Hindus before the migration from the Indian
Archipelago. Whether these Asiatic settlers found an earlier race inhabiting
Madagascar is doubtful ; but some of the Malagasy tribes possess many features in
common with various African peoples, which are probably due to their having had
a common origin.
2. On the Antiquities of Loughor Castle! By B. Jones.
An ancient British camp or station, called ‘ Llwchdwr,’ utilised by the Romans,
and called ‘Luecarum.’ It had an outer and inner moat, and a watercourse from
the river Llw, about five miles distant, to feed the moats, and the garrison was
called ‘ Poundagwrdrwe.’
The remains of the ancient castle are situated on the eastern bank of the delta
of the river Llwchdwr, a muddy stream commanding views of the valley and
country all around—quite a ‘ bella vista.’ An outpost called ‘ Stoutwall’ existed,
and a sudatorium, west of the church, taken away by the South Wales Railway.
Roman tiles have been found in the sudatorium with a dog’s footprint, also some
pottery and Roman coins, some in possession of the writer. A foot-bridge crossed
the river to the hospitium of the garrison, now called spitty.
The Via Julia came direct from Nedum, or Neath, to Luecarum. Traces of it
existed until recently, passing Pen-lle-gaer as an intermediate camp, from which
the Via Julia diverged northward to a bridge over the Loughor river at Llandilo-
taly-bont, leading to a Roman camp at Estemenlle, on its way to the Roman
* Maridunum,’ or Carmarthen. The ancient town of Loughor was situated south of
the castle ; traces of it still to be seen. The present town is built chiefly on the
inner moat, There exists still a building called the ‘sanctuary,’ supposed to be
the Roman garrison chapel; and Pentwyn Hill, inside the outer moat, was prob-
ably the garrison exercise-ground.
The Roman coins comprise some of Trajan, Nerva, and Antoninus, and several
others in Mr. Jones's collection (some found at Loughor), also other more modern
coins—some Saxon found in the ruins of the old Manor House in Temple Street,
Swansea, and also coins found in a foundation of Christ’s Hospital in London.
Mr. Jones has also a Druid’s bead, found in a cairn on Cefenbryn Common in
Gower. Mr. Jones mentions various other coins in his collection.
3. On Australian Autochthony. By W. Forster.
4. On Drum-signalling in Africa. By Hype Cuarke.
This subject had been brought before the Association formerly by Captain
ameron, R.N., and Mr. Clarke proceeded to give sume explanations, based on com-
‘ Published in eatenso in the Cambrian of 3rd September, 1880.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—-DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 621
munications of Mr. Gardiner, H.M. Service, West Coast of Africa. Mr. Clarke did
not consider the signals to be as by dot and dash (* —), but as due to the notes re-
presenting a consonant and vowel, and suited to the syllables of the native languages.
If a note conventionally represented a consonant, then the people would so under-
stand it, and make the syllable, the consonant being accompanied by its well-known
vowel; there would rarely be three notes. He considered the term drum-speaking
might be used, for the people so understood the several drums, whether employed
for signalling, fetish-drums, or for reciting praises of chiefs. The drummer was
employed by the mail steamers to communicate with the shore, and messages could
be sent two miles, and answers returned, and by relays they could be transmitted
twenty miles. He referred to the drum as a very ancient institution, and as giving
name to Cybele and drum-shaped mountains, and hence to its adoption in ancient
and modern mythology.
5. On a Manuscript, perhaps Khita, discovered by Captain Gill in
Western China. By Hyp Crarxe.
This manuscript was found by Captain W. Gill, R.E., in his late travels, at
Knudeu, near Li-Kiang. Mr. Clarke had examined and found that the characters
are allied to Khita (Hittite), Vei of W. Africa, Babylonian, Egyptian, and the ancient
Shwo-wén of China, as well as to the Cypriote and Iberian alphabets, and notably the
Runes. He had identified a considerable number of characters. He considered this
as an outlying branch of the Khita class, and as attributable to the allied empire
which gaye the name of Kitai (Cathay) to the region. The whole was a testimony
to the common distribution of ancient civilisation from one source throughout the
world. The numerals were arranged partly like the Egyptian and partly like the
Pheenician. | (or +) was repeatedly accompanied by a star +, and by the number
seven in Egyptian order, [III III, (4 and 8), like a group of seven pyramids in
Egypt or Mexico, The mythological reference he considered to be the god Saba.
4wasIIII5111IL611L 111, 81111 1111,9 II] III III. TheMS.
is possibly a copy of sculptured inscriptions. There may perhaps be cartouches in
it. Besides characters, there are, as in Khita, animals and animals’ heads in pairs
(totems), and, besides, the fish.
6. Recent Doubts on Monosyllabism in Philological Classification.
By Hype Crarke.
Mr. Hyde Clarke pointed out that his determination, supported by Dr. Carl
Abel, &c., now showed that the Chinese, and Indo-Chinese, and Egyptian, and
Coptic, are not in their origin monosyllabic, but contain dissyllabic roots of
which the final vowel is elided. This rendered the term monosyllabic inapplicable
for a class of languages, or for an epoch in their history. The formation of words
in the Semitic languages was a simple handing down from the prehistoric period,
an application of differentiation and of affixes, in comparison with which inflection
is a minor characteristic. The doctrine of an Aryan primitive language and civilisa-
tion is a simple imagination, the Aryan languages being like the others—developed
from the prehistoric epoch. No such thing as a single typical primeval language
had eyer existed ; but, on the contrary, fifty primeval languages or more founded
on the same system, but with various words.
622 REPORT—1880.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 27.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Stone Age in South Africa. By W. D. Goocn, C.E.
The author discussed the subject from the following aspects :—
1. Types of Implements.
2. Distribution of Implements.
3. Character of Deposits in which they occur.
4, Character of material from which they are fashioned.
The ethnological facts suggested were
First, the presence of a primeval low stage of existence, correlating the usual
earliest evidences of man upon earth, as found in other countries.
Its indications are found in the quaternary strata of Natal, and probably, on
more complete examinations of South Africa, will be universally seen in deposits
of similar age.
There seems reason to believe that the earliest beds in which anthropological
traces occur are ‘glacial,’
The materials used in the earlier strata are Grit and sandstone of a metamor-
phic character, with doubtful examples of indurated shale; these being gradually
replaced in the latter strata by harder Trachyte, metamorphic rocks, and even
Chalcedony. The working of the materials is rude, displaying a very limited power
of fashioning either a constant shape or type, striving rather after a keen edge or
point, as the ‘summum bonum’ to be achieved.
Rough clubs or celts of sandstone, with rude and irregular-shaped assegai
weapons for thrusting or throwing, appear to have been the methods of offence at
command.
For sewing skins together, thorns of plants and sinews of animals were ready
to hand.
Pottery, which seems doubtfully present, is unburnt and unornamented.
This represents a ‘ Paleolithic Era’ in South Africa.
Second. To the proceeding by intra-development, or grafted on it by a wave
of development from the North, succeeded a period which is represented by the
contents of the upland strata of Natal and the eastern province of the ‘Old Colony.’
This indicates a state in which the use of the bow was well known, and the
javelin forms of the Celts were well-developed and formed by ‘ chipping’ of a
coarse character.
The coarse and less effective materials, sandstone and grit, had been discarded,
and the harder sorts of quartz, trachyte, metamorphic and chalcedonic rocks were
used to provide flakes. These Flakes were keen, symmetrically fashioned, and of
a general uniformity in shape and character, but wntrimmed. Pottery had become
well known, but its ornamentation and good burning had not yet been arrived at.
Most of the alluvial deposits of the uplands and the AZolian of the coasts yield
relics of this period.
Third. Almost allied to the last-named, and found insensibly rising from it,
especially in the Afolian strata of the coast-lands of Natal, is a period in which
polished stone, and ornamented pottery, with wrought weapons in chalcedony of a
‘trimmed’ character, are found associated with rougher implements in siliceous
and other rocks, The arrow-heads are of a shape which suggests not only know-
ledge and use of the bow, but of porson. War clubs, consisting of perforated stones
well-wrought and polished, belong to this age, and form a connecting link between
this period, locally developed in Natal, and the next one.
The fourth period has a similar aspect to the third, except in its pottery. The
materials used are of a highly s¢ceous character; the forms of all the weapons,
whether picks, scrapers, or arrow-heads, are usually improved by chipping and
trimming the original flake at the edges. The variety of types of form is very
much increased, and many uses not clearly suggested by the weapons themselves
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 623
are now indicated. The arrow-head prevails, and assegai-heads of a light character,
adapted for throwing, such as the ‘Pondas, ‘Gaikas,’ and ‘ Galekas’ of to-day
employ, preponderate. The small arrow-heads of chalcedony are very broad and
often minute, and evidently were adapted to the use of poison to supplement their
effect.
War-clubs are abundant, but no other form of polished weapon is found.
Mullers and mortars for preparing roots, grain, and paints are seen, and the char-
acter of the life led seems to be identical with that now followed by the Korannas
and other tribes allied to the Bosjesmen, inhabiting those districts in which relies of
this age abound.
The Pottery of this development is coarse in shape, design, and manufacture, and
very devoid of ornament. It is traceable from the highlands, Overberg, at the
Diamond Fields southward till the Cape of Good Hope is reached; through the
Overberg, Berg, and Cape districts, but is not found where the third period zs
developed.
The fifth and last period only differs from the preceding one in the perfection
of the workmanship of the implements found in the Cape deposits. It presents the
same aspect in pottery and types of weapons. The essentially Jocal occurrence of
this period only on the Cape Flats, points to a sudden improvement in the know-
ledge of working in stone, which seems only to be explained by the supposition
of an ingraft of a race, which landing at Table or False Bays, there located their
personal acquaintance with stone-fashioning, acquired among their own people-
in another clime.
2. On an Ancient Settlement found about 21 feet beneath the surface of the
peat, in the coal-bog near Boho, county Fermanagh. By THomas
Puunxetrr, M.R.LA.
This interesting discovery consists of the remains of two log-huts found in
a primitive crannoge 21 feet beneath the peat. The depression now filled with
peat was a lake-basin at the period the island and log-huts were constructed.
Shell-marl was found a few feet below the crannoge, also in various places in the
bog where the peat had been cut to any great depth. The crannoge measured
10 by 14 yards, The more complete hut was 6} feet wide and about 734 long,
inside measurement.
Its framework consisted of four massive posis of oak at the corners. An oak
beam or thick bar passed through each pair of posts. Oak plank, about seven
feet long, rested at each end on the beams and formed the floor of the hut. The
sides of the structure were supported by large logs of oak piled on each other
horizontally, Fragments of oak plank were found partly burnt; it is supposed
the roof was destroyed by fire.
Flint implements, hand-made pottery, and other objects were found in con-
nection with the huts, but no metal of any kind.
A large stump of pine was found zm sttw above the level of the floors of the
huts, and had in its rootlets charcoal and kitchen-midden débris. The author is of
opinion that the huts were formed before the age of bog pine, as no pine occurs
below the level of the site on which the huts stood. The fact that 21 feet of dark
compact peat had grown since the structures were formed is substantial evidence
of their great antiquity.
3. On the Structure of Round Barrows. By Professor G. Roueston,
M.D., F.R.S.
4. On the Structure of Long Barrows. By Professor G. RotuEston,
8.
a
624 REPORT— 1880.
5. On Prehistoric Times in the Valley of the Rhine.
By Professor SCHAAFFHAUSEN.
The author described the results of his observations made in the Valley of the
Rhine, between Mayence and Cologne. The burial-places of pre-Roman times are
always situated on the ancient banks of this river. The immense prehistoric beds of
our present rivers must be considered in close connection with the greater extension of
the ice-hills in the mountains, which are the principal sources of the great rivers.
It has lately been observed in the neighbourhood of Berlin, which is situated in the
ancient bed of the Spree, that all remains of the stone and bronze periods are found
in the higher land, whilst those of the iron period are found at a lower level.
Professor Schaaffhausen believed that Neanderthal man was living during the
glacial period. There are found in Switzerland stakes, pointed by a human hand,
in a formation, which is placed between two glacial periods. Near Coblenz, in the
valley of the Moselle, was found, deep in the diluvial clay of the river, the skull of
bos moschatus, 2 mammal, which lives now only in the coldest northern regions; the
outside of this skull bears irrefutable marks of human stone implements; itis evident,
therefore, that man was living during the glacial period of the Rhenish country."
Professor Schaaffhausen also adduced evidence in proof of the existence of man
at the time when the craters and large lava-streams near the Rhine were formed.
6. Onthe Original Neanderthal Skull. By Professor SCHAAFFHAUSEN.
Professor Schaaffhausen expressed his conviction that this skull (which he ex-
hibited) is not that of an idiot, nor is its peculiarity the result of disease, but it is
a typical form, which represents the lowest degree of development of the human
skull hitherto observed.
7. On a Paleolithic Stone Implement from Egypt. By H. Srores, F.G.S.
The euthor drew attention to the exceptional position and physical conditions
of Egypt, making it probable that the greater number of the prehistoric imple-
ments of that country were covered with Nile mud, and consequently difficult to find.
These he deemed sufficient reasons to account for the negative evidence of many
authors not having at present been refuted by the discovery of palzolithic imple-
ments. Details were then given of the finding of a remarkably fine paleolith of
the true river-drift type, at a distance of half a mile from the Spring of Moses, near
Cairo, in latitude 30° 1’, longitude 31° 20’. It is of red porphoritic conglomerate,
precisely similar to that found at Gebel Achmar, a few miles distant, and upon this
fact the author laid considerable stress, as direct evidence that it was made and
used in the neighbourhood in which it was picked up. The implement hears traces
of considerable wear by blown sand. Its greatest length is 5:5 inches, width 3-8
inches, and thickness 1‘5. It has the regular shape of river-drift palzeoliths, although
it is thinner and has a finer cutting point than those made of flint ; the cutting edge
is chipped and worn by use. It was lying exposed upon the surface, with its best
side upwards, and seemed to be in an old dried-up river-bed. It resembles South
African paleeoliths in having two pieces knocked from its upper edge. The author
then commented upon the value of the discovery in disproving the objections of
Marriette, Brugsch, and others as to the existence of the Stone Age in Egypt.
8. On a Paleolithic Flint Implement from Palestine. By H. Stops, F.G.S.
The author described a flint implement of the river-drift type, found by him
February 18, 1880, about two and a half miles from Jerusalem, on the road to Beth-
lehem. It was by the (so-called) road, lying with many thousands of rough flints
1 Gf, meeting of the German Anthrop. Soc. at Strasburg, Aug. 1879.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 625
of the common flint of Judea. Its length is 4-4 inches, width 3:5 inches, and greatest
thickness 1*4 inches. Either when being made or during use, it has lost a large
splinter from its bottom edge, nearly to the centre, and has apparently been much
used, as its cutting edge is much chipped and worn, and it has recently been chipped
a number of times by being struck with the hoofs of passing horses and other
animals.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 28.
The Department did not meet.
MONDAY, AUGUST 30.
The following Report and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Anthropometric Committee—See Reports, p. 120.
2. On a Pocket Registrator for Anthropological Purposes.
By Francis Gatton, M.A., F.B.S.
The author exhibited a small instrument + inch thick, 4 inches long and 13
wide, furnished with five stops, each communicating by a ratchet with a separate
index arm that moves round its own dial-plate. The registrator may be grasped
and held unseen in either hand with a separate finger over each stop. When any
finger is pressed on the stop below it, the corresponding index arm moves forward
one step. Guides are placed between the stops to ensure the fingers occupying
their proper positions when the instrument is seized and used in the pocket, or
when it is slipped inside a loose glove or other cover. It is possible by its means
to take anthropological statistics of any kind among crowds of people without
exciting observation, which it is otherwise exceedingly difficult to do. The
statistics may be grouped under any number of headings not exceeding five. If it
should ever be thought worth while to use a registrator in each hand, ten headings
could be employed. The instrument that was exhibited worked well, but it was
the first of its kind and might be improved. It was made by Mr. Hawkesley,
surgical instrument maker, 300 Oxford Street, London. The author also drew
attention to the ease with which registers may be kept by pricking holes in paper
in different compartments with a fine needle. A great many holes may be
pricked at haphazard close together, without their running into one another or
otherwise making it difficult to count them afterwards. The mark is indelible,
and any scrap of paper suffices. The needle ought to project a very short way
out of its wooden holder, just enough to perforate the paper, but not more. It
can then be freely used without pricking the fingers. This method, however,
eae two hands, and its use excites nearly as much observation as that of a
pencil.
3. Additional Remarks on the Greek Profile (incorrectly so called).
By J. Park Harrison, M.A.
It was stated in a previous communication that the continuity of the forehead
and nasal-bone in a straight line, which is so marked a peculiarity in early Greek
statues and coins, is not found to exist either in ancient Greek skulls in our museums,
1880. Ss
626 REPORT—1880.
or in the effigies of kings and heroes after the date of Alexander the Great, when
numismatists inform us that the natural features came to be represented in Greece.
At was added, however, in the paper alluded to, that the feature in question was
not to be considered, on this account, as merely ideal. Skulls from Palmyra and
ancient Thebes show that people existed who partially possessed the peculiarity ;
and numerous sepulchral monuments, and terra cottas from Tyre and Aradus in
the galleries of the Louvre as well as one from Sidon in the British Museum, which
it can scarcely be doubted were intended to be likenesses, appear to point to the
race subsequently called Phoenician as the one possessing the feature in question.
This identification has been since carried a step further. The effigies on the
Carthaginian coins show unmistakably, in the African character of the lips, the mix-
ture of blood in the Punico-Phcenician or Carthaginian race; and undoubtedly
helps to prove that the straight line of forehead and nose, also observed in these
coins, had its derivation from Tyre. The same prominent lips are also met with
on some of the coins of Sicily ; and the peculiarity exists amongst the Moors at the
present day, who are believed to be a race composed of Carthaginians and Berbers,
whose profile, in like manner, shows the same straight line as the Phcenicians.
In Egypt, an examination of the frescoes from its early tombs, so carefully copied
in Rosellini's great work, shows that amongst the more cultivated ranks, especially
the officials, the feature is continually met with. And Egyptologists inform us
that the people who occupied the Delta, long before Phoenicians were known by
that name, were much employed by the native dynasties, and it is probable navi-
gated their sea-going ships, the native Egyptians having, it is well known, a dread
of the sea themselves.
Certainly the feature in question is found to have been portrayed in Eyypt long
before it was represented in sculpture and in terra-cotta statuettes in Greece, and
is even seen in the fresco of one of the gods of Egypt, copied by Rosellini (pl. Ixvii).
Doubt has been felt whether any human cranium ever existed without a hollow
or indent beneath the brow-ridge; but it is sufficient if an abnormal slope in the
forehead co-exists with a straight nose; the muscles that stretch from the brow-
ridge to the nasal arch would then complete the feature.
Exceptionally straight profiles, it should be mentioned, have been noticed -in
Attica, the coasts of Asia Minor, and some of the Greek islands. And there are
two crania from ancient Athens, in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons
that contrast strongly with a number from that locality, and other parts of Greece,
in the same museum. It has been assumed, as in the case of the skulls from Thebes
in Egypt, that these are Phoenician, since they have the heavy brow-ridges and
slightly receding foreheads that appear to have been characteristic of the race.
Consequently it may be that the people who have been noticed with the straight
line of profile, as still existing, are descendants of Phoenician settlers. They are
met with precisely where traces of that remarkable race might be found, and that
even at Athens, where they occupied a quarter of their own.
4, On the British Flint-workers at Brandon. By J. Parx Harrison, M.A.
At the last meeting of the Association Mr. Skertchly expressed a strong belief
that the Brandon Flint-works had been in continuous operation from neolithic
times to our own day; the demand for ‘strike-a-lights’ alone, in all probability,
keeping the art of flint-knapping in action, though flint implements for other pur-
poses also, agricultural and domestic, may have been in requisition long after iron
came into general use; more especially in the neighbourhood of factories. In the
Orkneys, it is credibly reported that flint knives are still preferred to steel for paring
apples.
ae it appeared likely, if the art had been kept up in the manner supposed, that
it would have been confined to certain families, and so have tended to perpetuate
racial characteristics, a visit was made, soon after the Sheffield Meeting, to the
locality of the works at Brandon, when it was at once apparent that the flint-
knappers and their families, as well as a large portion of the general population of
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 627
the village, to a more or less extent, contrasted strongly in colour of hair and eyes
with the people of Norfolk and Suffolk on the borders of which two counties
Brandon is situated. Very dark hair and eyes evidently predominated, whilst they
were almost wanting in the ranks of the militia and volunteers who were then
in training, and so could be inspected for the purpose of testing this point. Of eighty
recruits of the West Norfolk regiments, only three were entered in the register
as having dark hair and eyes, and seventeen only with a depressed nasal-bone.
Photographs of a number of the Brandon inhabitants have been obtained [shown],
and several have been mistaken by persons acquainted with the Principality for
Welsh ; whilst others were thought by French anthropologists, to whom they were
shown, to resemble the Iberian type of the Continent.
Though it has been supposed that the flint-works at Cissbury might also have
continued in operation long after the Roman times, a greater mixture of races would
appear to haye occurred there, from causes peculiar to the locality, than in the
more remote village of Brandon, where the march of civilisation was less rapid ;
consequently it is not believed that any of the original flint-workers of Cissbury
have now any representatives existing ; though here and there one may fancy that
the type occasionally comes out through atavism. At Brandon there can scarcely
be a doubt that we still possess examples of an early British race,
5. On the Retention of Ancient and Prehistoric Customs in the Pyrenees,
By Dr. Puent, F.S.A., F.R.G.S.
The author pointed out that he had the honour at the last meeting, at Sheffield, to
lay before this Section some matters which had come under his notice rather unex-
pectedly while he was making quite a different class of inquiries, to pursue which
he had visited the Pyrenees. The particulars were crude and incomplete, but he felt
it a duty to lay before this society the matter as far as he had it under his observa-
tion, that others might have an opportunity of examining it as well as himself, or,
in the event of his being prevented, from any cause, investigating further, that it
might not be lost to observation.
He said : ‘I this year pursued the subject steadily, making photographs of the
greater points of interest where roads permitted conveyance of. the necessary
apparatus, and I not only find my views confirmed, but also that several Frenchmen
of science have been following the same investigations, so that I am able to add
their testimony to my own.
‘These gentlemen have very kindly placed the results of their investigations
before me, and have expressed interest in my own researches.
‘ The discovery of a new field of Gallic monuments, with interments and ciner-
ary urns of the oldest type, is not only interesting, but does not stand alone, as
with these are found a class of monuments hitherto entirely overlooked by anti-
quaries, and also customs retained: by the population of the surrounding districts
of a nature so peculiar that, while they probably throw a light upon some past
customs of these people not before known, they stand now in an almost unknown
osition.
pe To make quite sure of my subject, I again approached the district through
Languedoc, where there is a complete absence of even the most usual representa~
tions, either in sculpture or painting, of the serpent or dragon. Stopping at the an-
cient cathedral of St. Bertrand-de-Comminges, the old Roman station of Lugdunum
Convenarum, the inquirer all at once finds himself in a different region, and as it
were in a different age.
‘Over the principal doorway at the west side, the Madonna and Child occupy
a chair made of dragons exactly identical with the dragon chair occupied by King
David I., of Scotland, as shown on his great seal. I produce the photograph and
great seal. Within the church, so very unsymbolic has some one been, that « dried
crocodile represents the veritable dragon the saint cleared out of the district,
‘Such symbolism, apparently, runs in particular districts, and which are almost
always marked by old stations of the Romans, and more lately of the Templars.
ss 2
628 REPORI—1880.
‘These are all indicative of the serpent or dragon, from frescoes only three
centuries old, to sculptures, mounds, or earthworks, and alignements of granite
blocks—all being made to represent the serpent, counting as many thousand years.
Mons, Julien Sacaze, writing of these stones, which are in the locality where he
was born, says: “des alignements stnueux étaient des symboles de la divinité,” and goes
on to quote a number of native persons who admitted, when he interrogated them,
that they worshipped them as such, notwithstanding their present religion ; it was
the belief of their ancestors they said. The most remarkable of these objects are
three mounds, in the forms of serpents, which have been appropriated, one by a
chamber of Roman construction, possibly as a security for wealth, one by a very
ancient church, and the third, unmolested, has been lately found to contain a large
deposition of Celtic incinerary urns, the place of deposition being almost about
midway from the head to the tail. In the same position, in the mound on which
is the church, were found a large number of Gallo-Romanic votive altars and other
objects. Amongst those of this description in the neighbourhood, some altars
dedicated to mountains were found, two peaks of the Maladetta being named,
evidently showing that the occupation was in early Roman and Pagan times.
‘On the crests and sides of the mountains, on both sides of the Pyrenees, é.e. in
Spain and France, are found sepulchral arrangements of stones, somewhat differ-
ent from any distinctly recorded amongst our antiquities. These consist of a number
of circles adjoining each other ; in the centre of each is a cist with an urn, having
burnt bones, and the form of the circles is that of a wavy or serpentine cross.
‘Mons. Gourdon gives a drawing of one on the Spanish side, and I have found
several on the French side of the Pyrenees.
‘I purchased the baker's bill, which I now produce, at Perpignan a few months
ago, and though not so rustic as that of Brittany, it approaches more to our old
Exhequer tally, and to the Welsh stick of writing, described in “ Bardas,” as well
as to some elaborate and really wonderful calendars, still to be seen in the Cheetham
Museum at Manchester, than to the rustic tally of Brittany. On crossing into
Spain and prosecuting inquiries, I found the serpent or dragon emblem everywhere
prominent, and even learned that the Tarasque, the ceremony of which is performed
at Tarascon in Provence, was a well-known dragon with the Spanish people. On
my explaining that I was making a study of the subject, I was told that though
used asa popular diversion at fétes, it had always a religious meaning, and that an
old and well-known Spanish proverb ran thus—
“ No hay funcion sin Tarasque.”
(No religious solemnity without the dragon.)
On the eve of Saint John, the whole Pyrenees being alive with the fires handed
down from time immemorial as a custom, a vast pine, split into many vertical clefts,
is raised at Luchon, and along the route I have described in the most secluded
valleys, quite up to the Spanish frontier, as at the Valley du Lys, the pine has a
cross of flowers on its summit, and being filled with combustible matter, burns in a
brilliant column of fire.
‘But at Luchon, in particular, living serpents are consumed in the flames. The
priest, while he applies the torch, turns his face towards Spain and the Maladetta,
or mountain of bad omen. The youths of the village have miniature cloyen pines
which they burn. I procured one with some little difficulty, which I produce;
these they brandish while flaming, in serpentine curves, and cry loudly, “ hilla-
hilla !” (dead)—pronounced “ella.” Here we have apparently a corruption of the
old classic cry of the Bacchanals, who, when lamenting the death of Bacchus,
holding serpents in their hands, rushed about wildly crying, “ Eva, eva!’ These
ceremonies are often prolonged into the night, and the wild cries are heard echoed
from mountain to mountain. Mons. Sacaze states that this ery is an invocation of
the Sun God. Be that as it may, it is the cry of the ancient Bacchanals, and is here
sonompaaiatl sometimes with real serpents, sometimes with simulated serpents of
re.
‘The split pine was this year raised in my presence, on the back of the principal
serpent mound in the valley I haye mentioned, amidst the clanging of bells during
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 629
a service on Sunday. If there had been no other satisfaction to me in this, the
evidence that this mound was artificially constructed, and not a natural furmation,
as shown by the cutting made into it, would have been great. The place where
these cries are mostly practised has most remarkable sculptures of serpents, which
I had photographed, and now produce.
‘ After the burning of the pine a rush is made by the more powerful and the
burning embers carried off in their hands, regardless of pain. Pieces are then dis-
tributed to every household, and kept religiously during the year, as was the custom
with the Ancient Britons.’
The author then illustrated, by diagrams, the course of the introduction of
dragon worship into Europe.
6. On Anthropological Colour Phenomena in Belgium and elsewhere.
By J. Bepvoz, M.D., F.BR.S.
In Germany, Switzerland, and Belgium, through governmental assistance, the
colours of the eyes and hair of all the children in the primary schools have been
observed and tabulated. The writer is very desirous that our own officials should
lend similar assistance to the Anthropometric Committee of this Association. The
results hitherto obtained have been of considerable importance, and those for
Belgium are well shown in the monograph and maps of Professor Vanderkindere.
These bring out a remarkable contrast between the Flemish and the Walloon pro-
vinces of Belgium, and tend strongly to prove the persistently hereditary character
of even such physical characters as the colour of the hair and of the ins.
7. On the Pre-Cymric Epoch in Wales. By Hype Cranks, V.P.A.I.
As existing materials for this epoch, the author enumerated river names, place
names, record of the Silures, present ethnology, monuments, mythology, and folk-
lore. He observed, as to river names, that a fundamental error was to regard all river
names as Celtic, while as concerns the great rivers the names must belong to the
preceding epoch. Such names as Thames and Shannon are to be found in the old
and new world, and must consequently have been given by the pioneers of civilisa-
tion. Sabrina (the Severn) was illustrated by Siberis of Asia Minor, Sybaris and
Tiberis of Italy, Iberus, Abarus, Hebrus, Khaboras. For the Tuerobis or Tivy of
Wales, and the Ravius of Sligo Bay, parallels were also given. The root of Britannia
and Sardinia, RDN, coincided with an extensive river series, Rhodanus, &c. He
recommended the collection of all Welsh and Irish place-names, and their classified
analysis. The Silures he regarded as belonging to the Iberians rather than to the
Basques. To the early cultured population he assigned the Silures, the Veneti of
Britanny, and possibly the Belgi, Verulanium, Camulodunum, Cunobulinus, &c.,
appeared to be Turanium names. He looked for survivals of ancient populations in
Wales and Ireland, and recalled attention to the observations of Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.,
as to obliquity of eyelid in South Wales. The discovery of Professor Rhys as to the
god Nodent, &c. being Turanian and not Celtic, he supported. Mr. Clarke stated
that the word Druid came from the same linguistic elements, and stated that their
priesthood assimilated rather to the Egyptian, Brahmin, and Etruscan than to the
Roman priesthood. The incidents of the mythology of Britain he considered to be
of this class, and not Phcenician, which was itself of the common stock. The de-
sirability of studying the folk-lore of Wales and the other Celtic countries, under
this aspect, he pointed out, fer many of the Welsh legends had been identified as
members of the general folklore of antiquity.
630 REPORT—1 880.
8. On the Antiquity of Gesture and Sign Language, and the Origin of
Characters and Speech. By Hype Crarxs, V.P.A.L.
The author, extending the observations of Colonel Mallery, U.S.A., gave ex-
amples of the connection of signs with characters, and showed that the same psy-
chological relations in the representation of various ideas prevailed throughout, and
that there was a general connection of signs, characters, and speech. There was no
evidence of the priority of speech, but of the dependence of speech in its beginning
on sign language as an illustration. It was indeed quite possible that some existing
sculptured symbols may belong to an epoch anterior to speech, A sign language
could be complete and copious in itself. He described what he had seen of the
mutes of the seraglio at Constantinople, whom he considered to represent the ancient
sign language of the eastern courts, and that recorded in classic writers, With
regard to the sign language of the North American Indians, he supported Dr. E. B.
Tylor in considering it to be of common and ancient origin. He said it was very
desirable to have the sign language of the Pomo and Hidatsa Indians, who possibly
represented, in Janguage, the mound-builders.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 31.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Surgery and Superstition in Neolithic Times. By Miss A. W. BuckLanp,
The object of this paper was to bring before the Anthropological Department of
the British Association the frequent use of trepanning in neolithic times, as proved
by the late Dr. Broca; to call attention to the proofs he has given of the facts, and
to his explanation of the reason of the practice, and of the superstitions associated
with it, as also its connexion with the use of cranial amulets.
1. Dr. Broca asserts in his work on the subject that in neolithic times a surgical
operation was practised which consisted in making an opening in the skull, chiefly
of infants, in order to cure certain internal maladies, and that these maladies were
epilepsy and other convulsive disorders which in early times were confounded with
epilepsy.
: 2. That such individuals as survived this operation were looked upon as endowed
with peculiar properties of a mystic character and when they died rounds (7on-
delles) or fragments were frequently cut from the trepanned skull to serve as
amulets, these amulets being cut by preference from the portion of the skull close
to, and embracing, a part of the cicatrised hole caused by the trepan.
Dr. Broca proved by experiment that holes resembling those discovered could
be scraped in a child’s skull in five minutes, with a flint implement, whilst the opera-
tion would take an hour on an adult skull; he also shows conclusively that these holes
could not have been the result of accident or disease. He believes that these tre-
panned skulls prove that the people of neolithic times had attained to a belief in
spirits, and regarded epilepsy as a possession by spirits, the hole being cut to facili-
tate their expulsion, and he goes on to show that this belief descended to our own
times; but, at the same time, he refers the whole of the trepanned skulls hitherto
discovered to neolithic times, and thinks the custom died out with the introduction
of bronze, and with it of a new religion and a new mode of sepulture. This con-
clusion the author of the paper doubts, because, as shown by Dr. Broca, the practice
of trepanning for epilepsy, and by a very similar process to that of neolithic times,
existed in France as late as the seventeenth century; and it was suggested that,
although the practice of cremation may have destroyed the proofs in many cases,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 631
that yet a more minute search would probably reveal traces of this curious custom,
not only in France, but also in Great Britain and Ireland, and, in fact, wherever the
holed stone is found as a covering to dolmens, believing that these holes are con-
nected with the same superstition—being made to facilitate the entrance and exit
of the spirit—and that the discovery of trepanned skulls in these dolmens would be
of great ethnological importance, as proving, if not a racial identity, at least some
communication between widespread peoples in prehistoric times. Looking upon
it as an important fact that this custom of trepanning still exists, according to Dr.
Broca, among some of the South Sea Islanders, the Kabyles of Algeria, and the
mountaineers of Montenegro, Miss Buckland suggests that greater attention should
be directed to this curious subject by English antiquaries.
2. On Bushmen Crania. By Professor G. Routeston, M.D., F.R.S.
3. On the Salting Mounds of Essex. By H. Storzs, F.G.S.
The author described the results of a series of investigations in these mounds.
They consist of a reddish burnt clay, mixed freely with broken pottery of very rude
type, charcoal, and wood-ashes, and clinkers. They exist only in one peculiar
position. Out of very many examined, none were more than five feet above ordinary
high-water mark, and none reached to low-water level. They are all uniform in
character and composition, ranging from one to five feet in thickness, and possess
the same character at top as at bottom. In size, they are very varied; some
covering ten acres of ground. The number of them is unknown, but eighteen still
exist. between Strood and Virley (a space of about six miles). All occur in the
marshes, but some are outside the sea-wall, and the greater number within it.
Of those that are outside the existing sea-wall, two still retain the characteristic
traces of Saxon tillage. Not asingle mound is known to the author which faces
the open sea. All of them fringe the creeks and estuaries, and they are invariably
placed upon the London clay.
Many specimens of the pottery were exhibited, showing extremely coarse
manufacture, all of which were imperfect. Two fragments were of Roman make.
One flint scraper also was shown, but as it was upon the surface, the author con-
sidered it did not really belong to the mound upon which it was found.
Many local traditions were mentioned, and the opinions stated of several gentle-
men as to their cause; notably that of the Rey. T. C. Atkinson, as to their being
the resultants of salt-works of Roman date.
4. The Mountain Lapps. By Lieutenant G. T. Tempxe, [t.N.
The author stated that in Norway the Lapps are very generally, but incorrectly
called Finns, and therefore often confounded with the real Finns or Quens. They
are regarded by most historians as the descendants of the aboriginal people of
Norway. The total number of Lapps in Norway at the present time does not ex-
ceed 17,000, and of these upwards of 15,000 are sea or fisher Lapps, whose mode
of life differs but little from that of the Norwegian fishermen. In the interior of
Northern Norway, however, there are still about 1600 fjeld or mountain Lapps,
who live partly by the chase and fresh-water fishing, but chiefly on the produce of
their reindeer, the herds comprising in 1865 about 102,000 tame animals.
For centuries they have been in contact with civilisation, but to this day their
mode of life is that of the half-wild hunter, the half-civilised nomad. Their
usages, their ornaments, and their implements all bear traces of a wild state; and
they are, alas! like the North American Indians, of all the allurements of civilisa-
tion, only susceptible to the temptation of spirits. It does not require very sharp
632 REPORT—1880.
eyes to see that they are a doomed people, a people that will vanish from the earth,
and at no very distant day be classed among the things that have been. Their
physiognomy is decidedly Mongolian; and their physical constitution is very
peculiar, as they unite great power of enduring fatigue and privation with extreme
nervous sensibility. The Lapps of Norway are no longer heathens; they attend
church, many can read, and all undergo some examination in the principles of reli-
gion before they are confirmed. They are fully alive to the importance of this, for
no one can be married in Norway without producing a certificate of confirmation,
and in spite of their roving habits, the Lapps are quite as much addicted to matri-
mony as we are ourselves.
The Lapps have now generally adopted the manners and customs, as well as
the religion of their Norwegian or Russian neighbours; but on the banks of the
Pasvig river there are some Greek-Catholic Lapps, who still go through the form
of carrying off their brides from a hostile tribe.
5. The Hittites. By W. Sr. C. Boscawen.
In this paper Mr. Boscawen gave an account of the discoveries which had been
made by himself and others during the last year in the researches relating to the
Hittites or North Syrian tribes.
The paper commences by pointing out the fact that the discovery and decipher-
ment of the Egyptian and Assyrian inscriptions had resulted not only in restoring
to us the history and geography, the literature and civilisation of their own country,
but they had also shed great and important light on the condition of the surround-
ing nations. From the hieroglyphics and cuneiform inscriptions now accessible to
us, it was possible to restore, with a great degree of accuracy, the political and
ethnographical duration of that great and fertile middle state of Syria which
divided the leading Asiatic and African powers. The details furnished by the in-
scriptions were also largely supplemented and illustrated by the panelled walls and
sculptured slabs with which the Assyrians and Egyptians had decorated their
palaces. The paper then proceeded to deal with the above authorities, from which
it was shown that the whole of the district of North Syria was occupied by a
powerful confederation of tribes, who were known to the Egyptians as the Kheta,
and to the Assyrians as the Khattai. These were the Khittim or Hittites of the
Hebrew writers. From the inscriptions information was deduced which showed
that, although not to be regarded as a nation, this confederation of tribes formed an
important factor in the political world of thirty years ago. Each alone was inde-
pendent in its own district and capital city, but all were one and united when the
invader threatened the land.
The author then sketched briefly the geographical position of the various tribes,
showing their relationship to one another, The discovery of the site of the capital
of the Khittai on the banks of the Euphrates had afforded a definite point and
centre from which to commence the study of these tribes. The principal tribe of
theKhittai proper was situated round about the city of Carchemish on the Euphrates.
To the west of these were the Patanaians or the Padanaians, the tribe who occupied
the plains to the north of Aleppo watered by the Koweik. The principal cities of
these tribes were Khilbunu, the modern Aleppo, Arpad and Khazaz or Azaz.
To the west of these tribes, in the plains of El Amk, were a number of small tribes
who had come down from the slopes of the Taurus and Ammanus ranges, chief
among whom were the Katai or Katu, a highly civilised tribe who occupied the.
shores of the Gulf of Antioch, and who were related to the Kitti or Kittim of
Cyprus. South of these tribes, in the fertile valley of the Orontes and Litany rivers,
were the tribes of the Routennu or Lutennu, who were almost independent of the
Hittite league. Their chief cities were Kadesh on the Orontes, the capital and
sacred city, and Hamath and Magiddo further south.
From an inscription of an early Babylonian king, Sargon I., King of Agane,
the author showed that the Babylonians had, in the 17th century before the Chris-
tian era, come in contact with the Khittai or Hittites. Sargon I. carried at least
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 633
three campaigns into the Hittite country, one of which passed beyond the main-
land and into the adjacent island of Cyprus. The effect of this contact with
Babylon was shown in an interesting fragment preserved by the Hebrew writer of
the book of Genesis which related to the purchase of the cave-sepulchre of Mach-
pelah by the Hebrew patriarch. Here we find that the Babylonian commercial
system, which was known certainly to Abraham, a native of Ur, was also known
to Ephron the Hittite. Reference was next made to the hieroglyphic inscriptions
recording the campaigns of Thothmes III., against the Rutennu. ‘The composition
of the southern confederation of tribes was explained, and their relationship to the
Hittites proper explained. The defeat of the Rutennu or southern branch had
opened up the way for the enlargement of the Hittite power, and the result was
that in the time of Rameses II., the Greek Sesostris, we find most of the pre-
Hellenic nations of Asia Minor who were the allies of the Hittites flocking to aidin
repelling the invader.
Mr. Boscawen next proceeded to describe the ruins of the Hittite city of Carche-
mish, which he visited in the early part of the present year,and where he made
drawings and copies of the sculptures and inscriptions. After describing the prin-
cipal topographical features of the site, Mr. Boscawen proceeded to describe the
sculptures discovered.
Basing his remarks ona sculpture representing the patron goddess of Carchemish,
the Hittite Anatha or Anat—the Asiatic goddess, Mr. Boscawen proceeded to show
how the introduction of the cult of this goddess in Asia Minor was due to the
Hittites, who were shown by the monuments to have possessed all the principal
characteristics of this pre-Hellenic cult as established at Ephesus.
Mr. Boscawen next showed how that the peculiar hierarchy of the Ephesian
Artemis, with its high priest, ‘the king bee,’ and its priestesses, ‘ the bees,’ was of
Hittite origin. By means of this and the monuments, Mr. Boscawen showed the
close relationship between the Hittites and the Assyrians, Teucrians, Dardanians, and
other races of Asia Minor, and traced, by various monuments, the route by which
the Hittites penetrated to the gean Sea.
A description was given of the other Hittite monuments from Carchemish, and
also from Boghaz, Keui, and Eyuk, in Galatia.
The paper concluded with a description of the Hittite hieroglyphic syllabary,
and special reference was made to a bilingual text which had recently been dis-
covered.
6. On the Discovery of a Bi-lingual Seal in Cuneiform and Khita. By
Hype Crarke, V.P.A.I.
The author communicated the determination and discovery of the interpretation
and language of the Khita (Hamath, Hittite, or Carchemish) inscriptions :—
Dr. Mordtmann found a bi-lingual seal, with the name of King Tarkondimotos
in Cuneiform, and Professor Sayce has discovered that the other character is Khita.
On this I have sent some observations.
Finding an impresion of the seal was in the British Museum, on Saturday, 28th
August, I saw it there in company with Dr. Birch and Mr. Pinches, and I had
already prepared a sketch which should give me, lst, a form for king ; 2nd, for head ;
8rd, for children.
The seal is most beautifully engraved, but the forms are conventional, and there-
fore only to be defined by comparison with other types.
I found a head in character 2, and the two lines for son in character 3.
The head is that of an animal, and the first character is that of an animal.
What specific animals these are I cannot yet absolutely determine for want of
material. [They appear to be those of the Bull, which signifies Tura, and Lion
which signifies Kun, which are found on the gold coins of Sardis in Lydia, and
which are the gold pieces referred to in Ezra and Nehemiah as Adarkon and
Darkomonim. }
634 REPORT—1880.
The fourth character must be that for the title of king.
The bottom character is Land, as suggested by Mr. Boscawen.
The large side character must be Zume or Rume.
On leaving Dr. Birch and entering into the Museum I looked at the Carchemish
sculptures, and there I found almost a replica of the seal, and other parallels, to
which I called Dr. Birch’s attention.
This Carchemish parallel of mine throws the most remarkable light on the seal.
It may be premised that my Carchemish inscription does not read from top to
bottom, as we conceived from the Hamath the character does, but from left to right,
while both the seal inscriptions are from right to left.
The animals are in the same order at Carchemish, apparently the secondary
first, and the male or determinative second, as should be the case according to the
comparative grammar I applied.
Thus, instead of King Tarkondimotos being simply a king of Cilicia, as proposed
by Dr. Mordtmann, he must have been recognised on the site of the other
monuments.
Another Carchemish parallel gives the female head, the kingly emblem, and the
Zumei character, but is accompanied by a female emblem,
On careful comparison of the seal-inscription I differ from Professor Sayce. I
find no determinative for God, and doubt if ‘ Land’ is a determinative, but consider
it to be a substantial word.
In my Carchemish parallel there is, however, a determinative * | *, the very one
I fixed upon years ago in my first establishment of the Khita character from the
transcripts, which Capt. Burton thought to be registers of camel-marks. This
male determinative is over the male or horned head, and I am not sure there is not
a female determinative over the other head.
I must now communicate some further investigations, to enable the Section to
understand the bearing of the facts before them. I was surprised to see a beast’s
head where I had expected to find the symbol of a man’s head; but I saw that this
head and the two heads figured in Carchemish sculpture, and in Capt. Gill’s West
China MSS., with this remarkable peculiarity, that the hair or beard under the
chin of the beast is marked with three strokes.
I know that 3 is a sign for plural and collective, and 3 hairs represents many hairs.
There are also three strokes on each of the two copies of the kingly emblem
and the seal, which may imply Great King.
I know that in the languages that I have assigned for the comparative philology
of Khita, Tara and Kun figure for king, but as all such roots have several mean-
ings, it struck me on reflection that the words might also mean animals.
On examination, I found that all the ancient words for king (and those now
used in Africa) figure also in the names for animals, and afterwards that the names
for God (and so far as I know Fetish) so figure. These are facts in perfect con-
formity with anthropological knowledge.
The animal, in our inscriptions represented by his head or mask, is the totem or
fetish of the man—in this case of the king.
Why there should be two is, it may be presumed, to have a fortunate pair, a
male and female, and for the same reason the inscription on the seal is double for
the right and left hand of the king. On the earliest coins two animals were found.
Applying our anthropological knowledge we obtain a direct totem and fetish
explanation from the ‘ Khita’ mythology for that adopted from the ancients by the
Greeks. This explains to us the animal metamorphoses of the gods, heroes, and
kings, their animal emblems and animal sacrifices. The result of this will be a
final rejection of the scheme of Sanscritic weather mythology for the explanation
of more ancient anthropological facts.
Besides our gain on that head. we now know absolutely the linguistic nature of
the Khita languages in Canaan, in Lydia, and in Etruria, whatever dialectic differ-
ences may have existed. The words Tar, ku or kun, and timme (dimi) are clear.
The latter is child, son, offspring.
It is separable, we see, at Carchemish, so that the name became Tarkun, like the
Etruscan Tarquin.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANTHROPOLOGY. 635
The names, continued as heroic names and popular names by the Greeks, still
consisted of the lion, horse, wolf, &c., with the like termination, Damas. ;
[The emblems on the coins of Lydia, &c., are found to correspond with Lydian
words of the same sound as the names of the cities. |
We are further in a condition to provide for Khita comparative philology and
comparative grammar from living types on the lines so long laid down by me.
7. Further Researches on the Prehistoric Relations of the Babylonian,
Chinese, and Egyptian Characters, Language, and Culture, and their
Connection with Sign and Gesture Language. By Hype Cuarke,
Wee A.L
This was in continuation of a paper on Chinese and other characters, read at the
British Association Dublin Meeting (Journal, 1878, p. 590). The writer repeated
that the characters and languages were of common origin, but of independent develop-
ment; and the mythology also. The Chinese, Egyptian, Coptic, and Babylonian were
not truly monosyllabic ; but most of the assumed monosyllables are dissyllables.
He exhibited illustrations of two series of Chinese characters, the Tau or + series,
and the Round, O, converted into square. The + in Chinese, differentiated, repre-
sents 10, scholar or literate, earth, son, shield, market, door, rich, finger-nail, bull,
and cow. He showed that all these differentiated cross-signs, representing appa-
rently dissimilar ideas, are represented by words of an allied type in the cor-
responding languages. In dealing with the Round series, he gave similar illustra-
tions for the signs sun, moon, face, ring, pot, enclosed ground or field, and their
secondaries, woman, mother, blood, and also the numerals, four and two. In this
series the Akkad or Babylonian characters conform, and, to some extent, Egyptian
and Mexican. Mr. Clarke then passed to the Akkad phonetics, and these he showed
were illustrated by the corresponding languages, so that the phonetics in Babylonia
and China must have been invented by the pre-Akkad races, before the develop-
ment of the Babylonian, and were not invented in Babylonia. The characters and
the languages he connected with sign or gesture language. Extending the illus-
trations by Col. Mallery, U.S.A., of the relations of the signs of the North American
Indians with Egyptian characters, Mr. Clarke gave further illustrations, and
showed that there were a common psychological relation of the pre-historic languages
and characters with the signs and gestures. Thus the languages and characters
were founded on the signs and not the reverse. He exhibited from the signs the
community of features between the signs and the languages. In reference to the
population which had propagated early culture throughout the world, he still main-
tained that it was a white race, which had been seated in the highland and lake
regions of Africa, and the migrations of which explain the early history of Egypt,
of Western Asia, and Europe, and the other regions of the world.
8. On the ‘ Vei Syllabary’ of Liberia, West Africa. By Hypr Ciarke,
VP aer.
This syllabary had been discovered about 1849, by Lieut. Forbes, R.N., and
chronicled by Rev. Dr. Koelle. The latter had been informed that it was invented
by one Doala Bakere, and it was regarded as a unique example of such invention in
those days. Mr. Clarke pointed out that it was not an alphabet, modelled on the
neighbouring English, Arabic, or even Barber, but was a syllabary on the ancient
model. The characters, sometimes ideographs, were not casual, but the exact
reproduction of Khita (Hittite), West China, ancient Shwo-wen Chinese, and
Babylonian, with occasional Egyptian, Libyan, Tamashek, and Berber, Cypriote,
and Iberian. It was also occasionally written from top to bottom like Khita, &c.
*|: [+] was employed alone and in combination, and also other well-known types.
He therefore did not doubt that the Vei represented an ancient syllabary, and that
it would be most valuable for the illustration of Khita and other ancient characters,
636 REPORT—1880.
He repeated his observation that the Iberian was of common origin with the other
ancient characters. Mr. Clarke referred to a Vei legend of Lake Zontori, to which
on the conquest of the country the aboriginal king and his warriors had retired,
and where their souls still dwell, and their songs are still heard. This is the
parallel of the legend of Lake Fucinus, in Italy, and it had also Lydian connexions,
while Veii was in Etruria on one side of Rome, and Fucinus on the other.
Attaching to a lake Fuguene in New Granada_was an allied legend. He showed
that the Vei incidentally supported the Turanian origin maintained by him for
the Runes and northern mythology and culture.
9. Note on a Chilian Tumulus. By Joun Hattam Mange.
10. India the Home of Gunpowder, on Philological Evidence. By Dr.
Gustav OppERT.
DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY.
CHAIRMAN OF THE DEpARTMENT—F. M. Batrour, M.A., F.R.S.
(Vice-President of the Section).
THURSDAY, AUGUST 26.
The Department did not meet.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 27.
The CyatrMaNn delivered the following Address :—
In the spring of the present year, Professor Huxley delivered an address at the
Royal Institution, to which he gave the felicitous title of ‘The Coming of Age of
the Origin of Species.’ It is, as he pointed out, twenty-one years since Mr. Darwin's
great work was published, and the present occasion is an appropriate one to review
the effect which it has had on the progress of biological knowledge.
There is, I may venture to say, no department of biology the growth of which
has not been profoundly influenced by the Darwinian theory. When Messrs. Dar-
win and Wallace first enunciated their views to the scientific world, the facts they
brought forward seemed to many naturalists insufficient to substantiate their far-
reaching conclusions. Since that time an overwhelming mass of evidence has,
however, been rapidly accumulating in their favour. Facts which at first appeared
to be opposed to their theories have one by one been shown to afford striking
proofs of their truth, There are at the present time but few naturalists who do
not accept in the main the Darwinian theory, and even some of those who reject
many of Darwin’s explanations still accept the fundamental position that all
animals are descended from a common stock.
To attempt in the brief time which I have at my disposal to trace the influence
of the Darwinian theory on all the branches of anatomy and physiology would be
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 637
wholly impossible, and I shall confine myself to an attempt to do so for a small
section only. There is perhaps no department of Biology which has been so revolu-
tionised, if I may use the term, by the theory of animal evolution, as that of
Development or Embryology. The reason of this is not far to seek. According to
the Darwinian theory, the present order of the organic world has been caused by
the action of two laws, known as the laws of heredity and of variation. The
law of heredity is familiarly exemplitied by the well-known fact that offspring
resemble their parents. Not only, however, do the offspring belong to the same
species as their parents, but they inherit the individual peculiarities of their parents.
It is on this that the breeders of cattle depend, and it is a fact of every-day ex-
perience amongst ourselves. A further point with reference to heredity to which I
must call your attention is the fact that the characters, which display themselves
at some special period in the life of the parent, are acquired by the offspring at a
corresponding period. Thus, in many birds the males have a special plumage
in the adult state. The male offspring is not, however, born with the adult plumage,
but only acquires it when it becomes adult.
The law of variation is in a certain sense opposed to the law of heredity. It
asserts that the resemblance which offspring bear to their parents is never exact.
The contradiction between the two laws is only apparent. All variations and
modifications in an organism are directly or indirectly due to its environments ;
that is to say, they are either produced by some direct influence acting upon the
organism itself, or by some more subtle and mysterious action on its parents; and
the law of heredity really asserts that the offspring and parent would resemble each
other if their environments were the same. Since, however, this is never the
case, the offspring always differ to some extent from the parents. Now, according
to the law of heredity, every acquired variation tends to be inherited, so that, by a
summation of small changes, the animals may come to differ from their parent
stock to an indefinite extent.
We are now in a position to follow out the consequences of these two laws in
their bearing on development. Their application will best be made apparent by
taking a concrete example. Let us suppose a spot on the surface of some very
simple organism to become, at a certain period of life, pigmented, and therefore
to be especially sensitive to light. In the offspring of this form, the pigment-spot
will reappear at a corresponding period ; and there will therefore be a period in the
life of the offspring during which there is no pigment-spot, and a second period in
which there is one. If a naturalist were to study the life-history, or, in other
words, the embryology of this form, the fact about the pigment-spot would come
to his notice, and he would be justified, from the laws of heredity, in concluding
that the species was descended from an ancestor without a pigment-spot, because
a pigment-spot was absent in the young. Now, we may suppose the transparent.
layer of skin above the pigment-spot to become thickened, so as gradually to form
a kind of lens, capable of throwing an image of external objects on the pigment-
spot. In this way a rudimentary eye might be evolved out of the pigment-spot.
A naturalist studying the embryology of the form with this eye would find that.
the pigment-spot was formed before the lens, and he would be justified in con-
cluding, by the same process of reasoning as before, that the ancestors of the form
he was studying first acquired a pigment-spot and thena lens. We may picture
to ourselves a series of steps by which the simple eye, the origin of which I have
traced, might become more complicated ; and it is easy to see how an embryologist.
studying the actual development of this complicated eye would be able to unrayel
the process of its evolution.
The general nature of the methods of reasoning employed by embryologists, who
accept the Darwinian theory, is exemplified by the instance just given. If this
method is a legitimate one, and there is no reason to doubt it, we ought to find
that animals, in the course of their development, pass through a series of stages, in
each of which they resemble one of their remote ancestors; but it is to be remem-
bered that, in accordance with the law of variation, there is a continual tendency to
change, and that the longer this tendency acts the greater will be the total effect.
Owing to this tendency, we should not expect to find a perfect resemblance
638 REPORT—1880.
between an animal, at different stages of its growth, and its ancestors; and the re-
moter the ancestors, the less close ought the resemblance to be. In spite, however
of this limitation, it may be laid down as one of the consequences of the law of
inheritance that every animal ought, in the course of its individual development, to
repeat with more or less fidelity the history of its ancestral evolution. f
A direct verification of this proposition is scarcely possible. There is ample
ground for concluding that the forms from which existing animals are descended
have in most instances perished ; and although there is no reason why they should
not have been preserved in a fossil state, yet, owing to the imperfection of the
geological record, palzontology is not so often of service as might have been hoped.
While for the reasons just stated, it is not generally possible to prove by direct
observation that existing forms in their embryonic state repeat the characters of
their ancestors, there is another method by which the truth of this proposition can
be approximately verified.
A comparison of recent and fossil forms shows that there are actually living at
the present day representatives of a considerable proportion of the groups which have
in previous times existed on the globe, and’ there are therefore forms allied to the
ancestors of those living at the present day, though not actually the same species.
Tf therefore it can be shown that the embryos of existing forms pass through
stages in which they have the characters of more primitive groups, a sufficient
proof of our proposition will have been given.
That such is often the case is a well-known fact, and was even known before
the publication of Darwin’s works. Von Baer, the greatest embryologist of the
century, who died at an advanced age but.a few years ago, discussed the proposition
at considerable length in a work published between the years 1830 and 1840. He
came to the conclusion that the embryos of higher forms never actually resemble
lower forms, but only the embryos of lower forms; and he further maintained that
such resemblances did not hold at all, or only to a very small extent, beyond the
limits of the larger groups. Thus he believed that, though the embryos of Verte-
brates might agree amongst themselves, there was no resemblance between them and
the embryos of any invertebrate group. We now know that these limitations of
Von Baer do not hold good, but it is to be remembered that the meaning now
attached by embryologists to such resemblances was quite unknown to him, r
These preliminary remarks will, I trust, be sufficient to demonstrate how com-
pletely modern embryological reasoning is dependent on the two laws of inheritance
and variation, which constitute the keystones of the Darwinian theory.
Before the appearance of the ‘Origin of Species’ many very valuable embryo-
logical investigations were made, but the facts discovered were to their authors
merely so many ultimate facts, which admitted of being classified, but could not
be explained. No explanation could be offered of why it is that animals, instead of
developing in a simple and straightforward way, undergo in the course of their
rowth a series of complicated changes, during which they often acquire organs
which have no function, and which, after remaining visible for a short time
disappear without leaving a trace. 5
No explanation, for instance, could be offered of why it is that a frog in the
course of its growth has a stage in which it breathes like a fish, and then why it is
like a newt witha long tail, which gradually becomes absorbed, and finally disappears.
To the Darwinian the explanation of such facts is obvious. The stage when the
tadpole breathes by gills is a repetition of the stage when the ancestors of the frog had
not advanced in the scale of development beyond a fish, while the newt-like stage
implies that the ancestors of the frog were at one time organised very much like
the newts of to-day. The explanation of such facts has opened out to the embryo-
logist quite a new series of problems. These problems may be divided into two
main groups, technically Inown as those of phylogeny and those of organogeny.
The problems of phylogeny deal with the genealogy of the animal kingdom, A
complete genealogy would form what is known as a natural classification. To
attempt to form such a classification has long been the aim of a large number of
naturalists, and it has frequently been attempted without the aid of embryology.
The statements made in the earlier part of my address clearly show how great an
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.-—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 639
assistance embryology is capable of giving in phylogeny; and as a matter of fact
embryology has been during the last few years very widely employed in all phylo-
genetic questions, and the results which have been arrived at have in many cases
been very striking. ‘To deal with these results in detail would lead me into too
technical a department of my subject ; but I may point out that amongst the more
striking of the results obtained entzely by embryological methods is the demon-
stration that the Vertebrata are not, as was nearly universally believed by older
naturalists, separated by a wide gulf from the Invertebrata, but that there is a
group of animals, known as the Ascidians, formerly united with the Invertebrata,
which is now universally placed in the same class with the Vertebrata.
The discoveries recently made in organogeny, or the genesis of organs, have
been quite as striking, and in many respects even more interesting, than those in
phylogeny, and I propose devoting the remainder of my address to a history of
results which have been arrived at with reference to the origin of the nervous
system.
a To render clear the nature of these results I must say a few words as to the
structure of the animal body. The body is always built of certain pieces of proto-
plasm, which are technically known to biologists as cells. The simplest organisms
are composed either of a single piece of this kind, or of several similar pieces loosely
aggregated together. Each of these pieces or cells is capable of digesting and
assimilating food, and of respiring ; it can execute movements, and is sensitive to
external stimuli, and can reproduce itself. All the functions of higher animals can,
in fact, be carried on in this single cell. Such lowly organised forms are known
to naturalists as the Protozoa. All other animals are also composed of cells, but
these cells are no longer complete organisms in themselves, They exhibit a division
of labour: some carrying on the work of digestion ; some, which we call nerve-
cells, receiving and conducting stimuli; some, which we call muscle-cells, altering
their form—in fact, contracting in one direction—under the action of the stimuli
brought to them by the nerve-cells. In most cases a number of cells with the
same function are united together, and thus constitute a tissue. Thus the cells
which carry on the work of digestion form a lining membrane to a tube or sac, and
constitute a tissue known as a secretoryepithelium. The whole of the animals with
bodies composed of definite tissues of this kind are known as the Metazoa,
A considerable number of early developmental processes are common to the
whole of the Metazoa. ‘
In the first place every Metazoon commences its existence as a simple cell, in
the sense above defined ; this cell is known as the ovum. The first. developmental
process which takes place consists in the division or segmentation of the single cell
into a number of smaller cells. The cells then arrange themselves into. two
groups or layers known to embryologists as the primary germinal layers. These
two layers are usually placed one within the other round a central cayity. The
inner of the two is called the hypoblast, the outer the epiblast. The existence of
these two layers in the embryos of vertebrated animals was made out early in the
present century by Pander, and his observations were greatly extended by Von Baer
and Remak. But it was supposed that these layers were confined to vertebrated
animals. In the year 1849, and at greater length in 1859, Huxley demonstrated
that the bodies of all the polype tribe or Coelenterata—that is to say of the group
to which the common polype, the jelly-fish; and the sea-anemone belong—were com-
posed of two layers of cells, and stated that in his opinion these two layers were
homologous with the epiblast and hypoblast of vertebrate embryos. This very
brilliant discovery came before its time. It fell upon barren ground, and for a
long time bore no fruit. In the year 1866 a young Russian. naturalist named
Kowaleysky began to study by special histological methods the development of
a number of invertebrated forms of animals, and discovered that at an early
stage of development the bodies of all these animals were divided into germinal
layers like those in vertebrates. Biologists were not long in recognising the im-
portance of these discoveries, and they formed the basis of two remarkable essays,
one by our own countryman, Professor Lankester, and the other by a distinguished
German naturalist, Professor Haeckel, of Jena.
640 REPORT—1880.
In these essays the attempt was made to show that the stage in development
already spoken of, in which the cells are arranged in the form of two layers en-
closing a central cavity has an ancestral meaning, and that it is to be interpreted
to signify that all the Metazoa are descended from an ancestor which had a more or
less oval form, with a central digestive cavity provided with a single opening,
serving both for the introduction of food and for the ejection of indigestible
substances. The body of this ancestor was supposed to have been a double-walled
sac formed of an inner layer, the hypoblast, lining the digestive cavity, and an
outer layer, the epiblast. To this form Haeckel gave the name of gastrea or
astrula.
‘ There is every reason to think that Lankester and Haeckel were quite justified
in concluding that a form more or less like that just described was the ancestor of
the Metazoa ; but the further speculations contained in their essays as to the origin
of this form from the Protozoa can only be regarded as suggestive feelers, which,
however, have been of great importance in stimulating and directing embryological
research. It is, moreover, very doubtful whether there are to be found in the de-
velopmental histories of most animals any traces of this gastraea ancestor, other than
the fact of their passing through a stage in which the cells are divided into two
germinal layers.
The key to the nature of the two germinal layers is to be found in Huxley's
comparison between them, and the two layers in the fresh-water polype and the
sea-anemone. The epiblast is the primitive skin, and the hypoblast is the primitive
epithelial wall of the alimentary tract.
In the whole of the polype group, or Coelenterata, the body remains through
life composed of the two layers, which Huxley recognised as homologous with the
epiblast and hypoblast of the Vertebrata; but in all the higher Metazoa a third
germinal layer, known as the mesoblast, early makes its appearance between the
two primary layers. The mesoblast originates as a differentiation of one or of
both the primary germinal layers; but although the different views which have
been held as to its mode of origin form an important section of the history of
recent embryological investigations, I must for the moment confine myself to
saying that from this layer there take their origin—the whole of the muscular
system, of the vascular system, and of that connective-tissue system which forms
the internal skeleton, tendons, and other parts.
We have seen that the epiblast represents the skin or epidermis of the simple
sac-like ancestor common to all the Metazoa. In all the higher Metazoa it gives
rise, as might be expected, to the epidermis, but it gives rise at the same time to a
number of other organs; and, in accordance with the principles laid down in the
earlier part of my address, it is to be concluded that the organs so derived have been
formed as differentiations of the primitive epidermis. One of the most interesting of
recent embryological discoveries is the fact that the nervous system is, in all but a
very few doubtful cases, derived from the epiblast. This fact was made out for
vertebrate animals by the great embryologist Von Baer; and the Russian naturalist
Kowalevsky, to whose researches I have already alluded, showed that this was
true for a large number of invertebrate animals. The derivation of the nervous
system from the epiblast has since been made out for a sufficient number of forms
satisfactorily to establish the generalisation that it is all but universally derived
from the epiblast.
In any animal in which there is no distinct nervous system, it is obvious that
the general surface of the body must be sensitive to the action of its surroundings,
or to what are technically called stimuli. We know experimentally that this is so
in the case of the Protozoa, and of some very simple Metazoa, such as the fresh-
water Polype or Hydra. The skin or epidermis of the ancestor of the Metazoa
was no doubt similarly sensitive; and the fact of the nervous system being
derived from the epiblast implies that the functions of the central nervous
system, which were originally taken by the whole skin, became gradually
concentrated in a special part of the skin which was step by step removed
from the surface, and finally became a well-defined organ in the interior of the
body.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 641
What were the steps by which this remarkable process took place? How has
it come about that there are nerves passing from the central nervous system to all
parts of the skin, and also to the muscles? How have the arrangements for reflex
actions arisen by which stimuli received on the surface of the body are carried to
the central part of the nervous system, and are thence transmitted to the appropriate
muscles, and cause them to contract? All these questions require to be answered
before we can be said to possess a satisfactory Inowledge of the origin of the
nervous system. As yet, however, the knowledge of these points derived from
embryology is imperfect, although there is every hope that further investigation
will render it less so? Fortunately, however, a study of comparative anatomy,
especially that of the Coelenterata, fills up some of the gaps left from our study of
embryology.
From embryolocy we learn that the ganglion-cells of the central part of the
neryous system are originally derived from the simple undifferentiated epithelial
cells of the surface of the body. We further learn that the nerves are out-growths
of the central nervous system. It was supposed till quite recently that the nerves
in Vertebrates were derived from parts of the middle germinal layer or mesoblast,
and that they only became secondarily connected with the central nervous system.
This is now known not to be the case, but the nerves are formed as processes
growing out from the central part of the nervous system.
Another important fact shown by embryology is that the central nervous system,
and percipient portion of the organs of special sense, are often formed from the
same part of the primitive epidermis. Thus, in ourselves and in other vertebrate
animals the sensitive part of the eye, known as the retina, is formed from two
lateral lobes of the front part of the primitive brain. The crystalline lens and
cornea of the eye are, however, subsequently formed from the skin.
The same is true for the peculiar compound eyes of crabs or Crustacea. The
most important part of the central nervous system of these animals is the
supracesophageal ganglia, often known as the brain, and these are formed in the
embryo from two thickened patches of the skin at the front end of the body. These
thickened patches become gradually detached from the surface, remaining covered
over by a layer of skin. They then constitute the supracesophageal ganglia; but
they form not only the ganglia, but also the rhabdons or retinal elements of the
eye—the parts in fact which correspond to the rods and cones in our own retina.
The layer of epidermis or skin which lies immediately above the supracesophageal
ganglia becomes gradually cunverted into the refractive media of the crustacean eye.
A cuticle which lies on its surface forms the peculiar facets on the surface of the
eye, which are known as the corneal lenses, while the cells of the epidermis give
rise to lens-like bodies known as the crystalline cones.
It would be easy to quote further instances of the same kind, but I trust that
the two which I have given will be sufficient to show the kind of relation which
often exists between the organs of special sense, especially those of vision, and
the central nervous system. It might have been anticipated @ priori that organs
of special sense would only appear in animals provided with a well-developed
central nervous system, This, however, is not the case, Special cells, with long
delicate hairs, which are undoubtedly highly sensitive structures, are present in
animals in which as yet nothing has been found which could be called a central
nervous system; and there is every reason to think that the organs of special sense
originated part passw with the central nervous system. It is probable that in the
simplest organisms the whole body is sensitive to light, but that with the ap-
pearance of pigment-cells in certain parts of the body, the sensitiveness to light
became localised to the areas where the pigment-cells were present. Since, how-
ever, it was necessary that stimuli received in such areas should be communicated
to other parts of the body, some of the epidermic cells in the neighbourhood of the
pigment-spots, which were at first only sensitive in the same manner as other cells
of the epidermis, became gradually differentiated into special nerve-cells. As to
the details of this differentiation, embryology does not as yet throw any great
light ; but from the study of comparative anatomy there are grounds for thinking
ake was somewhat as follows:—Cells placed on the surface sent protoplasmic
80. rm
642 REPORT—1880.
processes of a nervous nature inwards, which came into connection with nervous
processes from similar cells placed in other parts of the body. The cells with
such processes then became removed from the surface, forming a deeper layer of
the epidermis below the sensitive cells of the organ of vision. With these cells
they remained connected by protoplasmic filaments, and thus they came to form
a thickening of the epidermis underneath the organ of vision, the cells of which
received their stimuli from those of the organ of vision, and transmitted the
stimuli so received to other parts of the body. Such a thickening would obviously
be the rudiment of a central nervous system, and it is easy to see by what steps
it might become gradually larger and more important, and might gradually travel
inwards, remaining connected with the sense organ at the surface by protoplasmic
filaments, which would then constitute nerves. The rudimentary eye would at
first merely consist of cells sensitive to light; at a later period there would be
formed optical structures constituting the lens, which would throw an image of
external objects upon it, and so convert the whole structure into a true organ of
vision. It has thus come about that, in the development of the individual, the
retina or sensitive part of the eye is first formed in connection with the central
neryous system, while the lenses of the eye are independently evolved from the
epidermis at a later period.
The general features of the origin of the nervous system which have so far
been made out by means of the study of embryology are the following :—
(1) That the nervous system of the higher Metazoa has been developed in the
course of a long series of generations by a gradual process of differentiation of
parts of the epidermis.
(2) That part of the central nervous system of many forms arose as a local col-
lection of nerve-cells in the epidermis,in the neighbourhood of rudimentary organs
of vision,
(8) That ganglion cells haye been evolved from simple epithelial cells of the
epidermis.
; (4) That the primitive nerves were outgrowths of the original ganglion cells;
and that the nerves of the higher forms are formed as outgrowths of the central
nervous system.
The points on which embryology has not yet thrown a satisfactory light are :—
(1) The steps by which the protoplasmic processes, from the primitive epi-
dermic cells, became united together so as to form a network of nervye-fibres,
placing the various parts of the body in nervous communication.
(2) The process by which nerves became connected with muscles, so that a
stimulus received by a nerve-cell could be communicated to and cause a contrac-
tion in a muscle.
Recent investigations on the anatomy of the Coelenterata, especially of jelly-
fish and sea-anemones, have thrown some light on these points, although there is
left much that is still obscure.
In our own country Mr. Romanes has conducted some interesting physiological
experiments on these forms; and Professor Schiifer has made some important
histological investigations upon them, In Germany a series of valuable researches
have also been made on this group by Professors Kleinenberg, Claus and Eimer,
and more especially by the brothers Hertwig, of Jena. Careful histological in-
vestigations, especially those of the last-named authors, haye made us acquainted
with the forms of some very primitive types of nervous system. In the common
sea-anemones there are, for instance, no organs of special sense, and no definite
central nervous system.. There are, however, scattered throughout the skin, and
also throughout the lining of the digestive tract, a number of specially modified
epithelial cells, which are no doubt delicate organs of sense. They are provided
at their free extremity with a long hair, and are prolonged on their inner side into
a fine process which penetrates the deeper part of the epithelial layer of the skin or
digestive wall. They eventually join a fine network of protoplasmic fibres which
forms a special layer immediately within the epithelium. ‘The fibres of this net-
work are no doubt essentially nervous. In addition to fibres there are, moreover,
present in the network cells of the same character as the multipolar ganglion-cells in
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 643
the neryous system of Vertebrates, and some of these cells are characterised by send-
ing a process into the superjacent epithelium. Such cells are obviously epithelial
cells in the act of becoming nerve-cells; and itis probable thatthe nerve-cells are,
in fact, sense-cells which have travelled inwards and lost their epithelial character.
There is every reason to think that the network just described is not only con-
tinuous with the sense-cells in the epithelium, but that it is also continuous with
epithelial cells which are provided with muscular prolongations. The nervous
system thus consists of a network of protoplasmic fibres, continuous on the one
hand with sense-cells in the epithelium, and on the other with muscular cells.
The nervous network is generally distributed both beneath the epithelium of the
skin and that of the digestive tract, but is especially concentrated in the disc-like
region between the mouth and tentacles. The above observations have thrown a
very clear light on the characters of the nervous system at an early stage of its
evolution, but they leave unanswered the questions (1) how the nervous network
first arose, and (2) how its fibres became continuous with muscles. It is probable
that the nervous network took its origin from processes of the sense-cells. The
processes of the different cells probably first met and then fused together, and,
becoming more arborescent, finally gave rise to a complicated network.
The connection between this network and the muscular cells also probably took
place by a process of contact and fusion.
Epithelial cells with muscular processes were discovered by Kleinenberg be-
fore epithelial cells with nervous processes were known, and he suggested that
the epithelial part of such cells was a sense-organ, and that the connecting part
between this and the contractile processes was a rudimentary nerve. This in-
genious theory explained completely the fact of nerves being continuous with
muscles; but on the further discoveries being made which I have just described, it
became obvious that this theory would have to be abandoned, and that some other
explanation would have to be given of the continuity between nerves and muscles.
The hypothetical explanation just offered is that of fusion.
It seems very probable that many of the epithelial cells were originally provided
with processes the protoplasm of which, like the protoplasm of the Protozoa, carried
on the functions of nerves and muscles at the same time, and that these processes
united amongst themselves into a network. By a process of differentiation parts
of this network may have become specially contractile, and other parts may have lost
their contractility and become solely nervous. In this way the connection between
neryes and muscles might be explained, and this hypothesis fits in very well with
the condition of the neuro-muscular system as we find it in the Coelenterata.
The nervous system of the higher Metazoa appears then to have originated from
a differentiation of some of the superficial epithelial cells of the body, though it is
possible that some parts of the system may have been formed by a differentiation
of the alimentary epithelium. The cells of the epithelium were most likely at the
same time contractile and sensory, and the differentiation of the nervous system
may very probably have commenced, in the first instance, from a specialisation in
the function of part of a network formed of neuro-muscular prolongations of
epithelial cells. A simultaneous differentiation of other parts of the network into
muscular fibres may have led to the continuity at present obtaining between nerves
and muscles.
Local differentiations of the nervous network, which was no doubt distributed
over the whole body, took place on the formation of organs of special sense, and
such differentiations gave rise to the formation of a central nervous system. The
central nervous system was at first continuous with the epidermis, but became
separated from it and travelled inwards. Ganglion-cells took their origin from
sensory epithelial cells, provided with prolongations, continuous with the nervous
network. Such epithelial cells gradually lost their epithelial character, and finally
became completely detached from the epidermis.
Neryes, such as we find them in the higher types, originated from special
differentiations of the nervous network, radiating from the parts of the central
nervous system.
Such, briefly, is the present state of our knowledge as to the genesis of the
TT2
644 REPORT—1880.
nervous system. I ought not, however, to leave this subject without saying a few
words as to the hypothetical views which the distinguished evolutionist Mr. Herbert
Spencer has put forward on this subject in his work on Psychology,
For Herbert Spencer nerves have originated, not as processes of epithelial cells,
but from the passage of motion along the lines of least resistance. The nerves would
seem, according to this view, to have been formed in any tissue from the continuous
passage of nervous impulses through it. ‘A wave of molecular disturbance,’ he
says, ‘ passing along a tract of mingled colloids closely allied in composition, and
isomerically transforming the molecules of one of them, will be apt at the same
time to form some new molecules of the same type,’ and thus a nerve becomes
established.
A nervous centre is formed, according to Herbert Spencer, at the point in the
colloid in which nerves are generated, where a single nervous wave breaks up, and
its parts diverge along various lines of least resistance. At such points some of
the nerve-colloid will remain in an amorphous state, and as the wave of molecular
motion will there be checked, it will tend to cause decompositions amongst the un-
arranged molecules. The decompositions must, he says, cause ‘ additional molecular
motion to be disengaged ; so that along the outgoing lines there will be discharged
an augmented wave. Thus there will arise at this point something having the
character of a ganglion corpuscle.’
These hypotheses of Herbert Spencer, which have been widely adopted in this
country, are, it appears to me, not borne out by the discoveries to which I have
called vour attention to-day. The discovery that nerves have been developed from
processes of epithelial cells, gives a very different conception of their genesis to
that of Herbert Spencer, which makes them originate from the passage of nervous
impulses through a tract of mingled colloids; while the demonstration that
ganglion-cells arose as epithelial cells of special sense, which have travelled inwards
from the surface, admits still less of a reconciliation with Herbert Spencer’s view
on the same subject.
Although the present state of our knowledge on the genesis of the nervous
system is a great advance on that of a few years ago, there is still much remaining
to be done to make it complete.
The subject is well worth the attention of the morphologist, the physiologist, or
even of the psychologist, and we must not remain satisfied by filling up the gaps
in our knowledge by such hypotheses as I have been compelled to frame. New
methods of research will probably be required to grapple with the problems that
are still unsolved; but when we look back and survey what has been done in the
past, there can be no reason for mistrusting our advance in the future.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Alkaline Fermentation of Urine. By A. 8. Lua.
2. On the Origin of the Head-Kidney. By A. Sepewicx, B.A.
The hypothesis of Gegenbaur and Fiirbringer as to the relation of the head-
kidney to the hinder part of the excretory system was considered, the objections to
it pointed out, and the following hypothesis put forward. The head-kidney is the
anterior part of a primitive excretory organ possessed by some ancestral vertebrate,
the posterior part of which has persisted as the Wolffian body. In support of this
view it was pointed out that the structure of the head-kidney essentially resembles
that of the Wolffian body. It was further noticed that, though at first sight the
development of these two organs is entirely different, on a closer examination they
are found to present a development fundamentally similar. The development of
the Wolffian body in Amphibia and other animals with a head-kidney must be con-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D.—DEPT. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 645
sidered as very much modified and in no way representing the phylogenetic history ;
while that in Elasmobranchii, in which there is no head-kidney, may be looked
upon as much more primitive.
Comparing the development of the Wolffian body in Elasmobranchii with that
of the head-kidney in Amphibia, the fundamental similarity between them is at
once apparent.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 28.
The Department did not meet.
MONDAY, AUGUST 30.
The Department did not meet.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 31.
The following Report was read :—
Report of the Committee for investigating the Influence of Bodily Hxercise
on the Elimination of Nitrogen.—See Reports, p. 159.
646 REPORT—1880.
Srction E.—GHOGRAPHY.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Lieut.-General Sir J. H. LEFRoy,
C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 26.
The PRESIDENT delivered the following Address :—
My recent predecessors in this chair have dealt, with a knowledge and ability
with which I cannot vie, not only with great problems in terrestrial physics, such
as the genesis of our oceans, continents, and mountain-chains; the circulation of
the waters of the ocean, with its consequences on climate; the reciprocal influence
of conditions of nature upon man, and of man’s ability to modify those conditions ;
but also on the progress of geographical discovery on the great theatres of political
interest or commercial rivalry ; and the archeology of our science, as regards Asia,
has been touched by a master’s hand. Turning, then, from themes on which I
could offer nothing worthy of your attention, I find, with a sense of relief, that
there is a region of the globe, and it is one with which I have the most personal
acquaintance, which has received very little attention at their hands, I refer to
the great continent of America, and more especially its northern portion; and I
hope for your indulgence if I enlarge a little upon that theme.
How vast have been, in very recent times, the additions to our knowledge in
“that quarter, how continuous is the progress of discovery, cannot, I think, but
worthily occupy your attention for a few minutes. In other regions Geography is
the pioneer of Civilisation and Commerce. We look, and often look long, for
their footsteps to follow. Here for the first time she has been outstripped, for the
telegraph and the railway have tracked the forest or prairie, and traversed the
mountains by paths before unknown to her.
I remember that patriarch of science, Sir Edward Sabine, once telling me how
-eagerly he, as a young man, had desired to retread the footsteps of Lewis and
“Clarke, whose journey from St. Louis to the Pacific in 1805, was at the time, and
must long remain, one of the most remarkable achievements on record.
Let me, then, remind you that within living memory (I grant, a long one) no tra-
veller known to fame had crossed the American continent from east to west, except
Alexander Mackenzie, in 1793. No traveller had reached the American Polar
Sea by land, except the same illustrious explorer and Samuel Hearne. The British
Admiralty had not long before instructed Captain Vancouver to search on the
coast of the Pacific for some near communication with a river flowing into or out
of the Lake of the Woods. The fabulous Straits of Annian are to be found on
maps of the last century. ‘The sacred fires of Montezuma’ were still burning in
secluded valleys of Upper California when her Majesty ascended the throne.
It is very interesting to ubserve that De la Hontan, whose name has been
recently given by the American geologists to the basin of the great Miocene Sea,
now represented by Carson Lake in Nevada, ascended the Mississippi, and even
penetrated up the Yellowstone, very nearly to the ‘ National Park,’ at all events
into the present territory of Montana, so early as 1687. He introduces into his
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 647
rude map a head-water lake, on Indian information, which must, I think, be
identical with a lake in that reserve. ‘Je scais,’ says his biographer, ‘ que tous
les voyageurs sont sujets & caution, et que s‘ils ne sont point parvenus au
rivilége des poétes et des peintres, il nes’en faut guére: mais il faut excepter de
is noblesse ; est il croyable qu’un baron voulut en imposer?’) But I am not
pursuing the attractive theme offered by historical geography, and must not dwell
on the memorable expeditions of Franklin and Richardson, of Back and Simpson and
Rae, but proceed to point out the many agencies at work of late years to open up
the continent: the military operations, for example, of the United States’ Govern-
ment against Mexico ; the discovery of the precious metals ; the explorations for -
the Union Pacific and Canada Pacitic Railways; International Boundary Surveys ;
the geological surveys of the American and Canadian Governments. These have
all resulted in a surprising extension of geographical knowledge, without any of
them having it particularly’in view. It was a bold figure of speech of Lord
Dufferin’s which described the Rocky Mountains in 1877 as being nearly ‘as full
of theodolites as they could hold,’ but the Dominion Government has spent about
three-quarters of a million sterling on explorations or surveys for their railway, and
we have only to glance at a recent map to discover nine sovereign states, and seven
territories, west of the Mississippi, bounded by right lines, which neither war nor
diplomacy has determined, laid out like garden-plots, to see that neither Asia nor
Africa have unfolded more of their secrets in our times, than has the nobler
continent where Britain has cast her swarms.
The thoroughness characteristic of the scientific operations of the American
Government has been greatly favoured by the physical features of the region of
their trigonometrical survey, in the American Cordilleras. Sharp rocky peaks, bare
of vegetation, rise to altitudes of 10,000 to 12,000 feet, at convenient distances of
60 to 80 miles apart, so situated as to form well-conditioned triangles, while the
purity of the atmosphere makes observation easy. In this manner has an im-
mense region comprising some 87,000 square miles in Nevada, Utah, and Colo-
rado, been topographically surveyed since 1867 ; not indeed with the detail of a
European national survey, but with all the accuracy required for first settlement.
The two prehistoric seas, now designated Lake Bonneville, of which Salt Lake is
the remains, and Lake La Hontan, already referred to, have been defined, and
facts of remarkable physical interest have been ascertained. The evaporation of
Great Salt Lake, for example, is no longer in excess of its annual tribute ; it has
risen 11 feet since 1866. The natural basin of Pyramid Lake is now full, its
level has risen 9 feet, and the overflow is filling up Winnemucca Lake in like
manner; the latter lake has risen 22 feet, and its area has doubled within the
same short period. We cannot allow the geologists to monopolise the interest
of these physical changes, which the magnificent volume of Mr. Clarence King has
presented to them.
Lying a little to the east and south of the region just referred to is another,
which includes yet loftier mountains, and has been surveyed by Professor Hayden.
Here, on the tributaries of the rivers Colorado and S, Juan, we find those mysterious
monuments of an extinct civilisation and a dying people, the cliff-houses on the
Rio Mancos and Rio de Chelly, the Pueblos of the Chaso Caiion; and here the
wandering Apaches still practise on their prisoners those revolting and indescribable
cruelties which make humanity shudder, and which seal their doom of extermina-
tion. No less than eighteen summits in the Sierra Blanca have been found to rise
above 14,000 feet. Blanca Peak, in South Colorado, attains 14,464 feet, and is the
monarch of mountains, if such there may be, in the great Republic. Lake Tahoe,
the largest of western lakes, familiar to readers of the brilliant pages of Miss Bird,
was surveyed by Lieutenant Macomb in 1877, and the height of Pyramid Peak
ascertained to be 10,003 feet. A town of 20,0U0 inhabitants (Leadville, Colo.) has
sprung into being at an elevation of 11,000 feet, which ranks it among the highest
inhabited places on the globe.
Very different in their character are the survey operations of the Canadian
Government in the north-west, where the problem presented is to prepare a vast
territory, wholly wanting in conspicuous points, for being laid out in townships of
648 REPORT—1880.
uniform area, and farms of uniform acreage. The law requires that the eastern
and western boundaries of every township be true astronomical meridians ; and that
the sphericity of the earth’s figure be duly allowed for, so that the northern
boundary must be less in measurement than the southern. All lines are required
to be gone over twice with chains of unequal length, and the land surveyors are
checked by astronomical determinations. In carrying out this operation, which
will be seen to be one of great nicety, five principal meridians have been rigorously
determined, and in part traced—the 97th, 102nd, 106th, 110th, and 114th; and
fourteen base-lines, connecting them, have been measured and marked, One of
these, on the parallel of 52° 10’, is 183 miles long. Eleven astronomical stations
have been fixed since 1876, and from these sixty-six determinate points have been
fixed in latitude, forty-five in longitude, often under conditions of no little difficulty
from the severity of the climate. The claims of Messrs. Alexander and Lindsay
Russell, of Mr. Aldous, and Mr. King, the observers, to rank as scientific travellers,
will, I am sure, be warmly recognised by this Section.
The sources of the Frazer river were first reached in February 1875, and found
in a semicircular basin, completely closed in by glaciers and high bare peaks, at an
elevation of 5300 feet. The hardy discoverer, Mr. E. W. Jarvis, travelled in the
course of that exploration 900 miles on snow-shoes, much of it with the ther-
mometer below the temperature of freezing mercury, and lived for the last three
days, as he expresses it, ‘on the anticipation of a meal at the journey’s end.’
We are still imperfectly acquainted with the region north of the parallel of 50°
in British Columbia, where the Canadian engineers have long been searching for a
practicable railway line from one or other of three known passes of the Rocky
Mountains proper, through the tremendous gorges of the Cascade Mountains, to the
Pacific. These passes are, the Yellowhead, at an elevation of 3645 feet, the Pine
river, at 2800 feet, and the Peace river, said to be only 1650 feet above the sea, all
of them comparing very favourably in respect to height with the other trans-
continental railways. The Union Pacific Railway, for example, runs, as you will
remember, for 1500 miles at elevations of over 4500 feet, and its summit level is
8242 feet. The Dominion Government has recently adopted a line from the
Yellowhead Pass to Burrard Inlet, which may be made out in any good map by
following the course of the Thompson and Frazer rivers. By this line the Pacific
coast will be reached in 1945 miles from Lake Superior, and it is already partly
under contract. This is not a place to enter upon engineering details. I will only
remark that greater difficulties have seldom been presented to human enterprise
than must here be conquered. That peculiar feature in physical geography, the
canon or deep gorge, of which the Via Mala is an example familiar to many
persons, is presented all over the region upon a scale of grandeur unsurpassed.
When not perpendicular cliffs, their sides are in these latitudes seamed by avalanches
on the largest scale ; while the mountain torrents which rush down them defy navi-
gation. Mr. Jarvis describes how on one occasion having walked into a hole, con-
cealed by snow, the current caught his snow shoes, turning them upside down, and
held him like a vice, so that it required the united efforts of all his party to extri-
cate him. :
There is a curious circumstance mentioned in this gentleman’s narrative which
deserves notice, as an instance of the successful reduction of a native language to
writing, free from the difficulties which attend the use of the Roman alphabet. He
met with a kind of notice-board or finger-post at the dividing of two tracks on the
prairie, having upon it characters, which were entirely unknown to himself and
his companions, and apparently to the Railway Department :—
—_—Ke-[ OVA “504 4A oat “14
They are, in fact, characters of a phonetic alphabet, invented forty years ago by a
Mr. Evans, a Wesleyan missionary among the Cree Indians, and are extremely
well adapted for expressing their liquid polysyllabic language. That they should
have survived the generation to which they were first taught, and be still used for
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 649
communication on the plains, is a fact which would have given great gratification
to their excellent author."
The final decision of the Canadian Government to adopt Burrard’s Inlet for the
Pacific terminus of their railway, relegates to the domain of pure geography a
great deal of knowledge acquired in exploring other lines: explorations in which
Messrs. Jarvis, Horetsky, Keefer, and others, have displayed remarkable daring and
endurance. They have forced their way from the interior to the sea-coast or from
the coast to the Peace River, Pine or Yellowhead Passes, through country pre-
viously unknown, to Port Simpson, to Burke Channel, to the mouth of the Skeena,
and to Bute Inlet, so that a region but recently almost a blank on our maps, which
John Arrowsmith, our last great authority, left very imperfectly sketched, is now
known in great detail, and I regret to add, the better known, the less admired. The
botany has been reported on by Mr. Macoun, and the geology by Dr. Dawson,
pari passu with its topography. I have great hope that the Section will receive
from the last-named traveller in person some account of his many arduous
journeys in the prosecution of geological research. Of these, the latest is the
exploration of Queen Charlotte Islands, a part of the British possessions, very
little known to most of us, although we had a communication on the subject in
1868. He regards them as a partly submerged mountain chain, a continuation
north-westward of that of Vancouver's Island and of the Olympian Mountains in
Washington Territory. An island, 156 miles long and 56 wide, enjoying a tem-
perate climate, and covered with forests of timber of some value (chiefly Adzes
Menziesi), is not likely to be left to nature much longer. But the customs of the
natives in regard to the inheritance and transfer of land are unfavourable to settle-
ment, and will demand just and wise consideration when the hour comes. It isas
much private property as any estate in Wales.
Mr. Dawson's report contains a vocabulary of the language, which presents this
peculiarity, that the words expressing family relationship vary with the speaker.
Thus ‘father’ said by a son is haung; said by a daughter, is hah-ta. ‘ Son,’
said by a father, is Ket ; said by a mother, is kin. Evidently at some period the
mothers were captives of a different tribe. It would be difficult to produce on the
globe a more conspicuous example of the beneficent effect of missionary influence,
combining industrial with religious instruction, than has been presented by the
Tsimpsheean Indians at Metla Katla, under Mr. Duncan, a layman commissioned
by the Church Missionary Society.
I must now call your attention to the remarkable explorations, little known
in this country, of I’Abbé Petitot, also a lay missionary (frére oblat) of the
Roman Catholic Church, in the Mackenzie River district, between Great Slave
Lake and the Arctic Sea, a region which that Church has almost made its own.
Starting sometimes from St. Joseph’s mission station, near Fort Resolution, on
Great Slave Lake, sometimes from S. Theresa, on Great Bear Lake, sometimes
from Notre Dame de Bonne Espérance on the Mackenzie, points many hundreds of
miles asunder, he has on foot or in canoe, often accompanied only by Tndians or
Esquimaux, again and again traversed that desolate country in every direction.
He has passed four winters anda summer on Great Bear Lake, and explored
every part of it. He has navigated the Mackenzie ten times between Great Slave
Lake and Fort Good Hope, and eight times between the latter post and its mouth.
We owe to his visits in 1870 the disentanglement of a confusion which existed
between the mouth of the Peel River (R. Plumée) and those of the Mackenzie,
owing to their uniting in one delta, the explanation of the so-called Esquimaux
Lake, which, as Richardson conjectured, has no existence, and the delineation of
the course of three large rivers which fall into the Polar Sea in that neighbour-
hood, the ‘ Anderson,’ discovered by Mr. Macfarlane, in 1859, a river named by
himself the Macfarlane, and another he has called the Ronciére. Sir John
Richardson was aware of the existence of the second of these, and erroneously
1 The words, read by Archdeacon Hunter, are ‘ oomah maskemow pache oonahne
aetabmoo,’ and their purport is a direction. ‘This road, come, oonahne flee thou.’
He cannot make out conahne.
650 REPORT—1880.
supposed it to be the ‘Toothless Fish’ River of the Hare Indians (Beg-hui-la on
his map.) M. Petitot has also traced and sketched in several lakes and chains of
lakes, which support his opinion that this region is partaking of that operation of
elevation whieh extends to Hudson’s Bay. He’ found the wild granite basin of
one of these dried up, and discovered in it, yawning and terrible, the huge funnelled
opening by which the waters had been drawn into one of the many subterranean
channels which the Indians believe to exist here.
These geographical discoveries are but a small part of ’Abbé Petitot’s services.
His intimate knowledge of the languages of the Northern Indians has enabled him
to rectify the names given by previous travellers, and to interpret those descriptive
appellations of the natives, which are often so full of significance. He has pro-
foundly studied their ethnology and tribal relations, and he has added greatly to
our knowledge of the geology of this region.
It is, however, much to be regretted that this excellent traveller was provided
with no instruments except a pocket watch and a compass, which latter is a
somewhat fallacious guide in a region where the declination varies between 35°
and 58°. His method has been to work in the details brought within his personal
knowledge, or well attested by native information, on the basis of Franklin’s
charts. :
M. Petitot expresses his persuasion that the district of Mackenzie river can never
be colonized—a conclusion no one, who has visited it, will be disposed to dispute ;
but he omits to point out that the mouth of that river is about 700 miles nearer
the port of Victoria, in British Columbia, than the mouth of the Lena is to Yoko-
hama, and far more accessible. It needs no Nordenskjéld to show the way. Its
upper waters, the Liard, Peace, Elk, and Athabasca rivers, drain an enormous
extent of fertile country, not without coal or lignite, and with petroleum in abun-
dance. As the geological survey has not yet been extended so far, we are not
fully acquainted with its mineral resources; but I can add my testimony to that of
more recent travellers, as to the remarkable apparent fertility, and the exceptional
climate of the Peace River valley. It is no extravagant dream that sees in a dis-
tant future the beneficent influence of commerce, reaching by this great natural
channel, races of mankind in a high degree susceptible to them, and alleviating
what appears to us to be the misery of their lot.
There are few subjects of greater physical interest, or which have received
less investigation, than the extent to which the soil of our planet is now per-
manently frozen round the North Pole. Erman, on theoretical grounds, affirms
that the ground at Yakutsk is frozen toa depth of 630 feet. At 50 feet be-
low the surface it had a temperature of 28°°5 F. (—6° R.), and was barely up
to the freezing point at 382 feet. It is very different on the American
continent. The rare opportunity was afforded me by a landslip on a large
scale, in May 1844, of observing its entire thickness, near Fort Norman, on
Mackenzie river, about 200 miles further north than Yakutsk, and it was only
45 feet. At York Factory and Hudson’s Bay it is said to be about 23 feet. The
recent extension of settlement in Manitoba has led to wells being sunk in many -
directions, establishing the fact that the permanently frozen stratum does not
extend so far as that region, notwithstanding an opinion to the contrary of the late
Sir George Simpson. Probably it does not cross Churchill river, for I was assured
that there is none at Lake 4 la Crosse. It depends, in some measure, on exposure.
In the neighbourhood of high river banks, radiating their heat in two directions,
and in situations not reached by the sun, the frost runs much deeper than in the
open. The question, however, to which Sir John Richardson called attention so
long ago as 1889, is well deserving of systematic inquiry, and may even throw
some light on the profoundly interesting subject of a geographical change in the
position of the earth’s axis of rotation.
The Saskatchawan was first navigated by steam in 1875, when a vessel of
about 200 tons ascended from the Grand Rapid to Edmonton, 700 miles. There
is, however, an obstacle at Cole’s Falls, below Carlton House, which has led to a
break of navigation, and a small steel steamer, originally intended for the Upper
Athabasca, has recently been transferred to the Upper Saskatchawan; between
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 651
the two, it is now navigated from the Grand Rapids, near Lake Winnipeg, to the
base of the Rocky Mountains. A steamer also plies regularly on Lake Winnipeg,
and has ascertained many interesting particulars, of which we have hitherto been
ignorant. Its greatest depth does not apparently exceed 100 feet. Its discharge
has at last been followed by Dr. Robert Bell, down the Nelson river, to the sea.
That gentleman reports the impediments to navigation to be insuperable, and a
company has been very recently formed to make a railway from the lowest nayi-
gable point to the mouth of the Churchill river.
Our hopes of further light upon the history of the ill-fated Franklin
expedition, based on information given by a Netchelli Esquimaux, to the
American Captain Potter in 1872, have been again disappointed. An American
search expedition landed at Dep6t Island (lat. 64°), in the neighbourhood of which
traces were reported, in August 1878, wintered there, and examined the country,
as yet with no result, except a correction of the charts.
Hudson's Bay itself cannot fail at no distant day to challenge more attention.
Dr. Bell reports that the land is rising at the rate of 5 to 10 feet in a century, that
is, possibly, an inch a year. Not, however, on this account will the hydrographer
notice it ; but because the natural seaports of that vast interior now thrown open
to settlement, Keewatin, Manitoba, and other provinces unborn, must be sought
there. York Factory, which is nearer Liverpool than New York, has been
happily called by Prof. H. Y. Hind, the Archangel of the West. The mouth of
the Churchill, however, although somewhat further north, offers far superior
natural advantages, and may more fitly challenge the title. It will undoubtedly be
the future shipping port for the agricultural products of the vast north-west
territory, and the route by which emigrants will enter the country.
Before leaving this quarter I must allude to the praiseworthy efforts of some of
the Western States, especially Nebraska and Minnesota, to encourage the planting
on the great plains by premiums, in which they have been followed by our own
Province of Manitoba. Many years must elapse before the full climatic effects
can be realized, but in time they cannot be doubtful, and with the impending
disappearance of the buffalo will disappear much of that arid treeless region,
embracing nearly 600,000 square miles, which he now wanders over, and assists to
keep bare by so doing. On the other hand, the short-sighted and destructive habit
of burning off the prairie grasses to promote a young growth, increases with settle-
ment, and is chargeable with incredible mischief. ‘These fires have the curious
effect, when they extend into wooded regions, of helping to exterminate the more
slow-growing and valuable descriptions of timber, and favouring the prevalence of
the more worthless quick-growing kinds. But the Indians are even more charge-
able with them than the whites, and the traveller encounters few more melancholy
sights than a forest of charred and lifeless trunks extending over an area as large
as a county, the fruit perhaps of a signal from one band to another.
A discourse on American geography would be incomplete without reference to
that great design of piercing the Isthmus of Panama, with which Count Ferdinand
de Lesseps has connected his name. Out of the conflict of about ten competing
lines, the oldest and the youngest alone survive. The route by Lake Nicaragua
appeared possible even to Cortez. It was accurately surveyed nearly seventy years
ago, and the estimates, although they have grown alarmingly, are still within
practicable limits. It has the preference of the highest authorities in the United
States. Its total length would be 180 miles, including 56 miles of lake navigation,
with a summit level, to be attained by lockage, of 107°6 feet.
The Panama route would shorten the canal to one-fourth of this length, and it is
‘ a cardinal point with its author to dispense altogether with locks. As we expect
to be favoured by the presence of Lieut. Bonaparte Wyse—M. de Lesseps’ coadjutor
—I need say no more, except that the enthusiastic reception given to M. de Lesseps
here in Swansea, not many weeks ago, is sure evidence that this great industrial
centre takes a keen interest in his project from a commercial point of view ; and we
may safely leave capitalists, engineers, and diplomatists to fight out their battle,
only concerned that by one route, if not by both, the world may reap in our day
652 REPORT—1880.
the vast benefit it already owes, in another quarter, to his genius and indomitable
perseverance.
One of the most interesting questions in the whole range of geography still
awaits positive proof or disproof in this region. I refer to the often asserted
existence of a native race in Central America which holds no communication with
Europeans, and preserves its ancient language, religion, and civilisation unchanged
from the time of the Spanish Conquest. Antecedently so improbable as to be well-
nigh incredible, it found credit with Mr. Stephens and Mr. Catherwood and Mr.
Norman. A later traveller, Captain Carmichael, expressed, at this Association in
1870, his firm belief in it; and I will, with your permission, read an extract from
a letter dated January last, which I received from that enthusiastic explorer, Dr.
Le Plongeon, who has been for several years engaged in investigating the ruins of
Central America.
‘I have been told that there are many tribes in the interior of the country that
have had but little contact with the Spaniards, and therefore have retained the
purity of their language. This causes me to tell you here that the report—which
many think hypothetical, of a vast extent of country, some assert 500 miles,
comprised between Tabasco, Gualtimala, Peten, and Yucatan, very mountainous,
well-nigh inaccessible, that is inhabited by the remnants of various warlike tribes,
the Chinamaces, the Laucuerones, the Itzaks, and others, who flying before the
Spaniards, have fortified themselves in very rich valleys, where they live to the
present day as their fathers, at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards, and speak
the pure unadulterated Maya—is not far from being true. I have inquired from
parties who have lived in the neighbourhood of the Tierra de la Guerra, as they
call it, and learn that people coming from the unknown regions are sometimes seen
in the villages of the neighbourhood, where they barter tobacco, cocoa, and other
products of their industry, for whatever they want; that of late some came to
hire on the farm as labourers, but will not allow any white to penetrate their
stronghold,’
Tierra de la Guerra is an old designation for the region in which the boundaries
of Honduras, Yucatan, and Guatemala meet, and which contains some twenty-five
or thirty thousand square miles, an area quite extensive enough for small aboriginal
communities to be hidden away in it; and, if as Dr. Le Plongeon thinks, the
long-sought key to the Mexican hieroglyphies should be preserved among them,
there is a brilliant reward for the first scientific traveller who, without shedding
blood, can penetrate into their fastnesses. We shall, I trust, hear more of this
region from a gallant and enterprising traveller, the Colonial Secretary of British
Honduras, who has already penetrated its outskirts, and wants nothing more than
a little aid and encouragement to advance beyond them. In a recent letter to me,
Mr. Fowler says :—
‘On the east coast of Yucatan, not far from the sea-coast, are the ruins of
three cities, and close to our own frontier is a ruin which, the Indians tell me,
contains plenty of mural paintings on the inside walls of the chambers. All these
ruins are under the control of the Santa Cruz Indians. The chiefs of these Indians:
lately visited Belize and were shown much attention. I had them particularly
in my charge. They received a Martini-Henry rifle each and we swore mutual
confidence in each other. They invited me to their country, promising me a safe
conduct, and gave me leave to visit any ruin and take away what I liked.’
That such an opportunity should be lost for want of a very moderate sum to
defray the expenses of an expedition would be a matter of regret, which all pre-
sent will share; and I am not without hopes that ways and means may be raised,
through the co-operation of those who are interested in the subject from an
historical, as well as a geographical point of view, to enable Mr. Fowler to carry
out his project.
Mr. Edward Whymper, whose recent mountain ascents in Ecuador have roused
the interest of geographers and Alpine climbers in so high a degree, and whose
presence to-day we had some reason to expect, is detained at Guayaquil. Fortune
has favoured him to the last. He made a second ascent of Chimborazo in July,
and after passing the night at an elevation of 15,000 feet, reached the summit in
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 653
time to witness a magnificent outburst of Cotopaxi, 60 miles distant. The hot
ashes were wafted to Chimborazo in such quantities as to cover the snow around
him, and to produce an effect which he compares to the appearance of a newly-
ploughed field.
It appears probable that we shall owe to America the solution of a question
which, even within the limited area of these islands, often occupies our Courts of
Law, and troubles us in daily life. I mean a definition of civil time. We have
an extreme difference of time between Yarmouth and Valentia of about 484
minutes; but the merchant at San Francisco finds himself 3} hours behind his
correspondent in New York, and the consequence has been an irregular acknow-
ledgment of no less than seventy-five local standards of time on different railways
in the United States. These it is now proposed to reduce to five, of exactly one
hour interval, which would equally suit the Dominion of Canada. Mr. Sanford
Fleming, late Engineer-in-Chief of the Canada Pacific Railroad, advocates the
still bolder measure of adopting the meridian of 180°, as a meridian for railway
and telegraph time all over the world. It is not unworthy of this Section to aid
in the preparation of the public mind for the legal adoption of prime meridians in
this country at about ten-minute intervals. Thus Greenwich time might rule
from Yarmouth to Winchester ; Bath time from Winchester to Exeter, and so on;
the first step towards which will be substituting meridians at 1° interval, corre-
sponding to five minutes of time, for the unmeaning lines at 1° or 5° of angle,
which are drawn on school maps at present.
I shall, perhaps, be accused of poaching on the manor of a brother President, if
I venture to allude to another subject which belongs rather to the Geological
Section. But a railway guide is surely a geographical manual, and in the American
Geological Railway Guide of Mr. Macfarlane, we have a model and example of
what may be done to disseminate knowledge, which I think worthy of passing
notice. This work tells the traveller, and the resident no less, the chief geological
characteristics of the neighbourhood of every railway station in the United States.
Is it extravagant to suppose that the same information, with the addition of the
name of the county, the height above the sea, the prevailing industry, the popula-
tion, the rainfall, the climate, and other constants, may be some day furnished by
our great companies to the intelligent strangers who spend so many weary minutes
in waiting at every station ?
Turning now from a quarter on which I fear I have nearly exhausted your
patience—from the West to the East. It is now nearly forty years since the corps
of Royal Engineers was first associated in the exploration of Palestine by the
employment of Captain Symonds, R.E., to determine the depression of the Dead
Sea. The recent completion of the great map of that country is a performance
whose unrivalled Biblical and topographical importance should not blind us to its
geographical interest. The first surveyed of all known lands, it is also the last.
Siloa’s brook that flowed
Fast by the oracles of God
is traced again, and the surprising local accuracy of the sacred writers established
upon testimony beyond dispute.
The British survey, as you are aware, has been limited to the country west of
the Jordan, an American Association having charged itself with the survey east of
that stream. This is not yet published ; but I trust that we shall have from Mr.
Laurence Oliphant an account of a part of that little-known region, from which
he has lately returned.
Operations of war have been in all ages fruitful of geographical knowledge.
Many an old soldier of Alexander, we may be sure, was cross-examined by
Eratosthenes; many a centurion of Hadrian related his weary marches in Gaul or
Britain to Ptolemy, before those ancient geographers acquired the imperfect know-
ledge which served the world for so many centuries. The first legion that crossed
the Alps accomplished a feat as arduous as the passage of Shutargardan or the
654 REPORT—1 880.
Balkans, but it left us no record. To our own and the Russian Topographical
Staff in Central Asia we owe, on the contrary, a series of explorations conducted
under every difficulty, which must vastly facilitate the access of commerce to those
distracted regions. Referring here to the former alone, they may be divided into
three groups :—
1. Southern Afghanistan, embracing Quetta and Candahar.
2. The Kurram valley and generally the south of the Safaid Koh range.
3. The north of the Safaid Koh range, including the valley of the Kabul river
and that city itself.
In the first of these an entirely new route through the villages of Tal and
Chotiali, crossing several mountain, passes, was followed. by; Major-General Sir M.
Biddulph’s column, and surveyed by Captain T. H. Holdich. Much new country
was also surveyed by Lieutenant-Colonel W. M. Campbell between Pishin and the
Afghan desert. This officer thrice crossed the table-land of Toba, and by means
of the field electric telegraph, has determined the-differencé of longitude between
Quetta and Candahar, :
On the south of the Safaid Koh range we have at, least 3000 square miles sur-
veyed by Major R. G, Woodthorpe, embracing the Shutargardan pass and the
range which divides the Kurram from the Khost valley. This officer, accompanied
by Captain Martin, ascended in 1878 the highest peak on the Safaid Koh range
(Sikaram, 15,622 feet), but unfortunately was disappointed of observations, by the
hot-weather haze, which enveloped the*peals ‘of, the Hindu-Kush. Mr. G. B.
Scott, a civilian surveyor, was more suceessful, and obtained observations to all of
them. of
On the north of the Safaid Koh range over 2200 square miles of new country
were surveyed in 1878-9. The Shinwaries ‘and Khagianis have, however, an
insuperable aversion to plane tables and theodolites, and it! was in no spirit of kind-
ness that they gained for the gallant Captain E. P. Leach, R.E., his Victoria
Yross. Less has been learnt about their country than could be wished. I am not
over-stating the services of our Topographical Staff in Afghanistan in estimating
the aggregate of ground coyered by their surveys or sketches at 140,000 square
miles, and we have, through Major Tanner, got a little information respecting the
almost unknown land of Kafiristan, lying to the north of Jallalabad. Disguised as
a Kabuli, this gallant officer entrusted himself to a friendly Chugani chief, and
penetrated some distance into that rugged country. He says of the principal
village that the houses are piled one above another, and every beam, doorway, and
shutter carved in a most elaborate manner. The designs, he ‘adds, are crude, but
such a mass of carving he had never seen before.. The taste reminds us curiously
of that of the mountaineers of Switzerland and the Tyrol. I regret that the limits
of an address do not permit justice to be done to the services of these gallant
officers,
In Zululand about 9000 square miles of country have been triangulated, and
the details filled in, to some extent, at our Intelligence Department, from the
numerous sketches of the staff; no such systematic survey was, however, attempted
in this quarter as in Asia—a fact to be regretted, when we remember the excellent
opportunity which the military occupation of a country affords for combined
explorations.
In Central Africa we have the information given to Commander Cameron by
his native guides, in 1874, that a river they called the Lukuga, which he descended
four or five miles, is the outlet of Lake Tanganyika, confirmed and placed beyond
dispute by the Rey. E. C. Hore, of the London Missionary Society, who entered it in
April, 1879, found it free from the obstructions which arrested Cameron, and was
able to go further down. ‘Since which time, and quite recently, its course has
been followed by Mr. Joseph Thomson, almost to its junction with the Lualaba.
The discovery is of extreme interest from every point of view, especially as pointing
to the probable line of future communication of the regions bordering that great
inland sea, with the Atlantic, although the river itself, at least after the rainy
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 655
season, is reported to be utterly impassable for canoe or boat of any description.
The traveller himself, as you are aware, embarked for England on July 28, and
doubtless will, if he shall arrive in time, afford us an opportunity of congratulating
him on the safe accomplishment of one of the most brilliant. and successful. African
expeditions on record. The most youthful of African travellers, for he is only 22
years of age, Mr. Thomson has carried out every point in the programme laid
down for his late lamented chief, Mr. Keith Johnston; has done it admirably ;
and done it at a very moderate cost.
I hold in my hand, by favour of the Royal Geographical Society, and the kind-
ness of my friend Mr. Bates, copies of letters received within these few days (the
last is dated Zanzibar, July 19), giving an account of his adventures, which are
many, since January last. They will appear in full in the next number of their.
‘Proceedings’; but I am sure I may anticipate their publication by reading. a few
extracts presently.. They are rendered more than usually interesting. by -the
melancholy fate which has since befallen Captain Carter, whose genial welcome at
Karema he records. |
Time does not permit me to follow all the phases of that new-born activity
which is establishing centres of exploration and of civilisation at every great lake
in Africa. The Belgian Expedition, conducted by Mr. Stanley, and the Baptist
Missionary Expedition from San Salvador or Congo, are still aiming at the same
point, viz., to reach Stanley Pool, above the falls, on the river Congo, the first by.
ascending the river, the latter by overland route, by way of Makuta or Zombo.
The latter have met with great opposition at Makuta, and by the last account had
not got within 100 miles of the Pool. That munificent benefactor of African
missions, Mr. Robert Arthington, of Leeds, has paid a sum of 4000/. tothe Baptist
Society with a view to placing a small steamer on the river as soon.as practicable,
of establishing stations on the Ikelemba and M’bura rivers, and of opening com-
munication by the latter with Lake Albert Nyanza. Much of this country is
entirely unexplored.
The road from Dar-es-Salaam on the east coast to Lake Nyassa, about 350 miles,
has been completed through the coast jungle. Mr. Beardall, the chief engineer, has
located the first section of about 100 miles to the valley of the Rufigi, and proposes
to make use of the tributary river Uranga as far as navigable, up stream, towards
the mountains which border the lake, before resuming his road-making. The
highways of Central Africa, whether by land or water, exist as yet only in the
hopes of philanthropists and the dreams of commerce, and I fear we must include
among the visions, that artificial sea which some geographers have proposed to
make by conducting the waters of the Atlantic or the Mediterranean into depres-
sions known to exist in the great Sahara. The subject has been examined by the
Chevalier Ernst yon Hesse-Wartegg, an Austrian traveller, who is prevented by
illness from joining our meeting and giving us a communication on the subject.
Meanwhile, it appears to be tolerably well established that wells can be sunk
almost anywhere, each becoming a centre of vegetation and productiveness.
I feel, ladies and gentlemen, that I have detained you from the business of the
Section an inordinate time. But then I may remind you that when the British
Association last met at Swansea this Section (which was then combined with that
of Geology), escaped an Address altogether. A generation has passed away since ;
of the eminent men then present in office some half-dozen alone remain, and in the
retrospect it is so natural to take, the growth of geographical information stands
out in remarkable prominence. Still— ‘i
The cosmographer doth the world survey,
and finds an illimitable field for the improvement of old, or the acquirement of: new
Knowledge. Better methods of instruction, better books, and, above all, better
maps, are changing the aspect of the study to the young, every traveller who
settles one question raises others for his successors, so that ‘no man can find out
the work that God maketh from the beginning to the end.’ Its perpetual youth is
the charm of our science ; may it also be my excuse. SCTE NE ee CW Ss
656 REPORT—1880.
The following Papers were read :—
1, Latest News of the Royal Geographical Society’s Last African Expedition
under Mr. J. Thomson.
2. Through Siberia, vid the Amur and the Ussuri.
By the Rev. Henry LanspeEt., F.R.G.S.
This paper described a journey (undettaken with the object of visiting prisons,
hospitals, and charitable institutions, which were found to be in a much better
condition than is generally supposed) through Siberia, from the Urals to the
Pacific, by a route largely new: namely, from Ekaterineburg to Tobolsk by horses ;
thence by steamer on the Irtish and Obi to Tomsk: again by horses to Barnaul,
Irkutsk, Kiakhta (steaming across Lake Baikal), across the Trans-Baikal province
to the Shilka: then by steamer to the Amur: down its entire length to Nikolaefsk;
and subsequently returning southwards, by the Ussuri, Sungacha, and Sooifoon to
Vladivostock.
On reaching the Obi, on the 62nd parallel, the author found on June 8th compara-
tive winter, or leafless spring; the thermometer falling at night to 35°, but rising to
75° Fahr. by nine a.m. Fine weather set in a week afterwards and continued all across
Asia, Here live ducks were offered by the Ostjaks for five farthings each, large
fish called yass for 13d. a pair, and pike for a farthing each. Milk cost 23d. a
bottle, but young calves in remote villages could be purchased for sixpence each.
The belt of rich black earth in the region immediately north of the Altai lets for
33d. per acre, and from it wheat may be purchased for about one-twentieth its
cost in England. Still further north, in the forest region, rich in excellent timber
and fur-bearing animals, meat was bought up wholesale in 1877 at less than a
halfpenny per English pound; whilst in the most northerly region, that of the
tundras, the rivers are so full of fish that one of the ordinary difficulties of the
natives is to avoid breaking their nets with the weight of the draught. The fish
thus caught are, in the winter, frozen and sent more than 2000 miles, to St.
Petersburg, where a very moderate price realizes for the fisherman a profit of
nearly a hundred per cent. These prices should be borne in mind in connection
with the proposed trade between Siberia and England by the rivers Obi and
Yenesei, and through the Kara Sea.
Mr. Lansdell reached Tomsk on the 10th June, having accomplished a journey
of 5200 miles in 26 travelling days; and then made a détowr of 600 miles to
Barnaul, through a singularly rich and productive country. Irkutsk was reached
after a posting journey of 1040 miles, on the 6th July. After crossing Lake
Baikal, and making a détowr to the Chinese frontier at Kiakhta, the hilly steppes
of the Trans-Baikal province were crossed through Chita and Nertchinsk to
Stretinsk, In the neighbourhood of Nertchinsk are the mines in which prisoners
are popularly supposed to be killed by inches, living amid quicksilver fumes.
Inquiry into this matter failed to convince the author that there is a quick-
silver mine in Siberia, and when he inquired of released prisoners who had worked
in the mines concerning such alleged enormities as keeping them under ground
entirely, they distinctly denied the truth of such charges. The author himself
visited the convict gold-mines at Kara, 70 miles down the Shilka from Stretinsk.
Kara is a penal colony with upwards of 2000 convicts (including a few for
political offences), condemned to hard labour in the gold mines. The labour is done
on the surface and consists in digging earth and carting it away to be washed.
The hours of convict labour, however, are shorter than those of free labourers in
the same mines; and in the winter, the ground being frozen, the prisoners have
little or nothing todo. Their weekly allowance of food weighs nearly double that
given to English convicts, and after a certain time they are allowed to live with
their wives and families before being settled as colonists.
The scenery of the Shilka compares by no means unfavourably with the Rhine.
~
.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 657
After a course of 650 miles it unites with the Argun at Ust Strelka, and forms
the Amur. From Ust Strelka to its mouth the Amur ha3 a course of 1780 miles,
with a fall of 2000 feet ; but if the Argun be regarded as the head-quarters of the
river there must be allowed to the Amur a length of 3066 miles, and a fall of
6000 feet. At Ust Strelka the river is 1100 yards wide, and ten feet deep. At
Albazin, 160 miles lower, it contracts to 500 yards, but the depth increases to
20 feet. It then runs 400 miles to the south-east and passes Blagovestchensk,
the left bank from Ust Strelka being Russian, and the right bank Chinese territory.
At Aigun the river increases to a mile in width, and at Pashkova commences to
flow through the Bureya Mountains in a stream 900 yards wide, avd from 110 to
80 feet deep. After this the stream widens up to the confluence of the Ussuri
which flows into the right bank of the Amur at Khabarofka, 1123 miles from
Ust Strelka. From Khabarofka, Mr. Lansdell descended the Amur 600 miles to
Nikolaefsk. The river now widened in some places to three miles in a single
channel, and where islands intervened its greatest breadth was as much as twelve
miles. On the third day from Khabavofka the traveller reached Michailofsky
situated in the district whence is produced the corn of the lower Amur, (which
amounted in 1878 to 3276 tons, besides 811 tons of potatoes).
On the last day’s travel, Mr. Lansdell saw at Tuir some Tatar monuments with
Sanserit words written in Chinese, Nizurian, and Thibetan. It is said to be the
site of an ancient Lama monastery. The characters on the principal stone reminded
the observer of a palimpsest manuscript of which only the upper charactors had
been deciphered.
The author reached Nikolaefsk on the 13th, and stayed to the 30th Aucust,
then returning to Khabarofka. This gaye him ampler opportunity of seeing the
natives—especially the Gilyaks and Goldi. The Gilyaks inhabit the lower part
of the river, are small in stature, and live almost entirely on fish. They have
little notion of a Supreme Being, and are cemmonly sail to worship the bear
(this, however, they denied). So far as they have any relizion at all, it is that of
Shamanism, common to most of the aborigines of Northern Asia, the chief feature
of which appears to be that of a priest performing incantations, and connected
with which is the drinking of brandy to intoxication. They use also rough idols
of wood.
Higher on the Amur, and up the Ussuri dwell the (roldi, numbering 6000.
They are slightly superior to the Gilyaks, but both people buy their wives, and
practise polygamy; a wife costs eight or ten dogs,a sledge, and two cases of brandy.
The favourite winter dresses of Goldi and Gilyaks are made of the skins of their
dogs, but in summer they use dresses of fish-skin. The Russian Missionary at
Khabarofka told Mr. Lansdell that in 23 years he had baptized in the nei¢hbour-
hood more than 2000 heathens.
On the 4th September, the traveller came the second time to Khabarofka,
whence he proceeded up the Ussuri. This river is nearly two miles wide at its
junction with the Amur. In ascending, the right bank is Chinese territory, the
left Russian. The Chinese bank is for the mest part flat: but the horizon is
bounded by low mountain peaks. The left, or Russian bank, is mountainous and
wooded. Sometimes the mountains retire, leaving a rich bottom land of Inglish
park-like scenery. The habitations passed on the Ussuri were few and far between,
Most of the Russian dwellings consisted of Cossack stanitzas and pickets, placed
there to guard the frontier. ‘The Ussuri is navigable several miles beyond Busse,
and could a railway be made from Vladivostock to its most southern navigable
point it would be of the greatest importance to the fertile lands of the lower sea-
coast province. The total length of the Ussuri is 497 miles. The upper part of
the stream is rapid, and below the confluence of the Sungacha also it is swift ; but
towards the mouth it has a current of two knots only. It presents no special
difficulties to navigation,
On the 9th September, Mr. Lansdell at Busse entered the Sungacha, which is
from 100 to 110 feet wide, and from 50 to 80 feet deep. It is very tortuous and
winding, having a bend in each half-mile; the water is so muddy as to be unuse-
able for cooking, but is full of fish and also of turtles, and the banks abound with
1880. UU
658 REPORT— 1880. :
game and also with tigers. On the evening of the second day the traveller arrived
at Lake Khanka. There were two Chinese houses, of which not a dozen had been seen
all along the Ussuri; thirty-six Russian stations in all were passed. Lake Khanka is
65 miles long, and from 21 to 26 miles wide. Its shores, with the exception of
the south and south-east, are wooded, but not mountainous. After steaming across
it during the night and arriving at Kamen-ruibaloff at dawn on September the 11th,
Mr. Lansdell had to drive nearly 100 miles in the roughest of conveyances to the
river Sooifoon, through a country singularly fertile, but almost uninhabited. The
journey was accomplished by the evening of the second day, and on reaching
Rasdolnoi there was found a small steamer to carry him 30 miles on the Sooifoon
to the Amur Bay; where he was transhipped to a larger steamer, which brought
him to Vladivostock—-thus finishing his journey from London of 11,555 miles.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 27.
The following Papers were read :—
1. The High Road from the Indus to Candahar.
By Sir Ricwarp Tempers, Bart., G.C.S.L, C.LE#., P.R.GS.
2. Siz Years’ Heploration in New Britain and neighbouring islands.
By Witrrep Powrtt.
After referring to the great variety and immense value of the products of these
islands to our markets, and the corresponding benefit to the natives likely to accrue
from the establishment of English trade, Mr. Powell remarked that they were
very anxious to obtain the articles dispensed by English traders, and to have
traders living with them. He then gave a slight sketch of the first discoverers and
geographical position of New Britain (situate between the eastern extremity of New
Guinea and the Solomon Islands), which has a coast line of nearly 400 miles, from
Spacious Bay on the east to the island of Willaumez on the west. The natives
were at one time apparently identical all over the island, though now varying in
different parts of it. They are subject to a disease called ‘ Buckwar’; bigamy
exists among them, and they purchase their wives; their money ( ‘ Dewana’) con-
sists of small cowries, which are strung together, a hole being made through the
crown of the shell; payment is made with these by measurement, and not by
weight. Mr. Powell described the arms of the people as carried in war, their
method of making stone-clubs, and their different methods of making war, which
are marked by great treachery, and accompanied by decided acts of cannibalism ;
also their civil ruler (‘Dook Dook’), and his rights of succession and manner of
dispensing justice ; their superstitions, marriage rights, dances, and special costumes
(including a human skull mask), surgery, bone-setting and implements, musical
instruments, houses, fisheries, &c.
3. Three Years in South-East New Guinea.
By the Rev. W. G. Lawes, F.B.G.S.
The author's observations were made during a residence at Port Moresby and
Hood Bay, and comprised notes on the geographical and physical features of the
district between Yule Island and East Cape; the flora and fauna, climate and
natives, with a description of the houses, canoes, occupations, habits, moral con-
dition, and religious beliefs of the people inhabiting the Port Moresby and Hood
7 eee
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 659
Bay district. These remarks were illustrated by photographs of the natives and
their dwellings, taken by the author, and by specimens of native manufactures,
weapons, &c., collected by him.
The country about Port Moresby was described as poor and barren, though
possessing many features of natural beauty. The natives present a great diversity
of race and habits, speaking twenty-five different dialects in an area of 300 miles.
Their houses are built on piles, and the stone age still prevails with them. Their
moral condition is low; but the author spoke in high terms of the kindness and
hospitality experienced at their hands.
The resources of the district are as yet undeveloped, and at present no commerce
is carried on with the people. The climate has proved unhealthy to Europeans,
and will interfere seriously with any attempt at colonisation.
The author concluded with an appeal, in the interests of religion, science, and
commerce, to preserve peaceful relations with the aborigines.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 28.
The Section did not meet.
MONDAY, AUGUST 30.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Results of the Portuguese Expedition in West Central Africa.
By Capt. H. Caretyo and Lieut. R. Ivens.
2, Recent Travels in Trans-Jordanic Palestine. By LAURENCE OLIPHANT.
This paper contained notes of a journey undertaken during the spring of last
year through the provinces of Jaulan, Ajlun, and Belka, to the east of the Jordan.
Crossing the Jordan at its source, Mr. Oliphant struck south-east from Bamai,
visiting the new Circassian colony of Kuneitereh. Then crossing the fertile pasture-
lands of Jaulan, the ancient Gaulanitis, or Jolan of the Scriptures, he kept along the
eastern base of the Jebel Hesh range, ascending Tel-el-Teras, its most southerly peak.
Thence in an easterly direction to Sheikh Sa’ad, where the fountain and sacred stone
of Job are resorted to, more especially by negro pilgrims from Soudan and other parts
of Africa, and form ‘holy places,’ much venerated in the neighbourhood. Thence to
Tel-Asherah, which the author thinks he has satisfactorily identified as the site of
Ashtaroth Karnaim, and thence by way of Mesarib to Irbid (Arbela), and Beit-er-
Ras, the ancient Capitolias, at both of which places are interesting remains of archi-
tecture of the Greek and Roman type, common to this part of the country, in the
first and second centuries after Christ, and where the stone houses of the Jefnide
and Ghassanide Arabs still remain to testify to their superior civilisation. Both
at Tel-Asherah and Irbid, however, the sub-structure bears marks of ‘an antiquity
anterior to the Christian era. From Capitolias the south bank of the Yarmuk
was followed to Gadara, the extensive ruins of which are too well-known to need
description. Thence in a south-easterly direction into the forest-clad mountains
of Gilead and by a circuitous route to Ajlun, the principal village of the province
uUu2
660 REPORT—18S0.
of that name, dominated by the Saracenie castle of Kalat-er-Rubud. Thence
easterly to Jerash. Thence to Salt, and from Salt in a due easterly direction to the
interesting and little known ruins of Yajuz; thence to Kalat Terka, a station on
the Hadj road from Damascus to Mecca, and probably the site of the ancient
Gadda. Thence south-west to Rabboth Amman and back to Salt. From Salt he
also visited the interesting ruin of Arak-el-Emir, the fortress of Hyreanus. The
whole country traversed, was, excepting in its eastern sections, either pasture,
wooded, or arable land, and capable in the highest degree of development; while
there can be no doubt that in the unexplored mountainous region traversed by the
Upper Yabbok ruins remain yet to be discovered, and sites to be identified, which
will contribute for some years to come to make the whole of this country, already
so replete with historical association, a most interesting field of research.
3. On Pictorial Aid to Geographical Teaching. By G. G. Burner, M.A.
4. Noles on a Journey from Canton to Kwei-Yang-Fu up the Canton River.
By W. Mesny.
Mr. Mesny, a gentleman from Jersey, who has passed many years in the interior of
China in the service of the Chinese Government, and who accompanied Captain Gill
from Ch’éng-Tu to Bhamo during his journey across China to Burma, has commu-
nicated through that officer particulars of his voyage up the Hsi-Ho or Canton
river to Kwei-Yang-Fu in the province of Kwei-Chou, not before made by any
European.
Mr. Mesny started from Canton on March 9, 1879, in a native junk, ascending
the west river past Fu-Shan (the ‘ Fat-Shan’ of W. & A. K. Johnston’s map), and
entering the main Hsi-Ho (Si-Kiang of Johnston) at San-Shui-Hsien. Here the
river is 200 yards wide, and deep enough for steamers of 1000 tons; its banks are
fertile and well-cultivated. After passing Shao-Shing-Fu (Chow-King), the frontier
of Kuang-Si was reached at Wu-Chou-Fu (Oo-Chow), on the junction of the Fu-Ho
and Hsi-Ho. This city is the centre of a considerable import and export trade, and
is visited for commercial purposes by the aboriginal Miau-Tze from Kwei-Chou,
with strange costumes and incomprehensible tongue, who are looked on with con-
tempt by the people of the great central nation. Even now there are here stores
- for foreign goods which have managed to pass the Lekin or octroi barriers so nume-
rous between Canton and Wu-Chou-Fu. These barriers afford little benefit to the
revenue, being used by greedy officials as a means of extortion; and they cripple
trade by increasing the cost of articles in proportion to the distance of carriage.
Wu-Chou-Fu may, however, yet become a good treaty port for Kuang-Si, Kwei-
Chou, and some parts of Hu-Nan and Yiin-Nan, as light-draught steamers for towing
purposes could come up with cargoes all the yearround. Myr. Mesny met with civil
treatment from the people, though the magistrate endeavoured to keep him away by
attempting to excite his fears.
After a journey of twenty-one days up the Fu-Ho (Kwei-Fong or Cassia), the
traveller reached Kwei-Lin-Fu (Kuei-Ling), the provincial capital of Kuang-Si, on
June 23. This river is not likely to be used for steam traffic, owing to its shallow
rapids. The cities on it are ruinous, and occupied chiefly by new-comers. Rice
and other cereals, and sugar cane, are much cultivated, and the country above Ping-
Lo-Fu is very picturesque, the hills sometimes having large caves which pierce
them, showing the sky through. The people are greater flesh-eaters than those
of other provinces, and the women do not as a rule cramp their feet.
After a stay of a week, Mr. Mesny reached the Pei-Sha-Kiang, having crossed
a plateau by water with an ascent of eight and descent of fifteen locks. There a
large irrigating wheel, lifting water 30 feet above the river level into troughs, was
seen. On the third day from Kwei-Lin-Fu the main west river (Hsi-Ho) was again
struck, near Liu-Chou-Fu (Lioo-Chow), now very quiet and partly in ruins. The
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 661
width, depth, and slight current of the river appear to favour steam navigation, and
though the branch starting near Yiin-Nan-Fu is much the longer, this one is con-
sidered the principal by the Chinese, who give the preference to the one haying the
greater number of junks. Trade therefore was probably more prosperous here in
former days. Ascending the river to Liu-Cheng-Hsien (Lioo-Chin), where it again
forks east and west, the traveller chose the Yung-Ho or eastern branch, reaching
Yung-Hsien on the fifth day from Liu-Chou-Fu. This is a flourishing city, and
would make a first-rate terminus for steam navigation from Hong-Kong. Still
ascending the Yung river, the shallows and rapids of which began to obstruct
navigation, Ku-Chou-Ting, an important frontier city of Kwei-Chou, was reached
in ten days, the country traversed being entirely inhabited by a peculiar tribe of
Miau-Tze called Tung-IKia, subsisting principally on a very glutinous kind of rice
called No-Mi, and living in two-storeyed houses, of which the lower storey is occu-
pied by cattle, and the upper is almost destitute of furniture.
At Ku-Chou-Ting, the smallest boats obtainable had to be used, and in eight
days the head of all navigation was reached at San-Kio, or Li-Miao-Chou, as it is
called officially. An overland journey of eight days brought the traveller to Kwei-
Yang-Fu, entirely through the country of the Miao-Tze, who are gradually being
displaced by Chinese immigrants, who follow the water-way, and drive the natives
further back into the country.
Mr. Mesny considers that steamers might ascend from Hong-Kong to Yung-
Hsien in three or four days without going to Canton, and that a railway might be
laid from Yung- Hsien to Kwei-Yang-Fu, vid Li-Po-Hsien, Tu-Shan-Chou, Lo-Hu,
and Tein-Fan-Chou. This would, in his opinion, be remunerative if the mines of
the province were opened, and the establishment of a trading line in this direction
would also tend to the opening up of the extensive and rich copper mines of Yiin-
Nan, to which the direct road is by the Hsi-Ho.
Mr. Mesny gave some interesting details of the habits, customs, and superstitions
of the people amongst whom he travelled, e.g. Miao-Tze, with a piece of board fixed
with resin to their crowns for a three years’ period; Yao-Shun, with their temples
quite bald; and Chung-Kia of two tribes, Lo and Wei, agriculturists, excessively
devoted to whiskey distilled from the glutinous rice No-Mi, and with hard-working
women, whose morals until the birth of their first child in wedlock are peculiarly
lax, and who sacrifice bulls and dogs to appease the manes of their ancestors.
' 5. The Dutch Indian Government Exploring Expedition in Borneo.
By Caru Bock.
In June 1879, Mr. Bock was commissioned by the Dutch Indian Government
. to explore the east and south parts of Borneo. In the beginning of July he
arrived at Tangarong, the residence of the Sultan of Koti, to whom he at once
made known his plans of exploring the northern and southern parts of Koti,
and of attempting the overland journey to Banjermassin (the latter journey had
been in vain attempted three times).
The Sultan, after some demur, furnished him with an interpreter for the
Dyak language, and also put at his disposal a large prau, or canoe. Mr. Bock,
with his twenty-five followers, left Tangarong on August 10, and navigated
the creat Mahakkan river up as far as Moeara Kaman.
The banks of this river are very thinly inhabited, and only by the Malays and
Bugis. The great drought, which visited parts of Borneo and other islands two
years ago, had made terrible havoc in the forest. or miles the trees were killed
by it, and nothing but their dead trunks was visible—a strange sight in the tropics,
where the eye is accustomed to behold an everlasting summer. Trom Moeara
Kaman he went up the Moeara Klintjow river. The country is here less inha-
bited ; for a whole day, and even more, rowing along the banks of the river, no
hut was visible; and the only sign that occasionally enlivened the scenery was a
graceful snake-darter or a group of inquisitive monkeys. On the 2lst, Longwai,
the largest Dyak village, was reached,
662 REPORT—1880.
The natives were at first shy and suspicious; but after a while Mr. Bock managed
to get on good terms with them. These Dyalks are, like the rest of the other tribes
in Koti, inveterate head-hunters; but in other respects good and honest people.
The ‘head-hunting’ belongs to the Dyak religion, and is a custom (‘adat’) estab-
lished from ancient times. or this reason the traveller whe moves amongst such
tribes is in continual danger. ‘The different tribes have often petty wars, and the
attacks are mostly made in the night.
From Longwai Mr. Bock went further north, in order to find the Orang Poonan
(also called Olo-Ott) or forest people, whom no European had before seen. These
savages, on the very lowest scale of civilisation, are exceedingly shy; they live in
troops of six to twenty, have no huts nor any fixed dwelling-places, but roam about
the immense forests, and feed upon monkeys, boars, birds, serpents, avd wild fruits,
They seem to be provided with strong digestive organs, as they eat with great appe-
tite the thick roasted hide of the wild boars and monkeys (Nasalts larvatus.)
The women are especially light in colour, and both sexes go almost naked.
They have a very scurvy appearance, and are very dirty: but the rumour that the
Orang Poonan are furnished with a caudal appendage is entirely false.
Having returned to Tangarong, Mr. Bock prepared for his overland journey—
over 700 miles, and left Tangarong with forty-one men and three canoes, being in
every respect well fitted out. The Pangeran (or Prince) Sokmayiro accompanied
the traveller, as well as a Malay interpreter for the Dyak language. The route
was again up the great Mahakkan to Moeara Kaman, where the mosquitoes were
such a plague that the expedition thought of returning. The next village in the
interior was Kotta Bangoen—the largest in Koti—with more than a thousand
souls, The inhabitants are all Malays and Bugis, who carry on a considerable
trade in rattan, gutta percha, wax, and ‘saroeng boeroeng’ (edible birds’ nests),
It must be remembered that all the Dyak tribes inhabit the tributary rivers of the
Mahakkan, to the far interior of the country. In the neighbourhood of Kotta
Bangoen, as well as at Tangarong and Moeara Kaman, Mr. Bock found traces of
a former Hindoo occupation.
While at Kotta Bangoen, the Sultan and a numerous suite arrived, but Mr,
Bock preferred to continue the journey alone, on account of the many occupations
which an Indian monarch indulges in. In order to study the different wild tribes,
he proceeded through the lake region. He was fortunate enough to meet the
Tring Dyaks, the only cannibals in Borneo, with whose Rajah, Sibau Mobang, Mr.
Bock spent a couple of days. This man is a savage of most forbidding appearance,
extremely ugly: he told the traveller, in an easy way, that the brains and palms
of the hands of men tasted delicious, whereas the shoulder part always had a bitter
taste. After Mr. Bock had drawn his portrait, Sibau Mobang presented him, on
his departure, with two human skulls, and with a shield ornamented all over, in a
very ingenious way, with human hair. During the time Mr. Bock travelled in Koti,
Sibau Mobang and his followers killed in one week—being out on a head-hunting
excursion—not less than sixty people.
At Moeara Pahou, the last Malay village in the interior, Mr. Bock egain met
the Sultan and his suite, who had gathered together a number of Dyalks to escort
the expedition through the most dangerous part of his territory. The journey was
continued down the Moeara Pahou river, which close to Moeara Anang becomes
very difficult to navigate. There are many rapids, over which the canoes had to
be dragged by means of rattan ropes, the luggage and provisions having to he first
discharged. At Moeara Anang the march through the great forest began, the
most fatiguing and dangerous part of the journey. Here one of the Dyaks was
murdered, and attempts were made to poison Mr. Bock and his followers. A path
of the rudest description had first to be constructed by the natives, and, in order to
cross the numerous small rivers and abysses, they had made bamboo bridges. Only
those who have travelled in the tropics can form an idea of these elastic structures,
more fit for an acrobat than an ordinary traveller. After four days’ march from
sunrise to sunset, the Benangan river was reached. By this and the Tewéh river,
and down the great Barito, Mr. Bock and his party reached Banjermassin on
December 31, two days before the Sultan and suite,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 663
TUESDAY, AUGUST 31.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the North-East Passage.
By Lieutenant Grorce T. Tempe, L.N.
The author sketched briefly the history of the North-East Passage since the
ill-fated expedition of Sir Hugh Willoughby, showing how the way was gradually
paved for the brilliant success of Baron Nordenskjéld, and recapitulated the
advantages likely to accrue from the establishment of a regular trade between
Europe and Siberia. He then gave an outline of Nordenskjéld’s Arctic career up
to 1876, and described the voyage of the Veya in some detail. The nature of
the country and the manners and customs of the Tchuktches were also touched
upon, and Nordenskjéld’s summary of the immediate practical results of his enter-
prise was quoted. Referring to the various attempts which had been made. to
follow up the successful voyages of 1875 and 1876, the author mentioned that
several foreign vessels, specially built for the purpose, were actively engaged at
that moment, and that the steamer Nordenshjold was attempting the North-East
Passage in the inverse direction. In connection with this subject, Lieut. Temple
remarked that the sailing directions for the coast of Norway, to which he alluded
at the preceding year’s meeting of the British Association at Sheffield, had now
been published by the Admiralty, while some of the Norwegian charts were in
course of preparation. It was trusted that, in spite of some apparently inevitable
errors, the publication of this work, with the necessary charts, would fill up the
gap which had hitherto existed for British navigators in the new commercial high-
way, and that British seamen would be better able to take their share in the establish-
ment of a regular trade-route between Europe and the mighty rivers of northern
Asia, by means of which the vast, but hitherto pent-up, wealth of Siberia would
find a natural outlet to the great commercial centres of the civilised world. _The
discovery of the North-East Passage might, altogether, be regarded as the most
completely successful Arctic voyage that had ever been made. The paper con-
cluded with a warm tribute to the foresight, gallantry, and skill with which the
enterprise had been conceived and carried out.
2. On an Examination of the Balearic Islands.
By Dr. Purnt, F.S.A., BGS.
The author gave a general description of the several islands in the group, with
the meaning of their appellations and the method of reaching them; following
with a description of the energetic agricultural operations of the rural classes, and
the nature of the soil, and a general view of the aspect of the country in each
’ island.
In Minorca there are no guides, and the inhabitants of one end of the island
seem to know nothing of the other, or of anything in it except in their own dis-
tricts. Of the extraordinary remains in Minorca there is absolutely no historic
information; the masonry indicates that they are Cyclopean of the oldest type,
while that of the Nurhags of Sardinia, with which many suppose they agree, is
not only in courses, but of wrought or well-trimmed stone. The grand feature of
the latter also is wanting, viz., the spiral staircase or ramp, which is found also in
the Brocs of Scotland. The plan of the grandest structure in Minorca is square at
the base, and forms a pyramid of which there is no example in Sardinia.
There is historic reference to the Nurhags of Sardinia, and even to their builder,
Iolaus, but the antiquity of the remains in Minorca is lost in the mist of ages, or
' yeferred to the time of the very oldest of the mythological deities, Saturn. The
works of Iolaus in Sardinia are described in a way to prevent mistake, and they
664. REPORT— 1 880.
are found to-day as then described. There are some portions of these Nurhags
which appear of an older date, possibly the same as that of the towers in Minorca,
as they are very rude, and from these Iolaus probably designed and improved and
produced the present Nurhage, adding the staircase.
The remains in Minorca differ altogether from the Nurhags of Sardinia, by
haying, as a part of them, stone tables, said to be for sacrifice, and circles of
monoliths, neither of which are found in Sardinia. If they existed previously,
they were probably removed on the coming of Iolaus, and the new-comers intro-
duced their own religion. Another special class of monuments in Minorca differs
altogether from anything in Sardinia. These are vast ships built of stone of an
immense age, as proved by their masonry. The monuments themselves, as shown
by photographs, and compared with photographs of the earlier Cyclopean masonry
of Greece and Samothrace, are found to be of the very earliest type, assimilating
more to the most ancient circular structures in Etruria than any other remains.
Dr. Phené then described the architectural beauties of the city of Palma, his
various journeys and researches, the mixture of races on the islands, and quoted
the known classical references to these islands, remarking on the people, and their
ancient and modern customs.
3. On a recent Examination of the Topography of the Troad.
By Dr. Puent, F.S.A., F.B.G.S.
The author stated that during several successive visits to the Plains of Troy,
his attention had been drawn to the former course of the Scamander from the
remains of irregularities in the surface which indicated a former defence by earth-
works, and also a number of heaps of earth which he concluded indicated Trojan
interments. The latter were on the heights, and the whole occupied the space
between Hissarlik and Balidagh near Bunarhashi. His object in noticing these
was to point out what appeared to him an omission by former explorers, as the
line he indicated would be the natural line of defence of the Trojans, the Scaman-
der forming a formidable frontier defence, which with a comparatively slight
earthwork, to protect the defenders, would have prolonged the siege indefinitely.
From the heights at the rear of this defence, on which were the tumuli
referred to, every operation of the Greeks could have been observed, and on them
the large body of allies securely encamped, while the land also could have been
tilled in security. Homer applied the term ’epi8adaé (fertile-soiled) to Troy, by
which he must have meant the part outside the walls.
This topography would establish and reconcile all conflicting views, as the site
of Hissarlik would then become the place of the city or mart of Troy (evidently,
from its geographical position, a place for interchange of commerce, and where
the produce from the Caspian and Black Seas would meet that from Syria
and Egypt), and Balidagh would be the citadel. Homer also applied the term
evpvayvaa (broad-wayed) to Troy, to Mycene, and to Athens; and each of the two
latter places had long, broad, and defended roads to their citadels, the one from
Argos and Tiryus, the other from the Pirzeus and Phalerum. That Troy should
be without such ways in face of this appellation given by Homer to it in common
with other cities found to have them, seemed improbable, and such ways were in
the other cases outside the walls, but not outside the external bulwarks attached
to the city.
The small dimensions of the foundations at Balidagh, which are of a very care-
ful construction, would be quite sufficient for Priam’s Palace and the Sczean towers,
though not for the great city; and the author attributed their present preser-
vation to the unburnt bricks which formed the superstructure, precisely as in
the case of Mantinea in Arcadia, which Pausanias states was built of such
material, and which city Dr. Phené made a special journey to examine, in order to
compare its foundations with those at Balidagh, which, being on the spurs of Mount
Ida, must be the classical site, and, like the temple and palace at Ephesus, removed
from the tumult of the commercial city. In support of this, it was pointed out
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 665
that all the tumuli outside the natural river-boundaries were by tradition Greek,
while all those within, of which one end of the line of tumuli was at Balidagh
and the other end at Hissarlik, were as distinctly recognised as Trojan. Such
defences as he described on the Scamander were on the old course of that river,
and were the usual defences of that age. Homer describes the Greeks erecting
a breastwork of this sort to protect their fleet, and their making a ditch to supply
the place of the river, and [Herodotus (Book 9, chap. 97) gives a similar descrip-
tion of Persian work at Mycalé. If such a work existed it was no doubt an original
defence and not made during the siege, which latter caused the Greek one to be
specially noticed. The position of the Sczean gate as suggested was shown to be
exactly that of the Cyclopean bridge and gate leading from Mycenz to the plain of
Argos on the way to that city, and the length of the broadways of Athens and
of Mycene agreed almost minutely with the distance from Hissarlik to Balidagh.
4. A Visit to the Galapagos Islands in H.M.S. ‘ Triumph,’ 1880.
By Captain Marxnam.
Captain Markham gives an account of a visit he paid to the Galapagos Islands
on board H.M.S. Triwmph, in the beginning of the present year. The Admiralty
chart, compiled from a rough survey made nearly half a century ago, is not very
accurate, so that it was not safe for a large ironclad like the Triumph to extend the
cruise in the numerous channels between the islands. Her visit was, therefore,
confined to Post Office Bay in Charles Island, and the paper records the observations
that were made during several inland excursions.
The Galapagos Islands, being 600 miles from any other land, have a peculiar
fauna, and Captain Markham devoted all the time at his command to the collection
of birds, skins, insects, and shells. These specimens have been placed in the hands
of Mr. Salvin, and it is anticipated that they will form an addition to our knowledge
of the natural history of this isolated archipelago.
5. On a visit to Skyring Water, Straits of Magelian. Dy R. W. Corpincer.
6. Notes on the Dara Nur, Northern Afghanistan, and its Inhabitants.
By Lieut.-Col. H. C. B. Tanner.
N.B.—Notices of some of the above-mentioned Papers in this Section, inca-
pable of abstraction, will be found in the number for October, 1880, of the ‘ Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Geographical Society.’]
666 REPORT—1880.
Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—GuroRGE Woopyarr Hasrines, M.P.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 26.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of reporting whether
it is important that H.M. Inspectors of Elementary Schools should. be
appointed with reference to their ability for examining in the Scientific
Specific Subjects of the Code in addition to other matters. See Reports,
p. 219.
2. Report of the Committee for inquiring into the present appropriation of
Wages and Sources of Income, and considering how far it is consonant
with the Economie Progress of the People of the United Kingdom. See
Reports, p. 318.
3. Vital and other Statistics applicable to Musicians. By P. M. Tarr,
F.S.S., F.BRGS., §c.
The memoir commences with a rapid sketch of the origin and history of
music, musicians, and musical instruments. Mahalaleel, the fourth in descent
from Adam, was the first vocalist, and Tubal-cain, fifth lineal descendant from
Cain, the first instrumentalist. Reference is also made to previous inquiries
into the mortality of musicians, and notice is taken of a paper by Dr. William
Augustus Guy, F.R.S., read to the Statistical Society in 1859, when actors,
vocalists, and musicians were incidentally brought for the first time under obser-
vation. The data covered by the present paper are obtained more immediately
from Messrs. Cocks & Co.’s ‘Dictionary of Musicians’ corrected by the more
elaborate work of Dr. Grove, and other records. The records include 736 persons,
of whom 697 are males, and 39 females, 458 being dead and 278 alive at the present
time. The data thus comprise an aggregate of 32,925°5 years of life. The
mortality disclosed is apparently considerably more favourable than that which
obtains amongst other classes. There is a table comparing the mortality of musicians
with that which obtains amongst the males of England and Wales, the peerage,
government annuitants, and certain other classes. The deaths amongst musicians
at ages from 15 to 45 are apparently considerably less than those which occur
amongst any other class of society, There is no sufficient reason to account for this
disparity so vastly in favour of musicians ; and it can only be explained by supposing
that in the Dictionary a number of musicians do not come under observation at the
earlier ages; the deaths in fact having happened early, they do not come under
~ review at all. From ages 46 to 50 the results are still in favour of musicians, and
also from 51 to 55. From 56 to 60 the deaths are very much the same as those
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 667
observed to occur amongst the whole population of males in Kngland and Wales.
From 61 to 65 they are apparently slightly less, and also slightly less from 66 to
the extremity of life.
Confining the observations to the mortality per cent. amongst the deceased lives
only, the results are considerably in excess of those applicable to the whole 736
persons. Probably the literal truth lies between the columns indicating the results
in each case.
The paper passes on to discuss the influence of heredity in the production of
musicians, and this is manifest to a very great extent. Thus, in the cases of Bach,
Beethoven, Bellini, Cherubini, Gounod, Haydn, and others, the influence of heredity
is apparent.
A curious circumstance comes out in the extreme paucity of female composers.
Amongst the number of female singers the great names of Alboni, Catalani, Grisi,
Lind, Lucca, Nilsson, Patti, Sontag, and Tietjens are included, while only four are
even indicated as composers. Of these the most remarkable in point of versatility is
undoubtedly Madame Viardot Garcia, born in Paris in 1821, but of direct Spanish
extraction, and sister of the famous Malibran, whose family for a hundred years has
been musical. And here it may be stated that the ages of living prvme donne are
given in the records with an almost ruthless fidelity, But it is not of course
sought to enlarge on that delicate point.
An attempt is made to indicate the nationality and race of musicians, by classi-
fying the whole number under different nationalities, and also by classifying the
published musical dictionaries up to the present time. 385 per cent. of the whole
number of musicians are from Germany; 15 per cent.from Italy; 11 per cent. from
France; 10 per cent. from Austria-Hungary, of whom the great majority are
German-speaking ; and 18 per cent. from Great Britain and Ireland. As to dic-
. tionaries, according to Grove and others, from 30 to 40 have been published up to
the present time. 38 per cent. are in German, 24 per cent. in French, and 15 per
cent. in English, while only about 6 per cent. are Italian. The apparent superiority
of England to Italy and France in the production of musicians and musical dic-
tionaries is explained. The general conclusion under this particular head is, that
the ranks of modern musicians have been recruited mainly from the German or
Teutonic stock, that portion of the Japetic or Indo-European branch of the human
family whose descendants, according to Pritchard and other authorities, reached
Europe by way of Turkestan, the Kuxine, and the mouths of the Danube; that,
next to the Germanic, come the Latin races; and that, finally, we have the Celts and
the Sclayes, each of which race has contributed, though in considerably diminished
numbers, its quota to the ranks of musicians.
The general result of the whole investigation is, that while the tables indicating
the mortality of musicians are interesting as a guide to information on the subject,
the facts under observation are too few to justify absolute conclusions as to the
mortality at the earlier ages, or to enable the tables to be used without other aids
for the computation of financial values applicable to musicians. It is clear, how-
ever, that musicians in many instances liye to a great age. Thus among famous de-
ceased octogenarians we find the illustrious names of Auber, 87; our own Braham,
82; Cherubini, 82; and Cramer, 87 ; while Sir George Smart lived to 91; Sir John
Goss haying only recently died at 80. There are about half a dozen living octo-
genarian musicians of note, chiefly resident in Germany. On the other hand,
among musicians who died comparatively young we find the names of Beethoven,
who died at 57; Bellini at 34; Bizet at 87; Chopin at 40; Cimorosa at 52; Fanny
Hensel at 41; Herold at 42; Mendelssohn, 38; Schubert at 31 ; Schumann at 46;
Thalberg at 59; Vincent Wallace at 47; and Weber at 46,
An attempt is made to classify musicians according to the specialty of each. It
is found that 27 per cent. of the whole number are returned in the records as com-
posers pure and simple ; 37 per cent. as composers and instrumentalists ; while about
7 per cent. are vocalists pure and simple.
The memoir has a very wide range, and a great number of authorities are
quoted, from the ‘ Rig Veda’ downwards.
668 REPORT—1880.
4. Agricultural Statistics and the Land Question. By Wm. Botty, M.R.A.S.
This paper was a continuation of the Agricultural Statisties to the present time,
in a tabular form, strongly advising their continuance and early publication.
In the second part it gave the imports of cereals, cattle, sheep, and swine,
meat, &c.; their prices and amount in value
Thirdly, the number of owners of land in Great Britain; also, separately, that of
Treland, in a table of from one acre up to 100,000 acres, with the respective rentals.
The concluding portion of the paper argued for some considerable alterations
in our Land Laws, supporting this view of the question by extracts from the
opinions of the present and late Lord Chancellors, as well as other eminent states-
men ; and finally, that to improve agriculture and to bring men of greater capital,
skill, and enterprise into the business of farming, there must be security of tenure
and compensation for all unexhausted improvements.
It was shown that in the past year our imports of wheat and various other
cereals, with meat, amounted in the aggregate to 140,000,000 ewts., exclusive of
butter, cheese, ees, &e., Ke.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 27.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee on the German and other Systems of Teaching
the Deaf to Speak.—See Reports, p. 216.
2. On the recent Revival in Trade. By SterHun Bourne, F.S.S.
See Reports, p. 436.
3. On Admiralty Monies and Accounts. By Frank P. Fettows, F.S.S.,
F.S.A.
This was the continuation of a paper read at the Statistical Society, London,
‘ On our National Parliamentary Accounts, &c.’
In that paper it was shown that— the average yearly expenditure for ten years
previous to 1869, was 11,587,041/., and for the five years, 1869-70 to 1873-4
(taking the estimates for the last year) was only 9,785,915/., and that “ these great
results had been brought about by a variety of means, not the least efficient being
the check our improved accounts have given us over expenditure, or what is still
more important, over the final results of expenditure.” ’
The latter point the present paper illustrated more in detail.
In 1861, a Royal Commission was appointed to inquire and report upon the
management and control of H.M.’s Dockyards.
They examined seventy witnesses, allof whom were, or had been, officials, except
two—amongst them, Sir James Graham, who stated as follows: ‘It is quite com-
petent to frame a form of accounts, and that the evil would be remedied in six
months. The accounts will be imperfect unless every kind of charge a shipowner
would bring to book is carried to account. An account misrepresenting values is
infinitely more dangerous than no account at all.’ An imperfect account, in my
humble judgment, is infinitely worse than none.’
Sir John Pakington before the same Commission said: ‘If the accounts were
kept so as to show the exact cost of ships, a competition in economy would be
———— eee
Ee
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION ¥. 669
established between the different Yards, which would be of great benefit to Her
Majesty's service.’
They reported finally :
‘We regret to state that in our opinion the control and management of the
Dockyards is inefficient, and that the inefficiency may be attributed to the following
causes ...... 4. The absence of any means, both now and in times past, of
effectually checking expenditure, from the want of accurate accounts.’
The paper proceeded :
In 1864, in connection with Mr. Seely, the Member for Lincoln, I undertook a
systematic and detailed examination of the finance and other accounts of Govern-
ment, more especially those of the Admiralty.
The result of these investigations, brought forward from time to time in the
TIouse, clearly showed that up to and after this period to 1868, the evils complained
of by the Royal Commission of 1861 had not been remedied.
I give a few examples extracted by me from Admiralty accounts, and given by
Mr. Seely at various times in the House, which, I think, clearly prove the evils
still existed.
From 1862-3 to 1864-5 in one year or two years—where expenditure
overlaps :—
Ten ships cost in repairs, Sc. (one repair in each case) in one
financial year, or two such years when the expenditure overlaps
the end of one and runs into another year: viz. the Highflyer,
Niger, Malacca, Cruiser, Sparrowhawk, Pearl, Simoom, Lyra, ?
Oberon, and Torch . - f ; : ‘ f : £450,810 5
And ten similar ships bought new, completely built, fitted,
and equipped, at the rate of 33/. per ton, and 55/. per horse-
power would have cost only ! : - : : 449,906
Five others, Salamander, Barracouta, Falcon, Sharpshooter’,
and JWasp cost in repairs ; : : : : . . 163,584
Five new,completely built, fitted, and equipped would cost
at same rate as above . ; : : : : 3 . 188,797
Or these fifteen ships cost in repairs . 614,394
Fifteen similar new ships at 33/. per ton, and 565i. per horse-
power would have cost, completely built, fitted, and equipped 633,703
It is a rough rule with shipbuilders taking a number of ships during a series of
years, that old repaired ships after repair are worth about half as much as similar
ships. On this basis,
These fifteen ships cost in repair, &c. (one repair) . . £614,394
The value of these fifteen ships after repair would beonly. 316,857
And would show a loss thus of : : - : . 297,537
Say, in round numbers. : 3 ; e F . 800,000
Details of fourteen other ships were given, showing great excess cost in repairs,
and the conclusion arrived at was that on these twenty-nine ships’ repairs (one
repair in each case, years 1862-3 to 1864-5), the expenditure they incurred was
500,0007. more than the ships were worth after such repairs had been executed.
Numerous details were then given showing like results in the 160 manu-
factories, factories, and shops of H.M.’s Dockyards, as for instance, numerous boats
repaired at a cost sometimes greater than double that at which similar new
boats completely built and fitted could have been made or bought.
Cases were quoted of forgings, blanks, and numerous classes of articles that cost
20, 50, and 100 per cent. more at the manufactory at one dockyard than similar
articles at another, and even the lowest cost was in many instances much greater
than the outside market cost of similar productions.
670 REPORT—1880.
As to the total cost of the 160 manufactories of the
several dockyards, figures were given showing the average
yearly cost from 1861 to 1867-8 (7 years) had been about . £1,500,000
That in 1868-9, when Mr. Seely’s Committee had re-
ported and approved the adoption of the author's plans to
give complete control over these great establishments, the
total cost was reduced to. c - 1,116,014
And from 1869-70 to se the yearly cost ed been
about . . : E : : 800,000
Or a reduction yearly of. . : : . ; : 700,000
A considerable proportion of this was shown to be distinctly attributed to the
reforms introduced, by which excess cost at any yard was clearly shown in detail of
‘labour,’ ‘ material,’ and ‘ general expenditure,’ and extravagant yards and manu-
factories, and factories called to account, and for the future obviated.
The system introduced into the Admiralty by the author was described in detail,
by which the three previously apparently unconnected sets of accounts—l. Navy
Estimates and Parliamentary Finance Accounts; 2. Ship-building, Repairing and
Dockyard Expense Accounts; 3. Manufacturing, Factory, and Engineering Estab-
lishment Accounts; were connected and made into one great account through the
instrumentality of his Retabulations of the Navy Estimates, Appropriation Ac-
counts, and surpluses and defects on the grants, and by modifications of the ships’
and manufacturing accounts.
Tt was explained fully how, by means of the author’s scheme of separate rate-
book of prices for each manufactory and dockyard; by treating each as a separate
establishment also with respect to the indirect and incidental expenditure, in
accordance with his proposals, great economical results had been obtained, by enabling
comparisons of cost in detail of labour, materials, and general expenditure to be
systematically and correctly made, and excess cost detected and checked.
This was largely supplemented and aided by his annual lists of differences in
the cost of similar manufactures—at the 160 manufactories, factories, &e., of H.M.’s
several dockyards, by which every manufactory and dockyard had to account for
all such excess cost in the detail stated ; of ‘labour,’ ‘ material’ and ‘ general expen-
diture,’ and it was shown that this had been done whilst, at the same time, a great
saving in clerical labour had been effected.
Figur es were given to show that about 5,000,0007. of y early expenditure in detail
of shipbuilding and manufactory had thus been br ought under strict control, and
that the saving thus—through unwise expenditure being prevented, and due economy
in material and labour being instituted—was about 500, 0007. yearly.
4, Report of the Anthropometric Committee. See Reports, p. 120.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 28.
The Section did not meet.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 671
MONDAY, AUGUST 30.
The Present delivered an Address.
The following Papers were read :—
1. Protection in the United States and its Lessons. By GEORGE
Baven-Powsr11, M.A., F.R.A.S., FSS.
When the question of Free Trade is broached, the rejoinder is, ‘ Why, then, do
the United States flourish so with their Protection?’ If we examine the facts of
the case, we shall find that in the United States prosperity exists in spite of and
not because of Protection, and that Protection has hampered and not assisted the
development of native manufactures in the United States.
Firstly. Protection cannot seriously affect the prosperity of the United States,
because the import trade is comparatively insignificant.
Also. The United States is an undeveloped country. It not only feeds itself, but
half its exports are food. This is a source of wealth unaffected by Protection.
[This food-producing will only affect the English market in a gradually decreas-
ing ratio: as population increases in the States it rapidly raises the cost of growing
food ; it rapidly raises the cost of carriage. The margin of profit is small now, and
will eventually be destroyed by this inevitable growth of population. The British
farmer by the end of the century will have little American competition to face. ]
Also. Absolute Free Trade exists within the United States. And, considering
that this Free Trade covers an area the size of Europe, and at least equal in fer-
tility and resources, we see it is the one great factor in the prosperity of the
United States, and one that successfully resists the evil effects of a high tariff
towards outsiders.
Secondly. Protection has hampered and not developed manufactures.
(1) It is true that the amount of virgin soil perpetually being brought under cul-
tivation relieves manufactures in bad times; but even so, distress in the ‘ artificial’
manufacturing districts of the States is always greater than in the ‘ natural’ districts
in England.
But this wealth of virgin resources not only supplies manufacturers with abun-
‘dant raw material, but also with a class of wealthy local consumers. This wealth
at once nourishes the body of manufacturers and conceals its diseased condition.
(2) We find that the protected manufacturers fail to monopolise the home
market. The high prices, consequent on Protection, enable foreign manufacturers
to pay the high duties, and provide them with means to pierce the barrier set up.
The increase of population would naturally start manufactures, but is prevented
from so doing by this high tariff, which invites and enables foreigners to supply the
local market.
(8) American manufacturers do not export. What little they sell in foreign
markets is mainly what results from bad times in America. Stocks on hand that
then find no sale in the States are supplemented by stocks created by manufacturers
because of the abnormally low prices of labour in depressed circumstances.
(4) Then, too, manufacturers are hampered on all sides by the high prices of all
they use or consume. They cannot produce cheaply, and so fail to compete in
foreign markets. Protection stifles their powers of competing. It hampers and
does not foster native manufacturing enterprise.
Thirdly. It may be asked, Why do the people of the United States, with all
their acknowledged intelligence and cleverness, put up with such things ?
1. One reason is, they are but little affected directly by Protection. They are
occupied almost exclusively with opening up vast virgin resources, The wealth
that results is so great that they pay little heed to the loss imposed on them by Pro-
tection.
2. Another plea, worked by the few that profit by Protection, acts as a great
672 REPORT—1880.
gloss over these evils. It is that of raising revenue to carry on government. While
the West is yet to be opened up, Americans turn nearly all their attention west-
wards. When the work is nearer its end they will look back, turn more attention
eastwards, and discover that a low tariff yields as much revenue as a hich tariff.
In conclusion. The lessons we learn from this instance are, generally, that Pro-
tection has acted as a drag on the prosperity of the United States, and hampered and
not fostered the development of native manufactures; and especially that American
competition in the English food market will now gradually dwindle.
It only remains to poimt out that as the United States become peopled up and
fully developed more heed will be paid to external policies; and the interests that
now keep alive the Protection that hampers them will sink before the assertion of
wider and more popular interests.
The spirit and acts of this age are all in favour of Free Trade. Protection is a
mere protest of a state of things that is passing away.
2. On the Preservation of Fish and preventing the Pollution of Rivers.
By Lieut.-General Sir James E. Avexanper, K.C.B., K.C.L.8., F.R.S.E.
Allusion is made to the neglect of our rivers in many parts of the United Kingdom,
and the prevalence of pollution from towns and public works. Salmon, it is stated,
is generally so dear that the poor are deprived of its use. The town of Stirling, in
Scotland, has a rent of £1,000 a year from its salmon fishery; but that will cease
if the town sewage, gas works, paraflin works, &c., continue unchecked to be dis-
charged into the Forth. A better state of things is reported from Callander and
Dollar, where the sewage is prevented from polluting the streams. Heavy grass
crops, beetroot, &c., are produced by the Edinburgh sewage distributed over the
Craigentinny meadows. What occurs on the border river, the Tweed—over-
fished and polluted. A more stringent Act of Parliament is suggested, to deal
with river pollution and the preservation and increase of fish.
3. On the required Amendment in the Marriage Laws of the United Kingdom.
By the Rev. Daniet Acs, D.D., F.R.A.S.
The desirableness of uniformity in these laws was shown from three gross cases
adduced. Whilst marriage is regarded as a civil contract, inducing a civil status,
conferring the same rights and entailing the same obligations upon the persons
entering into the said contract, the general feeling in the United Kingdom is in
favour of superadding to this important contract the sanction of religion.
The matrimonial proceedings of the ceremony of marriage differ in the three
kingdoms: the validity of the marriage solemnised in one of those kingdoms may be
rendered nugatory in the other by some legal technicality. The effects of such
diversity have been designated by Lord Chancellor Selborne as ‘scandalous to a
civilised country.’
The cases adduced, verifying the epithet, as to their effects, of the Lord Chan-
cellor, were—
1. The Queen v, Millis, 1843, 1844.
2. Beamish v. Beamish, 1861; and
3. Yelverton v. Yelverton or Longworth, 1864, 1865.
The first, a case of bigamy, The Queen »v. Millis.
In 1829, George Millis was married to Esther Graham, according to the rites of
the Presbyterians, by an Irish Presbyterian minister, in Ireland; and in 1886,
whilst Esther Graham remained alive, George Millis married, at Stoke, Devonshire,
Jane Kennedy, by an English priest in holy orders. In 1842, George Millis was, at
the Spring Assizes for Antrim, found guilty of bigamy on the aforesaid facts. A
legal argument was raised in the Court of Queen’s Bench, Ireland, and ultimately
carried to the House of Lords, whether the indictment for bigamy could legally be
sustained. The decision of the Appellate Court of the House of Lords quashed the
indictment for bigamy, and set aside the first marriage of George Millis, on the
principle involved in an ancient canon of the Church of England, viz., that of Arch-
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 673
bishop Lanfranc, at a Council held at Winchester, a.p. 1076, ‘that no marriage is
held valid, unless by an express statute, without the benediction of a priest in holy
orders,’ The late eminent and sagacious Premier, Sir Robert Peel, soon corrected
this anomaly, affecting the validity of Presbyterian marriages in Ireland, by three
statutes immediately enacted by the Legislature :
(1) 5 & 6 Vict. ¢. 113.
(2) 6 &7 Vict. c. 39, a.D. 1845.
(3) 7 & 8 Vict. c. 81, a.v. 1844.
2, Beamish v. Beamish.
This was a case of an episcopally ordained clergyman in Ireland, who himself
exclusively officiated at the marriage of himself to a lady, and consequently such
marriage was rendered invalid, as the House of Lords decreed that the presence of
another person or priest was requisite, according to law, in the case of the clergy
as well as the laity, to receive the mutual consent of the contracting parties,
and declare them to have become man and wife, these being the essential conditions
of legal marriage.
3. Yelverton v. Yelverton or Longworth.
This case is the greatest blot upon our jurisprudence in modern times. A
gentleman in Scotland went through a ceremony with a lady, which the Court of
Session declared to be a valid marriage. Subsequently, the same affianced parties
went through a ceremony before a Romish priest in Ireland, which, in the opinion
of the Irish Court of Queen’s Bench, constituted a valid marriage in that kingdom
of Ireland. But on an appeal to the House of Lords, by a conflict of legal opinion
(Lords Brougham and Westbury holding the parties legally married), the House of
Lords decreed both marriage ceremonies (the one in Scotland and the other in Ire-
land) to be null and void.
Such samples of the conflict of marriage laws in the three kingdoms must he
productive of an immense amount of practical hardship, patent injustice, and wanton
cruelty. These sad judicial results led to the institution of a Royal Commission to
make public inquiry whether the marriage laws could be assimilated. For three
years, from 1865 to 1868, the Royal Commissioners pursued their investigations,
and examined some very learned persons. At length they made their report, with
divers recommendations. Since that period nothing has been done to remedy the
erying grievances inflicted by a conflict of national laws; and it must be a matter of
regret, if not of reproach, that no action has been taken by the responsible advisers of
the Crown that the holy estate of matrimony may be rescued from flagrant injustice.
The gist of various recommendations contained in the said report of the Commis-
sioners involves the following considerations :—
That the whole of the enactments respecting marriages be consolidated in a
single statute; that all existing statutes and ordinances of the United Kingdom on
marriages (involving as a seqguztur the repeal of the odious Irish Marriage Act, the
19 Geo. II. c. 13, and other penal Acts) should absolutely be repealed. The author
of this paper would venture to add, ‘all canons relating to marriage resting on the
authority of statute law, by the 25 Henry VIII. c. 19;’ great care being observed
that by such repeal no canon on marriage expressly or virtually repealed by former
legislation be thereby revived. Also, it is recommended that all stamp duties on
matrimonial documents be abolished; and further, that marriage fees, so far as
practicable, should no longer be exacted.
Again, inter alia, it is also recommended that all licences and banns for marriage
should be superseded by a statutory declaration, made before an authorised and
legally recognised minister of religion, by whom the affianced parties desire their
marriage to be recognised; and that such a minister or official should be empowered
legally to receive such a declaration, and to exact its correctness, with the same
penalty annexed for falsehood and fraud as that of the penalty for perjury; also,
that the certainty of marriage should be legally rendered unequivocal. But reason-
able time and effective means should be supplied to interested parties to prevent
clandestine, hasty, and improvident marriages.
Moreover, parties of mature age, of reputation and of status, well known to the
respective minister of religion or civil officer, desiring to facilitate their prospective
1880. ox
674 REPORT—1880.
marriage, should not be required to wait by giving fifteen days’ notice, but a licence
should at once be granted to consummate their wishes for the immediate solemnisa-
tion of their marriage contract; the same facilities being rendered to the poor as to
the rich, as ‘ marriage is honourable to all.’
The publication of banns, it is admitted, is of great antiquity. We have traces
of or reference to it in the early part of the second century, in the treatises of the
Fathers, Ignatius and Tertullian. But although this ancient mode of notice of
marriage, viz., the publication of banns, has existed for more than eight hundred
ad in this country, the publication of them at this period of time is quite unsatis-
actory.
What useful purpose can now be served by them, let anyone attest who has
attended divine service at Manchester Cathedral, or any parish church in a densely
populated locality. That such publication of intended marriages by banns is utterly
impracticable the late Registrar-General has proved by recording his decided and
valuable opinion, and to this verdict we respectfully submit. Every useful purpose
would be secured by the mere fact of a registered notice from the contracting
parties, accompanied with a true declaration of facts, exacted upon pain of the
penalties of perjury, that no legal impediment existed. Yet those who prefer the
publication of their banns of marriage may be permitted to enjoy this luxury; but
in no case should the publication of banns be required as a condition either of the
lawfulness or the regularity of marriage. All preliminary requirements should be
regarded as directory, and none of them as essential to the validity of marriage,
or in any wise to invalidate it.
No minister of religion or civil officer should arbitrarily, or without a sufficient
legal reason, interpose impediments to the reception of notices of marriage, or to
the granting certificates thereof. On the other hand, all undue or illegal facilities
to marriage should be severely punished.
All penalties of felony assigned to ministers or civil officers in dereliction of their
duties should be reduced to those of misdemeanour. <A certificate of notice by any
beneficed clergyman should be a sufficient authority for parties to be married in
another parish, if they respectively desire it. No clergyman should be relieved
from the obligation imposed on him by the law or sect to which he belongs; but the
time and place of marriage are matters of which the State should take no cog-
nizance ; canonical hours of marriage, having reference to the sacrament of the
mass, in which Protestants are not interested, should by Act of Parliament be
abolished. Asa matter of history, we know that marriage in churches was not
established till the twelfth century, by the ordinance of Pope Innocent III. a.p.
1200.
Consensual or pre-contract marriages, per verba de presenti, et per verba de
futuro, subsequente copuld, though agreeable to the civil law (consensus facit
matrimonium), must not be revived in England, now abolished by stat. 4 Geo. IV.
c. 76, A.D. 1823. In Scotland they are now legalised, as well as marriages by
repute; but marriages legalised in that kingdom, and ratified by the decrees or
decision of Scotch Courts, should be recognised as being legal to the status of the
said parties in England.
Let Mr. Monsel’s Act (26 & 27 Vict. ec. 90), with respect to the registration of
Roman Catholic marriages in Ireland, instead of being directory, be rendered, by
Act of Parliament, imperative.
The Canon Law of Europe does not—it never did—form a part of the Law of
England. It does as to marriage in Scotland. But the laws of the Council of
Trent were never acknowledged in England. But latterly, in the formerly excepted
Provinces of Ireland, the canons of the Council of Trent are revived. Hence
arise the dire conflict of the laws of marriage in the three kingdoms in the adminis-
tration of justice, and the cancelling in England of one of the most important con-
tracts of all social relations which in one of the two other sister kingdoms may be
held valid. And all this through the glorious uncertainty of the laws of marriage,
as appears in grievous suits of litigation.
But Cicero has written :
Indiynum est in civitate, que legibus contineatur, discedi a legibus.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 675
Such are the arguments of the author of this paper for the immediate inter-
position of the Legislature, and for the strong support of the Government, to sweep
away a heterogeneous congeries of at least twenty-seven Acts of Parliament
and other diverse ordinances, and to enact a general marriage law for the three
kingdoms, admitting and legalising the peculiarities of each, but securing for all
the certainty of a valid and indisputable marriage, for the legitimacy and peace
of families, and for the maintenance of the rights and preservation of the property
of the married pair. In doing this let every care be taken to prevent the scandals
which occurred through the unscrupulous conduct of unworthy clergymen prior
to Lord Hardwicke’s Act (26 Geo. II. c. 13), now happily repealed ; but its best
provisions are now incorporated in the English Marriage Acts. Fox and Mackin-
tosh unsparingly condemned this Act for its tyranny. But the doctrine of non
Jiert debet, factum valeat admits of some state regulation. That Fleet Prison and
May Fair marriages were a scandal to a civilised and Christian country, those
acquainted with history will readily admit. But the greater scandal arising from
a conflict of marriage laws, uncertain in their operation, remains.
To remedy this scandalous contravention of the marriage laws, the nation calls
aloud. Marriage, says Lord Stowell, is the parent of civil society ; but, more
than this, it is the basis of social science, and of sound morals; it is the purest
source of domestic affection and of angelic virtue.
Lex est ratio summa, insita in naturd, que jubet, ea, que facienda sunt, prohibet-
que contraria (Cicero, ‘ De Legibus,’ lib. i. chap. vi. 18).
4, On Diminishing Annuities—a Neo-Philosophy in Lending Funds.
By Frepericx N. Newcome.
The assertion that a debt of any magnitude can be actually redeemed within a
limited period at a less expenditure than is involved in the payment of interest on
an interminable one, during the same number of years, may appear startling, even in
this era of remarkable surprises. When speaking of redemption, I include the pay-
ment of regular dividends and the reimbursement of the principal. Antagonistic
to common sense as this statement may appear, its feasibility.and practicability can
be readily demonstrated. Such is the miraculous power of compound interest that
when once a departure is taken from the laws governing the three recognised
financial philosophies, the apparent paradox involved in this equation is easily
explained away. To enounce that a debt can be repaid with less than the cost of
interest sounds an extreme paralogism; but it is nevertheless true, and must be
admitted as a neo-philosophy into the world of economic science. The discovery
was made by myself about twelve months ago, when elaborating a plan of redemp-
tion permitting of a frequent reduction in the annual charge. On comparing
it with the cost of annuities for the same number of years, it was at once visible
that some fresh and important phenomena had to be considered—a new and potent
power was at work somewhere—a vast economy had been effected! but how ?
There stood the figures bold enough, 3,508,054/., to liquidate a six per cent. loan of
1,000,000/. in sixty-two years. There they were, correct and indisputable, while it
was equally clear that an interminable debt must entail, for interest alone, 60,0007.
paid for sixty-two years, or 3,720,000/., and the debt of 1,000,0007. would still be
owing. A gross saving had resulted of 211,946/., plus the capital, or 1,211,946/.,
in all. What is of more importance to science, it was clear that when the gross
cost by this new principle is compared with that of annuities or debentures expirmg
in the same number of years, there must be a net saving of 315,103/. on the cheapest
methods of redemption hitherto known. It is at once cognoscible that the omni-
point power of compound interest is at work in an intensified form. Those who
ave acquaintance with actuarial calculations are constantly reminded of its illimit-
able potency—a potency augmenting, we may almost say, by involution, as the rate
of interest increases and the duration extends. Having stated that the action of
compound interest is the efficient and acting cause producing the phenomena, it
might primd facie be concluded that, to secure the end in view, a great present
sacrifice is inevitable. But such is not the case ; a very small one is sufficient, but,
xx2
676 REPORT—1880.
of course, with each augmentation to the first-created sinking fund, a vast addition
to the ultimate saving will accrue. In the instance cited above the original fund is
a half per cent. or 5,000/, per million. To redeem that amount of six per cent. debt,
the annuity required, whether applied by repurchase in the open market, by grant
of diminishing annuities, or by a checked cumulative sinking fund, is—
First 10 years : . £65,000 | Fifth 10 years . . £53,000
Second 10 ,, z : 62,000 |} Sixth 10 ,, : ; 50,000
Third 10 ,, 4 i 59,000 | Last 2 ,, E 3 30,000
Fourth 10 ,, 4 i 56,000
It will be advisable here to say a few words respecting the advantages and
demerits of the three principles of redemption enumerated above.
Section 1.—Repurchase.
In repaying the national debt of Great Britain. or any other country, on the
system now promulgated, no alteration of the existing fiscal system need ensue,
provided the stock was periodically purchased for cancellation. Government would
merely have to publish a plan of redemption, detailing the amount of stock to be
cancelled each three or six months. When the redemptions were effected below
par the surplus saving could be placed to a fund, and accumulated for the purpose
of defraying the losses incurred by cancellations above par.
Section 2.—Dininishing Annuities.
In no form whatever can annuities take more than a secondary part as a
medium for reducing debt. By entailing the loss of capital, a limit is placed on
their general use. Mr. M‘Culloch justly described them as radically objectionable,
and every sensible man must coincide in that opinion. Each dividend diminishes
the selling value of the annuity. Consequently what we may designate the
‘capital’ is constantly decreasing, until at last, nothing remains. As a means of
reducing debt they are efficacious, but I deny that they are the cheapest or best
method.
Compared with ordinary annuities, I have little hesitation in saying that
diminishing annuities are, from the borrower's point of view, vastly superior; thus
in the loan under consideration, by the old system 10,000 annuities of 6. 3s. 4d.
each would be issued, whereas by my newly discovered system they would be for
the first decade 67. 10s. each, second 6/. 4s., third 5. 1&s., fourth 52. 12s., fifth
51. 6s., and sixth 5/. each, while for the last two years 3/. would be paid each an-
nuitant.
Or, to bring the subject more home to ourselves, the Government of Great
Britain could issue 5 per cent. annuities of 3/. 10s. each for forty years, and 27. 10s.
each for the remaining forty-seven years; or again, 3/. 10s. each for thirty years,
31, each for the next thirty years, and 2/. 10s. each for the last twenty-four years.
There is absolutely no limit to the number of possible variations. This invention
opens up a new and illimitable field in the domain of financial economy. An end-
less scope exists for the development of fresh schemes. In compiling an ordinary
table of annuities, the value of money at compound interest is calculated; so in
these diminishing annuitiesis this element likewise taken into account, and although
the borrower is enabled to repay the loan at a greatly decreased cost, the lender
obtains the value of his money by receiving 6/7. 10s. for the first decade, and 67. 4s.
for the next, instead of 67. 3s. 4d. per annum throughout. The value of the extra
6s. 8d. for the first period and 8d. for the second, when computed at compound
interest, exactly compensates for the subsequent losses of 5s. 4d., 11s. 4d., 17s. 4d.,
and 1/. 3s. 4d. during each of the next decennial periods, and of 3/. 3s. 4d. for the
last two years.
Section 3.—Terminable Debentures.
Terminable debentures, repayable by fixed quarterly drawings, are an even
cheaper method of redeeming debts than annuities. This is a first but small —
advantage when compared with others I shall enumerate. I classify them as
under :—
ee
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 677
1. Absolute fairness, the debt being necessarily repaid with 100/. for each such
sum nominally borrowed ; while the element of chance introduced by the drawings
renders it absolutely impossible to favour the redemption of any particular bonds.
2. The investment must be returned at some uncertain, but not distant, date,
and until its repayment regular interest is received. It is on this question—the
preservation of wealth—that this system so immensely preponderates over its rival,
the terminable annuity. The one promotes extravagance and injures posterity ;
the other inculcates thrift, and safeguards the rights of future generations.
3. The principle is susceptible of unlimited moditication, the magnitude or small-
ness of the debt being of no account one way or the other, except that small sums
are always more readily handled.
4, The sinking fund is absolutely inviolable, and owing to this characteristic
may commence at a fractional sum; ;5355th part of the principal will redeem a 10 per
cent. debt in seventy-three years; while ;4,,th part will suffice to repay a 5 per
cent. debt in eighty-one years. The attention of statesmen and economists should
be more earnestly directed to the various phases of this truly grand financial evolu-
tion. In England especially it has been neglected for the study of antiquated and
malevolent schemes, and the outcome is that, having paid the debt six or seven
times over, we still owe 780 millions. Large as the debt undoubtedly is, its liqui-
dation would not he difficult to a nation of such vast resources as England, provid-
ing that we at once discard the present amusement of ‘ playing at repayment,’ and
adopt, in lieu thereof, a grand and invincible principle. We can well afford the
luxury, as by so doing taxation is instantaneously reducible by a couple of millions
sterling, while the ultimate extinction of the debt is uncontrollably assured.
5. By periodically checking the cumulative sinking fund provision can be made
for a rapid reduction in taxation.
In the above epitomised summary of the salient features of the leading financial
principles, it will have been observed that I Jean strongly to the last, although the
novel scheme of liquidation I now promulgate is equally applicable, by either of
the three. Perhaps the most valuable lessons may be taught the inhabitants of
Great Britain, if I address my remarks almost exclusively to the subject of our
stupendous encumbrance.
Space prevents more than a summary being given of the periodical payments
required, by one or two plans. I exhibit the amounts, first at per million of debt;
secondly, for the funded debt ; and, thirdly, for the total of the gross debts.
SUMMARY.
Initiatory Amount Annual
Period —_ Sinking oh oa dhaeeenn Annual charge | Annual charge
Fund per Annuity | £1,000.000 |°2 £710,000,000 | on £780,000,000
million | * y apt
Plan No. 1.
£ £ £
£ Sy eer: about about about
1 | 10 years 3,500 Bette) 33,500 23,785,000 26,130,000
PAPO, 4,200 3.6 «0 33,000 23,430,000 25,740,000
SLO 45 5,100 Bi ay 0) 32,500 23,075,000 25,350,000
Pane #\ "55 6,400 3.4 «+O 32,000 22,720,000 24,960,000
OWPEO «55 7,600 Bee yeaa Y 31,000 22,010,000 24,180,000
6 re teets 9,200 3°00 «0 30,000 21,300,000 23,400,000
7 eh 25 9,700 218 0 29,000 20,590,000 22,620,000
8 De sy 10,300 216 O 28,000 19,880,000 21,840,000
9 Bt ay 11,400 215 0 27,500 19,525,000 21,450,000
10 bye 12,700 214 0 27,000 19,170,000 21,060,000
11 Bs 33 14,200 213 0 26,500 18,815,000 20,670,000
12 i rr 16,000 212 0 26,000 18,460,000 20,280,000
Ae} 12°", 17,500 210 0 25,000 17,750,000 19,500,000
97 years — — 2,889,457 | 2,051,514,470 | 2,253,776,460
678
Period
wrnore
wnre
WOONAUPWNHr
REPORT—1880.
SumMaRyY—continued.
Initiatory i t I l
Term ne oF: Saat ihareean tapas ee =
Fundper’ Annuity | £1,000,000 | 2 £/10,000,000
Plan No. 2.
£ £
£ £8. d. about about
30 years 4,500} 3 9 O 34,500 24,495,000
30, 02> 6,400 | 3 0 0 30,000 21,300,000
B05 10,600 | 210 0 25,000 17,750,000
90 years — — 2,663,164 | 1,890,846,440
Plan No. 3.
40 years 5,000 |} 310 0 35,000 24,850,000
A AY se 6,300 | 210 0 25,000 17,750,000
87 years — — 2,564,185 | 1,820,571,135
Plan No. 5.
30 years 5,000 | 310 0 35,000 24,850,000
30. =(Cs, 7,100 3 0 0 30,000 21,300,000
24 4, 12,300 | 210 O 25,000 17,750,000
84 years — —= 2,547,752 | 1,808,903,920
Plan No. 6.
10 years 5,000} 310 0 35,000 24,850,000
NO! Sie 5,700 SCS KO 34,000 24,140,000
LO ass 6,700 | 3 6 0 33,000 23,430,000
LOR 8,000 3 «4? 0 32,000 22,720,000
LOD ess 8,700 | 3 0 0 30,000 21,300,000
TO): ese 10,700 | 218 0 29,000 20,590,000
We 12,400 214 0 27,000 19,170,000
NOs; 14,700 210 0 25,000 17,750,000
Diiueryy 17,200} 2 5 0 22,500 15,975,000
89 years -> — 2,652,127 | 1,883,010,170
Plan No. 7.
For the first eight periods as Plan No. 6.
10 years 14,700 | 2 0 0 20,000 14,200,000
1 year 6,200 013 0 6,400 4,530,000
91 years _ —- | 2,655,982 | 1,885,747,220
Annual charge
on £780,000,000
£
about
26,910,000
23,400,000
19,500,000
2,077,267,920
27,300,000
19,500,000
2,000,064,300
27,300,000
23,400,000
19,500,000
1,986,846,560
27,300,000
26,520,000
25,740,000
24,960,000
23,400,000
22,620,000
21,060,000
19,500,000
17,550,000
2,068,659,060
15,600,000
4,980,000
| 2,071,665,960
Comparison of Cost of Different Systems.
Plan No. 6,
Diminishing Sinking Fund or Annuities
Perpetual Annuities £30,000 x 89 years = £2,670,000
Add debt still owing .
Annuities for terms of years, £3 4s. ‘gd.
each x 89 years = £287 15s. 4d. x 10,000
1 000, 000
£2,652,127
3,670,000
2,877, 6662
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 679
Plan No. 7.
Diminishing Sinking Fund or Annuities . 3 A : 2,655,982
Perpetual Annuities £30,000 x 91 years = £2,730,000
Add debt stillowing . 3 i 1,000,000 3,730,000
Annuities for terms of years, £3 4s. 4d.
each x 91 years = £292 14s. 4d. x 10,000 : A A 2,927,1662
I now request your attention to plans 6 and 7, which are drawn up especially
for practical purposes, not to demonstrate the capacity for modification of my
principle, or the vastness of the economies to be effected. Examining plan No. 6,
it is noticeable that after 40 years the excess for sinking fund entirely ceases.
From the 41st to 50th year the annual payment is the same as for perpetual in-
terest, and from the 51st to the last year it is decreasingly less. The total disburse-
ment on account of the sinking fund is, in the forty years, some 140,000/. per
million, or 99,400,0007. for the funded debt ; while in the last 39 years the total
saving is 165,000. and 117,150,000/. respectively, which more than compensates
for the early sacrifice. If we study the problem from an every-day, instead of a
theoretical, standpoint, it is evident that to redeem the debt need cost the country
NnoTHine. This generation lays out 99,400,000/. by 40 instalments, to be returned
with interest to its successors. If 89 years is considered too long a term, the
payments from the 4lst year can be equalised at 3 per cent. on the capital,
and the debt annihilated in 81} years, The net cost of redemption will then be
99,400,0002, or 14 per cent.
I will now ask you to inspect plan 7. You will observe that the same method
of repayment is continued up to the 80th year, but that from the 81st the annuity
is 2/7. instead of 2/. 5s.,and the annual payment is fixed at 20,0002. instead of
22,5001. per million. In introducing this variation my object is to impress upon
the mind, with redoubled force, the extraordinary potency of compound interest,
when judiciously applied. Although the funded debt charge for the final period
averages 1,775,000/. less by the last plan, liquidation occupies little more than a
year longer; while the aggregate sum required for interest and sinking fund is
augmented by 2,737,050/. only. Prolonging the term of redemption has the
effect of showing up the new philosophy in more brilliant colours—the saving
when compared with perpetual annuities being 63,145/. per million more, or when
compared with annuities for terms of years or cumulative sinking funds,
271,184/. 13s, 4d. against 225,539/. 13s. 4d. The correct figures for the funded
debt are, as against perpetual annuities, 12,689,830/. by plan No. 6, and 52,552,7801.
by plan No. 7. This is excluding the 710,000,000/. capital paid off. When com-
pared with annuities or cumulative sinking fund loans terminating in 89 or 91
years, the net savings are over 160 and 192 millions respectively. The limitation
of time prevents notice being taken of many other important phenomena which
occur to my mind, but I trust sufficient information has been given to enable
economists and financiers to thoroughly investigate this neo-philosophy in sinking
funds and annuities, and that sooner or later we may see its principles adopted in
this and other countries.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 31.
The following Papers were read :—
1. What is Capital? The Contradictory Responses of Economists to this
question examined from the ground of Aciual Fact and Life. By
W. WESTGARTH.
The author, after alluding to the late Mr. Bagehot’s remark, that many who
were conversant with economic theory were not so with economic facts, and vice
versd, went on to illustrate this by the case of capital, which is still so disputed a
680 REPORT—1880.
subject in Political Economy. The question What is Capital? is still answered
by economists in a most various and unsatisfactory way. Approaching the question
from the side of a large conversancy with economic facts, he would point out where
the conclusions of economic theory appeared to him at variance with the facts
of life. He first gave the prevailing theories as to capital, and then contrasted
them with what capital actually was in the world of fact and life. Adam Smith’s
view was, that everything dealt with to yield revenue or profit was Capital. This
view, although still partially held, had been largely departed from since, and the
prevailing view now was, that capital was that only which was concerned in pro-
duction. Then again arose the question of two kinds of capital, the fixed and the
circulating, and what rule or principle distinguished them. Here Smith’s criterion
was fixity as distinguished from mobility ; but Ricardo had suggested rather relative
durability, and in this had carried most economists with him, so that the prevail-
ing view now was that things of a durable kind, as land, buildings, railways, were
of fixed capital, while perishable or renewable things, as food, clothing, furniture,
were of circulating capital. But as Professor Jevons and others admit, there is
no clear line between a throng of things which are neither very durable nor yet
very perishable. He then passed to a suggestion of Mr. Jevons, which he noticed
favourably as tending to a correct view of capital. This is in effect that the so-
called fixed capital is not itself capital, but is that which has had capital spent
upon or sunk in it. He proposes thus to distinguish a ‘ free’ from an invested
capital. But as to this free capital, he falls back upon the ‘ production’ idea,
already adverted to, and limits capital to articles of food, clothing, furniture, and
such direct needs of ‘labour of all kinds and classes.’ Lastly, as to the origin,
maintenance, and increase of capital, most economists are agreed that these all
result from saving, abstinence, and improving industry, so that the less the spend-
ing of what is produced, the more the capital, and on apparently to indefinite
increase,
All these views Mr. Westgarth considered to differ more or less from that of
the capital of fact as confronting us in actual life. This capital we see to be one
fund—one homogeneous fund we might call it—which supports indiscriminately
not production only, but all exchange or business life. He insisted, as speaking
from the world of fact, that exchange was essential to the idea of capital. What
caused exchange was the subdivision, or, to speak more comprehensively, the
association of labour. With the association of labour, he remarked, we enter upon
Economic Science, and it has thus, in this its limitation, a sufficiently marked
distinction from the far wider Sociology, or the Science of Society. Capital,
then, is the fruit of exchange. It consists of the stock of things which arise and
are maintained as the needs of exchange. These stocks are mainly of three kinds :
first, raw materials, or things in preparation for our use; second, the things pre-
pared, and for sale in the shops and markets; and third, the prepared things
which are not passed out of exchange for ‘ consumption,’ but kept as the ‘ rolling
stock’ of trading or exchanging life. The chief and most notable item of this third
lind is money. Money is simply one kind of goods used to value the other
kinds, and where independently originated, it has always made its first appearance
in this simple way. Coinage and the change of material for the ‘ precious metals’
were afterthoughts to increase convenience, but they noways altered relationships.
The fund of capital then consisted of goods and money—ot these indiscriminately,
as one and the same class of things. This fund was distinguished from the so-called
fixed capital, which, as to its leading idea, was not capital at all, but only agency,
which agency, in conjuction with that of man himself, enabled us to produce the
real things of capital, namely the requisites of our direct use. Land, for instance,
is such agency, and only its crop belongs to capital. These direct requisites are.
capital while within the sphere of exchange; outside of exchange they cease to
be capital. Thus the limitation or law of capital is that it constitutes the stocks
required for the time being by exchange. As exchange extends in a country and
larger stocks are needed, there is more capital to the country. What causes ex-
change or trading to extend, in spite of this cost of larger capital, is the increased
economy of production gained by the larger scale of business. All trade extension.
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 68
is an everlasting battle between, on the one hand, the increased profit by cheaper
production, and on the other, the increased cost of the larger capital requirement.
Successful trade extension is that which, in increasing a country’s income, increases
concurrently also the total of its capital. There is then a ‘ Law of Capital,’ and
these are its chief elements.
2. Remarks and Statistics relating to Swansea Usages and Customs as they
affect the Sellers of Foreign or Colonial Copper Ores. By Wm. Hen-
DERSON.
I have chosen the occasion of the meeting of the British Association at Swansea
as a fitting time and place for the discussion of this very important subject. It is
a matter of great local importance, and here it is most likely to receive an intelli-
gent and practical treatment. No doubt from the standpoint of the sellers of
foreign ores, the clamant evils of the system have long ago called for redress. For
many years we have suffered from delays, inaccuracies, and all the evils inherent
in this antiquated system, and striven to remedy it as best we could, and have
succeeded, where we had to deal with rich ore, reguluses, or precipitate, to a
certain extent, and completely, so far as Chili bars are concerned; but to the very
large quantity of poor ores, such as the Spanish and Portuguese ores, the whole of
the Swansea system applies in all its inconsistency and rigour; and my object in
this paper is to show the hardships we are altogether unnecessarily subjected to,
and to propose a remedy. I may also here premise that we do not complain of the
actual price paid us for our ores, as I do not believe that we should get a penny
more were the system changed to-morrow. But what we complain of is the system
by which that price is arrived at, and the enormous waste of time before we get
‘agreed’ results. I purpose treating this subject under the following heads :—
1. Swansea public sales or ‘ ticketings.’
2. Sales by private bargain at Swansea and elsewhere based on Swansea sales.
3. Sales by private bargain based otherwise than Swansea.
4, Weights and allowances.
5. Dry assay and its relations to the truth, as shown by actual results by
smelting and wet process. Time consumed in getting settled results—
differences.
6. Wet assay.
7. What ought to be the simple basis of price ?
1. Swansea Public Sales or Ticketings.
Public sales of copper ores at Swansea, several years ago, used to be very regu-
larly held once a fortnight, and the quantities of ore were then very large and
important. This is now no longer the case. For the year 1877 there were only
twenty-three sales; for 1878, only eighteen sales; and for 1879, only fifteen sales.
The quantities sold were insignificant—being for the three years collectively
112,504 tons.
The usual custom with foreign ores which are to be disposed of by public sales
is as follows:—They are usually consigned to one or other of the ore yards, such
as those of Messrs, Bath & Sons, or Messrs. Richardson & Sons, where the ore is
landed, and, if necessary, crushed and put out in square or oblong piles about 2 to
23 feet deep, and in parcels of from 50 to 100 tons and less. These are generally
put forward for next sale, and a day is appointed for sampling, when intended
purchasers are represented as well as the seller. A period of fourteen days is
allowed between the date of sampling and the day of sale, which is considered
necessary to allow the assays to be made. On an average it takes fourteen days
more to prepare and crush the ore previous to sampling, and all this is attended
with a very serious expense, besides the delay. As we do not know when another
sale will take place at Swansea, we save time and lose nothing by adhering to
previous sale.
682 REPORT—1880.
Two tables were here given, showing what time is lost between the delivery of
the ore and the settlement of the assay and price.
During the whole of these numbers of days, ranging from sixteen, which appears
to be the shortest, up to sixty-two days, we cannot deliver our invoices, and have
to wait for our money all that time. This great hardship is further aggravated to
the importer who sells his raw ore to the sulphuric acid makers for sulphur value
only, and takes back the cinders. These have to be again sampled and assayed,
with the delays repeated. If he is also a copper extractor, as I am, and sells his
precipitate, that has again to be sampled and assayed, and the same delays re-
peated, so that it may be quite a common event that from the time of landing till
the time of realisation eight months may elapse, and the same copper be assayed.
three times. The costs by sale at public ticketings are very considerable, amounting
in Spanish ores to fully half the freight, which, with present low prices of copper,
may be all the profit. This is not the custom when sold by private bargain, as
these sales as a rule are generally ex ship. It is, therefore, evident that if an
importer can sell his ores to arrive ex ship by private bargain, he will not send
them to the Swansea sales ; and surely this is not a state of things conducive to the
prosperity of Swansea or its industries.
2, 3. Sales by private bargain at Swansea and elsewhere based on Swansea sales.
The great bulk and value of these sales are made elsewhere than at Swansea
and the preceding sale ; or, if any Swansea sale takes place on the day of sampling,
that sale is taken as the basis of price. The object is, of course, to save time, and
one has to take the risk of a rise or fall in the price of copper between the dates of
sale and that of delivery. Our friends the copper-smelters at Swansea will, how-
ever, admit that so far as the produce of Spain and the economical treatment of the
raw Spanish or Portuguese ores are concerned, or even for the smelting of the burnt
ores, the processes of Swansea were quite unable to deal with the large quantities
in any economical way. With the raw ores, asa rule, the very large percentage of
sulphur, viz. 48 per cent., would have been worse than wasted, as it would have
cost something considerable to calcine such ores, rich in sulphur and poor in copper,
down to the point to make them produce per se (or even mixed with other calcined
ores) a sufficiently rich regulus, Besides the enormous increase of nuisance, and
even when in later days the sulphuric acid manufacturers came to use the sulphur,
the cinders still contained 60 per cent. of metallic iron, and which when sent to
Swansea, from such distant places as Newcastle and Glasgow, at heavy freights,
only 4 per cent, to 6 percent. of the weight was paid for, and the whole of the
iron contents were lost. By the introduction of my wet process at this juncture,
the shipment of these burnt ores from all the districts of large consumption was
rapidly stopped, and the ores treated on the spot, saving the freights and iron ore,
and yielding much more perfect results for copper—thus preventing very large
quantities of ores coming to Swansea. Andso in like manner the enormous yields
of the Spanish and Portuguese mines (which are constantly increasing), over and
above their possible sales for sulphuric acid purposes at home and on the Con-
tinent has gradually led to great extension of the slow process of cementation from
the poorer grades of ore, produced at very small cost, in enormous quantities,
reckoned by hundreds of thousands of tons, for each of the uncovered mines per
annum a very large and increasing annual production of copper, as precipitate, of
from 50 to 75 per cent. produce is annually obtained.
Another reason why the public sales at Swansea have decreased, and are there-
fore no longer a fair basis for private sales made elsewhere, is the most serious of all.
By the opening up of short railways to the mines, and the great development of
coal mining, Chili now sends most of her produce to this country, as Chili bars, or
in blocks containing about 96 per cent. pure copper. So serious is this production,
that it may be stated roughly as a fact that Chili exports as much copper in ores,
reguluses, bars, and ingots as all the rest. of the world produces, and almost the
whole of this is sold by private bargain, and the price is regularly quoted every busi-
ness day, and virtually rules the price of copper. fest
EEE LL— ll
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 683
The statistics given below from the Board of Trade returns for the last three
years amply prove what a small proportion of the copper imported is sold at Swansea
public sales, and how much by private bargain.
Board of Trade Returns of Imports for Years 1877, 1878, 1879.
Specification and Country Quantities Values
1877 1878 1879 1877 1878 1879
Tons | Tons | Tons = £ £
Copper Ore from Chili . : 7,949) 2,349 461) 115,933) 30,694 8,355
Do. Cape of Good Hope . . | 14,060) 12,789) 13,629) 258,839) 241,373) 232,956
Do. British North America . | 38,612) 34,630} 25,054) 256,215) 191,505) 127,581
Do. other countries 5 . | 54,845) 53,177| 48,685) 533,723) 456,561) 395,605
Total ; z . (115,466)102,945| 87,829)1,164,710) 915,133) 764,497
Regulus (incl. Precipitate)
from Chili 2 : . | 17,031] 11,455) 15,666) 531,237) 342,363) 415,996
Do. other countries : . | 16,670} 21,955] 30,264! 667,312) 798,574/1,073,160
Total . . - . | 33,701) 33,410) 45,930/1,198,549)1,140,937| 1,489,156
Unwrought or part wrought
from Chili . : 3 . | 25,958) 22,785) 33,534/1,810,859/1,434,403)1,957,049
Do. from Australia . ; . | 11,010) 8,661) 9,845) 851,759} 610,640) 638,632
Do. other countries F 3,248] 7,914} 3,291} 225,753) 513,232) 207,494
Totals . . . | 40,216) 39,360) 46,670)2,888,371|2,558,275|2,803,175
Pyrites ' ‘ . ° . |680,033/577,719)481,622/1,646,132/1,332,934)1,051,015
Grand Totals . . |869,422|753,434|662,051|/6,897,762/5,947,279|6,107,933
Public Sales at Swansea . . | 45,674) 35,581) 31,249) 407,969) 164,914) 134,069
Sales elsewhere by private bar-
gain . : ; ; . §23,748]717,853/630,802/6,489,793)5,782,365/5,973,864
4, Weights and Allowances.—It used to be the custom at Swansea and elsewhere
to weigh the ores, reguluses, and precipitate in hand barrows of 3 ewt. each, by beam
and scale, thus giving seven weighings to the ton of 21 cwt. For some years, how-
ever, this custom has been departed from, and 2 cwt. barrows substituted, thus
requiring 103 turns of the scale for every ton of 21 ewt. But over and above this
allowance a draftage of 244 Ibs. per ton of 21 ewt.is demanded from sellers of
foreign or colonial ores. Why this anomaly exists it is impossible to guess, when
no such allowance is asked for in Cornish ores. "What even is the use of maintain-
ing the 21 ewt. to the ton except to complicate and obscure accounts? Refined
copper is not sold at 21 ewt. to the ton; and no such absurd allowances as 244 lbs.
per ton, nor is it weighed in 2 or 8 ewt. lots. Ingots, cakes, and tiles are all
weighed carefully in 10 ewt. lots with just the turn of the scale, and the seller
makes an allowance at the time of about two pounds to the ton, as it is found by
experience that a certain amount of scale comes off in handling and transit, and
this allowance is to insure delivery of nett weight to the purchaser on delivery, and
experience shows that this allowance is ample. In selling or buying Chili bars,
which are partially refined copper of about 96 per cent., an allowance of 4 Ibs. on
the ton of 20 ewt. is all that is allowed, and I think this is perfectly fair, for
ne refiner has to sustain the risk of scaling and abrasion both to and from his
refinery.
684 REPORT— 1880.
There can be no argument in favour of the maintenance of the 21-cwt. ton and
allowance, except some antiquated custom, and there is much in favour of its imme-
diate abolition. We, the sellers of foreign ores, do not for a moment suppose that
so far as price is concerned the abolition of these absurd and antiquated customs
will secure us any advantage whatever. We are perfectly aware that the receiving
of these allowances by the buyer, and the giving of them by the seller, have all been
taken into calculation by both. Our only argument here is, what is the use of
introducing gratuitously into a simple calculation complications of this sort, which
are admittedly discounted previously? We consider this a grievance that only
requires to be stated to be admitted, and as its maintenance benefits no one, but
wastes time and leads to needless book-keeping, we earnestly trust our friends the
smelters will agree to their early discontinuance.
5,6. The Dry Assay and its relations to the truth, as shown by actual results, «s
obtained by Smelting and by the Wet Process with works where the Precipitate is
refined, and Copper sold as B. S. or Tough Cale. The Wet Assay tested in the
same manner, and as compared with the Dry Assay.
It will be more convenient to treat these two divisions of my subject together.
I do not intend here to enter into any description of either the dry or the wet assay,
and their modes of operation. In the Chemical Sections of this, or a future meeting,
I hope to have an opportunity of discussing these fully.
What we importers of foreign ores have chiefly to complain of in the method of
the dry assay is the unreasonably long time it takes to get agreed results, and the
constant disputes, which require a considerable amount of very unpleasant and
vexatious correspondence, which generally ends in a reference; and all this con-
sumes valuable time. I have enough and to spare of statistics to prove this argu-
ment against the dry assay method—the long and inconsistent delay in settling
results—a delay and uncertainty in which the disputes are so chronic that I venture
to say no other class of merchants would have endured them one year without
seeking some remedy.
A set of results furnished me by Messrs. Mason & Barry show that no possible
reliance can be placed upon the dry assay, as in the same cargo, delivered from the
same ship, but divided amongst several customers, totally ditferent results are ob-
tained. Now, I am not prepared to go so far as this, as it goes quite against my
general experience. In my view, it is a perfect proof that the mode of sampling is
utterly wrong, when the sampler for the buyer and the sampler for the seller are
permitted to take their samples by running over a series of loaded trucks and each
chip off about a shovelful from a six or ten ton truck from large pieces of ore. Mix
them together and call this a sample!!| The results of divided cargoes—which, if
properly sampled, would go to prove the dry assay utterly worthless, are, when not
certain on the point of sampling, misleading—are yet so instructive, that I have
ventured to give them here as facts which bear somewhat of an important argument
against the dry assay.
Then against the dry assay we have a special charge that the assayers very often
disagree, and the result is a reference to a third assayer with a corresponding loss
of time. This has very frequently to be undergone, especially with burnt ores, and
in most cases the third assayer agrees with neither of the others.
As a contrast to this, I recently caused the Seville Sulphur and Copper Company
to send a sample from their usual imports from their two mines, one comparatively
rich and the other very poor, to five of the best known chemists who make’a speci-
ality of analysis of minerals, and I give below their results, and it will be seen how
closely they agree.
cx Betty Russell. ex Bella Rosa.
if II. Ill.
Edward Riley, London , i : 6752 6°808 3-42
Fred Claudet, London 4 F F 6°830 6825 6°835 3-48
James 8. Merry, Swansea . 5 : 675 685 6:90 3°47
Alfred H. Allen, Sheffield . : a“ 6°82 3°30
John Clark, Ph. D., Glasgow. 4 6°81 3°42
Average . * = “ 6°80%, 3°42%
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 685
It will also be seen that the dry assay is uniformly too low, and always con-
siderably short of the truth. This is proved not only by its difference from the wet
assay, but also by actual results obtained by smelting, where the surplus copper
forms a very considerable portion of the profit. But the wet assay is proved to be
the true assay by results obtained on the large scale when my process of extraction
is used, and the precipitate produced refined. I give the results from four different
works, in situations far distant from each other, and all for the same year. The
works are placed in the order of their erection, D being the most recent and the
most perfect in construction.
{
Specification A B Cc D eee
Ore Calcined . : 7,940°65 | 9,833°063 | 23,074:76 | 14,485°975 | 55,964°448
Copper—Dry Assay . 311°89 252°333 690:053 466°465 | 1,720°741
Do., Wet Assay 416:356| 382-110 984-830 650°210| 2,433°506
Copper produced 387:069 | 338-855 919°284 636°768 | 2,281-976
Gain on Dry Assay . 75179 86°522 229-231 170°303 561°235
Loss on Wet Assay . 29-287 43°255 65°546 13°442 151530
Percentage—Dry Assay . 3°93 2°57 2°91 3°22 3°07
Do., Wet Assay : 5:24 3°89 4-15 4:49 4°35
Produced. : : 4:87 3°45 3°88 4:39 4:08
Difference between Wet
and Dry Assay 1:31 1:32 1-24 1:27 1:28
Gain on Dry Assay . “94 88 HSI 117 101
Loss on Wet Assay . BT “44 27 10 27
Surplus r : 23°9 34:2 33°3 36:3 32°90
These results were obtained ten years ago; but with increased experience and
better plant the produce by the wet assay has been obtained with great regularity to
within the second place of decimals. The results shown in the above table prove con-
clusively that the dry assay is not within 33 per cent. of the truth; for these four
works in one year, by the treatment of nearly 56,000 tons of ore, actually refined
and sold no less than 561 tons of copper more than the dry assay declared existed in
the ore. There can be no mistake about a reality of this kind; and what are we to
say in fayour of a system which is so misleading? In any other branch of business
such proved inaccuracies would never be tolerated a moment; and the worst of it
is, that the lower the percentage of copper in the ore the greater the proportional
difference. By reference to tables supplied by Messrs. Mason & Barry, we see that
when the dry assay says the ore contains | per cent. copper, the wet assay says at
least 2 per cent. ; so that if these four works had been working ores of what the
dry assay called 1 per cent., they would most assuredly have got 2 per cent. out, or
100 per cent. surplus. A very amusing instance of the utter uselessness of the dry
assay for poor ores was shown in the case of the Alderley Edge ores, which were
a very pure sandstone mixed with a good deal of sulphate of barytes, and just
stained green with carbonate of copper. The wet assay gave readily 1 to 13 per
cent., but the average of the ore treated was 0:92 percent. I knew, of course, that
the ore would be extremely difficult to assay by the dry way—in fact, I could get
nothing. We sent two samples to two Cornish assayers, and they could find no-
thing either. Now, here was an extraordinary thing. A copper mine raising 1200
tons a month, paying a lordship of nearly £3000 a year, and dividing handsome
dividends for eighteen years, all out of nothing. We cannot push the argument
against the dry assay further; it stands self-convicted. ;
7. What ought to be the simple basis of price?
I am quite aware I approach the most difficult part of my subject, but I believe
there is a clear way out of the difficulty. I have, I think, proved that—so
far at least as poor ores are concerned—the dry assay is utterly worthless, Of
course I assume that no one of any intelligence will be found to maintain that
686 REPORT— 1880.
21-cwt. tons and 243 Ibs. draft per ton can possibly be retained with any show
of reason. As to the dry assay on rich ores and reguluses, I think I have clearly
proved that, at all events as far as precipitate is concerned, it is always below
the truth by a good many per cents., and the same must be said of all ores
between 10 and 90 per cent. On the other hand, Chili bars, which have only
to be refined, should be refined by the process they have to go through to make
them fine copper, and I think the dry assay is the nearest corresponding pro-
cess they could be subjected to. At all events, the wet and the dry assays almost
entirely agree in Chili bars; an occasional difference of 4 per cent. is éntirely due
to the opinion of the refiner whether he has actually got refined copper or not—
‘BS! or ‘T.C.’ But with precipitate it is very different, particularly that pro-
duced by the ‘ salt process ;’ there is always a difference of at least 4 per cent. In
the early days there used regularly to be 11 per cent. difference, but now, though not
satisfactory, it is much better. Still, I think all ores and reguluses, including pre-
cipitate, ought to be assayed by the wet method, and the results stated in whole
numbers and decimal fractions, and be paid for including the second place of deci-
mals. The basis of price should be in proportion to the official price of refined
copper as quoted on the day of sampling, or if there is no official or quoted market
price on that day, then the last preceding quotation. As there are several qualities
of refined copper, the medium quality, or what is known as ‘ Tough Cake,’ would,
I think, be fairest. Chili bars, which form such a large proportion of the material
out of which refined copper is produced, and are officially quoted every market day,
might also be taken; but as these may cease to be produced, it would be better, I
think, to base the price on the price of ‘Tough Cake.’ Then, as to the proportional
price for all percentages of ores, leaving a fair margin to smelters and extractors,
this can be arrived at very much as is done at present. A complete set of tables, I
would suggest, could be constructed by a committee of smelters, extractors, and
importers, and these should be printed by authority of this committee, and available
to any purchaser. I would suggest also that a committee of chemists should also
settle and publish with the book a very minute description of the best known wet
method of assay, and that this method of assay be, and remain until altered by
authority, the standard method of assay. It would not be necessary in these tables,
in my opinion, to go further than to state opposite each percentage or bracketed
set of produces how many shillings and pence per wnit these produces are worth.
Anyone with the most rudimentary knowledge of figures from these data would
find the price per ton of ore. By means of the wet assay, which can be made with
great rapidity and exactness, and with this authoritative data as to the value per
unit, invoices could be rendered within a few days, or even hours, after sampling,
with perfect confidence.
3. Progress of the English Stations in the Hill Regions of India.
By Hyper Crarxt, V.P.S.S.
Mr. Clarke stated that the Himalayan ranges to the north possess the cool climate
of England, and that Englishmen thrive there, This had early attracted the atten-
tion of our great administrators, who, beginning with Simla in 1818 and Darjeeling
in 1828, had formed a series of stations, which had performed the functions of
sanitaria, watering-places, and military posts, of metropolis and capitals, and latterly
also of centres of tea-culture. A chain of hills passed as a backbone through India
on the west, in which were seated some minor stations. He had shown how by tele-
graph connection these towns were as well suited as the unhealthy cities of the
plains for governmental and military purposes. In a series of statistics he illus-
trated the condition of the tea and cinchona plantations and the breweries. He
estimated the hill products as approaching a million in value, including 10,000,000
Ibs. of tea and 3,500,000 Ibs. of coffee. The gross imports from the foreign hill
states he estimated at about 2,000,000/. yearly. All this trade was capable of exten-
sion by careful administration. Thibet and China are closed to us; where Russian
power extends our trade ceases. Nepaul excludes us, and our own feudatory in
Kashmere but grudgingly allows us access. The oppression and misgovernment of
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 687
the latter country require a removal of the ruler. In a political point of view it
was admitted that the hills, although so little used, afforded suitable quarters for a
large portion of our English army, which would greatly increase its efficiency.
The development of the hill regions would create an available reserve, while India
would obtain what was essential for its welfare, greater security from aggression
from without and from dissension among the various conflicting races within the
peninsula. It was, however, chiefly in reference to the interests of civilisation in
the advancement of India that the development of the English population in the
hill countries of India was to be regarded. He showed too that the aboriginal
races might in this respect receive great benefit. The progress which had heen
made in the hills within the last twenty years, almost without care, showed what
was to be effected in the future.
688 REPORT— 1880.
Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—JAMES ABERNETHY, V.P. Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E.
THURSDAY, AUGUST 26.
The Section did not meet.
FRIDAY, AUGUST 27.
The PresipEnT delivered the following Address :—
As time will not permit of a generally detailed description, I propose, in the
Address which I have the honour and pleasure to make as President of your Section,
to describe generally the past and present condition of the port of Swansea, as typical
of the rise and progress of the various ports in the Bristol Channel within the last
half-century, and the vast improvements which have been effected in the nature and
extent of the accommodation provided to meet the requirements of the shipping of
the present day as regards dock facilities and appliances for the rapid and economi-
cal loading and discharging of their cargoes rendered necessary by the amount of
active competition in every branch of commerce, both export and import.
I propose to confine myself in this address generally to the engineering history
of Swansea Harbour, but I think it necessary, in the first place, briefly to describe
certain features of the Bristol Channel, resulting in the peculiar advantages its
harbours possess over those of the eastern coast, due to the greater tidal range.
At its entrance between St. Govan’s Head on the north and Hartland Point on
the south, its width is 42 miles, gradually contracting, until at King Road at the
mouth of the River Avon, 92 miles distant, its width is only 44 miles, the result
being a proportionate elevation of the tidal wave in its progress upward, so that in
Swansea Bay spring tides rise 28 feet, at Cardiff 35 feet, and at Avonmouth 40
feet, and in consequence engineers have been enabled to provide for the entrance of
the largest class of shipping by providing at the various docks recently constructed
a greater depth of water than is generally practicable on the eastern coast. The
eill of the dock at present in process of construction at Swansea will have a depth
over it at spring tides of 32 feet, while the existing cill of the Roath Dock at
‘Cardiff has 35 feet 83 inches over it; that of the Alexandra Deck at Newport 35
feet, and the Avonmouth Dock 39 feet—greater depths than exist over the lock cills
of any of the ports on the eastern coast generally.
It would extend my address to an unnecessary length to describe the vast im-
provements which have taken place at all the ports in the Bristol Channel within
the past half-century. The port of Swansea may fairly be taken as a type, inas-
much as from its position it has natural difficulties to contend with, requiring, as
at Cardiff, extensive works seaward in order to provide the requisite depth of
water, such works not being necessary in the case of the docks at Newport, Ayon-
mouth, or Portishead.
As regards its situation, the port is placed nearly in the centre of Swansea Bay,
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 689
at the mouth of the river Tawe, partially sheltered from prevailing winds by the
Mumbles Headland bearing from the harbour entrance south-west three-quarters
west, the shelter from that headland affording good anchorage as regards holding
ground, but subject to the range of the sea in south-westerly gales. The entrance
to the port is exposed from south-west three-quarters west to south-east, the
heaviest seas occurring when the wind is south-westerly or directly up the Channel.
Previous to the year 1794 no engineers appear to have been consulted as to the
improvement of the port, which at that period simply consisted of the bed of the
River Tawe, the latter discharging over the flat foreshore after passing through
a small subsidiary bay, termed Fabian’s Bay, lying between two points of land
ealled Black Point and Salthouse Point, the entrance being fully exposed to the
range of the sea from the points of the compass before enumerated, and con-
sequently blocked up by sand driven into it by the action of south-westerly seas,
and only accessible at spring tides in fair weather by a small class of coasting
vessels.
In the year 1794 the then Trustees consulted Captain John Huddard, F.R.S.,
who at that time had the reputation of being an eminent marine engineer, and a
perusal of whose report shows that, having regard to the meagre knowledge of
harbour improvements at that period, he possessed great powers of observation and
considerable practical engineering knowledge. In his first report, which is of con-
siderable length, dated 24th September 1794, he states that he was called upon
by the Trustees to answer various queries generally bearing on the possibility of
providing an increased depth of water by improving what is termed the ‘bar’ or
sand carried into the navigable channel by the tidal action in south-westerly gales,
and the protection of the harbour entrance from the inrun of the sea during those
winds. The condition of the harbour at that period in regard to depth can be
inferred from the following passage in his report—‘On the 5th August I found
only 8 feet of water in the harbour, and in the evening of the 31st July a vessel of
about 13 feet draught of water, in sailing out of the harbour, grounded upon the
bar, where she remained till the 10th August, when the tide rose to take her off;
and eyery ship in the harbour loaded to that draught of water, and ready to sail at
that time, must suffer the same detention.’
Captain Huddard gave as his opinion that a greater depth of water could not
be obtained, nor the drifting of the sand from the effect of the sea into the entrance
channel prevented, without the construction of piers, which he termed the eastern
and western piers, the first extending from Black Point and the latter from Salt-
house Point, which piers in consequence of his recommendation were subsequently
constructed. Captain Huddard further observes that the increased depth antici-
pated consequent on their construction ‘would continue so long as the tide is
Suffered to flow up the river as at present,’ but at the same time it would appear
_ that a project was then entertained, often since revived, for damming the river and
converting it into a floating dock, as his report contains the following passage—
‘Should the river be embanked for a floating dock, sluices will be necessary to clear
‘away the silt out of the channel which the sea will deposit in the outer harbour;
for though the harbour of Swansea will not be so liable to silt as many others from
the strength of the tide in the Severn being thrown off by the Mumbles and Nash
Points ; yet, in fresh gales, the same being impregnated with mud, will deposit it
in the harbour and require a current to clear it out of the channel.’
The construction of the West Pier, as recommended by Captain Huddard, was
carried out, and in May 1804 he was again called on to report. He states that the
only alteration which he observed on his second visit was that the sand to the extent
of 270 yards south of the pier head was worn down nearly one foot, but that what
was termed the ‘Bar’ seaward was higher than the harbour entrance, and that
it was absolutely necessary to complete the Eastern Pier in order to secure a
permanent depth of water and to afford the necessary protection from south-
westerly winds. The Eastern Pier was in consequence constructed, the result being
the prolongation of the river current and the driving of the bar further seaward,
end in the year 1831 it was reported that a depth of 21 feet existed over it at
apring tides, as anticipated in Captain Huddard’s report of 1794,
0. 2x
690 REPORT—1880.
In the year 1826 the Trustees consulted Mr. Telford, and he reported on Feb-
ruary 5 of the following year. At that period what was termed the harbour was
simply the bed of the river Tawe; the shipping lying within it were endangered
by exposure to the action of heavy floods, and he recommended that the present
new cut should be made as achannel for the river—no doubt an important and
necessary work; but he again revived the old engineering heresy of recommending
the conversion of this new cut and of the old harbour into floats with a river
overflow and draw sluices. He further recommended the direction of the ebbing
current seaward by slag banks, in order to act upon the bar. These propositions of
Mr. Telford were generally approved of by Mr. H. R. Palmer in a report addressed
to the Trustees in January 1831, and he further recommended the prolongation of
the Western Pier.
Similar propositions were recommended by other engineers, among them the
late Mr. Jesse Hartley ; but fortunately for the future of the port of Swansea, none
of the works for the conversion of the river into a float were executed. The new
cut, or channel, for the river was commenced in 1840, and finished in 1844, the
eflect being to materially lessen the risk to shipping lying within the harbour or
original bed of the river during floods, and in giving a better direction to the ebbing
current.
In 1845, what is termed the Pottery Entrance was constructed under the direc-
tion of Mr. Rendel, with a double cill, as a provision for the canalising of the river
or the new cut at a future period. The masonry of this entrance I found completed
at the period of my first visit to Swansea in the month of February 1849, and the
project was still entertained of converting the river and new cut into a float, rela-
tive to which. I reported in the following words:—‘ Any interference with the
channel of the river or new cut which would prevent the free influx and reflux of
the tide, would, I am of opinion, be most prejudicial to the harbour entrance. In
times of flood, the river current is no doubt an active agent in deepening and
removing obstruction from the entrance channel; but, under ordinary circumstances,
its volume is too small to haye any material effect. On reference to sections taken
by the late Mr. Price, I find that 40,000,000 cubic feet or thereabouts of tidal water
ebbs each tide from the river channel alone, independent of the backwater from
Fabian’s Bay, and I am of opinion that, although the land-floods are active agents
in deepening and removing obstructions from the entrance channel, the tidal water
is the main agent in maintaining and keeping it clear, and that every facility should
be given by deepening the bed of the river to aid its upward flow, and that in pro-
portion as the bed of the river is lowered the entrance channel will be deepened.’
To that opinion, expressed upwards of thirty years ago, I still adhere. The system
of discharging a volume of water at the period of low tide from reservoirs, and
thereby creating a shallow stream as a means of preserving a navigable channel
and a sandy foreshore, is, in my opinion, entirely futile, and in the case of several
important Continental harbours threatens seriously to interrupt the regular postal
service between this country and the Continent.
Upon my visit in 1849, with the exception of the masonry of what is termed the
Pottery Entrance and the various wharves on each side of the old river-bed and of
the New Cut, no works had been executed of any magnitude; the harbour still con-
sisted of the original river-bed composed of hard gravel worn into irregularities by
the occasional action of floods, and the superior class of shipping engaged in the
copper ore trade was constantly strained in taking the uneven ground. As regards
communication with the harbour, no railways were in existence, and I used to make
the journey from Aberdeen, in Scotland, to Swansea, entirely by coach. The gross
revenue of the harbour was about 7000/. per annum at that time; during the present
year it is estimated at about 60,0007.
After considerable discussion, the Trustees determined in November 1849 to
convert the tidal harbour, or old bed of the river, into a floating dock with an outer
half-tide basin, of the respective areas of 11 and 23 acres, the half-tide basin entrance
being 60 feet in width, with a depth over the cill of 25 feet 6 inches, at high water
spring tides. Between the half-tide basin and dock, a lock was constructed, 160 feet
in length and 60 feet wide, with a depth over the cill of 22 feet 6 inches; these
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 691
dimensions were considered, at the time, ample for the largest class of shipping
frequenting the port. At that period the number of steam in comparison with
sailing vessels was insignificant, and the Transatlantic service between this country
and America was only in contemplation.
Some difficulty was encountered in the construction of these works, as they had
to be carried out without impeding the traffic in the harbour, They were com-
leted in December 1851, so far as the dock was concerned. An additional half-tide
asin and lock, at the upper end of the dock, was commenced in 1856, and completed
in 1861.
An immediate effect was felt in the increased tonnage of the shipping, and in the
superior description and size of the vessels frequenting the port.
In the year 1853, Mr. Armstrong (now Sir William Armstrong) was consulted,
and in 1856 hydraulic power was first applied to work the existing hand gearing of
the lock by a system of shafting, which has since been superseded by more perfect
adaptation of the power, but the machinery, nevertheless, has worked without failure
up to the present time.
As far back as the year 1846, attention was directed to the foreshore of the sea,
westward of the harbour entrance, as a site for floating dock accommodation, and
His Grace the late Duke of Beaufort consulted Mr. Brunel on the subject, and in
his report of October 1846, whilst strongly condemning a project again revived for
conyerting the river into a float, he strongly recommended the construction of a
dock on the foreshore, on the site of the present South Dock. An Act was obtained
in 1847 for its construction, and in 1850 the works were commenced. These docks
are constructed in great part seaward of the original high-water mark, and the
geological features of the strata, exposed in the excavation, were somewhat of an
extraordinary character, consisting :—
1. Of made ground, ranging in depth from 20 to 26 feet, composed of gravel and
boulder stones, which must have been transported from a considerable distance, by
the action of river floods, probably from the neighbourhood of Llandore.
2. Peat, with leaves, trees, &c., 2 feet.
8. Blue or marine clay, 8 feet 6 inches, containing shells imbedded in it,
‘ Scrobicularia piperata,’ stated to be still living on the coast.
4, Peat, 2 feet 10 inches.
5. Blue marine clay, 4 feet 1 inch.
6. Peat with trees, 3 feet 1 inch, overlying the gravel foundation upon which
the works are founded.
At two points the foundations had to be taken to an extraordinary depth in
the lower peat, arising from the depression of the gravel at those points, apparently
ancient river beds, and in the peat were found various trees supposed to be the
remains of an ancient forest. Antlers of the red deer were also found in this
stratum,
The existence of this upper bed of marine clay beneath the made ground indi-
cated that a dock might be constructed on the site with great facility without
danger of percolation from the tidal waters, and the result proved the accuracy of
this conclusion. The works were commenced in 18564 and completed in 1859.
They consist of a trumpet-mouth entrance basin leading to a half-tide basin en-
trance 70 feet in width, with a depth of water over the cill of 24 feet at
H.W.O.S.T., a half-tide basin or outer dock of 4 acres area leading to an entrance
lock 300 feet in length and 60 feet in width, with a depth over the inner cill of
22 feet 6 inches, the dock level being kept level with the tide of the day by pump-
ing from the half-tide basin in order to prevent accretion in the dock by the
admission of the tidal water heavily charged with detritus.
In 1860 the Great Western Railway Company completed their line into Swan-
sea, together with certain provisions for shipping coal by hydraulic machinery in the
North Dock, and in 1863 a railway was completed from Neath to Swansea, by which
the great Welsh coal-field was brought into immediate communication with the
port, and it became a matter of great importance that this coal should be conveyed
to the South Docks for shipment, This involved the construction of two massive
opening bridges for a double line of broad gauge railway, one across the New Cut
we?
692 REPORT— 1880.
or river Tawe, with an opening portion of 60 feet span; and another across the lock
of the North Dock of 72 feet span, both of which were executed by the firm of Sir
William Armstrong and Co., and are worked by hydraulic power.
Tn connection with these works extensive viaducts had to be constructed through
the town and along the quay of the South Dock, for the shipment of coal from the
high level by hydraulic drops, also constructed by Sir W. Armstrong and Co.
These works were all completed about the year 1863, and the immediate result was
an increase in the tonnage of the port from the year 1851, the period of the com-
pletion of the first or North Dock, from 269,554 tons to 847,823 tons during the
ast year.
Tuning south-westerly gales it was found that the Western Pier, from its ter-
mination being slightly within or landward of that of the Eastern Pier, afforded inade-
quate protection from those gales, and in consequence a considerable inrun of the sea
existed within the Harbour, and the sand also driven coastward during south-
westerly winds occasionally blocked up the entrance. In order to remedy these
defects, and to form a defined channel over the foreshore to low-water mark, an
extension of the Western Pier was decided upon and completed for a length of
1000 feet in 1863, the result being that the inrun of the sea no longer existed, and
the entrance channel formed by dredging pat passu with the extension of the
pier maintained its depth by the prolonged defined direction of the ebbing tidal
current.
Subsequently, in 1875, it was determined to further prolong the pier an additional
1000 feet, which was completed in 1877, the effect being a still further increase in
the depth of the channel, which has been. maintained ; so that, at present, instead
of 20 feet at spring tides, which existed in 1849, there is now an available depth of
about 28 feet, which is conserved by the prolonged and defined action of the out-
going tidal current, aided, to a certain extent, by the river floods.
In consequence of the great increase in the size and number of the shipping
frequenting the port, particularly steam vessels, it has been found indispensable to
provide an entrance lock of greater size and depth of water over the cill, with an
additional extensive dock and spacious quays so as to furnish ample siding accom-
modation for the shipment of coal and increased facilities generally for the rapid
and economical loading and discharging of cargoes. In consequence, the Trustees
have entered into a contract for the construction of a dock in Fabian’s Bay of 231
acres area of water space, together with an entrance lock 450 feet in length, and 60
feet in width, with 32 feet of water over the outer cill at H.W.O.S.T.; the dock
to be kept (as in the case of the South Dock) above the tide of the day by the surplus
water from Port Tennant Canal and other sources discharging into it.
As regards the shipment of coal it is proposed to be conducted on the same
system as that at the Alexandra Dock at Newport, viz. by gravitation from the
sidings to the hoists both for the loaded and empty waggons, the whole machinery
of the dock appliances to be worked by hydraulic power, it having been found
possible by this system at a very moderate cost to ship from 150 to 200 tons of coal
per hour at each hoist.
In addition to providing this extensive dock accommodation the embanking of
the indent termed ‘ Fabian’s Bay ’ within the Eastern Pier will, it is anticipated, as
in other well-known cases, tend to accelerate the tidal flow into the upper reaches
of the river, and give a better direction and greater force to the ebbing tidal current
for the future maintenance of the entrance channel at present in progress of being
further deepened by dredging.
These various works are now in course of construction, and in conclusion I have
to state that it will afford me pleasure to conduct you over them and to explain in
detail their features, and those of the works executed during past years.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Bute Docks, Cardiff, By J. McCoynocum, M.Inst.0.L.
The construction of the Bute Docks at Cardiff, and the consequent rapid
growth of the town, are due to the remarkable foresight and public spirit of the late
= «<*>?
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 693
Marquess of Bute, who, in the year 1830, finding the great mineral wealth of the
adjoining district of South Wales locked up by the want of railway conveyance to
the sea-coast, and proper means of shipment, resolved upon the construction of a
dock on the foreshore at Cardiff, the only accommodation then existing for vessels
being the Glamorganshire Canal, with a limited capacity available only for vessels
up to 200 tons.
The original design of the engineer, Mr. Green of Exeter, was to place the
entrance gates on the foreshore at a point near the end of the present low-water
pier, and to construct a ship canal across the foreshore to the intended dock
on the mainland. The expense and difficulty of constructing such a work at that
time led to a modification, and it was ultimately decided, under the advice of the
late Sir William Cubitt, to cut an open tidal channel across the foreshore to the
mainland, and then construct an entrance basin communicating with the dock by
means of a lock.
This dock, now called the ‘Bute West Dock,’ was, with its sea approach, com-
pleted in 1839, at a cost of about 400,000/7., an expenditure which even then
displayed the public spirit of the late Marquess of Bute, when the total import
and export trade amounted to less than 7000 tons per annum, as compared with
5,000,000 tons per annum at the present time, showing an increase of over 700 times.
The tidal water of this part of the Bristol Channel contains a very large quan-
tity of mud in suspension, which would have involved a heavy expenditure for
dredging the deposit if the tidal water had been impounded in the dock. This
consideration led the engineer to fix the level of the dock water at several feet
above the high-water level of the Channel, and to supply the dock with fresh
water from the river 'l'aff. The water is drawn from the river for this purpose
about two miles inland, and the feeder passes through the town, and delivers the
‘fresh water at the north end of the dock. The entrance channel across the fore-
shore is three-quarters of a mile long and about 200 feet wide. The basin is 300
feet long and 200 feet wide, with an entrance of 47 feet wide from the sea; the
lock between the basin and the dock is 152 feet long and 36 feet wide. The dock
is 4000 feet long and 200 feet wide, with 19 feet depth of water for a length of
about 1500 feet, and 15 feet for the remaining leneth of about 2500 feet.
The depth of water on the sill of the entrance gates is 28 ft. 9 in. at high water of
ordinary spring tides, and the gates are opened only for one hour before, and about
two hours after high water. The gates are constructed of timber. The water area
of the dock and basin amounts to 20 acres.
So great and rapid was the increase of traffic after the opening of the Bute
West Dock, that in 1851 it was decided by the trustees of the Marquess of Bute
to construct a new dock of larger capacity, now called the ‘ Bute East Dock.’ This
dock has a sea-basin 380 feet long by 250 feet wide, approached from the entrance
channel on the foreshore by a lock 220 feet long by 55 feet wide, having a depth of
31 feet 9 inches on the sill, or 3 feet more than in the West Dock. The inner lock
from the sea basin to the dock is 200 feet long by 50 feet wide. The dock is
4300 feet long by 300 feet wide for the first 1000 feet, and 50U feet wide for the
remaining 3300 feet. The uniform depth of water is 25 feet, the water-level in
‘this dock being maintained at the same level as in the West Dock, by water drawn
from the river Taff. The water area of the East Dock and basin amounts to 45
acres. The lock gates were originally constructed of German and English oak;
but haying ultimately proved too weak to resist the great pressure of water to
which they were subjected, the gates of the outer lock were replaced in 1863 by
new gates, constructed of wrought-iron ribs, English oak heel and meeting posts,
and Dantzic fir planking. The gates of the inner lock were replaced in 1878 by
new gates constructed of wrought-iron ribs, heel and meeting posts with green-
heart facings, and Dantzic fir planking on both sides of the lower gates; the up r
gates were faced on the dock side with wrought-iron plates, and Dantzic fir p g
on the lock side ; both upper and lower gates being on the buoyant principle, this
construction being rendered necessary by the limited space provided in the masonry
for wooden gates, and has proved perfectly satisfactory. A junction canal connects
the East and West Docks with the Glamorganshire Canal.
694 REPORT—1880.
The basin and first portion of the East Dock were opened for traffic in 1855, and
the remaining length of the dock was completed in 1859. The East Dock was
commenced from the designs of Sir John Rennie and Mr. John Plews, and com-
pleted from the designs of Messrs. Walker, Burges, and Cooper.
New Basin.—Notwithstanding this large accession to the dock area of the port,
the continued increase of traffic called for further accommodation; and in 1864
application was made to Parliament by the Bute Trustees for powers to construct
additional dock accommodation; but it was not until 1866 that an Act was ob--
tained for the construction of an additional basin, which has been completed from
the author’s designs, and was opened for traffic in 1874, This basin is intended as
a preliminary to an additional dock of 54 acres area, for which Parliamentary
powers have been obtained; and while serving the new dock, it also relieves and
facilitates the working of the traffic of the Bute East Dock.
The New Basin is 1000 feet long by 525 feet wide, having a water area of 12°
acres. It is entered from the channel on the foreshore, which has been widened
for this purpose by a sea-lock 350 feet long and 80 feet wide, having 35 feet 9 inches.
depth of water on the sill. A junction lock 370 feet long, with gates 60 feet wide,
connects this basin with the East Dock. The chamber of the lock is 120 feet wide,.
so as to pass three or four vessels at the same time.
The existing dock accommodation provided by the Marquess of Bute and his
Trustees now amounts to 77 acres, and the Parliamentary powers recently obtained
will enable the Trustees still further to increase this accommodation by 54 acres
to meet the growing requirements of the port.
The gates of the Sea Lock of the New Basin are 80 feet wide, and are believed to.
be the largest gates hitherto constructed. They are of wrought iron, on the buoyant
principle, with skin plates, diaphragms, and lattice ribs, and with greenheart heel
posts, meeting posts, and sills. Each leaf of these gates weighs 145 tons. They
were constructed by Sir William Armstrong & Co., the arrangement of lattice ribs
being adopted at the suggestion of Sir William Armstrong, as affording more con--
venient access to the interior for examination and repair, and also diminishing the
weight in comparison with solid plate ribs.
The gates of the Junction Lock between the New Basin and the East Dock are
60 feet wide, and are of wrought iron, similar in design to the gates of the Sea
Lock, but with solid plate ribs in place of lattice ribs. They were constructed by
Messrs. Maudsley Brothers, of the Bute Iron Works, Cardiff. The lock gates,.
capstans, bridges, and sluices connected with the New Basin are worked by hydraulic
machinery ; those at the East and West Docks were arranged for hand power, and
are still so worked.
The provisions for the examination and repair of vessels entering the port con--
sist of four graving docks—one 200 feet long, entered from the West Dock; one
400 feet long, entered from the East Dock, both the property of Messrs. C. Hill
& Sons, on ground leased to them by the Bute Trustees. The third graving dock,.
320 feet long, is outside the entrance of the docks, and is the property of Messrs.
Gunn & Co. The fourth graving dock, 600 feet long, with an entrance 60 feet
wide, has been constructed by the Bute Trustees, and is entered from the New-
Basin. It is available for use by the public on payment of dockage rates, as at
Liverpool. <A gridiron, 350 feet long, has also been constructed by the Bute-
Trustees on the east side of the channel outside the entrance of the docks.
A low-water pier, 1400 feet long and 34 feet wide, was constructed in 1868,
The pier-head is provided with a floating pontoon or landing-stage, and the mini-
mum depth of water is 6 feet at low-water spring tides. A railway is laid along
the pier, and also a carriage-way, and a vertical lift and 10-ton hydraulic crane are
fixed at the pier-head, together with suitable waiting rooms and conveniences.
Prior to the construction of this pier all communication with vessels in the roads
was cut off for a considerable time at each low water, which caused much incon=
venience.
The principal portion of the trade carried on in the Bute Docks is the export of
coal and iron, which amounted to four million tons in the year 1879. The import
of iron ore, timber, and general merchandise amounted in the same year to one
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 695
million tons. The consequence of the preponderance of exports is that ships arrive
at the port mostly in ballast, and special provision is required to be made for the
discharge of this ballast. There are four steam and two hydraulic cranes for this
purpose, each capable of discharging 50 tons per hour. These cranes discharge the
ballast into railway waggons, which are conveyed a distance of about two miles to
land where the ballast is deposited.
To provide for the safe removal of the vessels from the ballast quay to the
loading berth, after the discharge of the ballast, wooden booms, weighing from 5
to 20 tons each, are now fixed, one on each side of the ship, to keep it steady. The
growing use of water ballast for steamers engaged in the coal trade at the present day
has greatly expedited the preparation of vessels for receiving their outward cargoes.
The coal traffic of the West Dock is supplied exclusively by the Taff Vale
Railway from Merthyr, Dowlais, and the Aberdare and Rhondda Valleys. The
traffic to the East Dock is supplied jointly by the Taff Vale, Rhymney, and Great
Western Railways, the last of which is the means of communication with the great
coal-field now being opened in the centre of Glamorganshire, in the Ogmore dis-
trict. The London and North-Western and Midland Railways have also access to
the docks by their connection with the above railways.
A very large extent of siding accommodation is required for working the coal
shipping trade; for, owing to the fluctuations of the trade, loaded waggons have to
be stored in the sidings at times when the supply exceeds the demand, The extent
ef sidings provided and maintained by the Bute Trustees in connection with the
docks amounts to fifty miles in length (of single line), the whole of which is at
times fully occupied.
Coal Tips—The number of tips for loading coal at the Bute Docks is as follows,
Viz.:— °
13 balance tips at the West Dock.
1 a 9 7. ~-Hast Dock.
6 hydraulic ,, | ,, East Dock and Entrance Basin.
a “ 9» 9, Entrance Channel for loading in the tideway.
8 Ke » 9, oath Basin,
42 total number of tips.
Anti-breakage Cranes.—As the South Wales coal is of a very brittle character,
it is found necessary to take special precautions for reducing the loss by breakage
that occurs in discharging the coal waggons into the ship’s hold, and for this purpose
anti-breakage cranes are applied to each coal tip with great success. A square
iron bucket, holding one ton of coal, and made hopper-shaped, with a hinged
flap for discharging at the bottom, is suspended from an independent light ‘ jib’
crane, fixed at one side of the tip frame, and having, in the hydraulic tips, hydraulic
lifting and turning motions, In commencing the loading ofa ship, this bucket is
filled from the shoot, and then lowered to the bottom of the hold and emptied, the
process being repeated until a conical heap of coal is formed high enough to reach
nearly to the hatchway; the shoot is then allowed to discharge freely, and delivers
close down upon the heap, so as to prevent any breakage of the coal by the vertical
drop. These cranes are also used with advantage for discharging ballast or ordinary
merchandise, and for filling into waggons the small coal that passes through the
screens in the shoots on to the ship’s deck.
Notwithstanding all these precautions, the proportion of slack that is found in
the coal when the ships are discharged at the end of the voyage is generally too
large to be satisfactory, and the author considers that this is due to the want of
care in trimming the coal in the ship’s hold, in which process great breakage of
coal is caused by the carelessness of the men. This has been practically tested at
the Bute Docks, by loading a vessel with coal by means of wheelbarrows filled
direct from the waggon and lowered into the hold, and then wheeled at once to the
far end of the hold, so as to avoid any subsequent trimming; the result was that,
though some extra cost of loading was incurred, the coal was delivered in such
exceptionally good condition that the extra cost was much more than covered by
the reduction in the loss from slack.
696 REPORT— 1 880.
2. On the Temperature of Town Water-supplies.
By Batpwin Laruam, 0.H., MInst.0.E., F.G.8., F.M.S., &e.
In this paper the author pointed out that summer diarrhoea and cholera
became prevalent when the water-supply of a district arrived at a temperature
exceeding 62° Fahrenheit, and he showed that it was the changes which took place
in water when at a high temperature that induced the diseases referred to, and
not atmospheric changes; in corroboration of which he referred to districts in which
the water was invariably cold in summer, and which consequently were not subject to
epidemics of diarrhoea. Moreover, in districts in which the supply, when distributed
through water mains, was from a well which was naturally cold at its source, as,
for example, in the district supplied by the Kent Waterworks Co., when compared
with the districts in London supplied from the river Thames, it was found that in
the Kent district, the source of supply being so much colder at its source than the
Thames supply in summer, the ground required a higher degree of temperature to
raise the temperature of the Kent water to a dangerous point, and thus the inci-
dence of the disease in the districts supplied with Kent water fell later than in those
supplied with Thames water. If the cause of the disease were due to atmospheric
temperature, the incidence should have been identical in both districts. The author
further pointed out that great changes in the temperature of water were due to the
temperature of the ground at the depths at which the mains were laid; that the
temperature of the ground might be made use of in a special apparatus patented by
Professor J. T. Way and himself, by which water was made to descend to a depth
of about 25 feet, by means of a vertical tube driven or screwed into the ground, so
that the temperature of water required for dietetic purposes was rendered nearly
uniform throughout the year., A greater range than 5° would not practically oceur
in such a tube; whereas in Croydon, where there was a constant water-supply,
and where the water was of nearly uniform temperature in the wells before
passing into the mains, the range in the temperature had been 27-6°, and a cistern
supply of the same water gave a range of 38:7°. By keeping the temperature of
the water between the limits of 49° and 54°, by the use of the apparatus referred
to, it was explained by the author that summer diarrhcea could, in a great measure,
be prevented.!
3. On Spontaneous Combustion of Coals in Ships. By James BAMFIELD.
SATURDAY, AUGUST 28.
The Section met and adjourned.
MONDAY, AUGUST 30.
The following Reports and Papers were read :—
1. Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations in the English Channel.
See Reports, p. 390.
2. Report of the Committee on Patent Legislation. See Reports, p. 318.
The paper appeared at length in the Builder of September 11, 1880, and i
Journal of the Society of Arts of September 17, 1880. i cn
Fig
GORNISH ENGINE 4 :
Fig.1
COMPOUND CORNISH ENGINE
Fig. 4
COMPOUND DIFFERENTIAL ENGINE
)
AA
j
~
Yppeeeine
Tustrating VM" Davevs paper om the Expansion of Steane we Nom —retative pumping engqures
COMPOUND DIFFERERENTIAL
c ERENT CORNISH 60” CYLINDER
Baclewardd Stroke .
Water Stroke Steaun Stroke
Dillerential
v
Kelative Piston velocitios of Cornish & Compound Diffirentiadl. Engi
medang 12 str minute, The Cornish engue making are ete
pumping sp feel per minute & Ue Differential 160%
wating Mo Daves paper om the Expansion of Steam uv Nom —retative pumpurg eangures
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 697
3. On the Anthracite Coal and Coal-field of South Wales.
By C. H. Perkins. See Reports, p. 220.
4, On the Expansion of Steam in Non-Rotative Pumping Engines.
By Henry Davey, MInst.0.2., F.G.S.
(Plates XII., XIII.)
The Cornish Engine (Plate XII., fig. 1) has a piston, A, attached to one end of a
amassive beam, the outer end of which is attached to the plunger of the pump. On the
plunger is placed a heavy weight, w. When the piston is at the top of its stroke
steam is admitted on the upper surface of the piston of sufficient tension to impart
to it a high initial velocity. The shaded diagram 4’ represents a steam diagram,
and the point } the point at which the pressure corresponds with the average pres-
sure. The area qa, b, c, d, represents the work accumulated in the moving mass w,
whilst the piston is moving through the space a, b, and which is given out again
whilst it is still moving through the distance b,c. The energy of the mass at the
9
: 5 ssa 4 wv? :
time of its maximum velocity is expressed in foot-pounds by 7° Putting R for
the resistance of the pump, or, as it is usually termed, the ‘ water load,’ and making
R = W, and F = the number of foot-lbs. represented by the area a, b, c, d, we have
F= ard and v =A/ a In the example—an eightfold expansion—v = 14:1
feet per second, a velocity far too great for safe working.
The Compound Differential Engine (Plate XII., fig. 2) is an engine in which
expansion can be carried to a greater extent with increased safety. The steam is
first expanded to a moderate extent in the cylinder a, and then further expanded
on the return stroke in the cylinder B. The engine is double-acting, and has double
the power of the Cornish engine. The weights w w bear the same relation to the
water columns as w does in the Cornish engine, but as there are in this case two
weights the mass is equal to twice the water-load.
7 eG oY ¥ 64-4
er aN Fa
Assuming, as in the former examples, an eightfold expansion, produced by cutting
off the steam at half-stroke in the first cylinder, and expanding that steam into the
second cylinder of four times the capacity of the first, the value of F = 68 and
/ .
v= 4/F 4. 68,
2w .
The value of v would then be :—
For the Cornish Engine v = 14:1 feet per second.
For the Compound Enginev= 68 ,, ,,
In practice the comparison is still more favourable to the Compound Engine
because of the ‘ gap’ in the diagrams.
The author has constructed a velocity mdicator, by means of which he has been
enabled to take diagrams showing at a glance the velocities in different parts of the
stroke. The diagrams (Plate XIII, fig. 2 and 3) were taken by this instrument.
From those, and from steam indicator diagrams taken in connection with them, he
has been enabled to form the comparison shown in the following table :—
i}
8.2452 -
Initial _— eee a> ua Relative ua
Pres- E P BS |. Sam & | Strains on Pi
sure |~Xpan-| Pressure | % 6 2 F | py gi iston
sion S2ae speed
a i
31 16 600 36 | 100
. : 1 3 ;
Cornish Engine. : . 19 45 45 19 500 4B 80
: 3 . 43 6°25 13 228 14 168
Compound Differential Engine . 80 | 8 24 290 137. | 150
698 REPORT— 1880.
In the diagrams (Plate XIII, figs. 2 and 3) the abscisse of the curves represent
the spaces passed over by the piston, and the corresponding ordinates the times in
which those spaces were described. :
The Differential Engine received its name because of its peculiar valve-gear—a
gear which automatically effects the distribution of steam by the differential motion
produced in combining the motion of the engine-piston with that of a uniformly
moving subsidiary piston.
In Plate XIL., fig. 3, D is the differential lever, and c the connection to the engine
‘valves, The point R is attached to the subsidiary piston E. The motions of the
points R and c are opposite in direction, and when the motions are equal, there is no
motion of the point p. When the motion of £ is quicker than that of c, the valves
are being opened—this occurs at the beginning of the stroke; but as soon as the
engine motion c becomes quicker than that of the subsidiary piston 8, the valves
are being closed. The initial velocity of the engine-piston varies according to the
resistance it has to overcome, and the resistance therefore determines the distribu-
tion of the steam.
The Differential Engine is double-acting, and the weights w w, Plate XII. fig. 2,
support each other, and cannot move except when moved by the engine. Should
there be a vacant space in the pump at the commencement of the stroke, the engine
would have no resistance to encounter except its own inertia and friction, and would
move off very readily on the opening of the steam valve, so much so that its initial
motion would be greater than that of the subsidiary engine, and the steam valve
would be closed again; but immediately the plunger came in contact with the
water, the fulldoad would be upon the engine, and a halt would be produced until
the subsidiary engine had gained a lead sufficient to have fully opened the steam
valve. Plate XIIL., fig. 1,is a steam diagram taken under the conditions just
described. This element of safety is most important. Referring to the Cornish
Engine, Plate XII, fic. 1, the more the steam is expanded in the cylinder, the greater
the initial velocity of the plunger, and the more difficult it is for the water to follow
up the plunger closely, and the greater the unsupported weight at the end of the
stroke, With an eightfold expansion, the plunger would have an initial velocity of 600:
feet per minute, and at the end of the stroke the steam-pressure would only support
one-third of the weight w. Should there be a vacant space in the pump, the plunger
would fall back with a great shock. This is one of the greatest sources of accident
in the Cornish Engine. All the early compound engines were single-acting, that is
to say, they were Compound Cornish Engines, and in addition to possessing defects
in principle and construction, were very cumbersome and costly for a given power.
Plate XII, fig. 4, illustrates Sims’s engine, which wasa development of Trevet-
hick’s Pole Engine,
Plate XIII., figs, 4 and 5 give respectively the relative strains and velocities in
the two engines.
As a question of weight and first cost for a given power, the following is a
comparison of the three systems of engines described in the paper :—
Power. Weight. Cost.
The Compound Cornish Engine , 1 100 100 per cent.
The Single Cylinder ,, pe 1 70 70
The Compound Differential,, . 1 45 50
”
”
5. Project for a Channel Railway.1 By BraprorD Lesuin, MInst.0.£.,
Agent and Chief Engineer, East Indian Railway.
This was a pamphlet submitted by Mr. Ernest Benedict, M.Inst.C.E., M.LE. & S..
Scotland, accompanied by two drawings, and describing a project for establishing”
railway communication between France and England in the neighbourhood of Calais:
and Dover. The author proposes to lay a single line of rails within a straight
cylindrical steel tube, 16 feet in diameter and 23 inches thick, smooth outside andi
1 Pamphlet printed at the Stanhope Press, Calcutta.’
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 699
properly stiffened within, This tube is to be ballasted, so as to make it weigh 12
ton to the foot-run less than the water displaced, and is to be held down to within
35 feet of the lowest water level by two 3-in. chains passed over the tube, and
attached to caissons weighing 500 tons each, and sunk a sufficient distance each
side of the centre line to give the requisite angle to the four parts of the chain.
These moorings will occur at every 250 feet along the tube, and will be at such
an angle and so rigid that the tide will not affect them.
The passage of trains through the tube will relieve the chains of part of the
strain on them. f
Ventilating shafts to be provided if found necessary, to act as block-signal
stations, and to be protected by light-ships moored on either side.
The shore ends of the tube are to be laid in channels dredged and excavated to
receive them, and afterwards filled with concrete.
The ends are to be laid in these channels on the hottest day that can be con-
veniently chosen, and angle-iron rings projecting from the tube, and held firm by
oe concrete, will prevent any movement from the expansion or contraction of the
tube.
The tube to be commenced in the centre, and to be gradually submerged and
anchored as the work proceeds. The two ends during construction will rest on
pontoons, whereon the work of adding to the tube will be carried on above water,
the tube being flexible enough to allow of this being done.
The time required for constructing the tube is estimated at three years, and the
cost at eight millions sterling. The working expenses would probably not exceed
20 per cent. of the gross receipts. Twenty-seven trains a day in each direction, at
li. a train mile, would yield 5 per cent.; and three times this number of trains
could be worked through the tube in the twenty-four hours.
6. On Combined Elliptical, Parallel, and Angular Motion.
By Guorce Fawevs.
7. On the Shakespear Safety Lamp. By Colonel SHaKEsprar.
TUESDAY, AUGUST 31.
The following Papers were read :—
1. On the Loading of Ships. By W. E. Haun.
|
2. On the Steering of Ships. By Professor Osporne Reynotps, F.R.S.
Ihave received an important communication from the Admiralty, upon the
steering qualities and turning powers of H.M.S. Minotaur and Defence. As the
experiments therein described were made in accordance with the request of the
Committee of the British Association upon the Steering of Ships, and as the results
obtained are very definite and important, I think it desirable that they should be
Poe upon record, Itherefore append them to this notice. (See Tables, pp. 700-
Admiralty, S.W.,
19th September, 1879.
Sir,
I am commanded by my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to for-
ward to you, herewith, for your information, with reference to my letter of the
30th April, 1877, 8. $355, the accompanying copy of a letter, dated the 31st July
J 20107 “sarqsprore
‘
ara t| og wog || mag | sdiysprny | sos pr | om | EPH Oe cogs | “TA
pxvoqivyg: poods ymy SuroS diqg
«tl ore “ T a! « q "ed reprare
i weed wpy ey} YM “pees “A
ayer T} oLE 0d |) prvoqurig BOE aN) % peads {my Sur08 dryg
*mo1}0aITp
ajtsoddo oy} ur wey 24} | “AT
___»_| Sew paswedor "TITTEPAL
*y [BIL], Ul sv I9A0 prey |,
qnd wyey oy} pure ‘pyeye
yey oatp 0} payreys AT |, “IIT
-UOppns Maios ot[} ‘U1848B
qsvey Suios drys ey,
*paddoys Ayo307du100 : ae
SBM ABM 9} SOSVd T[v “ 01] ¢& & 9 TE |-0r bi 4e d Teg jot “ €8) OT | 9 “mOT}OOATP
ur ynq ‘drys oy} Wo 40S |-q9g Oy Fz] TS S [woxBVION| OFT) F “ weg j2t “ fee) FT q ajisoddo ayy utyes wpey | “IT
qoA0U sv ABM UI9}G uayvz JON | OF @ 8 2 |g | 2¢340\7 || preoqreyg |9z‘queig ¥ze) ez D YIM pozvoderoures oy,
eS THN | 999 “UT |S "| “Bom |0aS ‘Bod ‘00g
"qnugxes 4g | “-cagloge & | er 0 | ee la. “ ie ¥ee| “er El] 2 “300 paey gud
udye} SOPSAW “YoOsaTtu 107 0} o0Z] OF Z Ge T ug (2 sf Teu0g +} 6 “ 68 eI “| 1 @ WY oy} pue pasreaer {7 F
Q puBis! UO Yiwu AOJ ‘0eS “UTA weog -Ueppns Ma.10s 043 ‘peaye I
pateoys sem dryseqy, | Uoyey JON] LT T |uoyeyqon| 2h [FE “pAqueyg|| pxBoqrerg | eo Od 68 | AT D paeds pny Supos dryg
‘00g “UI ‘oag |saq 09g "Zeq| ‘00g
el — ———
paddojs sea. i |
peddojs qoolqo 0791p | QUA 4sIy drys ERGliE! OSIOAOL wor}
ote sea AvAd [[T}] 0} powmy | Suros | pvoy s.drgs |} 03 eaye[er qt aoa 03 | pue dogs Geta ou ~BIOOSS V
jo uonoerp Jepio ysag | -al pway | waxy | UWOTOdIIp uodeap | peambesr outy | 0} pezmb ees & ay ysyitg 09
SUUVNAL pure oaury | OU eUILL |sdrus oun} eunL | pue esay || pue coroy | puw uoryoond | -et URL me tus TVIUL JO TUALYN iets
82.110
TH syueuL Ten
SLTasaH DUAL apr. |semiee| ee Jo “ON
Iter sa eereeewe re werd! ES St Se a ee eee ee eee ee ee
‘oynarw ted @g ‘sautsua Jo suolyn[oAay ‘aqnuru tod g¢ ‘seursue Jo SUOTINTOADY *s]00Y Z.g ‘S[BII} ye paedg
‘sjouy Pl ‘poads "xepy —“UIOT “IF 9% “YE FULTZ “YLZ ‘PAvAIoJ—sOywM Jo JYSnVIG: “UT Fg “YT TorsxouMT “UTS “2G “HU “ul $e “WHS “Topo,
‘roTjedoad papuvy-3ey Pepelq-p S Yost YIM poy ‘2019 ‘d “HI "al $¢ “43 GE “WRog "WB OTF ‘G}800T *(1Z99) 229‘0T ‘esvuuoy,
“GIST ‘FT G28q SAAVIONIW » “SW H
“6181 ‘FI 92a “ONAN TVYANAD
‘SdIHS MAYOS JO SUAMOd DNINYAL WO SALLITVNO “ONTIUAALS JO TYE
‘NIVEAVO “HOLVO'E “tL (pousig)
uM Z Ut na a | i ath $ ae {Pr f “sd ryspruie
\ t spuodas 0g ¢ ‘ er | urerem Tah weerecan|
spuodas og soqrurur | S}utod F poddoys Ava ; SOYNUTUL TT) a ae Teaver a Aai08 O47 Uayy tppayn | “LA
TE out Pucoas | 03 peddogs erem semis | 96 26] | aronopug| # Setar “oO "UBD SCISPIULy | paads tng Furos dryg
| ; oe is WU) -ua amy} wo.y ppd | SO]UUTUL F || a Lae = & gL a
UP-O[0z]0. &: UB 410d 09 Sse O10 48 eB 5 Vv
| SUyOUL ouNyy 48a] es ee te apomo 81 |g qaod syurod $1
“"ZIA “410d syutod £68 soynuypy wee re A ee =<
| |
“oasog “UlUIg UT syutod one oer cat ise a
qtod 09 gue pra a « 6 “a “ Toz.BUND pxrv0q.re4g
outa 8B) OUlTy WLOIy a $ te Re Pi “ a eh a son ED EOw “A
Suyj1938 | p.qarnqs syutod #p XK y oa Sica #1 “« ¢ ZO1T sdiysprury oc -| mae, eu ane ca
mor} bac peat syutod 9 410d 9 quem | 08 T8 g ace pays $1/-paqs-syd 41 u Pp 104 Gf
Y ty peddoys ABM 07 mes p “ygnog
peau smuyow" ae 5 ee Ne pur poddoys $ g. qaod ae ae a v
souls ae LO. x
1848 STO Wes speed Soe St —
P.qte48 S}UT Tx | soynUrAL a rer rs Ra coor el SL © es=%e a 8¢ €L fe) : eeeer eee “AI
Cimon od Lg I TIN 4¢ T | waaqse Suro3 wor gaod =“ «TL | ba“ Go=¥e LG eee UL € etter oe Tere
proye Cie Se og 1 TIN $3 T | gzod 04 A[renuyU0g “pqreys woryz | 06 Ur ec=te ‘DaTMIS| cp GT A game (2 \
reer sat qaod syutod $¢ 0 @ TEN 03 @ a0103 Mog. syUlOd pay Lae
yet “ i 19
ABM 1938 YT eat east z TIN we 410d § 9010F .: de heels: clay “ re os P ait Gy pean yet) “III
q10d 0} ssuLAs puoy g && } 0} Axoq IL | 9% = =phs Moros ay} ‘110480
a drys ayy edyyspruy| eG 9 T TIN o5- st Reanten qaod woay (squrod [1 | Go UFSS=tE OT) G8 GL V | seg Sujos drys oy
Dealt AN curate | - st0d-squyod tg 8I @ TN 8 Trenpery ep —-
ways Z9A0 gnd ONOFL g aor0y moq «(| 88“ Ge=Fe 69 2 5 ORPTp oT
7c aie a) J eae “ “ IIN 98) qaod 04 Ayrenpeay { “ =e « ee . LT € -oddo wy yas Way YT IL
dn auysurds” puts aati iz a z TEN et a a rae AraA | tod steel iba 6 Hs a re =i ‘paamg| ge | FL yO | Reweder ouws oy
wusjee quem soursus| — 40d squtod fz ar WS se. ip ee (lez“oo=e © | gg GL a
ee SE oe eg — |g | peaaon on f beat Prat oo “co=fg “| tg FL | Og
Sree ORE easel 0S ¢ | peu jon ip dase é H quart eg “ co=tE a a2 al a “gaan peg 3nd ao
ra ( T : = E) u .
cr 2 Sa mpg ara spuyod $9 178 WATT cee" stare aaaey te" |
Leah paddojs | $7 q.10d 03 quom poly
aI9M souls Tota poddogs Aum 03 poss0A
Be ee pital lead it ‘09g “Boqy *suLy, aBL,Aoy dog
prvoqreys syutod Fg | | eg “UIA ne aa
09g ‘UIW (spu0se8) Eg g Boo
addoys arys d BIOADT 34 3
paddojs se Pea | yo0tqo 0 | ont qary yUOM Graseter Caperahek outa anICAs oO} eee TVIML BES
Aum WTA ABM IY | Peuinjer | sutos peoy s,drys uorjosryp woroaxIp Pus uoMoAIIg pambar | Se g 8 ead
prey s,dyys Tapio Jsry | Pway s,drys} usHBy pus ojsuy pus 9010, . ew, Sanaa JO GTUOLVN ets
Jo woloalIp wo0Iy Out, owhT : Sree eo=
SHUVNAL pus ajsuy owt, Lat del Sus
Tasaa PULA weH el hot
. si = 5
: ‘s[urt qu paedg "MF $96 “7B 5 “95 Gg “pxBMIOJ—aOWwA JoqysnvIq “44. 9 oe
‘aqnutur aad 19 ‘soulSue Jo suopnqoaosy a :) eel Neem ‘zoqjodoad papusy-93o1 PEPEIG-O49 8,81} WIAD Ty leseanen
“oqnUyUI Jed gg ‘souSue Jo suoTyNjoAory 1G Wa 448 61 “a ‘HT "93 27g ‘wvog "ME 086 ‘TASUO'T 0618
"BJO 1] gg “poods WNWXBy, 9-60
“6LEI “FI Aumnugay
9
TyHINGCY-SOIA ‘XVH NHOL (peusts) ,
sAtyoodsor “UU FT, pus . .
sayur pL Uy 420d 03 solo }9]CWOD g we (eyur oBvroar) “uu g Urs} g.zt| TN TIN og IN
A ae 2 ator 0} pug ‘83d 9 qz0d 04 avers
ay ‘paddoys Ava 0} pasraaorl pus paddoys s
Lies ~ ue wolf a : more SULMOUTOr “UyUr g Ut ‘Syd FT Jo 0781 OBBIOAY TN qsig 48 preogieyg prv0g.1e4g TIN c
aly} YI sdiysprues wey YIM seursue :
al} Duystaaer Aq Opvul IVA STB} OAT,
Uye}1900N st any Ava peoy 410g 09 syutod fg parvoq.eyg prv0qiey}g preog.ieyg 410g a
See DO OO TT Db yo 39049 passoser aus 10g 07 S}UIOd £G Toy ata Pe aatran PIBog.TBAS od parwoqeas wod 2 .:
Jo aouanyut ay} sfaqgo drys sesvo asou} UT 4aog 0} syurod $¢ i prBog.teys prvogrteyg pxlVog.1eys, q10g D
AEE — EE
xeppnz qaog 03 syutod ¢ 410g prvoq.re4g pavoqieyg | paxvoqieyg 9 ,90T9Joq ,
yo aouangur ay} s£aqo drys sasvo oso} UT 410g 03 syutod $% qtog 0} Ayrenpery Wog ql0d. preoqreyg | paxvoqreyg q g
q1og 0} syurod $z 410g yod pxvoqieyg | pxvoq.reyg »
wyey pus Mazos ay} Aq pre pus 4qaog 03 syutod }T eee te CE RAR CE On Ayreupery 410g quays £104 { 410d 40d preoqreig a
48— 94 UL yng ‘IappN1 fo yoaya pesiadat | pilvOgIe}s 0F qutod f ZET Ul prvog.reyg 07 ATMOS £10, 410g : pod 410g preoq.1eyg q z
ayy Aq peouenyur st drys eso pug ul qa0g 04 squtod £z ag ttttetetts** arqiog qutod ¢ 410g TN 410g prvoq.rag D
Ee 2 ee See
(NBIOULPT, JO 9880 UT SB AoTOS JO WON}OE qlog 0} syutod t¢ OIL’ *"** UE pavoqaeqg gurod # | parvoqirys mIny 410 T 410g P
pus Joppni Jo qoayo pasreaar jo souenpur ql0g 04 squtod ¢ so-t* * Ul prvog.ivyg qurod t preogieys 0} Suyousrau0o wo 410g ? I
on pUACOES i aay 520d Ch. ar Roese t q10g 04 syutod Fp eg crores?" ur qaog qutod ¢ | paxvoqinyg ex030q TIA 410g 410g q
TIS UY peay sdrys Jo WoROaNTp [sUy Od, qaog 0} syutod }{ OFT’ '** UE prvogteyg squjod fg | pxreoqre}g : 410g 410g »
SE |
G [BIA] UL SB (MOINS 0} OND) 10d 07 TBs SB ee ce serene re |
sourty FI S203 drys ot} 3wyy UAB 94 [TTA AT HN Brera ean woke Bec ae AS . :
Japphi Jo yOaYe PasisAedl JopuN sjoB diyg pxrBoqrvys 0F “FOOT LaOP see ee eek ‘Sop Z-E WO 410g 0} SutousurU109 10g parvog.1e4ys 99D zZ < MBJOUTT ,
o - aLoJoq TEN. |
Se opie en 291s os | 7 sane 03 “Bap fag” [Hap *h°* wprBep By DIognAg |, DONE quod quo agp | iT
Ss Sa ae
addojs SBAL oy zappni
ABM Learn peay s,drys 0} USM ISIE Pwo wp pum (pepme eee go bes
JO WOlPeIp pus o[Suy pasiaAoy gia ares ae
STUVNAL | ria | FO ‘ON
dO GONANTANI UAaINaA |
Baie NUOL OL SGNAL GVAH SdIHS NOWMOAHIG |
; "61st ‘Ig ATOL
HONTANG, GNV .UOVLONIN:> SdIHS MAUOS SALSACVIN ‘ODIA LY
IIH JO SUAMOd DNINUAL ANY SAMLITVNO PNISAALS AHL FO STV fO SLTOSHU AO AUVNIWAS MAVLONIN ‘S'W'H
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 703
last, from Vice-Admiral Lord John Hay, commanding Channel Squadron, enclosing
-a copy of the tabular statements, forwarded therein, of the Trials of the Steering
‘Qualities and Turning Powers of H.M.S. ‘Minatour’ and ‘ Defence.’
I am, Sir, your obedient servant,
Osborne Reynolds, Esqre., Roxsert HAtt.
The Owens College, Manchester,
S. 8087, ’79.
STEERING QuALITIES AND TURNING Powers or ScREw SHIPs.
‘Minotaur’ at Vigo,
‘No. 165, 3lst July, 79.
Sir,
With reference to your letter of the 25th April, 77, S. 7735, addressed to
my predecessor, Vice-Admiral Sir Beauchamp P. Seymour, relative to the Steering
‘Qualities and Turning Powers of Screw Ships, I have now the honour to enclose
for the information of the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty the results of
experiments that have, under my direction, taken place in,H.M. Ships ‘ Minotaur ’
and ‘Defence,’ together with a summary of the same—observing that these
experiments, so far as they go, seem to be useful as illustrating the views of the
British Association.
I haye, &c.,
Joun Hay,
To the Secretary of the Admiralty. Vice-Admiral Commanding.
3. On an improved Sounding Machine. By Professor Sir W. THomson,
A., FBS.
[This machine was exhibited on the steamer ‘ Flying Oloud,’ during an excursion
trip to the Worm’s Head, on September 1. Various soundings were taken with it,
and the depths registered (from 12 to 21 fathoms) agreed closely with those marked
on the Admiralty Charts. |
4. On the Incrustation of Steam Boilers. By W. THomson.
eit aa eee
bgor =o Oy as i
Ae Bote es:
: am
SN OLSIA NT ripe wae Suan a i v
sunkioaiel att) +6 what " Ve ig Prana ne
Bc Ei Bete" seats: fi eB Uh Tia
venA tegail AGN ia Saks ner
- vee: Y $
z . - ’ %
eo ee, b Pereage Fhe
a “S 3 bh oe < ma ¥: sit £5 ' ais
we fan ttt ae swewot deine? RAN geen
; ‘ 3 \ Rae re a apie i ERE ee ee een |
Bee seh. nO eae ae eee se ae
oF Boab cre A De A ites meh 1 in ‘Shek ai
ere ke a of Sedalia ai MPSA. (ha hoe aptly 2)
Mehl: © ‘Th Gi oghhe wie ert T weil ae ted ak een
Wait ‘al iy habr inte Divi ath Sth. peter nquitotis Dp ares
Ver atomih® gqid@ JRE al: pet wawe} wahstity Joep
jel? tore Bray: sneNGuedNe a it wat Wy yiacdnene a tet
Se ‘rere ay wiibctectitvre bituanr a OF bed Mes ghee
nt F . ox Ty.
ieee J ‘ e , a) wed t by ‘ ;
dadtienot © » ail j
& ppb ie NRT) Da + mt fi iy a:
see :
J . “ me bg es, dat
Muon A sig fe otis eh 0
i y is i 0d. ee a pis
i 7 +E
i er neh wen iad | baer Durr p toa rite sii ath th } at tai
rk delet Dadat ow ahaa canta’ reat <
de Mexinweo dt ay 1 Tem io paren {arteaiig? ig ss Claes i
casead
pee heey a .
<
‘senquowt We cag ie sonteat sient’ e pee phe
INDEX.
[An asterish (*) signifies that no abstract of the communication is given. |
BJECTS and rules of the Association,
xxi.
Places and times of meeting, with names
of officers from commencement, xxviii.
List of former Presidents and Secretaries
of the Sections, xxxv.
List of evening lectures, xlviii.
Lectures to the Operative Classes, 1.
Officers of Sectional Committees present
at Swansea, li.
Treasurer’s account, liii.
Table showing the attendance and re-
ceipts at the annual meetings, liv.
Officers and Council for 1880-81, lvi.
Report of the Council to the General
Committee at Swansea, lvii.
Recommendations adopted by the General
Committee at Swansea :—Involving
grants of money, lx.; not involving
grants of money, Ixiii.; communica-
tions ordered to be printed im extenso,
Ixv.
Synopsis of grants of money appropriated
to scientific purposes, Ixvi.
Places of meeting for 1881 and 1882,
lxvii.
General statement of sums which have
been paid on account of grants for
scientific purposes, lxviii.
General meetings, Ixxvii.
Address by the President, A. C. Ramsay,
Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.G.S., Director-
General of the Geological Survey of
the United Kingdom, and of the
Museum of Practical Geology, 1.
Abel (Prof.) on patent legislation, 318.
Abernethy (J.), Address by, to the Me-
chanical Section, 688,
Abney (Capt.) on an investigation for
the purpose of fixing a standard of
white light, 119; on the present state
of our knowledge of spectrum analy-
sis, 258.
Ace (Rev. Dr.) on the required amend-
ment in the Marriage Laws of the
United Kingdom, 672.
Adams (Prof, A. Leith) on the explora-
1880.
tion of the caves of the South of Ire-
land, 209.
Adams (Prof. W. G.) on an investigation
for the purpose ot fixing a standard of
white light, 119; comparison of curves
of the declination magnetographs at
Kew, Stonyhurst, Coimbra, Lisbon,
Vienna and St. Petersburg, 201; Ad-
dress by, to the Mathematical and
Physical Section, 447.
Admiralty monies and accounts, F. P.
Fellows on, 668.
Africa, South, the stone age in, W. D.
Gooch on, 622.
*___, West Central, the results of the
Portuguese expedition in, Capt. H.
Capello and Lieut. R. Ivens on, 659.
Agricultural education and research, the
position of, in this country and on the
continent of Europe, J, M. Cameron
on, 537.
Agricultural statistics and the land ques-
tion, by W. Botly, 668.
Alexander (Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. E.) on the
preservation of fish and preventing the
pollution of rivers, 672.
Algebraical expansions, of which the
fractional series for the cotangent and
cosecant are the limiting forms, J. W.
L. Glaisher on, 482.
*Alkaline fermentation of urine, A. S.
Lea on the, 644.
Allen (A. H.) on the specific rotatory
power of cane and invert sugar, 541;
further notes on petroleum spirit and
analogous liquids, 547; *on the so-
called ‘normal’ solutions of volumetric
analysis, 549.
Allman (Prof.) on paleontological and
zoological researches in Mexico, 254,
Anatomy and Physiology, Address by F.
M. Balfour to the Department of, 636.
Ancient settlement found beneath the
surface of the peat in the coal-bog
near Boho, co. Fermanagh, T, Plunkett
on an, 623,
Anderson (R.) on the necessity for a
regular inspection of lightning con-
ductors, 471.
ZZ
706
Anderson (Dr. T.), an improved helio-
graph or sun signal, 461; improved
apparatus for the objective estimation
of astigmatism, 463.
Annuities, diminishing, F. N. Newcome
on, 675.
Anthracite coal and coal-field of South
Wales, C. H. Perkins on the, 220.
Anthropological colour phenomena in
Belgium and elsewhere, Dr. Beddoe
on, 629.
Anthropology, Address by F. W. Rudler
to the Department of, 609.
Anthropometric Committee, report of
the, 120.
Astigmatism, improved apparatus for the
objective estimation of, by Dr. T.
Anderson, 463.
Astronomical clocks, on the question of
improvements in, first report, 56;
second report, 58.
Atchison (A. T.) on patent legislation,
318.
*Atomic volumes of certain elements
and the heats of formation of some
of their compounds, some relations
between the, W. Weldon on, 503.
*Australian autochthony, W. Forster on,
620.
*Autochthony, Australian, W. Forster on,
620.
Ayrton (Prof. W. E.) on devising and
constructing an improved form of high
insulation key for electrometer work,
29; on accurately measuring the speci-
fic inductive capacity of a good Spren-
gel vacuum, and the specific resistance
of gases at different pressures, 197,
Baden-Powell (G.) on protection in the
United States and its lessons, 671.
Baily (W. H.) on the Tertiary (Miocene)
flora, &¢c., of the basalt of the North of
Treland, 107.
Balearic Islands, an examination of the,
Dr. Phené on, 663.
—, the geology of the, Dr. Phené on,
585.
Balfour (Prof. Bayley), report on the
natural history of Socotra, 212.
Balfour (F. M.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 161; Address by, to the De-
partment of Anatomy and Physiology,
636.
— and W. N. Parker on the develop-
ment of Lepidosteus, 599.
Ball (Prof. R. 8.) on observations of
luminous meteors during the year
1879-80, 39; notes on non-Euclidian
geometry, 476.
*Bamfield (J.) on the spontaneous com-
bustion of coals in ships, 696.
INDEX.
Barlow (W. H.) on patent legislation,
318.
Barnes-Lawrence (Rev. H. F.) on the
possibility of establishing a close time
for indigenous animals, 257.
*Barrows, long, the structure of, Prof. G.
Rolleston on, 623. ,
*___, round, the structure of, Prof. G.
Rolleston on, 623.
Bate (C. Spence) on the exploration of
the marine zoology of South Devon,
160; on the present state of our
knowledge of the Crustacea: Part V.
On fecundation, respiration, and the
green gland, 230 ; on the possibility of
establishing a close time for indi-
genous animals, 257.
Beddoe (Dr.) on the work of the Anthro-—
pometric Committee, 120; on anthro-
pological colour phenomena in Belgium
and elsewhere, 629.
Bennett (A. W.) on the classification of
cryptogams, 599.
—— and G. Murray, a reformed system of
terminology of the reproductive organs
of thallophytes, 600. ;
Bi-lingual seal in Cuneiform and Khita,
the discovery of a, Hyde Clarke on,
633.
Biological Section, Address by Dr. Giin-
ther to the, 591.
Birds, the classification of, P. L. Sclater
on, 606.
, the migration of, and Messrs.
Brown and Cordeaux’s method of ob-
taining systematic observations of the
same at lighthouses and lightships, A,
Newton on, 605.
Bismuth, fluid, the density of, W. C.
Roberts and T. Wrightson on, 543.
Blanford (W. T.) on the geological age
and relations of the Siwalik and Pi-
kermi vertebrate and invertebrate
faunas, 577.
Bleaching powder residue, F. W. Hodges
on, 560.
Bock (Carl) on the Dutch Indian Go-
vernment exploring expedition in
Borneo, 661.
Bolton (Prof. H. C.) on the application
of organic acids to the examination of
minerals, 505.
Bonney (Prof. T. G.) on the ‘Geological
Record,’ 87; on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 110.
Borneo, the Dutch Indian exploring ex-
pedition in, Carl Bock on, 661.
Boscawen (W. St. C.) on the Hittites,
632.
Botly (W.), agricultural statistics and
the land question, 668.
Bottomley (J. T.) on secular experiments
on the elasticity of wires, 61; * on the
elasticity of wires, 494.
INDEX.
Bourne (Rev. A.) on the German and
other systems of teaching the deaf to
speak, 216.
Bourne (8.) on the German and other
systems of teaching the deaf to speak,
216; on the appointment of H.M. in-
spectors of elementary schools, 219;
on the present appropriation of wages
and sources of income, 318; on the
recent revival in trade, 436.
‘Brabrook (Mr.) on the work of the An-
thropometric Committee, 120.
Braham (P.) *on a new mode of illu-
minating microscopic objects, 502;
*on an instrument for the detection
of polarised light, 502 ; *on crystals of
mercury, 544; note on silver sulphate,
550.
Bramwell (F. J.) on secular experiments
on the elasticity of wires, 61; on patent
legislation, 318.
‘Bristol coalfield, the sandstones and grits
of the lower and middle series of the,
E. Wethered on, 579.
British Columbia, sketch of the geology
of, by G. M. Dawson, 588.
Brittain (Mr.) on the present appropria-
tion of wages and sources of income,
318.
Brown and Cordeaux’s, Messrs., method
of obtaining systematic observations
of the migration of birds at lighthouses
and lightships, A. Newton on, 605.
Buckland (Miss A. W.) on surgery and
superstition in neolithic times, 630.
*Bushmen crania, Prof, G. Rolleston on,
631.
Busk (G.) on the exploration of Kent’s
Cavern, 62.
Bute Docks, Cardiff, J. McConnochie on
the, 692.
*Butler (G. G.) on pictorial aid to geo-
graphical teaching, 660.
‘Cameron (J. M.) on the position of agri-
cultural education and research in this
ane and on the continent of Europe,
Campbell (Sir G.) on the work of the
Anthropometric Committee, 120.
*Candahar, the high road from the Indus
to, by Sir R. Temple, 658.
“Canton, a journey from, to Kwei-Yang-Fu
a the Canton river, W. Mesny on,
*Capello (Capt. H.) and Lieut. R. Ivens
on the results of the Portuguese ex-
pedition in West Central Africa, 659.
‘Capital, what is? by W. Westegarth, 679.
Carbonic acid, the action of, on lime-
stone, Prof. W. Boyd Dawson on, 573.
Carbonic oxide, the influence of water
- on the union of, with oxygen at high
temperatures, H. B. Dixon on, 503.
707
Carboniferous polyzoa, report on the, 76,
Carbutt (E. H.) on patent legislation,
318.
Carpenter (Dr.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at Naples,
161.
Carruthers (W.) on the ‘ Geological Re-
cord,’ 87.
Caves of the South of Ireland, first report
on the exploration of the, 209; R. J.
Ussher on the caves and kitchen-
midden at Carrigagower, co. Cork, 210;
R. Day on the implements found at
Carrigagower, co. Cork, 211.
Cayley (Prof.) on mathematical tables,
30; on the calculation of tables of the
fundamental invariants of algebraic
forms, 38.
‘Challenger’ expedition, exhibition of
some of the zoological reports of the,
by P. L. Sclater, 606.
Channel railway, project for a, by B.
Leslie, 698.
Chemical Section, Dr. J. H. Gilbert’s Ad-
dress to the, 507.
*Chilian tumulus, J. H. Madge ona, 636.
Chiroptera, report on accessions to cur
knowledge of the, during the past two
years (1878-80), by G. E. Dobson, 169.
*Oircles on a sphere, the distribution of,
Prof. H. J. 8. Smith on, 476.
Circulation of the underground waters in
the Permian, New Red Sandstone, and
Jurassic formations of England, and
the quantity and character of the
water supplied to towns and districts
from those formations, sixth report on
the, 87.
Clarke (Hyde) on drum-signalling in
Africa, 620; on a manuscript, perhaps
Khita, discovered by Capt. Gill in
Western China, 621; recent doubts on
monosyllabism in philological classifi-
cation, 621; on the pre-Cymric epoch
in Wales, 629; on the antiquity of
gesture and sign language, and the
origin of characters and speech, 630 ;
on the discovery of a bi-lingual seal in
Cuneiform and Khita, 633; further re-
searches on the prehistoric relations of
the Babylonian, Chinese and Egyptian
characters, language and culture, and
their connection with sign and gesture
language, 635 ; on the * Vei Syllabary ’
of Liberia, West Africa, 635; on the
progress of the English stations in the
hill regions of India, 686.
Close time for indigenous animals, re-
port on the possibility of establishing
a, 257.
Clouds, on determining the heights and
distances of, by their reflexions in a
low pool of water, and in a mercurial
horizon, by F. Galton, 459.
Z2Z2
708
Coal-gas of different qualities, report on |
the best means for the development of
light from: Part II., 241.
*Coal seams of the eastern portion of the
South Wales basin, the, and their
chemical composition, J. W. Thomas
on, 534.
Coal-tar colours, the identification of the,
J. Spiller on, 542.
*Coals in ships, the spontaneous com-
bustion of, J. Bamfield on, 696.
Coast-line directions represented by
great circles on the globe and the
localities marked by earthquakes in
Europe, the relation to be established
between, Prof. J. P. O’Reilly on, 576.
Collins (J. H.) on the fault systems of
Central and West Cornwall, 584
*Combined elliptical, parallel, and an-
gular motion, G. Faweus on, 699.
Contact electricity, a method of measur-
ing, Prof. Sir W. Thomson on, 494.
Copper, a peculiar behaviour of, W. H.
Preece on, 470.
— contained in copper ores and regu-
luses, a new process for separating
silver from, W. Henderson on, 546.
*Coppinger (R. W.) on a visit to Skyring
Water, Straits of Magellan, 665.
Cork, West, the hiatus said to have been
found in the rocks of, G. H. Kinahan
on, 574.
Cornwall, Central and West, the fault |
systems of, J. H. Collins on, 584.
Crosskey (Rev. H. W.) on the circulation |
of underground waters, 87; on the
erratic blocks of England, Wales, and
Treland, 110.
Crustacea, report on the present state of |
our knowledge of the: Part V. On fe-
cundation, respiration, and the green
gland, 230.
Cryptogams, the classification of, A. W.
Bennett on, 599.
*Crystals of mercury, P. Braham on, |
544,
Curves of the declination magnetographs
at Kew, Stonyhurst, Coimbra, Lisbon,
Vienna, and St. Petersburg, comparison
of the, by Prof. W. G. Adams, 201.
Dalton (W. H.) on the range of the lower
tertiaries of East Suffolk, 575.
*Dara Nur, Northern Afghanistan and its
inhabitants, Lieut.-Col. H.C. B. Tanner
on the, 665.
Darwin (G. H.) on the measurement of
the lunar disturbance of gravity, 25.
Darwin (H.) on the measurement of the
lunar disturbance of gravity, 25.
Davey (H.) on the expansion of steam in
non-rotative pumping engines, 697.
Dawkins (Prof. W. Boyd) on the explo-
ration of Kent’s Cavern, 62; on the
INDEX.
mode of reproduction of certain species-
of Ichthyosaurus from the lias of
England and Wiirtemberg, 68 ; on the
erratic blocks of England, Wales, and
Treland, 110; on the exploration of
the caves of the South of Ireland, 209 ;
on the action of carbonic acid on lime-
stone, 573.
Dawson (G. M.), sketch of the geology of
British Columbia, 588.
Day (R.) on the implements found at
Carrigagower, Co. Cork, 211.
Day (St. J. V.) on patent legislation,
318.
Deacon (G. F.) on underground tempera-
ture, 26.
Deacon (J. F.) on the phenomena of the
stationary tides inthe English Channel .
and the North Sea, and the value of
tidal observations in the North Atlantic
Ocean, 390.
Deaf, the German and other systems of
teaching the, to speak, report on, 216.
Deane (Dr.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 110.
*De Fonveille (W.) on an electro-mag-
netic gyroscope, 500.
Delany (Rev. W.) on the appointment
of H.M. inspectors of elementary
schools, 219.
De Rance (C. E.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 87; on the pre-
glacial contours and post-glacial de-
nudation of the north-west of England,
590.
Dewar (Prof.) on the present state of
our knowledge of spectrum analysis,
258.
Dew-Smith (Mr.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at Naples
161.
Dickinson (J.) on underground tempera-
ture, 26.
Dittmar (Prof.) on the best means for
the development of light from coal-
gas, 241.
Dixon (H. B.) on the influence of water
on the union of carbonic oxide with
oxygen at high temperatures, 503.
Dobson (G. E.) report on accessions to:
our knowledge of the Chiroptera during
the past two years (1878-80), 169.
Doncaster (C.) on the German and other
systems of teaching the deaf to speak,
216.
*Double malar bone, Prof. G. Rolleston
on the, 604.
| Dresser (H. E.) on the possibility of
establishing a close time for indige-
nous animals, 257.
Drew (F.) on the ‘ Geological Record,”
87.
‘Drumming’ of the snipe, Capt. W. Ve
Legge on the, 604.
INDEX.
Drum-signalling in Africa, Hyde Clarke
on, 620.
Duncan (Prof. P. M.) on the carboniferous
polyzoa, 76.
Earnshaw (Rev. 8.) on the integral of
ee equation in finite terms,
86.
*Hast African expedition, the Royal
Geographical Society’s, under Mr, J.
Thomson, latest news of, 656.
*Economic Science and Statistics, Ad-
dress by G. W. Hastings to the Section
of, 671.
*Elasticity of wires, J. T. Bottomley on
the, 494.
—, secular experiments upon the, re-
port of the Committee for commencing,
61.
Electric convection-currents, Prof. 8. P.
Thompson on, 470.
*Hlectro-magnetic gyroscope, W. de Fon-
vielle on an, 500,
Electro-magnetic unit, the number of
electrostatic units in the, R. Shida on,
497.
Electro-motors, improvements in, T.
Wiesendadger on, 501.
Electrostatic units, the number of, in the
electro-magnetic unit, R. Shida on,
497.
Elliptic function formule, the deduction
of trigonometrical from, J. W. L.
Glaisher on, 477.
*Elliptic functions, a kind of periodicity
presented by some, Prof. H. J. S.
Smith on, 482.
Elwes (Capt. H. J.) on the relation of the
Lepidoptera of Great Britain to those
of other countries, 604.
English stations in the hill regions of
India, the progress of the, Hyde Clarke
on, 686.
Eozoon Canadense, proofs of the organic
nature of, by C. Moore, 582.
Equations to the real and to the imagi-
nary directrices and latera recta of the
general conic (a, b, c, e, f, g, h) (a,
y1)?=0, Prof. R. W. Genese on the,
with a note on aproperty of the director
circle, 480.
Erratic blocks of England, Wales, and
Treland, eighth report on the, 110.
Etheridge (R., jun.) on the ‘ Geological
Record,’ 87,
Evans (Dr. J.) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, 62; on the ‘ Geological
Record,’ 87 ; on the exploration of the
caves of the South of Ireland, 209.
Everett (Prof.) on underground tempera-
ture, 26.
Expansion of steam in non-rotative
pumping engines, H. Dayey on the,
709
Farr (Dr.) on the work of the Anthropo-
metric Committee, 120.
Fault systems of Central and West
Cornwall, J. H. Collins on the, 584.
*Fawcus (G.) on combined elliptical,
parallel, and angular motion, 699.
Fellows (F. P.) on the work of the Anthro-
pometric Committee, 120; on the pre-
sent appropriation of wages and sources
of income, 318; on Admiralty monies
and accounts, 668.
Field (R.) on the phenomena of the
stationary tides inthe English Channel
and the North Sea, and the value of
tidal observations in the North Atlantic
Ocean, 390.
Films of water, thin, experiments on,
with regard to their absorption of
yadiant heat, by the Hon. F. A. R.
Russell, 490.
Fish, the preservation of, and preventing
the pollution of rivers, Lieut.-Gen. Sir
J. E. Alexander on, 672.
*Fitzgerald (G. F.) on the possibility of
originating wave-disturbances in the
ether by electro-magnetic forces, 497.
Flight (W.) on observations of luminous
meteors during the year 1879-80, 39.
Flint-workers, the British, at Brandon,
J. P. Harrison on, 626.
Foote (R. B.) on the occurrence of stone
implements in the coast laterite, south
of Madras, and in high-level gravels
and other formations in the South
Mahratta country, 589.
Forbes (Prof. G.) on the measurement of
the lunar disturbance of gravity, 25;
on observations of luminous meteors
during the year 1879-80, 39; on im-
provements in astronomical clocks, 56.
*Forster (W.) on Australian autochthony,
620.
Foster (Dr. C. Le Neve) on underground
temperature, 26.
Foster (Prof. G. C.) on an investigation
for the purpose of fixing a standard of
white light, 119; on the present state
of our knowledge of spectrum analysis,
258.
Foster (Prof. M.) on the influence of
bodily exercise on the elimination of
nitrogen, 159; on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 161.
Fox (H. C.) supplement to a paper on the
synchronism of mean temperature and
rainfall in the climate of London, 493.
French deep-sea exploration in the Bay
of Biscay, J. Gwyn Jeffreys on the,
378.
——, the Rev. A. M. Norman on the, 387.
Fundamental invariants of algebraic
forms, the calculation of tables of the,
report on, 38.
710
Galapagos Islands, a visit to the, in H.M.S.
‘Triumph,’ 1880, by Capt. Markham,
665.
Galloway (Mr.) on underground tem-
perature, 26.
Galton (Capt. D.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 87; on patent
legislation, 318 ; on the phenomena of
the stationary tides in the English
Channel and the North Sea, and the
value of tidal observations in the
North Atlantic Ocean, 390.
Galton (F.) on the work of the Anthro-
pometric Committee, 120; on determin-
ing the heights and distances of clouds
by their reflexions in a low pool of
water, and in a mercurial horizon,
459 ; on a pocket registrator for anthro-
pological purposes, 625.
Gamgee (Dr.) on paleontological and
zoological researches in Mexico, 254.
Gases, the specific resistance of, at dif-
ferent pressures, and the specifie in-
ductive capacity of a good Sprengel
vacuum, preliminary report of the
Committee for accurately measuring,
LO:
Geddes (Mr.) on paleontological and
_ zoological researches in Mexico, 254.
Geikie (Prof.) on underground tempera-
ture, 26.
Genese (Prof. R. W.) on the equations to
the real and to the imaginary direc-
trices and latera recta of the general
conic (a, b,c, e, f, g, h) (a, yl)?=0;
with a note on a property of the
director circle, 480.
Geographical Section, Address by Lieut.-
Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy to the, 646.
*Geographical teaching, pictorial aid to,
G. G. Butler on, 660.
Geological age and relations of the
Siwalik and Pikermi vertebrate and
invertebrate faunas, W. T. Blanford
on the, 577.
Geological evidence of the temporary sub-
mergence of the South-west of Europe
during the early human period, Prof.
Prestwich on the, 581.
‘Geological Record,’ report on the, 87.
Geological Section, H. C. Sorby’s Address
to the, 565.
Geology, mineralogy, and paleontology of
Wales, list of works on the (to the end
of 1873), by W. Whitaker, 397.
—— of British Columbia, sketch of the,
by G. M. Dawson, 588.
of the Balearic Islands, Dr. Phené
on the, 585.
, the submarine, of the English
Channel off the coast of South Devon,
A. R. Hunt on, 573.
*Geometry, inverse figures in, Prof. H. J.
8. Smith on, 476.
INDEX.
eometry, non-EKuclidian, notes on, by
R. 8. Ball, 476.
Gesture and sign language, the antiquity
of, and the origin of characters and
speech, Hyde Clarke on, 630.
Gilbert (Dr. J. H.) Address by, to the
Chemical Section, 507.
Gill (D.) on improvements in astro-
nomical clocks, 56.
Gimingham (C. H.) on improvements in
astronomical clocks, 56.
Gladstone (Dr. J. H.) on the appoint-
ment of H.M. inspectors of elementary
schools, 219; on the refraction-equiva--
lent of diamond and the carbon com-
pounds, 535.
Glaisher (J.) on underground tempera-
ture, 26; on mathematical tables, 30;
on observations of luminous meteors.
during the year 1879-80, 39; on the
circulation of
87.
Glaisher (J. W. L.) on mathematical
tables, 30; on the deduction of trigo-
nometrical from elliptic function for-
mulz, 477; on algebraical expansions,
of which the fractional series for the
cotangent and cosecant are the limiting
forms, 482; note on a trigonometrical
identity involving products of four
sines, 484.
Godwin-Austen (Lieut.-Col. H. H.) on
the steps taken for investigating the
natural history of Socotra, 212; on the
post-tertiary and more recent deposits
of Kashmir and the Upper Indus
Valley, 589.
Gooch (W. D.) on the stone age in South
Africa, 622.
Gordon (J. E. H.) on accurately measur-
ing the specific inductive capacity of a
good Sprengel vacuum, and the specific
resistance of gases at different pres-
sures, 197.
Grant (Prof.) on the measurement of the
lunar disturbance of gravity, 25.
Greek profile (incorrectly so called),.
additional remarks on the, by J. Park
Harrison, 625.
Grubb (H.) on improvements in astro-.
nomical clocks, 56.
Giinther (Dr.) Address by, to the Biolo-
gical Section, 591.
*Hall (W. E.) on the loading of ships,.
699.
Hallett (P.) on the work of the Anthro-.
pometrie Committee, 120.
Hancock (Dr. N.) on the German and
other systems of teaching the deaf to
speak, 216; on patent legislation, 318 ;
on the present appropriation of wages
and sources of income, 318.
Harlech Mountains, Merionethshire, some:
underground waters,.
— ow ©
INDEX.
pre-Cambrian rocks in the, Dr. H.
Hicks on, 584.
Harrison (J. Park) on the work of the
Anthropometric Committee, 120; ad-
ditional remarks on the Greek profile
(incorrectly so called), 625; on the
British flint-workers at Brandon, 626.
Harting (J. EH.) on the possibility of
establishing aclose time for indigenous |
animals, 257.
Hartlaub (Lr. G.) on the steps taken for
investigatmg the natural history of
Socotra, 212
olde
Hartley (Prof.) on the present state of our |
knowledge of spectrum analysis, 258.
*Hastings (G. W.), Address by, to the
Section of Economic Science and
Statistics, 671.
Haughton (Rev. Prof.) on the exploration |
of the caves of the South of Ireland,
209.
Head-kidney, the origin of the, A. Sedg-
wick on, 644.
Heat, the loss of, in steam boilers arising
from incrustation, the determination
of, W. Thomson on, 549.
Heliograph or sun sigtal, an improved,
by Dr. T. Anderson, 4¢1.
Henderson (W.) on a new process for
separating silver from copper contained
in copper ores and reguluses, 546;
remarks and statistics relating to
Swansea usages and customs as they
affect the sellers of foreign or colonial
copper ores, 681.
Herschel (Prof. A. 8.) on underground
temperature, 26; on observetions of
luminous meteors during the year
1879-89, 39.
Heywood (J.) on the work of the Anthro-
pometric Committee, 120; on the
German and other systems of teaching
the deaf to speak, 216 ; on thle appoint-
ment of H.M. inspectors of elementary
schools, 219
Hicks (Dr. H.) on some pre-Cambrian
rocks in the MHarlech Mountains,
Merionethshire, 584.
High insulation key for electiometer
work, an improved form of, rejort of
the Committee for devising anc con-
structing, 29.
Hittites, W. St. C. Boscawen on the. 632.
Hodges (F.- W.) on bleaching powder
residue, 560.
Hooker (Sir J.) on the steps taken for
investigating the natural history of
Socotra, 212.
Hughes (Prof.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 110.
Hull (Prof. E.) on underground tempera-
ture, 26; on the circulation of unde-
ground waters, 87.
Hunt (A. RB.) on the submarine geology |
711
of the English Channel off the coast of
South Devon, 573.
Hunter (Capt. F. M.) on the steps:taken
for investigating the natural history
of Socotra, 212.
Huntington (Prof. A. K.) on the present
state of our knowledge of spectrum
analysis, 258.
Huxley (Prof.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 161.
Hyper-elliptic integrals, the periods of
the first class of, W. R. Roberts on, 485.
Ichthyosaurus from the lias of England
and Wiirtemberg, report on the mode
of reproduction of certain species of, 68.
Images photographiques, les transforma-
tions successives des, et les appli-
cations a l’astronomie, J. Janssen sur,
500.
*Incrustation of steam boilers, W. Thom-
son on the, 703.
*India the home of gunpowder, on philo-
logical evidence, by Dr. G. Oppert, 636.
Induction balance, note on the theory
of, by Lord Rayleigh, 472.
*Indus, the, to Candahar, the high road
from, by Sir R. Temple, 658.
Influence of bodily exercise on the elimi-
nation of nitrogen, report on the, 159
Ink used in writing letters and docu-
ments, the identification of, W. Thom-
son on, 549. :
Inspectors, H.M., of elementary schools,
report as to whether it is important
that they should be appointed with
reference to their ability for examining
in the scientific specific subjects of the
Code in addition to other matters, 219.
*Ivens (Lieut. R.) and Capt. H. Capello
on the results of the Portuguese ex-
pedition in West Central Africa, 659.
Janssen (J.) sur les transformations suc-
cessives des images photographiques,
et les applications 4 l’astronomie, 500.
Jeffery (H.M.) on plane and spherical
curves of the fourth class with quad-
ruple foci, 478.
Jeffreys (Dr. J. Gwyn) on the occupation
of a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 161; on the possibility of es-
tablishing a close time for indigenous
animals, 257; on the French deep-sea
exploration in the Bay of Biscay, 378 ;
list of the mollusca procured, 382;
further remarks on the mollusca of the
Mediterranean, 601.
Jevons (Prof.) on the present appropria-
tion of wages and sources of income,
318.
Jones (B.) on the antiquities of Loughor
Castle, 620.
712
Kashmir and the Upper Indus Valley, the
post-tertiary and more recent deposits
of, Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-Austen
on, 589.
Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire, sixteenth and
concluding report of the Committee for
exploring, 62.
Kinahan (G. H.) on the hiatus said to
have been found in the rocks of West
Cork, 574.
‘Knight Errant,’ the cruise of the, Prof.
Sir C. Wyville Thomson on, 603.
Kwei-Yang-Fu, a journey from Canton
to, up the Canton river, W. Mesny on,
660.
Kynaston (J. W.) on a new process for
the production, from aluminous metals
containing iron, of sulphate of alumina
free from iron, 545.
Ladd (W.) on the best form of magnet
for magneto-electric machines, 467.
Land question, agricultural statistics and
the, by W. Botly, 668.
Lankester (Prof. Ray) on the occupation
of a table at the zoological station at
Naples, 161.
Lansdell (Rev. H.), through Siberia, vid
the Amur and the Ussuri, 656.
Laplace’s equation in finite terms, the
integral of, Rev. 8. Earnshaw on, 486.
Lapps, the mountain, Lieut. G. T. Temple
on, 631.
Latham (B.) on the temperature of town
water-supplies, 696.
Lawes (Rev. W.G.) three years in South-
east New Guinea, 658.
*Lea (A. 8.) on the alkaline fermentation
of urine, 644.
Lebour (Prof. G. A.) on underground
temperature, 26; on the ‘ Geological
Record,’ 87; on the circulation of
underground waters, 87.
Lee (J. E.) on the exploration of Kent’s
Cavern, 62; on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 110.
Lefevre (J. G. Shaw) on the possibility
of establishing a close time for indi-
genous animals, 257.
Lefroy (Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H.) Address by,
to the Geographical Section, 646.
Legge (Capt. W. V.) on the ‘drumming’
of the snipe, 604.
Lepidoptera of Great Britain, the relation
of, to those of other countries, Capt. H.
J. Elwes on, 604,
Lepidosteus, the development of, F. M.
Balfour and W. N. Parker on, 599.
Leslie (B.) project for a Channel railway,
698
Levi (Prof. L.) on the work of the An-
thropometric Committee, 120; on the
present appropriation of wages and
sources of income, 318.
INDEX.
Lichen, the action of a, on limestone,
Prof. W. J. Sollas on, 586.
Lightning conductors, the necessity for
a regular inspection of, R. Anderson
on, 471.
—, the proper form of, W. H. Preece
on, 470.
Limestone, the action of a Jichen on,
Prof. W. J. Sollas on, 586.
—, the action of carbonic acid on,
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins on, 573.
Liveing (Prof.) on the present state of
our knowledge of spectrum analysis,
258.
*Loading of ships, W. E. Hall on the,
699. ;
Lodge (Dr. O. J.) on devising and con-
structing an improved form of high in-
sulation key for electrometer work, 29;
on accurately measuring the specific
inductive capacity of a good Sprengel
vacuum, and the specific resistance of
gases at different pressures, 197.
London, the synchronism of mean tem-
perature and rainfall in the climate of,
supplement to a paper on, by H. C.
Fox, 493.
Loughor Castle, the antiquities of, B.
Jones on, 620,
Lowe (E. J.) or observations of luminous
meteors durjng the year 1879-80, 39.
Lubbock (SirJ.) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cayern, 62.
Luminous meteors, report on observations
of, during the year 1879-80, 39.
Lunar disturbance of gravity,
measurement of the, report on, 25.
the
McConnochie (J.) on the Bute Docks,
Cardiff, 692.
Mackintosh (D.) on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 110.
McLeod (Pyof.) on the present state of
our knowledge of spectrum analysis,
258.
Macrory (Mr.) on patent legislation, 318.
*Madge J. H.) on a Chilian tumulus,
636.
Magnesia, the effects of, on vegetation,
Maj.-fen. Scott on, 550.
Magnei for magneto-electric machines,
the best form of, W. Ladd on, 467.
Maeneto-electric machines, the best form
of nagnet for, W. Ladd on, 467.
Mahomed (Dr. F. A.) on the work of the
Anthropometric Committee, 120.
Malagasy, the origin of, C. S. Wake on,
626.
Manuscript, a, perhaps Khita, discovered
by Capt. Gill in Western China, Hyde
Chrke on, 621.
Manne zoology of South Devon, second
report on the exploration of the, 160.
Maikham (Capt.) on a visit to the Gala-
INDEX.
pagos Islands in H.M.S. ‘Triumph,’ |
1880, 665.
Marriage Laws of the United Kingdom,
the required amendment in the, the
Rev. Dr. Ace on, 672.
Masaki (Taiso) on the German and other
systems of teaching the deaf to speak,
216.
Mathematical and Physical Section, Ad-
dress by Prof. W. G. Adams to the, 447.
*Mathematical solution of a logical pro-
blem, Prof. H. J. 8. Smith on a, 476.
—— tables, report on, 30.
Mechanical Section, Address by J. Aber-
nethy to the, 688.
Mediterranean, the mollusca of the, fur-
ther remarks on, by J. Gwyn Jeffreys,
601.
*Mercury, crystals of, P. Braham on, 544.
Merrifield (C. W.) on patent legislation,
318 ; on the present state of knowledge
of the application of quadratures and
interpolation to actual data, 321.
Merrifield (Dr. J.) on the phenomena of
the stationary tides in the English
Channel and the North Sea, and the
value of tidal observations in the North
Atlantic Ocean, 390.
“Mesny (W.) on a journey from Canton to |
| Neolithic times, surgery and superstition
Kwei-Yang-Fu up the Canton river,
‘660.
Metallic compounds containing divalent
organic radicals, J. Sakurai on: Part I.,
504.
Metals, the action of oils on, W. H. Wat-
son on, 560.
Mexico, paleontological and zoological
researches in, report of the Committee
for conducting, 254.
Miall (Prof. L. C.) on the ‘Geological |
Record,’ 87; on the erratic blocks of
England, Wales, and Ireland, 110.
Mica schist, a fragment of, Prof. W. J.
Sollas on, 577.
‘Microscopic objects, a new mode of illu-
minating, P. Braham on, 502.
Minchin (G. M.), an account of some ex-
periments in photo-electricity, 468.
‘Mineralogy of Wales, list of works on
the (to the end of 1873), by W. Whita-
ker, 397.
‘Minerals, the application of organic
C. Bolton on, 505.
Molloy (C.) on the German and other |
systems of teaching the deaf to speak,
216.
Mollusca, a list of the, procured during |
the eruise of the ‘ Travailleur’ in the
Bay of Biscay, 1880, by J. Gwyn Jef- |
| Oils, the action of, on metals, W. H.
freys, 382.
of the Mediterranean, further re-
marks on the, by J. Gwyn Jeffreys,
601.
713
Molyneux (W.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 87; on the erratic
blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland,
110.
Monosyllabism in philological classifica-
tion, recent doubts on, Hyde Clarke on,
621.
Moore (C.) on the mode of reproduction
of certain species of Ichthyosaurus
from the lias of England and Wiirtem-
berg, 68; proofs of the organic nature
of Hozoon Canadense, 582.
Morton (Mr.) on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 87.
Muirhead (Dr. H.) on the work of the
Anthropometric Committee, 120; on
the length of the sun-spot period, 465.
Mundella (Rt. Hon. A. J.) on the German
and other systems of teaching the deaf
to speak, 216.
Murray (G.) and A. W. Bennett, a re-
formed system of terminology of the
reproductive organs of thallophytes,
600.
Musicians, vital and other statistics ap-
plicable to, by P. M. Tait, 666,
Neanderthal skull, the original, Prof.
Schaaffhausen on, 624.
in, Miss A. W. Buckland on, 630.
| New Britain and neighbouring islands,
six years’ exploration in, by W. Powell,
658.
Newcome (F. N.) on diminishing annui-
ties, 675.
New Guinea, South-east, three years in,
by the Rev. W. G. Lawes, 658.
Newmarch (Mr.) on patent legislation,
318,
Newton (Prof. A.) on the possibility of
establishing a close time for indigenous
animals, 257; on the migration of
birds, and Messrs. Brown and Cor-
deaux’s method of obtaining systematic
observations of the same at lighthouses
and lightships, 605.
Nicholson (Prof. H. A.) on the ‘Geologi-
cal Record,’ 87.
Non-rotative pumping engines, the ex-
pansion of steam in, H. Davey on, 697.
| Norman (Rey. A. M.) on the French
acids to the examination of, Prof. H. |
deep-sea exploration in the Bay of
Biscay, 387.
North-East Passage, Lieut. G. T. Temple
on the, 663.
Oil, the effect of, in destroying waves on
the surface of water, Prof. O. Reynolds
on, 489.
Watson on, 560.
Oliphant (L.), recent travels in trans-
Jordanic Palestine, 659.
714
*Oppert (Dr. G.), India the home of gun-
powder, on philological evidence, 686.
O'Reilly (Prof. J. P.) on the relation to
be established between coast-line direc-
tions represented by great circles on
the globe and the localities marked by
earthquakes in Europe, 576.
Ores, complex, containing zinc, a new
process for the metallurgic treatment
of, E. A. Parnell on, 544.
Organic acids, the application of, to the
examination of minerals, Prof. H. C.
. Bolton on, 505.
Paleolithic flint implement from Pales-
tine, H. Stopes on a, 624.
—— implement manufactory, the site of
a, at Crayford, Kent, F. C. J. Spurrell
on, 574.
stone implement from Egypt, H.
Stopes on a, 624.
Palzontological and zoological researches
in Mexico, report of the Committee
for conducting, 254.
Paleontology of Wales, list of works
on the (to the end of 1873), by W.
Whitaker, 397.
Palestine, trans-Jordanic, recent travels
in, by L. Oliphant, 659.
Parker (W. N.) and F. M. Balfour on the
development of Lepidosteus, 599.
Parnell (EH. A.), a new process for the
metallurgic treatment of complex ores
containing zine, 544.
Patent legislation, report of the Com-
mittee appointed to watch and report
to the Council on, 318.
Pattinson (J.) on the best means for the
development of light from coal-gas,
241.
Pengelly (W.) on underground tempera-
ture, 26; on the exploration of Kent's
Cavern, 62; on the circulation of
underground waters, 87 ; on the erratic
blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland,
110.
Perkins (C. H.) on the anthracite coal
-and coal-field of South Wales, 220.
Perry (Prof. J.)on devising and construct-
ing an improved form of high insu-
lation key for electrometer work, 29 ;
on accurately measuring the specific
inductive capacity of a good Sprengel
vacuum, and the specific resistance of
gases at different pressures, 197.
Petroleum spirit and analogous liquids,
further notes on, by A. H. Allen, 547.
Phené (Dr.) on the geology of the Ba-
learic Islands, 585; on the retention
of ancient and prehistoric customs in
the Pyrenees, 627 ; on an examination
of the Balearic Islands, 663; on a re-
cent examination of the topography of
the Troad, 664.
INDEX.
Phénoménes periodiques, la calculation
des, Prof. Ragona sur, 466.
Photo-electricity, an account of some ex-
periments in, by G. M. Minchin, 468.
Physical Section, Address by Prof. W. G.
Adams to the Mathematical and, 447.
Physiology, Anatomy and, Address by F.
M. Balfour to the Department of, 636.
Pikermi vertebrate and invertebrate
faunas, the geological age and relations
of the Siwalik and, W. T. Blanford on,.
577.
Pitt-Rivers (Major-Gen.) on the work of
the Anthropometric Committee, 120.
Plane and spherical curves of the fourth
class with quadruple foci, H. M.
Jeffery on, 478.
Plant (J.) on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 87; on the erratic
blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland,
110.
Plunkett (T.) on an ancient settlement
found beneath the surface of the peat
in the coal-bog near Boho, Co, Fer-
managh, 623.
Pocket registrator for anthropological
purposes, fF. Galton on a, 625.
*Polarised light, an instrument for the
detection of, P. Braham on, 502.
*Portuguese expedition in West Central
Africa, the results of the, Capt. H..
Capello and Lieut. R. Ivens on, 659.
Post-tertiary and more recent deposits of
Kashmir and the Upper Indus Valley,
Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-Austen on
the, 589.
Powell (W.) six years’ exploration in
New Britain and neighbouring islands,.
658.
Pre-Cambrian rocks in the Harlech
Mountains, Merionethshire, Dr. H.
Hicks on the, 584.
Pre-Cymric epoch in Wales, Hyde Clarke
on the, 629.
Preece (W. H.) on a peculiar behaviour
of copper, 470; on the proper form of
lightning conductors, 470.
Pre-glacial contours and post-glacial de-
nudation of the North-west of England,
C. E. De Rance on the, 590.
Prehistoric relations of the Babylonian,
Chinese, and Egyptian characters, lan--
guage, and culture, and their connec-
tion with sign and gesture language,
further researches on the, by Hyde
Clarke, 635.
— times in the Valley of the Rhine,
Prof. Schaaffhausen on, 624.
Prestwich (Prof.) on the cireulation of
underground waters, 87; on the erratic:
blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland,
110; on a raised beach in Rhos Sili -
Bay, Gower, 581; on the geological
evidence of the temporary submer-
ee
INDEX.
. gence of the south-west of Europe
during the early human period, 581.
Protection in the United States and its
lessons, G. Baden-Powell on, 671.
Purser (Prof. ) on the measurement of the
lunar disturbance of gravity, 25.
Pye-Smith (Dr.) on the influence of
bodily exercise on the elimination of
nitrogen, 159.
Pye-Smith (R. J.) on the German and
_ other systems of teaching the deaf to
speak, 216.
Pyrenees, the retention of ancient and .
prehistoric customs in the, Dr. Phené
on, 627.
Quadratures and interpolation, the ap-
plication of, to actual data, C. W. Mer-
rifield on the present state of knowledge
of, 321.
Ragona (Prof.) sur la calculation des
phénoménes periodiques, 466; *on the
laws of the change of speed and direc-
tion of the wind, 467.
Raised beach in Rhos Sili Bay, Gower,
Prof. Prestwich on a, 581.
Ramsay (Prof.) on underground tempera-
ture, 26.
Rawson (Sir R.) on the work of the An-
thropometric Committee, 120.
Rayleigh (Lord) on the present state of
our knowledge of spectrum analysis,
258 ; note on the theory of the induc-
tion balance, 472.
Rayleigh’s, Lord, solution for waves in
a plane vortex stratum, a disturbing
infinity in, Prof. Sir W. Thomson on,
492.
Reade (M.) on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 87.
Refraction-equivalent of diamond and
the carbon compounds, Dr. J. H. Glad-
_ Stone on the, 535.
Reinold (Prof.) on the present state of
our knowledge of spectrum analysis,
258.
Revival in trade, the recent, S. Bourne
on, 436.
Reynolds (Prof. E.) on the present state
of our knowledge of spectrum analysis,
258.
Reynolds (Prof. 0.) on the phenomena
of the stationary tides in the English |
Channel and the North Sea, and the |
in the |
value of tidal observations
North Atlantic Ocean, 390; on the ef-
fect of oil in destroying waves on the
surface of water, 489; on the steering
of ships, 699.
Rhine, the Valley of the, prehistoric
times in, Prof. Schaaffthausen on, 624.
Rhos Sili Bay, Gower, a raised beach in,
Prof. Prestwich on, 581.
715.
Roberts (C.) on the work of the Anthro~
pometric Committee, 120.
Roberts (Mr.) on the circulation of
underground waters, 87.
Roberts (W. C.) on the present state of
our knowledge of spectrum analysis,
258.
and T. Wrightson on the density of
fluid bismuth, 543.
Roberts (W. R.) on the periods of the
first class of hyper-elliptic integrals,
485,
*Rodents, the classification of, Prof. G..
Rolleston on, 604.
Rolleston (Prof. G.) on the work of the
Anthropometric Committee, 120; on
the occupation of a table at the zoo-
logical station at Naples, 161; *on the
double malar bone, 604; *on the classi-
fication of rodents, 604; on the struc-
ture of round barrows, 623; *on the
structure of long barrows, 623; *on
Bushmen crania, 631.
Rowe (J. b.) on the exploration of the
marine zoology of South Devon, 160.
Rudler (F. W.) on the ‘Geological
Record,’ 87 ; Address by, tothe Depart-
ment of Anthropology, 609.
| Russell (Hon. F, A, R.), experiments on
thin films of water, with regard to
their absorption of radiant heat, 490.
*Safety lamp, the Shakespear, Colonel
Shakespear on, 699.
Sakurai (J.) on metallic compounds con=
taining divalent organic radicals>
Part I., 504.
Salmon (Prof.) on the calculation of
tables of the fundamental invariants
of algebraic forms, 38.
Salting mounds of Essex, H. Stopes on
the, 631.
Sanderson (Prof. B.) on the influence of
bodily exercise on the elimination of
nitrogen, 159.
Sanford (W. A.) on the exploration of
Kent’s Cavern, 62.
Schaaffhausen (Prof.) on prehistoric
times in the Valley of the Rhine, 624 ;:
on the original Neanderthal «skull,
624,
Schiifer (Prof.) on paleontological and
zoological researches in Mexico, 254.
Schuster (Dr.) on the present state of
our knowledge of spectrum analysis,
258.
Sclater (P. L.) on the occupation of a
table at the zoological station at
Naples, 161; on the steps taken for
investigating the natural history of
Socotra, 212 ; exhibition of some of the
zoological reports of the ‘Challenger *
expedition, 606; on the classification:
of birds, 606.
716
Scott (Maj.-Gen.) on the effects of mag-
nesia on vegetation, 550.
Sedgwick (A.) on the origin of the head-
kidney, 644.
Seeley (Prof. H. G.) on the mode of
reproduction of certain species of
Ichthyosaurus from the lias of England
and Wiirtemberg, 68.
Septum permeable to water and imper-
meable to air, Prof. Sir W. Thomson
on a, with practical applications to a
navigational depth-gauge, 488.
Sewage, a new mode for the purification
of, P. Spence on, 534.
Shaen (Mr.) on the appointment.of H. M.
inspectors of elementary schools, 219.
*Shakespear (Col.) on the Shakespear
safety lamp, 699.
Shida (R.) on the number of electro-
static units in the electro-magnetic
unit, 497.
“Ships, the loading of, W. E. Hall on,
699.
-——, the steering of, Prof. O. Reynolds
on, 699.
-Shoolbred (J. N.) on the phenomena of
the stationary tides in the English
Channel and the North Sea, and the
value of tidal observations in the North
Atlantic Ocean, 390.
Siberia, through, vid the Amur and the
Ussuri, by the Rey. H. Lansdell, 656.
-Siemens (Dr. C. W.) on the measurement
of the lunar disturbance of gravity,
25; on secular experiments on the
‘elasticity of wires, 61; on patent
legislation, 318.
Silver, a new process for separating,
from copper contained in copper ores
and reguluses, W. Henderson on, 546.
Silver sulphate, note on, by P. Braham,
550.
Siwalik and Pikermi vertebrate and
invertebrate faunas, the geological age
and relations of the, W. T. Blanford
on, 577.
*Skew surface of the third order, note on
the, by Prof. H. J. S. Smith, 482.
~“*Skyring Water, Straits of Magellan, a
visit to, R. W. Coppinger on, 665.
Sladen (P.) on the occupation of a table
at the zoological station at Naples, 161.
Smith (Prof. H. J. 8.) on mathematical
tables, 30; *on inverse figures in
geometry, 476; *on a mathematical
solution of a logical problem, 476; *on
the distribution of circles on a sphere,
476; *note on the skew surface of
the third order, 482; *on a kind of
periodicity presented by some elliptic
functions, 482.
Snipe, the ‘drumming’ of the, Capt. W.
V. Legge on, 604.
Socotra, the natural history of, report on |
INDEX.
the steps taken for investigating, 212 ;
report to the Committee by Prof. Bayley
Balfour, 212.
Sollas (Prof. W. J.) on the island of Tor-
ghatten, 576; on a fragment of mica
schist, 577; 6n a striated stone from
the trias of Portishead, 586; on the
action of a lichen on limestone, 586;
on sponge-spicules from the chalk of
Trimmingham, Norfolk, 586.
Sorby (H. C.) Address by, to the Geo-
logical Section, 565.
*Sounding machine, an improved, Sir W.
Thomson on, 703.
Specific rotatory power of cane and in-
vert sugar, A. H. Allen on the, 541.
Spectrum analysis, report on the present
state of our knowledge of, 258.
Spence (P.) on a new mode for the puri-
fication of sewage, 534.
Spiller (J.) on the identification of the
coal-tar colours, 542.
Sponge-spicules from the chalk of Trim-
mingham, Norfolk, Prof. W.J.Sollas on,
586.
*Spontaneous combustion of coals in
ships, J. Bamfield on the, 696.
Sprengel vacuum, a good, the specific in-
ductive capacity of, and the specific
resistance of gases at different pres-
sures, preliminary report of the Com-
mittee for accurately measuring, 197.
Spurrell (F. C. J.) on the site of a
paleolithic implement manufactory at
Crayford, Kent, 574.
*Starling (J. W.), exhibition of an im-
proved volumetric apparatus, 534.
Stationary tides in the English Channel
and the North Sea, the phenomena of
the, third report on, 390.
*Statistics, Economic Science and, Address
by G. W. Hastings to the Section of,
671.
*Steam boilers, the incrustation of, W.
Thomson on, 703.
Steam-liquid temperature of a fluid, a
method of determining the, without
mechanism, Sir W. Thomson on, 496.
Steering of ships, Prof. O. Reynolds on
the, 699.
Stokes (Prof. G. G.) on mathematical
tables, 30.
Stone age in South Africa, W. D. Gooch
on the, 622.
implements, the occurrence of, in
the coast laterite, south of Madras,
and in high-level gravels and other
formations in the South Mahratta
country, R. B. Foote on, 589.
Stoney (Mr.) on the present state of our
knowledge of spectrum analysis, 258.
Stopes (H.) on a palzolithic stone im-
plement from Egypt, 624; on a paleo-
lithic flint implement from Palestine,
— —
INDEX.
624; on the salting mounds of Essex,
631.
Striated stone from the trias of Portis-
head, Prof. W. J. Sollas on a, 586.
Suffolk, East, the range of the lower ter-
tiaries of, W. H. Dalton on, 575.
Sugar, cane and invert, the specific rota-
tory power of, A. H. Allen on, 541.
Sulphate of alumina free from iron, a
new process for the production of,
from aluminous minerals containing
iron, J. W. Kynaston on, 545.
Sun-spot period, the length of the, Dr.
H. Muirhead on, 465. a
Surgery and superstition in neolithic
times, Miss A. W. Buckland on, 630.
Swansea usages and customs, remarks
and statistics relating to, as they affect
the sellers of foreign or colonial copper
ores, by W. Henderson, 681. :
Sylvester (Prof.) on the calculation of
tables of the fundamental invariants
of algebraic forms, 38.
Symons (G. J.) on underground tempera-
ture, 26.
Tait (Prof.) on the measurement of the
lunar disturbance of gravity, 25; on
secular experiments on the elasticity
of wires, 61. he
Tait (P. M.), vital and other statistics
applicable to musicians, 666,
*Tanner (Lieut.-Col. H. C. B.) on the
Dara Nur, Northern Afghanistan and
its inhabitants, 665. :
Tawney (E. B.) on the ‘Geological
Record,’ 87. u
Temperature, underground, thirteenth
report on the rate of increase of, down-
wards in various localities of dry land
and under water, 26. ‘
Temple (Lieut. G. T.) on the mountain
Lapps, 631; on the North-Hast Pas-
sage, 663. ‘
*Temple (Sir R.), the high road from
the Indus to Candahar, 658.
Tertiaries, the lower, of East Suffolk, the
range of, W. H. Dalton on, 575.
Tertiary (Miocene) flora, &c., of the ba-
salt of the North of Ireland, second
report on the, 107.
Thallophytes, a reformed system of ter-
minology of the reproductive organs of,
by A. W. Bennett and G. Murray, 600.
*Thomas (J. W.) on the coal seams of
the eastern portion of the South Wales
basin, and their chemical composition,
534.
Thompson (Prof. S. P.) on electric con-
vection-currents, 470.
Thomson (Prof. Sir C. Wyville) on the
occupation of a table at the zoological
station at Naples, 161; on the cruise
of the ‘ Knight Errant,’ 603.
717
*Thomson, Mr. J., latest news of the
Royal Geographical Society’s Hast-
African expedition under, 656.
Thomson (Prof. Sir Wm.) on the mea-
surement of the lunar disturbance of
gravity, 25; on underground tempera-
ture, 26 ; on mathematical tables, 30 ;
on secular experiments on the elasti-
city of wires, 61 ; on patent legislation,
318; on the phenomena of the sta-
tionary tides in the English Channel
and the North Sea, and the value of
tidal observations in the North Atlan-
tie Ocean, 390; on maximum and mini-
mum energy in vortex motion, 473 :
on a septum permeable to water and
impermeable to air, with practical
applications to a navigational depth-
gauge, 488 ; on an experimental illns-
tration of minimum energy in vortex
motion, 491; on a disturbing infinity
in Lord Rayleigh’s solution for waves.
in a plane vortex stratum, 492; on a
method of measuring contact electri-
city, 494; on a method of determin-
ing without mechanism the limiting
steam-liquid temperature of a fluid,
496; on an improved sounding machine,
703. :
Thomson (W.) on the determination of
the loss of heat in steam-boilers aris-
ing from incrustation, 549; on the
identification of the ink used in writ-
ing letters and documents as evidence
in cases of libel, forgery, &c., 549.
*Thomson (W.) on the incrustation of
steam boilers, 703.
Tidal observations at Madeira or other
islands in the North Atlantic Ocean,
on the value of, 390.
Tiddeman (R. H.) on the erratic blocks
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 110.
Tides, the stationary, in the English
Channel and the North Sea, the pheno-
mena of, third report on, 390.
Topley (W.) on the ‘ Geological Record,”
87
Torghatten, the island of, Prof. W. J.
Sollas on, 576.
Town water-supplies, the temperature of,.
B. Latham on, 696.
Trade, the recent revival in, 8. Bourne.
on, 436.
Trigonometrical from elliptic function
formule, the deduction of, J. W. L.
Glaisher on, 477.
—— identity involving products of four
sines, note on a, by J. W. L. Glaisher,.
484.
Tristram (Rev. Canon) on the possibility-
of establishing a close time for indi-
genous animals, 257.
Troad, a recent examination of the topo~
graphy of the, Dr, Phené on, 664.
718
Underground temperature, thirteenth re-
port on the rate of increase of, down-
wards in various localities of dry land
and under water, 26.
waters in the Permian, New Red
Sandstone, and Jurassic formations of
England, the circulation of the, and
the quantity and character of the
water supplied to towns and districts
from those formations, sixth report on,
87.
United States, Protection in the, and its
lessons, G. Baden-Powell on, 671.
Urine, the alkaline fermentation of, A. S.
Lea on, 644,
Ussher (R. J.) on the caves and kitchen-
midden at Carrigagower, co. Cork, 210.
“Vei Syllabary’ of Liberia, West Africa,
Hyde Clarke on the, 635.
Vine (G. R.) on the carboniferous poly-
zoa, 76.
Vital and other statistics applicable to
musicians, by P. M. Tait, 666.
Vivian (E.) on the exploration of Kent’s
Cavern, 62.
*Volumetric analysis, the so-called ‘ nor-
mal’ solutions of, A. H. Allen on, 549.
apparatus, an improved, exhibition
of, by J. W. Starling, 534.
Vortex motion, an experimental illus-
tration of minimum energy in, Sir W.
Thomson on, 491,
——, maximum and minimum energy in,
Prof. Sir W. Thomson on, 473.
ok
‘Wages, and sources of income, the pre-
sent appropriation of, and how far it is
consonant with the economic progress
of the people of the United Kingdom,
report on, 318.
Wake (C. 8.) on the origin of the Mala-
gasy, 620.
Wallace (Dr. W.) on the best means for
the development of light from coal-
gas, 241.
‘Waters (A. W.) report on the occupation
of a.table at the zoological station at
Naples, 163.
Watson (W. H.) on the action of oils on
metals, 560.
Watts (Dr. M.) on the present state of
our knowledge of spectrum analysis,
258.
*Wave-disturbances in the ether, the
possibility of originating, by electro-
INDEX.
magnetic forces, G. F. Fitzgerald on,
497.
Waves on the surface of water, the effect
of oil in destroying, Prof. O. Reynolds
on, 489.
Weldon (W.) *on some relations between
the atomic volumes of certain elements
and the heats of formation of some of
their compounds, 503.
Westgarth (W.), What is capital? 679.
Wethered (H.) on underground tempera-
ture, 26; on the sandstones and grits
of the lower and middle series of the
Bristol coalfield, 579.
Whitaker (W.) on the ‘Geological Re-
cord,’ 87 ; on the circulation of under-
ground waters, 87; list of works on
the geology, mineralogy, and paleon-
tology of Wales (to the end of 1873),
397.
White light, a standard of, report on an
investigation for the purpose of fixing,
ILS:
Wiesendanger (T.) on improvements in
electro-motors, 501.
Wilkinson (R.) on the German and other
systems of teaching the deaf to speak,
216; on the appointment of H.M. in-
spectors of elementary schools, 219.
Williamson (Dr. A. W.) on the present
state of our knowledge of spectrum
analysis, 258; on patent legislation,
318.
Williamson (Prof. W. C.) on the Tertiary
(Miocene) flora, &e., of the basalt of
the North of Ireland, 107.
*Wind, the laws of the change of speed
and direction of the, Prof. Ragona on,
467.
Wood (H. T.) on patent legislation, 318.
Wrightson (T.) and W. C. Roberts on the
density of fluid bismuth, 543.
Wynne (A. B.) on underground tempera-
ture, 26.
Zoological and paleontological researches
in Mexico, report of the Committee for
conducting, 254.
Zoological reports of the ‘Challenger’
expedition, exhibition of some of the,
by P. L. Sclater, 606.
Zoological station at Naples, report of the
Committee appointed to arrange for
the occupation of a table at the, 161;
report to the Committee by A. W.
Waters, 163.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.
Life Members (since 1845), and all Annual Members who have not
intermitted their Subscription, receive gratis all Reports published after
the date of their Membership. Any other volume they require may be
obtained on application at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle
Street, Piccadilly, London, W., at the following prices, viz.—Reports for
1831 to 1874 (of which more than 15 copies remain), at 2s. 6d. per volume ;
after that date, at two-thirds of the Publication Price. A few sets, from
1831 to 1874 inclusive, may also be obtained at £10 per set.
Associates for the Meeting in 1880 may obtain the Volume for the Year at two-thirds
of the Publication Price.
PROCEEDINGS ortase FIRST anp SECOND MEETINGS, at York
and Oxford, 1831 and 1832, Published at 13s. 6d.
CONTENTS :—Prof. Airy, on the Progress of Astronomy ;—J. W. Lubbock, on the
Tides ;—Prof. Forbes, on the Present State of Meteorology ;—Prof. Powell, on the
Present State of the Science of Radiant Heat ;—Prof. Cumming, on Thermo-Electri-
city ;—Sir D. Brewster, on the Progress of Optics ;—Rev. W. Whewell, on the Present
State of Mineralogy ;—Rev. W. D. Conybeare, on the Recent Progress and Present
State of Geology ;—Dr. Pritchard’s Review of Philological and Physical Researches.
Together with Papers on Mathematics, Optics, Acoustics, Magnetism, Electricity,
Chemistry, Meteorology, Geography, Geology, Zoology, Anatomy, Physiology, Botany,
and the Arts; and an Exposition of the Objects and Plan of the Association, &c.
PROCEEDINGS or tar THIRD MEETING, at Cambridge, 1833,
Published at 12s. (Out of Print.)
CONTENTS :—Proceedings of the Meeting ;—John Taylor, on Mineral Veins ;—Dr.
Lindley, on the Philosophy of Botany ;—Dr. Henry, on the Physiology of the Nervous
System ;—P. Barlow, on the Strength of Materials ;—S. H. Christie, on the Magnetism
of the Earth ;—Reyv. J. Challis, on the Analytical Theory of Hydrostatics and Hy-
drodynamics ;—G. Rennie, on Hydraulics as a Branch of Engineering, Part I.;—Rev.
G. Peacock, on certain Branches of Analysis.
Together with Papers on Mathematics and Physics, Philosophical Instruments and
Mechanical Arts, Natural History, Anatomy, Physiology, and History of Science.
720
PROCEEDINGS or rus FOURTH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 1834,
Published at 15s.
CONTENTS :—H. G. Rogers, on the Geology of North America ;—Dr. 0. Henry, on
the Laws of Contagion ;—Prof. Clark, on Animal Physiology ;—Rev. L. Jenyns, on
Zoology ;—Reyv. J. Challis, on Capillary Attraction ;—Prof. Lloyd, on Physical Optics ;
—G. Rennie, on Hydraulics, Part I1.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the
Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tae FIFTH MEETING, at Dublin, 1835, Pub-
lished at 13s. 6d.
CONTENTS :—Rev. W. Whewell, on the Recent Progress and Present Condition of
the Mathematical Theories of Electricity, Magnetism, and Heat ;—A. Quetelet,
Apercu de l’Etat actuel des Sciences Mathématiques.chez les Belges ;—Capt. E.
Sabine, on the Phenomena of Terrestrial Magnetism.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Sir W. Hamilton’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or THE SIXTH MEETING, at Bristol, 1836, Pub-
lished at 12s.
CONTENTS :—Prof. Daubeny, on the Present State of our Knowledge with respect
to Mineral and Thermal Waters ;—Major E. Sabine, on the Direction and Intensity of
the Terrestrial Magnetic Force in Scotland ;—J. Richardson, on North American Zoo-
logy ;—Rev. J. Challis, on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids;—J. T. Mackay, a
Comparative View of the more remarkable Plants which characterize the neighbour-
hood of Dublin and Edinburgh, and the South-west of Scotland, &c.;—J. T. Mackay,
Comparative Geographical Notices of the more remarkable Plants which characterize
Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of the London Sub-Committee of the Medical Section
on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Second Report of the Dublin Sub-Com-
mittee on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart ;—Report of the Dublin Committee
on the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous System ;—J. W. Lubbock, Account of
the Recent Discussions of Observations of the Tides ;—Rev. B. Powell, on deter-
mining the Refractive Indices for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in
various media;—Dr. Hodgkin, on the Communication between the Arteries and Ab-
sorbents ;—Prof. Phillips, Report of Experiments on Subterranean Temperature ;
—FProf. Hamilton, on the Validity of a Method recently proposed by G. B. Jerrard,
for Transforming and Resolving Equations of Elevated Degrees.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Daubeny’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tas SEVENTH MEETING, at Liverpool, 1837,
Published at 16s. 6d.
CONTENTS :—Major E. Sabine, on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity ob-
served at different points of the Earth’s Surface ;—Rey. W. Taylor, on the various
modes of Printing for the Use of the Blind ;—J. W. Lubbock, on the Discussions of
Observations of the Tides ;—Prof. T. Thompson, on the Difference between the Com-
position of Cast Iron produced by the Cold and Hot Blast ;—Rey. T. R. Robinson, on
the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by the Greenwich Observations ;—
R. W. Fox, Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins, and the Temperature of
Mines ;—Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section of the British
Association, appointed to investigate the Composition of Secretions, and the Organs
producing them ;—Dr. G. O. Rees, Report from the Committee for inquiring into the
Analysis of the Glands, &c., of the Human Body ;—Second Report of the London
Sub-Committee of the British Association Medical Section, on the Motions and
Sounds of the Heart ;—Prof. Johnston, on the Present State of our Knowledge in re-
gard to Dimorphous Bodies ;—Lieut.-Col. Sykes, on the Statistics of the four Collec-
torates of Dukhun, under the British Government ;—E, Hodgkinson, on the relative
721
Strength and other Mechanical Properties of Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold
Blast ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Strength and other Properties of Iron obtained from
the Hot and Cold Blast ;—Sir J. Robinson and J. §. Russell, Report of the Committee
on Waves ;—Note by Major Sabine, being an Appendix to his Report on the Varia-
tions of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different Points of the Earth’s Surface ;
—J, Yates, on the Growth of Plants under Glass, and without any free communica-
tion with the outward Air, on the Plan of Mr. N. J. Ward, of London.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof, Traill’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or trxz EIGHTH MERTING, at Newcastle, 1838,
Published at 15s.
CONTENTS :—Rev. W. Whewell, Account of a Level Line, measured from the
Bristol Channel to the English Channel, by Mr. Bunt ;—Report on the Discussions of
Tides, prepared under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. 8. Harris, Account
of the Progress and State of the Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Major
E. Sabine, on the Magnetic Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines in the British Islands ;
Dr. Lardner, on the Determination of the Mean Numerical Values of Rail-
way Constants ;—R. Mallet, First Report upon Experiments upon the Action of Sea
and River Water upon Cast and Wrought Iron ;—R. Mallet, on the Action of a Heat
of 212° Fahr., when long continued, on Inorganic and Organic Substances.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tae NINTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 1839,
Published at 13s. 6d. (Out of Print.)
CONTENTS :—Rey. B. Powell, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of
Refractive Indices, for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in different media ;
Report on the Application of the Sum assigned for Tide Calculations to Rev. W.
Whewell, in a letter from T., G. Bunt, Esq. ;—H. L. Pattinson, on some Galvanic
Experiments to determine the Existence or Non-Existence of Electrical Currents
among Stratified Rocks, particularly those of the Mountain Limestone formation,
constituting the Lead Measures of Alton Moor ;—Sir D. Brewster, Reports respecting
the Two Series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept in Scotland ;—Report on
the subject of a series of Resolutions adopted by the British Association at their
Meeting in August 1838, at Newcastle ;—R. Owen, Report on British Fossil Reptiles ;
—E. Forbes, Report on the Distribution of the Pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British
Isles ;—W. 8. Harris, Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological
Register at Plymouth Dockyard.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt’s Ad-
dress, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tras TENTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 1840,
Published at 15s. (Out of Print.)
CONTENTS :—Reyv. B. Powell, Report on the Recent Progress of discovery relative
to Radiant Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same subject inserted in
the first volume of the Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science ;—J. D. Forbes, Supplementary Report on Meteorology ;—W. S. Harris, Re-
port on Prof, Whewell’s Anemometer, now in operation at Plymouth ;—Report on
*The Motion and Sounds of the Heart,’ by the London Committee of the British
Association, for 1839-40;—Prof. Schénbein, an Account of Researches in Electro-
Chemistry ;—R. Mallet, Second Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether
fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought
Tron, and Steel ;—R. W. Fox, Report on some’Observations on Subterranean Tempe-
rature ;—A. F. Osler, Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1837,
1838, 1839, and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical
Institution, Birmingham ;—Sir D. Brewster, Report respecting the Two Series of
Hourly Meteorological Observations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, from Nov. Ist,
ean Noy, Ist, 1839 :—W. Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Verte-
0. 3A
722
brata;—C. J. B. Williams, M.D., Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs
and Air-Tubes ;—Rev. J. 8. Henslow, Report of the Committee on the Preservation
of Animal and Vegetable Substances.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison and Major E.
Sabine’s Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,
PROCEEDINGS or tHe ELEVENTH MEETING, at Plymouth,
1841, Published at 13s. 6d.
ContTENTS :—Rev. P. Kelland, on the Present State of our Theoretical and Expe-
rimental Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat ;—G. L. Roupell, M.D., Re-
port on Poisons ;—T. G. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, under the
direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;—D. Ross, Report on the Discussions of Leith
Tide Observations, under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;—W. 8S. Harris,
upon the working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth during the past year ;—
Report of a Committee appointed for the purpose of superintending the scientifie
co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Observations in
Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Committees appointed to provide
Meteorological Instruments for the use of M. Agassiz and Mr. M‘Cord ;—Report of
a Committee appointed to superintend the Reduction of Meteorological Observations ;
—Report of a Committee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Report ofa
Committee for obtaining Instruments and Registers to record Shocks and Earthquakes
in Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of a Committee on the Preservation of Vegetative
Powers in Seeds ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries into the Races of Man ;—Report of the
Committee appointed to report how far the Desiderata in our knowledge of the Con-
dition of the Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by means of Ascents
in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Experiments, and.
to draw up Directions for Observers in such circumstances ;--R. Owen, Report on
British Fossil Reptiles ;—Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Rail-
way Constants ;—Dr. D. Lardner, Second and concluding Report on the Determi-
nation of the Mean Value of Railway Constants;—E. Woods, Report on Railway
Constants ;—Report of a Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for
Steam Engines.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees, .
PROCEEDINGS or tose TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester,
1842, Published at 10s. 6d.
ConTENTS :—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of
the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological
Observations ;—Dr. J. Richardson, Report on the present State of the Ichthyology
of New Zealand ;—W. 8. Harris, Report on the Progress of Meteorological Observa-
tions at Plymouth ;—Second Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments
on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—C. Vignoles, Report of the Committee on
Railway Sections ;—Report of the Committee for the Preservation of Animal and
Vegetable Substances;—Dr. Lyon Playfair, Abstract of Prof. Liebig’s Report on
Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology ;—R. Owen, Report on the
British Fossil Mammalia, Part I. ;—R. Hunt, Researches on the Influence of Light on
the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants;—L. Agassiz, Report on the
Fossil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sandstone ;—W. Fairbairn, Appen-
dixtoa Report on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot
and Cold Blast ;— D. Milne, Report of the Committee for Registering Shocks of Earth-
quakes in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee on the construction of a Constant
Indicator for Steam-Engines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston
of the Self-acting Engine at different periods of the Stroke ;—J. 8. Russell, Report of
a Committee on the Form of Ships ;—Report of a Committee appointed ‘to consider
of the Rules by which the Nomenclature of Zoology may be established on a uniform
and permanent basis ;’—Report of a Committee on the Vital Statistics of Large
Towns in Scotland ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Researches
entrusted to Committees and Individuals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,
723
PROCEEDINGS or raz THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork,
“1843, Published at 12s.
CONTENTS :—Robert Mallet, Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water,
whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at Various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron,
Wrought Iron, and Steel ;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the Co-
operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and
Meteorological Observations ;—Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee
-appointed for the Reduction of Meteorological Observations ;—Report of the Com-
mittee appointed for Experiments on Steam-Engines ;—Report of the Committee ap-
pointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. S. Russell, Report
of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of Forth and the East Coast of
Scotland ;—J. 8. Russell, Notice of a Report of the Committee on the Form of Ships;
—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;—Report of the Com-
mittee on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee for Registering the
Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear
to them desirable ;—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Cap-
tive Balloons ;—Prof. Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report;—Report of the Com-
“mittee for the Translation and Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs;—C. W.
Peach, on the Habits of the Marine Testacea ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Mollusca
-and Radiata of the #igean Sea, and on their distribution, considered as bearing on
Geology ;—L. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of British Fossil Fishes, arranged in the
order of the Geological Formations ;—R. Owen, Report on the British Fossil Mam-
malia, Part I. ;—E. W. Binney, Report on the excavation made at the junction of
the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst ;—W. Thomp-
son, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Invertebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and
Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Rosse’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or raz FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844,
Published at £1.
CONTENTS :—W. B. Carpenter, on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—J. Alder
and A. Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca;—R. Hunt,
Researches on the Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth
of Plants ;—Report of a Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840,
for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on the Meteorology
of Toronto in Canada ;—J. Blackwall, Report on some recent researches into the
Structure, Functions, and Economy of the Avaneidea made in Great Britain ;—EKar?
of Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes ;—Rev. W. V. Harcourt,
Report on a Gas-furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other Applications of
High Heat in the Laboratory ;—Report of the Committee for Registering Earth-
quake Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee for Experiments on Steam-
Engines ;—Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human
Race ;—Fourth Report of a Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on
the Vitality of Seeds ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Consumption of Fuel and the Preven-
tion of Smoke ;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British
Association at Kew;—Sixth Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the
Co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical
and Meteorological Observations ;—Prof. Forchhammer on the influence of Fucoidal
Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and par-
ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;—H. E. Strickland,
Report on the Recent Progress and Present State of Ornithology ;—T, Oldham,
Report of Committee appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Tempera-
ture in Ireland ;—Prof. Owen, Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, with
descriptions of certain Fossils indicative of the former existence in that continent
of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order Pachydermata;—W. 8S. Harris,
Report on the working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers at Plymouth, for the
years 1841, 1842, 1843 ;—W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—L. Agassiz,
Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles de l’Argile de Londres, with translation ;—J. S.
3a2
724
Russell, Report on Waves ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special
Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Dean of Ely’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tus FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge,.
1845, Published at 12s.
ConTENTS :—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Co-opera-
tion of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and
Meteorological Observations ;—Lieut.-Col. Sabine, on some Points in the Meteorology
of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Actions of Medicines ;—Dr. Von
Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843 ;—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof.
Schénbein, on Ozone ;—Prof. Erman, on the Influence of Friction upon Thermo-
Electricity ;—Baron Senftenberg, on the Self-registering Meteorological Instru-
ments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg ;—W. R. Birt, Second Report on
Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Present Extent of Savings”
Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. Playfair, Report on the Gases
evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting of Iron ;—
Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;—
Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Phenomena of Animals
and Vegetables;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—
Appendix, &c.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J, F, W. Herschel’s Address,.
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or raz SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton,.
1846, Published at 15s.
ContTENTS :—G. G. Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;—
Sixth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds;—Dr. Schunck, on the
Colouring Matters of Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;-
—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light
on the Growth of Plants ;—R. L, Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof.
Forchhammer, on Comparative Analytical Researches on Sea Water ;—A, Erman, on.
the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for 1829;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress,
present Amount, and probable future Condition of the Iron Manufacture in Great
Britain ;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—Prof. Owen, Report on
the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;—J. Phillips, on
Anemometry ;—Dr. J. Percy, Report on the Crystalline Flags ;—Addenda to Mr.
Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I. Murchison’s Address, .
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tas SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford,.
1847, Published at 18s.
ConTENts :—Prof, Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at
different degrees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Develop-.
ment of Heat and the coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when
mixed with Water ;—R. Hunt, Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the
Growth of Plants;—R. Mallet, on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof,.
Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia ;—W. Hopkins, Report on the
Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes ;—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report
on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—Rev. W. Whewell and Sir James C. Ross,.
Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of completing
our Knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Report
of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal
Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;—-Dr. R, G. Latham, on the present state and
725
‘recent progress of Ethnographical Philology ;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various
‘methods of Research which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the
relations of that Science to other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on
‘the results of the recent Egyptian researches in reference to Asiatic and African
Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages ;—Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of
the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the Modern Celtic Dialects still
extant ;—Dr. Max Miiller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the Aryan and Aboriginal
Languages of India ;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—Prof. W.
H. Dove, Temperature Tables, with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col. E. Sabine ;
—A. Erman and H, Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con-
‘stants for 1829.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address,
-and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tus EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea,
1848, Published at 9s.
CONTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous
Meteors ;—J. Glynn, on Water-pressure Engines;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and
Water of Towns ;—Eight Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;
—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring
Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use made of the gaseous escape from the
Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works ;—R. Hunt, Report of progress in the
Investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Plants allied to those
of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Temperature Tables
printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—Remarks by Prof. Dove on
his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on
some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them;
with an introductory Notice by Lieut.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress
of the investigation on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J.
Phillips, Notice of further progress in Anemometrical Researches;—Mr. Mallet’s
Letter to the Assistant-General Secretary ;—A. Erman, Second Report on the
4zaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee relative to the expediency of recom-
mending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory
until December 1850.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or raz NINETEENTH MEETING, at Birmingham,
1849, Published at 10s.
CONTENTS :—Rey. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous
Meteors ;—Earl of Rosse, Notice of Nebulz lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ;
—Prof. Daubeny, on the Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants,
especially of those allied to the Fossil Remains found in the Coal Formation ;—Dr.
Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ;—Report of the Committee on the
Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and Animals ;—Ninth Report of
Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;—F. Ronalds,
Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from Aug. 9,
1848 to Sept. 12, 1849 ;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway
‘Bar Corrosion ;—W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations
at Kew.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. T. R. Robinson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
_ PROCEEDINGS or tae TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh,
1850, Published at 15s. (Out of Print.)
CoNTENTS:—R. Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—
Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Dr. T. Williams, on the
Structure and History of the British Annelida ;—T, C. Hunt, Results of Meteoro-
726
logical Observations taken at St. Michael’s from the Ist of January, 1840, to the 31st
of December, 1849;—R. Hunt, on the present State of our Knowledge of the-
Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Tenth Report of Committee on Experi-
ments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen. Briggs, Report on the
Aboriginal Tribes of India ;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the
British Association at Kew ;—E. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution
and Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts
of Spain, Portugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on
the Present State of our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa ;—Registration of
the Periodical Phenomena of Plants and Animals ;—Suggestions to Astronomers for
the Observation of the Total Eclipse of the Sun on July 28, 1851.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tHe TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich,
1851, Published at 16s. 6d.
CONTENTS :—Rey. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
Eleventh Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of
Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the
Air and Water of Towns: Action of Porous Strata, Water, and Organic Matter ;—
Report of the Committee appointed to consider the probable Effects in an Econo-
mical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tropical Forests ;—A..
Henfrey, on the Reproduction and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs in the
Higher Cryptogamous Plants ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com--
pounds ;—Rey. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ;
—Dr. T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida ;—R, Mallet, Second Report on
‘the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry to Col. Sabine, on
the System of Meteorological Observations proposed to be established in the United.
States ;—Col. Sabine, Report on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the
Performance of his three Magnetographs during the Experimental Trial at the
Kew Observatory ;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British
Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850, to July 31, 1851 ;—Ordnance Survey
of Scotland.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Airy’s Address, and Recom--
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or taps TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast,.
1852, Published at 15s.
ConTENTS :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—
Twelfth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;
—Reyv. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr.
Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants ;
—A Manual of Ethnological Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day,
and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Stations under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J.
D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the Conduction of Heat ;—R. Hunt, on
the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges, on the Composition and
Economy of the Flax Plant ;—W. Thompson, on the Freshwater Fishes of Ulster ;—
W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland ;—W. Wills, on the
Meteorology of Birmingham ;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex-Water-Wheel ;—J. B.
Lawes and Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and
the Feeding of Animals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and:
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
727
PROCEEDINGS or tuz TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull,
1853, Published at 10s. 6d.
ConTENTS :—Rey. Prof, Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,
1852-53 ;—James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ;—James Old-
ham, on the Rise, Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull ;—
William Fairbairn, Experimental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomo-
tive Boilers, and the causes which lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional
’ Report on the Theory of Determinants ;—Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the
Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition and Economy of the Flax
Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and
Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;
—Dr. John P. Bell, Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degrada-
tion of the Yorkshire Coast ;—First Report of Committee on the Physical Character
of the Moon’s Surface, as compared with that of the Earth ;—R. Mallet, Provisional
Report on Earthquake Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;- -
William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical Properties of Metals as derived from repeated
Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of strength and the causes of deterioration ;
"Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued).
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr, Hopkins’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tus TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver-
pool, 1854, Published at 18s.
Conrents:—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena
(continued) ;—Major-General Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of
Efficient Life-Boats ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our
Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel Sabine, on some of the results obtained at
the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;—Colonel Portlock, Report of the
Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting Seismometers ;—Dr.
Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants,
Part 2;—Reyv. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853-54 ;
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ;
—W. G. Armstrong, on the Application of Water-Pressure Machinery ;—J,. B. Lawes
and Dr. Gilbert, on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald
Smith, on the Deviations of the Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships ;—Fourteenth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds. -
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tas TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Glasgow,
1855, Published at lds.
ConrENtS:—T. Dobson, Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal-
Mines and Revolving Storms ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radia-
tions on the Vital Powers of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions,
Part 3;—C. Spence Bate, on the British Edriophthalma ;—J. F. Bateman, on the
present state of our knowledge on the Supply of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev.
Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854-55 ;—Report of
Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those properties
of Metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance
to the durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rey. Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical
Objects in Natural History ;—A. Follett Osler, Account of the Self-registering
Anemometer and Rain-Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Provisional Reports.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
728
‘PROCEEDINGS or tur TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Chel-
tenham, 1856, Published at 18s.
CONTENTS :—Report from the Committee appointed to investigate and report
upon the effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which
within the last fifty years have been made in its Banks;—J. Thomson, Interim
Report on progress in Researches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—
Dredging Report, Frith of Clyde, 1856;—Rev. B. Powell, Report on Observations of
Luminous Meteors, 1855-1856 ;-—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. H. E. Roscoe, Photochemical
Researches ;—Rev. James Booth, on the Trigonometry of the Parabola, and the
Geometrical Origin of Logarithms;—R. MacAndrew, Report on the Marine
Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic and neighbouring Seas, and the
physical conditions affecting their development ;—P. P. Carpenter, Report on the
present state of our knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of
North America ;—T. C. Eyton, Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and
Oysters of the British Shores ;—Prof. Phillips, Report on Cleavage, and Foliation in
Rocks, and on the Theoretical Explanations of these Phenomena, Part 1 ;—Dr. T.
Wright, on the Stratigraphical Distribution of the Oolitic Echinodermata ;—W.
Fairbairn, on the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various Temperatures ; —C.
Atherton, on Mercantile Steam Transport Economy ;—J. 8. Bowerbank, on the Vital
Powers of the Spongiadz ;—Report of a Committee upon the Experiments con-
ducted at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon ;—Pro-
visional Report on the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage ;—-On Typical Forms of
Minerals, Plants and Animals for Museums ;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on Pro-
gress in Researches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—R. Mallet, on
Observations with the Seismometer;—A. Cayley, on the Progress of Theoretical
Dynamics ;—Report of a Committee appointed to consider the formation of a
Catalogue of Philosophical Memoirs,
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Daubeny’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tus TWENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at
Dublin, 1857, Published at 15s.
ConTENTS :—A. Cayley, Report on the recent progress of Theoretical Dynamics ;
—Sixteenth and Final Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and
Vitality of Seeds ;—James Oldham, C.E., continuation of Report on Steam Navigation
at Hull;—Report of a Committee on the Defects of the present methods of Measur-
ing and Registering the Tonnage of Shipping, as also of Marine Engine-Power, and
to frame more perfect rules, in order that a correct and uniform principle may be
adopted to estimate the Actual Carrying Capabilities and Working-power of Steam
Ships ;—Robert Were Fox, Report on the Temperature of some Deep Mimes in Corn-
—a at) + 1BH) + 19t) 41
le+ Iyt + let+1
a étant entier négatif, et de quelques cas dans lesquels cette somme est exprimable
par une combinaison de factorielles, la notation a‘|+!désignant le produit des
facteurs a (a+1) (a+2) &e....(a+t -1) ;—G. Dickie, M.D., Report on the Marine
Zoology of Strangford Lough, County Down, and corresponding part of the Irish
Channel ;—Charles Atherton, Suggestions for Statistical Inquiry into the Extent to
which Mercantile Steam Transport Economy is affected by the Constructive Type of
Shipping, as respects the Proportions of Length, Breadth, and Depth ;—J. 8. Bower-
bank, Further Report on the Vitality of the Spongiadez ;—Dr. John P. Hodges, on
Flax ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of
Great Britain ;—Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,
1856-57 ;—C. Vignoles, on the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sustain the
passage of Railway Trains;—Prof. W. A. Miller, on Electro-Chemistry ;—John
Simpson, Results of Thermometrical Observations made at the Plover’s Wintering-
place, Point Barrow, latitude 71° 21’ N., long. 156° 17’ W., in 1852-54 ;—Charles
James Hargreave, on the Algebraic Couple; and on the Equivalents of Indetermi-
nate Expressions ;—Thomas Grubb, Report on the Improvement of Telescope and
Equatorial Mountings ;—Prof. James Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots
wall ;—Dr. G. Plarr, de quelques Transformations de la Somme 3%
729
in the Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester ;—William
Fairbairn, on the Resistance of Tubes to Collapse ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of
the Proceedings of the Belfast Dredging Committee ;—Peter W. Barlow, on the
Mechanical Effect of combining Girders and Suspension Chains, and a Comparison
of the Weight of Metal in Ordinary and Suspension Girders, to produce equal de-
flections with a given load ;—J. Park Harrison, Evidences of Lunar Influence on
Temperature ;—Report on the Animal and Vegetable Products imported into Liver-
pool from the year 1851 to 1855 (inclusive) ;—Andrew Henderson, Report on the Sta-
tistics of Life-boats and Fishing-boats on the Coasts of the United Kingdom.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. H. Lloyd’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,
PROCEEDINGS or rus TWENTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Leeds,
September 1858, Published at 20s.
CONTENTS :—R. Mallet, Fourth Report upon the Facts and Theory of Earthquake
Phenomena ;—Reyv. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1857,
1858 ;—R. H. Meade, on some Points in the Anatomy of the Araneidea or true Spiders,
especially on the internal structure of their Spinning Organs ;—W. Fairbairn, Report
of the Committee on the Patent Laws ;—S. Eddy, on the Lead Mining Districts of
Yorkshire ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Collapse of Glass Globes and Cylinders ;—Dr. E.
Perceval Wright and Prof. J. Reay Greene, Report on the Marine Fauna of the South
and West Coasts of Ireland ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on Experiments on the Measurement
of Water by Triangular Notches in Weir Boards ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of
the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Michael Connel and
William Keddie, Report on Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances imported
from Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow, Greenock,
and Port Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, and 1857 ;—Report of the
Committee on Shipping Statistics ;—Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., Notice of the Instruments
employed in the Magnetic Survey of Ireland, with some of the Results ;—Prof. J. R.
Kinahan, Report of Dublin Dredging Committee, appointed 1857-58 ;—Prof. J. R.
Kinahan, Report on Crustacea of Dublin District ;—Andrew Henderson, on River
Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings, with reference to the necessity for
improving the present means of Shallow-Water Navigation on the Rivers of British
India ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee ;—Appendix
to Mr. Vignoles’ Paper ‘On the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sustain the
passage of Railway Trains;’—Report of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society
and the British Association, for procuring a continuance of the Magnetic and
Meteorological Observatories ;—R. Beckley, Description of a Self-recording Ane-
mometer.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Owen’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or trxp TWENTY-NINTH MEETING, at Aberdeen,
September 1859, Published at 15s.
ConTENTS :—George C. Foster, Preliminary Report on the Recent Progress and
Present State of Organic Chemistry ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Growth of
Plants in the Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Dr. A. Voelcker,
Report on Field Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of
Manures essential to Cultivated Crops;—A. Thomson, of Banchory, Report on
the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools ;—On the Upper Silurians of Lesmahagow,
Lanarkshire ;—Alphonse Gages, Report on the Results obtained by the Mechanico-
‘Chemical Examination of Rocks and Minerals ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to
determine the Efficiency of Continuous and Self-acting Breaks for Railway Trains ;—
Professor J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee for 1858-59 ;—
Rev. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors for 1858-59 ;—
Professor Owen, Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind inhabiting
Nepal, collected, and presented to the British Museum, by Bryan H. Hodgson, Esq.,
late Resident in Nepal, &c., &c. ;—Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwich, and Llewelyn,
Report on the Present State of our Knowledge regarding the Photographic Image ;—
730
G. C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee for 1859 ;—James.
Oldham, Continuation of Report of the Progress of Steam Navigation at Hull ;—
Charles Atherton, Mercantile Steam Transport Economy as affected by the Con-
sumption of Coals;—Warren De La Rue, Report on the present state of Celestial
Photography in England ;—Professor Owen, on the Orders of Fossil and Recent
Reptilia, and their Distribution in Time ;—Balfour Stewart, on some Results of the
Magnetic Survey of Scotland in the years 1857 and 1858, undertaken, at the request
of the British Association, by the late John Welsh, Esq., F.R.S.;—W. Fairbairn, The
Patent Laws: Report of Committee on the Patent Laws;—J. Park Harrison, Lunar
Influence on the Temperature of the Air :—Balfour Stewart, an Account of the Con-
struction of the Self-recording Magnetographs at present in operation at the Kew
Observatory of the British Association ;—Professor H. J. Stephen Smith, Report on
the Theory of Numbers, Part I.;—Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance;:
—Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee of the British Association
appointed at the Meeting at Leeds ;—Prof. William K. Sullivan, ,Preliminary
Report on the Solubility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the
Mutual Action of Salts in Solution.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prince Albert’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. ;
PROCEEDINGS or tos THIRTIETH MEETING, at Oxford, June
and July 1860, Published at 15s.
CONTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,.
1859_60 ;—J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee ;—Rev. J.
Anderson, Report on the Excavations in Dura Den;—Prof. Buckman, Report on
the Experimental Plots in the Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College,
Cirencester ;—Rey. R. Walker, Report of the Committee on Balloon Ascents ;—Prof.
W. Thomson, Report of Committee appointed to prepare a Self-recording Atmo-
spheric Electrometer for Kew, and Portable Apparatus for observing Atmospheric
Electricity ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Effect of Vibratory
Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-iron Girders ;—R. P.
Greg, Catalogue of Meteorites and Fireballs, from A.D. 2 to A.D. 1860;—-Prof. H. J. S..
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part IJ.;—Vice-Admiral Moorsom, on the
Performance of Steam-vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and the Relations of its
Diameter and Pitch to the Form of the Vessel ;—Rey. W. V. Harcourt, Report on the
Effects of long-continued Heat, illustrative of Geological Phenomena ;—Second
Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;—Interim Report on the Gauging
of Water by Triangular Notches ;—List of the British Marine Invertebrate Fauna.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Wrottesley’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tar THIRTY-FIRST MEETING, at Manches-
ter, September 1861, Published at £1.
CoNTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—
Dr. E. Smith, Report on the Action of Prison Diet and Discipline on the Bodily
Functions of Prisoners, Part I. ;—Charles Atherton, on Freight as affected by Differ-
ences in the Dynamic Properties of Steamships;—Warren De La Rue, Report on the
Progress of Celestial Photography since the Aberdeen Meeting ;—B. Stewart, on the
Theory of Exchanges, and its recent extension ;—Drs. E. Schunck, R. Angus Smith,
and H. E. Roscoe, on the Recent Progress and Present Condition of Manufacturing
Chemistry in the South Lancashire District ;—Dr. J. Hunt, on Ethno-Climatology ;
or, the Acclimatization of Man ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on Experiments on the Gauging
of Water by Triangular Notches;—Dr. A. Voelcker, Report on Field Experiments
and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to cultivated:
Crops ;—Prof. H. Hennessy, Provisional Report on the Present State of our Knowledge
respecting the Transmission of Sound-signals during Fogs at Sea ;—Dr. P. L. Sclater:
and F, von Hochstetter, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Birds.
of the Genus Apteryx living in New Zealand ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Results.
of Deep-sea Dredging in Zetland, with a Notice of several Species of Mollusca new
to Science or to the British Isles ;—Prof, J. Phillips, Contributions to a Report on
j
731
the Physical Aspect of the Moon ;—W. R. Birt, Contribution to a Report on the Phy~
sical Aspect of the Moon;—Dr. Collingwood and Mr. Byerley, Preliminary Report
of the Dredging Committee of the Mersey and Dee ;—Third Report of the Committee
on Steamship Performance ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Preliminary Report on the Best Mode of
preventing the Ravages of Zeredo and other Animals in our Ships and Harbours ;—
R. Mallet, Report on the Experiments made at Holyhead to ascertain the Transit-
Velocity of Waves, analogous to Earthquake Waves, through the local Rock Formations ;-
—tT., Dobson, on the Explosions in British Coal-Mines during the year 1859 ;—J. Old-
ham, Continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull ;—Prof. G. Dickie, Brief
Summary of a Report on the Flora of the North of Treland ;—Prof. Owen, on the
Psychical and Physical Characters of the Mincopies, or Natives of the Andaman
Islands, and on the Relations thereby indicated to other Races of Mankind ;—Colonel
Sykes, Report of the Balloon Committee ;—Major-General Sabine, Report on the Re-
petition of the Magnetic Survey of England ;—Interim Report of the Committee for
Dredging on the North and East Coasts of Scotland ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Resist-
ance of Iron Plates to Statical Pressure and the Force of Impact by Projectiles at
High Velocities ;—W. Fairbairn, Continuation of Report to determine the effect of
Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-Iron Girders ;.
—Report of the Committee on the Law of Patents;—Prof. H. J. S. Smith, Report on:
the Theory of Numbers, Part III.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Fairbairn’s Address, and Re=
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or rar THIRTY-SECOND MEETING at Cam-
bridge, October 1862, Published at £1.
ConTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1861~—
62 ;—G. B. Airy, on the Strains in the Interior of Beams ;—Archibald Smith and F._
J. Evans, Report on the three Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee ;—Report
on Tidal Observations on the Humber;—T. Aston, on Rifled Guns and Projectiles.
adapted for Attacking Armour-plate Defences ;—Extracts, relating to the Observa-
tory at Kew, from a Report presented to the Portuguese Government, by Dr. J. A..
de Souza ;—H. T. Mennell, Report on the Dredging of the Northumberland Coast
and Dogger Bank ;—Dr. Cuthbert Collingwood, Report upon the best means of ad~
vancing Science through the agency of the Mercantile Marine ;—Messrs. Williamson, .
Wheatstone, Thomson, Miller, Matthiessen, and Jenkin, Provisional Report on Stan-
dards of Electrical Resistance ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee for investiga~-
ting the Chemical and Mineralogical Composition of the Granites of Donegal ;— Prof.
H. Hennessy, on the Vertical Movements of the Atmosphere considered in connec
‘tion with Storms and Changes of Weather ;— Report of Committee on the application
of Gauss’s General Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism to the Magnetic Variations ;—
Fleeming Jenkin, on Thermo-electric Currents in Circuits of one Metal ;—W. Fair-
bairn, on the Mechanical Properties of Iron Projectiles at High Velocities ;—A. Cay-
ley, Report on the Progress of the Solutionof certain Special Problems of Dynamics ;..
—Prof. G. G. Stokes, Report on Double Refraction ;—Fourth Report of the Committee
on Steamship Performance ;—G. J. Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles.
in 1860 and 1861 ;—J. Ball, on Thermometric Observations in the Alps; J. G.
Jeffreys, Report of the Committee for Dredging on the North and East Coasts of
Scotland ;—Report of the Committee on Technical and Scientific Evidence in Courts
of Law ;—James Glaisher, Account of Eight Balloon Ascents in 1862 ;—Prof. H. J.S..
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part IV.
’ Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. Prof. R. Willis’s Address.
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tae THIRTY-THIRD MEETING, at New-.
castle-upon-Tyne, August and September 1863, Published at £1 5s.
CoNnTENTS :—Report of the Committee on the Application of Gun-cotton to War-.-
like Purposes ;—A. Matthiessen, Report on the Chemical Nature of Alloys ;-—Report
of the Committee on the Chemical and Mineralogical Constitution of the Granites of*
Donegal, and on the Rocks associated withthem ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Com--
mittee appointed for exploring the Coasts of Shetland by means of the Dredge ;—
732
\G. D. Gibb, Report on the Physiological Effects of the Bromide of Ammonium ;—C. K.
Aken, on the Transmutation of Spectral Rays, Part I. ;—Dr. Robinson, Report of the
Committee on Fog Signals ;—Report of the Committee on Standards of Electrical
Resistance ;—E. Smith, Abstract of Report by the Indian Government on the Foods
used by the Free and Jail Populations in India ;—A. Gages, Synthetical Researches
on the Formation of Minerals, &c.;—R. Mallet, Preliminary Report on the Experi-
mental Determination of the Temperatures of Volcanic Foci, and of the Temperature,
State of Saturation, and Velocity of the issuing Gases and Vapours;—Report of the
Committee on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fifth Report of the Committee
on Steamship Performance ;-—G. J. Allman, Report on the Present State of our Know-
ledge of the Reproductive System in the Hydroida;—J. Glaisher, Account of Five Bal-
loon Ascents made in 1863 ;—P. P. Carpenter, Supplementary Report on the Present
State of our Knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North
America ;—Prof. Airy, Report on Steam Boiler Explosions ;—C, W. Siemens, Obser-
vations on the Electrical Resistance and Electrification of some Insulating Materials
ander Pressures up to 300 Atmospheres ;—C. M. Palmer, on the Construction of Iron
Ships and the Progress of Iron Shipbuilding on the Tyne, Wear, and Tees ;—Messrs.
Richardson, Stevenson, and Clapham, on the Chemical Manufactures of the Northern
Districts ;—Messrs. Sopwith and Richardson, on the Local Manufacture of Lead,
Copper, Zinc, Antimony, &c. ;—Messrs. Daglish and Forster, on the Magnesian Lime-
stone of Durham ;—I. L. Bell, on the Manufacture of Iron in connexion with the
Northumberland and Durham Coal-field ;—T. Spencer, on the Manufacture of Steel
in the Northern District ;—Prof. H. J.S. Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers,
Part V.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Armstrong’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tus THIRTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Bath,
September 1864, Published at 18s.
CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee for Observations of Luminous Meteors ;-—
Report of the Committee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights
and Measures ;—T. 8. Cobbold, Report of Experiments respecting the Development
-and Migration of the Entozoa;—B. W. Richardson, Report on the Physiological
Action of Nitrite of Amyl ;—J. Oldham, Report of the Committee on Tidal Observa-
tions ;—G. §. Brady, Report on Deep-sea Dredging on the Coasts of Northumberland
and Durham in 1864 ;—-J. Glaisher, Account of Nine Balloon Ascents made in 1863
and 1864 ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Further Report on Shetland Dredgings;—Report of the
Committee on the Distribution of the Organic Remains of the North Staffordshire
Coal-field ;—Report of the Committee on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—G. J.
Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles in 1862 and 1863;—W. Fairbairn,
Preliminary Investigation of the Mechanical Properties of the proposed Atlantic
Cable.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Charles Lyell’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,
PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Birming-
ham, September 1865, Published at £1 5s.
CONTENTS :—J. G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Channel Isles ;—F,
Buckland, Report on the Cultivation of Oysters by Natural and Artificial Methods ;—
Report of the Committee for exploring Kent’s Cavern ;—Report of the Committee
on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report on the Distribution of the Organic Remains
-of the North Staffordshire Coal-field ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of
the South Coast of Devon and Cornwall ;—Interim Report on the Resistance of
Water to Floating and Immersed Bodies ;—Report on Observations of Luminous
Meteors ;—Report on Dredging on the Coast of Aberdeenshire ;—J. Glaisher, Account
-of Three Balloon Ascents;—Interim Report on the Transmission of Sound under
Water ;—G. J. Symons, on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—W. Fairbairn, on the
Strength of Materials considered in relation to the Construction of Iron Ships ;—
Report of the Gun-Cotton Committee ;—A. F. Osler, on the Horary and Diurnal
‘Variations in the Direction and Motion of the Air at Wrottesley, Liverpool, and
733
Birmingham ;—B, W. Richardson, Second Report on the Physiological Action of
certain of the Amyl Compounds ;—Report on further Researches in the Lingula-
flags of South Wales ;—Report of the Lunar Committee for Mapping the Surface of
the Moon ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Report of the Com-
mittee appointed to communicate with the Russian Government respecting Mag-
netical Observations at Tiflis ;—Appendix to Report on the Distribution of the Verte-
brate Remains from the North Staffordshire Coal-field ;—H. Woodward, First Report
on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Prof. H. J. S. Smith,
Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part VI. ;—Report on the best means of providing
for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the interests of Science ;
—A. G. Findlay, on the Bed of the Ocean ;—Prof. A. W. Williamson, on the Com-
position of Gases evolved by the Bath Spring called King’s Bath.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof, Phillips’s Address, and Re~
commendations of the Association and its Committees,
PROCEEDINGS or raz THIRTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Notting
ham, August 1866, Published at £1 4s.
CONTENTS :—Second Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—A. Matthiessen,
Preliminary Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on Observations
of Luminous Meteors;—W. S. Mitchell, Report on the Alum Bay Leaf-bed ;—
Report on the Resistance of Water to Floating and Immersed Bodies ;—Dr. Norris..
Report on Muscular Irritability ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Physiological
Action of certain compounds of Amy] and Ethyl ;—H. Woodward, Second Report on
the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Second Report on
the ‘Menevian Group,’ and the other Formations at St. David’s, Pembrokeshire ;
—J.G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Hebrides;—Rev. A. M. Norman,
Report on the Coasts of the Hebrides, Part II. ;—J. Alder, Notices of some Inverte-
brata, in connexion with Mr. Jeffreys’s Report;—G. 8S. Brady, Report on the
Ostracoda dredged amongst the Hebrides ;—Report on Dredging in the Moray Firth ;
—Report on the Transmission of Sound-Signals under Water ;—Report of the Lunar
Committee ;—Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the best means of
providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the Interests.
of Science ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Three Balloon Ascents ;—Report on the Extinet
Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;—Report on the Penetration of Iron-clad Ships by
Steel Shot ;—J. A. Wanklyn, Report on Isomerism among the Alcohols ;—Report on
Scientific Evidence in Courts of Law ;—A, L. Adams, Second Report on Maltese
Fossiliferous Caves, «ce.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr, Grove’s Address, and Recom--
mendations of the Association and its Committees,
PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at
Dundee, September 1867, Published at £1 6s.
CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon ;—
Third Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—On the present State of the Manu-~
facture of Iron in Great Britain ;—Third Report on the Structure and Classification
of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl Com-
pounds ;—Preliminary Report on the Exploration of the Plant-Beds of North Green--
land ;—Report of the Steamship Performance Committee ;—On the Meteorology of
Port Louis, in the Island of Mauritius ;—On the Construction and Works of the:
Highland Railway ;—Experimental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of
Steel ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the South Coast of Devon an&
Cornwall ;—Supplement to a Report on the Extinct Didine Birds of the Mascarene
Islands ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fourth Report on Dredging
among the Shetland Isles ;—Preliminary Report on the Crustacea, &c., procured by
the Shetland Dredging Committee in 1867 ;—Report on the Foraminifera obtained:
in the Shetland Seas ;—Second Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the
best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference
to the interests of Science ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the:
Association and its Committees,
734
PROCEEDINGS or raz THIRTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Nor-
wich, August 1868, Published at £1 ds.
ConTENTS:—Report of the Lunar Committee ;—Fourth Report on Kent’s
“Cavern, Devonshire ;—On Puddling Iron ;—Fourth Report on the Structure and
“Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on British Fossil Corals ;—Report on
‘Spectroscopic Investigations of Animal Substances ;—Report of Steamship Perform-
sance Committee ;—Spectrum Analysis of the Heavenly Bodies ;—On Stellar Spectro-
“metry ;—Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl and allied Compounds ;—
Report on the Action of Mercury on the Biliary Secretion ;—Last Report on Dredg-
ing among the Shetland Isles ;—Reports on the Crustacea, &c., and on the Annelida
sand Foraminifera from the Shetland Dredgings ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of
‘Cast Iron, Part I.;—Interim Report on the Safety of Merchant Ships and their
Passengers ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Preliminary Report
“on Mineral Veins containing Organic Remains;—Report on the Desirability of
Explorations between India and China;—Report of Rainfall Committee ;—Re-
port on Synthetical Researches on Organic Acids ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights
sand Measures ;—Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations ;—Report of the
“Committee on Underground Temperature ;—Changes of the Moon’s Surface ;—Re-
port on Polyatomic Cyanides. :
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Hooker’s Address, and Recom-
mendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tas THIRTY-NINTH MEETING, at Exeter,
August 1869, Published at £1 2s.
ConTENTS :—Report on the Plant-beds of North Greenland ;—Report on the
existing knowledge on the Stability, Propulsion, and Sea-going qualities of Ships ;
—Report on Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Preliminary Report on the Determination
-of the Gases existing in Solution in Well-waters;—The Pressure of Taxation on
Real Property ;—On the Chemical Reactions of Light discovered by Prof. Tyndall ;—
‘On Fossils obtained at Kiltorkan Quarry, co. Kilkenny ;—Report of the Lunar Com-
mittee ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on the Marine Fauna
sand Flora of the South Coast of Devon and Cornwall ;—Report on the Practicability
-of establishing a ‘Close Time ’ for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Experi-
‘mental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of Steel;—Second Report on
British Fossil Corals ;—Report. of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared
Sections of Mountain-Limestone Corals for Photographing ;—Report on the Rate of
Increase of Underground Temperature ;—Fifth Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devon-
shire ;—Report on the Connexion between Chemical Constitution and Physiological
Action;—On Emission, Absorption, and Reflection of Obscure Heat ;—Report on
‘Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;
—Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Supplement to Second
Report of the Steamship-Performance Committee ;—Report on Recent Progress in
Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on Mineral Veins in Carboniferous
Limestone and their Organic Contents ;—Notes on the Foraminifera of Mineral
Veins and the Adjacent Strata ;—Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Interim Re-
port on the Laws of the Flow and Action of Water containing Solid Matter in
Suspension ;—Interim Report on Agricultural Machinery ;—Report on the Physio-
logical Action of Methyl and Allied Series ;—On the Influence of Form considered
in Relation to the Strength of Railway-axles and other portions of Machinery sub-
jected to Rapid Alterations of Strain;—On the Penetration of Armour-plates with
Long Shells of Large Capacity fired obliquely ;—Report on Standards of Electrical
Resistance,
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Stokes’s Address, and Re-
‘ommendations of the Association and its Committees.
735
PROCEEDINGS or tut FORTIETH MEETING, at Liverpool, Sep-
tember 1870, Published at 18s.
CONTENTS :—Report on Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Report of the Committee on
the Hematite Iron-ores of Great Britain and Ireland ;—Report on the Sedimentary
Deposits of the River Onny ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Re-
port on the practicability of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the protection of
Indigenous Animals ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Sixth Report
on Kent’s Cavern ;—Third Report on Underground Temperature ;—Second Report of
the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections of Mountain-Limestone
Corals ;—Second Report on the Stability, Propulsion, and Sea-going Qualities of
Ships ;—Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report on the Treatment and Utili-
zation of Sewage ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1869-70 ;—Report
on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions;—Report on Tidal Ob-
servations ;—On a new Steam-power Meter ;—Report on the Action of the Methyl
and Allied Series;—Report of the Rainfall Committee;—Report on the Heat
generated in the Blood in the Process of Arterialization;—Report on the best
means of providing for Uniformity of Weights and Measures.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Huxley’s Address, and Re-
commendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tar FORTY-FIRST MEETING, at Edinburgh,
August 1871, Published at 16s.
CONTENTS :-——Seventh Report on Kent’s Cavern;—Fourth Report on Under-
ground Temperature ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1870-71 ;—
Fifth Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report.
of the Committee appointed for the purpose of urging on Her Majesty’s Government
the expediency of arranging and tabulating the results of the approaching Census
in the three several parts of the United Kingdom in such a manner as to admit of
ready and effective comparison ;—Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose
of Superintending the Publication of Abstracts of Chemical Papers ;—Report of the
Committee for discussing Observations of Lunar Objects suspected of change ;—
Second Provisional Report on the Thermal Conductivity of Metals ;—Report on
the Rainfall of the British Isles;—Third Report on the British Fossil Corals ;—
Report on the Heat generated in the Blood during the Process of Arterialization ;
—Report of the Committee appointed to consider the subject of Physiological
Experimentation ;—Report on the Physiological Action of Organic Chemical Com-
pounds ;—Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections of
Mountain-Limestone Corals ;—Second Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions ;—Re-
port on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Report on promoting the Foun-
‘dation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the World ;—Preliminary Report
on the Thermal Equivalents of the Oxides of Chlorine ;—Report on the practi-
eability of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the protection of Indigenous
Animals ;—Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report on the best means of pro-
viding for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Report on Tidal Observations.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Thomson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tus FORTY-SECOND MEETING, at Brighton,
August 1872, Published at £1 4s.
CONTENTS :—Report on the Gaussian Constants for the Year 1829 ;—Second Sup-
plementary Report on the Extinct Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;—Report of the
Committee for Superintending the Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—
Report of the Committee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of
Weights and Measures ;—Kighth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report on promoting the
Foundation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the World ;—Fourth Report
on the Fauna of South Devon ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee appointed to
Construct and Print Catalogues of Spectral Rays arranged upon a Scale of Wave-
numbers ;—Third Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions ;—Report on Observations of
736
Luminous Meteors, 1871-72 ;—Experiments on the Surface-friction experienced by-
a Plane moving through Water ;—Report of the Committee on the Antagonism be~
tween the Action of Active Substances ;—Fifth Report on Underground Tempera--
ture ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee on Siemens’s Elecirical-Resistance
Pyrometer :—Fourth Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Interim
Report of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships and
Currents ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Report of the Committee
on a Geographical Exploration of the Country of Moab ;—Sur 1élimination des
Fonctions Arbitraires ;—Report on the Discovery of Fossils in certain remote parts.
of the North-western Highlands ;—Report of the Committee on Earthquakes in
Scotland ;—Fourth Report on Carboniferous-Limestone Corals ;—Report of the Com-
mittee to consider the mode in which new Inventions and Claims for Reward in
respect of adopted Inventions are examined and dealt with by the different Depart
ments of Government ;—Report of the Committee for discussing Observations of
Lunar Objects suspected of change ;—Report on the Mollusca of Europe ;—Report of
the Committee for investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties.
of Essential Oils ;—Report on the practicability of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for
the preservation of Indigenous Animals ;—Sixth Report on the Structure and Classi-
fication of Fossil Crustacea ;—Report of the Committee appointed to organize an Ex-
pedition for observing the Solar Eclipse of Dec. 12, 1871 ;—Preliminary Report of
a Committee on Terato-embryological Inquiries ;—Report on Recent Progress in
Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on Tidal Observations ;—On the
Brighton Waterworks ;—On Amsler’s Planimeter.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Carpenter’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,
PROCEEDINGS or tas FORTY-THIRD MEETING, at Bradford,
September 1873, Published at £1 5s.
CoNTENTS :—Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables ;—Observations
on the Application of Machinery to the Cutting of Coal in Mines ;—Conceluding Re-
port on the Maltese Fossil Elephants ;—Report of the Committee for ascertaining
the Existence in different parts of the United Kingdom of any Erratic Blocks or
Boulders ;—Fourth Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Ninth Report on Kent's
Cavern ;—On the Flint and Chert Implements found in Kent’s Cavern ;—Report of
the Committee for Investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties
of Essential Oils ;—Report of Inquiry into the Method of making Gold-assays ;
—Fifth Report on the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical
Units ;—Report of the Committee on the Labyrinthodonts of the Coal-measures ;—
Report of the Committee appointed to construct and print Catalogues of Spectral
Rays ;—Report of the Committee appointed to explore the Settle Caves;—Sixth Report
on Underground Temperature ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Seventh
Report on Researches in Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic
and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on the desirability of establishing a ‘ Close
Time’ for the preservation of Indigenous Animals ;—Report on Luminous Meteors ;.
- -On the Visibility of the Dark Side of Venus ;—Report of the Committee for the
Foundation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the World ;—Second Report of
the Committee for collecting Fossils from North-western Scotland ;—Fifth Report
on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Report of the Committee on Monthly
Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—On the Bradford Waterworks ;—Report on
the possibility of Improving the Methods of Instruction in Elementary Geometry ;
—Interim Report of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of
Ships, &c.;—Report of the Committee for Determinating High Temperatures by
means of the Refrangibility of Light evolved by Fluid or Solid Substances ;—On a
periodicity of Cyclones and Rainfall in connexion with Sun-spot Periodicity ;—Fifth
Report on the Structure of Carboniferous-Limestone Corals ;—Report of the Com-
mittee on preparing and publishing brief forms of Instructions for Travellers,
Ethnologists, &c. ;—Preliminary Note from the Committee on the Influence of Forests.
on the Rainfall ;—Report of the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee ;—Report of
the Committee on Machinery for obtaining a Record of the Roughness of the Sea
and Measurement of Waves near shore ;—Report on Science Lectures and Organi-
‘zation ;—Second Report on Science Lectures and Organization.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. A. W. Williamson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees,
737
PROCEEDINGS or tur FORTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Belfast,
August 1874, Published at £1 5s.
ConrENTS:—Tenth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report for investigating the
Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties of Essential Oils ;—Second Report of
the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee ;—On the Recent Progress and Present
State of Systematic Botany ;—Report of the Committee for investigating the Nature
of Intestinal Secretion ;—Report of the Committee on the Teaching of Physics in
Schools ;—Preliminary Report for investigating Isomeric Cresols and their Deriva-
tives ;—Third Report of the Committee for collecting Fossils from localities in
North-western Scotland ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—On the Bel-
fast Harbour ;—Report of Inquiry into the Method of making Gold-assays ;—Report
of a Committee on Experiments to determine the Thermal Conductivities of certain
Rocks ;—Second Report on the Exploration of the Settle Caves ;—On the Industrial
uses of the Upper Bann River;—Report of the Committee on the Structure and
Classification of the Labyrinthodont ;—Second Report of the Committee for record-
ing the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin of the
Erratic Blocks of England and Wales, &c. ;—Sixth Report on the Treatment and
Utilization of Sewage ;—Report on the Anthropological Notes and Queries for the
use of Travellers ;—On Cyclone and Rainfall Periodicities ;—Fifth Report on Harth-
quakes in Scotland ;—Report of the Committee appointed to prepare and print
Tables of Wave-numbers ;—Report of the Committee for testing the new Pyrometer
of Mr. Siemens ;—Report to the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty on Experi-
ments for the Determination of the Frictional Resistance of Water on a Surface,
&ce. ;—Second Report for the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Elec-
trical Units ;—On Instruments for measuring the Speed of Ships;—Report of the
Committee on the possibility of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the Protection of
Indigenous Animals ;—Report of the Committee to inquire into the economic effects
of Combinations of Labourers and Capitalists ;—Preliminary Report on Dredging on
the Coasts of Durham and North Yorkshire ;—Report on Luminous Meteors ;—Re-
port on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. John Tyndall’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tat FORTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Bristol,
August 1875, Published at £1 5s.
_ ConTEeNntTs:—Eleventh Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Seventh Report on Under-
ground Temperature ;—Report on the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report of a
Committee appointed to inquire into the Methods employed in the Estimation of
Potash and Phosphoric Acid in Commercial Products ;—Report on the present state
of our Knowledge of the Crustacea;—Second Report on the Thermal Conduc-
tivities of certain Rocks ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee for extending the
Observations on the Specific Volumes of Liquids ;—Sixth Report on Earthquakes
in Scotland ;—Seventh Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Re-
port of the Committee for furthering the Palestine Explorations ;—Third Report of
the Committee for recording the position, height above the sea, lithological
characters, size, and origin of the Erratic Blocks of England and Wales, &c. ;—
Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report of the Committee for investigating
Isomeric Cresols and their Derivatives ;—Report of the Committee for investigating
the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian
Formations of England ;—On the Steering of Screw-Steamers ;—Second Report of
the Committee on Combinations of Capital and Labour ;—Report on the Method of
making Gold-assays ;—Eighth Report on Underground Temperature ;—Tides in the
River Mersey ;—Sixth Report of the Committee on the Structure of Carboniferous
Corals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to explore the Settle Caves ;—On the
River Avon (Bristol), its Drainage-Area, &c.;—Report of the Committee on the
possibility of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the Protection of Indigenous
Animals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to superintend the Publication of
the Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—Report on Dredging off the
Coasts of Durham and North Yorkshire in 1874 ;—Report on Luminous Meteors ;—On
the Analytical Forms called Trees ;—Report of the Committee on Mathematical
1880, 3B
738
Tables ;—Report of the Committee on Mathematical Notation and Printing ;—Second
Report of the Committee for investigating Intestinal Secretion ;—Third Report of
the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir John Hawkshaw’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tat FORTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Glasgow,
September 1876, Published at £1 5s.
CONTENTS :—Twelfth Report on Kent’s Cavern;—Report on Improving the
Methods of Instruction in Elementary Geometry ;—Results of a Comparison of the
British-Association Units of Electrical Resistance ;—Third Report on the Thermal
Conductivities of certain Rocks ;—Report of the Committee on the practicability of
adopting a Common Measure of Value in the Assessment of Direct Taxation ;—
Report of the Committee for testing experimentally Ohm’s Law ;—Report of the
Committee on the possibility of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the Protection of
Indigenous Animals ;—Report of the Committee on the Effect of Propellers on the
Steering of Vessels ;—On the Investigation of the Steering Qualities of Ships ;—
Seventh Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report on the present state of our
Knowledge of the Crustacea ;—Second Report of the Committee for investigating
the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian
Formations of England ;—Fourth Report of the Committee on the Erratic Blocks of
England and Wales, &c.;—Fourth Report of the Committee on the Exploration of
the Settle Caves (Victoria Cave) ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors,
1875-76 ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles, 1875-76 ;—Ninth Report on
Underground Temperature ;—Nitrous Oxide in the Gaseous and Liquid States ;—
Eighth Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Improved Investiga-
tions on the Flow of Water through Orifices, with Objections to the modes of treat-
ment commonly adopted ;—Report of the Anthropometric Committee ;—On Cyclone
and Rainfall Periodicities in connexion with the Sun-spot Periodicity ;—Report of
the Committee for determining the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat ;—Report of the
Committee on Tidal Observations ;—Third Report of the Committee on the Condi-
tions of Intestinal Secretion and Movement ;—Report of the Committee for collect-
ing and suggesting subjects for Chemical Research.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. T. Andrews’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tHe FORTY-SEVENTH MERTING, at Ply-
mouth, August 1877, Published at £1 4s.
CONTENTS :—Thirteenth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Second and Third Reports
on the Methods employed in the estimation of Potash and Phosphoric Acid in Com-
mercial Products ;—Report on the present state of our Knowledge of the Crustacea
(Part III.) ;—Third Report on the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New
Red Sandstone and Permian Formations of England ;—Fifth Report on the Erratic
Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—Fourth Report on the Thermal Conducti-
vities of certain Rocks ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1876-77 ;—
Tenth Report on Underground Temperature ;—Report on the Effect of Propellers on
the Steering of Vessels ;—Report on the possibility of establishing a ‘Close Time’
for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;-—Report on some Double Compounds of
Nickel and Cobalt ;—Fifth Report on the Exploration of the Settle Caves (Victoria
Cave) ;—Report on the Datum Level of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain ;—
Report on the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report of the Anthropometric Com-
mittee ;—Report on the Conditions under which Liquid Carbonic Acid exists in
Rocks and Minerals.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Allen Thomson’s Address,
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
739
PROCEEDINGS or tum FORTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Dublin,
August 1878, Published at £1 4s.
ConrTENTS :—Catalogue of the Oscillation-Frequencies of Solar Rays ;—Report
on Mr. Babbage’s Analytical Machine ;—Third Report of the Committee for deter-
mining the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat ;—Report of the Committee for arrang-
ing for the taking of certain Observations in India, and Observations on Atmospheric
Electricity at Madeira ;—Report on the commencement of Secular Experiments upon
the Elasticity of Wires ;—Report on the Chemistry of some of the lesser-known
Alkaloids, especially Veratria and Bebeerine ;—Report on the best means for the
Development of Light from Coal-Gas ;—Fourteenth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—
Report on the Fossils in the North-west Highlands of Scotland ;—Fifth Report on
the Therma! Conductivities of certain Rocks ;—Report on the possibility of estah-
lishing a ‘Close Time’ for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Report on the
occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples;—Report of the Anthro-
pometric Committee ;—Report on Patent Legislation ;—Report on the Use of Steel
for Structural Purposes ;—Report on the Geographical Distribution of the Chiro-
ptera ;—Recent Improvements in the Port of Dublin;—Report on Mathematical
Tables ;—Eleventh Report on Underground Temperature ;—Report on the Explora-
tion of the Fermanagh Caves ;—Sixth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England,
Wales, and Ireland ;—Report on the present state of our Knowledge of the Crus-
tacea (Part IV.) ;—Report on two Caves in the neighbourhood of Tenby ;—Report on
the Stationary Tides in the English Channel and in the North Sea, &c. ;—Second
Report on the Datum-level of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain ;—Report on
Instruments for measuring the Speed of Ships ;—Report of Investigations into a
Common Measure of Value in Direct Taxation ;—Report on Sunspots and Rainfall ;
—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Sixth Report on the Exploration
of the Settle Caves (Victoria Cave) ;—Report on the Kentish Boring Exploration ;—
Fourth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Jurassic, New Red
Sandstone, and Permian Formations, with an Appendix on the Filtration of Water
en Triassic Sandstone ;—Report on the Effect of Propellers on the Steering of
essels.
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Spottiswoode’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
PROCEEDINGS or tar FORTY-NINTH MERTING, at Sheffield,
August 1879, Published at £1 4s.
CONTENTS :—Report on the commencement of Secular Experiments upon the
Elasticity of Wires ;—Fourth Report of the Committee for determining the Mechan-
ical Equivalent of Heat ;—Report of the Committee for endeavouring to procure
reports on the Progress of the Chief Branches of Mathematics and Physics ;—Twelfth
Report on Underground Temperature ;—Report on Mathematical Tables ;—Sixth
Report on the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks ;—Report on Observations
of Atmospheric Electricity at Madeira ;—Report on the Calculation of Tables of the
Fundamental Invariants of Algebraic Forms ;—Report on the Calculation of Sun-
Heat Coefficients ;—Second Report on the Stationary Tides in the English Channel
and in the North Sea, &c. ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report
on the question of Improvements in Astronomical Clocks ;—Report of the Committee
for improving an Instrument for detecting the presence of Fire-damp in Mines ;—
Report on the Chemistry of some of the lesser-known Alkaloids, especially Veratria
and Beeberine ;—Seventh Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ire-
land ;—Fifteenth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report on certain Caves in Borneo ;—
Fifth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Jurassic, Red Sand-
stone, and Permian Formations of England ;—Report on the Tertiary (Miocene)
Flora, &c., of the Basalt of the North of Ireland ;—Report on the possibility of
Establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Report on
the Marine Zoology of Devon and Cornwall ;—Report on the Occupation of a Table
at the Zoological Station at Naples;—Report on Excavations at Portstewart and
elsewhere in the North of Ireland ;—Report of the Anthropometric Committee ;—
Report on the Investigation of the Natural History of Socotra ;—Report on Instru-
740
ments for measuring the Speed of Ships;—Third Report on the Datum-level of the
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain ;—Second Report on Patent Legislation ;—On
Self-acting Intermittent Siphons and the conditions which determine the com-
mencement of their Action ;—On some further Evidence as to the Range of the
Paleozoic Rocks beneath the South-east of England ;—Hydrography, Past and
Present,
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Allman’s Address, and
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR
THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
LIstT
OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS,
CORRECTED TO NOVEMBER 30, 1880.
i “ bs ry a as é ay
Bee MERA 0GGa REE
vial X! “5 :
7 . ae EG . hep
be Oe: TO TAMAR:
,
ees
®
-
ea
4
rod
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1880-81.
PRESIDENT.
ANDREW CROMBIE RAMSAY, Esq., LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.G.S., Director-General of the Geological
Survey of the United Kingdom, and of the Museum of Practical Geology.
VICE-PRESIDENTS,
“The Right Hon. the Ean or Jersey, L. Li. Dittwyn, Esq., M.P., F.L.S., F.G.S.
“The Mayor or SWANSEA, J. Gwyn _ JEFFREYS, Esq., LL.D., F,R.S., F.L.S.,
"The Hon. Sir W. R. Grove, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S, Treas. G.S., F.R.G.S,
HH, Hussey Vivian, Esq., M.P., F.G.S,
PRESIDENT ELECT.
SIR JOHN LUBBOCK, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S,
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT.
His Grace the ARCHBISHOP oF York, D.D., F.R.S. | W. B. CARPENTER, Esq., C.B., M.D., LL.D.,
‘The Hon. Sir W. R. Grove, M.A., D.C.L., F.B.S. F.R.S., F.G.S.
fessor G. G. STOKES, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., | Sir Jonny HawksuHaw, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
Sec, R.S. ALLEN THOMSON, Esq., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & Ex
Professor ALLMAN, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L, & E., F.LS.
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT YORK,
Rey. THoMAS ADAMs, M.A. TEMPEST ANDERSON, Esq., M.D., B.Sc.
LOCAL, TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT YORK.
W. W. WILBERFORCE, Esq.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
ABEL, F. A., Esq., O.B., F.R.S. NEWMARCH, W., Esq., F.R.S.
ADAMS, Professor W. G., F.R.S. NEWTON, Professor A., F.R.S,
BATEMAN, J. F., Esq., C.E., F.R.S, PENGELLY, W., Esq., F.R.S.
CAYLEY, Professor, F.R.S. PERE, W. H., Esq., F.R.S.
Easton, E., Esq., C.E. Pitt-RIvers, Gen. A., F.R.S,
Evans, Captain, C.B., F.R.S. RAYLEIGH, Lord, F.R.S.
Evans, J., Esq., F.R.S. ROLLESTON, Professor G., F.R.S.
Foster, Professor G. C., F.R.S. Roscok, Professor H. E., F.R.S.
GLAISHER, J. W. L., Esq., F.R.S, SANDERSON, Prof. J. S. BURDON, F.R.S.
Heywoop, J., Esq., F.R.S. SmyTH, WARRINGTON W., Esq., F.R.S.
Hueerys, W., Esq., F.R.S. Sorsy, Dr. H. C., F.R.S.
HUGHES, Professor T. McK., M.A. THUILLIER, Gen. Sir H. E. L., C.8.1., F.R.S.
JEFFREYS, J. GwYN, Esq., F.R.S.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
“Capt. Douaias Garon, O.B., D.C.L., F.B.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, Grosvenor Place, London, S.W.
Puivip Luriey ScuaTer, Esq., M.A., Ph.D., E.RS., F.LS., F.G.S., 11 Hanover Square, London, W.
ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
J. H, H. Gorpon, Esq., B.A., 22 Albemarle Street, London, W.
GENERAL TREASURER,
Professor A. W, WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., University College, London, W.C,
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
‘The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and
‘Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years,
the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and Secretaries for the
-ensuing Meeting.
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).
General Sir EDWARD SABINE, K.C.B., R.A., D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir Pompe DE M. Grey EGERTON, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Sir JouN Lupsock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S, F.LS
PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS.
The Duke of Devonshire. Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. | Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S,
“The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. Sir William R, Grove, F.R.S. Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.S.
Sir G. B, Airy, Astronomer Royal, | The Duke of Buccleuch, K.G. Sir John Hawkshaw, C.E., F.R.S,
“General Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B, Sir Joseph D. Hooker, D.C.L. Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.
The Earl of Harrowby,. Prof, Stokes, M.A., D.C.L, Allen Thomson, Esq., F.R.S.
“The Duke of Argyll. Prof. Huxley, LL.D., Sec. R.S. W. Spottiswoode, Esq., Pres. B.S,
‘The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D. Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, D.C.L. | Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S.
Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L. Dr. Carpenter, C.B., F.R.S.
GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS.
B. Galton, Esq., F.R.S, | Gen. Sir E. Sabine, K.C.B., F.R.S. | Dr. Michael Foster, F.R.S.
Dr. T, A. Hirst, F.R.S, W. Spottiswoode, Esq., Pres. R.S, | George Griffith, Esq., M.A,
A2
Aa ok 10:59 se
1 Seaatows's Yo pie mall itt 18 Sie
dtnatiensy rae
jest We ALL ae PY 4 :
an met a AP, ot
as ot 7 an nv 4°
“h 1
ee ia +i w enpid ns. at
Ae roe HM ott TOG yer soit HN aa
ve ice ‘Seam pruncaunde adel! ee i AN
pttatle aif vit aft.) ot arb aniingt A h N | rye
at ake '
tot stalk ALI Boyeiiganraianet wi jad
: we Fs oh AEE ellie eae.) (fh 7" Woy 7a a is iNeed rn
vi ak, Gt ere a eee y ty LK as Oo Faiebn Ls
‘
}
> Ray TA OWITHEM ENT,.0O4 OaRA ayioee 2+
wed LAL Aneto ALAA th xT! * 1 ated h «rivals
As Brie
Fh omer’ tA oer aaM BHT eT rg aN UNE i ae
owl wt a cled et 1 wl NF 4 Ss 7 in
~ hay) )
LAAN ane 4a etna 404 WSR rye
N rt % weld eee
#4, iM 1 a ve aaperatice v he Wat
ti At Soe
OL, 2 sf ny) yan hPa’
i, unt Pe ar aes, FF oeMy te
f i ae) i
CoS hb,
vind plan? ehh 8 1 well 2
; ae . re
REA end wae Saber Hee Lit AALS
al! Atak Ptpops ray vipik Vi
ve RHE maze aa’
Ww ivan deena tts dtd Ket ft ORO at
® fh
uf Aa pe 7)
Owe hut sation ganas PA ah etd aah bane
: Sipndoos anim Se aats: cro renee
Rev vet YY ova > serie? Sav nee Ny mete DOOnt te awed fotan pled Fe q
Lge, WAPOTE fi. Leperetny fir het annaeep res tears? Caratette ts faiy reared cart
Waal aay Ulta ot hire Coat why, UE Deh me eee
A ys’
Ret eo ore tier ee ee ah Swe
Ray ; i ye te ee gt aigk 2 Garay
oe ee 5 (4 vanh) bd Be Pee
re Pasi let thal ge, ve yah - ve | wan
miners anevrt Mas hei ixtiais en. an K,
J ih See Maes se ,
OME ym | AEE
ee icky wh ied ade ts '
Mr AA iter ,
Dighdes
, ease |
pak
+.
FGI r) ive waar: od int z
‘ eee pracy nt -
venient
LIST OF MEMBERS
OF THE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.
1880.
* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report.
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report.
§§ indicates Annual Subscribers who will be entitled to the Report if
their Subscriptions are paid by December 31, 1880.
¢ indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report.
Names without any mark before them are Life Members not entitled
to the Annual Report.
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in
SMALL CAPITALS.
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known
are in italics.
Notice of changes of Residence should be sent to the Assistant Seerctary,
22 Albemarle Street, London, W. :
Year of
1866.
1863.
1856.
1863.
1873.
1860.
1873.
1854.
1877.
1873.
1869,
1877.
1873.
‘Election.
Abbatt, Richard, F.R.A.S, Marlborough House, Burgess Hill,
Sussex.
tAbbott, George J., United States Consul, Sheffield and Nottingham,
*ApeL, FREDERICK Aveustus, C.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Director of the
Chemical Establishment of the War Department. Royal Arsenal,
Woolwich.
tAbercrombie, John, M.D. 13 Suffolk-square, Cheltenham.
*A BERNETHY, JAMES, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. ‘4 Delahay-street, West
minster, 8. W.
tAbernethy, James. Ferry-hill, Aberdeen.
tAbernethy, Robert. Ferry-hill, Aberdeen.
*Apney, Captain W. de W., R.E., F.RS., FRAS., FCS. 3 St.
Alban’s-road, Kensington, London, W.
tAbraham, John. 87 Bold-street, Liverpool.
§Ace, Rev. Daniel, D.D., F.R.A.S. Laughton, near Gainsborough,
Lincolnshire.
tAckroyd, Samuel. Greayes-street, Little Horton, Bradford, York
shire.
tAcland, Charles T. D. Urea Exeter.
*Acland, Francis E. Dyke, R.A. Oxford.
*Acland, Rev. H. D. Loughton, Essex.
AcLAND, Henry W. D., M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.GS.,
Radcliffe Librarian and Regius Professor of Medicine in the
University of Oxford. Broad-street, Oxford. :
6 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1877, *Acland, Theodore Dyke, M.A. 13 Vincent-square, Westminster,
W.
S.W.
1860, tActanD, Sir Toomas Dyxr, Bart., M.A., D.O.L., M.P. Sprydon-
cote, Exeter ; and Athenzeum Club, London, S.W.
Adair, John. 13 Merrion-square North, Dublin.
1872. tApams, A. Lerrn, M.A., M.B., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Natural
History in Queen’s College, Cork. 18 Clarendon-gardens, Maida
Hill, London, W.
1876. Adams, James. 9 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.
*Apams, JoHn Coucn, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of
the Observatory and Lowndsean Professor of Astronomy and
Geometry in the University of Cambridge. The Observatory,.
Cambridge.
1871. {Adams, John R. 3 Queen’s-gate-terrace, London, S.W.
1879. §ApAms, Rev. THomas, M.A, Clifton Green House, York.
1877. {Apams, Wii11AM. 3 Sussex-terrace, Plymouth.
1869, *Apams, Witt1AM Grytts, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.P.S., Professor
of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in King’s College, London.
La 43 Notting Hill-square, London, W.
1873. tAdams-Acton, John. Margutta House, 103 Marylebone-road,
London, N.W.
1879.§§Adamson, Robert, M.A., Professor of Logic and Political Economy
in Owens College, Manchester. 60 Parsonage-road, Withing=
ton, Manchester.
ADDERLEY, The Right Hon. Sir Coartus Bowyer, M.P. Hams-<
hall, Coleshill, Warwickshire.
Adelaide, The Right Rey. Augustus Short, D.D., Bishop of. South,
Australia.
1865. *Adkins, Henry. Northfield, near Birmingham.
1864, *Ainsworth, David. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
1871. *Ainsworth, John Stirling. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
Ainsworth, Peter. Smithills Hall, Bolton.
1842. *Ainsworth, Thomas. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
1871. {Ainsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth.
1859. {Arriig, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.T. Holly Lodge, Campden
Hill, London, W.; and Airlie Castle, Forfarshire.
Airy, Sir GroreE Bropett, K.C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,,
F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal. The Royal Observatory, Green-.
: wich, S.E.
1871. §Aitken, John, F.R.S.E. Darroch, Falkirk, N.B.
: Alkvroyd, Edward. Bankfield, Halifax.
1862. t{Atcocx, Sir Rurwerrorp, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. The Athe=
neeum Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
1861. tAlcock, Thomas, M.D. Side Brook, Salemoor, Manchester.
1872. *Alecock, Thomas, M.D. Oakfield, Sale, Manchester.
*Aldam, William. Frickley Hall, near Doncaster.
ALDERSON, Sir Jamzs, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Consulting Phy=-
sician to St. Mary’s Hospital. 17 Berkeley-square, London, W..
1859. {ALEXANDER, General Sir James Epwarp, K.O.B., K.C.LS.,
; F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Westerton, Bridge of Allan, N.B..
1873. {Alexander, Reginald, M.D. 13 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1858. {ALExanpER, Wittr1AM, M.D. Halifax.
1850. Alexander, Rey. William Lindsay, D.D.,F.R.S.E. Pinkieburn, Mus—
selburgh, by Edinburgh.
1867. {Alison, George L. C. Dundee.
1859. {Allan, Alexander. Scottish Central Railway, Perth.
1871. {Allan, G., C.E. 17 Leadenhall-street, London, E.C.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 7
Year of
Election.
1871.
1879.
1878.
1861.
1852.
1863.
1875.
1873.
1876.
1878.
1850.
1850.
1874.
1876.
1859.
1880.
1875.
1880.
1880.
1880.
1857.
1877.
1859.
1878.
1868.
1870.
1855.
1874.
1851.
1861.
1867.
1879.
§Atten, Atrrep H., F.C.S. 1 Surrey-street, Sheffield.
*Allen, Rev. A. J.C. Peterhouse, Cambridge.
tAllen, John Romilly. 5 Albert-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W.
fAllen, Richard. Didsbury, near Manchester.
*AtLen, Witt1aM J. C., Secretary to the Royal Belfast Academical
Institution. Ulster Bank, Belfast.
tAllhusen, O. Elswick Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*AttmaNn, GeorcE J., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., M.R.LA., Pres.
L.S., Emeritus Professor of Natural History in the University
of Edinburgh. Parkstone, Dorset.
*Arston, Epwarp R., F.L.S., F.Z.S. 14 Maddox-street, Regent-
street, London, W.
tAmbler, John. North Park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tAnderson, Alexander. 1 St. James’s-place, Hillhead, Glasgow.
tAnderson, Beresford. Saint Ville, Killiney.
tAnderson, Charles William. Cleadon, South Shields.
tAnderson, John. 31 St. Bernard’s-crescent, Edinburgh.
tAnderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. Holywood, Belfast.
tAnderson, Matthew. 187 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
tAnpERSON, Patrick. 15 King-street, Dundee.
§Anderson, Richard. New Malden, Surrey.
tAnderson, Captain 8., R.E. Junior United Service Club, Charles-
street, St. James's, London, S.W.
*AnpeErson, TempEst, M.D., B.Sc. 17 Stonegate, York.
§Andrew, Mrs. 126 Jamaica-street, Stepney, London, E.
*Andrew, Thornton, M.I.C.E. Cefn Eithen, Swansea.
*AnpREws, THomas, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Hon. F.R.S.E., M.R.1LA.,
F.C.S. Fortwilliam Park, Belfast.
tAndrews, William. The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
§Angell, John. 81 Ducie-grove, Oxford-street, Manchester.
tAngus, John. Town House, Aberdeen.
tAnson, Frederick H. 9 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
Anthony, John, M.D. 6 Greentield-crescent, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
Apsoun, James, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.R.LA., Professor of
Mineralogy at Dublin University. South Hill, Blackrock, Co.
Dublin.
tAppleby, C.J. Emerson-street, Bankside, Southwark, London, 8.E.
tArcher, Francis, jun. 3 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.
*ArcHER, Professor THomas ©., F.R.S.E., Director of the Museum
u paance and Art, Edinburgh. West Newington House, Edin-
ureh.
tArcher, William, F.R.S., M.R.I.A. St. Brendan’s, Grosvenor-road
East, Rathmines, Dublin.
tAReYLL, His Grace the Duke of, K.T.,D.C.L., F.R.S. L.&E., F.G.S.
Argyll Lodge, Kensington, London, W. ; and Inveraray, Argyle-
shire.
tArmitage, William. 95 Portland-street, Manchester.
*Armitstead, George. Errol Park, Errol, N.B.
*Armstrong, Sir Alexander, K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
The Albany, London, W.
1873.§§ Armstrong, Henry E., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.0.8. London Institution,
1878.
1874.
Finsbury-circus, London, E.C.
tArmstrong, James. 28 Renfield-street, Glasgow.
tArmstrong, Jumes T., F.CS. Plym Villa, Clifton-road, Tuebrook,
Liverpool.
8
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
Armstrong, Thomas. Higher Broughton, Manchester.
1857. *ArMstROoNG, Sir WitLiAM Gezorex, O.B., LL.D., D.O.L., F.R.S.
8 Great George-street, London, 8S. W. 5 and Jesmond Dene,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
1871. tArnot, William, F.C.S. St. Margaret’s, Kirkintilloch, N.B.
1870. tArnott, Thomas Reid. Bramshill, Harlesden Green, London, N.W.
1853.
1870.
1874.
1873.
1842,
1866.
1861.
1875.
1861.
1861.
1872.
1858.
1866.
1865.
1861.
1865.
1863.
1861.
1858.
1842,
1858.
1863.
1860.
1865.
1878.
1877.
1853.
1863.
1877.
1870.
1878.
1865.
1855.
1866.
1866,
*Arthur, Rev. William, M.A. Clapham Common, London, 8. W.
*Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Holsworthy, North Devon.
{Ashe, Isaac, M.B. ~ Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
§Ashton, John. Gorse Bank House, Windsor-road, Oldham.
*Ashton, Thomas, M.D. 8 Royal Wells-terrace, Cheltenham,
Ashton, Thomas. Ford Bank, Didsbury, Manchester.
tAshwell, Henry. Mount-street, New Basford, Nottingham.
*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors.
‘Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton.
tAspland, Alfred. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.
*Aspland, W. Gaskell. Care of Mrs. Houghton, Moorfield, Knuts-
ford.
§Asquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds.
tAston, Theodore. 11 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
§Atchison, Arthur T., M.A. 60 Warwick-road, Earl’s Court, London,
S.W
tAtherton, Charles. Sandover, Isle of Wight.
ft Atherton, J. H., F.C.S: Long-row, Nottingham.
tAtkin, Alfred. ’ Griffin’s Hil), Birmingham.
tAtkin, Eli. Newton Heath, "Manchester.
*Arkinson, Epmunpb, Ph.D., F.C.S. Portesbery Hill, Camberley,
Surrey.
*Athinson, & Clayton. 21 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne,
tAtkinson, Rey. J. A. Longsight Rectory, near Manchester.
*Atkinson, John Hastings. "12 East Parade, Leeds.
*Atkinson, Joseph Beavington. Stratford House, 113 Atitagdonteaie
Kensington, London, W.
Atkinson, William. Claremont, Southport.
*ATTFIELD, Professor J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Bloomsbury-
square, London, W.C.
*Austin-Gourlay, Rey. William E.C., M.A. The Rectory, Stanton
St. John, near Oxford.
*Avery, Thomas. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Aylmer, Sir Gerald George, Bart. Donadea Castle, Kilcock, Co.
Kildare.
*Ayrton, Professor W. E. 68 Sloane-street, London, S.W.
*Ayrton, W.5S., F.S.A. a Saltburn-by-the-Sea.
*BaBINGTON, CHARLES Carparz, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Pro-
fessor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. 5 Brookside,
Cambridge.
Backhouse, Hdmeai Darlington.
Backhouse, Thomas James. Sunderland. :
{Backhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland.
tBadock, W. F. Badminton House, Clifton Park, Bristol.
§Bailey, Dr. F. J. 51 Grove-street, Liverpool,
tBailey, John, 3 Blackhall-place, Dublin.
{Bailey, Samuel, F.G.S. The Peck, Walsall.
tBailey, William. Hor seley Fields Chemical Works, Wolverhampton.
{Baillon, Andrew. St. Mary’s Gate, Nottingham.
tBaillon, L. St. Mary’s Gaie, Nottingham.
Year of
Election.
1878,
1857,
1873.
1865.
1858.
1858.
1866,
1865,
1861.
1865.
1849,
1863.
1875.
1875,
1871,
1871.
1875.
1878,
1866.
1878.
1876.
1869,
1874.
1852.
1879.§
18
LIST OF MEMBERS. 9
{Baily, Walter. 176 Haverstock-hill, London, N.W.
{Barty, Wrrr1am Herrimer, F.L.S., E.G. S., Acting Palzontologist to
the Geological Survey of Ireland, 14 Hume-street ; and Apsley
Lodge, 92 Rathgar-road, Dublin.
§Bain, Sir James. 3 ‘Park-terrace, Glasgow.
tBan, Rev. W. J. Glenlark Villa, Leamington.
*Bainbridge, Robert Walton. Middleton House, Middleton-in-Tees-
dale, by Darlington.
*Baines, Epwarp, J.P. Belgrave Mansions, Grosyenor-gardens,
London, S. W.; ; and St. Ann’s Hill, Burley, Leeds.
{Baines, Frederick. Burley, near Leeds.
{Baines, T. Blackburn. ‘Mercury’ Office, Leeds.
{Baker, Francis B. Serre odie Nottingham.
{Baker, James P. Wolverhampton.
*Baker, John. St. John’s-road, Buxton.
tBaker, Robert L. Barham House, Leamington.
*Baker, William. 63 Gloucester-place, Hyde Park, London, W,
{Baker, William. 6 Taptonville, Sheffield.
*Baker, W. Mills. Moorland House, Stoke Bishop, near Bristol.
{Baxer, W. Procror. Brislington, Bristol.
ve Francis MAITLAND, MM. AS F.R.S. Trinity College, Cam-
ridge,
tBalfour, G. W. Whittinghame, Prestonkirk, Scotland.
{Balfour, Isaac Bayley, D.Sc. 27 Inverleith-1 ow, Edinburgh.
*Batrour, JoHn Hurron, M.A., M.D., UL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.S.
Emeritus Professor of Botany. Tnverleith House, Edinburgh.
*Ball, Charles Bent, M.D. 16 Lower Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.
*Baxt, Joun, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., M.R.LA. 10 Southwell-gardens,
South Kensington, London, S.W.
*Batz, Ropert StaweEtt, M. A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Andrews
Professor of Astronomy in ‘the University of Dublin, and Astro-
nomer Royal for Ireland. The Observatory, Dunsink,’ Co.
Dublin.
§Bati, VaLEenTINE, M.A., F.G.S. Calcutta. (Care of Messrs. 8, H.
King & Co., Pall Mall, London, S.W.)
t Ballantyne, James. Souther oft, Rutherglen, Glasgow.
{Bamber, Henry K., F.C.S. 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-
street, Westminster, S.W.
*Bangay, Frederick Arthur. Cheadle, Cheshire.
tBangor, Viscount. Castleward, Co. Down, Ireland.
§Banham, H. French. Mount View, Glossop-road, Sheffield.
70. {BantstER, Rey. Wittt1am, B.A. St. James’s Mount, Liverpool.
1866.
1861.
1859.
1855.
1871.
1852.
1860.
1876.
1868.
1863.
41860,
{Barber, John. Long-row, Nottingham.
*Barbour, George. Bankhead, Broxton, Chester.
{Barbour, George F. 11 George-square, Edinburgh.
*Barbour, Robert. Bolesworth Castle, Tattenhall, Chester.
{Barclay, ” Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland.
Barclay, Charles, F.S.A. Bury Hill, Dorking.
tBarclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.
*Barclay, J. Gurney. 54 Lombar d-street, London, E.C,
*Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts.
*Barclay, Robert. 21 ‘Park-terrace, Glasgow.
*Barclay, W. L. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C.
*Barford, James Gale, F.C.S. Wellington College, Wokingham,
Berkshire.
*Barker, Rev. Arthur Alcock, B.D. East Bridgford Rectory,
Nottingham.
10 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1879.§§Barker, Elliott. 2 High-street, Sheffield.
1879. *Barker, Rev. Philip C., M.A., LL.B. Rotherham, Yorkshire.
1865. tBarker, Stephen. 30 Frederick-street, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1870. §Barxty, Sir Henry, G.C.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 1 Bina-
gardens, South Kensington, London, $.W.
1873. tBarlow, Crawford, B.A. 2 Old Palace-yard, Westminster, 8.W.
1878, {Barlow, John, M.D. The University, Glasgow.
Barlow, Lieut.-Col. Maurice (14th Regt. of Foot). 5 Great George-
street, Dublin.
1857. {Bartow, Perer WILLIAM, F.R.S., F.G.S. 26 Great George-street,
Westminster, S. W. :
1878. Bartow, W. H., C.E., F.R.S. 2 Old Palace-yard, Westminster,
S.W
1861. *Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Chelten-
ham.
1868.§§Barnes, Richard H. (Care of Messrs. Collyer, 4 Bedford-row, London,
W.C
Barnes, Thomas Addison. Brampton Collieries, near Chesterfield.
*Barnett, Richard, M.R.CS. 3 Heath-terrace, Leamington.
1859. {Barr, Lieut.-General. Apsleytoun, East Grinstead, Sussex.
1861. *Barr, William R., F.G.S8. Fernside, Cheadle Hulme, Cheshire.
1860. {Barrett, T. B. High-street, Welshpool, Montgomery,
1872. *Barrert, W. F., F.R.S.E., M.R.LA., F.C.8S., Professor of Physics-
in the Royal College of Science, Dublin.
1874. {Barrington, R. M. Fassaroe, Bray, Co. Wicklow.
1874. §Barrington-Ward, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M. Inspector
of Schools. Salwarpe End, Droitwich. eg
1866. {Barron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby.
1858. {Barry, Rev. Canon, D.D., D.C.L., Principal of King’s’ College,
London, W.C.
1862. *Barry, Charles. 15 Pembridge-square, Bayswater, London, W.
1875. {Barry, John Wolfe. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, 8. W.
Barstow, Thomas. Garrow Hill, near York.
1858. *Bartholomew, Charles. Castle Hill House, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
1855. {Bartholomew, Hugh. New Gasworks, Glasgow.
1858. *Bartholomew, William Hamond. Ridgeway House, Cumberland-road,,
Headingley, Leeds.
1873. §Bartley, George C. T. St. Margaret’s House, Victoria-street,
London, 8. W.
1868. *Barton, Edward (27th Inniskillens). Clonelly, Ireland.
1857. {Barton, Folloit W. Clonelly, Co. Fermanagh,
1852. {Barton, James. Farndree, Dundalk.
1864. {Bartrum, John 8. 41 Gay-street, Bath.
*Bashforth, Rey. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle.
1876. {Bassano, Alexander. 12 Montagu-place, London, W.
1876. {Bassano, Clement. Jesus College, Cambridge.
1866. *Bassrrr, Hunyry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, London, N.
1866. {Bassett, Richard. Pelham-street, Nottingham.
1869. {Bastard, 8.8. Summerland-place, Exeter.
1871. {Bastran, H. Cuartron, M.D., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of*
Pathological Anatomy at University College. 20 Queen Anne—
street, London, W.
1848. {Bars, C. Spence, F.R.S., F.L.S. 8 Mulgrave-place, Plymouth.
1873. *Bateman, Daniel. Low Moor, near Bradford, Yorkshire.
1868. {Bateman, Frederick, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
Bateman, James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.GS., F.L.S. 9 Hyde Park—
gate South, London, W.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 1k
Year of
Election.
1842.
1864.
1852,
1851.
1869.
1863.
1861.
1867.
1867.
1867.
1868.
1851.
1866.
1875.
1876.
1860.
1872.
1870.
1855.
1861.
1871.
1859.
1864.
1860.
1866.
1870.
1878.
1873.
1874.
1873.
1871.
1859.
1860.
1855.
1880.
*BaTeMAN, JOHN FrepERIC, C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 16 Great
George-street, London, 8. W.
{Barrs, Henry WAtrTeER, Assist.-Sec. R.G.S., F.L.S. 1 Savile-row,
London, W.
{Bateson, Sir Robert, Bart. Belvoir Park, Belfast.
{Barn and WELLS, The Right Rev. Lord Arruur Hervey, Lord
Bishop of. The Palace, Wells, Somerset.
{Batten, John Winterbotham. 35 Palace Gardens-terrace, Kensing-
ton, London, W.
§BavERMAN, H., F.G.S. 41 Acre-lane, Brixton, London, S.W.
{Baxendell, Joseph, F.R.A.S. 108 Stock-street, Manchester,
{tBaxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee.
{Baxter, John B. Oraig Tay House, Dundee.
{Baxter, The Right Hon. William Edward, M.P. Ashcliffe, Dundee..
tBayes, William, M.D. 58 Brook-street, London, W.
Seen, George. 16 London-street, Fenchurch-street, London,.
E.
{Bayley, Thomas. Lenton, Nottingham.
Bayly, John. Seven Trees, Plymouth.
*Bayly, Robert. Torr-grove, near Plymouth.
*Baynes, Robert E., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford.
Bazley, Thomas Sebastian, M.A. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Glou-
cestershire.
*BEALE, Lionzt S., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathological Anatomy
in King’s College. 61 Grosvenor-street, London, W.
Spero Edward, F.C.S. The White House, North Dulwich, Surrey,
S
{Beard, Rey. Charles. 13 South-hill-road, Toxteth Park, Liverpool.
*Beatson, William. Ash Mount, Rotherham.
*Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.M.S., F.S.S. 18 Picca-
dilly, London, W.
*Beaumont, Rey. Thomas George. Chelmondiston Rectory, Ips-
wich.
*Beazley, Major George G., F.R.G.S. 16 Holles-street, Cavendish-.
square, London, W.
*Beck, Joseph, F.R.A.S. 68 Cornhill, London, E.C.
§Becker, Miss Lydia E. Whalley Rance, Manchester.
}Becxtss, Samvet H., F.R.S., F.G.S. 9 Grand-parade, St. Leonard’s-.
on-Sea.
tBeddard, James. Derby-road, Nottingham.
§Brppog, Joun, M.D., F.R.S. Clifton, Bristol.
{Bedson, P. Phillips, D.Sc. Oak Leigh, Marple, near Stockport.
ee Jacob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford, York~
shire.
{Belcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire.
tBell, A. P. Royal Exchange, Manchester.
§Bell, Charles B. 6 Spring-bank, Hull.
Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex.
tBell, George. Windsor-buildings, Dumbarton.
{Bell, Rev. George Charles, M.A. Marlborough College, Wilts.
{Bell, Capt. Henry. Chalfont Lodge, Cheltenham.
§Bell, Henry Oswin. 13 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth,
1879.§§Bell, Henry 8. Kenwood Bank, Sharrow, Sheffield,
1862. *Betx, Isaac Lowruran, F.R.S., F.0.S., M.I.C.E, Rounton Grange,,
Northallerton. ;
1875.§§ Bell, Ba F.C.8. The Laboratory, Somerset House, London,
12
1876.
1863.
1867.
1875.
1842.
1864,
1870.
1836.
1870.
1870.
1852.
1848.
1870.
1863.
1848,
1842,
1863.
1875.
1876,
1868.
1863.
1848,
1870.
1862,
1865.
1858.
1876,
1880.
1859.
1874.
1863.
1870.
1868.
1864,
1877.
1842,
1873.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
f
lection.
1871. *Bell, J. Carter, F.C.\S. Kersal Clough, Higher Broughton, Man-
chester.
1853. {Bell, John Pearson, M.D. Waverley House, Hull.
1864, {Bell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada.
§Bell, R. Bruce. 2 Clifton-place, Glasgow.
*Bell, Thomas. Crosby Court, Northallerton.
{Bell, Thomas. Belmont, Dundee.
tBell, William. Witford House, Briton Ferry, Glamorganshire.
Bellhouse, Edward Taylor. Eagle Foundry, Manchester.
‘Bellingham, Sir Alan. Castle Bellingham, Ireland.
*“Bendyshe, T. 3 Sea-View-terrace, Margate.
{Benyert, ALFRED W., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. | 6 Park Village East,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
§Bennett, Henry. Bedminster, Bristol.
*Bennett, William. 109 Shaw-street, Liverpool.
*Bennett, William, jun. Oak Hill Park, Old Swan, near Liver-
ool,
Bowne, Francis, F.S:A. 5 Tavistock-square, London, W.C.
Benson, Robert, jun. Fuirfield, Manchester.
tBenson, Starling, F.G.S. Gloucester-place, Swansea,
tBenson, W. Alresford, Hants.
tBenson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{BentHam, Grorer, F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. 25 Wilton-place,
Knightsbridge, London, 8. W.
Bentley, John. 2 Portland-place, London, W.
§BentLey, Ropert, F.L.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College,
London. 1 Trebovir-road, South Kensington, London, 8, W.
}Beor, Henry R. Scientific Club, Savile-row, London, W.
tBergius, Walter C. 9 Loudon-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
{BERKELEY, Rey. M. J., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Sibbertoft, Market
Harborough.
{Berkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham.
;Berrington, Arthur V. D. Woodlands Castle, near Swansea.
{Berwick, George, M.D. 36 Fawcett-street, Sunderland.
tBesant, William Henry, M.A., F.R.S. St. John’s College, Cam-
bridge.
*BussEMER, Sir Heyry, F.R.S. Denmark Hill, London, 8.E.
{Best, William. Leydon-terrace, Leeds.
Bethune, Admiral, C.B., F.R.G.S. Balfour, Fifeshire.
*Bettany, G. T., M.A., B.Se., Lecturer on Botany at Guy’s Hospital,
London, 8.E.
*Bevan, Rey. James Oliver, M.A. 72 Beaufort-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
tBeveridge, Robert, M.B. 36 King-street, Aberdeen.
*Bevington, James B. Merle Wood, Sevenoaks,
{Bewick, Thomas John, F.G.8. Haydon Bridge, Northumberland.
*Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A. Shireshead Vicarage, Garstang.
tBickerton, A.W., F.C.S. Christchurch, Canterbury, New Zealand.
{Bigger, Benjamin. Gateshead, Durham.
{Biges, Robert. 16 Green Park, Bath.
Bilton, Rev. William, M.A.,F.G.S8. United University Club, Suffolk-
street, London, S.W.
tBinder, W. J., B.A. Barnsley.
Brynzy, Epwarp WittiaM, F.R.S., F.G.S. Cheetham Hill, Man-
chester. :
}Binns, J. Arthur. Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1879.§§Binns, E. Knowles. 216 Heavygate-road, Sheffield.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 18
Year of
Election.
Birchall, Edwin, F.L.S. Douglas, Isle of Man.
Birchall, Henry. College House, Bradford.
1880. §Bird, Henry, F'.C.S. South Down, near Devonport,
1866, *Birkin, Richard. Aspley Hall, near Nottingham.
*Birks, Rev. Thomas Rawson, M.A., Professor of Moral Philosophy in
the University of Cambridge. 6 Salisbury-villas, Cambridge.
1841, *Brar, Wintram Rancrirr, F.R.A.S. 3 Shrewsbury-villas, Water-
lane, Stratford, E.
1871. *Biscuor, Gustav. 4 Hart-street, Bloomsbury, London, W.C.
1868. {Bishop, John. Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich.
1866. {Bishop, Thomas. Bramcote, Nottingham.
1877. {Biacurorp, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. Cornwood, Ivy~
bridge.
1869. {Blackall, Thomas. 13 Southernhay, Exeter.
1834, Blackburn, Bewicke. 14 Victoria-road, Kensington, London, W.
1876, {Blackburn, Hugh, M.A. Roshven, Fort William, N.B.
Blackburne, Rev. John, M.A. Yarmouth, Isle of Wight.
Blackburne, Rey. John, jun., M.A. Rectory, Horton, near Chip-
enham.
1877, tBlackie, J. Alexander. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow.
1859, {Blackie, John Stewart, M.A., Professor of Greek in the University
of Edinburgh.
1876. {Blackie, Robert. 7 Great Western-terrace, Glasgow.
1855, *Brackxiz, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow,
1870, {Blackmore, W. Founder’s-court, Lothbury, London, E.C.
*BLACKWALL, Rey. Jonn, F.L.S. Hendre House, near Llanrwst,
Denbighshire.
1878.§§Blair, Matthew. Oakshaw, Paisley.
1863. {Blake, C. Carter, D.Sc. Westminster Hospital School of Medi~
cine, Broad Sanctuary, Westminster, S.W.
1849, *Braxrn, Henry Wottaston, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 8 Devonshire-
place, Portland-place, London, W.
1846. *Blake, William. Bridge House, South Petherton, Somerset.
1878.§§Blakeney, Rey. Canon, M.A., D.D. The Vicarage, Sheffield.
1861. §Blakiston, Matthew, F.R.G.S. 18 Wilton-crescent, London, S.W.
1869. {Blanford, W. T., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Geological Survey of
India, Calcutta.
*BLOMEFIELD, Rey. Lronarp, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 19 Belmont,
Bath.
1878. tBlood, T. Lloyd.
1880. §Bloxam, G. W., M.A., F.L.S. 44 Dacre-park, Lee, Kent.
1870. {Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby, Lan-
cashire.
1859. {Blunt, Sir Charles, Bart. Heathfield Park, Sussex.
1859. {Blunt, Capt. Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey.
- Blyth, B. Hall. 135 George-street, Edinburgh.
1858. *Blythe, William. Holland Bank, Church, near Accrington.
1867. {Blyth-Martin, W. Y. Blyth House, Newport, Fife.
1870. {Boardman, Edward. Queen-street, Norwich.
1866. §Bogg, Thomas Wemyss. 2 East Ascent, St. Leonard’s.
1859, *Bonn, Hunry G., F.LS., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. North End
House, Twickenham.
1871. {Bohn, Mrs. North End House, Twickenham.
1859. {Bolster, Rev. Prebendary John A. Cork.
1876, {Bolton, J.C. Carbrook, Stirling.
Bolton, R. L. Laurel Mount, Aigburth-road, Liverpool.
1866, {Bond, Banks, Low Pavement, Nottingham,
44
LIST OF MEMBERS,
_ Year of
lection.
1871.
1866,
1861,
1861.
1876.
1880,
1861.
1849,
1876.
1863.
1876.
1867.
1872.
1868,
1871.
1876.
1870.
1868.
1866,
1872.
1870.
1867.
1856.
1880.
1863.
1869.
1863.
1871.
1865.
1872.
1869.
1870.
1880.
1861.
1842,
1857.
1863.
Bond, Henry John Hayes, M.D. Cambridge.
§Bonney, Rev. Thomas George, M.A., F.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S., Pro-
fessor of Geology in University College, London. St. John’s
College, Cambridge. i
tBooker, W. H. Cromwell-terrace, Nottingham.
§Booth, James. Elmfield, Rochdale.
*Booth, William. Hollybank, Cornbrook, Manchester.
tBooth, William H. Trinity College, Oxford.
§Boothroyd, Samuel. Warley House, Southport.
*Borchardt, Louis, M.D. Barton Arcade, Manchester.
Bora William W., F.R.A.S. The Mount, Haverhill, New-
market.
*Borland, William. 260 West George-street, Glasgow.
{Borries, Theodore. Lovaine-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
ecae ste a H.M., M.A., F.C.S., F.R.S.A. St. John’s College,
Oxfor
*Bossey, Francis, M.D. Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey.
§Botly, William, F.S.A. Salisbury House, Hamlet-road, Upper
Norwood, London, 8.E.
{Bottle, Alexander. Dover.
tBottle, J. T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth.
*BorroMLEY, JAMES THOMSON, M.A., F.RS.E., F.C.S. 2 Hijow
terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
Bottomley, William. 14 Brunswick-gardens, Kensington, London;
WwW
tBottomley, William, jun. 14 Brunswick-gardens, Kensington,
London, W
TBoult, Swinton. 1 Dale-street, Liverpool.
tTBoulton, W. 8. Norwich.
§ Bourne, STEPHEN, F.S.8. Abberley, Wallington, Surrey. —
TBovill, William Edward. 29 James-street, Buckingham-gate,
London, 8. W.
tBower, Anthony. Bowersdale, Seaforth, Liverpool.
tBower, Dr. John. Perth.
*Bowlby, Miss F. E. 23 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham.
§Bowly, Christopher. Cirencester.
tBowman, R. Benson. Neweastle-on-Tyne.
Bowman, William, F.R.S., F.R.C.S. 5 Clifford-street, London,
WwW
tBowring, Charles T. Elmsleigh, Prince’s-park, Liverpool.
§Boyd, Edward Fenwick. Moor House, near Durham.
{Boyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
tBortz, Rev. G. D. Soho House, Handsworth, Birmingham.
*BraBrook, KE. W., F.S.A., Dir. A.D. 28 Abingdon-street, West-
minster, S.W.
*Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Cathcart House, Cathcart-road,
London, 8.W.
{Brace, Edmund. 3 Spring-gardens, Kelvinside, Glasgow.
Bracebridge, Charles Holt, F.R.G.S. The Hall, Atherstone, War-
wickshire.
§Bradford, H. Stretton House, Walters-road, Swansea.
*Bradshaw, William. Slade House, Green-walk, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Brapy, Sir Anronzo, J.P., F.G.S. Maryland Point, Stratford,
Essex, E.
*Brady, Cheyne, M.R.IL.A. Trinity Vicarage, West Bromwich.
Brady, Daniel F, M.D. 5 Gardiner’s-row, Dublin.
{Brapy, GEORGE ie M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Natural History in
LIST OF MEMBERS, 15
Year of
Election.
the College of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 22 Faw-
cett-street, Sunderland.
1862.
1880.
‘1875.
1864.
1870.
1864.
§Brapy, Henry Bowman, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. Hillfield, Gates-
head
*Brady, Rey. Nicholas, M.A. Wennington, Essex.
{Bragge, William, F.S.A., F.G.S. Shirle Hill, Birmingham.
§Braham, Philip, F.0.S. 6 George-street, Bath.
{Braidwood, Dr. Delemere-terrace, Birkenhead.
§Braikenridge, Rev. George Weare, M.A., F.L.S. Clevedon, Somerset.
1879.§§Bramley, Herbert. Claremont-crescent, Sheffield.
1865.
1872.
1867.
1861.
1852.
1857.
1869.
1873.
1868.
1877.
1860.
1866.
1875.§
1867.
1870.
1870.
1879,
1870.
1866.
1866.
1863.
1870.
1868.
1879.
1879.
1878.
1859.
1834.
1865.
1253.
1878.
1880.
1855.
1864.
1855.
1878.
1863.
§BRAMWELL, Freperick J.. M.1C.E., F.R.S. 37 Great George-
street, London, 8. W.
{Bramwell, Wiliam J. 17 Prince Albert-street, Brighton,
tBrand, William. Milnefield, Dundee.
*Brandreth, Rev. Henry. Dickleburgh Rectory, Scole, Norfolk.
{Brazrer, James §., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in Marischal Col-
lege and University of Aberdeen.
{Brazill, Thomas. 12 Holles-street, Dublin.
*BREADALBANE, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Taymouth Castle,
N.B.; and Carlton Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
{Breffit, Edgar. Castleford, near Normanton.
TBremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C.
{Brent, Francis. 19 Clarendon-place, Plymouth.
{Brett,G. Salford.
{Brettell, Thomas (Mine Agent). Dudley.
§Briant, T. Hampton Wick, Kingston-on-Thames.
TBrmeman, WILLIAM KENcELEY. 69 St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
*Bridson, Joseph R.- Belle Isle, Windermere.
{Brierley, Joseph, C.E. New Market-street, Blackburn.
§Brierley, Morgan. Denshaw House, Saddleworth.
*Briee, JoHn. Broomfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.
*Briggs, Arthur. Orage Royd, Rawdon, near Leeds.
{Briggs, Joseph. Barrow-in-Furness.
*Bricut, Sir Cuartes Tusron, C.E., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S.
20 Bolton-gardens, London, S.W.
tBright, H. A., M.A., F.R.G.S. Ashfield, Knotty Ash.
Brieut, The Right Hon. Jonn, M.P. Rochdale, Lancashire.
tBrine, Commander Lindesay. Army and Navy Club, Pall Mall,
London, S.W.
§Brittain, Frederick. Taptonville-crescent, Sheffield.
*Britrain, W. H. Storth Oaks, Ranmoor, Sheffield.
{Britten, James, F.L.S. Department of Botany, British Museum,
London, W.C.
*BropHuRsI!, BERNARD Epward, F.R.C.S., F.L.S. 20 Grosvenor-
street, Grosvenor-square, London, W.
{Broprig, Rey. Jamzs, F.G.S. Monimail, Fifeshire.
{Bropre, Rey. Perer Brerrencer, M.A., F.G.S. Rowington Vicar-
age, near Warwick.
{Bromby, J. H., M.A. The Charter House, Hull.
*Brook, George, F.L.S. Fernbrook, Huddersfield, Yorkshire,
§Brook, G. B. Brynsyfi, Swansea,
{Brooke, Edward. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire,
“Brooke, Rev. J. Ingham. Thornhill Rectory, Dewsbury.
{Brooke, Peter William. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire.
{Brooke, Sir Victor, Bart., F.L.S. Colebrook, Brookeborough, Co.
Fermanagh.
tBrooks, John Crosse. Wallsend, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
16 LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1846. *Brooks, Thomas. Cranshaw Hall, Rawtenstall, Manchester.
Brooks, William, Ordfall Hill, East Retford, Nottinghamshire.
1874. t{Broom, William. 20 Woodlands-terrace, Glasgow.
1847. tBroome, C. Edward, F.L.S. Elmhurst, Batheaston, near Bath.
1863. *Brown, ALEXANDER Crum, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.C.S., Professor
of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 8 Belgrave-
crescent, Edinburgh.
1867. {Brown, Charles Gage, M.D. 88 Sloane-street, London, S.W.
1855. {Brown, Colin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow.
1871.§§Brown, David. 93 Abbey-hill, Edinburgh.
1863. *Brown, Rey. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle.
1870. §Brown, Horace T. The Bank, Burton-on-Trent.
Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire.
1870. *Brown, J. Campsett, D.Sc., F.0.S. Royal Infirmary School of
Medicine, Liverpool.
1876. {Brown, John. Edenderry House, Belfast. :
1859. t{Brown, Rev. John Crombie, LL.D., F.L.S. Berwick-on-Tweed.
1874. {Brown, John S, Edenderry, Shaw’s Bridge, Belfast.
1863. {Brown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1871. {Brown, Rosert, M.A., Ph.D., F.LS., F.R.G.S, 26 Guildford-
road, Albert-square, London, 8.W.
1868, {Brown, Samuel. Grafton House, Swindon, Wilts.
*Brown, Thomas. Evesham Lawn, Pittville, Cheltenham.
*Brown, William. 11 Maiden-terrace, Dartmouth Park, London, N.
1855. {Brown, William. 33 Berkeley-terrace, Glasgow.
1850. {Brown, William, F.R.S.E. 25 Dublin-street, Edinburgh.
1865, {Brown, William. 414 New-street, Birmingham.
1879.§§Browne, J. Crichton, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E. 7 Cumberland-terrace,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
1866. *Browne, Rev. J. H. Lowdham Vicarage, Nottingham.
1862. *Browne, Robert Clayton, jun., B.A. Browne's Hill, Carlow, Ive-
land.
1872. LTS R. Mackley, F.G.S. Northside, St. John’s, Sevenoaks,
ent, -
1875. t{Browne, Walter R. Bridgwater.
1865. *Browne, William, M.D. The Friary, Lichfield.
1865. {Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 111 Minories, London, E.
1855. {Brownlee, James, jun. 30 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.
1863. *Brunel, H. M. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
1863. {Brunel, J. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
1875. *Brunlees, James, C.K., F.G.S. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster,
S.W.
1875. tBrunlees, John. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
1868. {Brunton, T. Lauper, M.D., F.R.S. 50 Welbeck-street, London,
WwW
1878. §Brutton, Joseph. Yeovil.
1877. {Bryant, George. 82 Claverton-street, Pimlico, London, 8S. W.
1875. {Bryant, G. Squier. 15 White Ladies’-road, Clifton, Bristol.
1875. {Bryant, Miss 8. A. The Castle, Denbigh.
1861. {Bryce, James. York-place, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
Bryce, Rey. R. J., LL.D., Principal of Belfast Academy. Belfast.
1859, {Bryson, William Gillespie. Cullen, Aberdeen.
1867, {BuccLEvcH AND QuEENSBERRY, His Grace the Duke of, K.G.,D.C.L.,
FE.RS. L. & E., F.L.S. Whitehall-gardens, London, S.W. ; and
Dalkeith House, Edinburgh.
1871. §BucHan, ALEXANDER, M.A., F.R.S.E., Sec. Scottish Meteorological
Society, 72 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
LIST OF MEMBERS. pad
Year of
Election.
1867. tBuchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee.
Bucwanan, ANDREW, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of Medicine
in the University of Giasgow. 4 Ethol-place, Glasgow.
Buchanan, Archibald. Catrine, Ayrshire.
Buchanan, D. C. Poulton-cum-Seacombe, Cheshire.
1871. {Buchanan, John Young. 10 Moray-place, Edinburgh.
1864, §Buckir, Rev. Grorar, M.A. The Rectory, Weston-super-
Mare.
1865. *Buckley, Henry. 27 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1848. *Bucxman, Professor James, F.L.S., F.G.S. Bradford Abbas, Sher-
borne, Dorsetshire.
1880. §Buckney, Thomas, F.R.A.S. Little Thurlow, Suffolk.
1869. {Bucknill, J.C., M. D., F.R.S. 39 Wimpole-street, London, W.
1851. *Buckron, GuorGE Bowbter, FE.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.S. Weycombe,
Haslemere, Surrey.
1848. *Bupp, James Parmer. Ystalyfera Iron Works, Swansea.
1875. §Budgett, Samuel. Cotham House, Bristol.
1871. {Bulloch, Matthew. 11 Park-circus, Glasgow.
1845. *Bunzury, Sir Coarrtes James Fox, Bart., E.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S. Barton Hall, Bury St. Edmunds.
1865. {Bunce, John Mackray. ‘ Journal’ Office, New-street, Birming-
ham
1863. §Bunning, T. Wood. Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers,
Neweastle-on-Tyne.
1842. *Burd, John. 5 Gower-street, London, W.C.
1875. {Burder, John, M.D. 7 South-parade, ’Bristol.
1869. {Burdett-Coutts, Baroness. Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W.
1874. {Burdon, Henry, M.D. Clandeboye, Belfast.
1876. {Burnet, John. 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
1859. {Burnett, Newell. Belmont-street, Aberdeen.
-1877. {Burns, David, C.E. Alston, Carlisle.
1860. {Burrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford.
1877. {Burt, J. Kendall. Kendal.
1874. {Burt, Rev. J.T. Broadmoor, Berks.
1866. *Burtoy, FREDERICK M., F.G. 8. Highfield, Gainsborough.
1879.§§Bury, Percy B. Cambridge.
1864. {Bush, W. 7 Circus, Bath.
Bushell, Christopher. Royal Assurance-buildings, Liverpool.
1855. *Busx, GEORGE, FE.R.S., F.LS8., F.G.8. 382 Harley-street, Caven-
dish-square, London, W.
1878. {Burcusr, J. G., M.A. 22 Coilingham-place, London, 8. W.
1872. {Buxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk.
1870. {Buxton, David, Ph.D. 1 Nottincham-place, London, W
1868. {Buxton, 8. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich.
1872. {Buxton, Sir T. Fowell, Bart. Warlies, Waltham Abbey, Essex.
1854. {Byertry, Isaac, F.L. 8. Seacombe, Liverpool.
Byng, William Bateman. 2 Bank-street, Ipswich.
1852. {By rne, Very Rev. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh.
1875. §Byrom, W. Ascroft, F.G.S. 31 King-street, Wigan,
1858.§§Cail, John. Stokesley, Yorkshire.
1863. {Cail, Richard. Beaconsfield, Gateshead.
1858. *Cuine, Rev. William, M.A. Christ Church Rectory, Denton, near
Manchester.
1863. {Caird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire.
1876. {Caird, Edward B. 8 Scotland-street, Glasgow.
1861. *Caird, James Key. 8 Magdalene-road, Dundee.
18
Year of
Election.
1855.
1875.
1877.
1868.
1868.
1857.
1855.
1876.
1857.
1870.
1857.
1874.
1876,
1872.
1859.
1871.
1876.
1862.
1868.
1880.
1873.
1877.
1876.
1861.
1867.
1867.
1876.
1871.
1871.
1854.
1845.
1872.
1842.
1867.
1861.
1857,
LIST OF MEMBERS.
*Caird, James Tennant. LBelleaire, Greenock.
{Caldicott, Rev. J. W., D.D. The Grammar School, Bristol.
{Caldwell, Miss. 2 Victoria-terrace, Portobello, Edinburgh.
Caley, A. J. Norwich.
Caley, W. Norwich.
tCallan, Rev. N. J., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth
College.
tCalver, Captain E. K., R.N., F.R.S. The Grange, Redhill, Surrey.
{Cameron, Charles, M.D., LL.D., M.P. 1 Huntly-gardens, Glasgow.
{Cameron, CHartes A., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin.
{Cameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
*Camphell, Dugald, F.C.S. 7 Quality-court, Chancery-lane, London,
W.C
*CAMPBELL, Sir Grore®, K.C.8.1, M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. 13 Corn-
wall-gardens, South Kensington, London, S8.W.; and Eden-
wood, Cupar, Fife.
Campbell, Sir Hugh P. H., Bart. 10 Hill-street, Berkeley-square,
London, W.; and Marchmont House, near Dunse, Berwick-
shire. ;
{Campbell, James A. 3 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place, Edinburgh.
{CampseLt, Rev. J. R., D.D. 5 Eldon-place, Manningham-lane,
Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Campbell, William. Dunmore, Argyllshire.
{tCampbell, William Hunter, LL.D. Georgetown, Demerara, British
Guiana, (Messrs. Ridgway & Sons, 2 Waterloo-place, London,
S.W.)
CampBELL-JoHNston, ALEXANDER Ropert, F.R.S. 84 St.George’s-
square, London, 8. W.
§Campion, Frank, F.G.8., F.R.G.S. The Mount, Duffield-road, Derby.
*Campron, Rev. Dr. Wint1AmM M. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
*Cann, William. 9 Southernhay, Exeter.
§Capper, Robert. Cwm Donkin, Swansea.
*Carbutt, Edward Hamer, M.P., C.E. St. Ann’s, Burley, Leeds,
Yorkshire.
*Carew, William Henry Pole. Antony, Torpoint, Devonport.
tCarkeet, John, C.E. 3 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth.
{Carlile, Thomas. 5 St. James’s-terrace, Glasgow.
CaRLIsLE, The Right Rev. Harvey Goopwin, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
Carlisle.
{Carlton, James. Mosley-street, Manchester.
{Carmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee.
{Carmichael, George. 11 Dudhope-terrace, Dundee.
{Carmichael, Neil, M.D. 22 South Cumberland-street, Glasgow.
{CARPENTER, CHARLES. Brunswick-square, Brighton.
*Carpenter, P. Herbert, M.A. Eton College, Windsor.
{Carpenter, Rev. R. Lant, B.A. Bridport.
{Oarpenter, WILLIAM B., C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.RB.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.
56 Regent’s Park-road, London, N. W.
§CARPENTER, WiLLIAM Lant, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S. Winifred House,
Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
*Carr, William, M.D., F.LS., F.R.CS. Lee Grove, Blackheath,
London, S.£.
{CarrutHers, WitiiaM, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8. British Museum,
London, W.C.
*Carson, Rev. Joseph, D.D., M.R.LA. 18 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
{tOarre, ALExanpER, M.D. Museum of Science and Art, Dublin.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 19
“Year of
“Election.
1868. {Oarteighe, Michael, F.C.S. 172 New Bond-street, London, W.
1866. {Carter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham.
1855, {Carter, Richard, C.E., F.G.S. Cockerham Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire,
1870. {Carter, Dr. William. 62 Elizabeth-street, Liverpool.
*CARTMELL, Rev. Jams, D.D., F.G.S., Master of Christ’s College.
Christ College Lodge, Cambridge.
1878.§§Cartwright, H. S., LL.B. Magherafelt Manor, Co. Derry.
2870. §Cartwricht, Joshua, A.I.C.E., Borough Surveyor. Bury, Lancashire.
1862. {Carulla, Facundo, F.A.S.L. Care of Messrs. Daglish and Oo., 8
Harrington-street, Liverpool.
1868. {Cary, Joseph Henry. Newmurket-road, Norwich.
1866, {Casella, L. P., F.R.A.S. 147 Holborn Bars, London, E.C.
1878. {Casey, John, LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., Professor of Higher Mathe-
matics in the Catholic University of Ireland. 2 Iona-terrace,
South Circular-road, Dublin.
1871. {Cash, Joseph. Bird-grove, Coventry.
1873. *Cash, William, F.G.S. 38 Elmfield-terrace, Saville Park, Halifax.
Castle, Charles. Clifton, Bristol.
1874. {Caton, Richard, M.D., Lecturer on Physiology at the Liverpool
j Medical School. 184 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
1853. tCator, John B., Commander R.N. 1 Adelaide-street, Hull.
1859, {Catto, Robert. 44 King-street, Aberdeen.
1873. *Cavendish, Lord Frederick, M.P. 21 Carlton House-terrace, London,
S.W
1849, {Cawley, Charles Edward. The Heath, Kirsall, Manchester.
1860. §CayLey, Anruur, LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.R.A.S., Sadlerian Professor
of Mathemathics in the University of Cambridge. Garden
House, Cambridge.
Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough.
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire.
‘1871. *Cecil, Lord Sackville. Hayes Common, Beckenham, Kent.
1879. §Chadburn, Alfred. Brincliffe Rise, Sheffield.
1870. {Chadburn, C. H. Lord-street, Liverpool.
1858. *Chadwick, Charles, M.D, Lynncourt, Broadwater Down, Tunbridge
Wells.
1860. {CHapwick, Davip, M.P. The Poplars, Herne Hill, London, S.E.
1842, Onapwicxr, Epwin, C.B. Richmond, Surrey.
1859. {Chadwick, Robert. Highbank, Manchester.
1861. {Chadwick, Thomas. Wilmslow Grange, Cheshire.
*Cuattis, Rev. Jamus, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian Professor of
- Astronomy in the University of Cambridge. 2 Trumpington-
street, Cambridge.
1859. {Chalmers, John Inglis. Aldbar, Aberdeen.
4865. {CHAMBERLAIN, J.H. Christ Church-buildings, Birmingham,
1868. t Chamberlain, Robert. Catton, Norwich.
1842. Chambers, George. High Green, Sheffield.
1868. {Chambers, W. O. Lowestoft, Suffolk.
1877. *Champernowne, Arthur, M.A., F.G.S. Dartington Hall, Totnes,
Devon.
*Champney, Henry Nelson. 4 New-street, York.
1865. {Chance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1865. *Chance, James T. 51 Prince’s-gate, London, 8. W.
1865. {Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1861. *Chapman, Edward, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S.__Frewen Hall, Oxford.
1877. §Chapman, T. Algernon, M.D. Burghill, Hereford.
4866, {Chapman, William. The Park, Nottingham.
B 2
20
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1871:§§Chappell, William, F.S.A. Strafford Lodge, Oatlands Park, Wey=
1874.
1871.
1836.
1874.
1865.
1866.
1867.
1864.
1874,
1879.
ridge Station.
{Charles, John James, M.A., M.D. 11 Fisherwick-place, Belfast.
tCharles, T. C., M.D. Queen's College, Belfast.
OHARLESWORTH, EpwarD, F.G.S. 277 Strand, London, W.C.
{Charley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmurry, Ireland.
{Charlton, Edward, M.D. 7 Eldon-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Cuarnock, Richarp SrepHeN, Ph.D., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. Junior
Garrick Club, Adelphi-terrace, London, W.C.
Chatto, W. J. P. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, London, 8.W.
*Chatwood, Samuel. 5 Wentworth-place, Bolton.
{Cueapiz, W.B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hyde Park-place, Cum=
berland-gate, London, S.W.
*Chermside, Lieutenant H.C., R.E. Care of Messrs. Cox & Co.,
Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, London, 8.W.
*Chesterman, W. Broomsgrove-road, Sheffield.
1879.§§Cheyne, Commander J. P., R.N. 1 Westgate-terrace, West Bromp-.
1860.
1857.
1868.
1863.
ton, London, 8.W.
. §CuicHEstTER, The Right Hon. the Earl of _Stanmer House, Lewes.
Cuicurstrr, The Right Rev. Rrcwarp Durnrorp, D.D., Lord
Bishop of. Chichester.
. *Child, Gilbert W., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Cowley House, Oxford.
. *Chiswell, Thomas. 17 Lincoln-grove, Plymouth-grove, Manchester.
. {Cholmeley, Rey. C. H. Dinton Rectory, Salisbury.
. tChristie, John, M.D. 46 School-hill, Aberdeen.
. {Christie, Professor R. C., M.A. 7 St. James’s-square, Manchester.
Curistison, Sir Rosert, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.E., Professor:
of Dietetics, Materia Medica, and Pharmacy in the University
of Edinburgh. Edinburgh.
: Besar a George, F.C.S. 8 Rectory-grove, Clapham, London,
. *Curystat, G., B.A., Professor of Mathematics. 15 Chalmers-
street, Edinburgh.
. §CaurcH, A. H., M.A., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry to the Royal
Academy of Arts, London. Royston House, Kew, Surrey.
tChurch, William Selby, M.A. St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London,
E.C.
Churchill, F.,M.D. Ardtrea Rectory, Stewartstown, Co, Tyrone.
TClabburn, W. H. Thorpe, Norwich.
tClapham, Henry. 5 Summerhill-grove, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1855.§§CLapHAm, Ropert Catvert. Earsdon House, Earsdon, Newcastle
1869.
1857.
1859.
1877.
1876.
1876.
1861.
1855.
1865.
1875.
1872.
on-Tyne.
tClapp, Frederick. 44 Magdalen-street, Exeter.
‘-{Clarendon, Frederick Villiers. 1 Belvidere-place, Mountjoy-square,.
Dublin.
{Clark, David. Coupar Angus, Fifeshire.
*Clark, F. J. 20 Bootham, York.
Clark, G.T. 44 Berkeley-square, London, W.
tClark, George W. Glasgow.
tClark, Dr. John. 138 Bath-street, Glasgow.
ua Sess 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-street, London,
Ae
tClark, Rev. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow.
{Clarke, Rev. Charles. Charlotte-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tClarke, Charles S. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
Clarke, George. Mosley-street, Manchester.
*CLARKE, Hypr. 32 St. George’s-square, Pimlico, London, S.W.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 2)
‘Year of
‘Election.
1875. {Cruarkz, Jonn Henry, 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol.
1861. *Clarke, John Hope. Lark Hill House, Edgeley, Stockport.
1877. {Clarke, Professor John W. University of Chicago, Illinois.
1851. {Ciarxs, JosHua, F.L.S. Fairycroft, Saffron Walden.
Clarke, Thomas, M.A. Knedlington Manor, Howden, Yorkshire,
1861. {Clay, Charles, M.D. 101 Piccadilly, Manchester.
*Clay, Joseph Travis, F.G.S. Rastrick, near Brighouse, Yorkshire.
1856. *Clay, Colonel William, The Slopes, Wallasea, Cheshire.
1866. {Clayden, P. W. 13 Tavistock-square, London, W.C.
1850. {CrecHorN, Huen,M.D.,F.L.S. Stravithie, St. Andrews, Scotland.
1859. {Cleghorn, John. Wick.
1875. {Clegram, T. W. B. Saul Lodge, near Stonehouse, Gloucester-
shire.
1861. §CieLanp, Jonny, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the Univer-
sity of Glasgow. 2 College, Glasgow.
1857. tClements, Henry. Dromin, Listowel, Ireland.
tClerk, Rev. D. M. Deverill, Warminster, Wiltshire.
1873. §Cliff, John, F.G.S. Limeburn, Ilkley, near Leeds.
1861. *OCxirron, R. Bettany, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi-
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Tortland
Lodge, Park Town, Oxford.
Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway.
1854. tClose, The Very Rev. Francis, M.A. Carlisle.
1878. §§Close, Rev. Meese H., F.G. 8. 40 Lower Raggot-street, Dublin.
1866. §CLosr, THomas, F.S.A. St. James’s-street, Nottingham.
1873. {Clough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire.
1859. {Clouston, Rey. Charles. Sandwick, Orkney.
1861. *Clouston, Peter. 1 Park Terrace, Glasgow.
1863. *Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklington.
1868. {Coaks, J. B. Thorpe, Norwich.
1855. *Coats, Sir Peter. Woodside, Paisley.
1855. *Coats, Thomas. Fergeslie Ilouse, Paisley.
Cobb, Edward. 13 Great Bedford-street, Bath.
1851. *Cossotp, Jonn CuEvaLiier. Holywells, Ipswich ; and Atheneum
Club, London, 8.W.
1864. {Copzpotp, T. Spencer, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany
and Helminthology in the Royal Veterinary College, London.
74 Portsdown-road, Maida Hill, London, W.
1864, *Cochrane, James Henry. Monmouth House, Wellington-terrace,
Clevedon, Somersetshire.
1861. *Coe, Rey. Charles C,, F.R.G.S. Highfield, Manchester-road,
Bolton.
1865. {Coghill, H. Newcastle-under-Lyme.
1876. {Colbourn, E. Rushton. 5 Marchmont-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
1853. {Colchester, William, F.G.S. Springfield House, Ipswich.
1868. {Colchester, W. P. Bassingbourn, Royston.
1879.§§Cole, Skelton. 387 Glossop-road, Shettield.
‘1876. {Colebrooke, Sir T. E., Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. 14 South-street, Park-
lane, London, W.; and Abington House, Abington, N.B.
.1860. {Coleman, J. J., F.C.S. 69 St. George’s-place, Glasgow.
1878.§§Coles, John, Curator of the Map Collection R.G.S. 1 Savile-row,
London, W.
1854. *Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire.
1857. {Colles, William, M.D. 21 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
1869. {Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon.
1854. {CoLtinewoop, Curnpert, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. 4 Grove-terrace,
Belvedere-road, Upper Norwood, Surrey, 8.E.
22
Year of
Election.
1861.
1865.
1876.
1876.
1868.
1870.
1874.
1846.
1852.
1871.
1876.
1876.
1868.
1868.
1878.
1859,
1865.
1863.
1869.
1850.
1879.
1875.
1868.
1846.
1878.
1868.
1863.
1842.
1855.
1870.
1857.
1855.
1874.
1864.
1869.
1879.
1876.
1876.
1874.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
*Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. Anthropological Institute, 4 St.
Martin’s-place, London, W.C.
*Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§Cotzins, J. H., F.G.S. 57 Lemon-street, Truro, Cornwall.
{Collins, William. 3 Park-terrace East, Glasgow.
*Corman, J. J..M.P. Carrow House, Norwich; and 108 Cannon-.
street, London, E.C.
{Coltart, Robert. The Hollies, Aigburth-road, Liverpool.
tCombe, James. Ormiston House, Belfast.
*Compron, The Ven. Lord Atwrn, Dean of Worcester. The Deanery,.
Worcester.
*Compton, Lord William. 145 Piccadilly, London, W.
t{Connal, Michael. 16 Lynedock-terrace, Glasgow.
*Connor, Charles C. Hope House, College Park East, Belfast.
tCook, James. 162 North-street, Glasgow.
*Cooxr, ConraD W.,C.E. 5 Westminster Chambers, London, 8.W.
tCooke, Rev. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich.
Cooke, James R., M.A. 73 Blessington-street, Dublin.
Cooke, J. B. Cavendish-road, Birkenhead.
{Cooxn, M. C., M.A. 2 Grosvenor-villas, Upper Holloway, London, N.
{Cooke, Samuel, M.A., F.G.S. Poona, Bombay.
Cooke, Rev. T. L., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford.
*Cooke, William Henry, M.A., Q.C., F.S.A. 42 Wimpole-street,.
London, W.; and Rainthorpe Hall, Long Stratton.
tCooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham.
tCookson, N. C. Benwell Tower, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Cooling, Edwin, F.R.G.S. Mile Ash, Derby.
f{Coorrr, Sir Henry, M.D. 7 Charlotte-street, Hull.
Cooper, James. 58 Pembridge-villas, Bayswater, London, W.
§Cooper, Thomas. Rose Hill, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
tCooper, T. T., F.R.G.S. Care of Messrs. King & Co., Cornhill,
London, E.C.
tCooper, W. J. The Old Palace, Richmond, Surrey.
tCooper, William White, F.R.C.S. 19 Berkeley-square, London, W.
{Cope, Rev. 8. W. Bramley, Leeds.
{Copeman, Edward, M.D. Upper King-street, Norwich.
{Coppin, John. North Shields.
Corbett, Edward. Ravenoak, Cheadle-hulme, Cheshire.
{Corbett, Joseph Henry, M.D., Professor of Anatomy and Physiology
in Queen’s College, Cork.
*CorFIELD, W. H., M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.G.8., Professor of Hygiéne
and Public Health in University College. 10 Bolton-row,
Mayfair, London, W.
Cory, Rev. Robert, B.D., F.C.P.S. Stanground, Peterborough.
Cottam, George. 2 Winsley-street, London, W.
{Cottam, Samuel. Brazenose-street, Manchester.
{Cotterill, Rev. Henry, Bishop of Edinburgh. Edinburgh.
*Cotterill, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mechanics. Royal
Naval College, Greenwich, S.E.
{tOorron, General Freprrick C., R.E., C.S.I. 13 Longridge-road,
Earl’s Court-road, London, 8. W.
{Corron, Wittram. Pennsylvania, Exeter.
§Cottrill, Gilbert I. Shepton Mallett, Somerset.
tCouper, James. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
{Couper, James, jun. City Glass Works, Glasgow.
{Courtauld, John M. Bocking Bridge, Braintree, Essex.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 25
Year of
Election.
1865. (Courtauld, Samuel, F.R.A.S. 76 Lancaster-gate, London, W.; and
Gosfield Hall, Essex.
1834. tCowan, Charles. 38 West Register-street, Edinburgh.
1876. {Cowan, J. B. 159 Bath-sireet, Glasgow.
Oowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh.
1863. {Cowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham.
1863. {Cowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham.
1872. *Cowan, Thomas William. Comptons Lea, Horsham.
1873. *Cowans, John. Cranford, Middlesex.
Cowie, The Very Rev. Benjamin Morgan, M.A., B.D., Dean of Man-
chester. The Deanery, Manchester.
1871. {Cowper, C. E. 3 Great George-street, Westminster, 8. W.
1860. {Cowper, Edward Alfred, M.I.C.E. 6 Great George-street, West-
minster, 8S. W.
1867. *Cox, Edward. 18 Windsor-street, Dundee.
1867. *Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee.
1867. {Cox, James. Clement Park, Lochee, Dundee.
1870. *Cox, James. 8 Falkner-square, Liverpool.
1867. *Cox, Thomas Hunter. Duncarse, Dundee.
1867. {Cox, William. Foggley, Lochee, by Dundee.
1866. *Cox, William H. 50 Newhall-street, Birmingham.
1871. {Cox, Wiliam J. 2 Vanburgh-place, Leith.
Craig, J. T. Gibson, F.R.S.E. 24 York-place, Edinburgh.
1876. {Cramb, John. Larch Villa, Helensburgh, N.B.
1857. {Crampton, Rev. Josiah. Nettlebeds, near Oxford.
1879.§§Crampton, Thomas Russell. _ 13 Victoria-street, London, S.W.
1858. {Cranage, Edward, Ph.D. The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire.
1876. {Crawford, Chalmond, M.P. Ridemon, Crosscar.
1871. *Crawford, William Caldwell, M.A. Hobart House, Eskbank, near
Edinburgh.
1871. {Crawshaw, Edward. Burnley, Lancashire.
1870. *Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Cathedine, Bwlch, Breconshire.
1879.§§Creswick, Nathaniel. Handsworth Grange, near Sheffield.
1876. *Crewdson, Rev. George. St. George’s Vicarage, Kendal.
Creyke, The Venerable Archdeacon. Bolton Percy Rectory, Tad-
caster.
1880. *Crisp, Frank, B.A., LL.B. 5 Lansdowne-road, Notting Hill, Lon-
don, W.
1858. {Crofts, John. Hillary-place, Leeds.
1878. §Croke, John O’Byrne, M.A. The French College, Blackrock; and
79 Strand-road, Sandymount, Dublin.
1859. {Croll, A. A. 10 Coleman-street, London, E.C.
1857. {Crolly, Rev. George. Maynooth College, Ireland.
1866, {Cronin, William. 4 Brunel-terrace, Nottingham.
1870. {Crookes, Joseph. Marlborough House, Brook Green, Hammersmith,
London, W.
1865. §Crooxrs, Wittram, F-.R.S., F.C.S. 7 Kensington Park-gardens,
London, W.
1879.§§Crookes, Mrs. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, London, W.
1855. {Cropper, Rev. John. Wareham, Dorsetshire.
1870. {Crosfield, C. J. 16 Alexandra-drive, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
1870. {Crosfield, William, sen. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool.
1870. *Crosfield, William, jun. 16 Alexandra-drive, Prince’s Park, Liver-
pool.
1861. {Cross, Rev. John Edward, M.A. Appleby Vicarage, near Brigg.
1868. {Crosse, Thomas William. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
24 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1867. §CRossKEY, Rev. H. W., F.G.S. 28 George-road, Edgbaston, Bir
mingham.
1853. {Crosskill, William, C.E. . Beverley, Yorkshire.
1870. *Crossley, Edward, F.R.A.S. Bemerside, Halifax,
1871. {Crossley, Herbert. Broomfield, Halifax.
1866, *Crossley, Louis J., F.M.S. Moorside Observatory, near Halifax.
1861. §Crowley, Henry. Trafalgar-road, Birkdale Park, Southport.
1863. {Cruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1860. {Cruickshank, John. City of Glasgow Bank, Aberdeen.
1859. {Cruickshank, Provost. Macduff, Aberdeen.
1873. {Crust, Walter. Hiall-street, Spalding.
Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
1878. §Culverwell, Joseph Pope. St. Lawrence Lodge, Sutton, Dublin.
1859. {Cumming, Sir A. P. Gordon, Bart. Altyre.
1874. {Cumming, Professor. 33 Wellington-place, Belfast.
1861. *Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Elms, Handforth, Manchester.
1861. *Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. The Elms, Handforth, Manchester.
1877. {Cunningham, D. J., M.D. University of Edinburgh.
1852. {Cunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast.
1869. {CunnineHamM, Ropert O., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Natural His-
tory in Queen’s College, Belfast.
1855, {Cunningham, William A. 2 Broadwalk, Buxton.
1850, {Cunningham, Rey. William Bruce. Prestonpans, Scotland.
1866. {Cunnington, John, 68 Oakley-square, Bedford New Town, London,
N.W
1867. *Cursetjee, Manockjee, F.R.G.S., Judge of Bombay. Villa-Byculla,
Bombay.
1857. {Curtis, Professor ArtHur Hitt, LL.D. Queen’s College,
Galway.
1878. §Curtis, William. Caramore, Sutton, Co. Dublin.
1863, {Daglish, John. Hetton, Durham.
1854, {Daglish, Robert, C.E. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan.
1863. TDale, J.B. South Shields.
-1853. {Dale, Rev. P. Steele, M.A. Hbllingfare, Warrington.
1865. {Dale, Rev. R. W. 12 Calthorpe-street, Birmingham.
1867. {Dalgleish, W. Dundee.
1870. {Dallinger, Rey. W. H., F.R.S. The Parsonage, Woolton, Liverpool,
Dalmahoy, James, F.R.S.E. 9 Forres-street, Edinburgh.
1859. {Dalrymple, Charles Elphinstone. West Hall, Aberdeenshire.
1859. {Dalrymple, Colonel. Troup, Scotland.
Dalton, Edward, LL.D., F.S.A. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth.
*Dalton, Rev. J. E., B.D. Seagrave, Loughborough.
Dalziel, John, M.D. Holm of Drumlanrig, Thornhill, Dumfries-
shire.
1862. {Dansy, T. W. Downing College, Cambridge.
1859. {Dancer, J. B., F.R.A.S. Old Manor House, Ardwick, Manchester.
1876, {Dansken, John. 4 Eldon-terrace, Partickhill, Glasgow.
1849, *Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. Montreal, Canada.
1861, *DarBIsHIRE, RopERT DUKINFIELD, B.A.,F.G.S. 26 George-street,
Manchester.
1876, {Darling, G. Erskine. 247 West George-street, Glasgow.
Darwin, Cartes R., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Hon. F.R.S.E.
and M.R.I.A. Down, near Bromley, Kent.
1878. §Darwin, Horace. Down, near Bromley, Kent.
1848, aaa? Johnson. Burntwood, Wandsworth Common, London,
LIST OF MEMBERS. 25
‘Year of
lection.
1878.
1872.
{D’Aulmay, G. 22 Upper Leeson-street, Dublin.
tDavenport, John T, 64 Marine Parade, Brighton.
1870, {Davidson, Alexander, M.D. 8 Peel-street, Toxteth Park, Liverpool.
1859. {Davidson, Charles. Grove House, Auchmull, Aberdeen.
1871. {Davidson, James. Newbattle, Dalkeith, N.B.
1859. {Davidson, Patrick. Inchmarlo, near Aberdeen.
1872. {Davipson, THomas, F.R.S., F.G.S. 3 Leopold-road, Brighton.
1875. {Davies, David. 2 Queen’s-square, Bristol. ;
1870. {Davies, Edward, F.C.S. Royal Institution, Liverpool.
1842.
Davies-Colley, Dr. Thomas. Newton, near Chester.
1873. *Davis, Alfred. 5 Westminster Chambers, London, S.W.
1870. *Davis, A.S. 12 Suffolk-square, Cheltenham.
1864, {Davis, Cuartzs E., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath.
1873
Davis, Rey. David, B.A. Lancaster.
. “Davis, James W., F.G.S., F.S.A. Chevinedge, near Halifax,
1856. *Davis, Sir Jouw Francis, Bart., K.O.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Holly-
wood, near Compton, Bristol.
1859. {Davis, J. Barnarp, M.D., F.R.S., F.S.A. Shelton, Hanley, Staf-
fordshire.
1859. *Davis, Richard, F.L.S. 9 St. Helen’s-place, London, E.C.
1873.
1864.
1857.
1869,
1869.
1854.
1860.
1864.
1855.
1859.
1879.
1871.
1870.
1861.
1859.
1861.
1870.
1866.
1878.
1854,
1879.
1870
18765
{Davis, William Samuel. 1 Cambridge Villas, Derby.
*Davison, Richard, Beverley-road, Great Driffield, Yorkshire.
{Davy, Epmunp W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, near
Dublin.
tDaw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter,
tDaw, R. M. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
*Dawbarn, William. Elmswood, Aigburth, Liverpool.
Dawes, John Samuel, F.G.S. Lappel Lodge, Quinton, near Bir-
mingham.
*Dawes, John T., jun. Lilanferris, Mold, North Wales.
Dawkins, W. Boyp, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., Professor of
Geology in Owens College, Manchester. Birchview, Norman-
road, Rusholme, Manchester.
Dawson, John. Barley House, Exeter.
{Dawson, Joun W., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Principal-of M‘Gill
College, Montreal, Canada.
See Captain William G. Plumstead Common-road, Kent,
E
§Day, Francis. Kenilworth House, Cheltenham.
fDay, Sr. Jomn Vincent, G.E., F.R.S.E. 166 Buchanan-street,
Glasgow.
§Dracon, G. F., M.LC.E. Rock Ferry, Liverpool.
{Deacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington.
Dean, David. Banchory, Aberdeen.
}{Dean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire.
*Deane, Rev. George, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S. Spring Hill College,
Moseley, near Birmingham.
{Desvus, Hetyricu, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry
at Guy’s Hospital, London, 8.E.
§Delany, Rev. William. St. Stanislaus College, Tullamore.
“DE La Run, Warren, M.A., D.O.L., Ph.D., F.RS., F.CS,
F.R.A.S. 73 Portland-place, London, W.
-§§De la Sala, Colonel. Sevilla House, Navarino-road, London, N.W.
. }De Sar Thomas, M.A., LL.D. 4 Hare-court, Temple, London,
Denchar, John. Morningside, Edinburgh.
. {Denny, William. Seven Ship-yard, Dumbarton.
26
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1870.
1874.
1856.
1874.
1878.
1868.
1869.
1868.
1872.
1873.
1852.
1864.
1863.
1867.
1862.
1877.
1848.
1872.
1869.
1859.
1876.
1868,
1874.
1858.
1879.
1851.
1860.
1878.
1864,
1875.
1870.
1876.
Dent, William Yerbury. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.
*Denton, J. Bailey, 22 Whitehall-place, London, S.W.
§DeE Rance, Cuartes E., F.G.8S. 28 Jermyn-street, London,
S.W.
*Drrsy, The Right Hon. the Earl of, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S..
23 St. James’s-square, London, S.W.; and Knowsley, near-
Liverpool.
*Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S. Henleaze Park, Westbury-
on-Trym, Bristol.
tDe Rinzy, James Harward. Khelat Survey, Sukkur, India.
}Dessé, Etheldred, M.B., F.R.C.S. 43 Kensington Gardens-square,.
Bayswater, London, W.
De TasrEy, GreoreE, Lord, F.Z.S. Tabley House, Knutsford,
Cheshire.
{Devon, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Powderham Castle,
near Exeter.
*DrvonsHirE, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Chancellor of the University of Cambridge.
Devonshire House, Piccadilly, London, W.; and Chatsworth,
Derbyshire.
{Drewar, James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Fullerian Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, and Jacksonian
Professor of Natural Experimental Philosophy in the University
of Cambridge. Brookside, Cambridge.
{Dewick, Rey. E.S. 2 Southwick-place, Hyde Park, London, W.
*Dew-Suiru, A.G. 7a Eaton-square, London, 8.W.
}Dicxim, Grorez, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the
University of Aberdeen.
*Dickinson, F. H., F.G.S. Kingweston, Somerton, Taunton; and 12}
St. George’s-square, London, 8. W.
{Dickinson, G. T. Claremont-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
}Dicxson, ALEXANDER, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University
of Glasgow. 11 Royal-circus, Edinburgh.
*Ditxe, Sir Cuartes Wentworrs, Bart, M.P., F.R.G.S. 76
Sloane-street, London, 8. W.
§Dillon, James, C.E. 2 Belgrave-road, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
{Diiitwyn, Lewis Lizwetyn, M.P., F.L.S., F.G.S. Parkwerne,
near Swansea.
§Divzs, GrorGE. Woodside, Hersham, Walton-on-Thames.
{Dingle, Edward. 19 King-street, Tavistock.
*Dingle, Rey. J. Lanchester Vicarage, Durham.
}Ditchfield, Arthur. 12 Taviton-street, Gordon-square, London,
W.C
{Dittmar, W. Andersonian University, Glasgow.
*Dixon, A. E. Dunowen, Cliftonville, Belfast.
{Dixon, Edward, M.L.C.E. Wilton House, Southampton.
*Dixon, Harold B., M.A., F.C.S. Trinity College, Oxford.
*Dobbin, Leonard, M.R.I.A. 27 Gardiner’s-place, Dublin.
{Dobbin, Orlando T., LL.D., M.R.LA. Ballivor, Kells, Co. Meath.
*Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. 34 Westbourne Park, London,
Ww.
*Dozson, G. E., M.A., M.B.,F.L.S. Royal Victoria Hospital, Netley,
Southampton.
*Dobson, William. Oakwood, Bathwick Hill, Bath.
*Docewra, George, jun. Grosvenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.
*Dodd, John. 6 Thomas-street, Liverpool.
Dodds, J. M. 15 Sandyford-place, Glasgow.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 27
Year of
Election.
*Dodsworth, Benjamin. Burton House, Scarborough.
*Dodsworth, George. The Mount, York.
Dolphin, John. Delves House, Berry Edge, near Gateshead.
1851. {Domvile, William C., F.Z.S. Thorn Hill, Bray, Dublin.
1867. {Don, John. The Lodge, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
1867. {Don, William G. St. Margaret’s, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
1873. {Donham, Thomas. Huddersfield.
1869. {Donisthorpe,G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter.
1877. *Donkin, Bryan, jun. May’s Hill, Shortlands, Kent.
1874. {Donnell, Professor, M.A. 76 Stephen’s-green South, Dublin.
1861. {Donnelly, Colonel, R.E. South Kensington Museum, London, W.
1867. {Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire.
1871. {Dougall, John, M.D. 2 Cecil-place, Paisley-road, Glasgow.
1863. *Doughty, Charles Montagu. Theberton Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk:.
1876. *Douglas, Rev. G. C. M. 10 Fitzroy-place, Glasgow.
1877. *Douglass, James N., C.E. Trinity House, London, E.C.
1878. {Douglass, William. 104 Baggot-street, Dublin.
1855. {Dove, Hector. Rose Cottage, Trinity, near Edinburgh.
1870. {Dowie, J. Muir. Wetstones, West Kirby, Cheshire.
1876. §Dowie, Mrs. Muir. Wetstones, West Kirby, Cheshire.
1878. t{Dowling, Thomas. Claireville House, Terenure, Dublin.
1857. {Downtne, S., C.E., LL.D., Professor of Civil Engineering in the-
University of Dublin. 4 The Hill, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
1878. {Dowse, The Right Hon. Baron. 38 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.
1872. *Dowson, Edward, M.D. 117 Park-street, London, W.
1865. *Dowson, E. Theodore. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk.
1868, {DrussER, Henry E., F.Z.S. 6 Tenterden-street, Hanover-square,.
London, W.
1878. §Drew, Frederic, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Eton College, Windsor.
1869. §Drew, Joseph, LL.D., F.R.A.S., F.G.8. Weymouth.
1879.§§Drew, Joseph, M.B. Foxgrove-road, Beckenham, Kent.
1865. {Drew, Robert A. 6 Stanley-place, Duke-street, Broughton, Man-
chester.
1879.§§Drew, Samuel, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. Chapeltown, Edinburgh.
1872. *Druce, Frederick, 27 Oriental-place, Brighton.
1874. {Druitt, Charles. Hampden-terrace, Rugby-road, Belfast.
1866. *Dry, Thomas. 23 Gloucester-road, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
1870. §Drysdale, J. J., M.D. 364 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1856. *Ducrz, The Right. Hon. Henry Joun Reynotps Moreton, Ear!
of, F.R.S.,F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, London, W. ; and Tort-
worth Court, Wotton-under-Edge.
1870. LF eesiaet Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. Holmfield House, Grassendale,
iverpool.
1867. *Durr, Mocaniiruiits ELpHinstone Grant-, LL.B., M.P. York
House, Twickenham, Middlesex.
1852. {Dufferin and Clandeboye, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., K.O.B.,
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Clandeboye, near Belfast, Ireland.
1877. {Duffey, George F., M.D. 30 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
1875. {Duffin, W. E. L’Estrange, C.E. Waterford.
1859. *Duncan, Alexander. 7 Prince’s-gate, London, S.W.
1859. {Duncan, Charles, 52 Union-place, Aberdeen.
1866. *Duncan, James. 71 Cromwell-road, South Kensington, London, W.
Duncan, J. F., M.D. 8 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.
1871. {Duncan, James Matthew, M.D. 30 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh.
1867.§§Duncan, PETER Martin, M.B., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology
in King’s College, London. 4 St. George’s-terrace, Regent's
Park-road, London, N.W.
28
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
#lection.
1880. §Duncan, William 8. 79 Wolverhampton-road, Stafford.
1853. *Dunlop, William Henry. Annanhill, Kilmarnock, Ayrshire.
1865. {Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B.
1876, *Dunn, James. 64 Robertson-street, Glaszow.
1876. {Dunnachie, James. 2 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
1878.
1859.
1866.
1869,
1860.
1869.
1868.
1861,
1877,
1874,
1871,
1863,
1876,
1870.
1861.
1858.
1870.
1855.
1859,
1870,
1867.
1867.
1867.
1855.
1867,
1859.
1878.
1876.
1868.
1863.
1880.
1855.
1861.
{Dunne, D. B., M.A., Ph.D., Protessor of Logic in the Catholic Uni-~
versity of Ireland. 4 Clanwilliam-place, Dublin.
tDuns, Rey. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh.
{Duprey, Perry. Woodbury Down, Stoke Newington,-London, N.
tD’Urban, W. 8. M., F.L.S. 4 Queen-terrace, Mount Radford,
Exeter.
}Durwam, ArtrHuR Epwarp, F.R.C.S., F.L.S., Demonstrator of
Anatomy, Guy’s Hospital. 82 Brook-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.
Dykes, Robert. Kilmorie, Torquay, Devon.
§Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Woburn.
tEade, Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
{Eadson, Richard. 13 Hyde-road, Manchester.
tEarle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. West Alvington, Devon.
*HaRNSHAW, Rev. SamvEL, M.A. 14 Broomfield, Sheffield.
§Eason, Charles. 30 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin.
*Easton, Epwarp, C.E., F.G.S. 7 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W.
§Easton, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham.
{Easton, John,C.E. Durie House, Abercromby-street, Helenshurgh,
N.B
§Eaton, Richard. Nuttall House, Nuttall, Nottinghamshire. .
Ebden, Rev. James Collett, M.A., F.R.A.S. Great Stukeley Vicarage,
Huntingdonshire.
tEcroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley.
*Eddison, Francis. Martinstown, Dorchester.
*Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. 29 Park-square, Leeds.
*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. Carleton Grange, Skipton.
Eden, Thomas. Talbot-road, Oxton.
*Edgeworth, Michael P., F.LS., F.R.AS. Mastrim House, Anerley,
London, SE.
tEdmiston, Robert. Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.
{Edmond, James. Cardens Haugh, Aberdeen.
*Edmonds, F.B. 72 Portsdown-road, London, W.
*Edward, Allan. Farington Hall, Dundee.
{Edward, Charles. Chambers, 8 Bank-street, Dundee.
{Edward, James. Balruddery, Dundee.
*Epwarps, Professor J. Baker, Ph.D., D.C.L. Montreal, Canada.
{Edwards, William. 70 Princes-street, Dundee. ,
*EGERTON, Sir Purirp pE Mapas Grey, Bart., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S.
Oulton Park, Tarporley, Cheshire.
*Eisdale, David A., M.A. 388 Dublin-street, Edinburgh.
tEleock, Charles. 39 Lyme-street, Shakspere-street, Ardwick, Man-
chester.
tElder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
fElger, Thomas Gwyn Empy, F.R.A.S. St. Mary, Bedford.
Ellacombe, Rev. H. T., F.S.A. Clyst St. George, Topsham, Devon.
tEllenberger, J. L. Worksop.
*Elliot, Colonel Charles, C.B. Wateringbury, Maidstone, Kent.
§Elliot, Robert, F.B.S.E. Wolfelee, Hawick, N.B.
*Exxior, Sir Watrer, K.C.S.1., F.R.S., F.L.S. Wolfelee, Hawick,
N.B.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 29)
Year of
Election.
1864.
1872.
1879.
1864.
1877.
1875.
1864.
1880.
1864.
1869.
1862.
1863.
1863.
1858.
1866.
1866,
1853.
1869.
1869,
1844,
1864.
1862.
tElhott, E. B. Washington, United States.
yEllott, Rev. E. B. 11 Sussex-square, Kemp Town, Brighton.
Elliott, John Fogg. Elvet Hill, Durham.
§Elliott, Joseph W. Knowsley-street, Preston.
*ELLIs, ALEXANDER JouN, B.A., F.R.S., F.S.A. 25 Argyll-road,
Kensington, London, W.
fEllis, Arthur Devonshire. School of Mines, Jermyn-street, London,
S.W.; and Thurnscoe Hall, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
*Ellis, H. D. Fair Park House, Exeter.
*Ellis, Joseph. Hampton Lodge, Brighton.
§Ellis, J. H. Town Hall, Southport.
tEllis, J. Walter. High House, Thornwaite, Ripley, Yorkshire.
*Ellis, Rey. Robert, A.M. The Institute, St. Saviour’s Gate, York.
fExxris, Witt1am Horton. Hartwell House, Exeter.
Ellman, Rey. KE. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex.
tElphinstone, H. W., M.A., F.L.S. Cadogan-place, London, S.W.
{Embleton, Dennis, M.D. Northumberland-street, Newcastle-on—
Tyne.
{Emery, Rey. W., B.D. Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.
{Empson, Christopher. Bramhope Hall, Leeds.
{Enfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
tEnfield, William. Low Pavement, Nottingham.
fEnglish, Edgar Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate,
Hull.
fEnglish, J.T. Stratton, Cornwall.
ENNISKILLEN, The Right Hon. Witt1am Wutovensy, Earl of,
LL.D., D.C.L., F.RS., F.G.S., M.R.LA. 65 Eaton-place,
London, 8.W.; and Florence Court, Fermanagh, Ireland.
*Enys, John Davis. Care of F. G. Enys, Esq., Enys, Penryn,
Cornwall.
fErichsen, John Eric, F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Professor of Clinical Surgerv
in University College, London. 6 Cavendish-place, London, W.
*Eskrigge, R. A., F.G.S. 18 Hackins-hey, Liverpool.
*Esson, Witt1AM, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., F.R.A.S. Merton College ;
and 1 Bradmore-road, Oxford.
1878.§§Estcourt, Charles, F.C.S. 8 St. James’s-square, John Dalton-street,
1869
1870.
1865.
1876.
1869.
1861.
1876.
1865.
1875.
1866.
1865.
1871.
Manchester.
Estcourt, Rev. W. J. B. Long Newton, Tetbury.
. {Erneriper, Rosert, F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., Palzontologist to the
Geological Survey of Great Britain. Museum of Practical
Geology, Jermyn-street ; and 19 Halsey-street, Cadogan-place,
London, 8S. W.
*Evans, Arthur John, F.S.A. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempsted.
*Evans, Rey. Cuartes, M.A. The Rectory, Solihull, Birmingham.
tEvans, Captain Freprricx J. O., C.B., R.N., F.RS., F.R.AS.,
F.R.G.S., Hydrographer to the Admiralty. 116 Victoria-street,
Westminster, S.W.
ee H. Saville W. Wimbledon Park House, Wimbledon,
W.
*Evans, Joun, D.C.L., LL.D., V.P.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.S. 65 Old
Bailey, London, E.C.; and Nash Mills, Hemel Hempsted.
{Evans, Mortimer, C.E. 97 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
{Evans, Supastran, M.A., LL.D. Highgate, near Birmingham.
tEvans, Sparke. 3 Apsley-road, Clifton, Bristol.
{Evans, Thomas, F.G.S. Belper, Derbyshire.
*Evans, William. Ellerslie, Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§Eve, H. Weston, M.A. University College, London, W.C
30
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1868.
1880.
18653.
1874.
1874.
1859.
1876.
1871.
1846.
1866.
1849,
1865.
1876.
1870.
1878.
1864,
1877.
1879.
1859.
*Everert, J. D., M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in Queen’s College, Belfast. Rushmere, Malone-
road, Belfast.
§Everingham, Edward. St. Helen’s-road, Swansea.
*Everitt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, Warwickshire. .
tEwart, William. Gleumachan, Belfast.
{Ewart, W. Quartus. Glenmachan, Belfast.
*Ewing, Archibald Orr, M.P. Ballikinrain Castle, Killearn, Stirling-
shire.
*Ewing, James Alfred, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Mechanical En-
eineering in the University of Tokio, Japan. 12 Laurel Bank,
Dundee.
*Exley, John T., M.A. 1 Cotham-road, Bristol.
*Hyre, George Edward, F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 59 Lowndes-square,
London, 8.W.; and Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants.
{Eyrz, Major-General Sir Vincent, K.C.S.L, F.R.G.S. Atheneum
Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W.
Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon.
{Hyton, T. C. Eyton, near Wellington, Salop.
tFairley, Thomas, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 8 Newington-grove, Leeds.
{Fairlie, James M. Charing Cross Corner, Glasgow.
{Fairlie, Robert, C.E. Woodlands, Clapham ~ Common, London,
S.W.
“Fairlie, Robert F. Palace-chambers, Victoria-street, Westminster,
3. W.
{Falkner, F. H. Lyncombe, Bath.
§Faraday, F. J., F.S.8. College Chambers, 17 Brazenose-street, Man-
chester.
*Farnworth, Ernest. Swindon, near Dudley.
tFarquharson, Robert O. Houghton, Aberdeen.
1861.§§Farr, WittraM, C.B., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. 78 Portsdown-road,
1866.
1857.
1869.
1869.
1859.
1863.
1873.
1845.
1864.
1852.
1876,
1876.
1859.
USily
1867.
1857.
Maida Hill, London, W.
*Farrar, Rev. FREDERICK WILLIAM, M.A., D.D., F.R.S., Canon of
Westminster. St. Margaret’s Rectory, Westminster, S.W.
{Farrelly, Rev. Thomas. Royal College, Maynooth.
*Faulding, Joseph. ‘The Grange, Greenhill Park, New Barnet, Herts.
{Faulding, W. F. Didsbury College, Manchester.
*Fawcert, The Right Hon. Henry, M. A., M.P., Professor of Political
Economy i in the University of Cambridge. 51 The Lawn, South
Lambeth-road, London, 8.W.; and 8 Trumpington-street, Cam-
bridge.
{Fawcus, George. Alma-place, North Shields.
*Fazakerley, Miss. The Castle, Denbigh.
{Felkin, William, F.L.S. The Park, Nottingham.
Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulverstone, Lancashire.
*FEeLLows, Frank P., F.S.A., F.S.S. 8 The Green, Hampstead,
London, N.W.
tFenton,S.Greame. 9 College-square ; and Keswick, near Belfast.
*Fergus, Andrew, M.D. 3 Elmbank-crescent, Glasgow.
tFerguson, Alexander A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow.
tFerguson, John. Cove, Nigg, Inverness.
*Ferguson, John, M.A., Professor of Chemistry in the University of
Glasgow.
{Ferguson, “Robert M., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 8 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
ig sa Sir Samuel, LL. D. ,Q.C. 20 Great George’s-street North,
Dublin.
—
LIST OF MEMBERS, 31
“Year of
‘Election.
1854. {Ferguson, William, F.L.S., F.G.S. Kinmundy, near Mintlaw,
Aberdeenshire.
1867. *Fergusson, H. B. 13 Airlie-place, Dundee.
1863. *Frrnie, Jonny. Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.
1862. {FERRERSs, Rev. Norman MacLeop, M.A., F.R.S. Caius College,
P Cambridge.
1873. {Ferrier, David, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Forensic Medicine
in King’s College. 16 Upper Berkeley-street, London, W.
1875. {Fiddes, Walter. Clapton Villa, Tyndall's Park, Clifton, Bristol.
1868. {Field, Edward. Norwich.
1869. *Frevp, RocErs, B.A., 0.E. 5 Cannon-row, Westminster, S.W.
1876. {Fielden, James. 2 Darnley-street, Pollokshields, near Glasgow.
Finch, John, Bridge Work, Chepstow.
Finch, John, jun. Bridge Work, Chepstow.
1878. *Findlater, William. 2 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.
1868. {Firth,@. W. W. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich.
Firth, Thomas. Northwick.
1863. *Firth, William. Burley Wood, near Leeds.
1851. *Fiscuer, Wituam L. F., M.A., LL.D, FBS. St. Andrews,
Scotland.
1858. {Fishbourne, Admiral E.G., R.N. 26 Hogarth-road, Earl’s Court-
road, London, 8S. W.
1869. {FisHER, Rev. Osmonp, M.A., F.G.S. Harlston Rectory, near
Cambridge.
1873. §Fisher, William. Maes Fron, near Welshpool, Montgomeryshire.
1879.§§Fisher, William. Norton Grange, near Sheffield.
1875. *Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.0.S8. 2 Park-crescent, Oxford.
1858. {Fishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale.
1871. *Fison, Frederick W., F.C.S. Eastmoor, Ilkley, Yorkshire.
e871. tive, J. G., MAs 5 Lancaster-terrace, Regent’s Park, London,
N.W
1868. {Fitch, Robert, F.G.S., F.S.A. Norwich.
1878. {Fitzgerald, C. E., M.D. 27 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.
1878. §FirzeEratp, Grorcr Francis. Trinity College, Dublin.
1857. ea The Right Hon. Lord Otho. 13 Dominick-street,
Dublin.
_ 1857. {Fitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D. 31 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
1865, {Fleetwood, D. J. 45 George-street, St. Paul’s, Birmingham.
Fleetwood, Sir Peter Hesketh, Bart. Rossall Hall, Fleetwood,
Lancashire.
1850. {Fleming, Professor Alexander, M.D. 121 Hagley-road, Birmingham.
Fleming, Christopher, M.D. Merrion-square N. orth, Dublin.
1876. {Fleming, James Brown. Beaconsfield, Kelvinside, near Glasgow.
1876. {Fleming, Sandford. Ottawa, Canada.
1867. §FiercuEr, Atrrep E. 5 Edge-lane, Liverpool.
1870. {Fletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich.
1869, {FiercHer, Lavineron E., C.E. 41 Corporation-street, Manchester.
Fletcher, T. B. E., M.D. 7 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
1862. {FLowrr, Witr1am Henry, LL.D., F.R.S., E.LS., F.G.S., F.R.C.S.,
Hunterian Professor of Comparative Anatomy, and Conservator
of the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. Royal College
of Surgeons, Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, London, W.C.
1877. *Floyer, Ernest A., F.R.G.S. 7 The Terrace, Putney, S.W.
1879.§§Foote, Charles Newth, M.D. 3 Albion-place, Sunderland.
-1879.§§Foote, Harry D’Oyley, M.D. Rotherham, Yorkshire.
1880. cd be Bruce. Linkwood, Central Hill, Upper Norwood, London,
32
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1873.
1855.
1877.
1866.
1875.
1867.
1858.
1854.
1877.
1870.
1875.
1865,
1865.
1857.
1845.
1877.
1859.
1873.
1863.
1859.
1873.
1870,
1866.
1868.
1876.
1870.
1876.
1860.
1866.
1846.
1859.
1865.
1871.
1859.
*Forbes, Professor George, M.A., F.R.S.E. Andersonian University,
Glasgow.
tForbes, Rey. John. Symington Manse, Biggar, Scotland.
§Forbes, W. A. West Wickham, Kent.
Ford, H. R. Morecombe Lodge, Yealand Conyers, Lancashire.
f¥ord, William. Hartsdown Villa, Kensingtun Park-gardens East,
London, W.
*Forpuam, H. Grorex, F.G.S. Odsey Grange, Royston, Herts.
*Forrest, William Hutton. 1 Pitt-terrace, Stirling.
{Forster, Anthony. Finlay House, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea.
*ForsteR, The Right Hon. Wiit1am Epwarp, M.P., F.R.S. 80
Eccleston-square, London, 8.W.; and Wharfeside, Burley-in-
Wharfedale, Leeds.
*Fort, Richard. Read Hall, Whalley, Lancashire.
{Forrrscur, The Right Hon. the Earl. Castle Hill, North Devon.
{Forwood, William B. Hopeton House, Seaforth, Liverpool
tFoster, A. Le Neve. East Hill, Wandsworth, Surrey, 8.W.
TFoster, Balthazar, M.D., Professor of Medicine in Queen’s College,
Birmingham. 16 Temple-row, Birmingham.
*Fosrer, CremEent Lz Neve, B.A., D.Se., F.G.S. Llandudno.
*FosreR, GrorcE Oarey, B.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Physics in University College, London. 12 Hilldrop-road,
London, N. ©
*Foster, Rev. John, M.A. The Oaks Vicarage, Loughborough,
tFoster, John N. Sandy Place, Sandy, Bedfordshire.
§Foster, Joseph B. 6 James-street, Plymouth.
*Foster, Micnart, M.A., M.D., F.RS., F.LS., F.0.8. Trinity
College, and Great Shelford, near Cambridge.
{ Foster, Peter Le Neve.
{Foster, Robert. 30 Rye-hill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
*Foster, 8. Lloyd. Brundall Lodge, Ealing, Middlesex, W.
*Foster, William. Harrowins House, Queensbury, Yorkshire.
{Poulger, Edward. 55 Kirkdale-rvad, Liverpool.
{Fowler, George, M.I.C.E., F.G.S. Basford Hall, near Nottingham.
tFowler, G. G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk.
*Fowler, John. 4 Kelvin Bank-terrace, Glasgow.
*Fowler, Robert Nicholas, M.A., F.R.G.S. 50 Cornhill, London,
E.C
*Fox, Rev. Edward, M.A. Upper Heyford, Banbury.
tFox, G.S. Lane. 9 Sussex-place, London, 8. W.
*Fox, Joseph Hayland. The Cleve, Wellington, Somerset.
{Fox, Joseph John. Church-row, Stoke Newington, London, N.
*Francis, G. B. Inglesby House, Stole Newington-green, London, N..
Francis, WILLIAM, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.S., F-R.A.S. Red Lion-court,
Fleet-street, London, E.C.; and Manor House, Richmond,
Surrey.
{Franxianp, Epwarp, D.C.L., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in the Royal School of Mines. 14 Lancaster-gate,
London, W.
*Frankland, Rey. Marmaduke Charles. Chowbent, near Manchester,
{Fraser, George B. 3 Airlie-place, Dundee.
Fraser, James. 25 Westland-row, Dublin.
Fraser, James William. 84 Kensington Palace-gardens, London, W..
*Fraser, Jonn, M.A., M.D. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton.
tFrasrr, Toomas R., M.D., F.R.S.L. & E. 3 Grosyenor-street,
Edinburgh.
*Frazer, Daniel. 113 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 33
Year of
Election.
1871.
1860.
1847.
1877.
1865.
1880.
1869.
1869.
1857.
1869.
1847,
1875.
1875.
1872.
1873.
1859.
1869.
1864.
1857.
1863.
1876.
1850.
1861.
1876.
1863.
1861.
1861.
1875.
1860.
1860.
1869.
1870.
1870.
1872.
1877.
1868.
{Frazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull.
tFreeborn, Richard Fernandez. 38 Broad-street, Oxford.
*Freeland, Humphrey William, F.G.S. West-street, Chichester,
Sussex.
§Freeman, Francis Ford. Blackfriars House, Plymouth.
tFreeman, James. 15 Francis-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§Freeman, Thomas. Brynhyfryd, Swansea.
Frere, George Edward, F.R.S. Roydon Hall, Diss, Norfolk.
}F rere, The Right Hon. Sir H. Barrie E., Bart., G.C.S.1., G.C.B.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 34 Hyde Park-gardens, London, W.
tFrere, Rev. William Edward. The Rectory, Bilton, near Bristol.
*Frith, Richard Hastings, C.E,, M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.1. 48 Summer-
hill, Dublin.
{Frodsham, Charles. 26 Upper Bedford-place, Russell-square, Lon-
don, W.C.
tFrost, William. Wentworth Lodge, Upper Tulse Hill, London, S.W.
tFry, F. J. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
Fry, Francis. Cotham, Bristol.
*Fry, Joseph Storrs. 2 Charlotte-street, Bristol.
Fry, Richard. Cotham Lawn, Bristol.
*Fuller, Rev. A. Pallant, Chichester.
[Fuller, Claude S., R.N. 44 Holland-road, Kensington, London, W.
{Furter, Frepericx, M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the Uni-
versity and Kine’s College, Aberdeen.
{Forrer, Gores, C.E., Professor of Engineering in Queen’s College,
Belfast. 6 College-gardens, Belfast.
*Furneaux, Rey. Alan. St. German’s Parsonage, Cornwall.
*Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A. Ewell Castle, Surrey.
TGaces, ALpHonsE, M.R.I.A. Museum of Irish Industry, Dublin.
*Gainsford, W. D. Richmond Hill, Sheffield.
tGairdner, Charles. Broom, Newton Mearns, Renfrewshire.
tGairdner, Professor W. T., M.D. 225 St. Vincent-street, Glascow.
tGalbraith, Andrew. Glasgow.
GasraltH, Rey. J. A., M.A., M.R.LA, Trinity College, Dublin.
tGale, James M. 23 Miller-street, Glasgow.
tGale, Samuel, F.C.S. 338 Oxford-street, London, W.
{Galloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.
{Galloway, John, jun. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester.
{Gattoway, W., H.M. Inspector of Mines. Cardiff.
*Gatron, Captain Doveras, C.B., D.C.L., F.RS., F.LS., F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S. (Gunerat SECRETARY.) 12Chester-street, Grosvenor-
place, London, 8S. W.
*Gatton, Franots, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 42 Rutland-
gate, Knightsbridge, London, 8. W.
tGatron, Jonn C., M.A., F.L.S. 13 Margaret-street, Cavendish-
square, London, W.
§Gamble, Lieut.-Colonel D. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.
tGamble, J. C. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.
*Gamble, John G., M.A. Civil Service Club, Capetown. (Care of
Messrs. Ollivier and Brown, 37 Sackville-street, Piccadilly,
London. W.)
tGamble, William. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.
tGamern, Arravr, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology
in Owens College, Manchester. Fairview, Princes-road, Fal-
lowfield, Manchester.
1862.§§GaRNER, Ropert, F.L.S, Stoke-upon-Trent. .
Cc
34 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1865.§§Garner, Mrs. Robert. Stoke-upon-Trent.
1842. Garnett, Jeremiah. Warren-street, Manchester.
1873. {Garnham, John. 123 Bunhill-row, London, E.C.
1874.
1870.
1870.
1847.
1842.
1862.
1876.
1875.
1873.
1871.
1859,
1854,
1867.
1871.
1855.
1875.
1854.
1870.
1870.
1865.
1871.
1874,
1876.
1870.
1870.
1842,
1857.
1859.
1878.
1878.
1871.
1868,
1864,
1861.
1867.
1876.
*Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LL.B., M.R.LA., F.S.A. Bragans-
town, Castlebellingham, Ireland.
{Gaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool.
*Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Clayton Lodge, Aigburth, Liverpool.
*Gaskell, Samuel. Windham Club, St. James’s-square, London, 8. W.
Gaskell, Rev. William, M.A. Plymouth-grove, Manchester.
*Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., F.LS., F.G.S. Felbridge Park, East
Grinstead, Sussex.
§Gavey, J. 48 Stacey-road, Routh, Cardiff.
{Gaye, Henry 8. Newton Abbott, Devon.
tGeach, R. G. Cragg Wood, Rawdon, Yorkshire.
tGeddes, John. 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh.
tGeddes, William D., M.A., Professor of Greek in King’s College,
Old Aberdeen.
tGee, Robert, M.D. 5 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
tGerkie, ArcuiparD, LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., Director of the
Geological Survey of Scotland. Geological Survey Office, Vic-
toria-street, Edinburgh ; and Boroughfield, Edinburgh.
§Geikie, James, F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S. Balbraith, Perth,
tGemmell, Andrew. 88 Queen-street, Glasgow.
*George, Rev. Hereford B., M.A., F.R.G.S. New College, Oxford.
tGerard, Henry. 8A Rumford-place, Liverpool.
{Gerstl, R., F.C.S. University College, London, W.C.
*Gervis, Walter S., M.D., F.R.S. Ashburton, Devonshire.
{Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham,
{Gibson, Alexander. 10 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
{Gibson, aay Right Hon. Edward, Q.0. 23 Fitzwilliam-square,
Dublin.
*Gibson, George Alexander, M.B., D.Sc., F.G.S. 1 Randolph Cliff,
Edinburgh.
*Gibson, George Stacey. Saffron Walden, Essex.
{Gibson, Thomas. 51 Oxford-street, Liverpool.
{Gibson, Thomas, jun. 10 Parkfield-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
GitpErRt, JoserpH Henry, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. Harpenden, near
St. Albans.
tGilbert, J.T., MRA. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Dublin,
*Gilchrist, James, M.D. Crichton House, Dumfries.
Gilderdale, Rev. John, M.A. Walthamstow, Essex.
§Giles, Oliver. 16 Bellevue-crescent, Clifton, Bristol.
Giles, Rev. William. Netherleigh House, near Chester.
{Gill, Rev. A. W. H. 44 Eaton-square, London, 8. W.
*Grit, Davip. The Observatory, Cape Town.
{Gill, Joseph. Palermo, Sicily. (Care of W. H. Gill, Esq., General
Post Office, St. Martin’s-le-Grand, E.C.)
{Girt, Tuomas, 4 Sydney-place, Bath.
*Gilroy, George. Hindley Hall, Wigan.
tGilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee.
§Gimingham, Charles H. 45 St. Augustine’s-road, Camden-square,
London, N.W
1867.§§GinsBure, Rev. GoD; D.C.L., LL.D. Wokingham, Berkshire.
1869, {Girdlestone, Rev. Canon E., M.A. Halberton Vicarage, Tiverton.
1874.
1850,
*Girdwood, James Kennedy. Old Park, Belfast.
*Gladstone, George, F.C.S., F.R.G.S, 31 Ventnor-villas, Cliftonville,
Brighton.
“Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS, 35
Election.
1849,
1875.
1861,
1871,
1870.
1859.
1867.
1874,
1874.
1870.
1872.
1878.
1880,
1852,
1879.
1846,
1876.
1877.
1873.
1878.
1852.
1870.
1842,
1865.
1869,
1870.
1878.
1871.
1840,
18657.
1865.
1870.
1875.
*GtapsTonE, JoHN Hatt, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Pembridge-
square, Hyde Park, London, W.
*Glaisher, Ernest Henry. 1 Dartmouth-place, Blackheath, London,
S.E
*GLAIsHER, JAMES, F.R.S., F.R.A.S, 1 Dartmouth-place, Black-
heath, London, 8.E.
*GuatsHeR, J. W. L., MA., F.RS., F.R.A.S. Trinity College,
Cambridge.
§Glen, David Corse, F.G.S. 14 Annfield-place, Glasgow.
he S. Stuart. 6 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London,
W.
fGloag, John A. L. 10 Inverleith-place, Edinburgh.
Glover, George. Ranelagh-road, Pimlico, London, S.W.
tGlover, George T. 30 Donegall-place, Belfast.
{Glover, Thomas. 77 Claverton-street, London, S.W.
{Glynn, Thomas R. 1 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
TGoppaRD, RicHaRD. 16 Booth-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.
*Godlee, J. Lister. 3 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C.
§Godman, F. D, 10 Chandos-street, Cavendish-square, London, W.
{tGodwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast.
§Godwin-Austen, Major H. H., F.R.S., F-Z.S. 17 Bessborough-
gardens, London, 8.W.
tGopwry-Avsren, Ropert A. C., B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Shalford
House, Guildford.
{Goff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire.
{Gorr, JAmes. 11 Northumberland-road, Dublin.
{Goldthorp, Miss R. F. C, Cleckheaton, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{tGood, Rey. Thomas, B.D. 51 Wellington-road, Dublin.
tGoodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Ireland.
Goodison, George William, CLE. Gateacre, Liverpool.
*GoopMAN, JoHn, M.D. 8 Leicester-street, Southport.
tGoodman, J. D. Minories, Birmingham.
{tGoodman, Neville. Peterhouse, Cambridge.
*Goodwin, Rev. Henry Albert, M.A., F.R.A.S. Lambourne Rectory, .
Romford.
§Gorpon, J. E. H., B.A. (Assistant Secretary.) Holmwood
Cottage, Dorking.
*Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. 20 King-street, St. James’s, London,
S.W.
{tGordon, Lewis D. B. Totteridge, Whetstone, London, N.
{tGordon, Samuel, M.D. 11 Hume-street, Dublin.
{Gore, George, LL.D., F.R.S. 50 Islington-row, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
{Gossage, William. Winwood, Woolton, Liverpool.
*Gotch, Francis. Stokes Croft, Bristol.
*Gotch, Rey. Frederick William, LL.D. Stokes Croft, Bristol.
*Gotch, Thomas Henry. Kettering.
1873.§§Gott, Charles, M.I.C.E. Parlkfield-road, Manningham, Bradford,
1849
1857
1868
1873
1867
Yorkshire.
t{Gough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham.
tGough, The Right Hon. George 8., Viscount, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S.
St. Helen’s, Booterstown, Dublin.
tGould, Rey. George. Unthank-road, Norwich.
Gouxp, Jomn, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. 26 Charlotte-street,
Bedford-square, London, W.C.
{Gourlay, J. McMillan. 21 St. Andrew’s-place, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Gourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee,
c2
36 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1876. §Gow, Robert. Oairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
Gowland, James. London-wall, London, H.C.
1873.§§Goyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88. Great Horton-road, Bradford,
Yorkshire.
1861. {Grafton, Frederick W.. Park-road, Whalley Range, Manchester.
1867. *Granam, Crrit, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Colonial Office, London, 8.W.
1875. {Grawame, JAmus. Auldhouse, Pollokshaws, near Glasgow. .
1852. *Grainger, Rev. Canon John, D.D., M.R.I.A. Skerry and Rathcavan
Rectory, Broughshane, near Ballymena, Co. Antrim.
1871. {Grant, Sir ALEXANDER, Bart., M.A., Principal of the University of
Edinburgh, 21 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh.
1859. {Grant, Hon. James. Cluny Cottage, Forres.
1870. {Grant, Colonel James A., C.B., C.S.L, F.R.S., F.LS8., F.R.G.S.
19 Upper Grosvenor-street, London, W.
1855. *Grant, Ropert, M.A., LL.D... F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Regius Professor of
Astronomy in the University of Glasgow. The Observatory,
Glasgow.
1854, {GranTHaM, Ricwarp B., C.E., F.G.S. 22 Whitehall-place, London,
S.W.
1864. {Grantham, Richard F. 22 Whitehall-place, London, S.W.
1874, {Graves, Rey. James, B.A., M.R.L.A. Inisnag Glebe, Stonyford, Co,
Kilkenny.
1864, *Gray, Rev. Charles. The Vicarage, Blyth, Worksop.
1865. tGray, Charles. Swan-bank, Bilston.
1870, tGray, C. B. 5 Rumford-place, Liverpool.
1876. {Gray, Dr. Newton-terrace, Glasgow.
1864. {Gray, Jonathan. Summerhill House, Bath.
1859. {Gray, Rev. J. H. Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire.
1870. {Gray, J. Macfarlane. 127 Queen’s-road, Peckham, London, S.E.
1878. §Gray, Matthew Hamilton. 14 St. John’s Park, Blackheath, London,.
S.E
1878. §Gray, Robert Kaye. 14 St. John’s Park, Blackheath, London,
S.E
1873.§§Gray, William, M.R.I.A. 6 Mount Charles, Belfast.
*Gray, Colonel Witt1aM. Farley Hall, near Reading.
1854. *Grazebrook, Henry. Clent Grove, near Stourbridge, Worcester=
shire.
1866. §Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 101 Friar-gate, Derby.
1873. {Greaves, Jomes H., C.E. Albert-buildings, Queen Victoria-street,
London, E.C.
1869.§§Greaves, William. Station-street, Nottingham.
1872.§§Greaves, William. 3 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London, W.C.
1872. *Grece, Clair J., LL.D. Redhill, Surrey.
1879.§§Green, A. F. Leeds,
1858. *Greenhalgh, Thomas. Thornydikes, Sharples, near Bolton-le-Moors,
1863. {Greenwell, G@. E. Poynton, Cheshire.
1875, {Greenwood, Frederick. School of Medicine, Leeds.
1862. *Greenwood, Henry. 32 Castle-street, and the Woodlands, Anfield=
road, Anfield, Liverpool.
1877. {Greenwood, Holmes. 78 King-street, Accrington.
1849, {Greenwood, William. Stones, Todmorden.
1861. *Gree, Ropert Puiries, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting-
ford, Herts.
1833. Gregg, T. H. 22 Ironmonger-lane, Cheapside, London, E.C.
1860. {GRrGoR, Rev. Watrer, M.A. Pitsligo, Rosehearty, Aberdeenshire,
1868. +Gregory, Charles Hutton, C.E. 1 Delahay-street, Westminster,
.W, :
LIST OF MEMBERS. 37
Year of
Election.
1861.
1875.
1869,
1875.
1871.
1859.
1875,
11870.
1878.
1859.
1870.
1868,
1870.
1847,
§Gregson, Samuel Leigh. Aigburth-road, Liverpool,
tGrenfell, J. Granville, B.A., F.G.8. 5 Albert-villas, Clifton, Bristol.
*GRESWELL, Rey. RIcHARD, M. A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 39 St. Giles’s-
street, Oxford.
{Grey, Sir Georez, F.R.G.S. Belgrave-mansions, Grosvenor-
gardens, London, &.W.
tGrey, Mrs. Maria G. 18 Cadogan-place, London, 8. W.
*Grierson, Samuel, Medical Superintendent of the District Asylum,
Melrose, N. B.
t{Grrerson, THomas Bortz, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.
§Grieve, David, F.R.S.E., F.G.S8. Hobart House, Dalkeith, Edin-
burgh.
tGrieve, John, M.D. 21 Tages eet, Glasgow.
{Guiffin, Robert, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin.
Griffith, Rev. C. T., DD. Elm, near Frome, Somerset.
*GRIFFITH, Grorer, M.A., F.C.8. Harrow.
Griffith, George R. Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin.
tGriflith, Rey. “Henry, F.G.S. Barnet, Herts.
TGrigith, Rev. John, M.A., D.C.L. Findon Rectory, Worthing,
Sussex.
{Grifith, N. R. The Coppa, Mold, North Wales.
tGriffith, Thomas. Bradford-street, Birmingham.
Grirritus, Rev. Joun, M.A. Wadham College, Oxford.
1879.§§ Griffiths, Thomas, F.C.S., F.S.8. Silverdale, Oxton, Birkenhead.
1875.
1870.
1842,
1864,
1869,
1863.
1869.
1867.
1842.
1856.
1862.
1877.
1866.
1880.
1868,
1860,
1876,
1859.
1857.
1876.
tGrignon, James, H.M. Consul at Riga. Riga.
tGrimsdale, T. F.. M.D. 29 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
Grimshaw, Samuel, M.A. Errwod, Buxton.
tGroom-Narrer, CHartes Orrizy, F.G.S. 18 Elgin-road, St.
Peter’s Park, London, N.W.
§Grote, Arthur, F.L.S., F.G.S. 20 Cork-street, Burlington-gardens,
London, W.
GROVE, The Hon, Sir Wrnr1aM Rosert, Knt., M.A., D.C.L., F.RBS.
115 Harley-street, London, W.
*Groves, THomas B., F.C.S. 80 St. Mary-street, Weymouth.
tGruss, Howarp, F.R.A.S. 40 Leinster-square, Rathmines,
Dublin.
Guild, John. Bayfield, West Ferry, Dundee.
Guinness, Henry. 17 College-green, Dublix.
Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin.
*GuisE, Lieut.-Colonel Sir Wirttam Vernon, Bart., F.G.S., F.L.S.
Elmore Court, near Gloucester.
t@Gunn, John, M.A., F.G.S. Irstedd Rectory, Norwich.
tGunn, William, F.G.S. Barnard Castle, Darlington.
tGtnrner, ArBERTC. L.G., M.A., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Keeper of
the Zoological Collections in the British Museum. British
Museum, London, W.C.
§Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, High-street, Swansea.
*Gurney, John. Sprouston Hall, Norwich.
*GuURNEY, SAMUEL, F.L.S., F. RG.S. 20 Hanover-terrace, Begoal
Park, London, N.W.
*Gutch, John James. Holgate ee York.
Guthrie, Francis. Cape Town, Cape ‘of Good Hope.
{Gurueiz, Frepericr, B.A., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Physics in
the Royal School of Mines. Science Schools, South Kensington,
London, 8. W.
tGwynne, Rev. John. Tullyagnish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland.
tGwyther, R. F. Owens College, Manchester.
38
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of a
Election.
1865.
1858.
{Hackney, William. 9 Victoria~chambers, Victoria-street, London,
S.W. :
*Hadden, Frederick J. South Cliff, Scarborough.
. [Haddon, Henry. Lenton Field, Nottingham.
Haden,G. N. Trowbridge, Wiltshire.
Hadfield, George. Victoria-park, Manchester.
. THadivan, Isaac. 3 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
. {Hadland, William Jenkins. Banbury, Oxfordshire.
. THaigh, George. Waterloo, Liverpool.
*Hailstone, Edward, F.S.A. Walton Hall, Wakefield, Yorkshire.
. §Hake, H. Wilson, Ph.D., F.C.S. Queenswood College, Hants.
. THake, R. C. Grasmere Lodge, Addison-road, Kensington. Lon-
don, W.
. THale, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Eton College, Windsor.
. THalhead, W. B. 7 Parkfield-road, Liverpool.
max, The Right Hon. Viscount. 10 Belgrave-square, London,
S.W.; and Hickleston Hall, Doncaster.
. THall, Dr. Alfred. 30 Old Steine, Brighton.
. *Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield.
. “Hatx, Hue Ferrers, F.G.S. Greenheys, Wallasey, Birkenhead.
. {Hall, John Frederic. Ellerker House, Richmond, Surrey.
. *Hall, Captain Marshall. 13 Old-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C
*Hall, Thomas B. Australia. (Care of J. P. Hall, Esq., Crane
House, Great Yarmouth.)
. “Hatz, TownsHend M.,F.G.S._ Pilton, Barnstaple.
. THall, Walter. 11 Pier-road, Erith.
. *Hatrert, T. G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath.
. “Hatrerr, Wiir1am Henry, F.L.S. Buckingham House, Marine
Parade, Brighton.
Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol.
*Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.S. The Leys, Barrow-on-
Soar, near Loughborough.
1866.§§Hammton, ARcHIBALD, F.G.S. South Barrow, Bromley, Kent.
1869.
1851.
1878.
1878.
1875.
1863.
1850.
1861.
1857.
1847,
1876.
1865.
1867.
1859.
1853,
1865.
§Hamilton, Rowland. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W.
{Hammond, C. C. Lower Brook-street, Ipswich.
{Hanagan, Anthony. Luckington, Dalkey. :
§Hance, Edward M., LL.B. 103 Hartington-road, Sefton Park;
Liverpool.
tHancock, O. F., jun., M.A. 386 Blandford-square, London, N.W.
tHancock, John. 4 St. Mary’s-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tHancock, John, J.P. The Manor House, Lurgan, Co. Armagh.
ed aes Walker. 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, London,
tHancock, William J. 23 Synnot-place, Dublin.
tHancock, W. Nemson, LL.D., M.R.I.A. 64 Upper Gardiner~
street, Dublin.
tHancock, Mrs. W. Neilson. 64 Upper Gardiner-street, Dublin.
fHands, M. Coventry
Handyside, P. D., M.D., F.R.S.E. Edinburgh.
tHannah, Rev. John, D.C.L. The Vicarage, Brighton.
tHannay, John. Montcoffer House, Aberdeen.
tHansell, Thomas T. 2 Charlotte-street, Sculcoates, Hull.
*Harcourt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., F.R.S., F.0.S. Cowley Grange,
Oxford.
Harcourt, Egerton V. Vernon, M.A., F.G.S. Whitwell Hall, York-
shire.
{Harding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 89
Year of
Election.
1869. tHarding, Joseph. Millbrooke House, Exeter.
1877. §Harding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol.
1869. tHarding, William D. Islington Lodge, King’s Lynn, Norfolk. .
1874. t{Hardman, E. T., F.C.S. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
1872. tHardwicke, Mrs. 192 Piccadilly, London, W.
1880. §Hardy, John. 118 Embden-street, Manchester.
*Harp, Cuartes Joun, M.D., Professor of Clinical Medicine in Uni-
versity College, London. 57 Brook-street, Grosvenor-square,
London,
1858. {Hargrave, James. Burley, near Leeds.
1876. tHarker, Allen. 17 Southgate-street, Gloucester.
1878. *Harkness, H. W. Sacramento, California.
1871.§§Harkness, William. Laboratory, Somerset House, London, W.C.
1875, *Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.LS., FSA. The
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex.
1877. *Harland, Henry Seaton. Brompton, Wykeham Station, York.
1862. *Hartxy, Groren, M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 25 Harley-street, London,
*Harley, John. Ross Hall, near Shrewsbury. .
1862. *Harrey, Rev. Roser, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Mill Hill School, Mid-
: dlesex ; and Burton Bank, Mill Hill, Middlesex, N.W.
1868. *Harmer, F. W., F.G.8. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich.
1872.§§Harpley, Rev. William, M.A., F.C.P.S. Clayhanger Rectory,
Tiverton.
*Harris, Alfred. Oxton Hall, Tadcaster.
*Harris, Alfred, jun. Lunefield, Kirkby-Lonsdale, Westmoreland.
1871. tHarris, GzorGE, F.S.A. Iselipps Manor, Northolt, Southall, Mid-
dlesex.
1863. tHarris, T. W. Grange, Middlesbrough-on-Tees.
1873. tHarris, W. W. Oak-villas, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1860, {Harrison, Rev. Francis, M.A. Oriel College, Oxford.
1864, {Harrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire.
1873. tHarrison, George, Ph.D., F.LS., F.C.S. 14 St. James’s-row,
Sheffield.
1874, tHarrison, G. D. B. 8 Beaufort-road, Clifton, Bristol.
1858, *Harrison, James Parx, M.A. Junior Oxford and Cambridge
Club, St. James’s-square, London, S. W.
1870. {Harrison, RecrnaLp. 51 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1853. tHarrison, Robert. 36 George-street, Hull.
1863, roe T. E. Engineers’ Office, Central Station, Newcastle-on-
ne.
1849. | ees The Right Hon, Duprny Rypzr, Karl of, K.G., D.C.L.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 39 Grosvenor-square, London, W.; and
Sandon Hall, Lichfield.
1876, *Hart, Thomas. Bank View, 33 Preston New-road, Blackburn.
1875.§$Hart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry.
Hartley, James. Sunderland.
1871. {Hartley, Walter Noel, F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin.
1854.§§Harrup, Joy, F.R.A.S. Liverpool Observatory, Bidston,
Birkenhead.
1850. {Harvey, Alexander. 4 South Wellington-place, Glasgow.
1870. {Harvey, Enoch. Riversdale-road, Aigburth, Liverpool.
*Harvey, Joseph Charles. Knockrea, Douglas-road, Cork.
Harvey, J. R., M.D. St. Patrick’s-place, Cork.
1878. {Harvey, R. J., M.D. 7 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin.
1862. *Harwood, John, jun. Woodside Mills, Bolton-le-Moors.
40
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election,
1875.
1837,
1857. ft
1874.
1872.
1864,
1868.
1863.
1859.
1877.
1861.
1858.
1867,
1857.
1873.
1869.
1858.
1879.
1851.
1869,
1869.
1863.
1871.
1861.
1877.
1865.
1877.
1866.
1863,
1861.§§HratHrretp, W. E., F.C.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.E, 20 King-street
1865.
1858,
1833.
1855,
1867.
1869.
1863.
1857.
1867.
1845.
1873.
tHasrives, G. W., M.P. Barnard’s Green House, Malvern.
Hastings, Rev. H.S. Martley Rectory, Worcester.
{ Hastings, W. Huddersfield.
Haveuron, Rev. Samunt, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., M.R.LA,
F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the University of Dublin.
Trinity College, Dublin.
{Hawkins, B. Waterhouse, F.G.S. Century Club, East Fifteenth-
street, New York.
*Hawkshaw, Henry Paul. 20 King-street, St. James's, London,
WwW.
*HAwKsHAW, Sir Jonny, O.E., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S._ Hollyeombe,
Liphook, Petersfield ; and 33 Great George-street, London, S.W.
“Hawkshaw, John Clarke, M.A., F.G.S. 25 Cornwall-zardens,
South Kensington, S.W.; and 33 Great George-street, London,
S.W.
{Hawxstzy, Tuomas, C.E.,F.R.S., F.G.8. 30 Great George-street,
London, S.W.
{Hawthorn, William. The Cottage, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
tHay, Sir Andrew Leith, Bart. Rannes, Aberdeenshire.
{Hay, Arthur J. Lerwick, Shetland.
“Hay, Rear-Admiral the Right Hon. Sir Joun C. D., Bart., O.B.,
M.P., D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, London, 8. W.
tHay, Samuel. Albion-place, Leeds.
tHay, William. 21 Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.
{Hayden, Thomas, M.D. 30 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
*Hayes, Rev. William A., M.A. 3 Mountjoy-place, Dublin.
tHayward, J. High-street, Exeter,
*HAYwarD, Rosert Batpwiy, M.A., F.R.S. The Park, Harrow.
“Hazlehurst, George 8. The Elms, Runcorn,
§Hxap, JnremMran, C.E., F.C.S8. Middlesbrough, Yorkshire,
tHead, R. T. The Briars, Alphineton, Exeter,
tHead, W. R. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
{Heald, Joseph. 22 Leazes-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Healey, George. Matson’s, Windermere.
*Heape, Benjamin. Northwood, Prestwich, near Manchester.
tHearder, Henry Pollington. Westwell-street, Plymouth.
{Hearder, William. Rocombe, Torquay.
{Hearder, William Keep, F.S.A. 195 Union-street, Plymouth.
{Heath, Rev. D. J. Esher, Surrey.
}Heath, G. Y., M.D. Westgate-street, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
?
St. Jumes’s, London, 8.W.
tHeaton, Harry. Harborne House, Harborne, near Birmingham
“Heaton, Joun Draxrn, M.D., F.R.G.P. Claremont, Leeds.
{Hxavistpr, Rey. Canon J. W. L., M.A. The Close, Norwich.
tHxcror, Jamns, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Geological Survey
of New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand.
{Heppre, M. Fosrrr, M.D., Professor of Chemistry in the University
of St. Andrews, N.B.
tHedgeland, Rev. W. J. 21 Mount Radford, Exeter.
tHedley, Thomas, Cox Lodge, near Neweastle-on-Tyne.
*Hemans, George William, C.E., M.R.LA., F.G.S. 1 Westminster-
chambers, Victoria-street, London, S.W.
tHenderson, Alexander. Dundee.
tHenderson, Andrew. 120 Gloucester-place, Portman-square, Lon-
don, W.
“Henderson, A. L. 49 King William-street, London, E.C.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 41
Year of
Election,
1874, {Henderson, James Alexander. Norwood Tower, Belfast.
1876, *Henderson, William. Williamfield, Irvine, N.B.
1873. *Hunprrson, W. D. 9 University-square, Belfast.
1856, {Hennessy, Henry G., F.R.S., M.R.1A., Professor of Applied
Mathematics and Mechanics in the Royal. College of Science
for Ireland. 3 Idrone-terrace, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
1857. {Hennessy, John Pope, C.M.G, Governor and Commander-in-Chief of
Hong Kong.
1873. *Henrici, Olaus M. F. E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mathe-
matics in University College, London. Meldorf Cottage, Green-
hill Park, Harlesden, London, N.W.
Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester.
Henry, J. Snowdon. East Dene, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.
Henry, Mitchell, M.P. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, London, W.
1874. {Heyry, Rev. P. Suurpam, D.D.,M.R.LA. Belfast.
“Henry, WILLIAM Cnarzes, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.C,S8.
Haffield, near Ledbury, Herefordshire.
1870. {Henty, William. 12 Medina-villas, Brighton.
1855. *Hepburn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Baldwyns, Bexley, Kent.
1855. tHepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, London, W.
Hepburn, Thomas. Clapham, London, 8.W.
1871. {Hepburn, Thomas H. St. Mary’s Cray, Kent.
Hepworth, John Mason. Ackworth, Yorkshire.
1856. tHepworth, Rev. Robert. 2 St. James’s-square, Cheltenham.
1866, {Herrick, Perry. Bean Manor Park, Loughborough.
1871. *Hrrscoet, Professor ALEXANDER S., B.A., F.R.A.S. College of
Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1874.§§Herschel, Major John, R.E., F.R.S. Mussoorie, N. W. P. India.
( wis of Messrs. H. Robertson & Co., & Crosby-square, London,
_ EC.) ;
1865. {Heslop, Dr. Birmingham.
1873. {Heugh, John. Gaunt’s House, Wimborne, Dorset.
Hey, Rey. William, M.A., F.C.P.S. Clifton, York,
1866. *Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire,
1866. {Heymann, L. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire.
1879. §Heywood, A. Percival. Duffield Bank, Derby.
1861. *Heywood, Arthur Henry. Elleray, Windermere. ?
*Hrrwoop, Jamus, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., F.R.GS., F.S.S. 26 Ken-
sington Palace-gardens, London, W. :
1861. *Heywood, Oliver. Claremont, Manchester.
Heywood, Thomas Percival. Claremont, Manchester.
1875. {Hicxs, Henry, M.D., F.G.S. Heriot House, Hendon, Middlesex,
N.W
1877. §Hicks, W. M. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1864, *Hrmrn, W. P., M.A. Castle House, Barnstaple.
1854, *Higgin, Edward. Troston Lodge, near Bury St. Edmunds.
1861. *Higgin, James. Lancaster-avenue, Fennel-street, Manchester.
Higginbotham, Samuel. 4 Springfield-court, Queen-street, Glas-
pow. .
1875. {Higgins, Charles Hayes, M.D., M.R.C.P., F.R.C.S., F.R.S.E. Alfred
House, Birkenhead.
1871. {Hieers, Crement, B.A., F.C.S. 103 Holland-road, Kensington,
London, W.
1854, {Hieerns, Rey. Henry H., M.A. The Asylum, Rainhill, Liver-
ool.
1861, “Higgins, James. Holmwood, Turvey, near Bedford.
1870. tHigginson, Alfred. 135 Tulse Hill, London, S.W.
42
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election. 5
Hildyard, Rey. James, B.D., F.C.P.S. Ingoldsby, near Grantham,
Lincolnshire.
Hill, Arthur. Bruce Castle, Tottenham, Middlesex.
1880. §Hill, Benjamin. Cwmdwr, near Clydach, Swansea.
1872. §Hill, Charles, F.S.A. Rockhurst, West Hoathley, East Grin-
1857.
1871.
1876.
1863.
1871.
1858.
1870.
1865.
1863.
1861.
1858.
1861.
1870,
1864.
1864,
1864.
1879.
1879.
1866.
1877.
1877.
1876.
1852.
1863.
1880.
1873.
1873.
1865.
1865.
1830.
1865.
1860.
1876.
1854.
1873.
stead.
*Hill, Rev. Edward, M.A., F.G.S. Sheering Rectory, Harlow.
§Hill, John, C.K., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.I. County Surveyor’s Office,
Ennis, Ireland.
THill, Lawrence. The Knowe, Greenock.
Hill, William H. Barlanark, Shettleston, N.B.
tHills, F.C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, S.E.
*Hills, Thomas Hyde. 358 Oxtord-street, London, W.
tHincxs, Rev. Tuomas, B.A., F.R.S. Stancliff House, Clevedon,
Somerset.
tHinde, G. J. Buenos Ayres.
*Hindmarsh, Luke. Alnbank House, Alnwick.
tHinds, James, M.D. Queen’s College, Birmingham.
t¢Hinds, William, M.D. Parade, Birmingham.
*Hinmers, William. Cleveland House, Birkdale, Southport.
tHirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester.
*Hirst, T. Arcuer, Ph.D., F.R.S., F-R.A.S. Royal Naval College,
Greenwich, 8.E.; and Athenzeum Club, Pall Mall, London,
S.W.
{Hitchman, William, M.D., LL.D., F.L.S. 29 Erskine-street,
Liverpool.
*Hoare, Rev. Canon. Godstone Rectory, Redhill.
Hoare, J. Gurney. Hampstead, London, N.W.
tHobhouse, Arthur Fane. 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8.W.
t{Hobhouse, Charles Parry. 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8. W.
tHobhouse, Henry William. 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8.W.
§Hobkirk, Charles P., F.L.S. Huddersfield.
§Hobson, John. Tapton Elms, Sheffield.
tHocxry, Cuarites, M.D. 8 Avenue-road, St. John’s Wood, Lon-
don, N.W.
tHockin, Edward. Poughill, Stratton, Cornwall.
tHodge, Rey. John Mackey, M.A. 38 Tavistock-place, Plymouth.
tHodges, Frederick W. Queen’s College, Belfast.
tHodges, John F., M.D., F.C.S., Professor of Agriculture in Queen's
College, Belfast.
*Hopexin, THomas. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Hodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D. Science Schools, South Kensing-
ton Museum, London, 8. W. ;
*Hodgson, George. Thornton-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tHodgson, James. Oakfield, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tHodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland.
tHodgson, R. W. North Dene, Gateshead.
fHodgson, W. B., LL.D., F.R.A.S., Professor of Commercial and
Political Economy in the University of Edinburgh.
*Hormann, Aveust WitHELM, M.D., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.
10 Dorotheen Strasse, Berlin.
tHogan, Rev. A. R., M.A. Watlington Vicarage, Oxfordshire.
{Hogg, Robert. 54 Jane-street, Glasgow.
*Holcroft, George. Byron’s-court, St. Mary’s-gate, Manchester,
*Holden, Isaac. Oakworth House, near Keighley, Yorkshire.
1879.§§Holland, Calvert Bernard. Ashdell, Broomhill, Sheffield.
1878.
*Holland, Rev. F. W., M.A. Evesham.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 43
‘Year of
Hlection.
1865.
1866.
1873.
1876.
1870.
1875.
1847.
1865.
1877.
1856.
1842.
1869,
1865.
1870.
1871.
1858,
1876.
1875.
1854.
1856,
1868.
1858,
1879.
1859.
1863.
1876,
1857,
1868.
1865.
1863.
1854.
1870.
1835.
1842.
*Holland, Philip H. Home Office, London, S.W.
tHolliday, William. New-street, Birmingham.
*Holmes, Charles. 59 London-road, Derby.
tHolmes, J. R. Southbrook Lodge, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tHolms, Colonel William, M.P. 95 Cromwell-road, South Kensing-
ton, London, 8. W.
tHolt, William D. 23 Edge-lane, Liverpool.
*Hood, John. The Elms, Cotham Hill, Bristol.
tHooxer, Sir Josepn Darron, K.C.S.1., K.C.B., M.D., D.O.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S., V.P.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Royal Gardens,
Kew, Surrey.
*Hooper, John P, Coventry Park, Streatham, London, S.W.
*Hooper, Samuel F., B.A. Tamworth House, Mitcham Common,
Surrey.
{Hooton, Jonathan. 80 Great Ducie-street, Manchester.
Hope, Thomas Arthur. Stanton, Bebington, Cheshire.
{Hope, Wilkam, V.C. Parsloes, Barking, Essex.
tHopkins, J. S. Jesmond Grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Hopxinson, Joun, F.R.S. 78 Holland-road, Kensington, Lon-
don, W.
*Hopxrnson, Joun, F.L.S., F.G.S. 235 Regent-street, London, W.;.
and Wansford House, Watford.
Hopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield.
Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool.
*Horne, Robert R. 150 Hope-street, Glaszow.
*Horniman, F. J. Surrey House, Forest Hill, London, S.E.
}Horsfall, Thomas Berry. Bellamour Park, Rugeley.
tHorsley, John H. 1 Ormond-terrace, Cheltenham.
{Hotson, W. C. Upper King-street, Norwich.
Hoveuton, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S..
Travellers’ Club, London, S. W.
}Hounsfield, James. Hemsworth, Pontefract.
Hovenden, W. F., M.A. Bath.
*Howard, D, South Frith Lodge, Tonbridge.
{tHoward, Captain John Henry, R.N. The Deanery, Lichfield.
tHoward, Philip Henry. Corby Castle, Carlisle.
tHowatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glascow.
tHowell, Henry H., F.G.S. Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn-.
street, London, 8. W.
tHowex tt, Rev. Canon Hinps. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich.
*How ert, Rey. Freperick, F.R.A.S. East Tisted Rectory, Alton,
Hants.
tHoworrn, H. H. Derby House, Eccles, Manchester.
tHowson, The Very Rev. J. S., D.D., Dean of Chester. Chester.
tHubback, Joseph. 1 Brunswick-street, Liverpool.
*Hupson, Henry, M.D., M.R.I.A. Glenville, Fermoy, Co. Cork.
§Hudson, Robert, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.L.S. Clapham Common, London,
S.W.
1879.§§ Hudson, Robert S., M.D. Redruth, Cornwall.
1867.
1858.
1857.
1871.
1870.
}Hudson, William H.H., M.A. 19 Bennet’s-hill, Doctors’ Commons,
London, E.O. ; and St. John’s College, Cambridge.
*Hueerns, Wit11aM, D.O.L. Oxon., LL.D. Camb., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
Upper Tulse Hill, Brixton, London, 8.W.
tHuggon, William. 30 Park-row, Leeds.
*Hughes, George Pringle, J.P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum-
berland.
*Hughes, Lewis. Fenwick-court, Liverpool.
44
Year of
Election.
1876.
1868.
1863.
1865.
1867.
1861.
1878.
1880.
1856.
1862.
1877.
1865.
1840.
1864,
1875.
1868.
1867.
1869.
1879.
1863.
1875.
1869,
1861.
1870,
1876.
1876.
1868.
1864.
1857.
1861.
1852.
1871.
1879.
1873.§
1861.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
*Hughes, Rey. Thomas Edward. Wallfield House, Reigate.
§Huaues, T. M‘K., M.A., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor of Geology
in the University of Cambridge.
tHughes, T. W. 4 Hawthorn-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tHughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the Borough of Birmingham.
Birmingham.
§Huit, Epwarp, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the Geological
Survey of Ireland, and Professor of Geology in the Royal Callege
of Science. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
*Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.C.L. 47 Portland-place, London, W. ;
and Breamore House, Salisbury.
f{Hume, Rey. Canon Asranam, D.C.L., LL.D., F.S.A. All Souls’
Vicarage, Rupert-lane, Liverpool.
tHumphreys, H. Castle-square, Carnarvon.
§Humphreys, Noel A., F.S.S.. Ravenhurst, Hook, Kingston-on-
Thames.
tHumphries, David James. 1 Keynsham-parade, Cheltenham.
*Humpury, GeorcE Murray, M.I)., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Cambridge. Grove Lodge, Cambridge.
*Hont, Arraur Roopg, M.A., F.G.8. Southwood, Torquay.
t{Hunt, J. P. Gospel Oak Works, Tipton.
tHounr, Rozert, F.R.S., Keeper of the Mining Records. Museum of
Practical Geology, Jermyn-street, London, S.W. :
tHunt, W. 72 Pulteney-street, Bath.
*Hunt, William. The Woodlands, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol.
Hunter, Andrew Galloway. Denholm, Hawick, N.B.
{Hunter, Christopher. Alliance Insurance Office, North Shields.
tHunter, David. Blackness, Dundee.
*Hunter, Rev. Robert, F.G.S. 9 Mecklenburgh-street, London,
W.C.
§Huntington, A. K., Professor of Metallurgy in Kine’s College, London.
Abbeville House, Arkwright-road, Hampstead, London, N. W.
tHuntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford.
tHurnard, James. Lexden, Colchester, Essex.
{Hurst, George. Bedford.
*Hurst, William John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Lisburn,
Ireland.
tHurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Appleton, Widnes, near Warrington.
Husband, William Dalla. May Bank, Bournemouth.
tHutchinson, John. 22 Hamilton Park-terrace, Glasgow.
[ Hutchison, Peter. 28 Berkeley-terrace, Glasgow.
*Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S.E. 29 Chester-street, Edinburgh.
Hutton, Crompton. Putney Park, Surrey, S.W.
*Hutton, Darnton. (Care of Arthur Lupton, Esq., Headingley, near
Leeds.)
tHutton, Henry D. 10 Lower Mountjoy-street, Dublin.
*Horron, T. Maxwett. Summerhill, Dublin.
f{Huxtzy, Tuomas Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., Sec. R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
Professor of Natural History in the Royal School of Mines.
4 Marlborough-place, London, N.W.
Hyde, Edward. Dukinfield, near Manchester.
*Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Stroud, Gloucestershire.
§Ibbotson, H. J. 26 Collegiate-crescent, Sheffield.
Ihne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg.
§Ikin, J. I. 19 Park-place, Leeds.
fIles, Rey. J. H. Rectory, Wolverhampton.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 45
Year of
Election.
1858, {Ingham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds.
1876. {Inglis, Anthony. Broomhill, Partick, Glasgow.
1871. {Inaxis, The Right Hon. Joun, D.C.L., LL.D., Lord Justice General
of Scotland. Edinburgh.
1876. {Inglis, John, jun. Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
1852. tIneram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.LA., Regius Professor of Greek in the
University of Dublin. 2 Wellington-road, Dublin.
1870. *Inman, William. Upton Manor, Liverpool.
1857. {Irvine, Hans, M.A., M.B. 1 Rutland-square, Dublin.
1862. {Isenin, J. F., M.A., F.G.S. South Kensington Museum, London,
S.W
1863. *Ivory, Thomas. 23 Walker-street, Edinburgh.
1865. {Jabet, George. Wellington-road, Handsworth, Birmingham.
1870. {Jack, James. 26 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
1859. {Jack, John,M.A. Belhelvie-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire.
1876. {Jack, William. 19 Lansdowne-road, Notting Hill, London, W.
1879. §Jackson, Arthur, F.R.0.S. Wilkinson-street, Sheffield.
1866. {Jackson, H. W., F.R.AS., F.G.S. 15 The Terrace, High-road,
Lewisham, 8.E.
1869. §Jackson, Moses. The Vale, Ramsgate.
1863, *Jackson-Gwilt, Mrs. H. Moonbeam Villa, The Grove, New Wim-
: bledon, London, 8. W.
1852. {Jacoss, Berne. 40 George-street, Hull.
1874. *Jaffe, John. Cambridge Villa, Strandtown, near Belfast.
1865. *Jaffray, John. Park-grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1872. {James, Christopher. 8 Laurence Pountney Hill, London, E.C.
1860. {James, Edward H. Woodside, Plymouth.
1863. *Jamzs, Sir Watrer, Bart., F.G.S. 6 Whitehall-cardens, London,
5. W,
1858. {James, William C. Woodside, Plymouth.
1876. {Jamieson, J. L. K. The Mansion House, Govan, Glasgow.
1876. {Jamieson, Rev. Dr. R. 156 Randolph-terrace, Glasgow.
1859. *Jamieson, Thomas F., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire.
1850. {Jardine, Alexander. Jardine Hall, Lockerby, Dumfriesshire.
1870. {Jardine, Edward. Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool.
1853. ea Rey. Canon J., M.A. North Cave, near Brough, York-
shire.
JARRETT, Rey. THomas, M.A., Professor of Arabic in the University
of Cambridge. Trunch, Norfolk.
1870.§§Jarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich.
1862. {Jeakes, Rev. James, M.A. 54 Argyll-road, Kensington, London, W.
Jebb, Rev. John. Peterstow Rectory, Ross, Herefordshire.
1868. {Jecks, Charles. 26 Langham-place, Northampton.
1856. {Jeffery, Henry M., M.A., F.R.S. 438 High-street, Cheltenham.
1855. *Jeffray, John. Cardowan House, Millerston, Glasgow. :
1867. ee Howel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 5 Brick-court, Temple, London,
1861. *Jerrreys, J. Gwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Treas, G.S., F.R.G.S.
Ware Priory, Herts.
1852. ey Rey. Joun H., B.D., M.R.LA. 64 Lower Leeson-street,
ublin.
1862.§§JENKIN, H. ©. Freemine, F.R.S., M.LO0.E., Professor of Civil
Engineering in the University of Edinburgh. 3 Great Stuart-
street, Edinburgh.
eta Major-General J. J. 14 St. James’s-square, London,
46 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1880, *JzEnKINs, JoHN JonEs. The Grange, Swansea.
Jennette, Matthew. 106 Conway-street, Birkenhead.
1852, {Jennings, Francis M., F.G.S., M.R.LA. Brown-street, Cork.
1872, {Jennings, W. Grand Hotel, Brighton.
1878, {Jephson, Henry L. Chief Secretary’s Office, The Castle, Dublin.
*Jerram, Rey. 8. John, M.A. Chobham Vicarage, Woking Station,
Surrey.
1872. {Jesson, Thomas. 7 Upper Wimpole-street, Cavendish-square,
London, W.
Jessop, William, jun. Butterley Hall, Derbyshire.
1870, *Jevons, W. Sranztey, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Political
Economy in University College, London. 2 The Chestnuts,
Branch Hill, Hampstead Heath, London, N.W.
1872. *Joad, George C. Oaktield, Wimbledon, Surrey, S.W.
1871. *Johnson, David, F.C.S., F.G.S. Irvon Villa, Grosvenor-road,
Wrexham.
1865. *Johnson, G. J. 36 Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
1875. §Johnson, James Henry, F.G.S., F.S.A. 73 Albert-road, Southport.
1866. {Johnson, John. Knighton Fields, Leicester.
1866. tJohnson, John G. 18a Basinghall-street, London, E.C.
1872. {Johnson, J.T. 27 Dale-street, Manchester.
1861. {Johnson, Richard. 27 Dale-street, Manchester.
1870.§§Johnson, Richard C., F.R.A.S. Higher Bebington Hall, Birken-
head.
1863. {Johnson, R. S. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham.
*Johnson, Thomas. Bache Hurst, Liverpool-road, Chester.
1861. {Johnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham.
1864, {Johnston, David. 15 Marlborough-buildings, Bath.
1859. {Johnston, James, Newmill, Elgin, N.B.
1864. {Johnston, James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, London,
N.W
*Jobhnstone, James. Alva House, Alva, by Stirling, N.B.
1864. tJohnstone, John. 1 Barnard-villas, Bath.
1876. {Johnstone, William. 5 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
1864, {Jolly, Thomas. Park! View-villas, Bath.
1871.§§Jolly, William (H.M. Inspector of Schools). Inverness, N.B.
1849, {Jones, Baynham. Selkirk Villa, Cheltenham.
1856, {Jones, C. W. 7 Grosvenor-place, Cheltenham.
1877.§§ Jones, Henry C., F.C.S. 166 Blackstock-road, London, N,
*Jones, Robert. 2 Castle-street, Liverpool.
1873. {Jones, Theodore B. 1 Finsbury-cireus, London, E.C.
1880. §Jones, Thomas. 15 Gower-street, Swansea.
1860. {Jonzs, Toomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology at the
Staff College, Sandhurst. Powis Villa, Camberley, Surrey.
1847. {Jonzs, THomas Rymer, F.R.S. 52 Cornwall-road, Westbourne
Park, London, W.
1864.§§JonEs, Sir Wintovensy, Bart., F.R.G.S. Cranmer Hall, Fakenham,
Norfolk.
1875, *Jose, J. E. 38 Queen-square, Bristol.
*Joule, Benjamin St. John B., J.P. 28 Leicester-street, Southport,
Lancashire.
1842. *JouLE, James Prescorr, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 12 Wardle-road,
Sale, near Manchester.
1847. {Jowerr, Rev. B., M.A., Regius Professor of Greek in the University
of Oxford. Balliol College, Oxford.
1858. {Jowett, John. Leeds. ;
1879.§§Jowitt, A. Hawthorn Lodge, Clarkehouse-road, Sheffield.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 47
‘Year of
‘Election.
1872,
1848.
1870.
1868.
1857.
1859.
1847.
1872.
1875.
1878.
1876,
1864,
1853.
1875.
1876.
1865.
1857.
1857.
1855.
1876.
1868.
1869.
1869.
1861.
1876.
1876.
1865.
1878.
1860.
1875.
1872.
1875.
1871.
1855.
1870.
1864,
{Joy, Algernon, Junior United Service Club, St. James's, London,
S.W
*Joy, Rey. Charles Ashfield. Grove Parsonage, Wantage, Berkshire,
Joy, Rev. John Holmes, M.A. 3 Coloney-terrace, Tunbridge Wells.
*Jubb, Abraham. Halifax.
fJudd, John Wesley, F.R.S.,F.G.S, 4 Auriol-road, West Kensington,
London, W.
*Kaines, Joseph, M.A.,D.Se. 401 Finsbury-pavement, London, E.C.
Kang, Sir Roserr, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA., F.0.8., Prin-
cipal of the Royal College of Cork. Fortland, Killiney, Oo.
Dublin.
{Kavanagh, James W. Grenville, Rathgar, Ireland.
{Kay, David, F.R.G.S. 19 Upper Phillimore-place, Kensington,
London, W.
Kay, John Cunliff. Fairfield Hall, near Skipton.
Kay, Robert. Haugh Bank, Bolton-le-Moors.
*Kay, Rey. William, D.D. Great Leghs Rectory, Chelmsford.
{Keames, William M. 5 Lower Rock-gardens, Brighton.
{Keeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney.
*Kelland, William Henry. 110 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.; and
Grettans, Bow, North Devon.
{Kelly, Andrew G. The Manse, Alloa, N.B.
*Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunton, Somerset.
{Kemp, Rey. Henry William, B.A. The Charter House, Hull.
[Kunnepy, ALexanper B, W., C.E., Professor of Engineering in
University College, London. 9 Bartholomew-road, London, N. W.
{Kennedy, Hugh. Redclyffe, Partickhill, Glasgow.
{Kenrick, William. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Kent, J.C. Levant Lodge, Earl’s Croome, Worcester.
{Kent, William T., M.R.D.S. 51 Rutland-square, Dublin.
*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland.
*Ker, Robert. Dougalston, Milngavie, N.B.
{Ker, William. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow.
{Kerrison, Roger. Crown Bank, Norwich.
*Kesselmeyer, Charles A. 1 Peter-street, Manchester.
*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. 1 Peter-street, Manchester.
*Keymer, John. Parker-street, Manchester.
{Kidston, J. B. West Regent-street, Glasgow.
{Kidston, William. Ferniegair, Helensburgh, N.B.
pamabe Edward Hudson, M.R.LA. 11 Merrion-square North,
Dublin.
{Kinahan, Edward Hudson, jun. 11 Merrion-square North, Dublin.
{Kuvanan, G. Huyry, M.R.LA., Geological Survey of Ireland. 14
Hume-street, Dublin.
*Kinch, Edward, F.C.S. Agricultural College, Home Department,
Tokio, Japan. (Care of C. J, Kinch, Esq., 8 West Kensington-
terrace, London, W.
“King, Mrs. E. M. 84 Cornwall-road, Westbourne Park, London,
W.
*King, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.
“King, Herbert Poole. Theological College, Salisbury.
{King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow.
§King, John Thomson, C.E. 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool.
King, Joseph. Blundell Sands, Liverpool.
§ Kine, saline M.D. 27 George-street, and Royal Institution,
Hull,
48 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1860, *King, Mervyn Kersteman. 1 Vittoria-square, Clifton, Bristol. - -
1875. *King, Perey L. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.
1870. {King, William. 13 Adelaide-terrace, Waterloo, Liverpool.
King, William Poole, F.G.S. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol.
1869. {Kinedon, K. Taddiford, Exeter.
1861. {Kingsley, John. Ashfield, Victoria Park, Manchester.
1876. §Kingston, Thomas. Strawberry House, Chiswick, Middlesex.
1835. Kingstone, A. John, M.A. Mosstown, Longford, Ireland.
1875. §Krnezerr, Cxartus T., F.C.S. 12 Auriol-road, The Cedars, West
Kensington, London, W.
1867. {Kinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland.
1867. *Kinnatrp, The Right Hon. Lord. 2 Pall Mall East, London,
S.W.; and Rossie Priory, Inchture, Perthshire.
1870. {Kinsman, William R. Branch Bank of England, Liverpool.
1863. { Kirkaldy, David. 28 Bartholomew-road North, London, N.W.
1860. {Krrxman, Rev. Tuomas P., M.A., F.R.S. Croft Rectory, near
Warrington.
Kirkpatrick, Rev. W. B., D.D. 48 North Great George-street,
Dublin.
1876. *Kirkwood, Anderson, LL.D., F.R.S.E. 12 Windsor-terrace West,
Hillhead, Glasgow.
1875. {Kirsop, John. 6 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow.
1870. {Kitchener, Frank EK. Newcastle, Staffordshire.
1869. {Knapman, Edward. The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter.
1870. {Kneeshaw, Henry. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.
1836. Knipe, J. A. Botcherby, Carlisle.
1872. *Knott, George, LL.B., F.R.A.S. Knowles Lodge, Cuckfield, Hay-
ward's Heath, Sussex.
1878. *Knowles, George. Moorhead, Shipley, Yorkshire.
1872. {Knowles, James. The Hollies, Clapham Common, S.W.
1842. Knowles, John. The Lawn, Rugby.
1870. {Knowles, Rev. J. L. 103 Earl’s Court-road, Kensington, London, W.
1874.§§Knowles, William James. Cullybackey, Belfast, Ireland.
1876. {Knox, David N., M.A., M.B. 8 Belgrave-terrace, Hillhead,
Glasgow.
*Knox, George James. 2 Coleshill-street, Eaton-square, London,
S.W
1835. Knox, Thomas Perry. Union Club, Trafalgar-square, London, W.C.
1875. *Knubley, Rev. E. P. Staveley Rectory, Leeds.
1870. {Kynaston, Josiah W., F.C.S. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.
1865. tKynnersley, J.C.S. The Leveretts, Handsworth, Birmingham.
1858. §Lace, Francis John. Stone Gapp, Cross-hill, Leeds.
1859. §Ladd, William, F.R.A.S. 11 & 18 Beak-street, Regent-street, Lon-
don, W.
1870. {Laird, H.H. Birkenhead.
1870. §Laird, John, jun. Grosvenor-road, Claughton, Birkenhead.
1880. *Lake, Samuel. Milford Docks, Milford Haven.
1877. §Lake, W.C., M.D. Teignmouth.
1859. {Lalor, John Joseph, M.R.I.A. 2 Longford-terrace, Monkstown, Co.
Dublin.
1871. {Lancaster, Kdward. Karesforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
1877. {Landon, Frederic George, M.A., F.R.A.S. 8 The Circus, Green-
wich, London, S.E.
1859. {Zang, Rev. John Marshall. Bank House, Morningside, Edinburgh.
1864, tLang, Robert. Langford Lodge, College-road, Clifton, Bristol.
1870, {Langtou, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 49°
‘Year of
Election.
1865,
1880.
1878,
1861.
1870.
1870.
1875.
1870.
1878.
1857,
1862.
1870.
1875.
1857.
1876.
1868.
1863.
1853.
1865.
1857.
1870.
1847,
1844.
1858.
1863.
1872.
1858.
1861.
1853.
1859.
1872.
1869,
*Langton, William. Docklands, Ingatestone, Essex.
tLanxester, E. Ray, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Comparative Ana-
tomy and Zoology in University College, London. Exeter
College, Oxford; and 11 Wellington Mansions, North Bank,
London, N.W.
“Lansdell, Rev. Henry. Eyre Cottage, Blackheath, London, S.E.
Lanyon, Sir Charles. The Abbey, White Abbey, Belfast.
tLapper, E., M.D. 61 Harcourt-street, Dublin.
*Latham, Arthur G. Lower King-street, Manchester.
*LatHaM, Barpwin, C.E., F.G.S. 7 Westminster-chambers, West-
minster, 8. W.
tLaughton, John Knox, M.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Royal Naval
College, Greenwich, S.E.
tLavington, William F, 107 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
<ppid Channell. Sydney Villa, 36 Outram-road, Addiscombe, Croy-
on.
tLaw, Henry, C.E. 5 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, S,W.
tLaw, Hugh, Q.C. 9 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.
tLaw, Rev. James Edmund, M.A. Little Shelford, Cambridgeshire.
Lawley, The Hon. Francis Charles. Escrick Park, near York.
aie te The Hon. Stephen Willoughby. Escrick Park, near
ork.
tLawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool.
tLawson, George, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Botany.
Halifax, Nova Scotia.
{Lawson, The Right Hon. James A., LL.D., M.R.LA. 27 Fitz-
william-street, Dublin.
tLawson, John. Cluny Hill, Forres, N.B.
“Lawson, M. ALexanpeER, M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in the
University of Oxford. Botanic Gardens, Oxford.
tLawton, Benjamin ©. Neville Chambers, 44 Westgate-street,
Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
{Lawton, William. 6 Victoria-terrace, Derringham, Hull.
tea, Henry. 35 Paradise-street, Birmingham.
tLeach, Colonel R. E. Mountjoy, Phoenix Park, Dublin:
*Leaf, Charles John, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A, Old Change, London,
E.C. ; and Painshill, Cobham.
*LEATHAM, Epwarp Atpam, M.P. Whitley Hall, Huddersfield ;
and 46 Katon-square, London, 8. W.
*Leather, John Towlerton, F.S.A. Leventhorpe Hall, near Leeds.
feather, John W. Newton-green, Leeds.
tLeavers, J. W. The Park, Nottingham.
tLesovr, G. A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the College of
Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. Weedpark House, Dipton,
Lintz Green, Co. Durham.
*Le Cappelain, John. Wood-lane, Highgate, London, N.
{Lee, Henry. Irwell House, Lower Broughton, Manchester.
*Ler, Joun Epwarp, F.G.S., F.S.A. Villa Syracusa, Torquay.
{Lees, William. Link Vale Lodge, Viewforth, Edinburgh.
*Leese, Joseph. Glenfield, Altrincham, Manchester.
tLereves, G. Suaw, M.P., F.R.G.S. 18 Bryanston-square, London,
WwW
“Lurroy, Lieut.-General Sir Jonn Henry, C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A.,
F.RS., F.R.G.S. Tasmania.
“Legh, Lieut.-Colonel George Cornwall, M.P. High Legh Hall,
Cheshire; and 43 Curzon-street, Mayfair, London, W.
tLe Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance.
D
50 LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1868. {LercesrER, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Holkham, Norfolk,
1856. {LeieH, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L. 37 Portman-square,
1861
1870
1880,
1867
London, W.; and Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth.
. *Leigh, Henry. Moorfield, Swinton, near Manchester,
. Leighton, Andrew. 35 High-park-street, Liverpool.
. §Leighton, William Henry, F.G.S. 2 Merton-place, Chiswick, 8.W.
.§§Leishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool.
1870. {Leister, G. F. Gresbourn House, Liverpool.
1859, {Leith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B.
1863, *Lenpy, Major Avcustz Freperic, F.L.S,, F.G.8. Sunbury House,
1867.
Sunbury, Middlesex.
tLeng, John. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee.
1878, {Lennon, Rev. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Ireland.
1861,
1871.
tLennox, A.C. W. 7 Beaufort-gardens, Brompton, London, 8. W,
Lentaigne, Sir John, O.B., M.D. Tallaght House, Co. Dublin; and
1 Great Denmark-street, Dublin.
Lentaigne, Joseph. 12 Great Denmark-street, Dublin,
§LronarD, Huen, F.G.S., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.1. Geological Survey
of Ireland, 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
1874, tLepper, Charles W. Laurel Lodge, Belfast.
1861,
tLeppoc, Henry Julius. Kersal Crag, near Manchester.
1872. {Lermit, Rey. Dr. School House, Dedham.
1871.
tLeslie, Alexander, C.E. 72 George-street, Edinburgh.
1856. tLeslie, Colonel J. Forbes. Rothienorman, Aberdeenshire.
1852. {Lustim, T. E. Crirrs, LL.B., Professor of Jurisprudence and Political
Economy in Queen’s College, Belfast.
1880. §LercHER, R. J. Lansdowne-terrace, Walters-road, Swansea.
1876. {Zeveson, Edward John. Cluny, Sydenham Hill, SE.
1866. §Levi1, Dr. Leonn, F.S.A., F.S.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Com-
1879
mercial Law in King’s College, London, 5 Crown Office-row,
Temple, London, E.C.
.§§Lewin, Lieut.-Colonel. Tanhurst, Dorking.
1870, {Luwis, Atrrep Liongn. 151 Church-road, De Beauvoir Town,
1853.
London, N.
fLiddeli, George William Moore. Sutton House, near Hull,
1860. {LippELt, The Very Rev. H. G., D.D., Dean of Christ Church,
Oxford.
1876. tLietke, J.O. 30 Gordon-street, Glasgow.
1862.
1878.
1871.
{Lizrorp, The Right Hon. Lord, F.L.S. Lilford Hall, Oundle, North-
auptonshire,
*Limerick, The Right Rev. Coartes Graves, D.D., F.R.S., M.R.LA.,
Lord Bishop of. The Palace, Henry-street, Limerick,
tLincolne, William. Ely, Cambridgeshire.
*Lindsay, Charles. Ridge Park, Lanark, N.B.
*Linpsay, The Right Hon. Lord, M.P., F.R.S. 47 Brook-street,
London, W.
1870. {Lindsay, Thomas, F.C.S. 288 Renfrew-street, Glasgow.
1871.
1876,
1870,
1876,
1861,
tLindsay, Rev. T. M., M.A., D.D. Free Church College, Glasgow.
Lingwood, Robert M., M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 1 Derby-villas, Chel-
tenham.
§Linn, James. Geological Survey Office, India-buildings, Edinburgh.
Lister, James. Liverpool Union Bank, Liverpool.
§Lister, Thomas. Victoria-crescent, Barnsley, Yorkshire.
{Little, Thomas Evelyn. 42 Brunswick-street, Dublin.
Littledale, Harold. Liscard Hall, Cheshire.
*Liveine, G. D., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in the
University of Cambridge. Cambridge.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 51
‘Year of
Election.
1876, *Liversidge, Archibald, F.0.S,, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Geology
and Mineralogy in the University of Sydney, N.S.W. (Care
of Messrs. Triibner & Co,, Ludgate Hill, London, E.C.)
1864.§§Livesay, J. G. Cromarty House, Ventnor, Isle of Wight,
1880, §Llewelyn, John T. D. Penllegare, Swansea.
Lloyd, Rey, A. R. Hengold, near Oswestry.
Lloyd, Rev. C., M.A. Whittington, Oswestry.
1842. Lloyd, Edward, King-street, Manchester,
1865. {Lloyd, G. B. Edgbaston-grove, Birmingham.
*Lloyd, George, M.D., F.G.S. Acock’s-green, near Birmingham.
*Liorp, Rev, Humpurey, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L.& E., MRA,
Provost of Trinity College, Dublin.
1865. tLloyd, John. Queen’s College, Birmingham.
Lloyd, Rev. Rees Lewis. Belper, Derbyshire,
1877. *Lloyd, Sampson Samuel, M.P, Moor Hall, Sutton Coldfield.
1865, *Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S. Myrod House, Wednesbury.
1854. *Losizy, Jamns Logan, F.G.S8., F.R.GS. 59 Clarendon-road, Ken-
sington Park, London, W,
1853. *Locke, John. 133 Leinster-road, Dublin.
1867. *Locke, John. 83 Addison-road, Kensington, London, W.
1863. {Locxyer, J. Norman, F.R.S., F.R.A.S, 16 Penywern-road, South
£ Kensington, London, 8. W. ,
1875. *Lopex, Otrver J., D.Sc. University College, London, W.C.; and
17 Parkhurst-road, London, N.
1868. {Login, Thomas, C.E., F.R.S.E. India.
1862. {Long, Andrew, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge
1876, tLong, H. A. Charlotte-street, Glasgow.
1872. {Long, Jeremiah. 50 Marine Parade, Brighton.
1871. *Long, John Jex. 727 Duke-street, Glasgow.
1851. {Long, William, F.G.S. Hurts Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk,
1866. §Longdon, Frederick. Osmaston-road, Derby.
LonerreLp, The Right Hon. Movntrrort, LL.D., M.R.LA., Regius
Professor of Feudal and English Law in the University of
. Dublin. 47 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin.
1859, {Longmuir, Rey. John, M.A., LL.D. 14 Silver-street, Aberdeen.
1875, *Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.B., F.C.S. Southfield Grange,
‘Wandsworth, S.W.
1871. §Longstaff, George Dixon, M.D., F.C.S. Southfields, Wandsworth,
S.W.; and 9 Upper Thames-street, London, E.C.
1872. *Longstaff, Lieut.-Colonel Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S, Ridgelands,
Wimbledon, S.W.
2861. *Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden.
1863. {Losh, W.S. Wreay Syke, Carlisle.
1876. *Love, James, F.R.A‘S. 133 George-street, Paisley.
1875. *Lovett, W. J. 96 Lionel-street, Birmingham.
1867. *Low, James F. Monifieth, by Dundee.
1863. *Lowe, Lieut.-Colonel Arthur S. H., F.R.A.S. 76 Lancaster-gate,
London, W.
1861. *Lowz, Epwarp Josnru, F.R.S., F.R.AS., F.LS., F.G.S., FMS.
Shirenewton, near Chepstow.
1870. {Lowe, G.C. 67 Cecil-street, Greenheys, Manchester.
-1868. {Lowe, John, M.D. King’s Lynn.
1850. {Lowe, William Henry, M.D., F.R.S.E. Balgreen, Siateford, Edin-
: burgh.
“1853. ‘Treane, Sir Joy, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., E.LS.,
F.G.S. (Prestpent Erzcr.) High Elms, Farnborough, Kent,
41870. {Lubbock, Montague. High Elms, Farnborough, Kent,
D2
52
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1878.
1849.
1875.
1867.
1873.
1866.
1873.
1850.
1853.
1858.
1864.
1874.
1864.
1871.
1874.
1857.
1878.
1862.
1852.
1854.
1876.
1876,
1868.
1878.
1879.
1866.
1838
1840,
1871.
1866.
1863.
1855.
1876.
1840.
1863.
1872.
1874.
1878.
1859.
1858.
1876.
1871.
1878.
tLucas, Joseph. Tooting Graveney, London, 8.W.
*Luckcock, Howard. Oak-hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
§Lucy, W. C., F.G.S._ The Winstones, Brookthorpe, Gloucester.
*Luis, John Henry. Cidhmore, Dundee.
tLumley, J. Hope Villa, Thornbury, near Bradford, Yorkshire.
*Lund, Charles. 48 Market-street, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tLund, Joseph. Ilkley, Yorkshire.
*Lundie, Cornelius. Teviot Bank, Newport Road, Cardiff.
{Lunn, William Joseph, M.D. 25 Charlotte-street, Hull.
*Lupton, Arthur. Headingley, near Leeds.
*Lupton, Darnton. The Harehills, near Leeds.
*Lupton, Sydney, M.A. Harrow.
*Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester.
tLyell, Leonard. 42 Regent’s Park-road, London, N.W.
tLynam, James, C.K. Ballinasloe, Ireland.
tLyons, Robert D., M.B., M.R.I.A. 8 Merrion-square West,
Dublin.
tLyte, Cecil Maxwell. Cotford, Oakhill-road, Putney, 8. W.
“Lyre, F. Maxwett, F.C.S. Cotford, Oakhill-road, Putney, S.W.
tMcAdam, Robert. 18 College-square East, Belfast.
*MacapaM, Stevenson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.8., Lecturer on
Chemistry. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh ; and Brighton House,
Portobello, by Edinburgh.
tM‘Adam, William. 30 St. Vincent-crescent, Glaszow.
*Macadam, William Ivison. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh.
t{MacatisteR, ALEXANDER, M.D., Professor of Zoology in the Uni+
versity of Dublin. 13 Adelaide-road, Dublin.
§McAlister, Donald, B.A., B.Sc. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, Lon+
. don, E.C.
§MacAndrew, James J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, Sheffield.
*M‘Arthur, A., M.P. Raleigh Hall, Brixton Rise, London, 8. W.
Macaulay, Henry. 14 Clifton Bank, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
Macavtay, James, A.M., M.D. 22 Cambridge-road, Kilburn, Lons
don, N. W.
tM‘ Bain, James, M.D., R.N. Logie Villa, York-road, Trinity, Edin
burgh.
*MacBrayne, Robert. Messrs. Black and Wingate, 5 Exchange«
square, Glasgow.
tM‘Cattan, Rev. J. F., M.A. Basford, near Nottingham.
tM‘Calmont, Robert. Gatton Park, Reigate.
tM‘Cann, Rey. James, D.D., F.G.S. 18 Shaftesbury-terrace, Glaszows
*M‘CLectann, A.S. 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
M‘CrELianD, Jamus, F.S.8. 32 Pembridge-square, London, W.
{M‘Currocx, Rear-Admiral Sir Francts L., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.G.S,
United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, S. W.
*M‘Clure, J. H. The Wilderness, Richmond, Surrey.
tM‘Clure, Sir Thomas, Bart. Belmont, Belfast.
*M‘Comas, Henry. Homestead, Dundrum, Co. Dublin.
*M‘ Connell, David C., F.GS.. 44 Manor-place, Edinburgh.
tM‘Connell, J. E. Woodlands, Great Missenden.
tM‘Culloch, Richard. 109 Douglas-street, Blythswood-square, Glas«
t
sf
Ow.
MDonald, William. Yokohama, Japan. (Care of R. K. Knevitt,
Esq., Sun-court, Cornhill, E.C.)
McDonnell, Alexander. St. John’s, Island Bridge, Dublin.
MacDonnell, Hercules H. G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 53
Year of
lection.
1878, t{McDonnell, James. 32 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.
1878. {McDonnell, Robert, M.D., F.R.S., M.R.IL.A. 14 Lower Pembroke-
street, Dublin.
*M‘Ewan, John. 3 Douglas-terrace, Stirling, N.B.
1871. {M‘Farlane, Donald. The College Laboratory, Glasgow.
1855. *Macfarlane, Walter. 22 Park-circus, Glasgow.
1879.§§Macfarlane, Walter, jun. 22 Park-circus, Glasgow.
1854. *Macfie, Robert Andrew. Dreghorn, Colinton, Edinburgh,
1867, *M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee.
1855. {MacGeorge, Andrew, jun. 21 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.
1872. {M‘George, Mungo. Nithsdale, Laurie Park, Sydenham, S.E. .
1873, {McGowen, William Thomas. Oak-avenue, Oak Mount, Bradford,
Yorkshire. ;
1855. {M‘Gregor, Alexander Bennett. 19 Woodside-crescent, Glasgow.
1855. {MacGregor, James Watt. 2 Laurence-place, Partick, Glasgow.
1876. {M‘Grigor, Alexander B. 19 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
1859. {M‘Hardy, David. 54 Netherkinkgate, Aberdeen.
1874, {MacIlwaine, Rev. Canon, D.D., M.R.LA. Ulsterville, Belfast.
1876. {Macindoe, Patrick. 9 Somerset-place, Glasgow.
1859. {Macintosh, John. Middlefield House, Woodside, Aberdeen.
1867, *M‘Intosu, W. C., M.D., F RS. L. & E., F.L.S. Murthly, Perthshire,
1854, *Maclver, Charles. 8 A bercromby-square, Liverpool.
1871. tMackay, Rev. A., LL.D., F.R.G.S. 2 Hatton-place, Grange, Edin-
burgh.
1873. {McKewpricr, JounG.,M.D.,F.R.S.E. 2Chester-street, Edinburgh.
1880, *Mackenzie, Colin. Junior Atheneum Club, Piccadilly, London, W.
1865. {Mackeson, Henry B., F.G.S. Hythe, Kent.
1872. *Mackey, J. A. 24 Buckingham-place, Brighton.
1867, §Macxre, Samvnn Josepn, 0.E., F.G.S. 22 Eldon-road, Kensington,
London, W.
*Mackinlay, David. 6 Great Western-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
1865. {Mackintosh, Daniel, F.G.S. Whitford-road, Tranmere, Birkenhead.
1850. {Macknight, Alexander. 12 London-street, Edinburgh.
1867. {Mackson, H. G. 25 Cliff-road, Woodhouse, Leeds.
1872. *McLacutan, Rozert, F.R.S., F.L.S. 389 Limes-grove, Lewisham,
S.E.
1878. {McLandsborough, John, 0.E., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. South Park Villa,
Harrogate, Yorkshire.
1860, {Maclaren, Archibald. Summertown, Oxfordshire.
‘1864, {MacLaren, Duncan, M.P. Newington House, Kdinburgh.
1873. {MacLaren, Walter S. B. Newington House, Edinburgh.
1876, {M‘Lean, Charles. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
1876, tM‘Lean, Mrs. Charles, 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
‘1862, {Macleod, Henry Dunning. 17 Gloucester-terrace, Campden-hill-road,
London, W.
1868. §M‘Lrop, Hzrsrrr, F.0.S. Indian Civil Engineering College,
Cooper’s Hill, Egham.
1875. {Macliver, D. 1 Broad-street, Bristol.
1875. {Macliver, P.S. 1 Broad-street, Bristol.
1861. *Maclure, John William. 2 Bond-street, Manchester.
1878. *M‘Master, George, M.A., J.P. Donnybrook, Ireland.
1862. {Macmillan, Alexander. Streatham-lane, Upper Tooting, Surrey,
S.W
1874, {MacMordie, Hans, M.A. 8 Donegall-street, Belfast.
1871. {M‘Nas, Wirr1am Ramsay, M.D., Professor of Botany in the Royal
College of Science, Dublin. 4 Vernon-parade, Clontarf, Dublin.
1870. {Macnaught, John, M.D, 74 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
54
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1867.
1878.
1852.
1876.
1855.
1868.
1875.
§M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth. Oies
MacNerit, The Right Hon. Sir Joun, G.C.B., F.R.S.E., F.R.G.S_
Granton House, Edinburgh.
{tMacnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin.
*Macrory, Adam John. Duncairn, Belfast.
*Macrory, Epmunp, M.A. 2 Ilchester-gardens, Prince’s-square,.
London, W.
*Mactear, James. 16 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.
tMacyicar, Rey. Joun Grsson, D.D., LL.D. Moffat, N.B.
tMagnay, F. A. Dyayton, near Norwich.
*Magnus, Philip. 48 Gloucester-place, Portman-square, London, W.
1879.§§Mahomed, F. A. 13 St. Thomas-street, London, 8.E.
1878.
1869.
1866.
1870.
1874.
1863.
1857.
1846.
1870.
1866.
1866.
tMahony, W. A. 34 College-creen, Dublin.
{Main, Robert. Admiralty, Whitehall, London, S.W.
t¢Masor, Ricwarp Henry, F.S.A., Sec.R.G.S. British Museum,
London, W.C.
*MALAHIDE, The Right Hon. Lord Tatzor nz, M.A., D.C.L., E.R.S.,.
F.G.S., F.S.A., M.R.IL.A. Malahide Castle, Co. Dublin.
*Malcolm, Frederick. Morden College, Blackheath, London, 8.E.
*Malcolm, Sir James, Bart. 1 Cornwall-gardens, South Kensington,.
London, S.W.
tMalcolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, Belfast.
{Maling, O. T. Lovaine-crescent, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tMallet, John William, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.C.8., Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Virginia, U.S.
*Mattrr, Ropert, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., M.R.I.A. Enmore, The:
Grove, Clapham-road, Clapham, S.W.
t{Mansy, Cuartzs, F.R.S., F.G.S. 60 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde-
Park, London, W.
tManifold, W. H. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
§Mann, Ropert JAmus, M.D., F.R.A.S. 5 Kingsdown-villas, Wands--
worth Common, S. W.
Manning, His Eminence Cardinal. Archbishop’s House, West-
minster, 8. W.
tManning, John. Waverley-street, Nottingham,
1878.§§Manning, Robert. 4 Upper Ely-place, Dublin.
1864.
1870.
1864,
1863.
1871.
1857.
1842.
1870.
1865.
1864.
1852.
1876.
1858.
1849,
1865.
1848.
1878.
}Mansel, J.C. Long Thorns, Blandford.
tMarcoartu, Senor Don Arturo de. Madrid.
{Marxuam, Crements R., O.B., F.R.S., F.L.S., Sec.R.G.S., F.S.A.
21 Kecleston-square, Pimlico, London, S.W.
{Marley, John. Mining Office, Darlington.
*Marling, Samuel 8., M.P. Stanley Park, Stroud, Gloucester-.
shire.
ee, A. Frizre-. College of Physical Science, Neweastle-on-
yne.
}Marriott, William, F.C.S. Grafton-street, Huddersfield.
Marsden, Richard. Norfolk-street, Manchester.
tMarsh, Jchn. Rann Lea, Rainhill, Liverpool.
{Marsh, J. F. Hardwick House, Chepstow.
{Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 37 Grosvenor-place, Bath.
}Marshall, James D. Holywood, Belfast.
{Marshall, Peter. 6 Parkgrove-terrace, Glasgow.
tMarshall, Reginald Dykes. Adel, near Leeds.
*Marshall, William P. 14 Augustus-road, Birmingham.
§Marren, Enwarp Brnpon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge.
{Martin, Henry D. 4 Imperial-circus, Cheltenham.
{Martin, H. Newell. Christ’s College, Cambridge.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 5b
Year of
Election.
1871. es Rey. Hugh, M.A. Greenhill Cottage, Lasswade, by Edin-
urgh.
1870. Wigtin. Robert, M.D. 120 Upper Brook-street, Manchester.
1836. Martin, Studley. 177 Bedford-street South, Liv erpool.
*Martindale, Nicholas. Queen’s Park, Chester.
*Martineau, Rey. James, LL.D., D.D. 35 Gordon-square, London,
W.C.
1865. {Martineau, R. F. Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
1865. {Martineau, Thomas. 7 Cannon-street, Birmingham.
1875. {Martyn, Samuel, M.D. 8 Buckingham- villas, Clifton, Bristol.
1878.§§ Masaki, Taiso. "Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopscate-street Within,
London, E.C.
1847. {MAsxkEryne, Nevin Story, M.P., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Mineralogy in the University of Oxford. 112 Gloucester-terrace,
Hyde Park-gardens, London, W.
1861. ‘Mason, Hugh. Groby Hall, Ashton-under-Lyne.
1879. §§Mason, James, M.D. Montgomer y House, Shettield.
1868. {Mason, James Wood, F. GS. The Indian Museum, Calcutta.
(Care of Messrs. Henry S. King & Co., 65 Cornhill, London,
E.C.)
ae §§Mason, Robert. 6 Albion-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow.
6. {Mason, Stephen. 9 Rosslyn-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
Massey, Hugh, Lord. Hermitage, Castleconnel, Co. Limerick.
1870. {Massy, Frederick. 50 Grove-street, Liverpool.
1876. {Matheson, John. Eastfield, Rutherglen, Glasgow.
1865. *Mathews, G.S. 32 Augustus-road, “Edebaston, Birmingham.
1861. *MarHews, WILLIAM, M. A., F.G.S. 60 Harborne-road, Birming-
ham.
1876. *Mathiesen, John, jun. Cordale, Renton, Glasgow.
1865. tMatthews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham.
1858. {Matthews, F.C. Mandre Works, ‘Driffield, Yorkshire,
1860. {Matthews, Rev. Richard Brown. Shalford Vicarage, near Guild-
ford.
1863. {Maughan, Rev. W. Benwell Parsonage, Newcastle on-Tyne.
1865. *Maw, Guorez, F.LS., F.GS, F.S.A. Benthall Hall, Broseley,
Shropshire.
1876. {Maxton, John. 6 Belgrave-terrace, Glasgow.
(1864, *Maxwell, Francis. St. Germains, Longniddry, East Lothian.
: *Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Groomsport House, Belfast.
1868. {Mayall, J. E., F.C.S. Stork’s Nest, Lancing, Sussex.
1835. Mayne, Edward Ellis. Rocklands, Stillorgan, Ireland.
1878. *Mayne, Thomas. 33 Castle-street, Dublin.
1863. {Mease, George D. Bylton Villa, South Shields.
1871. {Meikie, James, F.S.S. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh.
1879. §Meiklejohn, John W. S., M.D. H.M. Dockyard, Chatham.
1867. {M=ELpRUM, CHARLES, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Port Louis, Mau-~
ritius.
1879. *Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop.
1866. {Mxzrto, ’Rev. J. M., M.A., F.G.S. St. Thomas's Rectory, Brampton,
Chesterfield.
1854. {Melly, Charles Pierre. 11 Rumford-street, Liverpool.
1847. {Melville, Professor Alexander Gordon, M. D. Queen’s College, Gal-
way.
1863. {Melvin, Alexander. 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh.
1877. *Menabrea, General Count. 35 Queen’s-gate, London, 8. W.
1862. {MEnnELL, Henry J. St. Dunstan’ s-buildings, Great Tower-street,
London, £.C.
56 LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1879. §Merivale, John Herman. Nedderton R.S.O., Northumberland.
1879. §Merivale, Walter. Engineers’ Oftice, North-Eastern Railway, New-
castle-on-Tyne.
1868. §MurrrrreLD, Cuartes W., F.R.S. 20 Girdler’s-road, Brook Green,
London, W.
1877. {Merrifield, John, Ph.D., F.R.A.S. Gascoigne-place, Plymouth.
1880. §Merry, Alfred 8S. Bryn Heulog, Sketty, near Swansea.
1871. { Merson, John. Northumberland County Asylum, Morpeth.
1872. *Messent, John. 429 Strand, London, W.C,
1863. tMessent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth.
1869. {Mratt, Louis C., F.G.S.,Professor of Biology in Yorkshire College,
Leeds.
1865, tMiddlemvre, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1876, *Middleton, Robert T., M.P. 197 West George-street, Glasgow.
1866. {Midgley, John. Colne, Lancashire.
1867. {Midgley, Robert. Colne, Lancashire.
1859, {Millar, John, J.P. Lisburn, Ireland.
1863. {Millar, John, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S. Bethnal House, Cambridge-road,
London, E.
Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Perth.
1876. {Millar, William. Highfield House, Dennistoun, Glasgow.
1876. {Millar, W. J. 145 Hill-street, Garnethill, Glasgow.
1876. {Miller, Daniel. 258 St. George’s-road, Glasgow.
1875. {Miller, George. Brentry, near Bristol.
1861. *Miller, Robert. Poise House, Bosden, near Stockport.
1876, *Miller, Robert. 1 Lily Bank-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
1876. Miller, Thomas Paterson. Morriston House, Cambuslang, N.B.
1868. *Milligan, Joseph, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. 6 Craven-
street, Strand, London, W.C.
1868, *Mitis, Epmunp J., D.Se., F.R.S., F.C.S., Young Professor of
Technical Chemistry in Anderson’s College, Glasgow. 60 John-
street, Glasgow.
*Mills, John Robert. 11 Bootham, York.
1880. §Mills, Mansfieldt H. Tapton-grove, Chesterfield.
Milne, Admiral Sir Alexander, Bart., G.C.B., F.R.S.E. 13 New-
street, Spring-gardens, London, S. W.
1867. tMilne, James. Murie House, Errol, by Dundee.
1867. *Munz-Home, Davin, M.A., F.RS.E., F.G.S. 10 York-place,
Edinburgh.
1864. *Mitron, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.G.S. 17 Grosvenor-street,
London, W.; and Wentworth, Yorkshire.
1880. Ses trae G.M. loyal Indian Engineering College, Cooper's Hill,
urrey.
1865. {Minton, Samuel, F.G.S. Oakham House, near Dudley.
1855, {Mirrlees, James Buchanan. 45 Scotland-street, Glasgow.
1859. {Mitchell, Alexander, M.D. Old Rain, Aberdeen.
1876. {Mitchell, Andrew. 20 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
1863, {Mitchell, C. Walker. Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1873. {Mitchell, Henry. Parkfield House, Bradford, Yorkshire,
1870. {Mitchell, John. York House, Clitheroe, Lancashire.
1868. {Mitchell, John, jun. Pole Park House, Dundee.
1879.§§Mivarr, St. Grorer, M.D., F.RS., F.LS., F.Z.S., Professor of
Biology in University College, Kensington. 71 Seymour-street,
London, W.
1855. *Moffat, John, C.E. Ardrossan, Scotland.
JEN OD Tuomas, M.D., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., F.M.S. Hawarden,
ester.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 57
‘Year of
Election.
1864. t{Mogg, John Rees. High Littleton House, uear Bristol.
1866. {Mogermner, MarrHew,F.G.S. 8 Bina-gardens, South Kensington,
London, 8S. W.
1855. {Moir, James. 174 Gallogate, Glasgow.
1861. {MotEswortH, Rev. W. Nassau, M.A. Spotland, Rochdale.
Mollan, John, M.D. 8 Fitzwilliam-square North, Dublin.
1878. §Molloy, Constantine. 70 Lower Gardiner-street, Dublin.
1877. *Molloy, Rev. Gerald, D.D. 86 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
1852. {Molony, William, LL.D. Carrickfergus.
1865. §MotynEvx, Wittiam, F.G.S. Branston Cottage, Burton-upon-
Trent.
1860. {Monk, Rev. William, M.A., F.R.A.S, Wymington Rectory, Higham
Ferrers, Northamptonshire.
1853. {Monroe, Henry, M.D. 10 North-street, Sculcoates, Hull.
1872. §Montgomery, R. Mortimer. 3 Porchester-place, Edgware-road,
London, W.
1872. t{Moon, W., LL.D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton.
1859. {Moorz, Cuarzzs, F.G.S. 6 Cambridge-place, Bath.
Moore, John. 2 Meridian-place, Clifton, Bristol.
*Moors, Jonn Carrick, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8. 118 Eaton-square,
London, 8. W.; and Corswall, Wigtonshire.
1866. pee THomas, F.L.S. Botanic Gardens, Chelsea, London,
S
1854, {Moorn, THomas Joun, Cor. M.Z.S. Free Public Museum, Liver-
ool.
1877. ‘Mats, W.F. The Friary, Plymouth.
1857, *Moore, Rey. William Prior. The Royal School, Cavan, Ireland.
1877. {Moore, William Vanderkemp. 15 Princess-square, Plymouth.
1871. {Morzn, AtexanpER G., F.L.S., M.R.I.A. 3 Botanic View, Glas-
nevin, Dublin.
1873. {Morgan, Edward Delmar. 15 Rowland-gardens, London, W.
1833. Morgan, William, D.C.L. Oxon. Ucktield, Sussex.
1878. §More@an, WrttraM, Ph.D., F.C.S. Swansea.
1867. {Morison, William R. Dundee.
1863. {MortEy, Samuet, M.P. 18 Wood-street, Cheapside, London, H.C.
1865, *Morrieson, Colonel Robert. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London,
WwW
1880. §Morris, Alfred Arthur Vennor. Wernolau, Cross Inn R.8.0., Car-
marthenshire. °
*Morris, Rey. Francis Orpen, B.A. Nunburnholme Rectory, Hayton,
wv) York:
1880. §Morris, James, 6 Windsor-street, Uplands, Swansea,
1880. §Morris, M. I. E. The Lodge, Penclawdd, near Swansea.
Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S. Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin.
1876.§§Morris, Rev. S. 8. O., M.A., R.N., F.C.S. H.M.S. ‘ Garnet,’ 8.
Coast of America.
1874. t{Morrison, G. J.,C.E. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, 8. W.
1871. *Morrison, James Darsie. 27 Grange-road, Edinburgh.
1879.§§Morrison, Dr. R, Milner. 13 Douglas-crescent, Edinburgh,
1865. §Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s-villas, Driffield.
1869. {Mortimer, William. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
1857. §Morton, Grorer H., F.G.S. 122 London-road, Liverpool.
1858, *Morron, Henry JoserH. 4 Royal Crescent, Scarborough.
1871. {Morton, Hugh. Belvedere House, Trinity, Edinburgh.
1857. {Moses, Marcus. 4 Westmoreland-street, Dublin.
Mosley, Sir Oswald, Bart., D.C.L. Rolleston Hall, Burton-upon-
Trent, Staffordshire.
58
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
Moss, John. Otterspool, near Liverpool.
1878. *Moss, Joun Francis. Ranmoor, Sheffield.
1870. {Moss, John Miles, M.A. 2 Esplanade, Waterloo, Liverpool.
1876. §Moss, RicHarp 3 ACKSON, F.C.S., M.R.LA. 66 Kenilworth-square,
1873.
1864,
1873.
1869,
1865.
1866.
1862.
1856.
1878.
1863.
1861.
1877.
-1850.
1876.
1874,
1876.
1872.
1871.
1876.
1880,
1866.
1876,
1860.
1872.
1871.
1864.
1864.
1876.
1855.
1852.
1852.
1869.
1871.
1859.
1872.
1863.
Rathgar, Dublin.
*Mosse, George Staley. 16 Stanford-road, London, W.
*Mosse, J. R. Public Works’ Department, Ceylon. (Care of Messrs,
HS. King & Co., 65 Cornhill, London, 1.C.)
{Mossman, William. ‘Woodhall, Caly erley, Leeds,
§Morr, Aubert J., F.G.S. Adsett Court, Westbury-on-Severn.
tMott, Charles Grey. The Park, Birkenhead.
§Morr, Frepericx T., F.R.G.S. Birstall Hill, Leicester.
*Movat, FREDERICK J oun, M.D., Local Government Inspector. 12
Durham-villas, Campden Hill, London, W.
{Mould, Rey. J. G., B.D. Fulmodeston Reetory, Dereham, Norfolk.
*Moulton, J. F., F. RS. 74 Onslow-gardens, London, 8. W.
tMounsey, Edward. Sunderland.
Mounsey, John. Sunderland.
*Mountcastle, William Robert. Bridge Farm, Ellenbrook, near
Manchester.
t{Mount-Epecunse, The Right Hon, the Earl of, D.C.L. Mount-
Edgeumbe, Devonport.
Mowbray, James. Combus, Clackmannan, Scotland.
tMowbray, John T. 15 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
*Muir, John. 6 Park-gardens, Glasgow.
tMuir, M. M. Pattison, F.R.S.E. Owens College, Manchester.
§Muir, Thomas. High School, Glasgow.
tMuirhead, Alexander, D.Se., F.C. S. 29 Regency-street, West-
minster, S.W.
*MurruEaD, Henry, M.D. Bushy Hill, Cambuslang, Lanarkshire.
tMuirhead, R. F., B.Sc. Meikle Cloak, Lochwinnoch, Renfrew-
shire.
Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, London, E.C.
§Muiler, Hugo M. 1 Grunangergasse, Vienna.
{Munpena, | The Right Hon. A. a, M. P., F.R.G.S. The Park, Not~
tingham.
§Munro, Donald, F.C.S. 97 Eglinton-street, Glasgow.
*Munro , Major-General WitraM, C.B., F.L. 'S.. United Service Club,
Pall Mall, London, 8.W.
Munster, H. Sillwood Lodge, Brighton.
Munster, William Felix. 41 Brompton-square, London, W.
MvrcuH, ’JEROM. Cranwells, Bath.
Murchison, John Henry. Surbiton Hill, Kingston.
*Murchison, K. R. Brokehurst, East Grinstead.
tMurdoch, James. Altony Albany, Girvan, N.B.
tMurdock, James B. Hamilton-place, Langside, Glasgow.
{Murney, Henry, M.D. 10 Chichester-street, Belfast.
tMurphy, Joseph John. Old Forge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim.
tMurray, Adam. 4 Westbourne-crescent, Hyde Park, London, W.
Murray, John, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 50 Albemarle-street, London, Vike
and Newsted, Wimbledon, Surrey.
tMurray, John. 3 Clarendon-crescent, Edinburgh.
Murray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland.
*Murray, John, C.K. Downlands, Sutton, Surrey.
}Murray, Rev. John. Morton, near Thornhill, Dumfriesshire,
{Murray, J. Jardine. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton.
{Murray, William. 34 Clayton-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Leah sy
Year
LIST OF MEMBERS. 5D
of
Election.
1859. *Murton, James. Highfield, Silverdale, Carnforth.
1874
. §Musgrave, James, J.P. Drumglass House, Belfast.
1861. {Musgrove, John, jun. Bolton.
1870.
1859.
1842
1876
1876
1839
*Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool.
§Myiyz, Rosert Wituian, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. 21 Whitehall~
place, London, 8. W.
. Nadin, Joseph. Manchester.
. §Napier, James S. 9 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
. tNapier, John. Saughfield House, Hillhead, Glasgow.
*Napier, Captain Johnstone, C.E. Laverstock House, Salisbury.
. *Naprer, The Right Hon. Sir Joszren, Bart, D.C.L., LL.D.
4 Merrion-square South, Dublin.
1872. {Nares, Captain Sir G. S., K.C.B., R.N., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 23 St.
Philip’s-road, Surbiton.
1866. {Nash, Davyd W., F.S.A., F.L.S. 10 Impertal-square, Cheltenham..
1850.
*NasmytH, JAmEs. Penshurst, Tunbridge.
1864. {Natal, Rev. John William Colenso, D.D., Lord Bishop of. Natal.
1860.
tNeate, Charles, M.A. Oriel College, Oxford.
1873. {Neill, Alexander Renton. Fieldhead House, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1873. {Neill, Archibald. Fieldhead House, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1855. {Neilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow.
1865. {Nelson, W. Montgomerie. Glasgow.
1876. {Nelson, D. M. 48 Gordon-street, Glasgow.
1868
Ness, John. Helmsley, near York.
. {Nevill, Rev. H. R. The Close, Norwich.
1866. *Nevill, Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of Dunedin, New-
Zealand.
1857. tNeville, John, C.E.,M.R.I.A. Roden-place, Dundalk, Ireland.
1852.
{Nevittz, Parks, C.E., M.R.I1.A. 58 Pembroke-road, Dublin.
1869. {Nevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 8 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
1842
. New, Herbert. Evesham, Worcestershire.
Newall, Henry. Hare Hill, Littleborough, Lancashire.
*Newall, Robert Stirling, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Ferndene, Gateshead~
upon-Tyne.
1879.§§Newbould, John. Sharrow Bank, Sheffield.
1866
. *Newdigate, Albert L. 25 Craven-street, Charing Cross, London,
W.C.
1876.§§Newhaus, Albert. 1 Prince’s-terrace, Glasgow.
1842,
1863
1866.
1860.
1872.
1865.
1867.
1875.
1866.
1838.
*Newman, Professor Francis Wittram. 15 Arundel-crescent,
Weston-super-Mare. :
. *Newmarcu, Witiam, F.R.S. Beech Holme, Balham, London,
*Newmarch, William Thomas. 1 Elms-road, Clapham Common,
London, 8. W.
*Newron, ALFRED, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology and
Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Mag-
dalen College, Cambridge.
tNewton, Rev. J. 125 Eastern-road, Brighton.
tNewton, Thomas Henry Goodwin. Clopton House, near Stratford-
on-Avon. ,
tNicholl, Thomas. Dundee.
{Nicholls, J. F. City Library, Bristol.
{Nicnotson, Sir CHarzEs, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.GS.,.
F.R.G.8. The Grange, Totteridge, Herts.
Rg ae Cornelius, F.G.S., F.S.A. Ashleigh, Ventnor, Isle of
ight.
60 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1861. *Nicholson, Edward. 88 Mosley-street, Manchester.
1871. §§Nicholson, E. Chambers. Herne Hill, London, 8.E.
1867. {NicHotson, Henry Atteyne, M.D., D.Sc., RF, G.S., Professor of
Natural History in the University of St. Andrews, N.B,
1867. {Nimmo, Dr. Matthew. Nethergate, Dundee.
1878. {Niven, C. Queen’s College, Cork.
1877. tNiven, James, M.A. King’s College, Aberdeen.
tNixon, Randal C.J., M.A. Green Island, Belfast.
1863. *Noste, Captain ANDREW, E.R.S., F.RB.AS., F.C.8. Elswick Works,
Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1880. §Noble, John. Rossenstein, Thornhill-road, Croydon, Surrey.
1879.§§Noble, T. S., F.G.S. Lendal, York.
1870. {Nolan, Joseph, M.R.I.A. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
1860, *Nolloth, Rear-Admiral Matthew S., R.N., F.R.G.S. United Service
Club, 8.W.; and 13 North-terrace, Camberwell, London, 8.E.
1859. {Norfolk, Richard. Messrs. W. Rutherford and Co., 14 Canada
Dock, Liverpool.
1868. Norgate, William. Newmarket-road, Norwich.
1863. §Norman, Rey. Atrrep Muerte, M.A. Burnmoor Rectory, Fence
House, Co. Durham.
Norreys, Sir Denham Jephson, Bart. Mallow Castle, Co. Cork.
1865. {Norris Ricwarpd, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birmingham.
1872, {Norris, Thomas George. Corphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales.
1869. {NorrHcotr, The Right Hon. Sir StarrorD He Bart., K.G.C.B.,
M.P., F.R.S. Pynes, Exeter.
“Norrawicx, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A. 7 Park-street, Grosvenor-
square, London, W.
1868. {Norwich, The Hon. and Right Rev. J.T, Pelham, D.D., Lord rs
of. Norwich.
1861. {Noton, Thomas. Priory House, Oldham,
Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield.
1878. {Nugent, Edward, C.E. Seel’s-buildings, Liverpool.
1878.§§O’ Brien, Murrough. 1 Willow-terrace, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare.
1878. {O’Carroll, Joseph F. 78 Rathgar-road, Dublin.
1878. {O'Connor Don, The, M.P. _ Clonalis, Castlerea, Ireland.
Odgers, Rev. William James. Savile House, Fitzjohn’s-avenue,
Hampstead, London, N. W.
1858. *Optine, WitiiaM, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Waynflete Professor of
Chemistry in the University of Oxford. 15 Norham-gardens,
Oxford.
1857. {O’Donnavan, William John. 54 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar,
Dublin.
1877. §Ogden, Joseph. 46 London-wall, London, E.C.
1876. {Ogilvie, Campbell P. Sizewell House, Lenton, Suffolk.
1859. tOgilvie,C. W. Norman. Baldovan House, Dundee.
1874, §Ogilvie, Thomas Robertson. Bank Top, 3 Lyle-street, Greenock,
N.B
*Oaitvin-ForBEs, GroreE, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of
Medicine in Marischal College, Aberdeen. Boyndlie, Fraser-
burgh, N.B.
1863. Ogilvy, G. R. Inverquharity, N.B.
1863. {OciLvy, Sir Jonn, Bart. Inverquharity, N.B.
*Ogle, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Derby.
1859, {Ogston, Francis, M.D. 18 Adelphi-court, Aberdeen.
1837. {O"Hagan, John, A. ,Q.C, 22 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin.
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS. 6I
Election.
1874,
1862.
1853.
1863.
1880.
1872,
1867.
1880,
1842,
1861,
1858.
1880.
1835,
1838.
1876.
1873.
1865.
1877.
1865.
1869,
1854.
1870.
1857.
1877,
1872.
1875.
1870.
1873.
1866.
1878.
1866,
1872.
1880.
1857.
1863.
1863.
1874.
{O’Haean, The Right Hon. Lord, MR.LA. 34 Rutland-square.
West, Dublin.
{O’Ketty, JosrpH, M.A., M.R.I.A. 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
§OLpHam, James, C.H. Cottingham, near Hull.
fOliver, Daniel, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in University College,
London. Royal Gardens, Kew, Surrey.
*OmMANNEY, Admiral Sir Erasmus, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.
The Towers, Yarmouth, Isle of Wight.
*Ommanney, Commander E. A., R.N., 44 Charing Cross, London, W.
tOnslow, D. Robert. New University Club, St. James’s, London,,
S.W.
tOrchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee.
§O’Reilly, J. P., C.E., Professor of Mining and Mineralogy in the
Royal College of Science, Dublin.
OrmeRoD, Grorce Warerne, M.A., F.G.8. Brookbank, Teign-
mouth.
t{Ormerod, Henry Mere. Clarence-street, Manchester; and 11 Wood-
land-terrace, Cheetham Hill, Manchester.
tOrmerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax.
*Ormiston, Thomas, C.E. Ormsdale, Thurlow Park-road, Dulwich,
S.E.
Orpen, Jonny H., LL.D., M.R.LA. 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin.
Orr, Alexander Smith. 57 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.
Orr, John B. Granville-terrace, Crosshill, Glasgow.
tOsborn, George. 47 Kingscross-street, Halifax.
tOsborne, E. C. Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*OstER, A. Fortert, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Osler, Miss A. F. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Osler, Henry F. 50 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
*Osler, Sidney F. 1 Pownall-gardens, Hounslow, near London.
tOutram, Thomas. Greetland, near Halifax.
OVERSTONE, SAMUEL JonzEs Luoyp, Lord, F.G.S. 2 Carlton-gardens,.
London, S.W.; and Wickham Park, Bromley.
tOwen, Harold. The Brook Villa, Liverpool.
Owen, JamesH. Park House, Sandymount, Co. Dublin.
Owen, Ricwarp, C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S.,
Hon. M.R.S.E., Director of- the Natural-History Department,
British Museum. Sheen Lodge, Mortlake, Surrey, 8S. W.
fOxland, Dr. Robert, F.C.S. 8 Portland-square, Plymouth.
*Paget, Joseph. Stuffynwood Hall, Mansfield, Nottingham.
}Paine, William Henry, M.D., F.G.S. Stroud, Gloucestershire.
*Palgrave, R. H. Inglis. 11 Britannia-terrace, Great Yarmouth.
tPalmer, George. The Acacias, Reading, Berks.
§Palmer, H. 76 Goldsmith-street, Nottingham.
*Palmer, Joseph Edward. Lucan, Co. Dublin.
§Palmer, William. Iron Foundry, Canal-street, Nottingham.
*Palmer, W. R. Hawthorne, Rivercourt-road, Hammersmith, W.
Palmes, Rey. William Lindsay, M.A. Naburn Hall, York.
ae George Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. Barrow-in-Furness, Lanca-
shire.
*Parker, Alexander, M.R.I.A. 59 William-street, Dublin.
{Parker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
oe Se Rey. Henry. Idlerton Rectory, Low Elswick, Newcastle-on~
'yne.
}Parker, Henry R., LL.D. Methodist College, Belfast.
Parker, Richard. Dunscombe, Cork.
62
LIST OF MEMBERS,
Year of
Election.
1865,
1853.
1865.
1864.
1879.
1859.
1841.
1862.
1877.
1865.
1878.
1878.
1875.
1855.
1861,
1871.
1863.
1867.
*Parker, Walter Mantel. High-street, Alton, Hants.
Parker, Rey. William. Saham, Norfolk.
tParker, William. Thornton-le-Moor, Lincolnshire.
*Parkes, Samuel Hickling, 6 St. Mary’s-row, Birmingham.
tParxes, Witt1aAM. 28 Abingdon-street, Westminster, S.W,
§Parkin, William, F.S.S. 15 Westbourne-road, Sheffield.
{Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D, West View, Toller-lane, Bradford, York-
shire.
Parnell, Edward A., F.C.S. Ashley Villa, Swansea.
*Parnell, John, M.A. 1 The Common, Upper Clapton, London, E.
Parnell, Richard, M.D., F.R.S.E. Gattonside Villa, Melrose, N.B.
{Parson, T. Edgcumbe. 36 Torrington-place, Plymouth.
*Parsons, Charles Thomas. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. _
tParsons, Hon. C. A. 10 Connaught-place, London, W.
tParsons, Hon. and Rey, R, C. 10 Connaught-place, London, W.
tPass, Alfred C. 16 Redland Park, Clifton, Bristol.
{Paterson, William. 100 Brunswick-street, Glasgow.
{Patterson, Andrew. Deaf and Dumb School, Old Trafford, Man-
chester.
*Patterson, A, Henry, 38 Old-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London,
W.C.
tPatterson, H. L. Scott's House, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Patterson, James, Kinnettles, Dundee.
1876.§§Patterson, T.L. Belmont, Margaret-street, Greenock.
1874.
1865.
1863.
1867.
1864,
1879.
1863.
18653.
1864.
1877.
1851.
1866,
1876.
tPatterson, W. H., M.R.L.A. 26 High-street, Belfast.
{Pattinson, John, F.C.S. 75 The Side, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
{Pattinson, William. Felling, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
§Pattison, Samuel Rowles, F.G.S. 50 Lombard-street, London,
E.C
{Pattison, Dr. T. H. London-street, Edinburgh.
*Patzer, F. R. Stoke-on-Trent.
tPavt, Bensamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W.
fPavy, Freperick Witi1aM, M.D., F.R.S., Lecturer on Physiology
and Comparative Anatomy and Zoology at Guy’s Hospital, 36
Grosvenor-street, London, W.
{Payne, Edward Turner. 3 Sydney-place, Bath.
tPayne, J. C. Charles. Botanic Avenue, Belfast.
Tt Payne, Joseph. 4 Kildare-gardens, Bayswater, London, W.
{Payne, Dr. Joseph F. 78 Wimpole-street, London, W.
{Peace,G. H. Morton Grange, Eccles, near Manchester,
1879.§§Peace, William K. Western Bank, Sheffield.
1847.
1875.
1876.
1875.
1872.
1870.
1863.
1863.
1865.
1858.
}Pxzacu, Onartes W., Pres. R.P.S. Edin., A.L.S, 30 Haddington-
place, Leith-walk, Edinburgh.
tPeacock, Thomas Francis, 12 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London,
W.C
tPearce, W. Elmpark House, Govan, Glasgow.
*Pearsall, Thomas John, F.C.S. Birkbeck Literary and Scientific
Institution, Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane, London, W.C.
tPearson, H. W. Tramore Villa, Nugent Hill, Cotham, Bristol.
*Pearson, Joseph. Lern Side Works, Nottingham.
tPearson, Rev. Samuel. 48 Prince’s-road, Liverpool.
§Pease, H. F. Brinkburn, Darlington.
*Pease, Joseph W., M.P, Hutton Hall, near Guisborough,
{Pease, J. W. Newcastle-on-Tyne.
“Pease, Thomas, F.G.S. Cote Bank, Westbury-on-Trym, near
Bristol.
Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 63
‘Year of
Election,
1855, *Peckover, Alexander, F.L.S., F.R,G.S, Harecroft House, Wisbech,
Cambridgeshire,
*Peckover, Algernon, F.L.S, Sibald’s Holme, Wisbech, Cam-
1878,
1878.
1861.
1861.
1878,
1865.
1861.
1868.
1856.
1875,
1845.
1868.
1877.
1864.
bridgeshire.
*Peek, William. St. Clair, Hayward’s Heath, Sussex.
*Peel, George. Soho Iron Works, Manchester.
{Peel, Thomas. 9 Hampton-place, Bradford, Yorkshire.
*Peile, George, jun. Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham.
*Peiser, John. Barnfield House, 491 Oxford-street, Manchester.
oS eat Charles Seaton. 44 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, London,
W.
tPemberton, Oliver, 18 Temple-row, Birmingham.
*Pender, John, M.P. 18 Arlington-street, London, S.W,
tPendergast, Thomas, Lancefield, Cheltenham.
§PrncELLy, WILLIAM, F.R.S., F.G.S. Lamorna, Torquay.
fPercival, Rev. J.. M.A., LL.D. President of Trinity College, Ox-
ford.
{Prrcy, Jonny, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 1 Gloucester-crescent, Hyde
Park, London, W.
*Perigal, Frederick, Thatched House Club, St. James’s-street,
London, 8.W
*Perxin, Witi14M Heyry, F.R.S., F.C.S. The Chestnuts, Sudbury,
Harrow.
§Perkins, Loftus. 140 Abbey-road, Kilburn, London, N.W.
Perkins, Rey. R. B., D.C.L. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucester-
shire. .
*Perkins, V. R. 54 Gloucester-street, London, S.W.
Perry, The Right Rey. Charles, M.A., D.D. 32 Avenue-road,
Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
1879.§§Perry, James. Roscommon.
1874
1870,
1861.
1871.
1867.
1863.
1870,
1853.
1853.
1877.
1863.
1862.
1872.
1868.
1868.
1864,
1870.
1870.
1871.
. *Perry, John. 14 Talgarth-road, West Kensington, London, S.W.
*Perry, Rev. 8. G. F., M.A. Tottington Vicarage, near Bury.
*Prrry, Rev. S. J.. F.RS., F.RAS,, F.M.S. Stonyhurst College
Observatory, Whalley, Blackburn.
*Petrie, John. South-street, Rochdale.
Peyton, Abel. Oakhurst, Edgbaston, Birmingham. :
*Peyton, John E. H., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 1 Uplands, St. Leonard’s-
on-Sea.
t¢PHayre, Lieut.-General Sir Arruur, K.C.8.1., C.B. Atheneum
Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
*PuENf, Joun SamvugEt, LL.D., F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S, 5 Carlton-
terrace, Oakley-street, London, 8. W.
tPhilip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool.
*Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Staffordshire.
*Philips, Herbert. 385 Church-street, Manchester.
Philips, Robert N. The Park, Manchester.
§Philips, T. Wishart. 33 Woodstock-road, Poplar, London, E.
{Philipson, Dr. 1 Savile-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
{Phillips, Rev. George, D.D. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
{Puitties, J. ARTHUR. 18 Fopstone-road, Karl’s Court-road, London,
S.W.
tPhipson, R. M., F.S.A. Surrey-street, Norwich.
{Purpson, T. L., Ph.D. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Surrey, S.W.
{Pickering, William. Oak View, Clevedon.
{Picton, J. Allanson, F.S.A. Sandylknowe, Wavertree, Liverpool.
tPigot, Rev. E. V. Malpas, Cheshire.
tPigot, Thomas F., C.E., M-.R.LA. Royal College of Science, Dublin,
64 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election,
*Pike, Ebenezer. Beshorough, Cork.
1865. {Pixz, L.OweEn. 25 Carlton-villas, Maida-vale, London, W.
1873. {Pike, W. H. 4 The Grove, Highgate, London, N.
1857. {Pilkington, Henry M., M.A.,Q.C. 45 Upper Mount-street, Dublin.
1863, *Pim, Captain Beprorp C. T., R.N., F.R.G.S. Leaside, Kingswood=
road, Upper Norwood, London, S.E.
Pim, George, M.R.IL.A. Brenanstown, Cabinteely, Co. Dublin.
Pim, Jonathan. MHarold’s Cross, Dublin.
1877.§§Pim, Joseph T. Greenbank, Monkstown, Co. Dublin.
1868. {Pinder, T. R. St. Andrew’s, Norwich.
1876. {Pirie, Rev. G. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
1859. {Pirrie, William, M.D., LL.D. 238 Union-street West, Aberdeen.
1866. {Pitcairn, David. Dudhope House, Dundee.
1875. {Pitman, John. Redcliff Hill, Bristol.
1864, {Pitt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath.
1868. *Pirr-Rivers, Major-General A. H. L., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.GS.,
F.S.A. 19 Penywern-road, South Kensington, London, S.W.
1872. {Plant, Mrs. H. W. 28 Evington-street, Leicester.
1869. §Ptant, JAmEs, F.G.S. 40 West-terrace, West-street, Leicester.
1865. {Plant, Thomas L. Camp Hill, and 33 Union-street, Birmingham.
1842, Purayrarr, The Right Hon. Lyon, C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., MP.,
E.RS. L. & E., F.C.S, 68 Onslow-gardens, South Kensington,
London, 8S. W.
1867. {Pxayrarr, Lieut.-Colonel R. L., H.M. Consul, Algeria. (Messrs. King
& Co., Pall Mall, London, 8.W.)
1857. {Plunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Ireland.
1861. *Pocuin, Heyry Davis, F.C.S. Bodnant Hall, near Conway.
1846. {Porz, Wirtt1am, Mus. Doc., F.R.S., M.1.C.E. Atheneum Club,
Pall Mall, London, S.W.
*Pollexfen, Rey. John Hutton, M.A. Middleton Tyas Vicarage,
Richmond, Yorkshire.
Pollock, A. 52 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin.
1862. *Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S. Polwhele, Truro,
Cornwall.
1854, {Poole, Braithwaite. Birkenhead.
1868, {Portal, Wyndham S. Malsanger, Basingstoke.
1874. {Porter, Rev. J. Leslie, D.D., LL.D., President of Queen’s Oollege,
Belfast.
1866.§§Porter, Robert. Beeston, Nottingham.
1863. {Potter, D. M. Cramlington, near Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*PorrEeR, EpmunD, F.R.S. Camfield-place, Hatfield, Herts.
1857. *PounvDEN, Captain Lonsparz, F.R.G.S. Junior United Service Club,
St. James’s-square, London, 8.W.; and Brownswood House,
Enniscorthy, Co. Wexford.
1873. *Powell, Francis S. Horton Old Hall, Yorkshire; and 1 Cambridge
square, London, W.
1875 {Powell, William Augustus Frederick. Norland House, Clifton,
Bristol.
1857. {Power, Sir James, Bart. Edermine, Enniscorthy, Ireland.
1867. {Powrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar.
1855. *Poynter, John E, Clyde Neuk, Uddingston, Scotland.
1869, *PreEcr, WILLIAM Heyry. Gothic Lodge, Wimbledon Common,
London, 8.W.
Prest, The Venerable Archdeacon Edward. The College, Durham.
*PrestwicH, JosppH, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Geology in the University of Oxford. 34 Broad-street, Oxford ;
and Shoreham, near Sevenoaks.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 65
‘Year of
Election.
1871.
1856,
1872.
1875,
1870.
1875.
1876.
1875.
1864.
1835.
1846,
1876.
1872.
1863.
1858.
1863.
1863.
1879.
1865.
1872.
1871.
1873.
1867.
1842.
1852.
1860.
1874.
1866.
1878.
1860.
tPrice, Astley Paston. 47 Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields, London, W.C.
*Pricr, Rev. Barryotomew, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Sedleian
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford,
11 St. Giles’s, Oxford.
tPrice, David 8., Ph.D. 26 Great George-street, Westminster,
S.W
Price, J. T. Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire.
*Price, Rees. 2 Blythe-villas, West Kensington Park, London, W.
*Price, Captain W. E., F.G.S. Tibberton Court, Gloucester,
*Price, William Philip. Tibberton Court, Gloucester.
tPriestley, John. 174 Lloyd-street, Greenheys, Manchester.
{Prince, Thomas. 6 Marlborough-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
*Prior, R. C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
*Pritchard, Andrew, F.R.S.E. 87 St. Paul’s-road, Canonbury, Lon-
don, N.
*PRITCHARD, Rey. CHarxes, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Professor
of Astronomy in the University of Oxford. 8 Keble-terrace,
Oxford.
*PritcHARD, Ursan, M.D., F.R.C.S. 3 George-street, Hanover-
square, London, W.
tPritchard, Rev. W. Gee. Brignal Rectory, Barnard Castle, Co.
Durham.
tProctor, R.S. Summerhill-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Proctor, Thomas. Elmsdale House, Clifton Down, Bristol.
Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay.
tProctor, William, M.D., F.C.S. 24 Petergate, York.
*Prosser, Thomas. 25 Harrison-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tProud, Joseph. South Hetton, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.8., F.R.G.S. Westbourne House,
Shaftesbury-road, London, W.
tProwse, Albert P. Whitchurch Villa, Mannamead, Plymouth.
*Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Manor, Stevenage, Herts.
*Puckle, Thomas John. Woodcote-grove, Carshalton, Surrey.
{Pullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B.
*Pullar, Robert. Tayside, Perth.
*Pumphrey, Charles. Southfield, King’s Norton, near Birmingham.
Punnet, Rey. John, M.A., F.C.P.S. St. Earth, Cornwall.
tPurdon, Thomas Henry, M.D. Belfast.
}Purpy, FREDERICK, F.S.S., Principal of the Statistical Department of
the Poor Law Board, Whitehall, London. Victoria-road, Ken-
sington, London, W.
t{Purser, FrepERtcK, M.A. Rathmines, Dublin.
}PurssEr, Professor Jonn, M.A., M.R.I.A. Queen’s College, Belfast.
tPurser, John Mallet. 3 Wilton-terrace, Dublin.
*Pusey, 8S. E. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon.
1868.§§Pyz-SmirH, P. H.,M.D. 56 Harley-street, W.; and Guy's Hos-
1879.
1861.
1870.
1860.
1870.
1877.
pital, London, 8.E.
§Pye-Smith, R. J. 7 Surrey-street, Sheffield.
*Pyne, Joseph John. The Willows, Albert-road, Southport.
tRabbits, W. T. Forest Hill, London, 8.E.
}Rapctiirre, CHARLES Buand, M.D. 25 Cavendish-square, London, W.
tRadcliffe, D. R. Phoenix Safe Works, Windsor, Liverpool.
}Radford, George D. Mannamead, Plymouth.
1879.§§Radford, R. Heber, M.I.C.E. Wood Bank, Pitsmoor, Sheffield.
1878.
*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth.
tRae, John, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 2 Addison-gardens South, Ken-
sington, London, W.
; E
66
Year of
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Election.
1854,
1870.
1864.
1865.
1846.
1867.
1861.
1867.
1876,
1878.
18365.
1869.
1860.
1865.
1868.
1863.
1861.
1872.
1864,
1870.
1870.
1870.
1863.
1874.
1870.
1866.
1855.
{Rafiles, Thomas Stamford. 13 Abercromby-square, Liverpool.
{Rafies, Wiliam Winter. Sunnyside, Prince's Park, Liverpool.
{Rainey, James T. St. George’s Lodge, Bath.
Rake, Joseph. Charlotte-street, Bristol.
t{Ramsay, ALEXANDER, F.G.S. Kilmorey Lodge, 6 Kent-gardens,
Ealing, W.
tRamsay, ANDREW CromsBiz, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director-
General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom, and
of the Museum of Economic Geology. (PRESIDENT.) Geological
Survey Office, Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.
{ Ramsay, James, jun. Dundee.
{Ramsay, John, M.P. Kildalton, Argyleshire.
*Ramsay, W. F., M.D. 39 Hammersmith-road, West Kensington,
London, W.
Ramsay, WittrAM, Ph.D. Professor of Chemistry in University
College, Bristol.
*Ramsden, William. Bracken Hall, Great Horton, Bradford, York-
shire.
*Rance, Henry (Solicitor). Cambridge.
*Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.M. 10 Castletown-road, West, Ken-
sington, London, 8. W.
tRandall, Thomas. Grandepoint House, Oxford.
tRandel, J. 50 Vittoria-street, Birmingham.
Ranelagh, The Right Hon. Lord. 7 New Burlington-street, Regent-
street, London, W.
*Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S. Kempstone Mill, Bedford.
§Ransom, William Henry, M.D., F.R.S. The Pavement, Nottingham.
tRansome, Arthur, M.A. Bowdon, Manchester.
Ransome, Thomas. 34 Princess-street, Manchester.
*Ranyard, Arthur Cowper, F.R.A.S. 25 Old-square, Lincoln’s Inn,
London, W.C. :
Rashleigh, Jonathan. 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London.
N.W
Rarcrirr, Colonel Cuarzzs, F.LS.,F.G.S., F.S.4,, .R.G.S8. Wyd-
drington, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
tRate, Rev. John, M.A. Lapley Vicarage, Penkridge, Staffordshire.
{Rathbone, Benson. Exchange-buildings, Liverpool.
{Rathbone, Philip H. Greenbank Cottage, Wavertree, Liverpool.
§Rathbone; R. R. Beechwood House, Liverpool.
tRattray, W. St. Clement’s Chemical Works, Aberdeen.
}Ravenstein, EK. G., F.R.G.S. 10 Lorn-road, Brixton, London, 8.W.
Rawdon, William Frederick, M.D. Bootham, York.
{Rawlins, G. W. The Hollies, Rainhall, Liverpool.
*RAWLInson, Rey. Canon GrorcE, M.A., Camden Professor of An-
cient History in the University of Oxford. The Oaks, Precincts,
Canterbury.
*Raw.iyson, Major-General Sir Hunry O., K.C.B., LL.D., F.RB.S.,
F.R.G.S. 21 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W.
1875.§§Rawson, Sir Rawson W., K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.G.S. Drayton
1868.
1865.
1870.
1865,
House, West Drayton, Middlesex.
*RayYLEIeH, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Professor
of Experimental Physics in the University of Cambridge. 5
Salisbury-villas, Cambridge.
tRayner, Henry. West View, Liverpool-road, Chester.
{Rayner, Joseph (Town Clerk). Liverpool.
tRead, William. Albion House, Epworth, Rawtry.
*Read, W. H. Rudston, M.A., F.L.S. 12 Blake-street, York.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 67
“Year of
lection.
4870.
1862.
1852.
1863.
1863.
1861.
1875.
1878.
1876.
1874.
1850.
1875.
1863.
1863.
1867.
1871.
1870.
1858.
1858.
1877.
BSis.
§RzavE, THomas Metiarp, O.K., F.G.S. Blundellsands, Liverpool.
*Readwin, Thomas Allison, M.R.I.A., F.G.S. 28 Bold-street, Alex~
andra-road, Manchester.
*REDFERN, Professor PereR, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast.
tRedmayne, Giles. 20 New Bond-street, London, W.
tRedmayne, R. R. 12 Victoria-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Redwood, Isaac. Oae Wern, near Neath, South Wales.
{Reep, Sir Epwarp J., K.C.B., M.P., F.R.S. 74 Gloucester-road,
South Kensington, London, W.
tRees-Moge, W. Wooldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol.
§Reichel, The Ven. Archdeacon, D.D. The Archdeaconry, Trim,
Ireland.
tReid, James. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow.
{Rerd, Robert, M.A. 35 Dublin-road, Belfast.
TReid, William, M.D. Cruivie, Cupar, Fife.
§Reinold, A. W., M.A., Professor of Physical Science. Royal Naval
College, Greenwich, S.E.
§Rznats, KH. ‘ Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham.
tRendel, G. Benwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
tRenny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
{Rrywotps, James Emerson, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.R.LA., Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in the University of Dublin. The Laboratory,
Trinity College, Dublin.
*REyNoLps, Ossorne, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Engineering in
Owens College, Manchester. Fallowfield, Manchester.
§REynotps, Ricwarp, F.C.S. 13 Briggate, Leeds.
*Rhodes, John. 18 Albion-street, Leeds.
tRhodes, John. 358 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire.
*Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Via
Stimmate, 15, Modena, Italy.
1868.§§RicHarps, Vice-Admiral Sir GzoreE H., C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S.
1863.
1861.
1869.
1863.
1868.
- 1870.
1870.
1861.
1876.
1863.
1870,
The Athenzeum Club, London, 8S. W.
tRicHaRpson, BensamiIn Warp, M.A., M.D., F.R.S. 12 Hinde--
street, Manchester-square, London, W.
{Richardson, Charles. 10 Berkeley-square, Bristol.
*Richardson, Charles. 6 Victoria-terrace, Worthing.
*Richardson, Edward. 6 Stanley-terrace, Gosforth, Newcastle-on-
Tyne.
*Richardson, George. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham.
tRichardson, J. H. 3 Arundel-terrace, Cork.
fRichardson, Ralph. 16 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh.
Richardson, Thomas. Montpelier-hill, Dublin.
{Richardson, William. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham.
§Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Works, Glasgow. .
fRichter, Otto, Ph.D. 6 Derby-terrace, Glasgow
{ Rickards, Dr. 36 Upper Parliament-street, Liverpool.
- 1868.§§Rickerrs, CHartzs, M.D., F.G.S. 22 Argyle-street, Birkenhead.
1877.
{Ricketts, James, M.D. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.
*RIDDELL, Major-General CuartEs J. Bucwanan, C.B., R.A., F.R.S.
Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon.
. *Riddell, Henry B. Whitefield House, Rothbury, Morpeth.
. {Ridge, James. 98 Queen’s-road, Brighton.
. TRidgway, Henry Ackroyd, B.A. Bank Field, Halifax.
. {Ridley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, London, N. W.
. *Rigby, Samuel. Bruche Hall, Warrington.
. {Ripley, Edward. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.
. {Ripley, Sir Henry William, Bart. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds.
HY
68 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
*Rrvon, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S.,
F.R.G.S. 1 Carlton-gardens, London, 8. W.
1867. {Ritchie, John. Fleuchar Craig, Dundee.
1855. {Ritchie, Robert, C.E. 14 Hill-street, Edinburgh.
1867. {Ritchie, William. Emslea, Dundee.
1869. *Rivington, John. Babbicombe, near Torquay.
1854. {Robberds, Rev. John, B.A. Battledown Tower, Cheltenham.
1869. tay Joun, F.C.S. 57 Warrington-crescent, Maida Vale, London,
1878.§§ Roberts, Charles, F.R.C.S. 2 Bolton-row, London, W.
1859. tRoberts, George Christopher. Hull.
1870. *Roserts, Isaac, F.G.S. Kennessee, Maghull, Lancashire.
1857. {Roberts, Michael, M.A. Trinity College, Dublin.
1879.§§Roberts, Samuel. The Towers, Sheffield.
1879.§§Roberts, Samuel, jun. The Towers, Sheffield.
1879.§§Roberts, Thomas. The Knowle, Park-lane, Sheffield.
1868. §RopErts, W. Cuanpier, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.0.8., Chemist to the-
Royal Mint, and Professor of Metallurgy in the Royal Schook
of Mines. Royal Mint, London, E.
1859. {Robertsor, Dr. Andrew. Indego, Aberdeen.
1876. {Robertson, Andrew Carrick. Woodend House, Helensburgh, N.B:
1867. §Robertson, David. Union Grove, Dundee.
1871. {Robertson, George, C.E.,F.R.S.E. 47 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
1870. *Robertson, John. 4 Albert-road, Southport.
1876. tRobertson, R. A. Newthorn, Ayton-road, Pollokshields, Glasgows.
1866. {RopEertson, WitL1AM Trypat, M.D. Nottingham.
1861. {Robinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne.
1852. {Robinson, Rev. George. Tartaragham Glebe, Loughgall, Ireland..
1859. {Robinson, Hardy. 156 Union-street, Aberdeen.
*Robinson, H. Oliver. 34 Bishopsgate-street, London, H.C.
1873. §Robinson, Hugh. 82 Donegall-street, Belfast.
1861. {Rosrnson, Jonny, C.E. Atlas Works, Manchester.
1863. {Robinson, J. H. Cumberland-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1878. {Robinson, Johu L., C.E. 198 Great Brunswick-street, Dublin.
1876. {Robinson, M. E. 6 Park-circus, Glasgow.
1875. *Robinson, Robert, C.E., F.G.8. 2 West-terrace, Darlington.
1860. {Robinson, Admiral Sir Robert Spencer, K.C.B., F.R.S. 61 Eaton-
place, London, S.W.
Rosryson, Rev. THomas Romney, D.D., F.RS., F.RAS.,
Hon. F.R.S.E., M.R.LA., Director of the Armagh Observatory.
Armagh.
1863. {Robinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham.
1870. {Rebinson, William. 40 Smithdown-road, Liverpool.
1870. *Robson, E. R. 41 Parliament-street, Westminster, S.W.
1876. {Robson, Hazleton R. 14 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow.
1855. {Robson, Neil, C,E. 127 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
1872. *Robson, William. Marchholm, Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edin-
burgh.
1872. shone, Grorcr F., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Marlborough College,
Wiltshire.
1866. {Roe, Thomas. Grove-villas, Sitchurch.
1860. {Roerrs, James E. Txororp, M.P., Professor of Economic Science
and Statistics in King’s College, London, Beaumont-street,
Oxford.
1867. tRogers, James S. Rosemill, by Dundee.
1869. *Rogers, Nathaniel, M.D. 87 South-street, Exeter.
1870. {Rogers, T. L., M.D. Rainhill, Liverpool.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 69
Wear of
Election.
1859, {RotiEston, Gzorex, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Anas
tomy and Physiology in the University of Oxford. The Park,
Oxford.
1876.§§Roxti, A. K., B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S., Hon. Fellow K.C.L.
® Thwaite House, Cottingham, East Yorkshire.
1866, {Rolph, George Frederick. War Office, Horse Guards, London,
S.W.
1876. {Romanes, George John, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. 18 Cornwall-terrace,
Regent’s Park, London, N. W.
1846. {Ronalds, Edmund, Ph.D. Stewartfield, Bonnington, Edinburgh.
1869, {Roper, O. H. Magdalen-street, Exeter.
1872. *Roper, Freeman Clarke Samuel, F.L.S., F.G.S. Palgrave House,
Eastbourne.
1855, *Roscor, Henry Enrrerp, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Pro-
fessor of Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester.
1863. {Roseby, John. Haverholm House, Brigg, Lincolnshire.
1874. {Ross, Alexander Milton, M.A., M.D., F.G.S.° Toronto, Canada.
1880. §Ross, Captain. 170 Cromwell-road, London, 8. W.
1857. {Ross, David, LL.D. 382 Nelson-street, Dublin.
1872. {Ross, James, M.D. Tenterfield House, Waterfoot, near Manchester.
1859, *Ross, Rey. James Coulman. Baldon Vicarage, Oxford.
1874. tRoss, Rev. William. Chapelhill Manse, Rothesay, Scotland.
1880. §Ross, William Alexander. Acton House, Acton, London, N.
1869, *Rossz, The Right Hon. the Earl of, B.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.,
F.R.A.S., M.R.LA. Birr Castle, Parsonstown, Ireland.
1865. *Rothera, George Bell. 17 Waverley-street, Nottingham.
1876. {Rottenburgh, Paul. 13 Albion-crescent, Glasgow.
1861. {Routh, Edward J., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. St. Peter’s
College, Cambridge.
1872. *Row, A. V. Nursing Observatory, Daba-gardens, Vizagapatam,
India. (Care of Messrs. King & Co,, 45 Pall Mall, London,
S.W.
1861. {Rowan, Dovid. Elliot-street, Glasgow.
1877. §Rowz, J. Brooxine, F.L.S., F.S.A. 16 Lockyer-street, Plymouth,
1865. §Rowe, Rev. John. Load Vicarage, Langport, Somerset.
1880. §Rowly, Christopher. Cirencester.
1855, *Rownry, Tomas H., Ph.D., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in
Queen’s College Galway. Salerno, Salthill, Galway.
*Rowntree, Joseph. 12 Heslington-road, York.
1862. {Rowsell, Rey. Evan Edward, M.A. Hambledon Rectory, Godal-
ming.
1876. {Roxburgh, John. 7 Royal Bank-terrace, Glasgow.
1861. *Royle, Peter, M.D., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. 27 Lever-street, Man-
chester.
1875. {Riicker, A. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Physics in the
Yorkshire College, Leeds.
1869. §Rudler, F. W., F.G.S. The Museum, Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.
1873. {Rushforth, Joseph. 43 Ash-grove, Horton-lane, Bradford, York-
shire.
1847. {Rusxin, Joun, M.A., F.G.S., Slade Professor of Fine Arts in the
University of Oxford. Corpus Christi College, Oxford.
W675. *Russell, The Hon. F. A. R. Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park,
Surrey.
1876. *Russell, George. 103 Blenheim-crescent, Notting Hill, London, W.
1865. {Russell, James, M.D. 91 Newhall-street, Birmingham.
Russell, John. 39 Mountjoy-square, Dublin.
RvssEx1, Joun Scorr, M.A., F.R.S, L. & E. Sydenham, S.E.
70 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of $4 4
Election.
1852. *Russell, Norman Scott, Sydenham.
1876. §Russell, R., C.E., F.G.S. 1 Sea View, St. Bees, Carnforth.
1862. §RussELL, aif H. L., A.B., F.R.S. 5 The Grove, Highgate, Lon
don, N. if
1852. *Russett, Witr1AM J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry
in St. Bartholomew’s Medical College. 34 Upper Hamilton=
terrace, St. John’s Wood, London, N.W.
1875. { Rutherford, David Greig. Surrey House, Forest Hill, London, S.E.
1871, §RurHeRFoRD, Wit1iAM, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of the-
Institutes of Medicine in the University of Edinburgh.
Rutson, William. Newby Wiske, Northallerton, Yorkshire.
1879.§§Ruxton, Captain Fitzherbert, R.N. 41 Cromwell-gardens, London,
S.W
1875.
1874.
1865.
1861.
1871.
1866.
1880.
1857.
1873.
1872.
1842.
1861.
1861.
1876.
1878.
1872.
1871.
1872.
1864.
1854.
1875.
1865.
1868.
1846.
1864,
1860.
1871.
1872.
1868.
1868. :
{Ryalls, Charles Wager, LL.D. 3 Brick-court, Temple, London,
E.C.
§Rye, E. C., F.Z.S., Librarian R.G.S. 70 Charlewood-road, Putney,
S.W.
{Ryland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham.
*Ryianps, THomAs GLazEBRook, F.L.S., F.G.S. Highfields, Thel-
wall, near Warrington.
Sasrng, General Sir Epwarp, K.C.B., R.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.BS.,.
F.R.AS., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 13 Ashley-place, Westminster, S. W.
{Sadler, Samuel Champernowne. Purton Court, Purton,near Swindon,
Wiltshire.
*St. Albans, His Grace the Duke of. Bestwood Lodge, Arnold, near
Nottingham.
§Sakurai, J. 96 Camden-street, London, N.W.
Salkeld, Joseph. Penrith, Cumberland.
{Satmon, Rev. Grorex, D.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., Regius Professor of
Divinity in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin.
*Salomons, Sir David, Bart. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells.
{Satvin, Ospert, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Brookland Avenue, Cam-
bridge.
Sain berths T. G. 32 Eaton-place, London, 8. W.
*Samson, Henry. 6 St. Peter’s-square, Manchester.
*Sandeman, Archibald, M.A. Tulloch, Perth.
tSandeman, David. Woodlands, Lenzie, Glasgow.
{Sanders, Alfred, F.L.S. 2 Clarence-place, Gravesend, Kent.
{Sanders, Mrs. 8 Powis-square, Brighton.
{Sanders, William R., M.D. 11 Walker-street, Edinburgh.
{Sanprrson, J. 8S. Burpon, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physiology in
University College, London. 26 Gordon-square, London, W.C.
Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry.
tSandford, William. 9 Springfield-place, Bath.
{Sandon, The Right Hon. Lord, M.P. 39 Gloucester-square, London,
WwW
{Sands, T. C. 24 Spring-gardens, Bradford, Yorkshire.
tSargant, W. L. Edmund-street, Birmingham.
{Saunders, A.,C.E. King’s Lynn.
{Saunpers, TRELAwNEY W. India Office, London, 8. W.
tSaunders, T. W., Recorder of Bath. 1 Priory-place, Bath. ©
*Saunders, William. 3 Gladstone-terrace, Brighton.
§Savage, W. D. Ellerslie House, Brighton.
*Sawyer, George David. 55 Buckingham-place, Brighton.
{Sawyer, John Robert. Grove-terrace, Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich.
§Schacht, G. F. 7 Regent’s-place, Clifton, Bristol.
LIST OF MEMBERS. fo
Year of
Election.
1879. *Schifer, E. A., F.R.S., M.R.C.S., Assistant Professor of Physiology
in University College, London. Boreham Wood, Elstree,
Herts.
*Schemmann, J. C. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt &
Sons, Birmingham.)
1880. *Schemman, Louis Carl. Hamburg. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt
& Sons, Birmingham.)
1842. Schofield, Joseph. Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire.
1874.§§Scholetield, Henry. Windsor-crescent, Neweastle-on-Tyne.
1876. {Schuman, Sigismond. 7 Royal Bank-place, Glasgow.
Scuunck, Epwarp, F.R.S., F.C.S. Oaklands, Kersall Moor, Man-
chester.
1873. *ScuusreR, ARTHUR, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Sunnyside, Upper
Avenue-road, Regent’s Park, London, N. W.
1861. *Schwabe, Edmund Salis. Ryecroft House, Cheetham Hill, Man-
chester.
1847. *Scuarer, Parr Lutiey, M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8., Sec.
Zool. Soc. (GENERAL SucRErARY.) 11 Hanovyer-square, Lon-
don, W.
1867. {Scorr, ALEXANDER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee.
1878.§§Scott, Arthur William. St. David's College, Lampeter.
1876. {Scott, Mr. Bailie. Glasgow.
‘1871. {Scott, Rev. C.G. 12 Pilrig-street, Edinburgh.
1872. {Scott, Major-General H. Y. D., C.B., R.E., F.R.S. Sunnyside,
Ealing, W.
1871. {Scott, James S. T. Monkrigg, Haddingtonshire.
1857. *Scorr, Rosert H., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.M.S., Secretary to the
Council of the Meteorological Office. 6 Elm Park-gardens,
London, 8S. W.
1861. §Scott, Rev. Robert Selkirk, D.D. 16 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill,
Glasgow.
1874. {Scott, Rev. Robinson, D.D. Methodist College, Belfast.
1864, {Scott, Wentworth Lascelles. Wolverhampton.
1858. {Scott, William. Holbeck, near Leeds.
1869. §Scott, William Bower. Chudleigh, Devon.
1859. {Seaton, John Love. Hull.
1877. {Seaton, Robert Cooper, B.A. Dulwich College, Dulwich, Surrey, SE.
1880. §Sedgwick, Adam, B.A. Trinity College, Cambridge.
1880. §Seebohm, Henry, F.L.S., F.Z.8, 6 Tenterden-street, Hanover-square,
London, W.
1861, *SreLry, Harry Govier, F.R.S., F.LS8., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S.,
Professor of Geography in King’s College, London. 14 Oppidans-
road, Primrose Hill, London, N.W.
1855. {Seligman, H. L. 135 Buchanan-street, Glasgow.
1879. §Selim, Adolphus. 21 Mincing-lane, London, E.C,
1873. {Semple, R. H., M.D. 8 Torrington-square, London, W.C.
1858. *Senior, George, F.S.S. Rosehill, Dodworth, near Barnsley.
1870. *Sephton, Rev. J. 92 Huskisson-street, Liverpool.
1875. §Seville, Thomas. Elm House, Royton, near Manchester.
1873. {Sewell, Rev. E., M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Ilkley College, near Leeds.
1868. {Sewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich.
1861. *Seymour, Henry D. 209 Piccadilly, London, W.
Sanger Wien. 15 Upper Phillimore-gardens, Kensington, Lon-
on, W.
1871. “Shand, James. Fullbrooks, Worcester Park, Surrey.
1867. §Shanks, James. Dens Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B.
1869, *Shapter, Dr. Lewis, LL.D. The Barnfield, Exeter.
72
Year of
Election
1878.
1861.
1875.
1861.
1877.
1875.
1873.
1856.
1878.
1859.
1871.
1865.
1862.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
tSharp, David. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire.
Sharp, Rev. John, B.A. Horbury, Wakefield.
t{Smarp, Samvet, F.G.S., F.S.A. Great Harrowden Hall, near
Wellingborough.
*Sharp, William, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.8. Horton House, Rugby.
camae can William, B.A. Mareham Rectory, near Boston, Lincoln-
shire.
*Shaw, Charles Wright. 3 Windsor-terrace, Douglas, Isle of Man.
{Shaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain.
{Shaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham,
{Shaw, John. 24 Great George-place, Liverpool.
tShaw, John, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S._ Hop House, Boston, Lincoln-
shire.
. {Shelford, W., C.E. 35a Great George-street, Westminster, S.W.
Shepard, John. 4 Highfield-place, Manningham, Bradford, York-
shire,
. [Shepherd, A. B. 49 Seymour-street, Portman-square, London, W.
. §Shepherd, Joseph. 29 Everton-crescent, Liverpool.
Sheppard, Rev. Henry W., B.A. The Parsonage, Emsworth, Hants.
. §Shida, R. 1 St. James’s-place, Hillhead, Glasgow.
. [Shilton, Samuel Richard Parr. Sneinton House, Nottingham.
. {Shinn, William C. Her Majesty’s Printing Office, near Fetter-lane,
London, E.C.
. “SHOOLBRED, James N., C.E., £ G.S.. 3 Westminster-chambers,
London, 8. W.
{Shore, Thomas W., F.C.S. Hartley Institution, Southampton.
*Sidebotham, Joseph. The Beeches, Bowdon, Cheshire.
*Sidebotham, Joseph Watson. The Beeches, Bowdon, Cheshire.
{Sidgwick, R. H. The Raikes, Skipton.
Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newceastle-upon-Tyne.
*Siemens, Alexander. 12 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, S.W.
*Sremens, C. WittraM, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.8S., M.LC.E. 12
Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, 8. W.
{Sigerson, Professor George, M.D., F.L.S., MR.LA. 3 Clare-street,
Dublin.
{Sim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen.
{Sime, James. Craigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh.
{Simkiss, T. M. Wolverhampton.
{Simms, James. 138 Fleet-street, London, E.C.
1874.§§Simms, William. The Linen Hall, Belfast.
1876.
1847.
1866.
1871.
1867.
1859.
1863.
1857.
1876,
1876.
1874.
1834,
{Simon, Frederick, 24 Sutherland-gardens, London, W. *
tSimon, John, C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Medical Officer of the
Privy Council. 40 Kensington-square, London, W.
{Simons, George. The Park, Nottingham.
*Snrpson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni-
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh.
{Simpson, G. B. Seafield, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
tSimpson, John. Maykirk, Kincardineshire.
{Simpson, J. B., F.G.8. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne.
{Smeeson, Maxwett, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of
Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork.
{Simpson, Robert. 14 Ibrox-terrace, Glasgow.
*Simpson, Rey. Samuel. Kingston House, Chester.
Simpson, William. Bradmore House, Hammersmith, London, W.
{Sinclair, James. Titwood Bank, Pollockshields, near Glasgow.
{Sinclair, Thomas. Dunedin, Belfast.
{Sinclair, Vetch, M.D. 48 Albany-street, Edinburgh.
LIST OF MEMBERS, 73
Year of
Election.
1870. *Sinclair, W. P. 19 Devonshire-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool.
1864, *Sircar, Mahendra Lal, M.D. 51 Sankaritola, Calcutta. (Care of
Messrs. S. Harraden & Co., 3 Hill’s-place, Oxford-street, Lon-
don, W.)
1865. {Sissons, William. 92 Park-street, Hull.
1879.§§Skertchly, Sydney B. J., F.G.S8. Geological Museum, Jermyn-
street, London, S.W.
1870. §SLADEN, WALTER Prrcy, F.G.S., F.L.S. Exley House, near Halifax.
1873. {Slater, Clayton. Barnoldswick, near Leeds.
1870. {Slater, W. B. 42 Clifton Park-avenue, Belfast.
1842. *Slater, William. Park-lane, Higher Broughton, Manchester.
1877. {Sleeman, Rev. Philip, L.Th., F. R.A. S., F.R.M.S. Clifton, Bristol.
1849.§§Sloper, George Elgar. Devizes.
1849, {Sloper, Samuel W. Devizes.
1860.§§Sloper, S. Elgar. Winterton, near Hythe, Southampton.
1872. tSmale, The Hon. Sir John, Chief Justice of Hong Kong.
1867. {Small, David. Gray House, Dundee.
1858. {Smeeton, G. H. Commercial-street, Leeds.
1876. {Smeiton, James. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
1876. {Smeiton, John G. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee.
1867. {Smeiton, Thomas A. 55 Cowgate, Dundee.
1876.§§Smellie, Thomas D. 213 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
1877. {Smelt, Rev. Maurice Allen, M.A., F.R.A. S. Heath Lodge, Chel-
‘ tenham.
1857. {Smith, Aquilla, M.D., M.R.IL.A. 121 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin.
1868. {Smith, Augustus. Northwood House, Church-road, Upper Norwood,
Surrey, SE.
1872. *Smith, Basil Woodd, F.R.A.S. Branch Hill Lodge, Hampstead
Heath, London, N.W.
1874, *Smith, Benjamin Leigh. 64 Gower-street, London, W.C.
1873. {Smith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge.
1865. {Smrrz, Davp, F-R.A.S. 40 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham.
1865. {Smith, Frederick. The Priory, Dudley.
1866. *Smith, F.C.,M.P. Bank, Nottingham.
1855. {Smith, George. Port Dundas, Glasgow.
1876. {Smith, George. Glasgow.
1855. {Smith, George Cruickshank. 19 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow.
*Saarn, Henry Jonny SrepHeEn, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Savi-
lian Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford, and.
Keeper of the University Museum. The Museum, Oxford.
1860, *Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 2 Portugal-street, Grosvenor-square,
London, W.
1870. {Smith, James. 146 Bedford-street South, Liverpool.
1871. *Smith, Joh John Alexander, M.D., F.R.S.E. 10 Palmerston-place, Edin-
nity
1876. *Smith, J O Galicia 173 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow.
1874. {Smith, John Haigh. Beech Hill, Halifax, Yorkshire. ;
Smith, John Peter George. Sweyney Cliff, near Coalport, Shropshire,
1871. {Smith, Professor J. William Robertson. Free Church College,
Aberdeen.
1870, {Smith, H. L. Crabwall Hall, Cheshire.
*Smith, Philip, B.A. The Bays, Parktields, Putney, S.W.
1860. *Smith, Protheroe, M.D. 42 Park-street, Grosvenor-square, Lon-
don, W.
1837. Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury.
1847.§§Suatu, Ropert Anevs, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 22 Devonshire-street,
Manchester.
74 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
*Smith, Robert Mackay. 4 Bellevue-crescent, Edinburgh.
1870. {Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool.
1866. {Smith, Samuel. 33 Compton-street, Goswell-road, London, H.C.
1873. {Smith, Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire.
1867. {Smith, Thomas. Dundee.
1867. {Smith, Thomas. Poole Park Works, Dundee.
1859. {Smith, Thomas James, F.G.8., F.C.S. Hessle, near Hull.
1852. {Smith, William. Eglinton Engine Works, Glasgow.
1875. *Smith, William. Sundon House, Clifton, Bristol.
1876.§§Smith, William. 12 Woodside-place, Glasgow.
1878. {Smithson, Joseph 8S. Balnagowan, Rathmines, Co. Dublin.
1874. {Smoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Essex.
1850. *Smyru, Cartes Prazzi, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for
Scotland, Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edin-
burgh. 15 Royal-terrace, Edinburgh.
1874, {Smyth, Henry, C.E. Downpatrick, Ireland.
1870. {Smyth, Colonel H. A., R.A. Barrackpore, near Caleutta.
1878. §Smyth, Mrs. Isabella. Wigmore Lodge, Cullenswood-avenue, Dublin.
1857. *Smyrn, Jonny, jun., M.A., C.E., F.M.S. Lenaderg, Banbridge,
Treland.
1868. {Smyth, Rev. J. D. Hurst. 13 Upper St. Giies’s-street, Norwich.
1864. {Smyra, Warrmeton W., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Lecturer
on Mining and Mineralogy at the Royal School of Mines, and
Inspector of the Mineral Property of the Crown. 5 Inverness-
terrace, Bayswater, London, W.
1854, {Smythe, Lieut.-General W. J., R.A., F.R.S. Atheneum Club,
Pall Mall, London, 8. W.
1878.§§Snell, H. Saxon. 22 Southampton-buildings, London, W.C.
1879. §Sottas, W. J., M.A., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in
University College, Bristol. 4 The Polygon, Clifton, Bristol.
*Sotty, Epwarp, F.RS., F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.A. Park House,.
Sutton, Surrey.
Sorbey, Alfred. The Rookery, Ashford, Bakewell.
1859. *Sorsy, H. Crirron, LL.D.,F.R.S., F.G.S. Broomfield, Sheffield.
1879. *Sorby, Thomas W. Storthfield, Sheffield.
1865. *Southall, John Tertius. Parkfields, Ross, Herefordshire.
1859. {Southall, Norman. 44 Cannon-street West, London, E.C.
1856. {Southwood, Rey. T. A. Cheltenham College.
1863. {Sowerby, John. Shipcote House, Gateshead, Durham.
1863. *Spark, H. King. Starforth House, Barnard Castle.
1879. §Spence, David. Brookfield House, Freyinghall, Yorkshire.
1869. *Spence, J. Berger. Erlington House, Manchester.
1854, §Spence, Peter, F.C.S. Erlington House, Seymour-grove, Manchester.
1861. {Spencer, John Frederick. 28 Great George-street, London, 8.W.
1861. *Spencer, Joseph. Springbank, Old Trafford, Manchester.
1863. *Spencer, Thomas. The Grove, Ryton, Blaydon-on-Tyne, Co.
Durham.
1875. {Spencer, W. H. Richmond Hill, Clifton, Bristol.
1871. {Spicer, George. Broomfield, Halifax.
1864, *Spicer, Henry, B.A., F.L.S., F.G.8S. 14 Aberdeen Park, Highbury,
London, N.
1864.§§Spicer, William R. 19 New Bridge-street, Blackfriars, London, E.C..
1864, *Sprier, Jonn, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London, N.
1878.§§Spottiswoode, George Andrew. 29 Ashley-place, London, S.W.
1846. *Sporriswoopr, Wii11AM, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Pres. R.S., F.R.A.S.,
F.R.G.8. 41 Grosvenor-place, London, S.W.
1864, *Spottiswoode, W. Hugh. 41 Grosvenor-place, London, S.W.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 75.
Year of
Election.
1854, *Spracur, Taomas Bonp. 29 Buckingham-terrace, Edinburgh,
1853. {Spratt, Joseph James. West Parade, Hull.
Square, Joseph Elliot, F.G.S. 24 Portland-place, Plymouth.
1877. {Sevarg, Wit1aM, F.R.C.S., F.R.G.S. 4 Portland-square, Ply-
: mouth.
*Squire, Lovell. The Observatory, Falmouth.
1879.§§Stacye, Rev. John. The Hospital, Shrewsbury.
1858. oe ne T., F.RS., F.LS., F.G.S8. Mountsfield, Lewis-
am, S.E.
1865.§§StanrorD, Epwarp ©. 0. Glenwood, Dalmuir, N.B.
1837. Staniforth, Rev. Thomas. Storrs, Windermere.
Srantry, The Very Rey. ARTHUR PENRHYN, D.D., F.R.S., Dean of
Westminster. The Deanery, Westminster, London, S.W.
Stapleton, M. H., M.B., M.R.I.A. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin.
1866. {Starey, Thomas R. Daybrook House, Nottingham.
1876. §Starling, John Henry, F.C.S. The Avenue, Erith, Kent.
Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire.
1873. *Stead, Charles. Saltaire, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1857. {Steale, William Edward, M.D. 15 Hatch-street, Dublin.
1870. {Stearn,C.H. 2 St. Paul’s-villas, Rock Ferry, Liverpool.
1863. {Steele, Rev. Dr. 35 Sydney-buildings, Bath.
1873. §Steinthal,G. A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1861. {Steinthal, H. M. Hollywood, Fallowfield, near Manchester.
Srennovse, Jonny, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 17 Rodney-street, Pen-
tonville, London, N.
1872. {Stennett, Mrs. Eliza. 2 Clarendon-terrace, Brighton.
1879. *SrepHEnson, Henry, J.P. Endcliffe Vale, Sheffield.
1861, *Stern,S. J. Littlegrove, East Barnet, Herts.
1863. {Sterriker, John. Driffield, Yorkshire. L
1876. {Steuart, Walter. City Bank, Pollockshaws, near Glasgow.
1870. *Stevens, Miss Anna Maria. Belmont, Devizes-road, Salisbury.
1861. *Stevens, Henry, F.S.A., F.R.G.S. 4 Trafalgar-square, London, W.C.
1880. *Stevens, J. Edward. 10 Cleveland-terrace, Swansea.
1868, {Stevenson, Henry, F.L.S. Newmarket-road, Norwich.
1878. {Stevenson, Rev. James, M.A. 21 Garville-avenue, Rathgar,
Dublin.
1863, *Srevenson, James C., M.P., F.C.S. Westoe, South Shields.
1855. {Srewart, Batrour, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural
Philosophy in Owens College, Manchester.
1864. eieear Cartes, M.A., F.L.S. St. Thomas’s Hospital, London,
1875. reste James, B.A., M.R.C.P.Ed. Dunmurry, Sneyd Park, near
ristol.
1876. {Stewart, William. Violet Grove House, St. George’s-road, Glasgow.
1867. {Stirling, Dr. D. Perth.
1868. {Stirling, Edward. 34 Queen’s-gardens, Hyde Park, London, W.
1876. {Stirling, William, M.D., D.Sc. The University, Aberdeen.
1867. *Stirrup, Mark, F.G.S. 14 Atkinson-street, Deansgate, Manchester.
1865. *Stock, Joseph S. The Grange, Ramsgate.
1864.§§SroppaRT, Wittram Watter, F.G.8., F.C.S. Grafton Lodge,.
Sneyd Park, Bristol.
1854. {Stoess, Le Chevalier Ch. de W. (Bavarian Consul). Liverpool.
*Sroxes, Grorez Garret, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec. R.S., Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. Lens-
field Cottage, Cambridge.
1862. {Stonz, Epwarp James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of the-
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford.
76 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
lection.
1874. {Stone, J. Harris, B.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. 11 Sheffield-gardens, Ken~
sington, London, W.
1876. {Stone, Octavius C., F.R.G.S. Springfield, Nuneaton.
1859, {Stone, Dr. William H. 14 Dean’s-yard, Westminster, S.W.
1857. {Sronxy, Brypon B., C.E., M.R.I.A., Engineer of the Port of Dublin.
42 Wellington-road, Dublin.
1878. *Stoney, G. Gerald. 8% Palmerston Park, Dublin. ;
1861, *Sronry, GrorcE Jonnsrone, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.LA., Secretary to
the Queen’s University, Ireland. 3 Palmerston Park, Dublin.
1876. §Stopes, Henry, F.G.S. 3 Abercromby-place, Edinburgh,
1854. Store, George. Prospect House, Fairfield, Liverpool.
1873. {Storr, William. The ‘Times’ Office, Printing-house-square, Lon-
don, E.C.
1867. {Storrar, John, M.D. Heathview, Hampstead, London, N.W.
1859. §Story, Captain James. 17 Bryanston-square, London, W.
1874.§§Stott, William. Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire.
1871, *Srracnzy, Lieut.-General Ricwarp, R.E., 0.8.1, F.R.S., F.R.G.S.,
F.L.S., F.G.S. Stowey House, Clapham Common, London,
S.W.
1876, {Strain, John. 143 West Regent-street, Glasgow.
1863. {Straker, John. Wellington House, Durham.
*Strickland, Charles. Loughglyn House, Castlerea, Ireland.
1879.§§Strickland, Sir Charles W., K.C.B. Hildenley-road, Malton.
Strickland, William. French Park, Roscommon, Ireland.
1859, {Stronach, William, R.E. Ardmellie, Banff.
1867. {Stronner, D. 14 Princess-street, Dundee.
1876. *Struthers, John, M.D., Professor of Anatomy in the University of
Aberdeen.
1878.§§Strype, W. G., C.E. Wicklow.
1876. *Stuart, Charles Maddock. Sudbury Hill, Harrow.
1872. *Stuart, Rev. Edward A. 22 Bedford-street, Norwich.
1864, {Style, Sir Charles, Bart. 102 New Sydney-place, Bath.
1873.§§Style, Rev. George, M.A. Gigeleswick School, Yorkshire.
1879. *Styring, Robert. 3 Hartshead, Sheffield.
1857. {Sunrivan, Wittiam K., Ph.D., M.R.I.A. Queen’s College, Cork.
1873. {Sutcliffe, J. W. Sprink Bank, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1873. {Sutclifie, Robert. Idle, near Leeds.
1863. {Sutherland, Benjamin John. 10 Oxford-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1862. *SurHERLAND, GEORGE GRANVILLE WiuttlAM, Duke of, K.G.,
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Stafford House, London, 8.W.
1863. {Surron, Francis, F.C.S. Bank Plain, Norwich.
1876, {Swan, David, jun. Braeside, Maryhill, Glasgow.
1861. *Swan, Patrick Don 8. Kirkcaldy, N.B.
1862, *Swan, Witt1aM, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of St. Andrews, N.B.
1862, *Swann, Rev. S. Kirke, F.R.A.S. Forest Hill Lodge, Warsop,
Mansfield, Nottinghamshire.
1879. §Swanwick, Frederick. Whittington, Chesterfield.
Sweetman, Walter, M.A., M.R.IL.A. 4 Mountjoy-square North,
Dublin.
1870. *Swinburne, Sir John, Bart. Capheaton, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1863. {Swindell, J.S. E. Summerhill, Kingswinford, Dudley.
1873. *Swinglehurst, Henry. Hincaster House, near Milnthorpe.
1873. §Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D. Cleckheaton.
1847, {Sykes, H. P. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London, W.
1862. {Sykes, Thomas. Cleckheaton, near Leeds.
1847. {Sykes, Captain W. H. F. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London, W.
LIST OF MEMBERS. aT
Year of
Election.
SyiveEsTER, JAmEs JosepH, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. Atheneum Club,
London, 8. W.
1870. {Symes, Ricwarp Guascorr, A.B., F.G.S. Geological Survey of
Ireland, 14 Hume-street, Dublin.
1856. *Symonds, Frederick, M.A., F.R.C.S. 35 Beaumont-street, Oxford.
1859, {Symonds, Captain Thomas Edward, R.N. 10 Adam-street, Adelphi,
London, W.C.
1860. {Symonps, Rev. W. S., M.A., F.G.S. Pendock Rectory, Worcester-
shire.
1859. §Symons, G. J., F.R.S., Sec.M.S. 62 Camden-square, London,
N.W
1855. *Symons, Wiiiram, F.C.S. 26 Joy-street, Barnstaple.
Synge, Francis. Glanmore, Ashford, Co. Wicklow.
1872. {Synge, Major-General Millington, R.E., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. United
Service Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W.
1865. {Tailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, N.B.
1877. *Tarr, Lawson, F.R.C.S. 7 Great Charles-street, Birmingham.
1871. {Tarz, Perzr Gururie, F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy
in the University of Edinburgh. George-square, Edinburgh.
1867. {Tait, P. M., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. Oriental Club, Hanover-square,
London, W.
1874. §Talmage, C. G., F.R.A.S. Leyton Observatory, Essex, E.
1866. {Tarbotton, Marrott Ogle, M.I.C.E., F.G.S.: Newstead-grove, Not-
tingham.
1878. {Tarpry, Hven. Dublin.
1861. *Tarratt, Henry W. Mountfield, Grove Hill, Tunbridge Wells.
1856, {Tartt, William Macdonald, F.S.S8. Sandford-place, Cheltenham.
1857. *Tate, Alexander, C.E, Longwood, Whitehouse, Belfast.
1863. {Tate, John. Alnmouth, near Alnwick, Northumberland.
1870. {Tate, ae A. 7 Nivell-chambers, Fazackerley-street, Liver-
ool.
1858. *Tatham, George, J.P. Springfield Mount, Leeds.
1876. {Tatlock, Robert R. 26 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow.
1879.§§Tattershall, William Edward. 15 North Church-street, Sheffield.
1864, *Tawnery, Epwarp B., F.G.S. Woodwardian Museum, Cambridge..
1878. *Taylor, A. Claude. Clinton-terrace, Derby-road, Nottingham.
1874, {Taylor, Alexander O'Driscoll. 3 Upper-crescent, Belfast.
1867. {Taylor, Rev. Andrew. Dundee.
1880. §Taylor, Edmund. Droitwich.
Taylor, cantar Laurel Cottage, Rainhill, near Prescot, Lan-
cashire.
1874. {Taylor, G. P. Students’ Chambers, Belfast.
1879.§§Taylor, John. Broomhall-place, Sheffield.
*TAYLOR, JOHN, F.G.S. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-street,
London, E.C.
1861. *Taylor, John, jun. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-street,
London, E.C.
1873. {Taytor, Joun Extor, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.S, The Mount, Ipswich.
1865. {Taylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham,
*Taytor, RicHarD, F.G.S. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper Thames-
street, London, E.C.
1876. {Taylor, Robert. 70 Bath-street, Glascow.
1878. {Taylor, Robert, J.P., LL.D. Corballis, Drogheda.
1870. {Taylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon.
*Taylor, William Edward. Hesketh Park, Southport,
1858, {Teale, Thomas Pridgin, jun. 20 Park-row, Leeds.
78
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1880
1869.
1876.
1879.
1880.
1863.
1841.
1857.
1866,
1871.
1871.
1835.
1870.
1879.
1871.
1875.
1875.
1869.
1869.
1880.
1875.
1859,
1870.
1861.
1864.
1873.
1876.
1874.
1876.
1878.
1863.
1867.
1855.
1850.
1850.
1868.
1876.
1874.
1871.
1871
. §Tebb, Miss. 7 Albert-road, Regent’s Park, London, N.W.
tTeesdale, C.S. M. Whyke House, Chichester,
{Temperley, Ernest. Queen’s College, Cambridge.
§Temple, Lieutenant George T., R.N. The Nash, near Worcester.
§Temple, Sir Richard, Bart., G.C.S.L, F.R.G.S. Athenzeum Club,
London, 8.W. :
tTennant, Henry. Saltwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Trnnant, James, F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Mineralogy in
King’s College. 149 Strand, London, W.C.
tTennison, Edward King. Kildare-street Club House, Dublin. .
{Thackeray, J. L. Arno Vale, Nottingham.
{Thin, James. 7 Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh.
{TutseLron-Dyzr, W. T., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. 10 Gloucester-
road, Kew.
Thom, John. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.
{Thom, Robert Wilson. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire.
*Thomas, Arthur. Endcliffe House, Sheffield.
t{Thomas, Ascanius William Nevill. Chudleigh, Devon.
*THomas, CHRISTOPHER James. Drayton Lodge, Redland, Bristol.
Thomas, George. Brislington, Bristol.
t{Thomas, Herbert. 2 Great George-street, Bristol.
{Thomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter.
tThomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. Custom House, London, E.C.
§Thomas, Joseph William. Penylan, Cardiff.
{Thompson, Arthur. 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford.
{Thompson, George, jun. Pidsmedden, Aberdeen.
Thompson, Harry diephin: Kirby Hall, Great Ouseburn, York—
shire.
tTHompson, Sir Henry. 35 Wimpole-street, London, W.
Thompson, Henry Stafford. Fairfield, near York.
*Thompson, Joseph. Riversdale, Wilmslow, Manchester.
{THompson, Rev. JosepH HessEreravE, B.A. Oradley, near
Brierley Hill. :
Thompson, Leonard. Sheriff-Hutton Park, Yorkshire.
{Thompson, M. W. Guiseley, Yorkshire.
*Thompson, Richard. Park-street, The Mount, York.
{Thompson, Robert. Walton, Fortwilliam Park, Belfast.
§THompson, Sttvanus Purips, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.S., Professor
of Physics in University College, Bristol. 8 Carlton-place,
Clifton, Bristol.
tThompson, T. D. Clare Hall, Raheny, Co. Dublin.
{Thompson, William. 11 North-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
t{Thoms, William. Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee.
{THomson, ALLEN, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E. 66 Palace Gardens-
terrace, Kensington, London, W.
{THomson, Sir Cuartes Wrvittz. LL.D., F.R.S8. L. & E., F.GS.,
Regius Professor of Natural History in the University of
Edinburgh. 20 Palmerston-place, Edinburgh.
Thomson, Guy. Oxford.
*Tuomson, Professor Jamus, M.A., LL.D., C.E., F.R.S, L. & EB.
Oakfield House, University Avenue, Glasgow.
§THomson, Jamus, F.G.S. 3 Abbotsford-place, Glasgow.
*Thomson, James Gibson. 14 York-place, Edinburgh.
t{Thomson, James R. Dalmuir House, Dalmuir, Glasgow.
t{Thomson, John. Harbour Office, Belfast.
*THomson, JouN Mrrxar, F.C.S. . King’s College, London, W.C.
. {Thomson, Robert, LL.B. 12 Rutland-square, Edinburgh.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 79
“Year of
‘Election.
1847.
1877.
1874.
1876.
1871.
1880.
1871.
1852,
1867,
1845,
1871.
1864.
1871.
1868.
1870.
1873.
1874.
1875.
1865,
. 1876.
1861.
1857.
1856.
1864,
18653.
1865,
“Tomson, Sir Wittam, M.A., LL.D., D.O.L., F.RS. L. & E.,
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow,
The University, Glasgow,
*Thomson, Lady. The University, Glasgow.
§THomson, WitiiAM, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Royal Institution, Man-
chester.
tThomson, William. 6 Mansfield-place, Edinburgh.
{Thomson, William Burnes, F.R.S.E. 1 Ramsay-gardens, Edinburgh.
§Thomson, William J. St. Helen’s, Lancashire.
{Thornburn, Rey. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith.
{Thornburn, Rev. William Reid, M.A. Starkies, Bury, Lancashire.
*Thornton, Samuel, J.P. Oakfield, Moseley, near Birmingham.
tThornton, Thomas. Dundee.
{Thorp, Dr. Disney. Lyppiatt Lodge, Suffolk Lawn, Cheltenham.
{Thorp, Henry. Briarleigh, Sale, near Manchester.
*THorp, WILLIAM, B.Sc., F.C.S. 39 Sandringham-road, Kingsland,
London, E.
tTuorrr, T. E., Ph.D., F.R.S.L. & E., F.C.S., Professor of Che-
mistry in Yorkshire College, Leeds.
{Tuvrmter, Lieut-General Sir H. E. L., R.A., O.S.1, F.RS.,
F.R.G.S, 32 Cambridge-terrace, Hyde Park, London, W.
fTichborne, Charles R. C., LL.D., F.C.S., M-R.LA. Apothecaries’
Hall of Ireland, Dublin.
*TrppEmAN, R. H., M.A.. F.G.S8. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
{Tilden, William A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.0.S. Clifton College, Bristol.
{Tilghman, B. C. Philadelphia, United States.
fTimmins, Samuel, J.P., F.S.A. Elvetham-road, Edgbaston, Bir-
mingham.
Tinker, Ebenezer. Mealhill, near Huddersfield.
*Trnne, Joun A., F.R.G.S. Briarley, Aigburth, Liverpool.
{Todd, Rev. Dr. Tudor Hall, Forest Hill, London, S.E.
*TopHuntTER, Isaac, M.A., F.R.S., Principal Mathematical Lecturer
at St. John’s College, Cambridge. Brookside, Cambridge.
{Tombe, Rev. Canon. Glenealy, Co. Wicklow.
tTomes, Robert Fisher. Welford, Stratford-on-A von.
*“TomLiInson, Cuar.zs, F.R.S., F.C.S. 3 Ridgmount-terrace, High-
gate, London, N.
tTone, John F. Jesmond-villas, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
§Tonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwick-
shire.
1865.§§Tonks, William Henry. The Rookery, Sutton Coldfield.
1873.
1861.
1872.
1875.
1863.
1859.
1873.
1875,
1857.
*Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Royal School of Mines, Jermyn-street,
London, S. W.
*Topham, John, M.I.C.E, High Elms, 265 Mare-street, Hackney,
London, E.
“Tortey, WituiaM, F.G.S., A.LC.E. Geological Survey Office,
Jermyn-street, London, S.W. '
§Torr, Charles Hawley. Harrowby House, Park-row, Nottingham.
fTorrens, Colonel Sir R. R., K.C.M.G. 2 Gloucester-place, Hyde
Park, London, W.
renee Very Rev. John, Dean of St. Andrews. Coupar Angus,
B.
Towgood, Edward. St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire.
{Townend, W. H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire.
{Townsend, Charles.. Avenue House, Ootham Park, Bristol. .
*TownsEnD, Rev. Ricwarp, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philo~ -
sophy in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin.
80 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election,
1861. {Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton.
1854, {Towson, Joun Tuomas, F.R.G.S. 47 Upper Parliament-street,.
Liverpool ; and Local Marine Board, Liverpool.
1877.§§Tozer, Henry. Ashburton.
1876, *Trail, Professor J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. University of Aber=
deen, Old Aberdeen.
1870, {Trarit, Witt1am A., M.R.IA. Geological Survey of Ireland, 14
Hume-street, Dublin.
1875, {Trapnell, Caleb. Severnleigh, Stoke Bishop.
1868. {TRAquAIR, Ramsay H., M.D., Professor of Zoology. Museum of
Science and Art, Edinburgh.
1835. Travers, Robert, M.B. Williamstown, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
1865. {Travers, William, F.R.C.S. 1 Bath-place, Kensington, London, W.
Tregelles, Nathaniel. Liskeard, Cornwall.
1868. {Trehane, John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter.
1869. {Trehane, John, jun. Bedford-circus, Exeter.
1870, {Trench, Dr. Municipal Offices, Dale-street, Liverpool.
Trench, F. A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland.
1871. {Trrr, ALFRED, F.C.S. 14 Denbigh-road, Bayswater, London, W.
1879.§§Trickett, F. W. 12 Old Haymarket, Sheffield.
1877. ¢{Trrmen, Henry, M.B., F.L.S8. British Museum, London, W.C.
1871. {TRrrmen, Rowtand, F.L.S., F.Z.S. Colonial Secretary’s Office, Cape
Town, Cape of Good Hope.
1860, §Trisrram, Rev. Henry Baxerr, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS., Canon
of Durham. The College, Durham.
1869. {Troyte,C. A. W. Huntsham Court, Bampton, Devon.
1869. {Tucker, Charles. Marlands, Exeter.
1847. *Tuckett, Francis Fox. 10 Baldwin-street, Bristol.
Tuke, James H. Bank, Hitchen.
1871. tTuke, J. Batty, M.D. Cupar, Fifeshire.
1867. {Tulloch, The Very Rev. Principal, D.D. St. Andrews, Fifeshire.
1854. {TurnBuLL, James, M.D. 86 Rodney-street, Liverpool.
1855.§§Turnbull, John. 387 West George-street, Glasgow.
1856. {Turnbull, Rev. J.C. 8 Bays-hill-villas, Cheltenham.
1871.§§Turnbull, William, F.R.S.E. 14 Lansdowne-crescent, Edinburgh.
1873. *Turner, George. Horton Grange, Bradford, Yorkshire.
Turner, Thomas, M.D. 31 Curzon-street, Mayfair, London, W.
1875. {Turner, Thomas, F.S.8. Ashley House, Kingsdown, Bristol.
1863. *TurnER, Witt1aM, M.B., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Edinburgh. 6 Eton-terrace, Edinburgh.
1842, Twamley, Charles, F.G.S. Ryton-on-Dunsmore, Coventry.
1847. {Twiss, Sir Travers, Q.C., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 3 Paper-
buildings, Temple, London, E.C.
1865. ee Epwarp Burnett, D.C.L., F.R.S. Linden, Wellington,
omerset.
1858. *Tynpatt, Jon, D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of
Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution. Royal Institu-
tion, Albemarle-street, London, W.
1861. *Tysoe, John. 28 Heald-road, Bowdon, near Manchester.
1876, *Unwin, W. C., A.LC.E., Professor of Hydraulic Engineering,
Cooper’s Hill, Middlesex.
1872, {Upward, Alfred, 11 Great Queen-street, Westminster, London,
S.W.
1876, {Ure, J ohn F. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow.
1859. uperees W. Pollard. COraigston Castle, N.B.; and Castlepollard,
reland,
LIST OF MEMBERS, 81
Year of
Election.
1866. {Urquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee.
1880. §Ussher, W. A. E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.
*Vance, Rev. Robert. 24 Blackhall-street, Dublin.
1863. {Vandoni, le Commandeur Comte de, Chargé d’Affaires de S. M.
Tunisienne, Geneya.
1854. {Varley, Cromwell F., F.R.S. Cromwell House, Bexley Heath,
Kent.
1868. {Varley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay-
avenue, Stoke Newington, London, N.
1865. *Vartuy, S. ALFRED. Hatfield, Herts.
1870. {Varley, Mrs. 8. A. Hatfield, Herts.
1869. {Varwell, P. Alphington-street, Exeter.
1875. tVaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury.
1849, *Vaux, Frederick. Central Telegraph Office, Adelaide, South Aus-
tralia.
1873. *Verney, Captain Epuuyp H., R.N., F.R.G.S. Rhianva, Bangor,
North Wales.
Verney, Sir Harry, Bart. Lower Claydon, Buckinghamshire.
1866. {Vernon, Rey. E. H. Harcourt. Cotgrave Rectory, near Nottingham.
Vernon, George John, Lord. 82 Curzon-street, London, W.; and
Sudbury Hall, Derbyshire.
1879. §Veth, D. D. Leiden, Holland.
1864, *Vicary, Wit1aM, F.G.S. The Priory, Colleton-crescent, Exeter.
1868. tVincent, Rev. William. Postwick Rectory, near Norwich.
1875. {Vines, David, F.R.A.S. Observatory House, Somerset-street, Kings-
down, Bristol.
1856. { Vivian, Epwarp, M.A. Woodfield, Torquay.
*Vivian, H. Hussey, M.P., F.G.S. Park Wern, Swansea; and 27
Belgrave-square, London, S.W.
1856.§§Vortckrr, J. Cu. Aveustus, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.0.8., Professor of
Chemistry to the Royal Agricultural Society of England. 39
Argyll-road, Kensington, London, W.
1875, {Volckman, Mrs. E.G. 48 Victoria-road, Kensington, London, W.
1875. {Volckman, William. 48 Victoria-road, Kensington, London, W.
tVose, Dr. James. Gambier-terrace, Liverpool.
Bs) vedding list John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucester-
shire.
1859. { Waddington, John. New Dock Works, Leeds.
1879. *Wake, Bernard. Abbeyfield, Sheffield.
-1870.§§Waxe, Cuartes Sranrtanp. 70 Wright-street, Hull.
1855. *Waldegrave, The Hon. Granville. 26 Portland-place, London, W.
1873, {Wales, James. 4 Mount Royd, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire.
1869. *Walford, Cornelius. 86 Belsize Park-gardens, London, N.W.
1849, ile fe Cuartss V., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Fernside, Reigate Hill,
eigate.
Walker, Frederick John. The Priory, Bathwick, Bath.
1866. { Walker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee.
1855. { Walker, John. 1 Exchange-court, Glasgow.
1866. *Watxzr, J. F., M.A., F.C.P.S, F.0.S8., F.G.S., F.LS8. 16 Gilly-
gate, York.
1867. *Walker, Peter G. 2 Airlie-place, Dundee.
1866. {Walker, S. D. 38 Hampden-street, Nottingham.
1869. * Walker, Thomas F. W., M.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 3 Circus, Bath.
Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh.
1869. | Walkey, J. E. C. High-street, Exeter.
¥
82 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1863. {WattAcr, ALFRED Russet, F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Waldron Edge,
; Duppas Hill, Croydon.
1859. {Waxtacg, Wrt11AM, Ph.D., F.C.S. Chemical Laboratory, 188 Bath-
street, Glasgow.
1857, { Waller, Edward. Lisenderry, Aughnacloy, Ireland.
1862, {Wallich, George Charles, M.D., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. 162 Holland-
road, London, W.
1862. ¢Watpots, The Right Hon. Spencer Horatio, M.A., D.C.L., M.P.,
F.R.S. Ealing, London, W.
Walsh, John (Prussian Consul). Dundrum Castle, Co, Dublin.
1863. { Walters, Robert. Eldon-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
Walton, Thomas Todd. Mortimer House, Clifton, Bristol.
1863. {Wanklyn, James Alfred. 7 Westminster-chambers, London, S.W.
1872. { Warburton, Benjamin. Leicester.
1874. §Ward, F.D. Fernleigh, Botanic-road, Belfast.
1879.§§ Ward, H. Marshall. Christ’s College, Cambridge.
1874. § Ward, John, F.R.G.S. Lenox Vale, Belfast.
1857. {Ward, John 8. Prospect Hill, Lisburn, Ireland.
1880, *Ward, J. Westney. 41 Head-street, Colchester.
Ward, Rev. Richard, M.A. 12 Eaton-place, London, S.W.
1863. tWard, Robert. Dean-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
*Ward, William Sykes, F.C.8. 12 Bank-street, and Denison Hall,
Leeds.
1867. { Warden, Alexander J. Dundee.
1858. {Wardle, Thomas. Leek Brook, Leek, Staffordshire.
1865. { Waring, Edward John, M.D., F,L.S. 49 Clifton-gardens, Maida Vale,
J.ondon, W.
1878.§§ Warington, Robert, F.C.S. Harpenden, St. Alban’s, Herts.
1872. *Warner, Thomas. 47 Sussex-square, Brighton.
1856. {Warner, Thomas Hl. Lee. Tiberton Court, Hereford.
1875. {Warren, Algernon. Naseby House, Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
1865. *Warren, Edward P. 13 Old-square, Birmingham,
Warwick, William Atkinson. Wyddrington House, Cheltenham.
1856. { Washbourne, Buchanan, M.D. Gloucester.
1876. {Waterhouse, A. Willenhall House, Barnet, Herts.
1875. *Waterhouse, Major J. Surveyor-General’s Office, Calcutta. (Care
of Messrs. Triibner & Co., Ludgate-hill, London, E.C.)
1854, {Waterhouse, Nicholas. 5 Rake-lane, Liverpool.
1870. {Waters, A. T. H., M.D. 29 Hope-street, Liverpool.
1875. § Waters, Arthur W., F.G.S., F.L.S. Woodbrook, Alderley Edge,
near Manchester.
1875. {Watherston, Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S. Bowdon, Cheshire,
1867. } Watson, Rey. Archibald, D.D. The Manse, Dundee,
1855. { Watson, Ebenezer. 16 Abercromby-place, Glasgow.
1867. { Watson, as oe Edwin. Thickthorne House, Cringleford, Nor-
wich.
*Watson, Henry Hoven, F.C.S. 227 The Folds, Bolton-le-Moors.
Watson, Hewerr Corrrett, Thames Ditton, Surrey,
1873. *Watson, Sir James. Milton-Lockhart, Carluke, N.B.
1859. {| Wartson, Jose Fores, M.A., M.D., F.L.S. India Museum, Lon-
don, 8. W.
1863. {Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, near Gateshead-on-Tyne.
1863. {Watson, R. 8. 101 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.
1867. {Watson, Thomas Donald. 41 Cross-street, Finsbury, London, E.C.
1879. §Watson, Witt1am Henry, F.C.S. Braystones, near Whitehaven,
Cumberland.
1869. {Watt, Robert B. E,, C.E., F.R.G.S. Ashley-avenue, Belfast.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 83
Year of
Election.
1861. { Watts, Sir James. Abney Hall, Cheadle, near Manchester.
1875. *Warts, Joun, B.A., D.Sc. 57 Baker-street, Portman-square,
London, W.
1846.§§ Watts, John King, F.R.G.S. Market-place, St. Ives, Hunts.
1870. § Watts, William, F.G.S. Oldham Corporation Waterworks, Pie-
thorn, near Rochdale.
1873, *Warrs, W. MarsHatt, D.Sc. Giggleswick Grammar School, near
Settle,
Waud, Major E. Manston Hall, near Leeds.
Waud, Rey. 8. W., M.A., F.R.A.S., F.C.P.S. Rettenden, near
Wickford, Essex.
1859. { Waugh, Edwin. Sager-street, Manchester.
1859, *WavrnEy, The Right Hon. Lord, F.R.S. 7 Audley-square,
London, W.
*“Way, J. Tuomas, F.C.S. 9 Russell-road, Kensington, London, 8. W,
1869. { Way, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia.
1871. {Webb, Richard M. 72 Gyrand-parade, Brighton.
*Wess, Rev. THomas WittraM, M.A., F.R.A.S. Hardwick Vicar-
age, Hay, South Wales.
1866. *Wrss, Witt1am FREDERICK, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Newstead Abbey,
near Nottingham,
1859. { Webster, John. 42 Kino-street, Aberdeen.
18354, [ Webster, Richard, F.R.A.S. 6 Queen Victoria-street, London, E.C.
1854. { Weightman, William Henry, Farn Lea, Seaforth, Liverpool.
1865, {Welch, Christopher, M.A. University Club, Pall Mall East,
London, 8. W.
1867. §Werxpon, Watrer, F.R.S.E. Rede Hall, Burstow, near Crawley,
Surrey.
1878. § Weldon, Mrs. Walter. Rede Hall, Burstow, near Crawley, Surrey,
1879. § Weldon, W. A. D. Rede Hall, Burstow, near Crawley, Surrey,
1876. § Weldon, W. F, R. St. John’s College, Cambridge.
1879. § Wells, Charles A. Etna Iron Works, Lewes.
1850. {Wemyss, Alexander Watson, M.D. St. Andrews, N.B.
Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon, "Wentworth Castle, near
Barnsley, Yorkshire,
1864. *Were, Anthony Berwick, Whitehaven, Cumberland.
1865. {Wesley, William Henry. Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington
House, London, W.
1853. {West, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull.
1870. {West, Captain E. W. Bombay.
1853. {West, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull.
1853. [West, Stephen. Hessle Grange, near Hull.
1851. *WestERN, Sir T. B., Bart. Felix Hall, Kelvedon, Essex.
1870, §Westgarth, William, 10 Bolton-gardens, South Kensington, Lon-
don, W.
1842. Westhead, Edward. Chorlton-on-Medlock, near Manchester.
Westhead, John, Manchester.
1857. * Westley, William. 24 Regent-street, London, 8. W.
1863. {Westmacott, Percy. Whickham, Gateshead, Durham.
1860. { Weston, James Woods. Belmont House, Pendleton, Manchester,
1875. *Weston, Joseph D. Dorset House, Clifton Down, Bristol,
1864, {Wexsrrorr, W.H.8., M.R.I.A. Lisdoonvarna, Co. Clare.
1860. {Wxsrwoop, Jonn O., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the
University of Oxford. Oxford.
‘1853. {Wheatley, E. B. Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire.
1866, i Whee, Charles C, 19 Park-crescent, Regent’s Park, London,
F2
84 LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1847. {Wheeler, Edmund, F.R.A.S. 48 Tollington-road, Holloway, Lon=
don, N.
1878. *Wheeler, W. H., C.E. Churchyard, Boston, Lincolnshire.
1879. *Whidborne, George Ferris, M.A., F.G.S. Charante, Torquay.
1873. {Whipple, George Matthew, B.Sc., F.R.A.S, Kew Observatory,
Richmond, Surrey.
1874.§§ Whitaker, Henry, M.D. 33 High-street, Belfast.
1859, *WaurrakerR, WitLiAM, B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 28:
Jermyn-street, London, 8. W.
1876, +White, Angus. Easdale, Areyleshire.
1864, ¢{White, Edmund. Victoria Villa, Batheaston, Bath.
1837. {Wuire, James, F.G.S. 8 Thurloe-square, South Kensington,
London, 8.W. :
1876. *White, James. ee Dumbarton.
*1873.§§ White, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight.
White, John. 80 Wilson-street, Glasgow.
1859. {Wauuitz, Joun Forsrs. 16 Bon Accord-square, Aberdeen.
1865. {White, Joseph. Regent’s-street, Nottingham.
1869. {White, Laban. Blanford, Dorset.
1859. {White, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland.
1877. *White, William. 3865 Euston-road, London, N.W.
1861. { Whitehead, James, M.D. 87 Mosley-street, Manchester.
1858. t Whitehead, J. H. Southsyde, Saddleworth.
1861. *Whitehead, John B. Ashday Lea, Rawtenstall, Manchester.
1861. *Whitehead, Peter Ormerod, C:H. Drood House, Old Trafford,
Manchester.
; Whitehouse, William. 10 Queen’s-street, Rhyl.
1871. {Whitelaw, Alexander. 1 Oakley-terrace, Glasgow.
1866. { Whitfield, Samuel. yersfield, Eastnor-grove, Leamington.
1874. { Whitford, William. 5 Claremont-street, Belfast.
1852. {Whitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast.
Whitley, Rev. Charles Thomas, M.A., F.R.A.S. Bedlington,
Morpeth.
1870. §Whittem, James Sibley. Walerave, near Coventry.
1857. *Wuirty, Rey. JoHN Inwixe, M-A., D.C.L., LL.D. 94 Baggot-
street, Dublin.
1874. *Whitwell, Mark. Redland House, - Bristol.
*WuitwortH, Sir Josepy, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. The Firs,
Manchester; and Stancliffe Hall, Derbyshire.
1870, {WaurrwortH, Rey. W. Atten, M.A. -185 Islington, Liverpool.
1865. {Wiggin, Henry. Metchley Grange, Harborne, Birmingham,
1878. tWigham, John R. Albany House, Monkstown, Dublin.
1855. {Wilkie, John. Westburn, Helensburgh, N.B.
1857. { Wilkinson, George. Temple Hill, Killiney, Co, Dublin.
1879. § Wilkinson, J oseph, FRGS. York.
1859, § Wilkinson, Robert. Lincoln Lodge, Totteridge, Hertfordshire.
1872. { Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton.
1869. § Wilks, George Augustus Frederick, M.D. Stanbury, Torquay.
_ *Willert, Alderman Paul Ferdinand. Town Hall, Manchester.
1859. {Willet, John, C.K. 35 Albyn-place, Aberdeen.
1872, {Witterr, Henry, F.G.S. Arnold House, Brighton.
WILLIAMS, CHARLES JAMES B., M.D., F.R.S. 47 Upper Brook-
street, Grosvenor-square, London, W.
1861. *Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 47 Upper Brook-street,
Grosvenor-square, London, W.
1861. *Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A. 1 Gorse Lane, Swansea.
1875, *Williams, Herbert A., M.A. 91 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 85
“Year of
Election.
1857. { Williams, Rev. James. Llanfairinghornwy, Holyhead.
1870. §Witt1aMs, Jonn, F.C.S. 14 Buckingham-street, London, W.C.
1875. *Williams, M. B. North Hill, Swansea.
1879.§§ Williams, Matthew W., F.C0.S. 18 Kempsford-gardens, Eavrl’s
Court, London, 8. W.
Williams, Robert, M.A. Bridehead, Dorset.
1869, {WittrAMs, Rey. SrerHeN. Stonyhurst College, Whalley, Blacke
burn.
1877, *Williams, W. Carleton, F.C.S. Owens College, Manchester.
1865. { Williams, W.M. Belmont-road, Twickenham, near London.
1850. *Wiini1aMson, ALEXANDER Wiutt1am, Ph.D., LL.D., For. See. B.S.,
F.C.S., Corresponding Member of the French Academy, Professor
of Chemistry, and of Practical Chemistry, University College,
London. (GENERAL TREASURER.) University College, London,
W.C.
1857. { Williamson, Benjamin, M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Dublin.
1876, { Williamson, Rey. F. J.. Ballantrae, Girvan, N.B.
1863. { Williamson, John. South Shields.
1876, { Williamson, Stephen. 19 James-street, Liverpool.
Wiuttramson, Witiiam C., F.R.S., Professor of Natural History in
Owens College, Manchester. 4 Egerton-road, Fallowfield,
Manchester,
1865. *Willmott, Henry. Hatherley Lawn, Cheltenham.
1857. { Willock, Rev. W.N., D.D. Cleenish, Enniskillen, Ireland.
1859, * Wills, Alfred, Q.C. 12 King’s Bench-walk, Inner Temple, London,
' E.C
1865. { Wills, Arthur W. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Wits, W.R. Edgbaston, Birmingham.
1878. { Wilson, Alexander 8., M.A., B.Sc. 124 Bothwell-street, Glascow.
1859. {Wilson, Alexander Stephen, C.E. North Kinmundy, Summerhill,
by Aberdeen.
1876. { Wilson, Dr. Andrew. 118 Gilmore-place, Edinburgh.
1874, {Wizson, Major CO, W., C.B., R.E., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Director of the
Topographical and Statistical Department of the War Office,
5 Lansdowne-terrace, Rodwell, Weymouth.
1850. {Wilson, Dr. Daniel. Toronto, Upper Canada.
1876. { Wilson, David. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow.
1863. { Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland.
1847, *Wilson, Frederick, 73 Newman-street, Oxford-street, London, W.
1861. { Wilson, George Daniel. 24 Ardwich-green, Manchester.
1875.§§ Wilson, George Fergusson, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.L.S. Heatherbank,
Weybridge Heath, Surrey.
1874, *Wilson, George Orr. Dunardagh, Blackrock, Co. Dublin.
1863. { Wilson, George W. Heron Hill, Hawick, N.B.
1879. §Wilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmoor-road, Sheffield.
1855. { Wilson, Hugh. 75 Glasford-street, Glasgow.
1857. { Wilson, James Moncrieff. Queen Insurance Company, Liverpool.
1865. {Wutson, Jamus M., M.A. The College, Clifton, Bristol.
1858, *Wilson, John. Seacroft Hall, near Leeds.
Wiutson, Jonny, F.G.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of Agriculture in the
University of Edinburgh. The University, Edinburgh,
1876. {Wilson, J. G., M.D., F.R.S.E. 9 Woodside-vrescent, Glasgow.
1879.§§ Wilson, John Wycliffe. Eastbourne, East Bank-road, Sheffield,
1876. {Wilson, R. W. R, St. Stephen’s Cluk, Westminster, S. W.
1847. "Wilson, Rey. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke,
1861, { Wilson, Thomas Bright. 24 Ardwich-green, Manchester.
1867, {Wilson, Rev. William. Free St. Paul’s, Dundee.
86
LIST OF MEMBERS.
Year of
Election.
1871.
1870,
1861,
1877.
1868.
1863.
1863.
1861.
1870.
1875.
1856.
1878.
1864.
1871.
1850.
1865.
1861.
1872.
1863.
1870.
1850.
1865.
1871.
1872.
1869.
1866.
1870.
1877.
1856.
1872.
1874.
*Wilson, William E. Daramona House, Rathowen, Ireland.
{ Wilson, William Henry. 31 Grove-park, Liverpool.
*WILTSHIRE, Rey. THomas, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S. 25 Gran-
ville-park, Lewisham, London, 8.E.
{Windeatt, T. W. Dart View, Totnes.
*Winsor, F. A. 60 Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, London, W.C.
{+Winter, C. J. W. 22 Bethel-street, Norwich. .
*Winwoop, Rey. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. 11 Cavendish-crescent, Bath.
*Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Bridge of Earn, N.B. :
*Wood, Edward T. Blackhurst, Brinscall, Chorley, Lancashire.
*Wood, George B., M.D. 1117 Avrch-street, Philadelphia, United
States.
*Wood, George 8S. 20 Lord-street, Liverpool.
*Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton, Manchester.
*Woop, Rey. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. Holwell Rectory, Sherborne,
Dorset.
§Wood, H. Trueman, B.A. Society of Arts, John-street, Adelphi,
London, W.C.
tWood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire.
tWood, Provost T. Barleyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh.
tWood, Rey. Walter. Elie, Fife.
Wood, William. Edge-lane, Liverpool.
*Wood, William, M.D. 99 Harley-street, London, W.
tWood, William Rayner. Singleton Lodge, near Manchester.
§Wood, William Robert. Carlisle House, Brighton.
*Wood, Rey. William Spicer, M.A., D.D. Higham, Rochester.
*WoopaLt, Major Jomn Woopatt, M.A.,F.G.S. St. Nicholas House,
Searborough.
tWoodburn, Thomas. Rock Ferry, Liverpool.
*Woodd, Charles H. L., F.G.S. Roslyn House, Hampstead, London,
N.W,
tWoodhill, J. C, Pakenham House, Charlotte-road, Edgbaston,
Birmingham.
{tWoodiwis, James. 51 Back George-street, Manchester.
{tWoodman, James. 26 Albany-villas, Hove, Sussex.
t Woodman, William Robert, M.D. Ford House, Exeter.
*Woops, Epwarp, C.E. 3 Great George-street, Westminster,
London, 8. W.
Woops, Samurt. 5 Austin Friars, Old Broad-street, London, H.C.
*Woopwarp, CO. J., B.Sc. 76 Francis-road, Edgbaston, Birming-
ham.
tWoopwarp, Henry, F.R.S., F.G.S. British Museum, London,
W.C
t Woodward, Horace B., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,.
London, 8. W.
tWoollcombe, Robert W. 14 St. Jean d’Acre-terrace, Plymouth.
tWoolley, Thomas Smith, jun. South Collingham, Newark.
Woolmer, Shirley. 6 Park-crescent, Brighton.
Worcester, The Right Rev. Henry Philpott, D.D., Lord Bishop of.
‘Worcester.
t Workman, Charles. Ceara, Windsor, Belfast.
1878.§§ Wormell, Richard, M.A., D.Sc. 165 Loughborough-road, London,.
. S.W,
1863.
1855.
*Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol.
*Worthington, Rev. Alfred William, B.A. Care of Rey. J. Wor-
thington, Oak Cottage, Streatham-place, London, S.W.
Worthington, Archibald. Whitchurch, Salop.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 87
Year of
Election.
Worthington, James. Sale Hall, Ashton-on-Mersey.
Worthington, William. Brockhurst Hall, Northwich, Cheshire.
1856. {Worthy, George 8. 2 Arlington-terrace, Mornington-crescent,.
Hampstead-road, London, N. W.
1879. §Wrentmore, Francis, 34 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, London,
S.W
1871.§§Wnrient, C. R. A., D.Se., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry in St.
Mary’s Hospital Medical School, Paddington, London, W.
1861. *Wright, E. Abbot. Castle Park, Frodsham, Cheshire.
1857. {Wrieut, E. Percrvat, M.A., M.D., F.LS., M.R.LA., Professor
, of Botany, and Director of the Museum, Dublin University.
5 Trinity College, Dublin.
1866. { Wright, G. H. Heaton Hall, near Derby.
1876. {Wright, James. 114 John-street, Glasgow.
1874. {Wright, Joseph. Cliftonville, Belfast.
1865, {Wright, J.S. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham.
*Wright, Robert Francis. Hinton Blewett, Temple-Cloud, near
Bristol.
1855. {Wrieut, Tuomas, M.D., F.R.S.L. & E., F.G.S. St. Margaret's
terrace, Cheltenham.
Wright, T.G., M.D. Milnes House, Wakefield.
1876. { Wright, William. 101 Glassford-street, Glasgow.
1871. {Wrightson, Thomas. Norton Hall, Stockton-on-Tees.
1867. {| Wtnscu, Epwarp Atrrep. 146 West George-street, Glasgow.
Wyld, James, F.R.G.S. Charing Cross, London, W.C.
1863. *Wyley, Andrew. 21 Barker-street, Handsworth, Birmingham.
1867, {Wylie, Andrew. Prinlaws, Fifeshire.
1871. { Wynn, Mrs. Williams. Cefn, St. Asaph.
1862, {Wrnnz, ArtHuR Beevor, F.G.S., of the Geological Survey of
% India. Bombay.
1875, {Yabbicom, Thomas Henry, C.E. 37 White Ladies-road, Clifton,
Bristol.
*Yarborough, George Cook. Oamp’s Mount, Doncaster,
1865, {Yates, Edwin. Stonebury, Edgbaston, Birmingham.
Yates, James. Carr House, Rotherham, Yorkshire.
1867. {Yeaman, James. Dundee.
1879.§§ Yeomans, John. Upperthorpe, Sheffield.
1877. §Yonge, Rey. Duke. Puslinch, Yealmpton, Devon.
1879, *Yorx, His Grace the Archbishop of, D.D., F.R.S. The Palace,
Bishopsthorpe, Yorkshire.
1870. {Youne, Jamus, F.R.S.L.&E., F.C.S. Kelly, Wemyss Bay, by
Greenock.
1876, *Young, James, jun., F.0.S. Kelly, Wemyss Bay, by Greenock.
1876, {Youne, Jonny, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the University
of Glasgow. 38 Cecil-street, Hillhead, Glasgow.
Younge, Robert, F.L.S. Greystones, near Sheffield.
1868, {Youngs, John, Richmond Hill, Norwich.
1876. {Yuille, Andrew. 7 Sardinia-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow.
1871, {Yutz, Colonel Hunry, O.B. East India United Service Club, St.
James’s-square, London, 8. W.
1878, {Zerfi,G.G., Ph.D. 3 Warrington-gardens, Maida Hill, London, W.
88
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
‘Year of
Election.
1871.
1870.
1872.
1861.
1880.
1868,
1864,
1861.
1864,
1855,
1871.
18738.
1880.
1870.
1876,
1872.
1874,
41866.
1862,
1872.
1870.
1876.
1848.
1861,
1874.
1872.
1856.
1842,
1866.
1861.
1870.
1876,
1852.
1866,
1871,
1862.
1876.
1872,
1864,
41877.
HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY tas EMPEROR or tHE BRAZILS,
Professor Van Beneden, LL.D. Louvain, Belgium.
Ch. Bergeron, C.E. 26 Rue des Penthiévre, Paris.
Dr. Bergsma, Director of the Magnetic Survey of the Indian Archi-
pelago. Utrecht, Holland. .
Professor Ludwig Boltzmann. Halbirtgasse, 1, Griz, Austria.
Professor Broca. Paris.
Dr, H. D. Buys-Ballot, Superintendent of the Royal Meteorological
Institute of the Netherlands. Utrecht, Holland.
Dr. Carus. Leipzig.
M. Des Cloizeaux. Paris.
Dr, Ferdinand Cohn. Breslau, Prussia.
Professor Dr. Colding. Copenhagen.
Signor Guido Cora. 17 Via Providenza, Turin.
Professor Cornu, L’Ecole Polytechnique, Paris.
J. M. Crafts, M.D.
Professor Luigi Cremona. The University, Rome.
Professor M. Croullebois. 18 Rue Sorbonne, Paris.
M. Ch. D’Almeida. 31 Rue Bonaparte, Paris.
Dr. Geheimrath von Dechen. Bonn.
Wilhelm Delffs, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Heidel-
berg.
Professor G. Devalque. Liége, Belgium.
Dr. Anton Dohrn. Naples.
Professor Dumas. Paris.
Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence,
Professor Esmark. Christiania.
Professor A. Favre. Geneva.
Dr. W. Feddersen. Leipzig.
W. de Fonvyielle. Rue des Abbesses, Paris.
Professor E. Frémy. Paris.
M. Frisiani. '
Dr. Gaudry, Pres. Geol. Soc. of France. Paris.
Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology. Dresden.
Governor Gilpin. Colorado, United States.
Dr. Benjamin A. Gould, Director of the Argentine National Observa-
tory, Cordoba.
Professor Asa Gray. Cambridge, United States.
Professor Edward Grube, Ph.D. Breslau. ‘
Dr. Paul Gussfeldt, of the University of Bonn. 33 Meckenheimer-
strasse, Bonn, Prussia. :
Dr, D. Bierens de Haan, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences,
Amsterdam. Leiden, Holland. i gees
Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena. |
Professor James Hall. Albany, State of New York.
M. Hébert, Professor of Geology in the Sorbonne, Paris.
Professor H. L, F. Helmholtz. Berlin.
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 89:
Year of
Election.
1868.
1872.
1861.
1876.
1867.
1876.
1862.
1876.
1877.
1862.
1866.
1873.
1874.
1856.
1877.
1876.
1872.
1877.
1846.
1857.
1871.
1871.
1869.
1867.
1867.
1862.
1846,
1848.
1855.
1877.
1864.
1856.
1875.
1866.
1864,
1869,
1874.
1848.
1856.
1861.
1857.
1870.
1868.
1872.
1873.
A, Heynsius. Leiden.
J. E. Hilgard, Assist.-Supt. U.S. Coast Survey. Washington.
Dr. Hochstetter. Vienna.
Professor von Quintus Icilius, Hanover.
Dr. Janssen, LL.D. 21 Rue Labat (18° Arrondissement), Paris.
Dr. W. J. Janssen. The University, Leiden.
Charles Jessen, Med. et Phil. Dr., Professor of Botany in the Univer-
sity of Greifswald, and Lecturer of Natural History and Librarian
at the Royal Agricultural Academy, Eldena, Prussia.
Dr. Giuseppe Jung. Milan.
M. Akin Karoly. 5 Babenbergerstrasse, Vienna,
Aug. Kekulé, Professor of Chemistry. Ghent, Belgium.
Dr. Henry Kiepert, Professor of Geography. Berlin.
Dr. Felix Klein. Munich, Bavaria.
Dr. Knoblauch. Halle, Germany.
Professor A. Kélliker. Wurzburg, Bavaria.
Laurent-Guillaume De Koninck, M.D., Professor of Chemistry and.
Paleontology in the University of Liége, Belgium.
Dr. Hugo Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. 57 Sidonien-strasse,.
Leipzig.
Professor von Lasaulx. Breslau.
M. Georges Lemoine. 76 Rue d’Assas, Paris.
Dr. M. Lindeman, Hon. Sec. of the Bremen Geographical Society,.
Bremen.
Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Belgium.
Professor Elias Loomis. Yale College, New Haven, United States.
Professor Jacob Liiroth. Technische Hochschule, Munich.
Dr. Liitken. Copenhagen.
Professor C. 8. Lyman. Yale College, New Haven, United States.
Professor Mannheim. Rue de la Pompe, 11, Passy, Paris.
Professor Ch. Martins, Director of the Jardin des Plantes. Montpellier,
France.
Professor P. Merian. Bale, Switzerland.
Professor von Middendorff. St. Petersburg.
Professor J. Milne-Edwards. Paris.
M. Abbé Moigno. Paris.
Professor V. L. Moissenet. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris.
Dr. Arnold Moritz. St. Petersburg, Russia.
Edouard Morren, Professeur de Botanique 4 l'Université de Liége,
Belgium.
Dr. T. Nachtigal. Berlin.
Chevalier C. Negri, President of the Italian Geographical Society,
Turin, Italy.
Herr Neumayer. Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg.
Professor H. A. Newton. Yale College, New Haven, United States.
M. A. Niaudet. 6 Rue du Seine, Paris.
Professor Nilsson. Lund, Sweden.
M. E. Peligot, Memb. de l'Institut, Paris.
Professor Benjamin Pierce. Washington, United States.
Gustay Plarr. 22 Hadlow-road, Tunbridge, Kent.
Professor Felix Plateau. Rue du Casino, 15, Gand, Belgium.
Professor L. Radkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of
Munich.
Professor Victor von Richter. St. Petersburg.
Baron von Richthofen, President of the Berlin Geographical Society.
71 Steglitzer-strasse, Berlin.
M. de la Rive. Geneva.
90
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS,
Year of
lection.
1866,
1850,
1857.
1857.
1874.
1872,
1873.
1861.
1849,
1876,
1875.
1862.
1864,
1866.
1846,
1871.
1870,
1852.
1864,
1868.
1842.
1874.
1876.
1872.
1875,
F. Roemer, Ph.D., Professor of Geology and Paleontology in the
University of Breslau. Breslau, Prussia.
Professor W. B. Rogers. Boston, United States.
Baron Herman de Schlagintweit-Sakiinliinski, Jaegersberg Castle,
near Forchheim, Bavaria.
Professor Robert Schlagintweit. Giessen.
Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Cairo.
Professor Carl Semper. Wurzburg, Bavaria.
Dr. A, Shafarik. Prague.
M. Werner Siemens. Berlin.
Dr. Siljestrom. Stockholm.
Professor R. D. Silva. Ecole Centrale, Paris.
Professor J. Lawrence Smith. Louisville, United States,
J. A. de Souza, Professor of Physics in the University of Coimbra,
Portugal.
Adolph Steen, Professor of Mathematics. Copenhagen,
Professor Steenstrup. Copenhagen.
Dr, Svanberg. Upsala.
Dr. Joseph Szabo. Pesth, Hungary.
Professor Tchebichef. Membre de l’Académie de St. Petersburg.
M. Pierre de Tchihatchef, Corresponding Member of the Institute of
France. 1 Piazza degli Zuaai, Florence.
Dr. Otto Torell, Professor of Geology in the University of Lund,
Sweden.
Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University
of Pesth, Hungary.
Professor Voet. Geneva.
Professor Wartmann. Geneva. 7
Professor Wiedemann. Leipzig.
Professor Adolph Willner. Aix-la-Chapelle.
Professor A. Wurtz. Paris.
Dr. E. L. Youmans. New York.
91
LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS
TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED,
GREAT BRITAIN
Admiralty, Library of the,
Anthropological Institute,
Arts, Society of.
Asiatic Society (Royal).
Astronomical Society (Royal).
Belfast, Queen’s College.
Birmingham, Midland Institute.
Bristol Philosophical Institution.
Cambridge Philosophical Society.
Chemical Society.
Civil Engineers, Institute of.
Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of.
Dublin, Royal Geological Society of
Ireland,
—, Royal Irish Academy.
—-, Royal Society of.
East India Library.
Edinburgh, Royal Society of.
, Royal Medical Society of.
—, Scottish Society of Arts.
Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum,
Geographical Society (Royal).
‘Geological Society.
Geology, Museum of Practical.
Glasgow Philosophical Society.
, Institution of Engineers and Ship-
builders in Scotland.
Greenwich, Royal Observatory, .
‘Kew Observatory.
Leeds, Mechanics’ Institute.
AND IRELAND,
Leeds, Philosophical and Literary So-
ciety of.
Linnean Society.
Liverpool, Free Public Library and
Museum.
, Royal Institution.
London Institution.
Manchester Literary and Philosophical
Society.
——, Mechanics’ Institute.
Mechanical Engineers, Institute of.
Meteorological Office.
Newcastle-upon-Tyne Literary and
Philosophical Society.
Nottingham, The Free Library.
Oxford, Ashmolean Society.
——, Radcliffe Observatory,
Plymouth Institution.
Physicians, Royal College of.
Royal Institution.
Royal Society.
Salford, Royal Museum and Library.
Statistical Society.
Stonyhurst College Observatory.
Surgeons, Royal College of.
United Service Institution.
War Office, Library of the.
Wales (South), Royal Institution of.
Yorkshire Philosophical Society.
Zoological Society.
EUROPE.
Alten, Lapland, Literary and Philoso-
phical Society.
SESATIIN oo ccscecece Der Kaiserlichen Aka-
demie der Wissen-
schaften.
= nero Royal Academy of
clences,
Breslau ......... Silesian Patriotic So-
ciety.
BITE Sas ccgeecesss University Library,
Brussels ......... Royal Academy of
ciences.
Charkow ......... University Library,
Copenhagen ,..Royal Society of
Sciences.
Dorpat, Russia . University Library.
Frankfort ...... Natural History So-
ciety.
Geneva ......... Natural History So-
ciety.
Gottingen .,....University Library.
Heidelberg ,.,.., University Library.
Helsingfors ...... University Library. ,
Harlem: ’ scc+<<.s: Société Hollandaise
des Sciences.
Kasan, Russia... University Library,
Gel oeensseeneennes Royal Observatory. | Paris ............ School of Mines.
RG See e ae peesieies University Library. Pultova ......... Imperial Observatory.
Lausanne......... The Academy. ROME. elucetsies cele Accademia dei Lyncei.
Leyden ......... University Library. | —— ............ Collegio Romano.
Lidge siiseecess. University Library. =) eereseedeces The Italian Society of
Tus HON eesterscese ss Academia Real des Sciences.
Sciences. St. Petersburg . University Library.
SIMA ee execs 22-0 The Institute, = |§ ——_ sassesereeee Imperial Observatory.
Modena. ......... Royal Academy. Stockholm ...... Royal Academy.
Moscow ......... Society of Naturalists. | Turin ............ Royal Academy of
oe: University Library. Sciences.
Munich ......... University Library. Utrecht ..:0..... University Library.
Naples............ Royal Academy of | Vienna......:.....The Imperial Library.
Sciences es POC hah) oc oseece ont Central Anstait fir
Nicolaieff......... University Library. Meteorologie und
LEANN} Qadkidopaade Geographical Society. Erdmagnetismus.
acnonReabCI Geological Society. Zurich............General Swiss Society.
——— ecaatpateuss Royal Academy of |
Sciences.
ASIA.
ETD sco seatessas The College. Calcutta ......... Hindoo College.
Bombay ......... Elphinstone Institu- | —— ............ Hoogly College.
TOM Nec e w my || ——" eatedetewan Medical College:
—$—— receveceeees Grant Medical Col- | Madyas............ The Observatory.
TOO ne ts tee | Merges encpises University Library.
Calcuttan.......0 Asiatic Society.
AFRICA,
Cape of Good Hope. . . The Observatory.
AMERICA.
Albany ......... The Institute. | Philadelphia ...American Philosophi-
Boston .........++- American Academy of cal Society. °
Arts and Sciences. | Toronto ......... The Observatory.
Cambridge ...... Harvard University | Washington ...Smithsonian Institu-
Library. tion.
New York ...... Lyceum of Natural | —— _ .......see0 United States Geolo-
History. gical Survey of the:
Philadelphia ...American Medical As- Territories.
sociation. .
AUSTRALIA.
92
Adelaide . . . . The Colonial Government:
Victoria . . . . The Colonial Government.
Spottiswoode & Co., Printers, New-street Square, London..
“. a
+H 2vinww $€
‘Set.
60, ALBEMaRLE Street, Lonpon.
November, 150.
MR. MURRAY'S
GENERAL LIST OF WORKS.
ALBERT MEMORIAL. A Descriptive and Illustrated Account
of the National Monument erected to the PRINCE CONSORT at
Kensington. Illustrated by Engravings of its Architecture, Decora-
tions, Sculptured Groups, Statues, Mosaics, Metalwork &c. With
Descriptive Text. By DovnNe C. Bett. With 24 Plates. Folio, 127, 12s.
- —Hanppook ro. Post 8vo. 1s.; or Illus-
trated Edition, 2s. 6d,
————— (Prinor) Sprrcues anp AppRessEs. Feap. 8vo. 1s.
ALBERT DURER;; his Life, with a History of his Art. By Dr.
THAusING, Keeper of Archduke Albert’s Art Collection at Vienna.
Translated from the German. With Portrait and Illustrations, 2 vols.
Medium 8vo. (In the Press.
ABBOTT (Rev. J.). Memoirs of a Church of England Missionary
in the North American Colonies. Post 8yo. 2s,
ABERCROMBIE (Jonny). Inquiries concerning the Intellectual
Powers aud the Investigation of Truth. Feap. 8vo. 3s. 6d.
ACLAND (Rey. Cuanrtxs). Popular Account of the Manners and
Customsof India, Post 8vo. 2s.
ASOP’S FABLES, A New Version. With Historical Preface.
By Rev. HOmAS James. Witk 100 Woodcuts, by TENNIEL and Wo L¥.
Post 8vo. 2s. 6d
AGRICULTURAL (Royat) JOURNAL. (Published half-year’y.)
AIDS TO FAITH: a Series of Essays. Miracles; Evideuces
of Christianity; Prophecy and Mosaic Record of Creation: Ideology and
Subscription; The Pentateuch; Inspiration; Death of Christ; Scripture
and its Interpretation. By various Authors. 8vo. 9s,
AMBER-WITCH (Tue). A most interesting Trial for Witch-
craft. Translated by Lapy Durr Gorpon. Post 8vo. 2s.
APOCRYPHA: With a Commentary Explanatory and Critical,
by various Writers. Edited by Rev. ProressoR WACE. 2 Vols
Medium 8vo. Un the Press.
ARISTOTLE. See Grors, Harox.
AKMY LIST (Tux). Published Monthly by Authority.
—— (Tue New Orrictat). Published Quarterly. Royal
8vo. 15s.
ARTHUR'S (Lirrtz) History of England. By Lavy Cautcorr.
New Edition, continued to 1872. With 36 Woodcuts. Feap.8vo. 1s. 6d.
ATKINSON (Dr. R.) Vie de Seint Auban. A Poem in Norman-
French. Ascribed to MatrHew Paris. With Concordance, Glossary
and Notes. Small4to. 10s.6d.
AUSTIN (Joun). Lecrures on GENERAL JURISPRUDENCE; or, the
Philosophy of Positive Law, Edited by Ropert CAMPBELL. 2 Vols.
8ve, 32s, ;
Srupent’s Epirion, compiled from the above work,
by Rosert CaMPBELL. Post 8vo. 128.
Analysis of. By Gorpon Camppety. Post 8vo. 6s.
B
bo
LIST OF WORKS
ADMIRALTY PUBLICATIONS; Issued by direction of the Lords
Commissioners of the Admiralty :—
A MANUAL OF SCIENTIFIC ENQUIRY, for the Use of Travellers.
oe Edition. Edited by RoBERT Main, M.A. Woodcuts. Post
vo. 3s. 6d.
GREENWICH ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS, 1841 to 1847,
and 1847 to 1877. Royal4to. 20s. each. |
bela bc ASTRONOMICAL RESULTS, 1847 to 1877. 4to, 3s,
each.
MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS, 1844
to 1877. Royal 4to. 20s. each,
MAGNETICAL AND METEOROLOGICAL RESULTS, 1348 to 1877.
4to. 33 each.
APPENDICES TO OBSERVATIONS.
1837. Logarithms of Sines and Cosines in Time. 3s.
1842. CataloBue of 1439 Stars, from Observations made in 1836.
1841. 4s.
1845. Longitude of Valentia (Chronometrical). 3s.
1847. Description of Altazimuth. 3s.
Description of Photographic Apparatus. 2s.
1851. Maskelyne’s Ledger of Stars. 3s.
1852. I. Description of the Transit Circle. 3s.
1853, Bessel’s Refraction Tables, 3s.
1854. 1. Description of the Reflex Zenith Tube. 3s,
II. Six Years’ Catalogue of Stars, from Observations, 1843
to 1853. 4s.
1860, Reduction of Deep Thermometer Mhservations, 2,
1862, 11. Plan of Ground and Buildings of Royal Observatory,
Greenwich. 3s.
III. Longitude of Valentia (Galvanic). 2:
1864. I. Moon’s Semi-diameter, from Occultations, 2s.
IL. Keductions of Planetary Observati ns, 1831 to 1835, 2+
1868 I Corrections of Elemen's of Jupiter and Saturn. 2+.
Il, Second Seven Years’ Catalogue of 2760 Stars. 1861-7, 4s.
III Description of the Great Equatorial. 3»,
1871. Water Te'escnpe. 3s.
1873. Regulations of the Royal Observatory. 2s.
1876. Il. Nine Years’ Catalogue of 2243 Stars. (1861-67,) 4s.
Cape of Good Hope Observatious (Star Ledgers): 1856 to 1863, 25.
1856. 5s.
———______—— Astronomical Results. 1857 to 1858. 5s.
Cape Catalogue of 1159 Stars, reduced to the Epoch 1860. 33,
Cape of Good Hope Astronomical Results. 1859 to 1860. 5s.
1871 to 1873. 5s.
1874 to 1876. 5s, ch.
Report on Teneriffe Astronomical Experiment. 1856. 5s,
Paramatta Catalogue of 7385 Stars. 1822 to 1826, 4s.
REDUCTION OF THE OBSERVATIONS OF PLANETS. 1750
1830, Royal 4to. 20s. each.
LUNAR OBSERVATIONS. 175:
to 1880. 2 Vols. Royal 4to. 20s. each.
1831 to 1851. 4to, 10s. each,
GREENWICH METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVA-
TIONS. Chiefly 1847 to 1873. 5s.
ARCTIC PAPERS. 13s. 6d.
BERNOULLI'S SEXCENTENARY TABLE. 1779. 4to. 5s.
BESSEL’S AUXILIARY TABLES FOR HIS METHOD OF CLEAR.
ING LUNAR DISTANCES. §&8vo. 2s.
ENCKE’S BERLINER JAHRBUCH, for 1830. Berlin, 1828. 8vo. 9s.
HANSEN’S TABLES DE LA LUNE. 4to. 20s,
HANNYNGTON’S HAVERSINES.
LAX’S TABLES FOR FINDING THE LATITUDE AND LONGI-
TUDE. 1821. 8vo. 10s.
LUNAR OBSERVATIONS at GREENWICH. 1783 to 1819, Compared
with the Tables, 1821. 4to. 7s. 6d.
~
= —————,
PUBLISHED BY MR, MURRAY. 2
ApmrraALty PuBiications—continucd
MACLEAR ON LACAILLE’S ARC OF MERIDIAN. 2 Vols. 20s. each.
MAYER’S DISTANCES of the MOON'S CENTRE from the
PLANETS. 1822, 3s.; 1823, 4s. 6d. 1824 to 1835. S8vo. 4s. each.
TABUL& MOTUUM SOLIS ET LUNA. 1770. 52.
ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS MADE AT GOT-
TINGEN, from 1756 to 1761. 1826, Folio. 7s. 6d.
NAUTICAL ALMANACS, from 1767 to 1883. 2s. 6d. each.
—_______————- SELECTIONS FROM, up to 1812. vo. 5s.
1834-54. 5s.
od SUPPLEMENTS, 1828 to 1833, 1837 and 1838.
2s. each.
TABLE requisite to be used with the N.A.
1781. 8vo.
SABINE’S PENDULUM EXPERIMENTS to DETERMINE THE FiaguRE
OF THE EArTH. 1825, 4to. 40s.
SHEPHERD'S TABLES for Corggsctina Lunar Distances. 1772.
Royal 4to. 21s.
TABLES, GENERAL, of the MOON’S DISTANCE
from the SUN, and 10 STARS. 1787. Folio. 6s. 6d,
TAYLOR’S SEXAGESIMAL TABLE. 1780. 4to. 16s.
————. TABLES OF LOGARITHMS.. 4to. 6Cs,
TIARK’S ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS for the Lonerrupz
of MapErra. 1822. 4to. 5s.
CHRONOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS for DirreREnors
of LonGITUDE between Dover, PoRTsMOUTH, and FALMOUTH. 1823.
d4to. 5s.
VENUS and JUPITER: Onservations of, compared with the TaBuEs.
London, 1822. 4to. 2s.
WALES AND BAYLY’S ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS.
1777, 4to, 21s.
REDUCTION OF ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS
MADE IN THE SOUTHERN HEMISPHERE. 1764—1771. 1788. 4to. 108. 6d.
BARBAULD (Mrs.). Hymns in Prose for Children. With
100 Illustrations. 16mo. 3s 6d.
BARCLAY (BISHOP). Selected Extracts from the Talmud,
chiefly illustrating the Teaching of the Bible. With an Introduction.
Illustrations. 8vo. 14s,
BARKLEY (A. C.). Five Years among the Bulgarians and Turks
between the Danube and the Black Sea. Post 8vo. 10s. 6d.
Bulgaria Before the War; during a Seven Years’
Experience of European Turkey and its Inhabitants. Post 8vo. 10s. 6d.
My Boyhood: a True Story. A Book for School-
boys and others. With Illustrations, Post 8vo. 6s.
BARROW (Jonny). Life, Exploits, and Voyages of Sir Francis
Drake. Post 8vo. 2s.
BARRY (Canon). The Boyle Lectures, 1877-78. The Manifold
Witness for Christ. Being an Attempt to Exhibit the Combined Force
of various Evidences, Direct andi Indirect, of Christianity. 8vo, 12s.
—— (Epw.), R.A. Lectures on Architecture, delivered before
the Royal "Academy. 8yo. [Za Preparation.
BATES (H. W.) Records of a Naturalist on the Amazons during
Eleven Years’ Adventure and Travel. Illustrations. Post 8vo. 7s. ta,
BAX (Capz.). Russian Tartary, Eastern Siberia, China, Japan,
aut Formosa. A Cruise in H.M.S. Dwarf. Lllustrations. Cr. 8yo.
Se
BELCHER (Lapy). Account of the Mutineers of the ‘ Bonnty,’
and their Descendants; with their Settlements in Pitcairn and Norfolk
Islands, Illustrations. Post 8vo, 12s,
B2
4 LIST OF WORKS
BELL (Sir Cuas.). Familiar Letters. Portrait. Post 8vo. 12s.
(Dorne C.). Notices of the Historic Persons buried in
the Chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula, in the Tower of London, with an
account ot the discovery of the supp: sed remains of Queen Anne Boleyn.
With Illustrations. Crown 8yo. 14s,
BERTRAM (Jas. G.). Harvest of the Sea: an Account of British
Food Fishes, including Fisheries and Fisher Folk, Illustrations.
Post 8vo, 9s.
BIBLE COMMENTARY. Tue Oup Testament. ExpranatTory
and Critican. With a Revision of the TRANSLATION. By BISHOPS
and CLERGY of the ANGLICAN CHURCH. Edited by F.C. Coox,
M.A., Canon of Exeter, 6 Vous. Medium 8vo. 6/. 15s.
GENESIS. hae -
oDUs. SALMS,
Vol. I, porch Mas ond f PROVERBS.
30s. Nomaers. =a ECCLESIASTES.
DEUTERONOMY. Sone or SOLomon.
R Vol. V. { Isaian.
Vols. 11, (J08HUA, Jupexs, Ruta, 20s. JEREMIAH.
: SamuEL, Kuinos, CHrRo- FZFKIEL
and III. ) ~ : Vol. VI :
35 NICLES, Ezga, NEHEMIAH, - Vi. { Dax
ay EstTuer. 25s. Mynor Paopuets,
= Tur New Trsrament. 4 Vors. Medium 8vo.
Romans, CORINTHIANS,
INTRODUCTION. GALATIANS, PHILIPPIANS,
Vol I St, Mai THEW. Vol. III Epnersians, COLossrans,
18s. Sr. Marg. , ‘ ’) THESSALONIANA, PHILE-
St. LUKE. MON, PASTORAL EpistuEs,
( HEBREWs.
. Str. Joun. (St Janmzs, St. Jonny, St.
Vol. IL. | Accra, Vol. IV. 4 Peter, St. JupE, Reve-
208, Uxanox.
= Tue Stupenr’s Epirion, Abridged and
Edited by Joan M. Furier, M.A., Vicar of Bexley. (To be
completed in 6 Volumes.) Vols. I.to1II. Crewn 8vo. 7s. 6d. each.
BIGG-WITHER (T. P.). Pioneering in South Brazil; Three Years
of Forest and Prairie Life in the Province of Parana, Map and Illustra-
tions. 2 vols. Crown 8vo, 24s.
BIRCH (Samvrx). A History of Ancient Pottery and Porcelain :
Egyptian, Assyrian, Greek, Roman, and Etruscan, With Coloured
Plates and 200 Illustrations. Medium 8vo, 42s.
BIRD (Isasetna). Hawaiian Archipelago; or Six Months among
the Palm Groves, Coral Reefs, and Volcanoes of the Sandwich Islands.
lllustrations. Crown Svo. 7s. 6d.
Unbeaten Tracks in Japan: Travels of a Lady in the
interior, inc'uding Visits to the Aborigines of Yezo and the Shrines of
Nikko and Ise. With Map and Illustrations. 2 Vols. Crown 8vo. 24s.
A Lady’s Life in the Rocky Mountains, Illustrations.
Post Svo. 103s. 6d.
BISSET (Sir Jonn). Sport and War in South Africa from 1834 to
1867, with a Narrative of the Duke of Edinburgh’s Visit. With
Map and Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 14s.
BLUNT (Lapy Arner). The Bedouins of the Euphrates Valley.
With some account of the Arabs and their Horses. With Map and
Illustrations, 2 Vols. Crown 8vo. 24s.
A Pilgrimage to Nejd, the Cradle of the Arab Race, and
a Visit to the Court of the Arab Emir. With Illustrations from the
Author's Drawings. 2 Vols. Post 8vo.
PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY, 5
BLUNT (Rev. J. J.). Undesigned Coincidences in the Writings of
the Old and NewTestaments,an Argument of their Veracity. Post 8vo. 6s.
History of the Christian Church in the First Three
Centuries. Post 8vo. 6s.
Parish Priest; His Duties, Acquirements, and Obliga-
tions. Post 8vo. 6s.
University Sermons. Post 8vo. 6s.
BOSWELL’S Life of Samuel Johnson, LL.D. Including the
Tour to the Hebrides. Edited by Mr. Croker. Seventh Edition.
Portraits, 1vol. Medium Svo. 12s,
BRACE (C. L.). Manual of Ethnology; or the Races of the Old
World, Post 8vo. 6s.
BREWER (Rev. J.S.). English Studies. New Sources of English
History. Contents. Green's Histry. The Royal Supremacy.
Ha field House The Stuarts. Shakespeare. How to Study Eng'ish
History. Ascient London. 8vo.
BOOK OF CUMMON PRAYER. Illustrated with Coloured
Borders, Initial Letters, and Woodcuts. 8vo. 18s.
BORROW (Groner). Bible in Spain; or the Journeys, Adventures,
and Imprisonments of an Englishman in an Attempt to circulate the
Scriptures inthe Peninsula. Post 8vo.
Gypsies of Spain; their Manners, Customs, Re-
ligion, and Language. With Portrait. Post 8vo. 5s.
Lavengro ; The Scholar—The Gypsy—and the Priest.
Post 8vo. 5s.
Romany Rye—a Sequel to “ Lavengro.” Post 8vo. 5s.
Witp Wauss: its People, Language, and Scenery.
Post 8vo. 5s.
Romano Lavo-Lil; Word-Book of the Romany, or
English Gypsy Language; with Specimens of their Poetry, and an
account of certain Gypsyries, Post dvo. 10s. 6d.
BRITISH ASSOCIATION REPORTS. 8ve.
York and Oxford, 1831-32, 13s. 6d. Cheltenham, 1856, 18s,
Cambridge, 1833, 12s. Dublin, 1857, 15s.
Edinburgh, 1834, 15s. Leeds. 1858, 20s.
Dublin, 1835, 138. 6d. Aberdeen, 1859, 15s.
Bristol, 1836, 12s. Oxford, 1860, 25s.
Liverpool, 1837, 16s. 6d. Manchester, 1861, 15s.
Newcastle, 1838, 15s. Cambridge, 1862, 20s.
Birmingham, 1839, 13s. 6a. Neweastie, 1863, 25s,
Glasgow, 1840, 15s. Bath, 1864, 18s.
Plymouth, 1841, 13s. 6d. Birmingham, 1865, 2's.
Manchester, 1842, 10s. 64. Nottingham, 1866, 24s.
Cork, 1843, 12s. Dundee, 1867, 263.
York, 1844, 20s. Norwich, 1868, 25,
Cambridge, 1845, 12. Exeter, 1869, 22s.
Southampton, 1846, 15s. Liverpool, 1870, 18s.
Oxford, 1847, 18s. Edinburgh, 1871, 16s,
Swansea, 1848, 9s. Brighton, 1872, 24s,
Birmingham, 1849, 10s. Bradford, 1873, 25s,
Edinburgh, 1850, 15s. Belfast, 1874, 258,
Ipswich, 1851, 16s, 6d. Bristol, 1475, 25s.
Belfast, 1852, 153. Glasgow, 1876, 25s,
Hull, 1853, 10s. 6d. Plymouth, 1877, 248.
Liverpool, 1854, 18s. Dublin, 1578, 24s.
Glasgow, 1855, 15s. Sheffield, 1879, 24s,
BRUGSCH (Prorsssor). A History of Egypt, under the
Pharaohs. Derived entirely from Monuments, with a Memoir on the
Exodus of the Israelites, Translated by Puitip Smira, B.A., with
new preface and notes by the author, Maps. 2 vols, vo.
6 LIST OF WORKS
BUNBURY (E.H.). A History of Ancient Geography, among the
Greeks and Romans, from the Earliest Ages till the Fall of the Roman
Empire. With Index and 20 Maps. 2 Vols. 8vo. 42s.
BURBIDGE (F. W.). The Gardens of the Sun: or A Naturalist’s
Journal on the Mountains and inthe Forests and Swamps of Borneo and
the Sulu Archipelago. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo.
BURCKHARDT’S Cicerone ; or Art Guide to Painting in Italy.
Translated from the German by Mzs. A, CLouas. New Edition, revised
by J. A. CrowE. Post 8vo. 6s.
BURN (Cou). Dictionary of Naval and Military Technical
Terms, English and French—French and Fnglish. Crown 8vo. 16s,
BUTTMANN’S Lexilogus; a Critical Kxamination of the
Meaning of numerous Greek Words, chiefly in Homer and Hesiod.
By Rev. J. R. FisHuake, 8vo. 12s,
BUXTON (Cuartss). Memoirs of Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton,
Bart. With Selections from his Correspondence. Portrait. 8vo. 16s.
Popular Edition, Feap. 8vo. 5s.
(Sypney C.). A Handbook to the Political Questions
of the Day ; with the Arguments on Either Side. 8vo. 6s.
BYLES (Sir Joun). Foundations of Religion in the Mind and
Heart of Man. Post 8vo. 6s.
BYRON’S (Lorv) LIFE AND WORKS :—
Lirz, Lerrers, AnD Journats. By Tomas Moonr. Cabinet
Edition. Plates. 6 Vols. Feap.8vo. 18s.; or One Volume, Portraits,
Royal 8vo., 7s. 6d.
Lire any Porrican Worxs. Popular Edition. Portraits.
2vols, Royal 8vo. 15s,
Porrrcan Works. Library Edition. Portrait. 6 Vole. 8vo. 45s,
Portican Works. Cabinet Edition. Plates. 10 Vols. 12mo. 30s.
Porrroat Works. Pocket Hd. 8 Vols. 16mo, Inacase. 21s,
Porrican Works. Popular Edition. Plates. Royal 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Portroan Worxs. Pearl Edition. Crown 8vo. 2s. 6d.
Curtpz Harorp. With 80 Engravings. Crown 8vo. 12s,
Cuitpe Harotp. 16mo. 2s. 6d. ~
Cuitpr Haroupv. Vignettes. 16mo. 1s.
Curtpr Haroup. Portrait. 16mo. 6d.
Tatrs AND Poems. 16mo. 2s. 6d.
Miscetuaneous. 2 Vols. 16mo. 5s.
Dramas AND Puays. 2 Vols. J6mo. 5s.
Don Juan anv Beppo. 2 Vols. 16mo. 5s.
Bzavuties. Poetry and Prose. Portrait. Feap. 8vo. 3s. 6d.
CAMPBELL (Lorp). Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the
Great Sealof England. From the Earliest Times to the Death of Lord
Eldon in 1838. 10 Vols. Crown 8vo. 6s. each.
_________ Chief Justices of England. From the Norman
Conquest to the Death of Lord Tenterden. 4 Vols. Crown 8vo. 6s. each.
Life and Letters: Based on his Autobiography,
Journals, and Correspondence. Edited by his daughter, Mrs. Hard-
castle. 2 Vols. 8vo.
(THos.) Essay on English Poetry. With Short
Lives of the British Poets. Post 8vo. 3s. 6d,
CARNARVON (Lorp). Fortugal, Gallicia, and the Basque
Provinces. Post 8vo. 3s, 6d.
The Agamemnon: Translated from Aischylus,
Sm. 8vo. 6s.
PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY, a
CARNOTA (Conve pa). Memoirs of the Life and Eventful Career
of F,M. the Duke of Saldanha; Soldier and Statesman. With
Selections from his Correspondence. 2 Vols. 8vo. 32s,
CARTWRIGHT (W. C.). The Jesuits: their Constitution and
Teaching, An Historical Sketch. 8vo. 9s.
CAVALCASELLE’S WORKS. [See Crows. |
CESNOLA (Gen.). Cyprus; ita Ancient Cities, Tombs, and Tem-
‘}s yP
ples. Researches and Excavations during Ten Years’ Residence in that
Island. With 400 Illustrations. Medium 8vo, 50s.
CHILD (Cuaruy). Benedicite; or, Song of the Three Children ;
being Illustrations of the Power, Beneficence, and Design manifested
by the Creator in his Works. Post 8vo. 6s.
CHISHOLM (Mrs.). Perils of the Polar Seas; True Stories of
Arctic Discovery and Adventure, Illustrations, Post 8vo, 6s.
CHURTON (Ancupgacon). Poetical Remains, Translations and
lmitativons. Portrait. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
CLASSIC PREACHERS OF THE- ENGLISH CHURCH.
St. James’s Lectures.
1877, Doxnz, by Bishop of Durham; Barrow, by
Prof. Wace; Sours, by Dean Lake; BEVERIDGE, by Rev. W.
R. Clark; Witsox, by Canon Farrar; Burien, by Dean Goul-
burn. With Introduction by J. E. Kempe. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
1878, Butt, by Rev. W. Warburton; Horsizy, by
Bishop of Ely; Taytor, by Canon Barry; SANDERSON, by Bishop
of Derry ; TILLoTSsuN, by Rev. W. G. Humphry; ANDREWeES, by
Rey. HJ. North. Post 8yo. 7s. 6d.
CLIVES (Lorn) Life. By Ruv.G@.R. Quinte. Post8vo. 3s. 6d.
CLODE (C.M.). Military Forces of the Crown ; their Administra-
tion and Government. 2 Vols. Svo. 21s. each.
Administration of Justice under Military and Martial
Law, as applicable to the Army, Navy, Marine, and Auxiliary Forces.
8vo. 12s.
COLERIDGE’S (Samurn Tartor) Table-Talk. Portrait. 12mo. 3s. 6d.
COLONIAL LIBRARY. (See Home and Oolonial Library.)
COMPANIONS FOR THE DEVOUT LIFE. A Series of Lec-
tures on well-known Devotional Woiks. Crown 8vo. 6s.
De imITaATIONE CurisTi, Canon Farrar, THROLOGIA GERMANICA, Canon
PENSEES OF Buaiseé PascaLt. Dean Ashwell.
Church. | FexGion’s Cuvres SpiRITUELLES.
S. Francois De SALES, Dean |_ Rev. T. T. Carter.
Goulburn, | ae ee Devotions. Bishep of
Baxrer’s Saints’ Rest. Archbishop
of Dublin, | Cahinainy Year. Canon Barry.
8. AUGUsTINE'’s Conressions. Bishop | Pakapise Lost, Rev. 8. H. Bicker-
of Derry. | steth.
JEREMY Taytor’s Hoty Living AND Pi.erim’s Progress. Dean Howson
Dyinc. Rey. Dr. Humphry. | Prayes Boox. Dean Burgon.
CONVOCATION PRAYER-BOOK. (See Prayer-Book.)
COOKE (E. W.). Leaves from my Sketch-Book. Being a Selec-
tion from Sketch s made during many Tours. With Descriptive Text.
60 Plates. 2 Vols. Small folio. 31s. 6a. each,
COOKERY (Movrrn Domestic). Founded on Principles of Economy
and Practical Knowledge. ByalLady. Woodcuts. Feap.8vo. 65s.
8 LIST OF WORKS
CRABBE (Rev. Grorcr). Life and Poetical Works. With Illus-
trations. Royal 8vo. 7s.
CRAWFORD & BAJ.CARRES (Earl of). Etruscan Inscriptions.
Analyzed, Translated, and Commented upon. 8vo. 12s.
CRIPPS (Wiutrrep). Old English Plate: Kcclesiastical, Decorative,
and Domestic, its Makers and Marks, With a Complete Table of Date
Letters, &c. Illustrations, Medium 8vo. 21s.
Old French Plate; Furnishing Tables of the Paris Date
Letters, and Facsimiles of Other Marks. With llustra ions. 8vo. 8s. 6d.
CROKER (J. W.). Progressive Geography for Children.
18mo. Is. 6d.
Boswell’s Life of Johnson. Including the Tour to
the Hebrides. Seventh Edition, Portraits. Svo. 12s.
Historical Essay on the Guillotine. Feap. 8vo. 1s.
CROWE anv CAVALCASELLE. Lives of the Early Flemish
Painters. Woodcuts. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d.; or Large Paper, 8vo, 15s.
History of Painting in North Italy, from 14th to
16th Century. Derived from Researches in that Country. With II-
lustrations, 2 Vols. 8vo, 42s.
Life and Times of Titian, with some Account of his
Family, chiefly from new and unpublished records. With Portrait and
Illustrations, 2 vols. 8vo. 42s.
CUMMING (R. Gorpon). Five Years of a Hunter’s Life in the
Far Interior of South Africa. Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 6s.
CUNYNGHAME (Sir Arruur). Travels in the Eastern Caucasus,
on the Caspian and Black Seas,in Daghestan and the Frontiers of
Persia and ‘Turkey. With Map and Illustrations. 8vo. 18s.
CURTIUS’ (Proressor) Student’s Greek Grammar, for the Upper
Forms. Edited by Dr. Wm. SmirH. Post 8vo. 6s.
—___— Elucidations of the above Grammar. Translated by
EveELYN ABBoT. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d,
—— Smaller Greek Grammar for the Middle and Lower
Forms. Abridged from the larger work. 12mo, 33s, 6d.
Accidence of the Greek Language. Extracted from
the above work. 12mo. 2s, 6u.
Principles of Greek Etymology. Translated by A. 8.
Wiens, M.A., and E.B, Enauanp, M.A. 2 vols. 8vo. 15s. each,
— —_——— The Greek Verb, its Structure and Development.
Translated by A. S. Witkins, M,A., ani E. B. ENGLANp, M.A.
Svo, 1s.
CURZON (Hon. Rosert). Visits to the Monasteries of the Levant.
Illustrations, Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
CUST (Grnerat). Warriors of the 17th Century—The Thirty Years’
War. 2 Vols. 16s. Civil Wars of France and England, 2 Vols. 16s,
Commanders of Fleets and Armies. 2 Vols. 18s.
Annals of the Wars—18th & 19th Century.
With Maps. 9 Vols. Post 8vo. 65s. each.
DAVY (Sir Humpsry), Consolations in Travel; or, Last Days
of a Philosopher. Woodcuts. Feap.8vo. 3s. 6d.
Salmonia; or, Days of Fly Fishing. Woodcuts.
Feap. 8vo. 33. 6d.
PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 9
DARWIN (Cuartes) WORKS :—
JourRNAL OF A NATURALIST DURING A VOYAGE ROUND THE
Wor.ip. Crown 8vo. 9s.
Orre1n or SpEcies By Means or Natura Seiecrion; or, the
Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggie for Lite. Woodcuts.
Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d.
VARIATION OF ANIMALS AND Puants uNDER Domestication.
Woodcuis. 2 Vols. Crowa 8vo. 18s.
Descent or Man, anp Sxutxction 1n Rexatron to Sex.
Woodeuts. Crown 8vo. 9s.
Expressions oF THE Emotions in Man and Anrimats, With
Illustrations, Crown 8vo. 12s.
Various ConrRIVANCES BY WHICH ORCHIDS ARE FERTILIZED
BY Insects. Woodcuts. Crown 8vo, 9s.
Movements anp Hapits or Crimpina Puants. Woodcuts,
Crown 8vo. 6s.
Inskctrvorous Prantrs. Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 14s.
Errects or Cross AnD Setr-F'rerti.izATion IN THE VEGETABLE
KinGpom, Crown 8vvo. 12s.
Dirrerent Forms or Fiowrrs on PLants OF THE SAME
Species. Crown bdvo. 1s. td.
Tar Power oF Movemrenr in Piants. Woodeuts. Cr. &vo.
Lire or Erasuus Darwiy. With a Study of his Works by
Ernese Krause. Portrait. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Faots anD ArauMENTs FoR Darwin. By Fritz Muter.
Translated by W. 8. Dattas. Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 6s.
DE COSSON (EK, A.). The Cradle of the Blue Nile; a Journey
through Abyssinia and Soudan, and a Residence at the Court of King
John of Ethiopia. Mapand Iilustrations. 2vols. Post8vo. 2ls.
DENNIS (Gxorcxz). The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria. A
new Edition, revised, recording «ll the latest Discoveries. With 20
Plans and 200 illustrations, 2 vols. Mediuu 8vo, 4zs.
DENT (Emma). Annals of Winchcombe and Sudeley. With 120
Portiaits, Plates and Woodcuts. 4to. 42s,
DERBY (Haru or). Iliad of Homer rendered into English
Blank Verse. With Portrait. 2 Vols. Post 8vo. 10s.
DERRY (BisyHor or). Witness of the Psalms to Christ and Chris-
tianity. The Bampton Lectures for 1876. 8vo. 14s.
DEUTSCH (Emanvet). Talmud, Islam, The Targums and other
Literary Remains. Witha brief Memoir. Syo, 12s,
DILKE (Sir C. W.). Papers of a Critic. Selected from the
Writings of the late Cuas. WreniwortTH Dirks. With a Biographi-
cal Sketch. 2 Vols. vo. 24s.
DOG-BREAKING, with Odds and Ends for those who love the
Bog and Guo. By Gen. Hutouinson. With 40 Illustrations.
Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d.
DOMESTIC MODERN COOKERY. Founded on Principles of
Economy and Practical Knowledge, and adapted for Private Families.
Woodcuts. Feap.8vo. 5s.
10 LIST OF WORKS
DOUGLAS'S (Sir Howarp) Theory and Practice of Gunnery.
Plates. 8vo. 21s,
(Wm.) Horse-Shoeing; As it Is, and As it Should be.
Illustrations. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
DRAKE’S (Sir Franors) Life, Voyages, and Exploits, by Sea and
Land. By Jonny Barrow. Post 8vo. 2s.
DRINKWATER (Joun). History of the Siege of Gibraltar,
1779-1783. With a Description and Account of that Garrison from the
Earliest Periods. Post 8vo. 2s,
DUCANGE’S Mepravat Latin-Encuisn Dictionary. Re-arranged
and Edited. in accordance with the mode'n Scieuce of Philology, by Rev.
E, A. Dayman andJ.H.HEssexts. Small 4to, (Jn Preparation.
DU CHAILLU (Pauz B.). Egquarortan Arrica, with Accounts
of the Gorilla, the Nest-building Ape, Chimpanzee, Crocodile, &c.,
Illustrations, 8vo. 21s.
Journey to Ashango Land; and Further Pene-
tration into Equatorial Africa. Illustrations. 8vo, 21s.
DUFFERIN (Lorp). Letters from High Latitudes; a Yacht
Voyage to Iceland, Jan Mayen, and Spitzbergen. Woodcuts. Post
8vo, 78. 6d.
Speeches and Addresses, Political and Literary,
delivered sn the House of Lords, in Canada, and elsewhere. §vo.
DUNCAN (Mason. History of the Royal Artillery. Com-
piled from the Original Records, Portraits, 2 Vols §8vo, 18s.
—— English in Spain; or, The Story of the War of Sue-
cession, 1824-1840, Compiled from the Reports of the British Com-
missioners. With Illustrations. Svo. 16s.
EASTLAKE (Six Cuarixs). Contributions to the Literature of
the Fine Arts. Wuitb Memoir of the Author, and Selections from his
Correspondence. By Lavy EasT.akkE. 2 Vols. 8vo. 24s,
EDWARDS (W.H.). Voyage up the River Amazon, including a
Visit to Para. Post 8vo. 2s.
EIGHT MONTHS AT ROME, during the Vatican Council, with
a Daily Account of the Proceedings. By Pomponio Leto, Trans-
lated from the Original. 8vo. 12s.
ELDON’S (Lorn) Public and Private Life, with Selections from
his Correspondence and Diaries. By Horack Twiss. Portrait. 2
Vols. Post8vo. 21s.
ELGIN (Lorp). Letters and Journals. Edited by Tuxoporu
WaLronpd. With Preface by Dean Stavley. 8vo. 14s.
ELLESMERE (Lorp). Two Sieges of Vienna by the Turks.
Translated from the German. Post8vo 2s.
ELLIS (W.). Madagascar Revisited. Setting forth the Perse-
cutions and Heroic Sutferings of the Native Christians. Illustrations.
8vo. 16s.
——— Memoir. By .His Soy. With his Character and
Work. By Rev. Henry Axton, D.D. Portrait. Svo, 10s. 6d.
(Ropinson) Poems aud Fragments of Catulius. 16mo. 5s.
KLPHINSTONE (Hon. Moontstuart). History of India—the
Hindoo and Mahomedan Periods. Edited by Prorrsson COWELL.
Map. 8vo. 18s.
— ———— (H. W.). Patterns for Turning; Comprising
Elliptical and other Figures cut on the Lathe without the use of any
Ornamental Chuck, With 70 Lilustrations, Small 4to. 1is.
ELTON (Carr) and H. B. CUTTERILL. Adveniures and
Discoveries Amovg the Lukes and Mountains of Eastern and Central
Africa. With Map aud Illustrations. “8vo. 21s.
PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. |
ENGLAND. [See Arruur, Croker, Hume, Markuam, SmirTH,
and STANHOPE. |
ESSAYS ON CATHEDRALS. Edited, with an Introduction.
By Dean Howson. 8vo. 12s,
FERGUSSON (James). History of Architecture in all Countries
from the Earliest Times. With 1,600 Illustrations. 4 Vols. Medium 8vo,
Vol. I. & If. Ancient and Medieval. 63s.
Vol. III. Indian & Eastern, 42s. Vol. 1V. Modern. 31s. 6d.
Rude Stone Monuments in all Countries; their Age
and Uses. With 230 Illustrations. Medium 8vo. 24s.
Holy Sepulchre and the Temple at Jerusalem.
Woodcuts. 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Temples of the Jews and other buildings in
the Haram Area at Jerusalem. With Illustrations. 4to. 42s.
FLEMING (Prorxssor). Student’s Manual of Moral Philosophy.
With Quotations and References. Post 8vo. 7s, 6d.
FLOWER GARDEN. By Rey. Tos. James, Feap. 8vo. 1s.
FORBES (Carr. C. J. F. 8S.) British Burma and its People;
sketches of Native Mauners, Customs, and Religion. Cr. 8vo. 10s. 6d.
FORD (Ricuarp). Gatherings from Spain. Post 8vo. 3s. 6d.
FORSYTH (Wit1am). Hortensius; an Historical Essay on the
Office and Duties of an Advocate. Illustrations. 8yvo. 7s. 6d.
Novels and Novelists of the 18th Century, in
Illustration of the Manners and Morals ofthe Age. Post 8vo. 10s, 6d.
FORSTER (Jonny). The Early Life of Jonathan Swift. 1667-1711.
With Portrait. Svo. 15s.
FRANCE (History or), [See Jervis— Marxaam—Surta—Stu-
dents'—TocquEVILLE, ] ‘
FRENCH IN ALGIEKS; The Soldier of the Foreign Legion—
and the Prisoners ef Abd-el-Kadir, Translated by Lady Durr Gorpon.
Post 8vo. 2s.
FRERE (Siz Bartz). Indian Missions. Small 8ve. 2s. 6d.
Eastern Africa as a Field for Missionary Labour. With
Map. Crown 8vo. 5s,
Bengal Famine. How it will be Met and How to
Prevent Future Famines in India. With Maps. Crown 8yvo, 65s,
GALTON (F.). Art of Travel; or, Hints on the Shifts and Con-
trivances available in Wild Countries, Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
GEOGRAPHY. [See Bunsury—Croxer—Smira—Srvpenrs’, |
GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY'S JOURNAL. (Published Yearly.)
GEORGE (Ernest). The Mosel ; a Series of Twenty Etehings, with
Descriptive Letterpress, Imperial 4to. 42s.
Loire and South of France; a Series of Twenty
Etchings, with Descriptive Text. Folio. 42s.
GERMANY (History or). [See Marxuax. |
GIBBON (Epwarp). History of the Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire. Edited by Mitman, Guizor, and Dr. Wm. SmTs.
Maps, 8 Vols. 8vo. 60s.
The Student’s Edition; an Epitome of the above
work, incorporating the Researches of Recent Commentators, By Dr.
Wm. Smirs. Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
12 LIST OF WORKS
GIFFARD (Epwarp). Deeds of Naval Daring; or, Anecdotes of
the British Navy. Feap.8vo. 3s. 6d.
GILL (Carr. Wrutram), R. E. The River of Golden Sand.
Narrative of a Journey through China to Burmah. With a Preface by
Col. H. Yule, C.B. Maps and Illustrations, 2 Vols. 8vo. 30s.
(Mrs.). Six Months in Ascension. An Unscientific Ac-
count of a Scientific Expedition. Map. Crown 8vo. Qs.
GLADSTONE (W. E.). Rome and the Newest Fashions in
Religion. Three Tracts. 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Gleanings of Past Years, 1843-78. 7 vola. Small
8yo. 23. 6¢.each. I. The Throne, the Prince Con-ort, the Cabinet and
Constitution. II. Personal and Literary. III. Historical and Specu-
lative. IV. Foreign. V.and VI. Ecclesiastical. VII. Miscellaneous.
GLEIG (G. R.). Campaigns of the British Army at Washington
and New Orleans. Post 8vo. 2s.
—— Story of the Battle of Waterloo. Post 8vo. 35. 6d.
Narrative of Sale’s Brigade in Affghanistan. Post 8vo. 2s.
Life of Lord Clive. Post 8vo. 3s. 6d.
—______——— Sir Thomas Munro. Post 8vo. 3s. 6d.
GLYNNE (Sir Srepsen R.). Notes on the Churches of Kent.
With Preface by W. H. Gladstone, M.P. Jllustrations. 8vo. 12s,
GOLDSMITH’S (Oxtver) Works. Edited with Notes by Prermr
CunnincHamM. Vignettes. 4 Vols. 8vo. 30s.
GOMM (Fie.tp-Marsnat Str Wm. M.), Commander-in-Chief in
India, Constable of the Tower, snd Colonel of the Coldstream Guards,
1784—1379. His Life, Letters, and Journals, Edited by F.C. Carr
Gomm. With Portrait. 8vo.
GORDON (S1r Auex.). Sketches of German Life, and Scenes
from the War of Liberation. Post 8vo. 3s. 6d.
—————— (Lavy Dorr) Amber-Witch: A Trial for Witch-
craft. Post 8vo. 2s.
———-— French in Algiers. 1. The Soldier of the Foreign
Legion. 2. The Prisoners of Abd-el-Kadir. Post 8vo. 2s.
GRAMMARS, [See Curtivus; Hatt; Hurton; Kine Epwarp;
LeatHes; MAETZNER; Martuiaz; SMITA J]
GREECE (History or). [See Grore—Smrra—Students’. ]
GROTE’S (Grorex) WORKS :-—
History or Greece. From the Earliest Times to the close
of the generation contemporary with the Death of Alexander the Great.
Library Edition. Portrait, Maps, and Plans. 10 Vols. 8vo, 120s,
Cabinet Edition. Portrait and Plans. 12 Vols, Post 8vo. 6s. each.
Prato, and other Companions of Socrates. 3 Vols. 8vo. 45s.
ArisToTLE. With additional Essays. 8vo. 18s.
Minor Works. Portrait. 8ro. 14s.
LETTERS oN SwITZERLAND IN 1847. 63.
Prersonat Lire. Tortrait. 8vo. 12s.
GROTE (Mrs.). A Sketch. By Lapy Easrnaxe. Crown 8yo. 6s.
HALL’S (T. D.) School Manual of English Grammar. With
Copious Exercises. 12mo. 3s. 6d.
Manual of English Composition. With Copious Illustra-
tions aud Practical Exercises. 12mo. 3s. 6d.
Primary English Grammar for Elementary Schools.
Based on the larger work. 16mo. 1s,
PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 13
Hauz's (T. D.)—continued.
— Child’s First Latin Book, comprising a full Practice of
Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjectives, with the Active Verbs. 16mo, 2s,
HALLAM’S (Henry) WORKS :—
Tue ConstitutionaL History or Enauanp, from the Acces-
sion of Henry the Seventh to the Death of George the Second, Library
Edition, 3 Vols. 8vo. 3s. Cabinet Edition, 3 Vols. Post 8yo. 12s, Stu-
dent’s Edition, Post 8vo. 7s. 6d. }
History oF Europe purine THE Mrppie Aags, Library
Edition, 3 Vols. 8vo. 30s. Cabinet Edition, 3 Vols. Post 8vo. 12s,
Student's Edition, Post 8vo. 7s. 67.
Lrrerary History or Europe purine THE 157H, 167TH, anp
17TH Centuries. Library Edition, 3 Vols. 8vo. 36s. Cabinet Edition,
4 Vols. Post 8vo. 16s.
HALLAM’S (Arruor) Literary Remains; in Verse and Prose.
Portrait. Feap.8vo. 3s. 6d.
HAMILTON (Gen. Sir F. W.). History of the Grenadier Guards.
From Original Documents, &c. With Illustrations. 3 Vols. 8yvo. 63s.
—— (Anprew). Rheinsberg: Memorials of Frederick the
Great and Prince Henry of Prussia. 2 Vols. Crown 8vyo, 21s.
HART’S ARMY LIST. (Published Quarterly and Annually.)
HATCH (W. M.). The Moral Philosophy of Aristotle, con-
sisting of a translation of the Nichomachean Ethics, and of the Para-
phrase attributed to Andronicus, with an Introductory Analysis of each
book. 8vo, 18s.
HATHERLEY (Lorp). The Continuity of Scripture, as Declared
by the Testimony of our Lord and of the Evangelists and Apostles.
8vo. 6s. Popular Edition. Post 8vo. 2s. 6d,
HAY (Sir J. H. Drommonp). Western Barbary, its Wild Tribes
and Savage Animals. Post 8vo. 2s.
HAYWARD (A.). Sketches of Eminent Statesmen and Writers,
with other Essays. Reprinted from the ‘‘ Quarierly Review,” with
Additions and Correcticn:, Contents: Thiers, Bismarck, Cavour,
Metternich, Montalembert, M-lbourae, Wellesley, Byron and Tenny-
son, Venice, St. Simon, Sevigné, Du Deffand, Holland Houre, Straw-
berry Hil!, 2 Vols. vo,
HEAD’S (Str Franors) WORKS :—
Tue Royat Encinerr. Illustrations. 8vo. 12s.
Lire or &1r Joun Buraoynn. Post 8vo. 1s,
Rapip Journeys ackoss Tou Pampas. Post 8vo. Qs.
Busses FRoM THE BRUNNEN oF Nassau. Illustrations, Post
8vo. 7s. 6d.
Sroxers anp Poxers; or, the London and North Western
Railway. Post8vo. 2s.
HEBER’S (Bisnop) Journals in India. 2 Vols. Post 8vo. 7s,
Poetical Works. Portrait. Feap. 8vo. 3s. 6d.
Hymns adapted to the Church Service. 16mo. ls, 6d.
HERODOTUS. A New English Version. Edited, with Notes
and Essays, Historical, Ethnographical, and Geographical, by Canon
RAWLINSON, Sik H. Rawiinson and Siz J.G. WILKINSON. Maps and
Woodcuts. 4 Vols. Svo. 48s.
HERRIES (Rr. Hon. Jonn). Memoir of his Public Life during
the Reigns of George III. and IV., William IV., and Queen Victoria,
Founded on his Letters and other Unpublished Documents, By his
son, Edward Herries, C.B. 2 vols. 8vo,
HERSCHEL’S (Canormne) Memoir and Correspondence, By
Mrs. Joun HerscneL. With Portraits, Crown 8vo. 7s, 6d.
LIST OF WORKS
FOREIGN HANDBOOKS.
HAND-BOOK—TRAVEL-TALK. English, French, German, and
Italian. 18mo. 3s. 6d.
HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. Map and Plans.
Post 8vo. 6s.
NORTH GERMANY and THE RHINE, —
The Black Forest, the Hartz, Thiiringerwald, Saxon Switzerland,
Riigen, the Giant Mountains, Taunus, Odenwald, Elass, and Loth-
Tingen. Map and Plans. Post 8vo. 10s.
SOUTH GERMANY,— Wurtemburg, Bavaria,
Austria, Styria, Salzburg, the Alps, Tyrol, Hungary. and the Danube,
from Ulm to the Black Sea. Maps and Plans. Post 8vo. 10s
PAINTING. German, Flemish, and Dutch Schools.
Illustrations. 2 Vols. Post 8vo. 24s.
LIVES AND WORKS OF EARLY FLEMISH
Painters. Illustrations. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
SWITZERLAND, Alps of Savoy, and Piedmont.
In Two Parts. Mapsand Plans. Post 8vo. 10s.
FRANCE, Part I. Normandy, Brittany, the French
Alps, the Loire, Seine, Garonne, and Pyrenees. Maps and Plans.
Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Part II. Central France, Auvergne, the
Cevennes, Burgundy, the Rhone and Saone, Provence, Nimes, Arles,
Marseilles, the French Alps, Alsace, Lorraine, Champagne, &c. Maps
and Plans. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
MEDITERRAN EA N—its Principal Islands, Cities,
Seaports, Harbours, and Border Lands. For travellers and yachtsmen.
Maps and Plans. Post 8vo.
ALGERIA AND TUNIS. Algiers, Constantine,
Oran, the Atlas Range. Mapsand Plans. Post 8vo. 10s.
PARIS, and its Environs. Maps and Plans. 16mo.
33. 6d,
—_____— SPAIN, Madrid, The Castiles, The Basque Provinces,
Leon, The Asturias, Galicia, Estremadura, Andalusia, Ronda, Granada,
Marcia, Valencia, Catalonia, Aragon, Navarre, The Balearic Islands,
&c.&c. Mapsand Plans, Post 8vo. 20s.
PORTUGAL, Liszon, Porto, Cintra, Mafra, &c.
Map and Plan. Post 8vo. 12s.
NORTH iTALY, Tuarin, Milan, Cremona, the
Italian Lakes, Bergamo, Brescia, Verona, Mantua, Vicenza, Padua,
Ferrara, Bologna, Ravenna, Rimini, Piacenza, Genoa, the Riviera,
Venice, Parma, Modena, and Romagna. Maps and Plans. Post 8yo. 10s.
CENTRAL ITALY, Florence, Lucca, Tuscany, The
Marches, Umbria, &c. Maps and Plans. Post 8vo. 10s.
ROME awnp its Environs, Mays and Plans,
Post 8vo.
SOUTH ITALY, Naples, Pompeii, Herculaneum,
and Vesuvius. Mapsand Plans. PostS8vo. 10s.
PAINTING. The Italian Schools. Illustrations.
2 Vols. Post 8vo. 30s.
LIVES OF ITALIAN PAINTERS, rrom Crvasur
to Bassano. By Mrs. Jameson. Portraits. Post 8vo. 12s.
NORWAY, Christiania, Bergen, Trondhjem. The
Fjelds and Fjords. Maps and Plans. Post 8vo. 9s.
SWEDEN, Stockholm, Upsala, Gothenburg, the
Shores of the Baltic, &c. Mapsand Plan. Pcst8vo. 63.
PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY, 15
ee a ee
HANDBOOK—DEN MARK, Sleswig, Holstein, Copenhagen, Jut-
Jand, Icelani. Maps and Plans, Post 8vo 6s,
RUSSIA, St, Pergrssure, Moscow, Potanp, and
FINLAND. Maps and Plars. Post 8vo. 18s.
GREECKH, the [onian Islands, Continental Greece,
Athens, the Feloponnesus, the Islands of the Aigean Sea, Albania,
Thessaly, and Macedonia. Maps, Plans, and Views. Post 8vo. 15s.
TURKEY IN ASIA—Oonstantinopie, the Bos:
phorus, Dardanelles, Brousa, Plain of Troy, Crete, Cyprus, Smyrna,
Ephesus, the Seven Churches, Coasts of the Black Sea, Armenia.
Euphrates Valley, Route to India, &c. Mapsand Plans, Post 8ro. 15s.
EGYPT, including Descriptions of the Course of
the Nile through Egypt and Nubia, Alexandria, Cairo, and Thebes, the
Suez Canal, the Pyramids, the Peninsula of Sinai, the Oases, the
Fyoom, &c. In Two Parts. Maps and Plans. Post 8vo. 15s.
HOLY LAND—Synrra, Patesting, Peninsula of
Sinai, Edom, Syrian Deserts, Petra, Damascus; and Palmyra, Maps
and Plans, Post 8vo, 20s. *4* Travelling Map of Palestine. In a
case. 12s,
INDIA. Maps and Plans. Post 8vo. Part I.
Bombay, 12s, Part II. Mapnas, 15s,
ENGLISH HAND-BOOKS.
MAND-BOOK—ENGLAND AND WALES. An Alphabetical
liand-Book. Condensed into One Volume for the Use of Travellers.
With a Map. Post 8vo. 10s.
MODERN LONDON. Maps and Plans. 16mo.
ENVIRONS OF LONDON withio a circuit of 20
miles. 2 Vols. Crown 8vo, 21s.
ST. PAUL'S CATHEDRAL. 20 Lilustrations.
3s. Gd.
* Crown 8vo 10s. 6.
EASTERN COUNTIES, Chelmsford, Harwich, Col-
chester, Maldon, Cambridge, Ely, Newmarket, Bury St Edmunds,
Ipswich, Woodbridge, Felixstowe, Lowestoft, Norwich, Yarmouth,
Cromer, &c. Mapand Plans. Post 8vo,. 12s
- CATHEDRALS of Oxford, Peterborough, Norwich,
Ely, and Lincoln. With 90 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 18s.
KENT, Canterbury, Dover, Ramsgate, Sheerness,
Rochester, Chatham, Woolwich. Mapsand Plans. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
——— SUSSEX, Brighton, Chichester, Worthing, Hastings,
Lewes, Arunde!, &c. Mupsand Plans. Post 8vo. 6s,
SURREY AND HANTS, Kingston, Croydon, Rei-
gate, Guildford, Dorking, Boxhill, Winchester, Southampton, New
Forest, Portsmouth, Isuz or WiauHT, &c. Maps and Plans. Post 8yo.
10s.
BERKS, BUCKS, AND OXON, Windsor, Eton,
Reading, Aylesbury, Uxbridge, Wycombe, Henley, the City and Uni-
versity of Oxford, Blenheim, and the Descent of the Thames. Maps
and Plans. Post 8vo.
WILTS, DORSET, AND SOMERSET, Salisbury,
Chippenham, Weymouth, Sherborne, Wells, Bath, Bristol, Taunton,
&c. Map. Post 8vo. 10s.
DEVON, Exeter, Ilfracombe, Linton, Sidmouth,
Dawlish, Teignmouth, Plymouth, Devonport, Torquay. Maps and Plans,
Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
16 LIST OF WORKS
HAND-BOOK—CORNWALL, Launceston, Penzance, Falmouth,
the Lizard, Land’s End, &c. Maps. Post 8vo, 6s.
CATHEDRALS of Winchester, Salisbury, Exeter,
Wells, Chichester, Rochester, Canterbury, and St. Albans. With 130
Illustrations. 2 Vols. Cr. 8vo. 36s. St. Albans separately, cr. 8vo.
5: GLOUCESTER, HEREFORD, anv WORCESTER,
Cirencester, Cheltenham, Stroud, Tewkesbury, Leominster, Ross, Mal-
vern, Kidderminster, Dudley, Bromsgrove, Evesham. Map. Post 8vo.
CATHEDRALS of Bristol, Gloucester, Hereford,
Worcester,and Lichfield. With 50 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 16s.
____—_—— NORTH WALES, Bangor, Carnarvon, Beaumaris,
Snowdon, Llanberis, Dolgelly, Cader Idris, Conway, &c. Map. Post
8vo. 7s.
—___——— SOUTH WALES, Monmouth, Llandaff, Merthyr,
Vale of Neath, Pembroke, Carmarthen, Tenby, Swansea, The Wye, &c.
Map. Post 8vo. 7s.
CATHEDRALS OF BANGOR, ST, ASAPH,
Llandaff, and St. David’s. With Illustrations. Post 8vo. 1is.
—— NORTHAMPTONSHIRE AND RUTLAND—
Northampton, Peterborough, Towcester, Daventry, Market Har-
borough, Kettering, Wallingborough, Tbrapston, Stamford, Upping-
ham, Uakham. Maps. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
= -——— DERBY, NOTTS, LEICESTER, STAFFORD,
Matlock, Bakewell, Chatsworth, The Peak, Buxton, Hardwick, Dove
Dale, Ashborne, Southwell, Mansfield, Retford, Burton, Belvoir, Melton
Mowbray, Wolverhampton, Lichfield, Walsall, Tamworth, Map.
Post 8vo. 98.
SHROPSHIRE ayy CHESHIRE, Shrewsbury, Lud-
low, Bridgnorth, Oswestry, Chester, Crewe, Alderley, Stockport,
Birkenhead. Maps and Plans. Post vo. 6s,
—__—___ LANCASHIRE, Warrington, Bury, Manchester,
Liverpool, Burnley, Clitheroe, Bolton, Blackburn, Wigan, Preston,
Rochdale, Lancaster, Southport, Blackpool, &c. Maps and Plans.
Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
YORKSHIRE, Doncaster, Hull, Selby, Beverley,
Scarborough, Whitby, Harrogate, Ripon, Leeds, Wakefield, Bradford,
Halifax, Huddersfield, Sheffield, Map aud Plans, Post 8vo, 12s.
—_—— CATHEDRALS of York, Ripon, Durham, Carlisle,
Chester, and Manchester. With 60 Illustrations. 2 Vols. Cr. 8vo. 21s.
DURHAM axnp NORTHUMBERLAND, New-
castle, Darlington, Gateshead, Bishop Auckland, Stockton, Hartlepool,
Sunderland, Shields, Berwick-on-Tweed, Morpeth, Tynemouth, Cold-
stream, Alnwick, &c, Map. Post 8vo. 9s.
———— WESTMORLAND anpv CUMBERLAND—Lan-
caster, Furness Abbey, Ambleside, Kendal, Windermere, Coniston,
Keswick, Grasmere, Ulswater, Carlisle, Cockermouth, Penrith, Appleby.
Map. Post 8vo.
*,* Morray’s Map or THE LAke District, on canvas. 3s. 6d.
SCOTLAND, Edinburgh, Melrose, Kelso, Glasgow,
Dumfries, Ayr, Stirling, Arran, The Clyde, Oban, Inverary, Loch
Lomond, Loch Katrine and Trossachs, Caledonian Canal, Inverness,
Perth, Dundee, Aberdeen, Braemar, Skye, Caithness, Ross, Suther-
land, &c. Mapsand Plans. Post 8vo. 9s.
IRELAND, Dublin, Belfast, the Giant’s Cause-
way, Donegal, Galway, Wexford, Cork, Limerick, Waterford, Killar-
ney, Bantry, Glengariff, &c. Mapsand Plans, Post vo. 10s.
PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY, 17
4 ee a ee ee
HOME AND COLONIAL LIBRARY. A Series of Works
adapted for all circles and classes of Readers, having been selected
for their acknowledged interest, and ability of the Authors, Post 8vo,
Published at 2s. and 3s. 6d. each, and arranged under two distinctive
heads as follows :—
CLASS A.
HISTORY, BIOGRAPHY, AND HISTORIC TALES.
1, SIEGE OF GIBRALTAR. By
JOHN DRINKWATER. 28.
2, THE AMBER-WITCH, By
Lapy Durr Gorpon. 2s.
8, CROMWELL AND BUNYAN.
By RoBERT SOUTBEY. 2s.
4. LIFE or Sir FRANCIS DRAKE.
By Jo“n Barrow, 23.
6. CAMPAIGNS AT WASHING-
TON. By Rev.G.R.Gueia, 2s.
6. THE FRENCH IN ALGIERS.
By Lavy Durr Gorpon. 2s.
7. THE FALL OF THE JESUITS.
2s.
8. LIVONIAN TALES. 2s.
9. LIFE OF CONDE. By Lorp Ma-
HON. 33. 6d.
10. SALE’S BRIGADE. By Rev.
G.R.Guzia. 2s.
11. THE SIEGES OF VIENNA,
By Logp ELLESMERE. 2s.
12. THE WAYSIDE CROSS. By
Capt. Minman. 2s,
13. SKETCHES or GERMAN LIFE,
By Siz A. Gorpon, 3s. 6d.
14, THE BATTLE or WATERLOO.
By Rev.G.R. Guia. 35.6.
15. AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF STEF-
FENS. 2s.
16. THE BRITISH POETS. By
THomas CAMPBELL. 33, 6d,
17. HISTORICAL ESSAYS. By
Lorp Magon. 38s. 6d.
18. LIFE OF LORD CLIVE. By
Rev. G.R.Gueia. 33. 6d.
19. NORTH - WESTERN- RAIL-
WAY. By Sin F.B.HeEap. 2s.
20. LIFE OF MUNRO. By Rev.G.
R. Guria. 3s. 6d.
CLASS B.
VOYAGES, TRAVELS,
1, BIBLE IN SPAIN. By GroraEz
Borrow. 33s. 6d.
2. GYPSIES or SPAIN. By GrorGEz
Borrow. 3s. 6d.
3&4. JOURNALS IN INDIA. By
Bisnop Hesse. 2 Vols. 7s,
5. TRAVELS tn tHE HOLY LAND.
By Inpy and MAnaueEs. 23s,
6. MOROCCO AND THE MOORS.
By J. Drummonp Hay. 2s.
7, LETTERS FROM rue BALTIC.
By a Lapy.
8. NEW SOUTH WALES. By Mrs.
MEREDITH. 2s,
9. THE WEST INDIES. By M.G,
Lewis. 2s.
10. SKETCHES OF PERSIA. By
Sin JonN MALcoum. 383s. 6d.
11. MEMOIRS OF FATHER RIPA,
2s.
12 &13. TYPEE AND OMOO. By
Hermann MELVILLE. 2 Vols. 7s.
14. MISSIONARY LIFE IN CAN-
ADA. By Rey. J.Assorr, 2s,
AND ADVENTURES.
15, LETTERS FROM MADRAS. By
a Lavy, 2s.
16. HIGHLAND SPORTS. By
CHARLES St. JOHN. 35. 6d.
17, PAMPAS JOURNEYS. By Sirk
F.B. Heap, 2s,
18 GATHERINGS FROM SPAIN,
By Ricwarp For. 8s. 6d,
19. THE RIVER AMAZON. By
W.H. Epwagps. 23s.
20. MANNERS & CUSTOMS OF
INDIA. By Rev.C.Acuanp, 2s.
21. ADVENTURES IN MEXICO.
By G. F. Roxon. 8s. 6d.
22. PORTUGAL AND GALICTA,.
By Lorp Cagnarvon. 383. 6d.
23. BUSH LIFE IN AUSTRALIA.
By Rev. H. W. Hayearrtu. 2s.
24. THE LIBYAN DESERT. By
BAYLE St. JonN. 2s,
25. SIERRA LEONE. By A Lapy.
3s. 6d.
*,* Each work may be had separately
Cc
a ee ee eee ee ae
18 LIST OF WORKS
HOLLWAY (J. G.). A Month in Norway. Feap. 8vo. 2s.
HONEY BEE. By Rev. Tuomas James. Feap. 8vo. 1s.
HOOK (Dean). Church Dictionary, 8vo. 16s,
—_—— (Tueoporg) Life. By J.G.Lockuarr. Feap. 8vo. 1s.
HOPE (A. J. Beresrorp), Worship in the Church of England.
8vo, 9s.,or, Popular Selections from. S8vo, 2s. 6d.
HORACE; a New Edition of the Text. Edited by Dean Mitman.
With 100 Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d.
HOUGHTON’S (Lorp) Monographs, Personal and Social. With
Portraits. Crown 8vo, 10s, 6.
Portican Works. Cellected Edition. With Por-
trait. 2 Vols. Feap.8vo. 12s.
HOUSTOUN (Mrs.). Twenty Years in the Wild West of Ireland,
or Life in Connaught. Post 8vo. 9s.
HUME (The Student’s). A History of England, from the Inva-
sion of Julius Cesar to the Revolution of 1688. New Edition, revised,
corrected, and continned to the Treaty of Rerlin, 1878. By J. 8.
Brewer, M.A. With 7 Coloured Maps & 70 Woodcuts, Post 8vo. 73. 6a.
HUTCHINSON (Guy.). Dog Breaking. with Odds and Ends for
those who love the Dog and the Gun. With 40 Illustrations. Crown
8vo. 7s. 6d.
HUTTON (H.E.). Principia Greca; an Introduction to the Study
of Greek. Comprehending Grammar, Delectus, and Exercise-book,
with Vocabularies. Sixth Edition, 12mo. 8s. 6d.
HYMNOLOGY, Drorronary or. See Julian.
INDIA in 1880. By Sir Richard Temple. 8vo.
IRBY AND MANGLES’ Travels in Egypt, Nubia, Syria, and
the Holy Land. Post 8vo. 2s,
JAMES’ (Rev. Tuomas) Fables of Hsop. A New Translation, with
Historical Preface. With 100 Woodents by TxNNIEL and Wo.r.
Post 8vo. 2s. 6d.
JAMESON (Mrs.). Lives of the Early Italian Painters—
and the Progress of Painting in Italy—Cimabue to Bassano. With
50 Portraits. Post 8yo. 12s.
JAPAN. See Brrv, Mossman, Mounsry, Rexp.
JENNINGS (Lovrs J.). Field Paths and Green Lanes in Surrey
and Sussex. Illustrations. Post 8vo. 10s. 6d.
Rambles among the Hills in the Peak of Derbyshire
and on the South Downs, from Petersfield to Beachy Head. With
sketches of people by the way. With Illustrations. Post 8vo.
JERVIS (Rev. W. H.). The Gallican Church, from the Con-
cordat of Bologna, 1516, to the Revolution, With an Introduction,
Portraits. 2 Vols. S8vo. 28s,
JESSE (Epwarp). Gleaningsin Natural History. Fep.8vo. 3s. 6d.
JEX-BLAKE (Rzy. T. W.). Life in Faith: Sermons Preached
at Cheltenham and Rugby. Feap. 8vo. 3s. 6d.
JOHNSON’S (Dr. Samunn) Life. By James Boswell. Including
the Tour to the Hebrides. Edited by Mr. Croker. 1 vol. Royal
8vo. 12s, New Edition, Portraits. 4 Vols. 8vo. [In Preparation.
JULIAN (Rey. Joun J.). A Dictionary of Hymnology. A
Companion to Existing Hymn Books. Setting forth the Origin and
History of the Hymns contained in the Principal Hymnals used by the
Churches of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and various Dissenting
Bodies, with Notices of their Authors. Post 8vo. [In the Fress.
PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 19
JUNIUS’ Hanpwairtine Professionally investigated. By Mr.Cuasor,
Expert. With Preface and Collateral Evidence, by the Hon. Epwarp
TwisLeTon. With Facsimiles, Woodcuts, &c. 4dto. £3 38.
KERR (Rosert), Small Country House. A _ Brief Practical
Discourse on the Planning of a Residence from 2000, to 6000/2,
With Supplementary Estimates to 70002, Post 8vo. 3s.
Ancient Lights; a Book for Architects, Surveyors,
Lawyers, and Landlords. 8vo. 5s. 6d.
(R. Matcoum) Student’s Blackstone. A Systematic
Abridgment of the entire Commentaries, adapted to the present state
ofthe law. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d,
KING EDWARD VIru’s Latin Grammar. 12mo. 33s. 6d.
First Latin Book, 12mo. 2s. 6d.
KING (R.J.). Archeology, Travel and Art; being Sketches and
Studies, Historical and Descriptive. S8vo. 12s.
KIRK (J. Foster). History of Charles the Bold, Duke of Bur-
gundy. Portrait. 3 Vols. Syo. 40s,
KIRKES’ Handbook of Physiology. Edited by W. Morrazt
Baker, F.R.C.S. With 400 Illustrations. Post 8vo. 14s.
KUGLER’S Handbook of Painting.—The Italian Schools. Re-
vised and Remodelled from the most recent Researches, By Lapy
Eastiake. With 140 Illustrations. 2 Vols. Crown 8yo. 30s.
————— Handbook of Painting —The German, Flemish, and
Dutch Schools. Revised and in part re-written. By J. A. Crowe,
With 60 Illustrations, 2 Vols. Crown 8vo. 24s.
LANE (E. W.). Account of the Manners and Customs of Modern
Egyptians. With Illustrations, 2 Vols. Post 8vo. 12s
LAWRENCE (Sir Gzo.). Reminiscences of Forty-three Years’
Service in India; including Captivities in Cabul among the Affghans
and among the Sikhs, and a Narrative of the Mutiny in Rajputana.
Crown 8vo. 10s, 6d.
LAYARD (A. H.). Nineveh and its Remains. Being a Nar-
rative of Researches and Discoveries amidst the Ruins of Assyria.
With an Account of the Chaldean Christians of Kurdistan; the Yezedis
or Devil-worshippers; and an Enquiry into the Manners and Arts of
the Ancient Assyrians. Plates and Woodcuts. 2 Vole. 8vo, 36s.
*,* A PopuLtaR Epition of the above work, With Llustrations.
Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Nineveh and Babylon; being the Narrative of Dis-
coveries in the Ruins, with Travels in Armenia, Kurdistan and the
Desert, during a Second Expedition to Assyria. With Map and
Plates. 8vo. 21+,
*,* A Poputar Epition of the above work. With Illustrations
Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
LEATHES’ (Stanury) Practical Hebrew Grammar. With the
Hebrew Text of Genesis i—vi., and Psalms i—vi. Grammatical
Analysis and Vocabulary. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
LENNEP (Rev. H. J. Van). Missionary Travels in Asia Minor.
With Illustrations of Biblical History and Archeology. With Map
and Woodeuts. 2 Vols. Post 8vo, 24s.
Modern Customs and Manners of Bible Lands in
Illustration of Scripture. With Coloured Maps and 300 Illustrations.
2 Vols. 8vo. 21s,
LESLIE (C, R.). Handbook for Young Painters. With Ilustra-
tions. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Life and Works of Sir Joshua Reynolds. Portraits
and Illustrations. 2 Vols. 8vo. 42s,
c2
20 LIST OF WORKS
i
LETO (Pomponro). Eight Months at Rome during the Vatican
Council. With adatly account of the proceedings. Translated from
the original. 8vo. 12s.
LETTERS From tHe Battro. By a Lavy. Post 8vo. 2s.
Mapras. Bya Lavy. Post 8vo. 2s.
Srerza Leone. By a Lapy. Post 8vo. 3s. 6d.
LEVI (Leone). History of British Commerce: and Economic
Progress of the Nation, from 1763 to 1878. 8vo. 18s. ;
LEX SALIGA; the Ten Texts with the Glosses and the Lex
Emendata. Svnoptically edited by J H Hrssrrs With Notes on
the Frankish Words in the Lex Salica by H. Kern, of Leyden. 4to. 42s.
LIDDELL (Dean). Student’s History of Rome, from the earliest
Times to the establishment of the Empire, Wooécuts. Post 8vo. 7. 6d.
LISPINGS from LOW LATITUDES; or, the Journal of the Hon.
Impulsia Gushington. Edited by Lorp Durrerin. With 24 Plates. 4to. 21s.
LIVINGSTONE (Dz.). Popular Account of his First Expedition
to Africa, 1840-56. Illustrations. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Second Expedition to Africa, 1858-64. Illustra-
tions. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Last Journals in Central Africa, from 1865 to
his Death. Continued by a Narrative of his last moments and sufferings.
By Rev. Horace WALLER. Maps and Illustrations. 2 Vols. 8vo. 15s.
Memoirs of bis Personal Life. From his un-
pnblished Journals and Correspondence. By Wm. G, Blaikie, D.D.
With Map and Portrait. S8vo.
LIVINGSTONIA. Journal of Adventures in Exploring Lake
Nyassa, and Establishing a Missionary Settlement there. By E. D.
Youna, R.N. Maps Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
LIVONIAN TALES. By the Author of “ Letters from the
Baltic.” Post 8vo, 2s.
LOCKHARY (J. G.). Ancient Spanish Ballads. Historical and
Romantic. Translated, with Notes. Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 5s.
——_—_———— Life of Theodore Hook. Feap. 8vo. 18.
LOUDON (Mrs.). Gardening for Ladies. With Directions and
Calendar of Operations for Every Month. Woodcuts. Feap. 8vo. 33. 6d.
LYELL (Sir Onarses). Principles of Geology; or, the Modern
Changes of the Earth and its Inhabitants considered as illustrative of
Geology. With Illustrations. 2 Vols. 8vo. 32s,
Student's Elements of Geology. With Table of British
Fossils and 600 Illustrations. Third Edition, Revised. Post 8vo. 9s.
Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man,
including an Outline of Glacial Post-Tertiary Geology, and Remarks
on the Origin of Species. Illustrations. 8vo. 14s.
—— (K.M.). Geographical Handbook of Ferns. With Tables
to show their Distribution. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d,
LYTTON (Lorn), A Memoir of Julian Fane. With Portrait. Post
8vo. 5s
McCLINTOCK (Sir L.). Narrative of the Discovery of the
Fate of Sir John Franklin and his Companions in the Arctic Seas.
With Illustrations, Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
MACDOUGALL (Co1.). Modern Warfare as Influeneed by Modern
Artillery. With Plans. Post 8vo. 12s.
MACGREGOR (J.). Rob Roy on the Jordan, Nile, Red Sea, Gen-
nesareth, &c, A Canoe Cruise in Palestine and Egypt and the Waters
of Damascus. With Map and 70 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d.
PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 21
MAETZNER’S Enetish Granmar. A Methodical, Analytical,
and Historical Treatise on the Orthography, Prosody, Inflections, and
Syntax, By CiatrJ. Greece, LL.D. 3 Vols. 8vo 36s,
MAHON (Lorp), see StanHops.
MAINE (Sir H. Sumyer). Ancient Law: its Connection with the
Early History of Society, and its Relation to Modern Ideas. S8yo. 12s.
Village Communities in the East and West. 8vo. 12s,
—— Early History of Institutions. 8vo. 12s.
MALCOLM (Sir Jonny). Sketches of Persia. Post 8vo. 38. 6d.
MANSEL (Dean). Limits of Religious Thought Examined.
Post 8vo. 8s, 6d.
Letters, Lectures, and Reviews. 8vo, 12s.
MANUAL OF SCIENTIFIC ENQUIRY. For the Use of
Travellers. Edited by Rey. R. Man. Post 8vo, 38s. 6d. (Published by
order of the Lords of the Admiralty.)
MARCO POLO. The Book of Ser Marco Polo, the Venetian.
Concerning the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East. A new English
Version. Illustrated by the light of Oriental Writers and Modern
Travels. By Cou. Henry Yuue. Maps and Illustrations. 2 Vols.
Medium Svo, 63s,
MARKHAM (Mars.). History of England. From the First Inva-
sion by the Romans. Woodcuts. 12mo. 3s. 6d.
History of France. From the Conquest by the
Gauls. Woodcuts. 12mo. 3s. 6d.
History of Germany. From the Invasion by Marius.
Woodcuts. 12mo. 3s, 6d.
(Curments R.). A Popular Account of Peruvian
Bark and its introduction into British India, Ceylon, &c., and of the
Progress and Extent of its Cultivation. With Maps. Post 8vo.
MARRYAT (JoszrH). History of Modern and Medizeval Pottery
and Porcelain. With a Description of the Manufacture, Plates and
Woodcuts. 8vo. 42s,
MARSH (G. P.). Student’s Manual of the English Language.
Edited with Additions. By Dr. Wm. Smira. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
MASTERS in English Theology. The King’s College Lectures,
1877. Hooker, by Canon Barry; Anprews, by Dean Church ;
CHILLINGWorRTH, by Prof. Plumptre; WuicHcore and Situ, by
Canon Westcott; Jeremy Taytor, by Canon Farrar; Pearson ,
by Archdeacon Cheetham. With Introduction by Canon Barry.
Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
MATTHI#’S Greek Grammar. Abridged by Buomrrsxp,
Revised by E.S. CRooke. 12mo. 4s,
MAUREL’S Character, Actions, and Writings of Wellington.
Feap. 8vo. 1s. 6d.
MAYO (Lorp). Sport in Abyssinia; or, the Mareb and Tack-
azzee. With lllustrations. Crown 8vo. 12s.
MEADE (Hon. Herzert). Ride through the Disturbed Districts of
New Zealand, with a Cruise among the South Sea Islands. With Illus-
trations, Medium 8vo. 12s.
MELVILLE (Hermann). Marquesas and South Sea Islands,
2 Vols. Post 8vo. 7s.
MEREDITH (Mrs. Cuaruns). Notes and Sketches of New South
Wales. Post 8vo. 2s.
MICHAEL ANGELO, Sculptor, Painter, and Architect, His Life
and Works. By C,Hrary Witson. Illustrations, Royal 8vo. 26s.
rp
©
LIST OF WORKS
MIDDLETON (Cuas. H.) A Descriptive Catalogue of the
Etched Work of Rembrandt, with Life and Introductions, With
Explanatory Cuts. Medium 8vo. 31s. 6d.
MILLINGTON (Rev. T.5.). Signs and Wonders in the Land of
Ham, or the Ten Plagues of Egypt, with Ancient and Modern Illustra-
tions. Woodcuts. Post 8vo, 7s. 6d,
MILMAN’S (Dean) WORKS :—
History oF THE Jews, from the earliest Period down to Modern
Times. 3 Vols. Post 8vo, 18s,
Barty Curistranity, from the Birth of Christ to the Aboli-
tion of Paganism in the Roman Empire. 3 Vols. Post 8vo. 18s,
Latin Curistianrty, including that of the Popes to the
Pontificate of Nicholas V. 9 Vols. Post 8vo. 54s.
Hanpsook to St. Paut's CatHepraL. Woodeuts. Crown
Svo. 10s. Gd.
Quint1 Horatit Fracct Oprra. Woodcuts. Sm. 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Faut oF Jurvsatem. Feap. 8vo. 1s.
(Carr, E. A.) Wayside Cross. Post 8vo. 2s.
(Bisnop, D.D.,) Jate Metropolitan of India. His Life.
With a Selection from his Correspondence and Journals. By bis
Sister. Map. 8vo. 12s.
MIVAKT (St. Groner). Lessons from Nature; as manifested in
Mind and Matter. 8vo. 15s.
—— The Cat. An Introduction to the Study of Backboned
Animals, especially Mammals. With uumerous I)lustrations. 8vo.
(Ln the Press.
MOORE (Tomas). Life and Letters of Lord Byron. Oabinet
Edition. With Plates. 6 Vols. Feap. 8vo. 188.; Popular Edition,
with Portraits. Royal 8vo. 7s. 6d,
MORESBY (Capr.), K.N. Discoveries in New Guinea, Polynesia,
Torres Straits, &c., during the cruise of H.M.S. Basilisk. Map and
Illustrations. 8vo. 15s.
MOSSMAN (Samuet). New Japan; the Land of the Rising Sun ;
its Annals during the past T'wenty Years, recording the remarkable
Progress of the Japanese in Westein Civilisation. With Map. 8vo. 15s,
MOTLEY (J. L.). History of the United Netherlands: from the
Death of William the Silent to the Twelve Years’ Truce, 1609. Portraits,
4 Vols. Post 8vo. 6s. each.
——_-———_—_———_ Life and Death of John of Barneveld,
Advocate of Holland. With a View of the Primary Causes and
Movements of the Thirty Years’ War. Illustrations, 2 Vols.
Post 8vo. 12s,
MOZLEY (Canon). Treatise on the Augustinian doctrine of
Predestination, Crown 8vo. 9s,
MUIRHEAD (Jas.). The Vaux-de-Vire of Maistre Jean Le Houx,
Advocate of Vire. Translated and Edited, With Portrait and Illus-
trations. 8vo, 21s,
MUNRO’S (Generat) Life and Letters. By Rev. G. R. Guerre.
Post 8vo. 3s. 6d,
MURCHISON (Sir Ropgrrcr), Siluria; or, a History of the
Oldest rocks containing Organic Remains. Map and Plates. 8vo. 183s.
—-————— Memoirs. With Notices of his Contemporaries,
and Rise and Progress of Paleozoic Geology. By ARCHIBALD GEIKIE,
Portraits, 2 Vols, 8vo. 30s.
PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 23
MURRAY (A.8.). A History of Greek Sculpture, from the Earliest
Times down to the Age of Phidias, With Illustrations. Roy. 8vo.
MUSTERS’ (Capr.) Patagonians; a Year's Wanderings over
Untrodden Ground from the Straits of Magellan to the Rio Negro.
Illustrations. Post8vo. 7s. 6d.
NAPIER (Sir Wo.). English Battles and Sieges of the Peninsular
War. Portrait, Post 8vo. 9s.
NAPOLEON at Fontarnesneau And Expa. Journal of
Occurrences and Notes of Conversations. By Sir Ne1n CAMPBELL.
Portrait, 8vo. 15s.
NARES (Srx Guonae), R.N. Official Report to the Admiralty of
the recent Arctic Expedition. Map. S8vo. 2s. 6d.
NASMYTH anv CARPENTER. The Moon. Considered as a
Planet, a World, and a Satellite. With Illustrations from Drawings
made with the aid of Powerful Telescopes, Woodcuts, &e. 4to. 30s.
NAUTICAL ALMANAC (Lux). (By Authority.) 2s. 6d.
NAVY LIST. (Monthly and Quarterly.) Post 8vo.
NEW TESTAMENT. With Short Explanatory Commentary.
By Arcupeacon Cuurton, M.A., and the Bisnop or St, Davip's.
With 110 authentic Views, &c. 2 Vols. Crown 8ve, 21s. bound.
NEWTH (Samvet). First Book of Natural Philosophy ; an Intro-
duction to the Study of Staties. Dynamics, Hydrostaties, Light, Hear,
and Sound, with numerous Examples. Small 8vo. 3s, 6d.
Elements of Mechanics, including ILydrostatics,
with numerous Examples. Small 8vo. 8s. 6d.
Mathematical Examples. A Graduated Series
of Elementary Examples in Arithmetic, Algebra, Logarithms, Trigo-
nometry, and Mechanics. Small 8vo. 8s. 6d.
NICOLAS (Srr Harnis). Historic Peerage of England. Exhi-
biting the Origin, Descent, and Present State of every Title of Peer-
age which has existed in this Country since the Conquest. By
Wittiam CourtTsorr. $vo, 30s.
NILE GLEANINGS. See Sruart.
NIMROD, On the Chace—Turf—and Road, With Portrait and
Plates. Crown 8vo. 5s. Orwith Coloured Plates, 7s. 6d.
NORDHOFF (Cuas.). Communistie Societies of the United
States; including Detailed Accounts of the Shakers, The Amana,
Oneida, Bethell, Aurora, Icarian and other existing Societies; with
Particulars of their Religious Creeds, Industries, and Present Coudi-
tion. With 40 Illustrations. Svo. 15s.
NORTHCOTE’S (Sim Jonn) Notebook in the Long Parliament.
Containing Proceedings during its First Session, 1640, Edited, with
a Memoir, by A. H. A. Hamilton. Crown dvo, 9s.
OWEN (Lizvr.-Cot.). Principles and Practice of Modern Artillery,
including Artillery Material, Gunnery, aud Organisation and Use of
Artillery in Warfare. With Illustrations, 8vo. 16s.
OXENHAM (Rzv. W.). English Notes for Latin Elegiacs ; designed
for early Proficients in the Art of Latin Versification, with Prefatory
Rules of Composition iu Elegiac Metre. 12mo. 3s. 6d.
PALGRAVE (R. H. 1.). Local Taxation of Great Britain and
Ireland. 8vo. 65s.
PALLISER (Mrs.). Mottoes for Monuments, or Epitaphs selected
General Use and Study. With Illustrations, Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d.
PARIS (Dz.) Philosophy in Sport made Science in Earnest ;
or, the First Principles of Natural Philosophy inculeated by aid of the
Toys and Sports of Youth. Woodcuts, Post 8vo. 7s.6d.
24 LIST OF WORKS
PARKYNS’ (Mansriztp) Three Years’ Residence in Abyssinia:
with Travels in that Country. Woth Illustrations. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
PEEL’S (Sir Ropert) Memoirs, 2 Vols, Post 8vo. las.
PENN (RicHarp). Maxims and Hints for an Angler and Chess-
player. Woodcuts. Feap.8vo. 1s,
PERCY (Joun, M.D.). Merratturey. Fuel, Wood, Peat, Coal,
Charcoal, Coke. Fire-Clays. Illustrations. 8vo. 30s.
Lead, including part of Silver. Illustrations. 8vo. 30s:
Silver aud Gold. Part I. Illustrations. tvo. 80s.
PERRY (Rev. Canon). Life of St. Hugh of Avalon, Bishop of
Lincoln, Post 8vo. 10s, 6d.
PHILLIPS (Jonny). Geology of Yorkshire, The Coast, and
Limestone District. Plates. 2 Vols. 4to. 31s. 6d. each.
(Samur1). Literary Essays from “ The ‘limes.” With
Portrait. 2 Vols. Feap.8vo, 7s.
POPE’S (Auexanper) Works. With Introductions and Notes,
by Rev. WHiTwWeELt E_win. Vols. I., II., VI., VII., VIII. With Por-
traits. S8vo. 10s. 6d. each.
PORTER (Rev. J. L.). Damascus, Palmyra, and Lebanon. With
Travels among the Giant Cities of Bashan and the Hauran. Map and
Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
PRAYER-BOOK (In.usrratep), with Borders, Initials, Vig-
nettes, &c. Edited, with Notes, by Rev. Tos. JamrEs. Medium
8vo. 18s. cloth ; 318s. 6d. calf; 362. morocco,
(Tux Convocation), with altered rubrics, show-
ing the book if amended in conformity with the reecomn endations of
the Couvocations of Canterbury and York in 1879. Post&vo, 5s.
PRINCESS CHARLOTTE OF WALES. A Brief Memoir.
With Selections from her Correspondence and other unpublished
Papers. By Lapy Rose WEIGALL, With Portrait. Svo, &s. 6d,
PRIVY COUNCIL JUDGMENTS in Ecclesiasticai Cases re-
lating to Doctrine and Discipline. With Historical Introduction,
by G.C. Broprick and W. H. FREMANTLE. 8vo. 10s, 6d,
PSALMS OF DAVID. With Notes Explanatory and Critical by
the Dean of Wells, Canon Elliott, and Ca.on Cook, Medium. 8vo.
PUSS IN BOOTS. With 12 Illustrations. By Orro Srrcxrer,
16mo. 1s.6d. Or coloured, 2s. 6d.
QUARTERLY REVIEW (Tur). 8vo. 63.
RAE (Epwarp). Country of the Moors. A Journey from Tripoli
‘in Barbary to the Holy City of Kairwan. Map and Etchings. Crown
8vo. 12s.
RAMBLES in the Syrian Deserts. Post 8vo. 10s. 6d.
RASSAM (Hormvuzp). British Mission to Abyssinia. With
Notices of the Countries from Massowah to Magdala, Iilustrations,
2 Vols. 8vo. 28s.
RAWLINSON’S (Canon) Herodotus. A New English Ver-
sion. Edited with Notes and Essays. Maps and Woodcut. 4 Vols. 8vo. 48s.
Five Great Monarchies of Chaldzea, Assyria, Media,
Babylonia, and Persia. With Maps and Illustrations. 3 Vols. 8vo. 42:.
(Siz Henry) England and Russia in the East; a
Series of Papers on the Political and Geographical Condition ot Central
Asia. Map. 8vo. 12s.
PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 25
REED (Sir E. J.) Iron-Clad Ships; their Qualities, Performances,
and Cost. With Chapters on Turret Ships, Iron-Clad Rams, ac. With
Illustrations, 8vo. 12s,
Letters from Russia in 1875. 8vo. 5s.
——— Japan: Its History, Traditions, and Religions. With
Narrative of a Visit in 1579, Illustrations. 2 Vols. 8vo. 28s.
REJECTED ADDRESSES (Tax), By James any Horace Smira.
Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 3s. 6d.; or Popular Edition, Feap. 8vo. 1s.
REMBRANDY. A Descriptive Catalogue of bis Etched Work ;
with Life #nd Introduc ious. By Camas. H. Mibvieton, B.A.
Woodcuts. Medium vo. 381s. 6d.
REYNOLDS’ (Sir Josuva) Life and Times, By C. R. Lesuiz,
K.A. and Tom TayLor. Portraits. 2 Vols. 8vo, 42s,
RICARDO’S (Davin) Political Works. With a Notice of his
Life and Writings. By J.R.M‘Cutuocn. 8vo. 16s.
RIPA (Farner). Vhirteen Years at the Court of Peking. Post
8vo, 2s.
ROBERTSON (Canon). History of the Christian Church, from
the Apostolic Age to the Reformation, 1517. 8 Vols. Post 8vo.
6s. each,
ROBINSON (Rev. Dr.). Biblical Researches in Palestine and the
Adjacent Kegions, 1838—52, Maps. 3 Vols. 8vo. 42s,
(Wm.) Alpine Flowers for English Gardens. With
70 Illustrations, Crown8vo. 7s. 6d.
Sub-Tropical Garden. Illustrations. Small 8vo. 5s.
ROBSON (BE. R.). Scuoon Anrcurrucrunn. Remarks on the
Planning, Designing, Building. and Furuishiug of School-houses.
Illustrations. Medium 8vo. 18s.
ROME (History or). See Grspon—Lippr1u.—Smita—Stvupents’.
ROYAL SOCIETY CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC PAPERS,
8 vols. 8vo. 20..each. Half morocco, !8s. each.
RUXTON (Guo, F.). 'l'ravels in Mexico; with Adventures among Wild
Tribes and Animals of the Prairies and Rocky M puntains. Post 8vo. 3s.6d,
ST. HUGH OF AVALON, Bishop of Lincoln; his Life by G. G.
Perry, Canon of Lincoln. Post 8vo. 10s. 6d.
ST. JOHN (Caarizs). Wild Sporta and Natural History of the
Highlands of Sco‘land. New, and beautifully illustrated Edition.
Crown 8yo. 15s, Cheap Edition, Pust 8v0. 3s. 6d.
————— (Bay1g) Adventures in the Libyan Desert. Post 8vo. 2s,
SALDANHA (Doxe or), Soldier and Statesman, Memoirs of
the Eventful Career of. By the Conpe pa Carnota. Portraits and
Maps, 2Vols. $vo. 32s.
SALE’S (Srr Roger) Brigade in Affghanistan. With an Account of
the Defence of Jellalabad. By Rev. G.R.Gueia. Post 8vo. 2s.
SCEPTICISM IN GEOLOGY; and the Reasons for It An
assemblage of facts from Nature combining to refute the theory of
“Causes now in Action.” By Verririgr. Woodcuts. Crown 8yo. 6s.
SCOTT (Sirk Gitzert). Lectures on the Rise and Development
of Medizwval Architectnre. Delivered at the Royal Academy. With
400 Illustrations. 2 Vols. Medium 8vo. 42s.
Secular and Domestic Architecture, Present and Future.
Bvo. 9s.
26 LIST OF WORKS
SCHLIEMANN (Dr. Heyry). Troy and Its Remains. A Narra-
tive of Researches aad Discoveries made on the Site of Ilium, and in the
Trojan Plain, With 50v Lilustrations. Medium 8vo. 42s.
Discoveries on the Sites of Ancient Mycens
and Tiryns. With 500 Illustrations, Medium 8vo. 50s.
—__________ Jlius; A Complete History of the City and
Country of the Trojans, including all Rece.t Discoveries and Re-
rearcbes made on the Site of Trey aud the Troad in 1871-3 and 1878-9,
With an Au obi grapluy of the Author. With nearly 20(0 Illustrations.
Imperial 8vo. 5vs.
SCHOMBERG (Genzrat). The Odyssey of Homer, rendered
into English blank verse, Books I—X1J. 8vo, 12s,
t EEBOHM (Henry). Siberia in Furope; a Naturalist’s Visit to
the Valley of the Peichora in North Eastern Ru-sia. Wiuth notices
Birds and their migrations. With Map and Illustrations. Crown
8vo.
SELBORNE (Lorp). Notes on some Passages im the Liturgical
History of the Rt formed English Church. 8vo. 6s.
SHADOWS OF A SICK ROOM. Preface by Canon Livpon.
16mo, 2s. 6d.
SHAH OF PERSIA’S Diary during his Tour through Europe in
1873. ‘Translated from the Original. By J. W. Kepuousz. With
Portrait and Culoured Title, Crown 8vo, 12s,
SHAW (T. b.). Manual of English Literature. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Specimens of English Literature. Selected from the
Chief Writers. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
(Ropert). Visit to High Tartary, Yarkand, and Kashgar
(formerly Chinese Tartary), and Return Journey over the Karakorum
Pass. With Map and Illustrations, 8vo. 16s.
SIERRA LEONE; Described in Letters to Friends at Home. By
A Lavy. Post 8vo. 3s. 6d.
SIMMONS (Capr.). Constitution and Practice of Courts-Mar-
tial, 8vo. 15s.
SMILES’ (Samvuzz, LL.D.) WORKS :—
British Enainerrs; from the Earliest Period to the death of
the Stephenson. With Illustrations. 5 Vols. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d. each,
Lire or A &corew Naturauist (THos. Epwarp). Illustrations.
Crown 8vo. 10-. 6d.
Lire or A Scorcn Grotogist and Boranist (Roser Dicx).
Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 12s,
Huevenots 1x Enauanp anp Ingiand. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Setr-Hetp. With Illustrations of Conduct and Persever-
ance, Post 8vo. 6s. Orin French, 5s.
Cuaracter. A Sequel to “Senr-Hetp.” Post 8vo. 6s.
Turirt. A Book of Domestic Counsel. Post 8vo. 6s.
Dury. With Illustrations of Courage, Patience, and Endurance.
Post 8vo. 6s.
Iypustriat Brocrapuy; or, Iron Workers and Tool Makers.
Post 8vo. 6s.
Boy’s Voyage Rounp tHE Wortp. Illustrations. Post 8vo. 6s.
SMITH’S (Dr. Wm.) DICTIONARIES :-—
Dictionary oF THE BrBiE; its Antiquities, Biography,
Geography, and Natural History. Illustrations. 3 Vols. 8yo. 105s,
PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 27
Sarrx’s (Ds. Wa.) Drorronarres—continued,
Concise Bratz Diortonary. With 300 Illustrations. Medium
8vo. 21s.
SmaLLER Brisire Dictionary. With Illustrations. Post
8vo. 7s. 6d.
CuristraN ANrTIQuItIEs. Comprising the History, Insti-
tutions, and Antiquities of the Christian Church. With I\lustrations,
2 Vols. Medium 8vo. 37, 13s. 6d.
CuristraAn Brograpuy, LireraturE, Srots, anD Doctrines;
from the Times of the Apostles to the Age of Charlemagne. Medium 8vv.
Vols. I. & II. 31, €d. each. (To be completed in 4 Vols.)
Greek AND Roman AnTIQuITIES. With 500 Illustrations.
Medium 8vo. 283.
Greek and Roman BrograpHy AND MyrHotocy. With 600
Illustratious. 4 Vols. Medium 8vo. 41. 4s
Greek AND Roman Geoarapuy. 2 Vois. With 500 Illustra-
tions, Medium 8vo. 5s.
ATLAS OF ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY—BIBLICAL AND CLASSICAL.
Folio. 62. 6s.
CuasstoaL Drcrronany oF MyrtuHotoay, Broarapuy, AND
GEOGRAPHY. 1 Vol. With 759 Woodeuts. 8vo. 18s.
Smabier Crassroan Drotronary. Wich 200 Woodcuts. Crowa
8vo. 7s. 6d.
SmaLLerR Greek AnD Roman ANTIQUITIES. With 200 Wood-
cuts. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Comptete Latin-Encuish Dictionary. With Tables of the
Roman Calendar, Measures, Weights,and Money. 8vo. 21s.
Smauter Latin-Enevish Drotionary. 12mo. 7s. 6d.
Copious anD Critican EnouisH-Latin Dictionary. 8vo. 21s.
SMALLER Eneuisu-Latin Dicotionary. 12mo. 7s. 6d.
SMITH’S (Dr. Wu.) ENGLISH COURSE :—
Scnoot Manvat or Eneiish GRAMMAR, WITH Copious EXEKkcISEs.
Post Svo. 3s. td.
Primary Enauisa Grammar. l6mo. Is. 6d.
Manvat or KnexisH Composrrion. With Copio.s Illustra-
tious and Practical Exercises. 12mo. 3s. 6d.
Primary Hisroxy or Britain. 12mo. 2s. 6d.
Scooon Manuat or Moprern Gerocrapay, PuystcaL AND
Political. Post 8vo. 5s.
A Smacter Manuva or Moprern ScuHoon Grocraeny. Post
8vo, 2s, 6c,
SMITH’S (Dr. Wu.) FRENCH COURSE :—
Frencu Principra. Part IJ. A First Course, containing a
Grammar, Delecius, Exercises, and Vocabularies. 12mo, 2s, 64,
Frencw Prinorpra. PartIl. A Reading Book, containing
Fables, Stories, and Anecdotes, Natural History, and Scenes from the
History of France, With Grammatical Questions, Notes and copious
Etymological Dictionary. 12mo. 4s. 6d.
Frencu Principra. Part III. Prose Composition, containing
a Systematic Course of Exercises on the Syntax, with the Principal
Rules of Syntax. 12mo, (In the Press.
Sruprenr’s French Grammar. By C. Heron-Warp. With
Introduction by M. Littré. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
SmaLLterR Grammar or THE FrencH Laneauaage. Abridged
from the above. 12mo. 3s. 6d.
28 LIST OF WORKS
SMITH’S (Dr. Wu.) GERMAN COURSE :—
German Principra. Part I. A First German Course, con-
taining a Grammar, Delectus, Exercise Book, and Vocabularies.
12mo. 3s, 6d,
German Princrpra. Part II. A Reading Book ; containing
Fables, Stories, and Anecdotes, Natural History, and Scenes from the
History of Germany. With Grammatical Questions, Noies, and Dic-
tionary. 12mo. 3s. 6d.
PracticaAL GERMAN GRAMMAR. Post 8vo. 3s. 6d.
SMITH'S (Dr. Wm.) ITALIAN COURSE :—
Iratran Principia. An Italian Course, containing a Gran mar,
Delectus, Exercise Book, with Vocabularies, and Materials for Italian
Conversation. By Signor Kicci, Piofessor of Italian at the City of
Loudon College. 12mo. 3s, Gd.
SMITH’S (Dk. Wu.) LATIN COURSE:—
Tur Youne Brornner’s First Latin Boox: Containing the
Kudiments of Grammar, Fasy Grammatical Ques!ious and Exercises,
with Vccabnlaries. Being a Stepping stove to Principia Latina, Partl,
for Young Children. 12mo, 2s,
Tur Youne Brcrnner’s Szrconp Latin Boox: Containing an
eusy Latin Resding Book, with an Analysis of the Sentences, Notes,
andalito.ary. Being a Stepping-stone to Principia Latina, PartIl,,
fur Young Children. 12mo, 2s.
Prinoipia Latina. [art I. First Latin Course, containing a
Grammar, Delectus,and Exercise Book, with Vocabularies. 12mo. 3s.6d.
*,* In this Edition the Cases of the Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns
are arrang?d both as iu the ORDINARY GRAMMARS and as in the PuBLIO
ScHOOL FRimER, together with the corresponding Exercises.
APppENDIX TO PrinorprA Latina Part I.; being Additional
Exerc:ses, with Examination Papers. 12mo. 2s. 6d.
Principia Latina. Part JI, A Reading-book of Mythology,
Geography, Roman Antiquities, aud History, With Notes and Dic-
tionary. 12mo. 3s. 6d.
Prinorr1a Latina. Part III. A Poetry Book. Hexameters
and Pevtameters; Eclog. Ovidiane; Latin Prosody. 12mo, 3s. 6d.
Principia Latina. Part 1V. Prose Composition. Rules of
Syntax with Examples, Explanations of Synonyms, and Exercises
on the Syntax. 12mo. 3s. 6d,
Principia Latina Part V. Short Tales and Anecdotes for
Translation into Latin, 12mo, 3s.
Latin-Enciuish Vocapubaky aNnpd First Latin-EnGLisH
DicrioNaRyY FoR PH&DRUS, CORNELIUS NEPOS, ANDC SAR, 12mo, 3s. 6d.
Srupent’s Latin Grammar. For the Higher Forms. Post
8vo. 6s.
Smarter Latin Grammar. For the Middle and Lower Forms.
12mo. 3s. 6d.
Tacitus, Germania, Agricola, &c. With English Notes.
12mo. 3s. 6d.
SMITH’S (Dr. Wu.) GREEK COURSE :—
IniT1a Grxca. Part]. A First Greek Uourse, containing a Gram-
mar, Delectus, and Exercise-book, With Vocabularies, 12mo. 3s. 6d,
Intra Graca. Part IJ. A Reading Book. Containing
Short Tales, Anecdotes, Fables, Mythology, and Grecian History.
12mo. 3s. 6d.
PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 29
Smrrn’s (Dr. Wu.) Greex Coursse—continued.
Initta Graca. Part III. Prose Composition. Containing the
Rules of Syntax, with copious Examples and Exercises. 12mo. 38. 62.
Srupen’s Grerk Grammar. For the Higher Forms. By
Cuxtius. Post 8vo0. 6s.
Smatier Grecx Grammar. For the Middle and Lower Forms.
lzmo. 3s. 6d.
Greek Accrpence. 12mo. 2s. 6d.
Prato, Apology of Socrates, &e. With Notes. 12mo. 3s. 6d.
SMITH’s (Da. Wu.) SMALLER HISTORIES :—
Sorrprure History. Woodcuts. 16mo. 3s. 6d.
Aycrent History. Woodcuts. 16mo. 3s. 6d.
Ancient GrocrarHy. Woodcuts. 16mo. 3s. 6d.
Rome. Modera Geography. Woodcuts. lémo. 3s. 6d.
Greece. Woodcuts. 16mo. 3s. 6d.
Cuasstoat Myraotogy. Woodcuts. 18mo. 3s. 6d.
Enctanp. Woodcuts. 16mo. 3s. 6d.
Eneuiso Literature. 16mo. 3s. 6d.
Sprormens or EncuisH Lirerature. l6mo. 33s. 6d.
SMITH (Geo.). Life of John Wileon, 1).D. (of Bombay),
Fif'y Years Missionary and Philanthropist. Portrait. Post 8vo. 9s
——— (Purr). History of the Ancient World, from the Creation
to the Fall of the Roman Empire, a.p. 476. 3 Vols. 8vo. 31s. 6d.
SOMERVILLE (Mary). Personal Recollections from Early Life
to Old Age. Portrait. Crown 8vo. 12s.
Physical Geography. Portrait. Post 8vo. 9s.
—_—_______ Connexion of the Physical Sciences. Portrait.
Post 8vo. 9s.
Molecular & Microscopic Science. Illustrations.
2 Vols. Post 8vo. 21s.
SOUTHEY (Rost). Lives of Bunyan and Cromwell. Post 8vo. 2s.
STAEL (Mapamx pr). See Stevens.
STANLEY’S (Dean) WORKS :—
Svar anp Patesting, in connexion with their History. Maps.
8vo. lds.
Piste 1x Taz Hory Lanp; Extracted from the above Work.
Woeodcuts. Feap. 8ve. 2s. 6d.
Eastern Cuourcu. Plans. 8vo. 12s.
JzwisH Cuurcn. From the Earliest Times to the Christian
Era, 3 Vols. 8vo. 38s.
Errsties or St. Pau ro THE CorrntHrans. 8vo. 18s.
Lire or Dr. ARNOLD, or Ruapy. Portrait. 2 vols. Cr. 8vo. 12s.
History or tHe Cuurco or Scornanp. 8vo. 78. 6d.
MemorraAts of Canrerpury CaTHepraL. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Westminster Axper. Illustrations, 8vo. 15s.
Sermons puRInG A TouR IN THE East. 8vo. 95.
Memorr or Epwarp, CaTHerine, AND Mary Stantev. Cr. 8vo. 98.
Curistran Institutions. Essays on Ecclesiastical Subjects. 8vo.
STEPHENS (Rev. W. R. W.). Life and Times of St. John
Chrysostom. A Sketch of the Church and the Empire in the Fourth
Century. Portrait, Svo. 12s.
a0} * LIST OF WORKS
STEVENS (Dr. A.). Madame de Stiiel; a Study of her Life
and Times. The First Revolution andthe First Empire. 2 Vols. Cr. 8vo.
STRATFORD vr REDCLIFFE (Lorp’. The Eastern Question.
Being a Selection from his Writings during the last Five Years of his
Life. With a Preface by Dean Sianley. Pvat 8vo,
STREET (G. E.). Gothic Architecture in Spain. Illustrations.
Royal 8vo, 30s.
Italy, chiefly in Brick and
Marble. With Notes on North of Italy. Illustrations, Royal 8vo. 26s.
STUART (Viuxrers). Nile Gleanings: The Ethnology, History,
and Art of Ancient Egypt, as Revealed by Paintings and Bas-
Reliefs. With Descriptions of Nubia and its Great Rock Temples,
58 Coloured [lustrations &c. Medium 8vo. 31s. 6d,
STUDENTS’ MANUALS :—
Op Trstament History ; from the Creation to the Return of
the Jews from Captivity. Maps and Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 7s. 67.
New Testament History. With an Introduction connecting
the History of the Old and New Testaments, Maps and Woodcuts.
Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Ecctrstasticat History. The Christian Church during the
First Ten Centuries; From its Foundation to the full establishment
of the Holy Roman Empire and the Papal Power. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d-
Eneuish Cuurcu History, from the accession of Henry VIII.
to the silencing of Convocatiin in the 18th Century. By Canon
Perry. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Awncrent History or tun Fast; Egypt, Assyria, Babylonia,
Media, Persia, Asia Minor, and Phcenic'a. Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Ancient GrocrapHy, By Canon Bryan. Woodcuts. Post
8vo. 7s. 6d.
History or Grenor ; from the Earliest Times to the Roman
Conquest. By Wm. Smita, D.C.L. Woodcuts. Crown 8vo. 7s. 6d.
*.* Questions on the above Work, 12mo. 2s,
History or Rome; from the Earliest Times to the Establish-
ment of the Empire. By Dean LippELL. Woodcuts, Crown &vo. 7s. 6d.
Grpson’s DEectinE and Fai oF THE Roman Empire. Woodcuts.
Post 8vo. 7s. 64a.
Hautam'’s History or Evrorz during the Middle Ages.
Post 8vo. 7s. Gd.
History or Moprrn Evropx, from the end of the Middle
Ages to the Treaty of Berlin, 1878. Post 8vo. [In the Press.
Hatuam’s History or Enenanp; from the Accession of
Henry VII. to the Death of George II, Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Houmez’s History or Enctanp from the Invasion of Julius
Cesar to the Revolution in 1688. Revised, corrected, and continued
down to the Treaty of Berlin, 1878. By J.S. Brewer, M.A. With
7 Coloured Maps & 70 Woodcuts. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
*,.* Questions on the above Work, 12mo, 2s.
History or France; from the Earliest Times to the Estab-
lishment of the Second Empire, 1852. By H. W.JERvis. Woodcuts,
Post 8vo, 7s. 6d.
Eneuisn Lanavace. By Gro. P. Marsu. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
EnauisH Lirerature. By T. B, Suaw, M.A. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
Sprcmmens or Eneuisa Literature from the Chief Writers.
By T. B. SuHaw. Post 8vo, 7s. 6c.
Moprern Grocrapuy ; Mathematical, Physical and Descriptive.
By Canyon Bevan. Woodcuts, Post 8vo. 7s, 6d.
Morat Puitosopny. By Wm. Fizmine. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
BuacksTonE’s (ONMENTARIES ON THE Laws or Enauanp. By
Matcotm Kerr. Post8yvo. 7s, fd.
PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 3l
s
STANHOPE’S (Eart) WORKS :—
History or Enetanp From THE Reran or QureN ANNE TO
THE PEACE OF VERSAILLES, '701-83. 9 vols. Post 8vo. 6s. each.
Lire or WiutraM Pitt. Portraits, 3 Vols. 8vo. 36s.
Britisu InpIA, FROM ITS OrtGIN To 1783. Post 8vo. 38. 6d,
History or “ Forty-Fivs.” Post 8vo. 3s.
Hisrorrcan AnD Orniticat Essays. Post 8vo. 38s. 6d.
Frencu Retreat rRom Moscow, oTHER Essays, Post 8vo. 7s 6d.
Lire or Beuisarius. Post 8vo. 10s. 6d.
Lirt or Conn. Post 8vo. 3s. 6d,
Miscetuanizs. 2 Vols. Post 8vo. 13s.
Srory or Joan or Arc. Feap. 8vo. 1s.
ADDRESSES ON VaARIous Occasions. 16mo. 1s.
SUMNER’S (Bisuop) Life and Episcopate during 40 Years. By
2 Rev. G. H. Sumner. Portrait. 8vo. 14s,
SWAINSON (Canon). Nicene and Apostles’ Creeds; Their
Literary History ; together with some Account of “ The Creed of St
Athanasius.” 8vo. 16s,
SYBEL (Von) History of Europe during the French Revolution,
1789—1795. 4 Vols. 8vo. 48s.
SYMONDS’ (Rev. W.) Records of the Rocks; or Notes on the
Geology, Natural History, and Antiquities of North and South Wales,
Siluria, Devon, aud Cornwall, With lllustrations. Crown 8vo, 12s.
TALMUD. See Barctay; Drutsca.
TEMPLE (Str Ricuarp). India in 1880. 8vo.
THIBAUT’S (Antoine) Purity in Musical Art. Translated from
the German. With a prefatory Memoir by W. H. Gladstone, M.P.
Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
THIELMANN (Baron). Journey through the Caucasus to
Tabreez, Kurdistan, down the Tigris and Euphrates to Nineveh and
Babylon, and across the Desert to Palmyra. Trauslated by Cuas.
HENEAGE. Illustrations. 2 Vols. Post 8vo. 18s.
THOMSON (ArcazisHor). Lincoln’s Inn Sermons. 8vo. 10s. 6d.
—_—____—— Life in the Light of God’s Word. Post 8vo. 5s.
_______— Word, Work, & Will: Collected Essays. Crown 8vo. 9s.
TITIAN’S LIFE AND TIMES. With some account of his
Family, chiefly from new ané unpnbli~hed Records. By Crowe and
CaAVALCASELLE, With Portrait and Illustrations. 2 Vols. Svo. 42s.
TOCQUEVILLE’S State of Society in France before the Revolution,
1789, and on the Causes which led to that Event. Translated by Henry
Reeve. 8vo, 14s,
TOMLINSON (Cuas.); TheSonnet; Its Origin, Structure, and Place
in Poetry. With translations from Dante, Petrarch, &c. PostSvo. 9s,
TOZER (Kev. H. F.) Highlands of Turkey, with Visits to Mounts
Ida, Athos, Olympus, and Pelion. 2 Vols. Crown 8yo, 24s.
Lectures on the Geography of Greece. Map. Post
8vo. 9s.
TRISTRAM (Canon). Great Sahara. Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 15s.
— Land of Moab; Travels and Discoveries on the East
Side of the Dead Sea and the Jordan. Illustrations, Crown 8vo. lds,
TRURO (Bisnor or), The Cathedral: its Necessary Place in
the Life and Work of the Church, Crown 8vo_ 6s.
382 LIST OF WORKS PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY.
TWENTY YEARS’ RESIDENCE among the Greeks, A]banians,
Turks, Armenians, and Bulgarians. By an Enauitu Lapy. Edited
by Srantey Layne Pooie, 2 Vols. Crown 8vo. 21s.
TWISS’ (Horace) Life of Lord Eldon. 2 Vols. Post 8vo. 21s.
TYLOR (E. B.) Resesrches into the Early History of Mankind,
and Development of Civilization. 3rd Edition Revised. 8vo. 12s.
Primitive Culture; the Development of Mythology,
Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom, 2 Vols. 8vo. 24s.
VIRCHOW (Prorzsson). The Freedom of Science in the
Modern State. Feap.8vo, 2s.
WELLINGTON’S Despatches during his Campaigns in India,
Denmark, Portugal, Spain, the Low Countries, and France. 8 Vols.
8vo. 20s. each.
—___________ Supplementary Despatches, relating to India,
Ireland, Denmark, Spanish America, Spain, Portugal, France, Con-
gress of Vienna, Waterloo and Paris. 14 Vols. 8vo. 20s. each.
*,* An Index. 8v0, 20s.
Civil and Political Correspondence. Vols. I. to
VIII. 8vo. 20s, each.
————————— Speeches in Parliament. 2 Vols. 8vo. 42s.
WHEELER (G.). Choice of a Dwelling ; a Practical Handbook of
Useful luformation on Building a House. Plans. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d.
WHITE (W. H.). Manual of Naval Architecture, for the use of
Naval Officers, Shipowners, Shipbuilder., and Yachtsmen. I1lustra-
tions. $vo, 24s,
WHYMPER (Epwaxp). The Ascent of the Matterhorn, With 2
Maps and 100 I!lustrations. Medium 8vo. 10s, 6d.
WILBERFORCE’ (Bisnopr) Life of William Wilberforce. Portrait.
Crown 8vo. 6s.
(Samver, LL.D.), Lord Bishop of Oxford and
Winchester; his Lite. By Canun ASHWELL, D.D, With Portrait.
Vol.I. 8vo. 15s,
WILKINSON (Sir J. G.). Manners and Customs of the
Ancient Egyptians, their Private Life, Laws, Arts, Religion, &e. A
new edition, Edited by Samurn Bircn, LL.D. Illustrations. 3 Vols.
Svo. 84s.
——~ Popular Account of the Ancient Egyptians. With
500 Woodcuts. 2 Vols. Post 8vo. 12s.
WILSON (Jouy, D.D.), of Bombay, Fifty Years a Philanthropist
and Missionary in the East; his Life. By Gronae Smira, LL.D.
Portrait. Post 8vo. 9s.
WOOD'S (Capram) Source of the Oxus. With the Geography
of the Valley of the Oxnus. By Con, Yue. Map. 8vo. 12s,
WORDS OF HUMAN WISDOM. Collected and Arranged by
E.S. With a Preface by Canon Lippon. Feap. 8vo. 3s. 6d
YORK (Ancustsnop or). Collected Essays. Contents.—Synoptic
Gospels. Death of Christ. Gid Exists. Worth of Life. Design in
Nature, Sports and Pastimes. Emotions in Preaching. Detects in
Missionary Work. Limits of Philosophical Enquiry. Crown 8vo. 9s.
YULE (Cotongr), Book of Marco Polo. Illustrated by the Light
ot Oriental Writers and Modern Tiavels. With Maps aod 80 Plates.
2 Vols. Medium 8vo. 63s.
-——— A. F. A Little Light on Cretan Insurrection. Post
8vo. 28 6d.
BRADBURY, AGNEW, & cCO., PRINTERS, WHITEFRIARS.
vy
Ac ale
' f ‘
Ea POs leg Rm eee
als tans i
See he e
; ty tie Ped ne
i, ¥ f
a ice hs
re ft rhgeki t
| uit : ’ i] . (ip
* bi ‘lakes Woe svat ae bir, em ensue f.,
' ; altel aah Ww fe tm al = ¥ Oe
Nae area meee b ie ees
: Pipe u%
ie ey OR a hn agit
Artal he, its
at ] ae
Pe ile tee ervey ae ae ie
Tt Oni. eo Raed ce eee 2 iden ee -
er
ae PERNA, es Lemdipie dete tn he Mate, 7
nt ‘ y ~ yy at fet Ww re wid tos : Shae ~. ‘
" fi oi Ce )~ Pied Dagar Sgt tee ae
ry dime ALA } a
ie i sit ‘eae bt -yrerhaps arta Naan. a,
Bi ee Y t \ val aera ab. a Pryomik” AP sbditeew ei bea
t
: +t Pe ‘ * . at
mare ig M)-Wead an Pies fpr) ¢ pre 7. hese) in 2
ty ASE a p hae aw Oba ree Ags Cae Ta 4
DML i Nes, Age 4 *" er J ey
ane hee bei a wate %" Pda tay! As A bstabh 5 ¥!_-
pares ts re Mico * BAM ae te ont 1 ep lew a
Hips tn Esha cs 7 ies le hp,
vrre whl” Anion Soave ve Vote Na
on
sacha hm i
se ‘ 5
Heer IP SIRT wo hr ki a4 here stec
ee ena ads 330i he wAbiags Walla
» On. dh ey, aR Hb ee” a
-
( oot hin sr yn iy r w ee ih he a
Sty: Pith a es A Tid WN tor roridh’
Soelieniir hdeam, StI) Reet eke é
a ee ty A hee Merle me ae ad tay ie
aM Pv ieee hee nn
i pny, Pak at it we bd
el : Hp Peay (Pe DLL big Lr
$d tye) oh oF
t my
ieee feck: oe
cae |
mt
fri ;
ya iy f rs gn "
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11