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REPORT 


OF THE 


FIFTY-FIFTH MEETING 


OF THE 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


FOR THE 


ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE; 


HELD AT 


ABERDEEN IN SEPTEMBER 1885. 


LONDON: 
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 
1886. 


Office of tiie Asaociation: 22 ALBEMARLE Srrext, Lonpon, W. 


PRINTED BY 
SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE 
LONDON 


CONTENTS. 


Page 
/Opsxcts and Rules of the Association .............:sssssceeencneeascecasceecseees xxvii 
Places and Times of Meeting and Officers from commencement ............... Xxxvl 

Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association from com- 
Sprott 9 DENTE n Aso Sees eee Seen ere PE Enea ecornet Che By ecdaoder nosed xlili 
| EELS nas 22, fo secaie ap soniescngeénesky eco nant csqeivasinassonnaneeavnaseduoar >: lyii 
Lectures to the Operative! Olasses si5...ccs.c.i ces essesewessscascesdceweecesdessevens Ix 
Officers of Sectional Committees present at the Aberdeen Meeting ......... lxi 
MEET ACCOUMLL ...... 020 var ncecnonssenacccoveraccaresoeceesnansntanrssnepcavantene lxiii 
Table showing the Attendance and Receipts at the Annual Meetings ...... lxiv 
eemeiand Connell, IS85—86. o..iii..civc<cow-ssensecevaresscemecevesrcnesenecseeseeee lxvi 
Report of the Council to the General Committee ...........:.ceceeseseeeeeneeeee Ixyii 

- Recommendations adopted by the General Committee for Additional 
Reports and Researches in Science ...........0ceeresssenecssecssecabecssenssececes Ixx1 
Synopsis of Grants of Money ...........0.sccccsssccecsescernsvancescessascecsencsness Ixxix 
‘Places of Meeting in 1886 and 1887 ..............cscscscssccsccsccecesccscessecees Ixxx 

_ General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of Grants 
SR SiC ENIP ROSEN pdallscss-- ashes adanedsban 0 /0s0ss.cesacds oadecn s4Gtiaboaaehies Ixxxi 
‘rrangement of the General Meetings .............cssseccessnseeeneeeeceesesennens XCll 
le ie by the President, the Right Hon. Sir Lyon Prarrarr, K.C.B., M.P., : 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Carry Fostrr, Sir W. 
THomson, Professor AyRTON, Professor J. Prrry, Professor W. G. ADAms, 
Lord Rayreten, Dr. O. J. Lope, Dr. Joun HopKINson, Dr. A. Moureneap, 

Mr. W. H. Preece, Mr. H. Taytor, Professor Everert, Professor Scrus- 
TER, Dr. J. A. FLEMING, Professor G. F. Frrzgpratp, Mr. R. T. Guaze- 

__ BROOK (Secretary), Professor CurysraL, Mr. H. TOMLINSON, and Professor 

. W. Garnett, appointed for the purpose of constructing and issuing practical 

Standards for use in Electrical Measurements .........00.0.-cesceeceeceeeeeeeees 31 


_ Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors A. Jounson (Secretary), J 
MacGreeor, J. B. Caerrman, and H. T. Bovey and Mr. C. CARPMAEL, 
appointed for the purpose of promoting Tidal Observations in Canada ...... 33 
A2 


RR ET Fie 


iv CONTENTS. 


Page- 


Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Jonn Murray (Secretary) 
Professor ScuustER, Professor Sir Writ1AM THomson, Professor Sir H. E 
Roscoz, Professor A. 8. Hzrscuet, Captain W. pe W. Asyzy, Professor 
Bonney, Mr. R. H. Scorr, and Dr. J. H. GLapsrone, appointed for the pur- 
pose of investigating the practicability of collecting and identifying Meteoric 
Dust, and of considering the question of undertaking regular observations 
AMEVETIOUS LOGCHITETOS) © ca tteecer accesinee abcice ole steviscilesis ssc soe vonsechlauh teeee eee eee 

Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors G. H. Darwin and 
J.C. Apams, for the Harmonic Analysis of Tidal Observations. Drawn 
up by Professor G. H. DARWIN .......:cessc-cceesconssseesseoeestnanrosvonueenieerens 

Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Roperr H. Scorr (Secretary) 
Mr. J. Norman Locxysr, Professor G. G. Sroxes, Professor BALrour 
Srewart, and Mr. G. J. Symons, appointed for the purpose of co-operating 
with the Meteorological Society of the Mauritius in their proposed publica- 
tion of Daily Synoptic Charts of the Indian Ocean from the year 1861. 
Drawn up -by-Mr. RK. Hy SGOT... ..sscsesccesccecssvecesvenssevevanensrtuveneuendenennd 

Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr, JAmus N. SHoonprep (Secre- 
tary) and Sir Wirrram THomson, appointed for the reduction and 
tabulation of Tidal Observations in the English Channel, made with the 
Dover Tide-gauge ; and for connecting them with Observations made on the 
POTICH COMA) toe cicrcb space coes shows cabseunwe see tece ene peeeE eR EEE noe Sea ee ee 

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. Forszs (Secretary), 
Captain Anny, Dr. J. Hopxryson, Professor W. G. ApAms, Professor 
G. C. Fosrrr, Lord Rayneten, Mr. Prexce, Professor Scuusrer, Professor 
Dewar, Mr. A, Vernon Harcourt, and Professor Ayrton, appointed for 
the purpose of reporting on Standards of White Light. Drawn up by 
TBR OTESROTY Gs, EH ORIBHS is cciscsni con csistnsssierndeectinngesssGeesiecs ce encnassananseieeeenne 

Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor BaLrour SrewaRtT 
(Secretary), Mr. J. Kwox Laucuton, Mr. G. J. Symons, Mr. R. H. Scorr, 
and Mr, JonNnsronE Stoney, appointed for the purpose of co-operating with 
Mr. E. J. Lows in his project of establishing a Meteorological Observatory 
near Chepstow on a permanent and scientific basis ..............:eeeceeeeeeeeees 

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor BaLrour SrEwart 
(Secretary), Sir W. THomson, Sir J. H. Lerroy, Sir Freprrick Evans, 
Professor G. H. Darwin, Professor G. Curysrat, Professor 8. J. PERRY, 
Mr. CO. H. CarpMaert, and Professor Scuusrer, appointed for the purpose of 
considering the best means of Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observa- 
tions. Drawn up by Professor BALFOUR STEWART ..........sseceeeeeeeeeeeeeers 

Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Crum Brown (Secretary), 
Mr. Mrzyz-Homs, Mr. Joun Murray, and Mr, Bucuan, appointed for the 

urpose of co-operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society in making 
Aiteteodalensical Observations’On Ben Nevis) os... cupacnccscsesecdvecooseteves meen 

Seventeenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor EyErrrr, Pro- 
fessor Sir W. Tomson, Mr. G. J. Symons, Sir A. C. Ramsay, Dr. A. 
Gerxin, Mr. J. Guaisnur, Mr. Peneecty, Professor EKpwarp Hut, 
Professor PrestwicH, Dr. C. Lz Neve Foster, Professor A. 8. HERscHEL, 
Professor G. A. Lesour, Mr. Gatnoway, Mr. Joserx Dickinson, Mr. G. F. 
Deacon, Mr. E. Wexraerepd, and Mr. A. SrRaHan, appointed for the 
purpose of investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature 
downwards in various Localities of Dry Land and under Water. Drawn 
up by Professor HivREDD (SECLEUATY it... 60s «ce s000ejsiele sqsone ses /sene doe aess aeintinn 

Report on Electrical Theories. By Professor J. J. THomson, M.A., F.R.S.... 

Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor ScuusrER (Secretary), 
Professor BALFoUR Strwart, Professor Stoxus, Mr, G. JoHNSTONE SLoNney, 
Professor Sir H. E. Roscon, Captain Abney, and Mr. G. J. Symons, ap- 

ointed for the purpose of considering the best methods of recording the 
direct Intensity of Solar Radistiony..62....5...0..0++c0evecnaneincwntiorsooQieen tase 


34 


35- 


60: 


60° 


6L 


64 


65, 


90: 


93. 


97 


ee 


CONTENTS. ; v 


Page 


‘Report on Optical Theories. By R. T. Grazeproox, M.A., FLRS. ........6 157 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Ramsay, Trxpnn, Mar- 
SHALL, and W. L. Goopwin (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of 
investigating certain Physical Constants of Solution, especially the Expan- 
sion of Saline Solutions .............00.0000e bn cates SP SoM s ciao Bact Bataan alae scan etde 261 


‘Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors WILLIAMSON, DEwaR, 
FRANKLAND, Crum Brown, Opiine, and Armstrone, Drs. Hueco MULLER, 
F. R. Japp, and H. Forster Mortey, and Messrs. A. G. Vernon Har- 
court, C. E. Groves, J. Mirnar Tuomson, H. B. Drxon (Secretary), and 
V. H. Veter, reappointed for the purpose of drawing up a statement of 
the varieties of Chemical Names which have come into use, for indicating 
the causes which have led to their adoption, and for considering what can 
be done to bring about some convergence of the views on Chemical Nomen- 
clature obtaining among English and foreign chemists...........-06..00e00eseee 262 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors Optmne, HuntTrNeTon, and 
Harrtery, appointed to investigate by means of Photography the Ultra- 
Violet Spark Spectra emitted by Metallic Elements and their combinations 
under varying conditions. Drawn up by Professor W. N. Hartey, F.R.S. 
MSTCUALY) ian -(n <2 dswascecls on ascendsncthsaela daceceaddesenoeasesecivennernnscenenieeds veces 276 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor TinpEN, Professor W. 
Ramsay, and Dr. W. W. J. Nico (Secretary), appointed for the purpose 
of investigating the subject of Vapour Pressures and Refractive Indices of 
AMG SOMILIONS 2-2 .c.c0r~co-tscececcoccsosssccatescnceccscssncensccrsoseacsennsqseqarerucnoos 284 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir H. E. Roscox, Mr. J. N. 
Locxyrr, Professors Dewar, Wotcorr Gripss, Livere, ScHusrER, and 
W.N. Harrtey, Uaptain Asney, and Dr. MarsHatt Warts (Secretary), 
appointed for the purpose of preparing a new series of Wave-length Tables 
of the Spectra of the Elements and Compounds............sseseseeeseeeneceeeenees 288 


‘Thirteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors J. PResrwicu, 
W. Boyp Dawkins, T. McK. Hueuus, and T. G. Bonnzy, Dr. H. W. 
Orosskry (Secretary), Dr. Dranz, and Messrs. C. E. Dz Rancs, H. G. 
Forpuam, J. E. Lez, D. Mackrntosu, W. PenceEtty, J. Pant, and R. H. 
TIDDEMAN, appointed for the purpose of recording the position, height 
above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin of the Erratic Blocks 
of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting other matters of interest’ con- 
nected with the same, and taking measures for their preservation ............ 322 


‘Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. Ernrripexr, Dr. H. 
Woopwarp, and Professor T. Rupert JonEs (Secretary), on the Fossil 
etyllopoda of the Paleeozoic Rocks......-.....0c.0+.oscoosescovsetvsesonscosencensans 826 


Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. Ernerrper, Mr. THoMAs 
Gray, and Professor Joun Minne (Secretary), appointed for the purpose 
of investigating the Earthquake Phenomena of Japan. Drawn up by the 
OPEL REDDY) bcotectteecacdigrduanee cnaer aoa ctinn on eas sor adc Rasa Macc Bec eSeeSS ac DEES anne mrstnr 362 


Eleventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor E. Hutz, Dr. 
H. W. Crossxey, Captain Dovetas Gatton, Professors J. PREstwiIcH 
and G. A. Lrsovr, and Messrs. JAMES GLAISHER, E. B. Marren, G. H. 
Morton, JAMEs Parker, W. PENGELLY, JAMES Prant, I. Roperts, Fox 
Straneways, T. S. Srooxz, G. J. Symons, W. Torrey, TyLtpEn-WricuHt, 
E. WetHerep, W. Warraker, and C. E. Dr Rance (Secretary), ap- 
ointed for the purpose of investigating the Circulation of Underground 
aters in the Permeable Formations of England and Wales, and the 
Quantity and Character of the Water supplied to various Towns and J)is- 
tricts from these Formations. Drawn up by C. E. Dp RANce .............+. 380 


vi CONTENTS. 


Page 
Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. Bavpruan, Mr. F. W. 
Rupier, and Dr. H. J. Jounsron-Lavis, for the Investigation of the 
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius. Drawn up by H. J. Jounsron-Lavis, 
MAD VEAGHS: (SeCLCtATY) |... 0ss0sicceeceoscccsnseascnsesgeerapuenee ae haves semeeceeenes 395. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. W. T. Buanrorp and Mr. J. S. 
GARDNER (Secretary), on the Fossil Plants of the Tertiary and Secondary 
Beds of the United Kingdom. Drawn up by Mr. J. S. Garpner, F.G.S., 
BERS En ce ceatccestensraecteessvoss+auccnectr nec cUnrecenencetttene cent ece a nae 396. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Messrs. R. B. GranrHam, OC. E. Dz 
Rancz, J. B. Repman, W. Torrey, W. Wurraxer, and J. W. Woopatt, 
Major-General Sir A. CLARKE, Sir J. N. Doverass, Captain Sir F. O. Evans, 
Admiral Sir EK, Ommanney, Captain J. Parsons, Professor J. Presrwicu, 
Captain W. J. L. Wuarron, and Messrs. E. Easton, J. S. VALENTINE, and 
L. F. Vernon Harcourt, appointed for the purpose of inquiring into the 
Rate of Erosion of the Sea-coasts of England and Wales, and the Influence 
of the Artificial Abstraction of Shingle or other Material in that Action. 

C. E. De Rance and W. Torrey, Secretaries ; the Report edited by W. 
DOREY evs cig snp nnn scion ite aan nnpaalie Suantd sgeidviveh aie decease amano: Mea ee an 404, 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Ray Lanxester, Mr. P. L. 
Sctarer, Professor M. Fosrpr, Mr. A. Sepewick, Professor A. M. Mar- 
SHALL, Professor A. C. Happon, Professor Mosrtry, and Mr. Prrcy:- 
SLADEN (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of arranging for the occu- 
pation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ............sssceeeeeeeeeee 466, 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor McKEnprick, Professor 
STRUTHERS, Professor Youne, Professor McInrosu, Professor ALLEYNE 
Nicwotson, Professor Cossar Ewart, and Mr. Jomn Murray (Secretary), 
appointed for the purpose of promoting the establishment of a Marine 
Biological Station at Granton, Scotland............s....ccessescecoccesssenceceonans 474 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir Lyon Prayrarr, Professor Mosz- 
LEY, Admiral Sir E. Ommanney, Mr. P. L. Sctarer, and Mr. A. Sepewick 
(Secretary), appointed to prepare a Report on the Aid given by the Do- 
minion Government and the Government of the United States to the 
encouragement of Fisheries, and to the investigation of the various forms 
of Marine Life on the coasts and rivers of North America .........scssceeseees 479: 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Huxiey, Mr. Scuarer, 
Mr. Howarp Saunpers, Mr. Tuisrnron Dyer, and Professor Mosrrey 
(Secretary), appointed for the purpose of promoting the establishment of 
Marine Biological Stations on the coast of the United Kingdom ............... 480) 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. C. Sorsy and Mr. G. R. Vinz, 


appointed for the purpose of reporting on recent Polyzoa. Drawn up by 
Mra oj WIEN 2s 50s {sain inst acs gabe da Eaepap Pies eas Reec Lane eee Ae 481 


Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir J. Hooxer, Dr. GUNTHER, 
Mr. Howarp Savnpers, and Mr. ScuaTer (Secretary), appointed for the 
purpose of exploring Kilima-njaro and the adjoining mountains of Equa- 
coc. is an i eee ane. 681 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Jomn Corpraux (Secretary), 
Professor A. Newron, Mr. J. A. Harvre-Brown, Mr. Winuiam Eacie 
Crarxs, Mr, R. M. Barrrneron, and Mr. A. G. Morn, appointed for the 
purpose of obtaining (with the consent of Master and Brethren of the 
Trinity House and the Commissioners of Northern and Irish Lights) 
observations on the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Lightvessels, 
GROOT Reporting On Tho SRME- .:..........20.5.00re+s+-sceone sr epoeeions eee 685. 


CONTENTS. Vii 


Page 
Report of the Committee, consisting of General Sir J. H. Lerroy, Lieut.- 
Colonel Gopwin-Avusten, Mr. W. T. Branrorp, Mr. Scriarer, Mr. 
CarrutHers, Mr. Tuise~ton-Dyxr, Professor SrrurHers, Mr. G. W. 
Broxam, Mr. H. W. Bares (Secretary), Lord Atrrep CHURCHILL, 
Mr. F. Garon, and Professor MosrLry, appointed for the purpose of 
furthering the Exploration of New Guinea by making a grant to 

Mr. Forbes for the purposes of his expedition .......c......cesceseeeeeeeeeeneenes 690 


Report of the Committee, consisting of General Sir J. H. Lerroy, the Rev. 
Canon Carver, Mr. F. Gatton, Mr. P. L. Sctarer, Professor MosEtey, 
Dr. E. B. Tytor, Professor Boyp Dawkins, Mr. G. W. Broxam, and 
Mr, H. W. Bares (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of furthering the 
scientific examination of the country in the vicinity of Mount Roraima in 
Guiana, by making a grant to Mr. Everard F. im Thurn for the purposes of 
RE MRRIIEE coon ab pa en Me auciie nt dens Saiadsipaedn'cnin skis exeskennsevoessanssedeaetias 690 


Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rev. Canon Tristram, the 
Rey. F. Lawrence, and Mr. JAmes GiaisHer (Secretary), appointed for 
the purpose of promoting the Survey of Palestine.................csccseceeeeeeees 691 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. H. Guapsrone (Secretary), 
Mr. Wirrtram Suaen, Mr. StepHen Bovurnn, Miss Lypra Becker, Sir 
Joun Luszock, Dr. H. W. Crossxny, Sir RicHarp TEMPLE, Sir Henry E. 
Roscoz, Mr. James Herywoop, and Professor N. Story MaskELYNE, 
appointed for the purpose of continuing the inquiries relating to the 
teaching of Science in Elementary Schools..............scsessecsscssccnscssceeccens 692 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir FrepERIcK BramMweE xt (Secre- 
tary), Professor A. W. WixtraMson, Professor Sir Wr1tLtam THomson, Mr. 
Sr. Jon Vincent Day, Sir F. Apet, Captain Dovetas Garon, Mr. E. H. 
Carport, Mr. Macrory, Mr. H. Trurman Woop, Mr. W. H. Bartow, 
Mr. A. T. Arcutson, Sir R. E. Wessrer, Mr. A. Carpmagt, Sir Jonn 
Lussock, Mr. Tanopore Aston, and Mr. JAmMes BRuNLEEs, appointed for 
the purpose of watching and reporting to the Council on Patent Legislation 695 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. E. B. Tytor, Dr. G. M. Dawson, 
General Sir J. H. Lurroy, Dr. Danrex Witson, Mr. Horatio Harz, 
Mr. R. G. Hazrsurron, and Mr. Gzorck W. Buoxam (Secretary), 
appointed for the purpose of investigating and publishing reports on the 
physical eharacters, languages, and industrial and social condition of the 
North-western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada...............s::ssseseseeeeeees 696 


Report to the Council of the Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting 
of Mr. Francis Garon (Chairman), Professor A. W. WUutIAMson, 
Captain Doveras Garon, Professor Boyp Dawxrys, Sir Rawson Rawson, 
Dr. Garson, Dr. J. Evans, Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor MELDOLA 
(Secretary), Mr. Wurraxer, Mr. G. J. Symons, and Mr. H. Gzoren 
Forpmam.......... We betaieo aia = IE LSh avid hs oetare geal cw etic oe ape oe awe tbc 708 


On Electrolysis. By Professor OrtvEr J. LODGE, D.Sc. ..ccs.ccsseseesssseesssesee 723 


A Tabular Statement of the Dates at which, and the Localities where, 
Pumice or Volcanic Dust was seen in the Indian Ocean in 1883-84, By 
CHARLES MEtprum, F.R.S.............ccceeees Seteressasess resets Reusaedon soe cens 773 


List of Works on the Geology, Mineralogy, and Paleontology of Stafford- 
shire, Worcestershire, and Warwickshire. By WILLIAM Wuiraker, B.A., 
F.G.S., Assoc.Inst.C.E....... Pacgadncaaws etdvavesssaaeccataeeccecstets SBS PABST . 780: 


On Slaty Cleavage and allied Rock-Structures, with special reference to the 
Mechanical Theories of their Origin, By ALFRED Harker, M.A., F.G.S, 818 


vili CONTENTS. 


Page 
On the Strength of Telegraph Poles. By W. H. Prexrcz, F.RS., 
MEST HG Mis pe aode cco scudasovodst vedsdabesons sosmaetdoneeRensereuree® Senses sn sbeneecoecceaoee 853 
On the Use of Index Numbers in the Investigation of Trade Statistics. By 
STEPHEN, CDOUBNE, .Ls9.G.0052caecsesconsnetadeessocens thas tesetcacuccse ee speeteeeanees 859 
The Forth Bridge Works. By ANDREW S. BIGGART, C.E...........ssccccsseceees 873 
Electric Lighting at the Forth Bridge Works. By James N. SHoorsren, 
STA sa ME AMIBL:O FBI ms cacesech ons cnceas cateee dnceetsetrece reste css'¥assceaceon eee eeneneeee 879 


The New Tay Viaduct. By Crawrorp Bartow, B.A., M.Inst.C.E............. 883, 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS, 


Section AA—-MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 


THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. 
Page 


Address by Professor G. Curysrat, M.A., F.R.S.E., President of the Section 889 


is 


, 
: 
; 

vin 

M.A 

8. 

9. 

10. 

abe 

ig 

‘2. 


. On the Dilatancy of Media composed of Rigid Particles in Contact. fale 
Professor OsBORNE REYNOLDS, M.A., F.R.S........ccccccccesscesesssceccceesees 


. On Calculating the Surface Tension of Liquids by means of fotaaan, 
Be one or Bubbles. By Professor G. Pirie, M.A...........c0-.ssscoreccseenees 898 


2 


38. On the Surface Tension of Water which contains a Gas dissolved in it. 
RRMESEIERROT Clap EVREE: MGA» cceacesaacsa-nes sen ss0clacnadsanatcepesccshansdaauns 898 


. Thermodynamic Efficiency of Thermopiles. By Lord Rayirren, D.C.L., 


RM DIELS 2 ecciscncdacs sda ssasusses ossaenesecessss-4 ees debepinsccenctdaruscsdercsaens 898 


. On ae Measurement of the Intensity of the Horizontal gerne of the 


Earth’s Magnetic Field. By Tuomas Gray, B.Sc., F.R.S.E............04+ 898 


On ee Electricity. By Professor C. Micure Smiru, B.Sc., 
eis no pec wna sonsncnanargasesiecss jugs candeseastahsasucanrvebeddas 899 


a Distances in Galvanic Polarisation. By Professor J. LArMor, 


Ace eee ee eee HEHEHE EE HEHEHE HEHEHE OOE EEE EEE EEE EEE EEE EEE EEE EHH EHH HEHEHE TEETH EEE EEE EEE EEE 


On the Employment of Mance’s Method for eliminating the Effects of 
Polarisation, to determine the Resistance of the Human Body. By Dr. 
MRMPEIOOUOM MICAS... ccs ceccsuccevouseteetece seattioaders cs savataucsiecsteesese ses ss 900 


On Contact Electricity in Common Air, Vacuum, and different Gases. By 
Seerrerrroneny, MAL. WES.E, .... ccenschansactchasastgrisnscarscacncisess schada 901 


Ona aa of ae Unmagnetisable Steel. By J. T. Borromizy, 
BENE pte RBs ooo cbenndel sled dec adas de Gdebutecus tudueetraitecscct ties cep Panam 903 


On the Cooling of Wires in Air and in Vacuum. By J. T. Borrominy, 
_ onl LTS: 6 a: Se enneenmenes tees eermerame srry Shr | OAEES 51s 904 


FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11. 


On Kinetic Theories of Matter. By Professor A. Crum Brown, 
Reig et ait Soe dd. Ftd AME yh weocet soapacctecash thtnns uscues sahvest aacnedeats 904 


On Kinetic Theories. By Professor G. D. Livurne, M.A., F-R.S. ......... 904 


. On Thermal Effusion and the Limiting Pressure in Polarised ea! “1p 


ESORNASTOND STONEY plils Dis HRS. u..saddeecculdeceab esa consadasthedandsseds Sos 904 


. On a Law concerning Radiation. By Professor ScuustrEeR, Ph.D., F.R.S. 905 
. On Boltzmann’s Theorem. By Professor W. M. Hicks, M.A., F.R.S. ... 905 


. The Rate of Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen. By H. B. Drxon, M.A. 905 


. Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing practical Standards 


CONTENTS, 


Page 


for use un Hlectrical’ Measurements ...scesscdes ce. c-euaeeceeoceee: come oeaeee 905 


. Report on Electrical Theories. By Professor J. J. Tomson, M.A., F.R.S. 905 
. On Constant Gravitational Instruments for measuring Electric Currents 


and Potentials. By Professor Sir W. TuHomson, LL.D., F.R.S............. 905. 


. On a method of multiplying Potential from a hundred to several thousand 


Volts. By Professor Sir WitLiam THomson, LL.D., F.R.S. ..........2000 907 


. On a form of Mercury Contact Commutator of Constant Resistance for use 


in adjusting Resistance Coils by Wheatstone’s Bridge, and for other 
purposes. By Professor J. VIRTAMU JONES ............s0ccccssgssuenvenseswas 907 


. On Slide Resistance Coils with Mercury Contacts. By Professor J. 


SGT ATU LONGHS |< s;prcinasiecosew'c:<instumapin’ricierasnnpeideck Tees Gace was eee eee 907 


. On the relative Merits of Iron and Copper Wire for Telegraph Lines. By 


SVs seeaRuTOO Te: HAE. “mio. ou dajuistetlesietasiew's sles Seoeate ae seen cosets ae eles see enon 907 


SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 12. 


On Orthopic Loci. ‘By the Rev. 0. TAvVLOR, DID) s...,esseebareeeewene «se 909: 


2, On the Reduction of Algebraical Determinants. By W. H. L. RussExt, 


for) 


Eats, Gia Wane snvies oceennus¥ reaps vdeas gnsievapasons sas ned cnveahspreranee eae aan 910: 


. Account of the Levelling Operations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey 


oLledia.. By Major AoW: BATRD, RvB, BRCS,, .......acontposeupeemeraee 911 


. A Theorem relating to the Time-moduli of Dissipative Systems. By Lord 


ATUL, ACG, MTs obese dy... codecs eecect caateee cf cececee ee eameeEeeat 911 


. On a new Polariser devised by Mr. Ahrens. By Professor Srnvanvs P. 


ETOMESONG HOO: otanc ecstatic cs cconteccatras toes cuueens dk woseeecebece ce aaeeaS ee 912 


. On a simple Modification of the Nicol Prism giving Wider Angle of Field. 


By Professor S1nVANUS P. THOMPSON, D.Sc. ........0.ccccsccocssvcseonscascescs 912: 


. On some of the Laws which regulate the Sequence of Mean Temperature 


and Rainfall in the Climate of London. By H. Courrmnay Fox, M.R.C.S, 912 


. Notes upon the Rotational Period of the Earth and Revolution Period of 


the Moon deduced from the Nebular Hypothesis of Laplace. By W. F. 


SrA, TE GHS SHREVE S:” .coccnetcees soccaeecscnessssontebes Gecete: CotEaaaaEeEa 915 
- On a Galvanic Battery. By C. J. BURNETT ..........ssscsceoscccsesnsnars oie. 916 
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14. 
. Report of the Committee on Standards of White Light...................00008 916: 
. Photometry with the Pentane Standard. By A. Vernon Harcovrt, 


INAS RIES, cnacswnaco ncinnesnanelieh slaeees are te tantra? 916 


. On a Photometer made with Translucent Prisms. By J. Joty, B.E....... 917 
. Report of the Committee for reducing and tabulating the Tidal Obser- 


vations in the English Channel, made with the Dover Tide-gauge; and 
for connecting them with Observations made on the French coast ......... 917 


. Seventeenth Report of the Committee on Underground Temperature ...... 917 
. Fifth Report of the Committee on Meteoric Dust ..... BEET bloc dee eee 917 
. A Tabular Statement of the Dates at which, and the Localities where, 


Pumice or Volcanic Dust was seen in the Indian Ocean in 1883-84. By 
CHARLES MEGDRUM, F.RAS.. ,..<ncc.20<secehen¥vepip <= caaenen doadidanntpoeeeeee ana 917 


EES a | 


CONTENTS. Xi 


Page: 


. Report of the Committee for co-operating with the Meteorological Society 


of the Mauritius in their proposed publication of Daily Synoptic Charts 
of the Indian Ocean from the year 1861. ......0b...c0-.--ce0--scccccccoecccoecene 917 


. Daily Synoptic Charts of the Indian Ocean. By CHar.zs MeEtpRvuM, F.R.S. 917 
. Report of the Committee appointed to co-operate with the Scottish 


Meteorological Society in making Meteorological Observations on Ben 
Moser oncogene nn anes accastess eee cnc siete ee 917 


. On the Meteorology of Ben Nevis. By ALEXANDER BUCHAN .....ccc000.-. 917 
. On some Results of Observations with kitewire-suspended Anemometers 


up to 1,300 feet above ground, or 1,800 feet above sea-level, in 1883-85. 
Ree CaM NPAT Am GTB NTD 5 260.2 Sides soe ake esvince dudacdoedsWibes Stee. close 919 


. On the Measurement of the Movements of the Ground, with reference to 
_ proposed Earthquake Observations on Ben Nevis. By Professor J. A. 


hig BS Beads one sceaccaccsaiercantécaviacat dail he 920 


- On the supposed Change of Climate in the British Isles within recent 


Reema LEQ SERA GH FAS: «5 on te suidssarsnerennonndanudteder scaceail aout 922 


. On Malvern, Queen of Inland Health Resorts, and on improved Hygro- 


metric Observations. By Professor C. Prazzt SmyrH, F.R.S.E........ 0. 922 
The Annual Rainfall of the British Islands. By ALEXANDER Bucwan ... 923 


» Remarkable Occurrence during the Thunderstorm of August 6, 1885, at 


wdbrighton, .By-J. BEDFORD ELWELL — .....<s.00ée<sdeissecesecececstecescte 924 


. On a supposed Periodicity of the Cyclones of the Indian Ocean south of 


the Equator. - By CHarLEs MELDRUM, F.R.S. ooiceeecccceecccsseseseceseceee 925 


. A new Wind Vane or Anemoscope, specially designed for the use of 


Meteorologists. By G. M. Wurppie, B.Sc., FVR.A.S...cceecccccecceceeseces. 926 


. On the Third Magnetic Survey of Scotland. By Professor T. E. Toorpn, 


Meer sed AW. RUCKa, BORG. oo. orcsccsscsscecclecnstheccosscbds dee 926 


TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15. 


1. Report of the Committee for considering the best means of Comparing 
and Reducing Magnetic Observations .............ceceecee0 Gi scaodadatteneeaatuet 928 
2. Report of the Committee for considering the best methods of recording 
the direct Intensity of Solar Radiation ..........c.ccscsccssseseeeseeeeeeeseccce 928 
3. On a means of obtaining constant known Temperatures. By Professor 
W. Ramsay, Ph.D., and Sypney Youne, D.Sc......cccccccccecceseeceoesescccee 928 
4, On certain facts in Thermodynamics. By Professor W. Ramsay, Ph.D., 
Reeser Varun. DG... kangen eee tee, ae ahs, 2 OAT Od Se 928 
5, Report on Optical Theories. By R. T. GiazEBRoox, M.A., F.R.S.......... 929 
6. On a Point in the Theory of Double Refraction. By R. T. Guazesroox, 
ER PE Fc 5et ccc endetsatasusunnci Sareea ee 929 
7. Exhibition of a Mechanical Model illustrating some properties of the 
Bere EGS, B. HINZGMBAED, BEG. ve cdavlecesccesscoreccccocst ccccecscccc. 930 
8. On the Constitution of the Luminiferous Ether on the Vortex Atom 
Theory. By Professor W. M. Hioxs, M.A., FURS. c.cc...ccsccccccecoceceeeee 930 
9. On an improved Apparatus for Christiansen’s Experiment. By Lord 
ee cee MO ED BS ioe pcncacs Ko iecsaciiciunso) bidecia, 930 
10, Optical Comparison of Methods for observing small Rotations. By Lord 
eee GT YO Aa TaD, BRIS. lance wa de pnciicheanmes acleadd. & bee etchant 930 
11 


- On the Accuracy of Focus necessary for sensibly perfect Definition. By 


Seber base vrematerens BDO) ED) HH Sas. cs.ckannc suet cid. suc, case df c.om fos 930 


xii 


CONTENTS 
Page 
macldebicescclecleslsie sioca bus soactcen nebo Ueetaeneune cteateseet Ebetssscevecaeae see DOU 


. On Magnetic Double Circular Refraction. By De Wirr B. Braces, Ph.D. 931 
. Determination of the Heliographic Latitude and Longitude of Sun-spots. 


Byabrofessor Al W . THOMSON: .cc.sceceectactee saat cee re cetens cee ene caste meets 931 


WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16. 


. On the Nature of the Corona of the Sun. By Wirt1am Hvaerns, D.C.L., 


PEAT AINS, SBS ca ves one cece took dk unre edoe yeaea ainsi ok 932 


. On the Spectrum of the Stella Nova visible on the Great Nebula in An- 


dromeda. By Witt1am Hueerns, D.C.L., LL.D., F.RS. ..............0608 935 


. On the Bright Star in the Great Nebula in Andromeda. By RateH 


OOPELAND, IPN... a! casssvessncesceassevsh deceveesew vas Eaccest cateeer ee eee een 935 


. On Solar Spectroscopy in the Infra Red. By Dr. Danret DRapenp......... 936 
. The Errors of Sextants as indicated by the Records of the Verification 


Department of the Kew Observatory, Richmond, Surrey. By G. M. 
WHrepns, BiSei, HReAGS: Ganscdc,:lasacetisabes tices dadeece ae ne eee Reet 936 


. On the Behaviour of First-class Watches whilst undergoing tests in the 


Rating Department of the Kew Observatory, Richmond, Surrey. By G. 
ML Wairere, BSc, BVRLACS. ......3.<c0dsnssneodvudeeeuen tee uate re gE 937 


. On a recent Improvement in the Construction of Instruments graduated 


upon Glass, By G. M. Wiirri, B.8c., FUR.AS, ; .:.3.4ii.. cess eee 937 


- On Methods of preventing Change of Zero of Thermometers by Age. By 


GM. WHIPPLE, Bibi, BORAGE. sasscscs-coveceseovbeissevnededved einen 938 


. On a new and simple form of Calorimeter. By Professor W. F. Barrerr 938 
. On a modification of the Daniell Battery, using Iron as Electropositive 


Bement... By JQ Q0OMRMAM . teliscnecssessasnewiaujincades «nasi<so<snnes aan nie 938 


. On a new form of Galvanometer. By Professor James Bryru, M.A., 


BBB EE. 23. iwse .eiatieg doadduthveda a eta sctsUeetivih odhee st5%8 ved eines ee 939 


. On the Physical Conditions of Water in Estuaries. By Huen Roserr 


Mita, B.Se., ERS, BOB. 03100) cass acierd. «nnd dtevenecudl oes ae 940 


. Further Experiments in Photo-Electricity. By Professor MINCHIN ...... 940 
. On the Formation of a Pure Spectrum by Newton. By G. Grrrrirs, 


AS ocesatesess saboconsaSeentattssesonaesns=ceees sotncondldagares spe iets anne 940 


- On the Use of Bisulphide of Carbon Prisms for cases of Extreme Spectro- 


scopic Dispersion, by Professor C. Prazzt SmyrH; and their Results in 
Gaseous Spectra, commented on by Professor ALEXANDER 8S. HerscHEL, 
My Any BERS. > oct cohs qihloees pavsice wanaicn ne nh thus elses REaee nets ome duis pam es 942 


Srection B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. 


Address by Professor H. E. Armsrrone, Ph.D., F.R.S., Sec.C.S., President 


ip 


2. 


Of the Sections casececete cach <a cvevesdenvietiedoh tots deb eretebeces. eects ete eee 945 


Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of investigating by 
means of Photography the Ultra-Violet Spark Spectra emitted by Metallic 
Elements and their combinations under varying conditions ............+.0++- 965 


On the Non-existence of Gaseous Nitrous Anhydride. By Professor 
Wiiiam Ramsay, Ph.D., and J. TUDOR CUNDALL .......cssssccecceccseeons 965 


CONTENTS. xili 


Page 
3. On some Actions of a Groves’s Gas-battery. By Professor Wi~LIAm 
eI PIARSB EEN D002, Sect B hace shancdew thn aster seee cede MME sounds TOC oe ea ees ouidceesont eae ees 965. 


4, On the Spontaneous Polymerisation of Volatile Hydrocarbons at the 
ordinary atmospheric temperature. By Professor Sir Henry E. Roscon, 
LES 3>. -condaog AOS POGUege Pan. BOB COHEe SIDE P SGHE CB CD tec ere Dee GAS: PERM an bocoe: oe a 967 


5. On some new Vanadium Compounds. By J. T. BRIERLEY ...............665 968: 


FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11. 


1. On the Essential Elements of Plants. By T. JAMIESON ...........ceceece eee 969 
2. The Periodic Law, as illustrated by certain physical properties of Organic 
Compounds. By Professor THos. CARNELLY, D.Sc. ..........sccsscessceeeeeee 969: 
3. Suggestions as to the Cause of the Periodic Law and the Nature of the 
Chemical Elements. By Professor THos. Carnretty, D.Sc. ............... 969 
4, On the Value of the Refraction Goniometer in Chemical work. By Dr. 
PMLA MADSTONM, Hi CEL So, tt. dathiccge aediecs decd ivcsddes,.c acslhicvgaas tie Soeeacudoandte 970 
5. On the Refraction of Fluorine. By GrorcEr Guapsrone, F.C.S............. 970 
6, Note on some Conditions of the Development, and of the Activity, of 
Chlorophyll. By Professor J. H. Girperr, LL.D., FLR.S, «00.0.0... 970 
7. A Plea for the Empiric Naming of Organic Compounds. By Professor 
BSEES CPE LG Sor cies cues oneness «sos0s.c60-Seeogodesd va coisas unc acncemesyieett eaten wees 972 


8, On the Action of Sodium Alcoholates on Fumaric and Maleic Ethers. By 
SPEER ERD, PU) .5 9G, 6 fae a5 ot <chan sane c semen dese <waesaaenas sucsceetseenes 972 


9. On Sulphine Salts derived from Ethylene Sulphide. By Orme Masson, 
MEDS iat caver ss vscasewes tuners cael oaurecess scene nel tsos eas Ses sean avanbaomatte 974 


10. An apparently new Hydrocarbon distilled from Japanese Petroleum. By 
MEI MGE ANG LS NAKAMURA, ..0cnccceceosecosdsdgoadscousl dope aswsslasdees edat siete 975 


11. Description of some new Crystallised Combinations of Copper, Zinc, and 
@ron eulpnates. ~ By JOHN SPILLER, F.C.S. .c..ceyesccnscsenissisdeconagecsuedde 976 


SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 12. 
1. The Composition of Water by Volume. By A. Scorz, M.A., D.Sc., 


RMIT is 3 dele cc aia odelounanarehatlantoet ieedan ses ineieecas dist dccpiatanis sleeve wee 976 
2. Description of a new Mineral from Loch Bhruithaich, Inverness-shire. 
By W. Ivison Macapam, F.C.S., and THomas WALLACE,...........20c0000s 977 


3. Exhibition and Description of the apparatus employed in obtaining Oxygen 
and Nitrogen from the Atmosphere. Description of method used in 
converting Atmospheric Nitrogen into Ammonia. By Messrs. Brry 
BREECRDG tec ccecccccas cess cacosatedssesases See teoee: parce ecb cons epost auteee peeetpee 977 


MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14. 


1. Report of the Committee on Chemical Nomenclature 977 


Ce eee eee eee rr rey 


2. On Electrolysis. By Professor OLIvER J. LopGE, D.Sc. .............eeceeeee 977 


3. On Helmholtz’s views on Electrolysis, and on the Electrolysis of Gases, 
By Professor Scuuster, I'.R.8. 


4, On the Determination of Chemical Affinity in terms of Electromotive 
Morce. By CO, R.AtnER WEIGHT, D.8e. 52 RoSecussas oitvenesvasconddentdeess 978. 


5, On the Sensitiveness to Light of Selenium and Sulphur Cells. By Suxr- 
RORD ED WHEL, MIA EU: | chscaessccdeugesss anasase sera epaieiiilede Tae ssiag(aeies ace 981 


10. 


iti 


‘KiV CONTENTS, 
Pag 
6. On the Generation of a Voltaic Current by a Sulphur Cell with a Solid 
Electrolyte. By SHetrorp Browett, M.A., LL.B. ..........00..ceeeeeeeseeee 982 
7. A Theory of the Connection between the Crystal Form and the Atom 
Composition of Chemical Compounds. By WILLIAM Bartow ............ 983 
8. On the use of Sodium or other soluble aluminates for softening and purify- 
ing hard and impure water and deodorising and precipitating sewage, 
waste water from factories, &c. By F. MaxweE Tayrn, H.O:S 32>; ee 984 
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15. 
1. Report on Vapour Pressures and Refractive Indices of Salt Solutions...... 985 
2. Report on certain Physical Constants of Solution .............s:sseeeeeeeceeeee 985 
3. On Solutions of Ozone and the Chemical Actions of Liquid Oxygen. By 
Professor DEWAR; WR. Ssyenand 2 aacesk « denceapacten wocecs ceacseeeeee se Meee eee 985 
4, On Physical Molecular Equivalents. By Professor Gurr, F.R.S..,.... 985 
5. The Size of Molecules. By Professor A. W. Retnozp, M.A., F.R.S....... 986 


Ha approximate determination of the Absolute Amounts of as Weights 


of the Chemical Atoms. By G. JounstonE Sroney, D.Se., F.R.S. .. 987 


. On Macromolecules (Molecules of Matter in the Crystalline State as dis- 


tinct from the Chemical Molecule), and determinations of some of them. 


By G. Jomnsronz Sronwy, D:Sc.y FRG. .....0..ccccceecosnseensceenstuanace ses 988 
. On the Dilatancy of Media composed of Rigid Particles in Contact. By 
Professor OsBORNE ReyNouns, M.A., F.R.S. ..........ccccecsecssccececoeronsses 989 
. On the Evidence deducible from the Study of Salts. By Spencer U. 
HATORIMBIIN Gis sad ccaeshtetneans area secamserscccreseessstnecasor san as due tene si: eaeee 989 
On the Molecular Weights of Solids and Salts in Solution. By Professor 
W.; A. TrmpEny D: Seg Riss ts2cicseccsccsesssc snes seeueeads Ww ctccrsan sends eet 990 
On the Molecular Constitution of a Solution of Cobaltous Chloride. By 
Profeasor W. J; Russenn; PhD, FORSS! 9 ii.2..c....b.scessennee cas deeeeeeenaee 991 


WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16. 


. An Bleotas con Machine for Laboratory use. By ALEXANDER 


Wares IO), WAGs esistesccsedsscscncessocapseetsennsessseemgaeeaaneees nn 991 
. Barium Sulphate as a Cementing Material in Sandstone. By Professor 
ErAmK: Clowns, DiSerh te. ACN 1 Ua Raskin gence sae ep eee es one eee eee 992 
. An Apparatus for determining the Viscosity of Oils. By A. H. Atrzn, 
WG Bs, a cancddens as sweabsies Sadueeibe | +00 esses eueiiselvoreees stats Meth eee ites anenennae 992 
. The Action of Nitrous Gases upon Amyl Alcohol. By J. Wriri1aMs, 
#.0.8:, F.L.C.; and Mivizs H. Suerrs, QoC(8: voc ciccccsercnce- scp sense 992 
. On the Action of Water on Lead. By A. H. Atten, F.C.S. .............. 993 


Section C.—GEOLOGY. 
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. 


Address by Professor J. W. Jupp, F.R.S., Sec.G.S., President of the Section 994 


y. 
2. 
3. 


Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius ..............scseeeseneeeeees 1013 
Fifth Report on the Earthquake Phenomena of Japan................002..008 1013 


On some recent Earthquakes on the Durham Coast, and their probable 
cause. By Professor G. A. Lespour, M.A., F.GAS. ...........cccesceeceeeeees 1013 


CONTENTS. xv 


. Notice of an Outline Geological Map of Lower Egypt, Arabia Petrea, 


_and Palestine. By Professor Epwarp Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. ... 1015 


. On the Occurrence of Lower Old Red Conglomerate in the Promontory 


of the Fanad, North Donegal. By Professor Epwarp Hutt, LL.D., 
EES S 2 noth sig csv cose sdtesssnséstsawce vines secesavs sictnsnvadyraseredatestes 1016 


On Bastite-Serpentine and Troktolite in Aberdeenshire ; with a Note on 
the Rock of the Black Dog. By Professor T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., LL.D., 
ae EDO. CUS roc eo sdadea'es ce makin sie de< cvs cadovsersanesnniwetecsoncbas ac sdenncettios 1016 


. On certain Diatomaceous Deposits (Diatomite) from the Peat of Aber- 


deenshire. By W. Ivison Macapam, F.C.S., F.L.O. .........ccccccecsece eee 1017 


. List of Works on the Geology, Mineralogy, and Paleontology of Stafford- 


shire, Worcestershire, and Warwickshire. By W. WauirtaKer, B.A., 
RR CIMA EOCULNISH Eig, teed sins «Souda dv awsaewels s seSeehuibavweeteatovecderse mee 1017 


FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11. 


1. The Volcanoes of Auvergne. By Tempnst AnpERsOoN, M.D., B.Sc. ...... 1017 
2. On the Re-discovery of lost Numidian Marbles in Algeria and Tunis, 
Bey iient.-Colonel KR. Le. PEAYWAIR ....2.0c...scecccoccsscccesestnccceseascanete 1018 
3. Second Report on the Rate of Erosion of the Sea-coasts of England and 
; BRMIEMPENM covet ccvstnsdwcesacae veut waredccondemeneece tee ad betatite douele oath «Mate 1018 
4, The Chasm called the Black Rock of Kiltearn. By Wirt1am Watson 1018 
5. The Bass of Inverurie, a fragment of an ancient Alluvial Bed. By the 
eA TEN LOA VIDSON DIM: cs vosdececcsecelecepens! cotcaraecseetetiencoceectrbes 1018 
6. Thirteenth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland 1019 
7. The Direction of Glaciation as ascertained by the Form of the Strie. 
emmeerenaor ET, OARVILE LEWIS 20.0.5... .ccccccseeveserconsetensacceuathoseeda 1019 
8. Proposed Conditions to account for a former Glacial Period in Great 
Britain, existing under similar meteorological conditions to those that 
rule at the present time. By W. F. Sranzey, F.G.S., F.R.MLS.......... 1020 
9. On the Fynnon Beuno and Cae Gwyn Bone-Caves, North Wales. By 
ay SND, Reet OO teint heativehissapastinsbouss.hengassuseseaadsnaep alg 1021 
10. Note on Specimens of Fish from the Lower Old Red Sandstone of For- 
dapshire. By the Rev. Hua MIvOHMLL ........5..ccc0ssssecssnereonssccoeness 1023 
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 12. 
1. The Elgin Sandstones. By J. GoRDON PHILLIPS...........0..:secceeesenesees 1023 
2. Preliminary Note on a new Fossil Reptile recently discovered at New 
Spynie, near Elgin. By Dr. R. H. TRaqvatr, FBS. 20... ccc cceeeee eee 1024 
3. Report on the Fossil Plants of the Tertiary and Secondary Beds of the 
TIE To a i a act =k <p anche ta cape eas apveaesk chdeew ab ok x: 1025 


MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14. 


. The Highland Controversy in British Geology: its Causes, Course, and 


Consequences. By Professor Coartes Lapwortu, LL.D., F.G.S. ...... 1025 


. The Geology of Durness and Eriboll, with special reference to the High- 


land Controversy. By B. N. Pracu, F.R.S.E., and J. Horne, F.R.S.E. 1027 


. Preliminary Note on some Traverses of the Crystalline District of the 


Central Alps. By Professor T. G. Bonrey, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., 
RE TNs ce ing aera anes nvaelc aac haies sodas ausaiast ek Yeuiee twits de oiTine dsp Se ensigns 1027 


xvi CONTENTS. 

: } Page: 

4, Some Examples of Pressure-Fluxion in Pennsylvania. By Professor 
PT OAR viii LAMWIS, ..65..),f-.c0s28os 08 vehabtessas aaseeeeeee ee cae tee « se eeeeee he 1029 

5. On Slaty Cleavage and allied Rock Structures, with special reference to 

the Mechanical Theories of their Origin. By Atrrep Harker, M.A., 
TGS eh os so tagna cabnae’ venedosia ue Ghg denenak eee ee ee 1030 
6. On Irish Metamorphic Rocks. By G. Henry Krnawan, M.R.I.A....... 1030: 
7. On Rocks of Central Caithness. By JOHN GUNN ..........ccccccecsceceeces 1030: 

8. On some Rock Specimens from the Islands of the Fernando Noronha 
Group. By Professor A. Renan, LL.D., F.GAS. .......0c.csevescenssonenes 1081 

9, On the Average Density of Meteorites compared with that of the Earth. 
By the Revs Bs Hii, MAY, POG Stiesin Ae. wconks oats isieaaheeeetee eh ane 1031 

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15. 

1. Notes on a recent Examination of the Geology of East Central Africa. 
By Professor Henry Drummonp, F.R.S.E., F.G.S.........c00..ceeeeeeeerees 1032’ 

2, Report on the Rocks collected by H. W. Johnston, Esq., from the upper 

part of the Kilima-njaro Massif. By Professor T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., 
TLD), FB Sg SPB pocsadperceednnass sap sqennenmingns spas eceenecereaeeeeeiae 1032’ 

3. Some Results of the Crystallographic Study of Danburite. By Max 

GER TED sc exc pe oR eee Sauhwks oo scarey coteto chines naaop sone smeeoeer arate eee ate 

4, American Evidences of Eocene Mammals of the ‘ Plastic Clay’ Period. 
By Sir Ricuarp Owmn, K.0.B., FURS., F.G.S..,.......cassseesscoresonssracs 1033 

5, Discovery of Anurous Amphibia in the Jurassic Deposits of America, 
By Professor O. O. MARSE ...2../.00001-0osn0-0nannsnasycoenbsandenrsanshenteneete 1033: 
6, Third Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks ......... 1033. 

7. On the Distribution of Fossil Fishes in the Estuarine Beds of the 
Carboniferous Formation. By Dr. TRAQUAIR..............cscecssseceeeseeees 1033: 

8. Some Results of a detailed Survey of the Old Coast-lines near Trondh- 
jem, Norway. By Hueu MILime, F.GAS.............ssssesseceecesesneaeseeses 1035 
9. The Parallel Roads of Lochaber. By James MBELVIN..............0.c0ceeees 1035 

10, Further Evidence of the Extension of the Ice in the North Sea during the 
Glacial Period. By B. N. Pzacu, F.R.S.E., and J. Horns, F.R.S.E.... 1036 
11. Recent Advances in West Lothian Geology. By H. M. Caperz, B.Se. 1037 


. Barium Sulphate as a Cementing Material in Sandstone. By Professor 


BP BAWK CLO0WES), DiS¢.jcccets so. ocyatd. dees swede ote dees sapemesea etna aera 1038 


. Notes on Fuller's Earth and its applications. By A. C. G. Cammron ... 1039 


WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16. 


. On the Glacial Deposits at Montrose. By Dr. HownmEn.................06 . 1040 


2, Notes on the Rocks of St. Kilda. By AtpxanprerR Ross, F.G.S.......... 1040 


5. 


. Eleventh Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Per- 


meable Formations of England and Wales, and the Quantity and 
Character of the Water supplied to various Towns and Districts from 
these HOrmatlOns :estatess ob edccwse'e chases ssh base ee ne cease aeeaeenestee: essen ae 1041 


. On Deep Borings at Chatham : a Contribution to the Deep-seated Geology 


of the London Basin. By W. Wurraxer, B.A., F.G.S., Assoc.Inst.0.E. 1041 


On the Waterworks at Goldstone Road, Brighton. By W. Waurraxer, 
BA, FGS., Assoc: Inet:0.Bii..., s,s. 06 ssswedadenseeves com ecev teeta caterers 1041 


~ 


A 


CONTENTS. XvVil 


Section D.—BIOLOGY. 
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. 


Page 

Address by Professor W. C. McInrosu, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L.& E., F.LS., 

President of the Section .............scsecscnecsceersceseecscssceesseneecussnsveceeees 1 

1, On the Tay Whale (Megaptera longimana) and other Whales recently 
obtained in the district. By Professor SrrurHErs, M.D., LL.D......... 1053 

2. Is the Commissural Theory of the Corpus Callosum correct ? By Pro- 
fessor D. J. Hamitton, M.B. ............. seeeeesseecesaeeeessaeeeesaeecesagecceees 1054 

3. The Evidence of Comparative Anatomy with regard to Localisation of 

Function in the Cortex of the Brain. By Atrx. Hitz, M.A., M.B., 
RMN. HOS MUSE Sac bcr see otdetesejuae tues tuacecaveece veceeseentoctastentsedeted 1054 

4, Report of the Committee for the Exploration of Kilima-njaro, and the 
adjoining Mountains of Eastern Equatorial Africa ...........c:c.seeeseeeeees 1055 

5. Report of the Committee for arranging for the occupation of a Table at 
the Zoological Station at Naples...........0..2..2.sccsecosssecsscsccseensasseusees 1055 

6. Report of the Committee for promoting the establishment of Marine 
Biological Stations on the coast of the United Kingdom...................4+ 1056 

7. Report of the Committee for promoting the establishment of a Marine 
Exo OPICHMST ATION di GQTANEON:.....2.5.<cece-+<sseseacssacrstoacenveesesrasestenne 1056 
Beemeport on Tecent Poly ZOa -.........0.02.csccecensceceescsccsssecasseescossegeasesens 1056 
9. Report on the Record of Zoological Literature............::s.cseseeeseeeeneees 1056 
10. Report on the Bibliography of certain Groups of Invertebrata ............ 1056 

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11. 

1. Recent Observations on the Habits and Instincts of Ants and Bees, By 
SME UCB ROOK Wart.) Maku: a le dest teeitdsccicdes «tak .-nsttsdabele cbleaaos «Seabed 1056 

2. On the Carpal Bones in various Cetaceans. By Professor SrruTHERs, 
alas oa conn oy scar gp anormn ioe sinue? initia bende <opaseapacabtng 1056 

8. Account of the Dissection of the Rudimentary Hind-limb of Balenoptera 
musculus. By Professor STRUTHERS, M.D., LL.D...........20.cccseseeceenes 1056 

4, Some points in the Anatomy of Sowerby’s Whale (Mesoplodon bidens). 
ee erotoasor W.) Timmy M Bip BBS 6.00. iol ck caceeecscsscostesacttecewet 1057 

5. On the use of Graphic Representations of Life-histories in the teaching 

Si otuny, By Professor P.O: BOWE | lei.cii.steectessveb snswsscesscce senses 105 
SupPLEMENTARY MeErtTING.—PHYSIOLOGY, 

1. On the Direct Action of Anesthetics on the Frog-heart. By J. 
IMOGBRHGOR-ROBHRTSON, M:A', MB. 20.0. cecccclit slew ececsccccocevsouceclescess 1057 

2. On the Action of Cold on Microphytes. By Joun G. McKenpricr, 
RRS) PUNE BEY Savcceuaca. ste ddostacebsorertouechectaatiberedescstwe coseeeusee ves de 1058 

3. On the Action of Ozonised Air upon Micro-Organisms and Albumen in 
ro tIONs MEY Tall <1J)s) OOLMMAN UN. OS iccu.ocdete scent oocuclos sstienecvas suaeee ters 1058 

4. A new Theory of the Sense of Taste. By Professor J. BERry 
RENAE MO a ara etepomin sre jooisibroahs dalvon''en omen aviephawahra Mendes aSeektintdatrdae se 1059 


ile 


, 


Vili CONTENTS. 


3. 


co bo 


Page 

On the Identification of the British Mosses by their Distinctive Cha- 
racters. By Mrs. FARQUHARSON, F.R.MLS, ........ccceseccseeeeereceeneeeenees 1068 
. On the Flora of Caithness. By Jamus F. GRANT.............cc:eeceeeeeeeeees 1063 
. On Chinese Insect White Wax. By A. HOsim ............c0006 acafantenes .. 1064 


. On the Existence of Cephalopoda in the Deep Sea. By W. E. Hoyts... 1064 
. On the Echinoderm Fauna of the Island of Ceylon. By Professor F. 


JHRFREY BELL, -M.A., SeciR MLS. 2S Re inter. s.sacese see oveneavvestentennras 1065 
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14. 


. Report on the Aid given by the Dominion Government and the Govern- 


ment of the United States to the encouragement of Fisheries, and to the 
investigation of the various forms of Marine Life on the coasts and 
FIVE Of INOTEH ATMETICE. sie.ccpsecenss scons acess con onmenecerane seen auaeenen ag 1065 


. On the Size of the Brain in Extinct Animals. By Professor O.C. Marsa 1065 


On the Systematic Position of the Chameleon, and its Affinities with 
the Dinosauria. By Professor D’'ARcy W. THOMPSON .........sscceeeeeees 1065 


. On the Hind Limb of Ichthyosaurus, and on the Morphology of Verte- 


brate App:ndages. By Professor D’ARcy W. THOMPSON.........101ee00+8 1065 


. On the Origin of the Fishes of the Sea of Galilee. By Professor Epwarp 


ET rtatig Lal Ds BES, grvonssodsy cosoasy+a0sns5:anurasee Steg a amnnn te 1066 


. On the Cause of the Extreme Dissimilarity of the Faunas of the Red Sea 


and Mediterranean. By Professor Epwarp Hutt, LL.D., F.R.S. ...... 1068 


. On the Morphology of the Human Arterial System. By Professor 


FAS SININGATIBTER PR Ess sane ssdecaces aiercteethasecssectuces oz sees case cnaamemnneete 1068 


. On the Viscera of Gymnotus electricus. By Professor CLEtann, M.D., 


DARE Sc, oS. ces ns ene sere eer eeaaecemcn neces seceensceee tes soemnnis S bettasloae slg cacao Rene 1068 


. On the Spiracle of Fishes in its relation to the Head, as developed in the 


Higher Vertebrates. By Professor CLELAND, M.D., F.R.S. .......c.seee 1069 


. On the Tail of Myzxine glutinosa. By Professor Cruranp, M.D., F.R.S. 1069 
. On the Nucleus in the Frog’s Ovum. By Grorezu Turn, M.D............. 1069 
. On the Structure and Arrangements of the St. Andrews Marine 


Laboratory. By Professor McInrosu, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. ............008 1071 
. Remarks on the work at the St. Andrews Marine Laboratory during 

nine months. By Professor McIntosu, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. ............ 1071 
. On the Chemical Composition of the Milk of the Porpoise. By Professor 

Porprs, (Ph.D, Bie icsss..cusex-0s0psekeecds anne stan eee eee seen 1072 

On certain processes formed by Cerapus on Tubularia indivisa. By 

Professor MolyrosH, MDs (Li. Ds, HRS. ©... .cccvacevsessscr-sareseuemtnesces 1072 


. On a new British Staurocephalus. By Professor McInrosu, M.D.,F.R.S, 1073 


On certain remarkable Structures resembling Ova from Deep Water. 


By Professor McInrosu, M.D., LL.D., F.RAS, ......ccsccccesseoeseresessncaee 1073 
On the Ova of Callionymus lyra, L. (the Skulpin). By Professor 
MelrosH, M.D, IuL.D., FURS, ....0cteccksdeucedeldee sedace cas aceosose es eeeeeeeee 1073 


. On the Zoocytium or Gelatinous Matrix of Ophrydium versatile. By 


Professor ATEN, HARKER, ELIS. 2s) .ccessccr socesapssesescaaciecvcssosttenteeene 1074 


SUPPLEMENTARY Mretrinc.—PuHysIoLoey. 


1. On the Action of Atropine on the Secretion of the Kidney; its Evidence 


as to the Mechanism of the Secretion. By J. McGrEcor-RoBeERtson, 
DMCA ME Bra cccscccsdesssesscseestevecesessebecceucedasecssenementes ces eine een etamaneae 1075 


CONTENTS. Se 
Page 
ee a Chemical Difference between Living and Dead Protoplasm. By 
PATENT PE IGE) smartness hG Leiclesap eral pome seb s veo MMOs iy 7 voama van sha sip assee meets 1075 
3, A Comparative View of the Albuminous Substances contained in the 
Blood of Vertebrate and Invertebrate Animals. By W. D. Hatti- 
MAGN GEMS): EV Gre WUC E's cnc sainedaes scengeattttorescssescdesstsesseasuecnce Sema 
4, On the Striated Muscles in the Gills of Fishes. By Dr. J. A. 
MU MMUNVAIIATCUAUN GE contenu alr eet diac sss os siosen. ste Cone taa eee daatiasiais daiee cleus even eect 1077 
5, On the Structure of the Intestine in the Hedgehog and the Mole. By 
Demme Net NO NVELITAM J2htn 0s. Setiaseeeaens saenbecpessetiesesuesncanteuetetes tected 1078 
6. On Plant-Digestion, especially as occurring in Carica papaya. By 
Rania ARTIN, (MEAD. 9 SG. ME OsBin ist. 25 bee cedatedacvae eoeenerneeeens 1078 
7. On a new kind of asious Apparatus ra Physiological Experiment. By 
BUPREENMPASIOGISN Nun cele ivs vvivdeis vcs oereran'e corse sls vclese'e'‘einc'te'eie vat a'elsectlaty ch Coo banaa ce meeae 1079 
8. On the Structure of Hyaline Cartilage. By Georges Turn, M.D.......... 1079 
9. The Preservation and Prolongation of Life to 100 years. By PRrorHERoE 
Smith, M.D. ........ a. satScah pnee “suas bas Wesen tach adie wesew slew ones dasugehoed. bes des 1079 
Suprrementary Mertine.—Borany. 
1, On the Application of the Anatomical Method to the Determination 
of the Materials of the Linnean and other Herbaria. By Professor 
RBIS ESO ISED 6 wstce sine gata salcccea scares ss leaps stscnaaaaacitacsskv yeas dasanivaecceess 1080 
_ 2. On the Influence of Thur pievuation ona Plant. By E. J. Lows, F.R.S.... 1081 
_ 3. On the Impregnation of Composite Flowers. By E. J. Lows, F.R.S.... 1082 
4, On the Occurrence of Fungi in the Roots of Orchids. By J. Macuiinan 1083 
_ §. Notes on Experiments as to the Formation of Starch in Plants under the 
influence of the Electric Light. By H. MarsHaLL WARD  ............00. 1086 
_ ‘6. On the Flora of Banffshire. By the Rev. W. 8S. Bruce ..................... 1087 
7. On the Flora of Elgin. By JAMES MACKENZIE.................sssceseseceseee 1087 
8. On the Division and Conjugation of Spirogyra. By Dr. J. M. Macrar- 
PEM EN IMEI i rcee ater niere wccthicleseesclsacec Sie cece access cee ocedececondetnesie. 1088 
» 9. Ona Me croecopic Fungus in Fossil Wood, from Bowling. By Dr. J. M. 
. Macrarzane, F.R.S. jeune 1108 097 0 Bea oe) eae aD Te 1088 
10, On a new Method of preparing > the Epidermal Tissues of Pitcher Plants. 
Bera U ad iVlsy) MUA CHARDANH, EES Bite stpanssasceespedsavcasesterepeeetooes cece. 1088 
11, On Aberdeenshire Plants as Food for Animals. By Witt1am Wizson, 
OFT: socncGangd gb Chap SER upeD ac nae Maae EI aoni Mien bert est aninstata tang tsa eg 1088 
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15. 
4 Hveport.on the Migration of Birds’ ,........c0.ccecuvencseen soceclssoocuseesssee's 1089 


2. Note on the Intelligence of the Dog. By Sir Jonn Luszocx, Bart., F.R.S. 1089 


3. On the Development of the Food-fishes at the St. Andrews Marine 


Waboratory. By: EpwARD Ey PRINCE) |.....s.ccicencecscsessde-diceacdah deveds da 1091 


A, On the Nest and Development of Gastrostews spinachia at the St. An- 


drews Marine Laboratory. By Epwarp E. PRINOB ..................0c0500 1093 


5. On the Reproduction of the Common Mussel (Mytilus edulis, L.) By 


SIPSERNTMIVV TIS ON «ots sco cot ec dst stiches acenile aaah’ valde v0 4G oeade Wadena de We tdacectadeshbe 1094 


6. On the Modification of the Trochal Disc of the Rotifera. By Professor 


| (0 IOS eS cS 07S 2 DS ST ere eerie eee ieenpe ean ee ane 1095 


a2 


xx 


CONTENTS. 


Page 


. On Budding in the Oligocheta. By Professor A. G. Bournz, D.Sc., 
F.L. 


Ser eee cess caleba lve Fanencbes esac 2a ahy bala Sek bie h salle he Dackaleeea tte a ae ante antes 1096 


. Demonstration of a new Moneron. By Professor D’Arcy W. THompson 1097 
. On the Blastopore and Mesoblast of Sabella. By Professor D’Arcy W. 


TTT OME SONG os ihe cs aoa sc eee nae sha epee LEDUC RE ep aa Teele Uses coe eee ae 1097 


. On the Annelids of the Genus Dero. By E. C. BovsFIexD.................. 1097 
. On some little known Fresh-water Annelids. By E. C. Bousrrexp....., 1098 


12. On the Coloration of the Anterior Segments in the Malanide. By Pro- 
fessor AUTEN FIARKOR, BYU.S. 9 0 .ascn- nase -icteetacnsse>- seats nade teen eaeee 1098: 
13. Systématique du genre Polygordius. By Jutren Frarpont............... 1098 


bo 


. On some of our Migratory Birds, as first seen in Aberdeenshire. By 


AP AMES CAGOR' ccc: cabanas ncesace boven soassld lec susoob eee een eh Ebene eeEeaeaeeEe 1098 


SuprpreMenTARY Merrtinc.—ANaTomy. 


. On the Connection of the Os Odontoidium with the centrum of the axis 


vertebra. By Professor D. J. CUNNINGHAM, F.RS. .............cccseseeees 1101 


. On the Curvature of the Spine in the Foetus and Child. By Dr. Jomy- 


TION GVM GION UR he fiotka cies so nideos cctiplows cc cbe ceed ovabeinde ceeceeet te dee ee eeeeties 1101 


. On the Bronchial Syrinx of the Cuculidz and Caprimulgide. By FRanx 


BED DARD NISAG SB EUS. ees sos cccevescesecens dan eis eatsie-aaeee a mena 1101 


. Contributions to the Structure of the Oligocheta. By Frank E, Brp- 


DARD, ND Age i sEy alls ccsesecstesters saomsd ents see ecinesmic cece. das sacee sete 1102 


. On the Cervical Vertebre in Balena mysticetus, &c. By Professor 


SaRUTHERs;| MED GD eet RAT are seks 202 5.30% clad loss eka onlteateeneeaeen 1103: 


. On the Development of the Foot of the Horse. By Professor SrruTHeErs, 


1 OLD Pegg By Ot Bee Ae ie ero err eer eer or oe pane nee Sc co: scons 1103: 


. On the Development of the Vertebree of the Elephant. By Professor 


SreorHBRs, MD LGD i ieacs.os vencotds sevedest. vonecseaa delete semepengs eee 1103: 


. On the Kidneys of Gasteropoda and the Renal Duct of Paludina. By W. 


B, BenHAm 


Secrion H.—GEOGRAPHY. 
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. 


1. The Indian Forest School. By Major F. Barzery, R.E., F.R.GS.......... 1104 
9, Brawl. By Oormw Macxewz1m, FUR.GAS,: sis<.sdesss-sanso-n+nosncaguaeerensseie 1105- 

3. On the Progress of African Philology. By R. NzErpHam Cvsz, 
FURIG Ss: Yoass. the onessaspecqnaspenasetete teanieans ce tneeeecempacc etka ee ame eee 1105 

4, On the Changes which have taken place in Tunis since the French Pro- 
tectorate. By Lieut.-Colonel R. L. PLAYFAIR  .........c.c..ceceeeeeeeeeenes 1105 

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER il. 

Address by General J. T. Waker, C.B., R.E., LL.D., F.R.S., President of 

the Section sis... pyoquedoowsehah. sien daiche Paarb yc dees Pebentadtotpees at deeb bes ARREARS EmeESN 106 


% 


3. 


The Indian Forest Survey. By Major F. Batrny, R.E., F.R.G.S. ...... 1121 


. Account of the Levelling Operations of the Great Tiedt Gd Survey 
of India. By Major A. W. Barro, R.E., F.R.S. 


Notes on the Physiography of Southern India. By Colonel B. R. 
BRA WEIL: tasvsecsienvecvedesovevsrdodedssaddecdecdsdte tasttiiae aamen sitter ese eee eae 1124 


Pee eee eee eee 


CONTENTS. xxl 


Page 
4, On a Trip from Upper Assam into the Kampti Country and the Western 
Branch of the Ivrawady River, made by Colonel R. B. Woodthorpe, 
R.E., and Major C. R. MacGregor. By Lieut-Colonel H. H. Gopwin- 
PIERCE DEUS ice ge cvancs-aacsedadiinsursiac<nec1adeeMMsGag vcnfieedeaddds sn tesisads-n03s 1126 
5, On the complete Exploration of Lake Yamdok in Tibet. By TRe- 
TAWNEY SAUNDERS ..........sscccssecesccrcescestaccsccssacssesccecsscessocescsesecs 1126 
6. On Himalayan Snow Peaks. By Lieut.-Colonel H. C. B. TANNER ...... 1126 
7. Notes on recent Mountaineering in the Himalaya. By Dovetas W. 
BSS HEMILD 5 (Hs Fut. Salrat'eskgacrse iqee sanecsews susie ssigueresiciugian sn ene ves aensseseaes 1127 


MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14. 


. Projected Restoration of the Reian Mceris, and the Province, Lake, and 


Canals ascribed to the Patriarch Joseph. By Corr Wurrenovse, M.A, 1127 


2. Report of the Committee for furthering the Scientific Examination of the 
Country in the vicinity of Mount Roraima in Guiana ..............seeeeeeees 1128 
3. Mount Roraima. By EVERARD IM THURN ...........ceeecsececeeeeseeensevens 1128 
4, Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of promoting the 
Survey of Palestine .........csssseccsseecccsesccccnersceeeeencceesenseeeesseeeeeeees 1128 
5, The Cadastral Survey of India. By Lieut.-Colonel W. Barron ......... 1128 
6. The Ordnance Survey of Cyprus. By TRELAWNEY SAUNDERS ........+.. 1129 
7. The Rivers of the Punjab. By General Roperr MacraGan, R.E.......++ 1129 
8. On a Clinometer to use with a Plane-Table. By Major Hitt ............ 1131 
9. On a supposed Periodicity of the Cyclones of the Indian Ocean, south of 
the Equator .......csscccsncsseesececeeenecsssceeeesceeuesceeseuserseecseneceeaeseees 1131 
10. The Portuguese Possessions in West Africa. By H. H. JoHnston ...... 1132 
11. North-west Australia. By J. G. BARTHOLOMEW ......s0c..scssecseeeeeeassees 1132 
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15. 7 
1, Antarctic Research. By Admiral Sir Erasmus Ommanyey,C.B., F.R.S., 
MMe) 2 foc revcss-thcvaccdcceenbubedesWeoceseuaccescenssccesateves-sendsgmscdeatens 1132 
2. Geographical Education. By J. Scot KELTIE. ...........ccceeeeeeeeeeneeeee 1183 
3. On Overland Expeditions to the Arctic Coast of America. By JoHn 
SrAe, OD. LLD., FRAS., FRIGIS. viccctcectessseccsoscessnsnccasesbesateneses 1183 
4, On the best and safest Route by which to attain a High Northern 
Latitude. By Joun Raz, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.GS.......ceeseeeeees 1186 
5. Oceanic Islands and Shoals. By J. Y. BUCHANAN .....ccsecessseeeeeeeeee ees 11386 
6. On the Depth of the permanently Frozen Stratum of Soil in British 
North America. By General Sir J. Henry Lerroy, K.C.M.G., F.R.S. 1186 
7. On Recent Explorations in New Guinea, By Courrs TROTTER............ 1136 
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16. 
1. On Journeyings in South-western China, By A. HOSE ..........s0..ees 1137 
2. Notes on the large Southern Tributaries of the Rio Solimoes or Upper 


Amazon im Brazil, with special reference to the Rio Jutahi. By Pro- 
HESGOD Im Wists (DRAUT 50. csaccnccecuscsseescsnovscveesseesesarsscoasdevcarenessvects 1188 


The Depth and Temperature of some Scottish Lakes, By J. Y. 
BUCHANAN... .0ccssecesereseeevesstecesencceconsescsscconeseereseenavasersverersecsoos 11388 


Xxli CONTENTS. 


4, On the Geographical Features of the Beauly Basin. By Tuo. W. 
VV AUSEACH Siyhk. tds seen vase danies 64s 00susibavepbiddovechsntelueluenceter oS tReaN anal 


5. What has been done for the Geography of Scotland, and what remains 
tone! done: By: Tis Aw! WEBSUER’ 2.....daac165.0a-becsaasmeesarecs ds seeeemareetcs 


6. On Bathy-hypsographical Maps, with special reference to a Combination 
of the Ordnance and Admiralty Surveys. By E. G. Ravensrern, 
DEVAN Si seemed As ot Vasvde acts ccduvccdvad veiw ehedaes ve atsadelieh 7 ikke tama hts anna 


Section F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBFR 10. 
1. Report of the Committee for continuing the inquiries relating to the 


teaching of Science in Elementary Schools ............0..csssseeeeseneeenesees 


Address by Professor Henry Srpewrck, M.A., Litt.D., President of the 
PS COLIOLY slg vc vise suet me cigs prestdowee + ade sshsh ah lnaeicalvs oe aiooy kbs eae ae ae 


2, On the alleged Depression of Trade. By Professor Lronn Levi, F.S.S... 
3. On the Variations of Price-Level since 1850. By Micnapnt G. MunHatt, 


HSS Sec sats ssn ceop oasetvass cede smavegshss veces svevesadscetethea duces ose ao 1 


FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11. 


1. On the Municipalisation of the Land. By Sir Grorer Campsetn, 


PSA ebay GE. veuavonasng oavapa ss vewuupn anya: opeesicasa osu ots owen geen 
2. The Agriculture of Aberdeenshire. By Colonel Inwns ..............:00000- 
5. The Agricultural Situation. By Professor W. Fream, B.Sc., F.LS., 
AT eDecccascccersscceseenssssceeessessessceen ess eee eee eeeeescesesssesesssssees Cee en seeeree 
4, On recent Changes in Scottish Agriculture. By Major P. G. Crater... 
SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 12. 

1. On the International Forestry Exhibition. By Dr. CromBir Brown . 

2) What is Capital? By W. WESTGARTH ..........essses-u-«ssennie sented 


3. On Methods of ascertaining Variations in the Rates of Birth, Death, and 


Marriage. By EY. MDGHWOBTH. ..........4005s</o0tsaeansexennansas/ anne 
4, On the Application of Biology to Economics, By Parrick GEppBs...... 


MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14. 


1. On the Use of Index Numbers in the Investigation of Trade Statistics. 


Page 
1138 


1138 


1140 


By Sterne Bourne, FS.S. ...1csosse+biereneeneviiase vend ds dhe. soeaena nee 1168 
2. On Depression of Prices and Results of Economy of Production, and on 

the Prospect of Recovery. By Hype CLarKkk, F\S.S............cecceeeeeees 1168 
3. On Customs Tariffs. By A. E. BATEMAN ..........ccccessccsceueceoeesesunemeen 1169 
4, How its Fiscal Policy may affect the Prosperity of a Nation. By 

ATEXANDBR TORBER.| «cscs uve dsevessssseaetncvnescuevinee od ovoebeet eos tonne 1169 
3. On the Incidence of Imperial Taxation. By Dr. W. A. Hunrmr......... 1170 

TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15. 

1. State Guarantee of War Risks. By JoHNn Corry .........0...c0cceeneceeeee 1171 
2. On the British Standard of Value.. By Dawa Horton .........c0cccce000ee 1172 


CONTENTS. Xxlli 


Page 
3. Sliding Scales in the Coal Industry. By Professor J. E. C, Munro...... 1173. 
4, Anomalies in the condition of Scotch Miners in contrast with other un- 
skilled Labourers. By Wu LIAM SMALL ............csecseeeecenseeenseesceenee 1174 
5. The Statistics and some points in the Economics of the Scottish Fisheries. 
By WILbiamM WATT, FS.S.........ccecceeceeseentcceeeecerecseseeassanevecenconens 1175 
6. On the Pauperisation of Children by the Operation of the ‘Scotch 
Education Act, 1872.’ By MarrHew BIAIR............ccccsesseeseeeeeeereeees 1176 
WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16. F 
1, Agricultural Investigation and Education. By THomAs JAMIESON......... 1177 
2. Policy in Taxation. By J. B. GREIG............:sesseeeeeeeeenereeees aia 1179: 
3. A new view of the Consequences of Unpunctuality in Railway Trains. 
By Cornerrus WALFORD, F.L.A., PSS. oo. ccc eeeeeeeeeeneeeeeeeeeerenereeeeees 1180 
4. On the Industrial Remuneration Conference. By the Rev. W. 
ISOATEMELEEAM PS L)e cote octet emvenctcwssavs'saccasecasdcsavetdeeascieesccenecsosedees 1181 
Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE, 
THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. 

Address by B. Baxer, M.Inst.C.E., President of the Section..............-s00+ 1182: 
1. The New Tay Viaduct. By Crawrorp Bartow, B.A., M.Inst.0.E, ... 1192: 
2, The Forth Bridge Works. By AnpRew S. Braeart, C.E. ......e. eee 1193. 

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11. 
1, The American System of Oil Pipe Lines. By J. H. Harrts............... 1193: 
2. The Movement of Land in Aberdeen Bay. By W. SMITH.,.............00 1193 
3. On Shallow-draught Screw Steamers for the Nile Expedition. By 
el PHORM YORORT, Mo Inst.C.Bi.......-.cccscesssecees Rye actan aemanatieccnnanetace 1193. 
4, The Sphere and Roller Friction Gear. By Professor H. S. Herz SHaw 1193 
5. On the Employment of the Road Engine in Construction and Main- 
tenance of Roads. By Colonel INNES ................ccceccscsscoceesceeceeeeen 1194 
MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14. 
1. Electric Lighting and the Law. By Dr. Lewis EpMunpDs.............+ .... 1195 
2. On an Electric Safety Lamp for Miners. By J. Wiison Sway, M.A.... 1196. 
8. On the Strength of Telegraph Poles. By W. H. Prescs, F.R.S., 
BOMB T NEG) Bes toca Seeds La pec duant ae tlds noateclos tdnadas etdoeactchd wee osntamtecmets 1197 


4, On Domestic Electric Lighting. By W. H. Prexcn, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 1197 


5. On a System of Periodic Clock Control on ‘l'elephone or Telegraph Lines. 
Eevee rotesson Wie), BARRETT RISAB. 25.3. siedsenatssecovseasssecssacsenseoss 1198 


6. Electric Lighting at the Forth Bridge Works. By James N, SHoor- 
eeaeH ey Es Acore WEISEL Oc Mayracastasssosesiosecaesencastsansas=fceeticeaereasaneesseevey 1198 


7. On the Development of the Pneumatic System as applied to Telegraph 
marposes, « By J Ws WULLMOR! 1..32.....i5c000cnidbecsonenoanel ddevate dence connes 1198. 


TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15. 
1. Report of the Patent Law Committec...............cseeceseesseseceseceeecsenes 1199: 


2. Autographic Apparatus for Machines for Testing Materials. By Pro- 
PESSOIN Viel © UN WIN Vis iBtOub: Atuiniianesneatetvesmedeeassanecencts tases 1199 


XXIV CONTENTS. 


Page 
be Notes ‘on Mild Steel. By GFT GORDON. 0.0.00 0. ei ios ckieedee ae eReew Mel 1200 
4, The Diminution of Casualties at Sea. By Don Arturo pE Marcoartu 1201 
5. On the Deep Sea Channel into Swansea Harbour. By Roserr CappEr 1202 
6. On the Spey Bridge at Garmouth and the River Spey. By P. M. 
PPAR ISTD eiranjecn:an'dnige dn s'nisis «a sikiowe,s p's s'dvoebieasoi5a.0s clehg s oaless eine es nen eee 1203 
7. On a New Form of High Speed Friction Driving Gear. By Professor 
PAPAS IWIN Gvne.c cioieocnusesinss sin csnsviciss's sins se odes consiesneeeete ee spoon eee eee ReEEe 1203 
8. On Ashton’s New Power Meter. By Professor H. S. Herz Suaw ...... 1203 
9, On the British Association Standard Gauge for Small Screws. By 
EDWARD JRIGG, MAA Jess ccditeses vesasae tc cas onset stebeenersascectens: oeee a eeeeeeeae 1203 


Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 


THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. 
1. The Scope of Anthropology, and its relation to the Science of Mind. 


By Avexanprn “Bain, GL Diiititededcccd Mcvast hs Bid eeaa eee 1204 
2. The Index of the Pelvic Brim as a Basis of Classification. By Professor 
Wie RNR, MIB. EUIRAS, cissswessiesssnsenssonescssacwar chereeet ethene aan 1205 
3. A Portable Scale of Proportions of the Human Body. By W. F. 
AWRY, FIGS, FRM, -cctodecssstccerecdusescuccks deaeereehn cee Gm 1206 
Address by Francis Garon, M.A., F.R.S., President of the Anthropo- ~ 
logical Institute, President of the Section..............:scccceseseeesseseeesuees 1206 


FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11, 


1. Insular Greek Customs. By J. TuzoporE Bent ...... seseensciesveneatiiaeany 1214 
2. On the Working of the Ancient Monuments Act of 1882. By General 

PERO RW ERG,” WEIS. cla ores dass sevccdutas «0 sceousoasesciee hones scoot 1214 
3. American Shell-work and its Affinities. By Miss A. W. Bucktanp ... 1214 
4, Note on the Redmen about Roraima. By E. F. mt THURN ........c0000:- 1215 
5. A Game with a History. By J. W. Cromprp, M.A. .......ccccececeseeseees 1215 
6, The Rule of the Road from an Anthropological point of view. By Sir 

Grones Oampnmni, OS dbys.). 2d. vii. ovr enctouh bee cae 1215 
7. On the Modes of Grinding and Drying Corn in old times. By Miss JEan1n 

I MARAE penn sts eBlich oie nob cna a. Sade Ria dese ce 1216 
8. The Flint-knappers’ Art in Albania. By A. J. EVANS .......cccscceeeees 1216 
9. The Discovery of Naukratis. By W.M. Frrvpmrs Perrin ou... 1216 


MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 4, 


- On Ancient Tombs in the Greek Islands. By J. Toropore Bent......... 1217 
. A New Cave Man of Mentone. By THoMAS WILSON...........:cesceeseees 1218 
- Happaway Cavern, Torquay. By Witrram Pencatty, F.R.S., F.G.S.. 1219 


. On the Human Remains found in Happawa Cavern, Torquay. B 
J.C. Ganson, MD at WR AG Ae Lea BORE PS); 


. On Three Stone Circles in Cumberland, with some further observations 


on the relation of Stone Circles to adjacent hills and outlying stones, 
By A. L. Lewis, M.A.I. 


Bm Cb He 


ox 


Site ee eee eee eee eee Tee Tee Tee eee eee eee 


CONTENTS. 


6. The Archeological Importance of ancient British Lake-dwellings and 
their relation to analogous remains in Europe. By R. Muwro, 
RPE DE, ono. cdncnsedouscassevenecdeciivecsasaoetMMeas socccesccastaquecewassertecs 

7. The Stone Circles in Aberdeenshire, with special reference to those in 
the more Lowland parts of the County, their Extent and Arrangement, 
singly or in groups, with General Observations. By the Rev. JAMEs 


XxXV 


Page 


1221 


EIT SONG SC Obisccict ce dat ciao U cee cos seas acces thecaseodatecececsvetacceedococstacctoss 1221 
8. Stone Circles in Aberdeenshire. By JoHN MIne, M.A. .......seseeeeees 1223 
9. Notes on a recent Antiquarian Find in Aberdeenshire. By Dr. F.Marr- 
EMMI NLOTIE cay csscodee sibesteh vs dinccp coda saaqdeds toosddes goede cberasesacinceaernsdsdere 12238 
10. The Picts and Pre-Celtic Britain. By HypE CLARKE .........-...00-.s000 1223 
11. Report of the Committee for investigating and publishing reports on 
the physical characters, languages, and industrial and social condi- 
tions of the North-western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada ............ 1224 
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15. 
1. Notes on the opening of a Cist in the parish of Leslie, Aberdeenshire. 
By the Rey. JoHNn RUsseLy, M.A.............ccccccsssoscsecesccecsncescsecscesees 122 
_ 2. Notes on a Cist found at Parkhill, Dyce, in October 1881. By W. 
MRIGEETUHUNI 2. «25. osevsesstceccessocctecasetestce cced «fiedec alt ddcisibbhvcdlb is aateaeMé 1225 


8. On the Human Crania and other contents found in short stone Cists in 
Aberdeenshire. By Professor J. Srrurners, M.D., LL.D. ... a 


4, Notice of Human Bones found in 1884 in Balta Island, Shetland, by a 


D. Edmonston, Esq. By Professor J. Srruruers, M.D., LL.D. ......... 


5. Some Important Points of Comparison between the Chimpanzee and 
Misti By Professor D. J. OUNNINGHAM ........<0sse-ctesceqedeunnsceseescene 


6. Abnormal and Arrested Development as an Indication of Evolutionary 


AIRC veemsESy Ds Crs CARSON, MUD), t2igecnctb occas -teccscnsccccassocsseerescaseee 1 


' 7. The Symbol Pillars abounding in Central Aberdeenshire. By the Rev. 


BRESENE DAN EURO NG (UTL) ty tec. coke cjaasanes sae scertesccestncosces sine tvacsrayadstese 1 


8. Notes on some of the Bantu Tribes living round Lake Nyasa in Eastern 


1226 


226 


227 


Mental atmica.. By: Dr, ROBBERY LIRWE. .i2do5.-..0.0.ccacsseocseoesoecestodsnes 1227 


9. Exhibition of the Skeleton of a Strandlouper from South Africa. By 


SeeMinesOteAT MAGAEISTMR, HORS) ar-sscctastacossiosseedacesnsetedesetioneces seas 1 


10. A brief Account of the Nicobar Islanders, with special reference to the 
Inland Tribe of Great Nicobar. By E. H. MAN............sssseeeessessseeees 


1228 


11. A proposed Society for Experimental Psychology. By JosrrH Jacoss, 
B.A. 1230 


eee eee eee ee eee eee eee eee ee eee eee ee eee eee eee ee eee eee) 


12. A Comparative Estimate of Jewish Ability. By JoszpH Jacoss, B.A.... 1231 


13. Traces of Early Human Habitations on Deeside and Vicinity. By the 


rene ral i ot ae VIO Tih ALAIN 5 occ 2 Uae oe ck caicGea Mas Hance fos ov sddeelca weeee de eseavose ward 1 


232 


XXxvl LIST OF PLATES. 


iS sO PPA ass: 


PLATES I, II., ann III. 


Illustrating the Report of the Committee on the Fossil Plants of the Tertiary and. 
Secondary Beds of the United Kingdom, 


PLATE IV. 


Illustrating the Report ot the Committee on the Erosion of the Sea-coasts of 
England and Wales. 


PLATES VY. ann Va. 


Illustrating Mr. Meldrum’s Communication, ‘A Tabular Statement of the Dates 
at which, and the Localities where, Pumice or Volcanic Dust was seen in the 
Indian Ocean in 1883-84.’ 


PLATE VI. 
Illustrating Mr. Andrew 8. Biggart’s Communication, ‘The Forth Bridge Works.” 


PLATE VII. 
Illustrating Mr. Crawford Barlow’s Communication, ‘The New Tay Viaduct.’ 


_ = 


OBJECTS AND RULES 


OF 


THE ASSOCIATION. 


OBJECTS. 


THE AssociArion contemplates no interference with the ground occupied 
by other institutions. Its objects are:—To give a stronger impulse and 
a more systematic direction to scientific inquiry,—to promote the inter- 
course of those who cultivate Science in different parts of the British 
Empire, with one another and with foreign philosophers,—to obtain a 
more general attention to the objects of Science, and a removal of any 
disadvantages of a public kind which impede its progress. 


RULES. 


Admission of Members and Associates. 


All persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be entitled to 
become Members of the Association, upon subscribing an obligation to 
conform to its Rules. 

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philosophical 
Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Empire, shall be entitled, 
in like manner, to become Members of the Association. 

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or Managing Commitiees, 
of Philosophical Institutions shall be entitled, in like manner, to become 
Members of the Association. 

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by its Coun- 
cil or Managing Committee shall be entitled, in like manner, to become 
Members of the Association. 

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by the 
General Committee or Council, to become Life Members of the Associa- 
tion, Annual Subscribers, or Associates for the year, subject to the 
approval of a General Meeting. 


Compositions, Subscriptions, and Privileges. 

Lire Memesrs shall pay, on admission, the sum of Ten Pounds. They 
shall receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association which may be 
published after the date of such payment. They are eligible to all the 
offices of the Association. 

AnnvaL Susscripers shall pay, on admission, the sam of Two Pounds, 
and in each following year the sum of One Pound. They shall receive 
gratuitously the Reports of the Association for the year of their admission 
and for the years in which they continue to pay without intermission their 
Annual Subscription. By omitting to pay this subscription in any par- 
ticular year, Members of this class (Annual Subscribers) Jose for that and 


XXVili RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


all future years the privilege of receiving the volumes of the Association 
gratis: but they may resume their Membership and other privileges at 
any subsequent Meeting of the Association, paying on each such occasion 
the sum of One Pound. They are eligible to all the Offices of the Asso- 
ciation. 

Associares for the year shall pay on admission the sum of One Pound. 
‘They shall not receive gratuitously the Reports of the Association, nor be 
eligible to serve on Committees, or to hold any office. 


The Association consists of the following classes :— 


1. Life Members admitted from 1831 to 1845 inclusive, who have paid 
on admission Five Pounds as a composition. 

2. Life Members who in 1846, or in subsequent years, have paid on 
admission Ten Pounds as a composition. 

3. Annual Members admitted from 1831 to 1839 inclusive, subject to 
the payment of One Pound annually. [May resume their Membership 
after intermission of Annual Payment. ] 

4, Annual Members admitted in any year since 1839, subject to the 
payment of Two Pounds for the first year, and One Pound in each 
following year. [May resume their Membership after intermission of 
Annual Payment. | 

5. Associates for the year, subject to the payment of One Pound. 

6. Corresponding Members nominated by the Council. 


And the Members and Associates will be entitled to receive the annual 
‘volume of Reports, gratis, or to purchase it at reduced (or Members’) 
price, according to the following specification, viz. :— 


1. Gratis.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds as a com- 
position for Annual Payments, and previous to 1845 a fur- 
ther sum of Two Pounds as a Book Subscription, or, since 
1845, a further sum of Five Pounds. 

New Life Members who have paid Ten Pounds as a compo- 
sition. 

Annual Members who have not intermitted their Annual Sub- 
scription. 

2. At reduced or Members’ Prices, viz. two-thirds of the Publi- 
cation Price.—Old Life Members who have paid Five Pounds 
as a composition for Annual Payments, but no further sum 
as a Book Subscription. 

Annual Members who have intermitted their Annual Sub- 
scription. 

Associates for the year. [Privilege confined to the volume 
for that year only. } 

3. Members may purchase (for the purpose of completing their sets) 
any of the volumes of the Reports of the Association up 
to 1874, of which more than 15 copies remain, at 2s. 6d. per 
volume.! 

Application to be made at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle 
Street, London, W. 


Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of publication can 
-only be issued by direction of the Council. 


Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secretaries. 


1 A few complete sets, 1831 to 1874, are on sale, £10 the set. 


RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXxix 


Meetings. 


The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer. The 
place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General Committee two 
years in advance; and thearrangements for it shall be entrusted to the 
Officers of the Association. 


General Committee. 


The General Committee shall sit during the week of the Meeting, or 
longer, to transact the business of the Association. It shall consist of the 
following persons :— 


Crass A. Permanent MEMBERS. 


1. Members of the Council, Presidents of the Association, and Presi- 
dents of Sections for the present and preceding years, with Authors of 
Reports in the Transactions of the Association. 

2. Members who by the publication of Works or Papers have fur- 
thered the advancement of those subjects which are taken into considera- 
tion at the Sectional Meetings of the Association, With a view of sub- 
mitting new claims under this Rule to the decision of the Council, they must 
be sent to the Secretary at least one month before the Meeting of the 
Association. The decision of the Council on the claims of any Member of 
the Association to be placed on the list of the General Committee to be final. 


Crass B. Temporary Mempers.! 


1. Delegates nominated by the Corresponding Societies under the 
conditions hereinafter explained. Claims under this Rule to be sent to the 
Secretary before the opening of the Meeting. 

2. Office-bearers for the time being, or delegates, altogether not ex- 
ceeding three, from Scientific Institutions established in the place of 
Meeting. Claims under this Rule to be approved by the Local Secretaries 
before the opening of the Meeting. 

3. Foreigners and other individuals whose assistance is desired, and 
who are specially nominated in writing, for the Meeting of the year, by 
the President and General Secretaries. 

4. Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections. 


Organizing Sectional Committees.? 


The Presidents, Vice-Presidents, and Secretaries of the several Sec- 
tions are nominated by the Council, and have power to act until their 
names are submitted to the General Committee for election. 

From the time of their nomination they constitute Organizing Com- 
mittees for the purpose of obtaining information upon the Memoirs and 
Reports likely to be submitted to the Sections,’ and of preparing Reports 
thereon, and on the order in which it is desirable that they should be 
read, to be presented to the Committees of the Sections at their first 


1 Revised by the General Committee, 1884. 

? Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871. 

$ Notice to Contributors of Memoirs.—Authors are reminded that, under an 
arrangement dating from 1871, the acceptance of Memoirs, and the days on which 
they are to be read, are now as far as possible determined by Organizing Committees 
for the several Sections before the beginning of the Mecting. Tt has therefore become 
hecessary, in order to give an opportunity to the Committees of doing justice to the 
several Communications, that each Author should prepare an Abstract of his Memoir, 
of a length suitable for insertion in the published Transactions of the Association, 
and that he should send it, together with the original Memoir, by book-post, on or 


XXX RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


meeting. The Sectional Presidents of former years are ex officio members 
of the Organizing Sectional Committees.! 

An Organizing Committee may also hold such preliminary meetings as 
the President of the Committee thinks expedient, but shall, under any 
circumstances, meet on the first Wednesday of the Annual Meeting, at 
11 a.m., to nominate the first members of the Sectional Committee, if 
they shall consider it expedient to do so, and to settle the terms of their 
report to the General Committee, after which their functions as an 
Organizing Committee shall cease.” 


Constitution of the Sectional Committees.* 


On the first day of the Annual Meeting, the President, Vice-Presi- 
dents, and Secretaries of each Section having been appointed by the 
General Committee, these Officers, and those previous Presidents and 
Vice-Presidents of the Section who may desire to attend, are to meet, at 
2 p.m., in their Committee Rooms, and enlarge the Sectional Committees 
by selecting individuals from among the Members (not Associates) present 
at the Meeting whose assistance they may particularly desire. The Sec- 
tional Committees thus constituted shall have power to add to their 
number from day to day. 

The List thus formed is to be entered daily in the Sectional Minute- 
Book, and a copy forwarded without delay to the Printer, who is charged 
with publishing the same before 8 A.M. on the next day in the Journal of 
the Sectional Proceedings. 


Business of the Sectional Committees. 


Committee Meetings are to be held on the Wednesday at 2 p.m., on the 
following Thursday, Friday, Saturday, Monday, and Tuesday, from 10 to 
11 a.m., punctually, for the objects stated in the Rules of the Association, 
and specified below. 

The business is to be conducted in the following manner :— 

1. The President shall call on the Secretary to read the minutes of 
the previous Meeting of the Committee. 

2. No paper shall be read until it has been formally accepted by the 
Committee of the Section, and entered on the minutes accord- 
ingly. 

3. ones vebiak have been reported on unfavourably by the Organiz- 
ing Committees shall not be brought before the Sectional 
Committees.® 

At the first meeting, one of the Secretaries will read the Minutes of 
jast year’s proceedings, as recorded in the Minute-Book, and the Synopsis 


WBLOVC ine isiowegecscseaserassinese , addressed thus—‘ General Secretaries, British Associa- 
tion, 22 Albemarle Street, London, W. For Section ........ > Tf it should be incon- 
venient to the Author that his paper should be read on any particular days, he is 
requested to send information thereof to the Secretaries in a separate note. Authors 
who send in their MSS. three complete weeks before the Meeting, and whose papers 
are accepted, will be furnished, before the Meeting, with printed copies of their 
Reports and Abstracts. No Report, Paper, or Abstract can be inserted in the Annual 
Volume unless it is handed either to the Recorder of the Section or to the Secretary, 
before the conclusion of the Meeting. 

1 Added by the General Committee, Sheffield, 1879. 

2 Revised by the General Committee, Swansea, 1880. 

3 Passed by the General Committee, Edinburgh, 1871. 

4 The meeting on Saturday was made optional by the General Committee at 


Southport, 1883. 
5 These rules were adopted by the General Committee, Plymouth, 1877. 


HULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXxi 


of Recommendations adopted at the last Meeting of the Association and 
printed in the last volume of the Transactions. He will next proceed to 
read the Report of the Organizing Committee.! The list of Communi- 
cations to be read on Thursday shall be then arranged, and the general 
distribution of business throughout the week shall be provisionally ap- 
pointed, At the close of the Committee Meeting the Secretaries shall 
forward to the Printer a List of the Papers appointed to be read. The 
Printer is charged with publishing the same before 8 a.m. on Thursday in 
the Journal. 

On the second day of the Annual Meeting, and the following days, 
the Secretaries are to correct, on a copy of the Journal, the list of papers 
which have been read on that day, to add to it a list of those appointed 
to be read on the next day, and to send this copy of the Journal as early 
in the day as possible to the Printer, who is charged with printing the 
- same before 8 4.M. next morning in the Journal. It is necessary that one 
of the Secretaries of each Section (generally the Recorder) should cail 
at the Printing Office and revise the proof each evening. 

Minutes of the proceedings of every Committee are to be entered daily 
in the Minute-Book, which should be confirmed at the next meeting of 
the Committee. 

Lists of the Reports and Memoirs read in the Sections are to be entered 
in the Minute-Book daily, which, with all Memoirs and Oopies or Abstracts 
of Memoirs furnished by Authors, are to be forwarded, at the close of the Sec- 
tional Meetings, to the Secretary. 

The Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of Sections become ez officio tem- 
porary Members of the General Committee (vide p. xxix), and will receive, 
on application to the Treasurer in the Reception Room, Tickets entitling 
them to attend its Meetings. 

The Committees will take into consideration any suggestions which may 
be offered by their Members for the advancement of Science. They are 
specially requested to review the recommendations adopted at preceding 
Meetings, as published in the volumes of the Association and the com- 
munications made to the Sections at this Meeting, for the purposes of 
selecting definite points of research to which individual or combined 
exertion may be usefully directed, and branches of knowledge on the state 
and progress of which Reports are wanted; to name individuals or Com- 
mittees for the execution of such Reports or researches; and to state 
whether, and to what degree, these objects may be usefully advanced by 
the appropriation of the funds of the Association, by application to 

vernment, Philosophical Institutions, or Local Authorities, 

In case of appointment of Committees for special objects of Science, 
it is expedient that all Members of the Committee should be named, and 
one of them appointed to act as Secretary, for insuring attention to business. 

Committees have power to add to their number persons whose assist- 
ance they may require. 

The recommendations adopted by the Committees of Sections are to 
be registered in the Forms furnished to their Secretaries, and one Copy of 
each is to be forwarded, without delay, to the Secretary for presentation 
to the Committee of Recommendations. Unless this be done, the Recom- 
mendations cannot receive the sanction of the Association. 

N.B.—Recommendations which may originate in any one of the Sec- 
tions must first be sanctioned by the Committee of that Section before they 


' This and the following sentence were added by the General Committee, 1871. 


XXXli RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


can be referred to the Committee of Recommendations or confirmed by 
the General Committee. 

The Committees of the Sections shall ascertain whether a Report has 
been made by every Committee appointed at the previous Meeting to whom 
a sum of money has been granted, and shall report to the Committee of 
Recommendations in every case where no such Report has been received.’ 


Notices regarding Grants of Money. 


Committees and individuals, to whom grants of money have been 
entrusted by the Association for the prosecution of particular researches 
in science, are required to present to each following Meeting of the 
Association a Report of the progress which has been made; and the 
Individual or the Member first named of a Committee to whom a money 
grant has been made must (previously to the next Meeting of the Associa- 
tion) forward to the General Secretaries or Treasurer a statement of the 
sums which have been expended, and the balance which remains dispos- 
able on each grant. 

Grants of money sanctioned at any one Meeting of the Association 
expire a week before the opening of the ensuing Meeting; nor is the 
Treasurer authorized, after that date, to allow any claims on account of 
such grants, unless they be renewed in the original or a modified form by 
the General Committee. 

No Committee shall raise money in the name or under the auspices of 
the British Association without special permission from the General Com- 
mittee to do so; and no money so raised shall be expended except in 
accordance with the rules of the Association, 

In each Committee, the Member first named is the only person entitled 
to call on the Treasurer, Professor A. W. Williamson, University College, 
London, W.C., for such portion of the sums granted as may from time to 
time be required. 

In grants of money to Committees, the Association does not contem- 
plate the payment of personal expenses to the members. 

In all cases where additional grants of money are made for the con- 
tinuation of Researches at the cost of the Association, the sum named is 
deemed to include, as a part of the amount, whatever balance may remain 
unpaid on the former grant for the same object. 

All Instruments, Papers, Drawings, and other property of the Associa- 
tion are to be deposited at the Office of the Association, 22 Albemarle 
Street, Piccadilly, London, W., when not employed in carrying on scien- 
tific inquiries for the Association. 


Business of the Sections. 


The Meeting Room of each Section is opened for conversation from 
10 to 11 daily. The Section Rooms and approaches thereto can be used for 
no notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those of the Association. 

At 11 precisely the Chair will be taken,” and the reading of communi- 
cations, in the order previously made public, commenced. At 3 P.M. the 
Sections will close. 

Sections may, by the desire of the Committees, divide themselves into 
Departments, as often as the number and nature of the communications 
delivered in may render such divisions desirable. 

1 Passed by the General Committee at Sheffield, 1879. 

2 The meeting on Saturday may begin, if desired by the Committee, at any time not 
earlier than 10 or later than 11. Passed by the General Committee at Southport, 1883, 


RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXX1li 


A Report presented to the Association, and read to the Section which 
originally called for it, may be read in another Section, at the request of 
the Officers of that Section, with the consent of the Author. 


Duties of the Doorkeepers. 


1.—To remain constantly at the Doors of the Rooms to which they are 

appointed during the whole time for which they are engaged. 
-2.—To require of every person desirous of entering the Rooms the ex- 
: hibition of a Member’s, Associate’s, or Lady’s Ticket, or Reporter’s 
Ticket, signed by the Treasurer, or a Special Ticket signed by the 


Secretary. 
3.—Persons unprovided with any of these Tickets can only be admitted 
to any particular Room by order of the Secretary in that Room. 


_ No person is exempt from these Rules, except those Officers of the 
Association whose names are printed in the programme, p. 1. 


Duties of the Messengers. 


To remain constantly at the Rooms to which they are appointed dur- 
‘ing the whole time for which they are engaged, except when employed on 
messages by one of the Officers directing these Rooms. 


Committee of Recommendutions. 


The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Committee, 
which shall receive and consider the Recommendations of the Sectional 
“Committees, and report to the General Committee the measures which 
they would advise to be adopted for the advancement of Science. 

All Recommendations of Grants of Money, Requests for Special Re- 
searches, and Reports on Scientific Subjects shall be submitted to the 
‘Committee of Recommendations, and not taken into consideration by the 
General Committee unless previously recommended by the Committee of 
Recommendations. 

Corresponding Societies. 


(1.) Any Society is eligible to be placed on the List of Corresponding 
Societies of the Association which undertakes local scientific investiga- 
tions, and publishes notices of the results. 

(2.) Applications may be made by any Society to be placed on the 
List of Corresponding Societies. Application must be addressed to the 
Secretary on or before the lst of June preceding the Annual Meeting at 
which it is intended they should be considered, and must be accompanied 

_by specimens of the publications of the results of the local scientific 
investigations recently undertaken by the Society. 

(3.) A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be annually nomi- 
nated by the Council and appointed by the General Committee for the 
urpose of considering these applications, as well as for that of keeping 
jhemselves generally informed of the annual work of the Corresponding 
Societies, and of superintending the preparation of a list of the papers 
published by them. This Committee shall make an annuai report to the 
General Committee, and shall suggest such additions or changes in the 
_ List of Corresponding Societies as they may think desirable. 

(4.) Every Corresponding Society shall return each year, on or 
before the Ist of June, to the Secretary of the Association, a schedule, 

1 Passed by the General Committee, 1884. 
1885. b 


XXXIV RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


properly filled up, which will be issued by the Secretary of the Associa- — 
tion, and which will contain a request for such particulars with regard to — 
the Society as may be required for the information of the Corresponding 
Societies Committee. . 
(5.) There shall be inserted in the Annual Report of the Association | 
a list, in an abbreviated form, of the papers published by the Corre- — 
sponding Societies during the past twelve months which contain the — 
results of the local scientific work conducted by them; those papers only - 
being included which refer to subjects coming under the cognizance of | 
one or other of the various Sections of the Association. ; 
(6.) A Corresponding Society shall have the right to nominate any — 
one of its members, who is also a Member of the Association, as its dele- ~ 
gate to the Annual Meeting of the Association, who shall be for the time — 
a Member of the General Committee. 


Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies. 


(7.) The Delegates of the various Corresponding Societies shall con- 
stitute a Conference, of which the Chairman, Vice-Chairmen, and Secre- 
taries shall be annually nominated by the Council, and appointed by the 
General Committee, and of which the members of the Corresponding 
Societies Committee shall be ex officio members. 

(8.) The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretaries 
+o hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Associa- 
tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member or Associate to take 
part in the meetings. 

(9.) The Secretaries of each Section shall be instructed to transmit to 
the Secretaries of the Conference of Delegates copies of any recommenda- 
tions forwarded by the Presidents of Sections to the Committee of Re- 
commendations bearing upon matters in which the co-operation of 
Corresponding Societies is desired ; and the Secretaries of the Conference 
of Delegates shall invite the authors of these recommendations to attend — 
the meetings of the Conference and give verbal explanations of their 
objects and of the precise way in which they would desire to have them 
carried into effect. 

(10.) It will be the duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar 
with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the Confer- 
ence, in order that they and others who take part in the meetings may be ~ 
able to bring those recommendations clearly and favourably before their 
respective Societies. The Conference may also discuss propositions bear- 
ing on the promotion of more systematic observation and plans of opera-_ 
tion, and of greater uniformity in the mode of publishing results. 


Local Commvittees. 


Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Association — 
to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings. . 

Local Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers 
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may desire. 


Officers. 


A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, one or more Secretaries, 
and a Treasurer shall be annually appointed by the General Committee. 


RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. XXXV 


Cowneil. 


In the intervals of the Meetings, the affairs of the Association shall 
‘be managed by a Council appointed by the General Committee. The 
Council may also assemble for the despatch of business during the week 
of the Meeting. 
; Papers and Communications. 


The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty to 
reserve his right of property therein. 
Accounts. 


_ The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by Auditors 
appointed by the General Committee. 


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—_— SOS 


PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. 


xliii 


Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections of the Association. 


Date and Place 


1832. 
1833. 
1834. 


1835. 
1836. 
1837. 
1838. 


1839. Birmingham | 


1840. 


1841. 
1842. 


Presidents 


| Secretaries 


MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 


COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, I.—MATHEMATICS AND GENERAL PHYSICS. 


Dublin 


Bristol 


Cambridge 
Edinburgh 


teeeee 


Liverpool... 


Newcastle 


Glasgow .. 


Plymouth 
Manchester 


Southamp- 


ton. 


1847. 


Oxford 


weeeee 


1848. Swansea ... 
1849. Birmingham 


1850. 
1851. 
1852. 
1853. 

1854. 
1855. 


Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S. 
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ...... 
Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. 


SECTION A.—MATHEMATICS 


Rey. Dr. Robinson 


Rey. William Whewell, F.R.S. 
Sir D. Brewster, F.R.S. ...... 
Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., 


F.R.S. 
Rev. Prof. Whewell, F.R.S.... 


.|)-Profilorbes, I. R:S.....s00ss0«s 


Rev. Prof. Lloyd, F.R.S8. ...... 

Very Rev. G. Peacock, D.D., 
F.R.S. 

Prof. M‘Culloch, M.R.LA. ... 

The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. ... 

The Very Rey. the Dean of 
Ely. 

Sir John F. W. Herschel, 
Bart., F.R.S. 

Rev. Prof. Powell, 
F.R.S. 

Lord Wrottesley, F.R.S. ...... 

William Hopkins, F.R.S....... 


M.A., 


Edinburgh Prof. J. D. Forbes, F.R.S., 
Sec. R.S.E. 

Ipswich ...|Rev. W. Whewell, D.D., 
F.R.S. 

Belfast...... Prof. W. Thomson, M.A., 
F.R.S. L. & E. 

13 08 EASE The Very Rey. the Dean of 
Ely, F.R.S. 

Liverpool...| Prof. G. G. Stokes, M.A., Sec. 
RS. 

Glasgow ...|Rev. Prof. Kelland, M.A., 
F.R.S. L. & E. 


1856, Cheltenham Rev. R. Walker, M.A., F.RB.S. 


1857. 


1858. 


Dublin 


Leeds 


Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D., 
F.R.S., M.R.LA. 


Rev. W. Whewell, 
V.P.R.S. 


D.D., 


Rey. H. Coddington. 
Prof. Forbes. 
Prof. Forbes, Prof, Lloyd. 


AND PHYSICS. 


Prof. Sir W. R. Hamilton, Prof. 
Wheatstone. 

Prof. Forbes, W. 8S. Harris, F. W. 
Jerrard. 

W. S. Harris, Rev. Prof. Powell, 
Prof. Stevelly. 

Rey. Prof. Chevallier, Major Sabine, 
Prof. Stevelly. 

J. D. Chance, W. Snow Harris, Prof. 
Stevelly. 

Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. Stevelly, 
Arch, Smith. 

Prof. Stevelly. 

Prof. M‘Culloch, Prof. Stevelly, Rev. 
W. Scoresby. 

J. Nott, Prof. Stevelly. 

|Rev. Wm. Hey, Prof. Stevelly. 

Rev. H. Goodwin, Prof. Stevelly, 
G. G. Stokes. 

John Drew, Dr. Stevelly, G. G. 
Stokes. 

Rev. H. Price, Prof. Stevelly, G. G. 
Stokes. 

Dr. Stevelly, G. G. Stokes. 

Prof. Stevelly, G, G. Stokes, W. 
Ridout Wills. 

W.J.Macquorn Rankine, Prof.Smyth, 
Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G.G. Stokes. 
S. Jackson, W. J. Macquorn Rankine, 

Prof. Stevelly, Prof. G. G. Stokes. 
Prof. Dixon, W. J. Macquorn Ran- 
kine, Prof. Stevelly, J. Tyndall. 
B. Blaydes Haworth, J. D. Sollitt, 
Prof. Stevelly, J. Welsh. 
J. Hartnup, H. G. Puckle, Prof. 
Stevelly, J. Tyndall, J. Welsh. 
Rev. Dr. Forbes, Prof. D. Gray, Prof. 
Tyndall. 

C. Brooke, Rev. T. A. Southwood, 
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. J. C. Turnbull. 

Prof. Curtis, Prof. Hennessy, P. A. 
Ninnis, W. J. Macquorn Rankine, 
Prof. Stevelly. 

Rey. S. Earnshaw, J. P. Hennessy, 
Prof. Stevelly, H.J.S. Smith, Prof. 
Tyndall. 


xliv 


REPORT—1885. 


Date and Place 


Presidents 


1859. Aberdeen... 
1860. Oxford...... 
1861. Manchester 
1862. Cambridge 
1863. Newcastle 

1864. Bath......... 


1865. Birmingham 


1866. Nottingham 
1867. Dundee 
1868. Norwich ... 
1869, Exeter...... 


1870. Liverpool... 


1871. Edinburgh 


1872. Brighton... 


1873. Bradford ... 


1874. Belfast...... 


1875. Bristol...... 


1876. Glasgow ... 


1877. Plymouth... 


1878. Dublin...... 


1879. Sheffield ... 


1880. Swansea ... 


1881. 

1882. Southamp- 
ton. 

1883. Southport 


1884. Montreal ... 


1885. Aberdeen... 


The Earl of Rosse, M.A., K.P., 
F.RB.S. 
Rev. B. Price, M.A., F.R.S.... 


Giy Be Ainy,) M.A: 7 D.C. 
F.RB.S. 

Prof. G. G. Stokes, 
F.R.S. 

Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine, 
C.E., F.R.S. 

Prof. Cayley, M.A., F.R.S., 
F.R.A.S. 

W. Spottiswoode, M.A.,F.R.S., 
F.R.A.S. 


M.A., 


Prof. Wheatstone, 
F.R.S. 


D.C.L., 


...| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, D.C.L., 


F.RB.S. 

Prof. J. Tyndall, 
F.R.S. 

Prof. J. J. Sylvester, LL.D., 
F.R.S. 

J. Clerk Maxwell, 
LL.D., F.R.S. 


LL.D., 


M.A., 
Prof. P. G. Tait, F.R.S.E. 


W. De La Rue, D.C.L., F.RB.S. 
Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, F.R.S. 


Rev. Prof. J. H. Jellett, M.A., 
M.R.LA. 


Prof. Balfour Stewart, M.A., 
LL.D., F.R.S. 

Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A., 
D.C.L., F.B.S. 


Prof, G. C. Foster, B.A., F.R.S., 
Pres. Physical Soc. 


Rev. Prof. Salmon, D.D., 
D.C.L., F.B.S. 

George Johnstone Stoney, 
M.A., F.R.S. 


Prof. W. Grylls Adams, M.A., 
E.R.S. 

Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A., 
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Rt. Hon. Prof. Lord Rayleigh, 
M.A., F.RB.S. 


Secretaries 


J. P. Hennessy, Prof. Maxwell, H. 


J. 8. Smith, Prof. Stevelly. 

Rev. G. C. Bell, Rev. T. Rennison, 
Prof. Stevelly. 

Prof. R. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. S. 
Smith, Prof. Stevelly. 

Prof. R.. B. Clifton, Prof. H. J. 8S. 
Smith, Prof. Stevelly. 

Rev.N.Ferrers,Prof.Fuller, F.Jenkin, 
Prof. Stevelly, Rev. C. T. Whitley. 

Prof. Fuller, F. Jenkin, Rey. G. 
Buckle, Prof. Stevelly. 

Rev. T. N. Hutchinson, F. Jenkin, G. 
8. Mathews, Prof. H. J. S. Smith, 
Jd. M. Wilson. 

Fleeming Jenkin, Prof. H.J.S.Smith, 
Rev. 8. N. Swann. 

Rev. G. Buckle, Prof. G. C. Foster, 
Prof. Fuller, Prof. Swan. 

Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. R. Harley, 
R. B. Hayward. 

Prof. G. C. Foster, R. B. Hayward, 
W. K. Clifford. 

Prof. W. G. Adams, W. K. Clifford, 
Prof. G. C. Foster, Rev. W. Allen 
Whitworth. 


..»| Prof. W. G. Adams, J. T. Bottomley, 


Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. J. D. 
Everett, Rev. R. Harley. 

Prof. W. K. Clifford, J. W. L.Glaisher, 
Prof. A. S. Herschel, G. F. Rodwell. 

Prof. W. K. Clifford, Prof. Forbes, J. 
W.L. Glaisher, Prof. A.S. Herschel. 

J. W. L. Glaisher, Prof. Herschel, 
Randal Nixon, J. Perry, G. F. 
Rodwell. 

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J.W.L. Glaisher, 
C. T. Hudson, G. F. Rodwell. 

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley, 
Prof. G. Forbes, J. W. L. Glaisher, 
T. Muir. 

Prof. W. F. Barrett, J. T. Bottomley, 
J. W..L. Glaisher, F. G. Landon. 
Prof. J. Casey, G. F. Fitzgerald, J. 
W. L. Glaisher, Dr. O. J. Lodge. 
A. H. Allen, J. W. L. Glaisher, Dr. 

O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister. 

W. E. Ayrton, J. W. L. Glaisher, 
Dr. O. J. Lodge, D. MacAlister. 
Prof. W. E. Ayrton, Prof. O. J. Lodge, 
D. MacAlister, Rev. W. Routh. 
W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge, 

D. MacAlister, Rev. G. Richardson. 


Prof. O. Henrici, Ph.D., F.R.S.,|W. M. Hicks, Prof. O. J. Lodge, 


D. MacAlister, Prof. R. C. Rowe. 


Prof. Sir W. Thomson, M.A.,!C. Carpmael, W. M. Hicks, Prof. A. 


LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S 


Prof. G. Chrystal, 
F.R.S.E. 


Johnson, Prof. O. J. Lodge, Dr. D. 
MacAlister. 


M.A.,|R. E. Baynes, R. T. Glazebrook, Prof. 


W. M. Hicks, Prof. W. Ingram. 


a 


PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. 


COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, II.—CHEMISTRY, 


xlv 


CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 


Date and Place 


1832. 
1833. 
1834. 


1835. 
1836, 


1837. 


Oxford.. 
Cambr idge e | 
Edinburgh 


Liverpool... 


1838. Newcastle 


1839. Birmingham 


1840. 
1841. 
1842. 
1843. 
1844. 
1845. 
1846. 
1847. 
1848. 
1849. 
1850. 
1851. 
1852. 
1853. 
1854. 
1855. 
1856. 
1857. 
1858. 
1859. 
1860. 


1861. 
1862. 


1863. 
1864. 


Glasgow ... 
Plymouth.. 


Manchester 


Cambridge 


Southamp- 
ton 
Oxford...... 


Swansea ... 
Birmingham 
Edinburgh 
Ipswich 
Belfast...... 


Liverpool 
Glasgow ... 
Cheltenham 


Dublin 


seeeee 


Manchester 
Cambridge 


Newcastle 


1865. Birmingham 


.|Dr. Daubeny, F.R.S. 


Presidents 


MINERALOGY. 


Secretaries 


C.L 


- John Dalton, D .» F.R.S. |James F. W. Johnston. 
| John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S, | Prof. Miller. 
Dr. LGD Grcendave sch ctcaocsavecesoe Mr. Johnston, Dr Christison. 


SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY. 


Dr. E, “‘Mhomison, WBS. .c.cce 
Rey. Prof. Cumming 


eee eens 


Michael Faraday, F.R.S....... 


Rev. William Whewell,F.R.S. 


Prot, T..Graham, HRS. ...2.< 
Dr. Thomas Thomson, F.R.S. 


John Dalton, D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Prof. Apjohn, M.R.I.A......... 

Prot, T. Graham, IRS: ...6. 

Rev. Prof. Cumming ......... 

Michael Faraday, D.C.L., 
F.R.S. 

Rev. W. V. Harcourt, M.A., 
F.R.S. 

Richard Phillips, F.R.S. ...... 

John Percy, M.D., F.R.S....... 

Dr. Christison, V.P.R.S.E. 


...| Prof. Thomas Graham, F.R.S. 


Thomas Andrews, M.D.,F.R. 


Prof. J. F. W. Johnston, M.A., 
F.R.S, 


Prof.W. A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S. 
Dr. Lyon Playfair,C.B.,F.R.S. 


Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S. 


Prof. Apjohn, M.D., F.B.S., 


M.R.LA. 


Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., 


D.C.L. 


.| Dr. Lyon Playfair, C.B., F.R.S, 


Prof. B. C. Brodie, F.R.S... 


Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D.,F.R.S. 
Prof. W.A.Miller, M.D. F. B.S. 


Dr. Alex. W. Williamson, 
E.R.S. 

W.Odling, M.B.,F.R.S.,F.C.S. 

Prof. W. A. Miller, M.D., 
V.P-E-S, 


.|J. Horsley, P. J. Worsley, 


Dr. Apjohn, Prof. Johnston. 


\Dr. Apjohn, Dr. C. Henry, W. Hera- 


path. 

Prof, Johnston, 
Reynolds. 

Prof. Miller, H. L. Pattinson, Thomas 
Richardson. 

Dr. Golding Bird, Dr. J. B. Melson. 

Dr. R. D. Thomson, Dr. 'T. Clark, 
Dr. L. Playfair. 

J. Prideaux, Robert Hunt, 
Tweedy. 

Dr. L. Playfair, R. Hunt, J. Graham. 

R. Hunt, Dr. Sweeny. 

Dr. L, Playfair, E. Solly, T. H. Barker. 

R. Hunt, J. P. Joule, Prof. Miller, 
E. Solly. 

Dr. Miller, R. Hunt, W. Randall. 


Prof. Miller, Dr. 


Wie WE. 


B. C. Brodie, R. Hunt, Prof. Solly. 


T. H. Henry, R. Hunt, T. Williams. 
R. Hunt, G. Shaw. 

Dr. Anderson, R. [{unt, Dr. Wilson. 
T. J. Pearsall, W. S. Ward. 


8.|Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Hodges, Prof. 


Ronalds. 

H. 8. Blundell, Prof. R. Hunt, T. J. 
Pearsall. 

Dr.Edwards, Dr.Gladstone, Dr.Price. 

Prof. Frankland, Dr. H. E. Roscoe. 

Prof. 
Voelcker. 

Dr. Davy, Dr. Gladstone, Prof. Sul- 
livan. 

Dr. Gladstone, W. Odling, R. Rey- 
nolds. 

J. 8. Brazier, Dr. Gladstone, G. D. 
Liveing, Dr. Odling. 


..|A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing, 


A. B. Northcote. 
A. Vernon Harcourt, G. D. Liveing. 
ES Wis Elphinstone, 'W. Odling, Prof. 
Roscoe. 
Prof. Liveing, H. L. Pattinson, J. C. 
Stevenson. 
A.V.Harcourt,Prof.Liveing,R. Biggs. 
AS, Ve, Har court, H. Adkins, Prof. 
Wanklyn, A. Winkler Wills. 


xlvi 


REPORT—1885. 


Date and Place 


Presidents Secretaries 


1866. 
1867. 
1868. 
1869. 


1870. 
1871. 
1872. 
1873. 
1874. 
1875. 
1876. 
1877. 
1878, 
1879. 
1880. 


1881. 
1882. 
1883. 
1884. 
1885. 


Nottingham 
Dundee 
Norwich . 
Exeter ...... 
Liverpool... 
Edinburgh 
Brighton ... 
Bradford ... 
Belfast...... 
Bristol ...... 
Glasgow ... 
Plymouth... 
Dublin...... 
Sheffield ... 


Swansea ... 


Southamp- 
ton. 
Southport 


Montreal . 


Aberdeen... 
| 
| 


... | Prof. 
.|Prof. E. Frankland, F.R.S.. 


J. H. Atherton, Prof. Liveing, W. J. 
Russell, J. White. 

A. Crum Brown, Prof. G. D. Liveing, 
W. J. Russell. 

Dr. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. Rus- 
sell, F. Sutton. 

Prof. A. Crum Brown, Dr. W. J. 
Russell, Dr. Atkinson. 

Prof. A. Crum Brown, A. E. Fletcher, 
Dr. W. J. Russell. 

J.T. Buchanan, W. N. Hartley, T 

| EH. Thorpe. 

.| Dr. Mills, W. Chandler Roberts, Dr. 

W. J. Russell, Dr. T. Wood. 

.| Dr. Armstrong, Dr. Mills, W. Chand- 

| ler Roberts, Dr. Thorpe. 

Prof. A. Crum Brown, M.D., Dr. T. Cranstoun Charles, W. Chand- 


H. Bence Jones, M.D., F.R.S. | 


T. Anderson, M.D., 
F.R.S.E. 


F.C.S. 
Dr. H. Debus, F.R.S., F.C.S. 


Prof. H. E. Roscoe, B.A., 


F.R.S., F.C.S. 
Prof. T., Andrews, M.D., F.R.S. 
Dr, J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S... 


Prof. W. J. Russell, F.R.S... 


F.R.S.E., F.C.S. ler Roberts, Prof. Thorpe. 
A. G. Vernon Harcourt, M.A., Dr. H. E. Armstrong, W. Chandler 
F.RB.S., F.C.S. Roberts, W. A. Tilden. 


W. Dittmar, W. Chandler Roberts, 
J. M. Thomson, W. A. Tilden. 

Dr. Oxland, W. Chandler Roberts, 
J. M. Thomson. 

Prof. Maxwell Simpson, M.D.,' W. Chandler Roberts, J. M. Thom- 
F.R.S., F.C.S. son, Dr. C. R. Tichborne, T. Wills. 

Prof. Dewar, M.A., F.R.S.  |H. 8. Beli, W. Chandler Roberts, J. 

M. Thomson. 

'H. B. Dixon, Dr. W. R. Eaton Hodg- 

kinson, P. Phillips Bedson, J. M. 


W. H. Perkin, F-B.S. ......c0 
F, A. Abel, F.R.S., F.C.8. ...: 


Joseph Henry Gilbert, Ph.D., 
F.R.S. 


Thomson, 
Prof. A. W. Williamson, Ph.D.,|P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, 
F.R.S. : T. Gough. 
‘Prof. G. D. Liveing, M.A., P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, 
F.B.S. | J. L. Notter. 
Dr. J. H. Gladstone, F.R.S... Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. 


Dixon, H. Forster Morley. 
see Sir H. E. Roscoe, Ph.D., Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. ‘B. Dixon, 
LL.D., F.R.S. T. McFarlane, Prof. W. H. Pike. 
. Prof. H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D., Prof. P. Phillips Bedson, H. B. Dixon, 
F.R.S., Sec. C.S. | H. Forster Morley, Dr. W. J. 
Simpson. 


GEOLOGICAL (anv, unt 1851, GEOGRAPHICAL) SCIENCE. 


1832. 
1833. 
1834. 


1835. 
1836. 


1837. 


COMMIT’ 


Oxford ....0 
Cambridge. 
Edinburgh . 7 


noliNs... 2s 
Bristol ...... 


Liverpool... 


TEE OF SCIENCES, III.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY. 

R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......; John Taylor. 

G. B. Greenough, F.R.S. . Leen Lonsdale, John Phillips. 

Prof. 5 arn |Prof. Phillips, T. Jameson Torrie, 
| Rev. J. Yates. 


SECTION C.—GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY, 
ore GQOUUIGl 2oc03:0.c0e, secs estes ; Captain Portlock, T. J. Torrie. 
Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.—| William Sanders, 8. Stutchbury, 
ae aphy, R. I. Murchison, | T. J. Torrie. 
F.R.S. 


Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S.— | Captain Portlock, R. Hunter.—G’eo- 
Geograph y, G.B.Greenough, graphy, Captain H. M. Denham, 
F.R.S. R.N. 


a 


tes ee 


| 


PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. 


xlvii 


Date and Place 


Presidents 


Secretaries 


1838 
1839 


1841. 


1842 
1843 


1844, 
1845. 


1846 


1847 
1848 
1849 
1850 


1851 
1852 


1853 
1854 


1855 
1856 


1857. 
1858. 


1859 


1860. 


1861 
1862 


40. 


. Newcastle. . 


. Birmingham 


Glasgow ... 


Plymouth... 
, Manchester 


Cambridge. 


Southamp- 
tor. 


Oxford 


. Swansea... 


.Birmingham 


. Edinburgh! 


. Ipswich ... 
. Belfast 


1300 eee 
. Liverpool.. 


. Glasgow ... 


. Cheltenham 


. Manchester 


. Cambridge 


Ce lyell? FIRS.,0V-E:G.S.— 
Geography, Lord Prudhope. 

Rev. Dr. Buckland, F.R.S.— 
Geography, G.B.Greenough, 
F.R.S. 


Charles Lyell, F.R.S.— Geo- 
graphy, G. B. Greenough, 
F.R.S. 

H. T. De la Beche, F.R.S. . 


R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ...... 

Richard E. Griffith, F.R.S., 
M.R.LA. 

Henry Warburton, M.P., Pres. 
Geol. Soc. 

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, M.A., 


F.R.S. 

Leonard Horner,F.R.S.—- Geo- 
graphy, G. B. Greenough, 
F.R.S. 

Very Rev.Dr.Buckland,F.R.8. 


Sir H. T. De la Beche, C.B., 
F.R.S. 
Sir Charles 
F.G.S. 
Sir Roderick I. Murchison, 

F.R.S. 


Lyell, F.R.S., 


SECTION © (continued). 
WilliamHopkins, M.A.,F.B.S. | 


Lieut.-Col. 
F.R.S. 
Prof. Sedgwick, F.R.S......... | 
Prof. Edward Forbes, F,R.8. | 


Portlock, R.E., 


Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.... | 
Prof. A. C. Ramsay, F.R.S.... 


The Lord Talbot de Malahide 


William Hopkins,M.A.,LL.D., 
F.R.S. 

Sir Charles Lyell, 
D.C.L., F.R.S. 

Rev. Prof. Sedgwick, LL.D., 
F.R.S., F.G.S. 

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L., 
LL.D., F.R.S. 

J. Beete Jukes, M.A., F.R.S. 


ih Be 


W.C. Trevelyan, Capt. Portlock.— 
Geography, Capt. Washington. 
George Lloyd, M.D., H. E. Strick- 

land, Charles Darwin. 


W. J. Hamilton, D. Milne, Hugh 
Murray, H. E. Strickland, John 
Scoular, M.D. 


.|W.J. Hamilton, Edward Moore, M.D., 


R. Hutton. 

E. W. Binney, R. Hutton, Dr. R. 
Lloyd, H. E. Strickland. 

Francis M. Jennings, H. E. Strick- 
land, 

Prof. Ansted, E. H. Bunbury. 


Rev. J. C. Cumming, A. C. Ramsay, 
Rev. W. Thorp. 

Robert A. Austen, Dr. J. H. Norton, 
Prof. Oldham.— Geography, Dr. C. 
T. Beke. 

Prof. Ansted, Prof. Oldham, A. C. 
Ramsay, J. Ruskin. 
Starling Benson, Prof. 

Prof. Ramsay. 

J. Beete Jukes, Prof. Oldham, Prof. 
A. C. Ramsay. 

A, Keith Johnston, Hugh Miller, 
Prof. Nicol. 


Oldham, 


— GEOLOGY. 


Cc. J. F. Bunbury, G. W. Ormerod, 
Searles Wood. 

James Bryce, James MacAdam, 
Prof. M‘Coy, Prof. Nicol. 

Prof. Harkness, William Lawton. 
John Cunningham, Prof. Harkness, 
G. W. Ormerod, J. W. Woodall. 
James Bryce, Prof. Harkness, Prof. 

Nicol. 

Rev. P. B. Brodie, Rev. R. Hep- 
worth, Edward Hull, J. Scougall, 
T. Wright. 

Prof. Harkness, Gilbert Sanders, 
Robert H. Scott. 

Prof. Nicol, H. C. Sorby, E. W. 
Shaw. 

Prof. Harkness, Rev. J. Longmuir, 
H. C. Sorby. 

Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, Capt. 
D. C. L. Woodall. 

Prof. Harkness, Edward Hull, T. 
Rupert Jones, G. W. Ormerod. 
Lucas Barrett, Prof. T. Rupert 

Jones, H. C. Sorby. 


1 Ata meeting of the General Committee held in 1850, it was resolved ‘ That 
the subject of Geography be separated from Geology and combined with Ethnology, 
to constitute a separate Section, under the title of the “Geographical and Ethno- 
logical Section,”’’ for Presidents and Secretaries of which see page lii. 


xlvili REPORT— 1885. 


Date and Place Presidents Secretaries 

1863. Newcastle |Prof. Warington W. Smyth, EB F. PEEL gee Daglish, H. C. 
F.B.S., F.G.S8. Sorby, Thomas Sopwith, 

1864. Bath......... Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,| W. B. Dawkins, J. Johnston, H. C. 
E.RBS., F.G.S. | Sorby, W. Pengelly. 

1865. Birmingham|Sir R. I. Murchison, Bart.,| Rev. P. B. Brodie, J. Jones, Rev. E. 
K.C.B. Myers, H. C. Sorby, W. Pengelly. 

1866. Nottingham|Prof. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., R. Etheridge, W. Pengelly, T. Wil- 
F.R.S. scr, G. H. Wright. 

1867. Dundee ...}/Archibald Geikie, F.R.S.,|Edward Hull, W. Pengelly, Henry 
F.G.8. Woodward. 

1868, Norwich ...|R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,| Rev. O, Fisher, Rev. J. Gunn, W. 
F.R.S., F.G.S. Pengelly, Rev. H. H. Winwood. 

1869. Exeter ...... Prof. R. Harkness, F.R.S.,,W. Pengelly, W. Boyd Dawkins, 
F.G,8. Rey. H. H. Winwood. 

1870. Liverpool.,.|Sir Philipde M.Grey Egerton, W. Pengeliy, Rev. H. H. Winwood, 
Bart., M.P., F.R.S. W. Boyd Dawkins, G. H. Morton. 

1871. Edinburgh | Prof. A. Geikie, F.R.S., F.G.S.| R. Etheridge, J. Geikie, T. McKenny 

Hughes, L. C. Miall. 
1872. Brighton...}R. A. C. Godwin-Austen,|L. C. Miall, George Scott, William 


F.R.S., F.G.S. | Topley, Henry Woodward. 

1873. Bradford ...|Prof. J. Phillips, D.C.L.,)L. C. Miall, R. H. Tiddeman, W. 
F.R.S., F.G.S. | Topley. 

1874. Belfast...... Prof. Hull, M.A., F.R.S.,|F. Drew, L. C. Miall, R. G. Symes, 
F.G.S. R. H. Tiddeman. 

1875. Bristol...... Dr. Thomas Wright, F.R.S.E., L. C. Miall, E. B, Tawney, W. Top- 
F.G.5. ley. 

1876. Glasgow ...|Prof. John Young, M.D. ...... J. Armstrong, F. W. Rudler, W 

Topley. 
1877. Plymouth...|W. Pengelly, F.B.S.........060. Dr. Le Neve Foster, R. H. Tidde- 
man, W. Topley. 

1878. Dublin...... John Evans, D.C.L., F.R.S., E. T. Hardman, Prof. J. O’Reilly, 
F.S.A., F.G.S. R. H. Tiddeman. 

1879. Sheftield ...| Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B., W. Topley, G. Blake Walker. 
F.R.S., F.G.S. 

1880. Swansea ...|H. C. Sorby, LL.D., F.R.S.,) W. Topley, W. Whitaker. 
F.G.S. 

TSS VOUKS. case. A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S., J. E. Clark, W. Keeping, W. Topley, 
F.G.S. W. Whitaker. 

1882. Southamp- |R. Etheridge, F.R.S., F.G.S. T. W. Shore, W. Topley, E. West- 

ton. ‘ | lake, W. Whitaker. 

1883. Southport |Prof. W. C. Williamson, R. Betley, C. E. De Rance, W. Top- 
LL.D., F.R.S. | ley, W. Whitaker. 

1884. Montreal ...|W. T. Blanford, F.RS., Sec. F. Adams, Prof. E. W. Claypole, W. 
G.S. Topley, W. Whitaker. 


1885. Aberdeen ...|Prof. J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.|C. E. De Rance, J. Horne, J. J. H. 
G.S. | Teall, W. Topley. 


BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. 


COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, IV.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY, PHYSIOLOGY, ANATOMY. 


1832. Oxford...... |Rev. P. B. Duncan, F.G. Be | Rem Prof. J. 8. Henslow. 
1833. Cambridge! Rev. W. L. P. Garnons, F.L LS.| C. C. Babington, D. Don. 
1834. Edinburgh .| Prof. Graham..................00. |W. Yarrell, ‘Prof. Burnett. 


1 At this Meeting Physiology and Anatomy were made a separate Committee, 
for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p, li. 


Se a ee 


PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. xlix 


SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY. 


Date and Place | Presidents Secretaries 
—EE———————_— 
1835. Dublin...... [Dire WUE Raa Sao eAaiere oe J. Curtis, Dr. Litton. 
1836. Bristol...... | Rev. Prof. Henslow ........... J. Curtis, Prof. Don, Dr. Riley, 8. 
| Rootsey. 
1837. Liverpool...) W. S. MacLeay...........sseece C. C. Babington, Rev. L, Jenyns, W. 
Swainson. 
1838. Newcastle Sir W. Jardine, Bart. ......... J. E. Gray, Prof. Jones, R. Owen, 
| Dr. Richardson. 
1839. Birmingham | Prof. Owen, F.R.S. ............ E. Forbes, W. Ick, R. Patterson. 
1840. Glasgow ... Sir W. J. Hooker, LL.D....... Prof. W. Couper, E. Forbes, R. Pat- 
terson. 
1841. Plymouth... John Richardson, M.D., F.R.S.|J.Couch, Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson. 


1842. Manchester Hon. and Very Rev. W. Her-|Dr. Lankester, R. Patterson, J. A. 


bert, LL.D., F.L.S. Turner. 
1843, Cork......... William Thompson, F.L.S....|G. J. Allman, Dr. Lankester, R. 
Patterson. 
1844, York......... Very Rev. the Dean of Man-| Prof. Allman, H. Goodsir, Dr. King, 
chester. Dr. Lankester. 


1845. Cambridge Rey. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S...,| Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston. 
1846. Southamp- |Sir J. Richardson, M.D., |Dr. Lankester, T. V. Wollaston, H. 


ton. | IRS! Wooldridge. 
1847. Oxford...... 'H. E. Strickland, M.A., F.R.S.| Dr. Lankester, Dr. Melville, T. V. 
Wollaston. 


SECTION D (continued).—ZOOLUGY AND BOTANY, INCLUDING PHYSIOLOGY. 


[For the Presidents and Secretaries of the Anatomical and Physiological Subsec- 
tions and the temporary Section E of Anatomy and Medicine, see p. li.] 


1848. Swansea ...'L. W. Dillwyn, F.R.S.......... Dr. R. Wilbraham Falconer, A. Hen- 
frey, Dr. Lankester. 
1849. Birmingham | William Spence, F.R.S. ......| Dr. Lankester, Dr. Russell. 


1850. Edinburgh /|Prof. Goodsir, F.R.S. L. & E. | Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., Dr. Lane 
kester, Dr. Douglas Maclagan. 
1851. Ipswich ...|Rev. Prof. Henslow, M.A., | Prof. Allman, F. W. Johnston, Dr. E, 


F.R.S. Lankester. 
1852. Belfast...... Wis CUD Vie cnewtanacvasmaacndecens Dr. Dickie, George C. Hyndman, Dr. 
Edwin Lankester. 
ards FLU) ......00s C..C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.| Robert Harrison, Dr. E. Lankester. 


1854. Liverpool...|Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....|Isaac Byerley, Dr. E. Lankester. 

1855. Glasgow ...|Rev. Dr. Fleeming, F.R.S.E. | William Keddie, Dr. Lankester. 

1856. Cheltenham |} Thomas Bell, F.R.S., Pres.L.S.| Dr. J. Abercrombie, Prof. Buckman, 
Dr. Lankester. 


1857. Dublin...... Prof. W. H. Harvey, M.D.,| Prof. J. R. Kinahan, Dr. E. Lankester, 
F.R.S. Robert Patterson, Dr. W. E. Steele. 
1858. Leeds ...... C. C. Babington, M.A., F.R.S.|Henry Denny, Dr. Heaton, Dr. E. 


Lankester, Dr. E. Perceval Wright. 
1859. Aberdeen...|Sir W. Jardine, Bart., F.R.S.E. | Prof. Dickie, M.D., Dr. E. Lankester, 
Dr. Ogilvy. 
1860. Oxford...... Rev. Prof. Henslow, F.L.S....|W. S. Church, Dr. E. Lankester, P. 
L. Sclater, Dr. E. Perceval Wright. 
1861. Manchester | Prof. C. C. Babington, F.R.S.|Dr. T. Aleock, Dr. E. Lankester, Dr. 
P. L. Sclater, Dr. E. P. Wright. 
1862. Cambridge |Prof. Huxley, F.R.S. ......... Alfred Newton, Dr. E. P. Wright. 
1863. Newcastle |Prof. Balfour, M.D., F.R.S....|Dr. E. Charlton, A. Newton, Rev. H. 
B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright. 
1864. Bath......... Dr. John H. Gray, F.R.S. ...}H. B. Brady, C. E. Broom, H. T. 
Stainton, Dr. E. P. Wright. 
1865. Birmingham|T. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. ...| Dr. J. Anthony, Rev. C. Clarke, Rev. 
H. B. Tristram, Dr. E. P. Wright. 


1885. c 


REPORI—1885. 


SECTION D (continued),—BroLoey.! 


Date and Place Presidents Secretaries 


1866. 


1867. 


1868. 


1869. 


1870. 


1871. 


1872. 


1873. 


1874. 


1875, 


1876. 


1877. 


Nottingham | Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.|Dr. J. Beddard, W. Felkin, Rev. H. 
—Physiological Dep. Prof.| B. Tristram, W. Turner, E. B. 
Humphry, M.D., F.R.S.—| Tylor, Dr. E. P. Wright. 
Anthropological Dep., Alf. 

R. Wallace, F.R.G.S. 

Dundee ...| Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec. R.S.|C. Spence Bate, Dr. S. Cobbold, Dr. 
—Dep. of Zool. and Bot.,| M. Foster, H. T. Stainton, Rev. H. 
George Busk, M.D., F.R.S. B. Tristram, Prof. W. Turner. 

Norwich ...|Rev. M. J. Berkeley, F.L.S.| Dr. T. S. Cobbold, G. W. Firth, Dr. 
—Dep. of Physiology, W.| M. Foster, Prof. Lawson, H. T. 
H. Flower, F.R.S. Stainton, Rev. Dr. H. B. Tristram, 

Dr. E. P. Wright. d 

Exeter...... George Busk, F.R.S., F.L.8.|Dr. T. 8S. Cobbold, Prof. M. Foster, 
—LDep. of Bot. and Zool.,| E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson, 
C. Spence Bate, F.R.S.—| H. T Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tris- 
Dep. of Ethno., E. B. Tylor.| tram. 

Liverpool... | Prof.G. Rolleston, M.A., M.D.,|Dr. T. 8. Cobbold, Sebastian Evans, 
F.R.S., F.L.8.— Dep. of| Prof. Lawson, Thos. J. Moore, H. 
Anat. and Physiol.,Prof.M.| TT. Stainton, Rev. H. B. Tristram, 
Foster, M.D., F.L.8.—Dep.| C. Staniland Wake, E. Ray Lan- 
of Ethno., J. Evans, F.R.S. kester. 

Edinburgh |Prof. Allen Thomson, M.D.,| Dr. T. R. Fraser, Dr. Arthur Gamgee, 
F.R.S.—Dep. of Bot. and| E. Ray Lankester, Prof. Lawson, 
Zool.,Prof.WyvilleThomson,| H.T. Stainton, C. Staniland Wake, 
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,| Dr. W. Rutherford, Dr. Kelburne 
Prof. W. Turner, M.D. King. 

Brighton ...|SirJ. Lubbock, Bart.,F.R.S.—| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, H. T. Stainton, 
Dep. of Anat. and Physiol.,| Prof. Lawson, F. W. Rudler, J. H. 
Dr. Burdon Sanderson,! Lamprey, Dr. Gamgee, E. Ray 
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol.,| Lankester, Dr. Pye-Smith. 

Col. A. Lane Fox, F.G.S. 

Bradford ...| Prof. Allman, F.R.S.—Dep. of| Prof. Thiselton-Dyer, Prof. Lawson, 
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof.Ru-| R. M‘Lachlan, Dr. Pye-Smith, E. 
therford, M.D.—Dep.of An-| Ray Lankester, F. W. Rudler, J. 
thropol., Dr. Beddoe, F.R.S.| H. Lamprey. 

Belfast ...... Prof. Redfern, M.D.—Dep. of'| W.T. Thiselton- Dyer, R. O. Cunning- 
Zool. and Bot., Dr. Hooker,| ham, Dr. J. J. Charles, Dr. P. H. 
C.B.,Pres.R.S.—Dep.ofAn-| Pye-Smith, J. J. Murphy, F. W. 
throp., Sir W.R.Wilde, M.D.| Rudler. 

Bristol... P. L. Sclater, F.R.S.— Dep. of| E. R. Alston, Dr. MeKendrick, Prof. 
Anat.and Physiol.,Prof.Cle-| W.R. M‘Nab, Dr. Martyn, F. W. 
land, M.D., F.R.S.-—Dep. of|  Rudler, Dr. P. H. Pye-Smith, Dr. 
Anthropol., Prof. Rolleston,| W. Spencer. 

M.D., F.B.S. 

Glasgow ...|A. Russel Wallace, F.R.G.S.,)E. R. Alston, Hyde Clarke, Dr. 
F.L.S.—Dep. of Zool. and\| Knox, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Dr. 
Bot., Prof. A. Newton, M.A.,|_ Muirhead, Prof. Morrison Wat- 
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and| son. 

Physiol., Dr. J. G. McKen- 
drick, F.R.S.E. 

Plymouth... | J.GwynJeftreys, LL.D.,F.R.S.,]E. R. Alston, F. Brent, Dr. D. J 
P.L.S.— Dep. of Anat. and| Cunningham, Dr. C. A. Hingston, 
Physiol., Prof. Macalister,} Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, J. B. Rowe, 
M.D.—Dep. of Anthropol.,| ¥F. W. Rudler. 

Francis Galton, M.A.,F.R.S. 


1 At a meeting of the General Committee in 1865, it was resolved :—‘ That the title 
of Section D be changed to Biology ;’ and ‘That for the word “Subsection,” in the 
rules for conducting the business of the Sections, the word “ Department” be substituted.’ 


PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. 


li 


Date and Place 


1878, Dublin ...... 
1879. Sheffield ... 


1880. Swansea ... 


2881. York......... 


1882. Southamp- 
ton. 


1883. Southport! 


2 
f 
1884. Montreal?... 
1885. Aberdeen... 


|Prof. H. N. Moseley, M.A., 


1833. Cambridge 
1834, Edinburgh | 


1841. Plymouth... 


: 

of Zoology and Botany and of Anatomy and Physiology were amalgamated. 

__ * By authority of the General Committee, Anthropology was made a separate 
Section, for Presidents and Secretaries of which see p. lvii. 


.|James Watson, M.D. 


Presidents 


Secretaries 


Prof. W. H. Flower, F.R.S.— | 
Dep. of Anthropol., Prof. ' 
Huxley, Sec. R.S.—Dep. 
of Anat. and Physiol. R.} 
MeDonnell, M.D., F.R.S. 

Prof. St. George Mivart,! 
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol., | 
E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.RB.S.| 
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy- 
siol., Dr, Pye-Smith. 

A. C. L. Giinther, M.D., F.RB.S. | 
—Dep. of Anat. and Phy- 
siol., F. M. Balfour, M.A., 
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anthropol., 
F, W. Rudler, F.G.S. 

Richard Owen, C.B., M.D., 
F.R.S.—Dep.of Anthropol., 
Prof. W. H. Flower, LL.D., 
F.R.S.—Dep. of Anat. and 
Physiol., Prof. J. S. Burdon 
Sanderson, M.D., F.R.S. 

Prof. A. Gamgee, M.D., F.R.S.! 
— Dep. of Zool. and Bot., 
Prof. M. A. Lawson, M.A., 
F.L.S.—Dep. of Anthropol, 
Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, 
M.A., F.RB.S. 

Prof. E. Ray Lankester, M.A., 
F.R.S.— Dep. of Anthropol.,| 
W. Pengelly, F.R.S. 


F.B.S. 
Prof. W. C. McIntosh, M.D., 
LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E. 


Dr. Pritchard 
DreRogeby HERS. 2..0.eccc0s «s 


| Protaw.) Clarks (MIDS i402. 


Dr. R. J. Harvey, Dr. T. Hayden, 
Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, Prof. J. M. 
Purser, J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler. 


Arthur Jackson, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, 
J. B. Rowe, F. W. Rudler, Prof. 
Schiifer. 


G. W. Bloxam, John Priestley, 
Howard Saunders, Adam Sedg- 
wick. 


G. W. Bloxam, W. A. Forbes, Rev. 
W. C. Hey, Prof. W. R. M‘Nab, 
W. North, John Priestley, Howard 
Saunders, H. E. Spencer. 


G. W. Bloxam, W. Heape, J. B. 
Nias, Howard Saunders, A. Sedg- 
wick, T. W. Shore, jun. 


G. W. Bloxam, Dr. G. J. Haslam, 
W. Heape, W. Hurst, Prof. A. M. 
Marshall, Howard Saunders, Dr. 
G. A. Woods. 

Prof. W. Osler, Howard Saunders, A. 
Sedgwick, Prof. R. R. Wright. 

W. Heape, J. McGregor-Robertson, 
J. Duncan Matthews, Howard 
Saunders, H. Marshall Ward. 


ANATOMICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. 
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, V.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY. 


Dr. Bond, Mr. Paget. 
Dr. Roget, Dr. William Thomson. 


SECTION E (UNTIL 1847).—ANATOMY AND MEDICINE. 


Dr. Harrison, Dr. Hart. 

Dr. Symonds. 

Dr. J. Carson, jun., James Long, 
Dr. J. R. W. Vose. 


T. E. Headlam, M.D. ......... T. M. Greenhow, Dr. J. R. W. Vose. 


John Yelloly, M.D., F.R.S.... 


Sen 


P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. B.S. 


Dr. G. O. Rees, F. Ryland. 

Dr. J. Brown, Prof. Couper, Prof. 
Reid. 

Dr. J. Butter, J. Fuge, Dr. R. 8 
Sargent. 


' By direction of the General Committee at Southampton (1882) the Departments 


c2 


lii 


REPORT—188 


5. 


SECTION E.—PHYSIOLOGY. 


Date and Place 


Presidents 


1842. 
1843. 


1844 


1845. 
1846. 


1847. 


1848 
1849 
1850 


1851. 


1852 


1853. 
1854. 
1855. 
1856. 
1857. 


ae 


Manchester 
Cork 
York 
Cambridge 
Southamp- 
ton. 
Oxford? .. 


see eeeeee 


. Edinburgh 
. Glasgow ... 
. Dublin 
. Leeds 


. Aberdeen... 
. Oxford 


. Manchester 
. Cambridge 


. Newcastle 


see eeeees 


. Birming- 


ham 


Secretaries 


Edward Holme, M.D., F.L.S. 
Sir James Pitcairn, M.D. . 
JG; Pritchard, M.D. treacceee 
Prof, J. Haviland, M.D. ...... 
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. 


-|Prof. Ogle, M.D., F.B.S........ 


PHYSIOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION 


Prof. Bennett, M.D., F.R.S.E. 
Prof. Allen Thomson, F.R.S. 


‘Prof. R. Harrison, M.D. ...... 
\Sir Benjamin Brodie, Bart., 


F.R.S. 
| Prof. Sharpey, M.D., Sec.R.S. 
|Prof. G. Rolleston, M.D., 
F.L.S. 


Dr. John Davy, F.R.S.L.& E. 

GAM PPare ts Nisei snsess ote nce 

Prof. Rolleston, M.D., F.R.S. 

Dr. Edward Smith, LL.D., 
F.R.S. 


| Dr. Chaytor, Dr. R. 8. Sargent. 


..| Dr. John Popham, Dr. R. 8. Sargent. 


I. Erichsen, Dr. R. 8. Sargent. 
Dr. R. 8. Sargent, Dr. Webster. 


.|C. P. Keele, Dr. Laycock, Dr. Sar-- 


gent. 
Dr. Thomas K. Chambers, W. P.. 
Ormerod. 


Dz. 


Prof. J. H. Corbett, Dr. J. Struthers... 
Dr. R. D. Lyons, Prof. Redfern. 
C. G. Wheelhouse. 


Prof. Bennett, Prof. Redfern. 

Dr. R. M‘Donnell, Dr. Edward’ 
Smith. 

Dr. W. Roberts, Dr. Edward Smith. 

G. F. Helm, Dr. Edward Smith. 

Dr. D. Embleton, Dr. W. Turner. 

J.S. Bartrum, Dr. W. Turner. 


Prof. Acland, M.D., LL.D., 
F.R.S. 


Dr. A. Fleming, Dr. P. Heslop, 
Oliver Pembleton, Dr. W. Turner... 


GEOGRAPHICAL AND ETHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES. 


[For Presidents and Secretaries for Geography previous to 1851, see Section C,,. 
p. xlvi.] 


Oxford! x2..: 
. Swansea 
. Birmingham 


ETHNOLOGICAL SUBSECTIONS OF SECTION 


1846.Southampton| Dr. Pritchard 
1847. 


Pee ee eee eee eee reer rey 


Prof. H. H. Wilson, M.A. 


PPeee eer eee reerereerrrrrrrr errr reer ar 


dD. 
| Dr. King. 


...| Prof. Buckley. 


G. Grant Francis. 
Dr. R. G. Latham. 


. Edinburgh | Vice-Admiral Sir A. Malcolm’ Daniel Wilson. 


Ipswich 
Belfast...... 


Liverpool... 


Glasgow 


.../Sir J. Richardson, 


SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY AND ETHNOLOGY. 


Pres. R.G.S. 


...|Sir R. I. Murchison, F.R.S.,|R. Cull, Rev. J. W. Donaldson, Dr.. 


Norton Shaw. 


Col. Chesney, R.A., D.C.L.;|R. Cull, R. MacAdam, Dr. Norton 


¥.R.S. 
R. G. Latham, M.D., F.R.S. 


Shaw. 
R. Cull, Rev. H..W. Kemp, Dr..— 
Norton Shaw. 


Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,| Richard Cull, Rev. H. Higgins, Dr. 


F.R.S. 
F.R.S. 
K.C.B 


Rev. Dr. J. Henthorn Todd,|R. 


Pres. R.I.A. 


Ihne, Dr. Norton Shaw. 


M.D.,|Dr. W. G. Blackie, R. Cull, Dr. 


Norton Shaw. 


Cheltenham|Col. Sir H. C. Rawlinson,|R. Cull, F. D. Hartland, W. H.- 


Rumsey, Dr. Norton Shaw. 
Cull, S. Ferguson, Dr. R. R.- 
Madden, Dr. Norton Shaw. 


1 By direction of the General Committee at Oxford, Sections D and E were- 
incorporated under the name of ‘Section D—Zoology and Botany, including Phy- - 
siology’ (see p. xlix). The Section being then vacant was assigned in 1851 to- 
Geography. 


2 Vide 


note on page l. 


PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. 


hii 


Date and Place 


Presidents Secretaries 


1858. Leeds ...... Sir R.I. Murchison, G.C.St.8.,]R. Cull, Francis Galton, P. O’Cal- 
E.RB.S. laghan, Dr. Norton Shaw, Thomas 
Wright. 
1859. Aberdeen...|Rear - Admiral Sir James} Richard Cull, Prof.Geddes, Dr. Nor- 
Clerk Ross, D.C.L., F.R.S. ton Shaw. 
1860. Oxford...... Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.,|Capt. Burrows, Dr. J. Hunt, Dr. C. 
F.R.S. Lempriére, Dr. Norton Shaw. 
1861. Manchester | John Crawfurd, F.R.S.......... Dr. J. Hunt, J. Kingsley, Dr. Nor- 
ton Shaw, W. Spottiswoode. 
1862. Cambridge | Francis Galton, F.R.S.......... J. W. Clarke, Rev. J. Glover, Dr. 
Hunt, Dr. Norton Shaw, T. 
Wright. 
1863. Newcastle |Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,|C. Carter Blake, Hume Greenfield, 
F.R.S. C. R. Markham, R. 8. Watson. 
1864. Bath......... Sir R. I. Murchison, K.C.B.,]H. W. Bates, C. R. Markham, Capt. 
F.R.S. R. M. Murchison, T. Wright. 
1865. Birmingham | Major-General Sir H. Raw-|H. W. Bates, 8. Evans, G. Jabet, C. 
linson, M.P., K.C.B., F.R.S.| R. Markham, Thomas Wright. 
1866, Nottingham |Sir Charles Nicholson, Bart.,|H. W. Bates, Rev. E. T. Cusins, R. 


1867. Dundee 


1868. Norwich ... 


— 1869. 
1870. Liverpool... 
1871. 
1872. 


Edinburgh 

Brighton ... 
1873. Bradford ... 
1874. 


1875. 


seeeee 


1876. Glasgow ... 
1877. 
1878. 


Plymouth... 
1879. Sheffield ... 


1880. Swansea ... 


1881. 
1882. 


...|Sir Samuel Baker, F.R.G.S. 


H. Major, Clements R. Markham, 
D. W. Nash, T. Wright. 

H. W. Bates, Cyril Graham, Clements 
R. Markham, 8. J. Mackie, R. 
Sturrock. 

Capt. G. H. Richards, R.N.,|T. Baines, H. W. Bates, Clements R. 
F.R.S. Markham, T. Wright. 


LL.D. 


SECTION E (continued).—GEOGRAPHY. 


Sir Bartle Frere, K.C.B.,)/H. W. Bates, Clements R. Markham, 
LL.D., F.R.G.S. J. H. Thomas. 
Sir R. I. Murchison, Bt.,K.C.B.,|H.W.Bates, David Buxton, Albert J. 
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.,F.G.S.| Mott, Clements R. Markham. 
Colonel Yule, C.B., F.R.G.S. |Clements R. Markham, A. Buchan, 
J. H. Thomas, A. Keith Johnston. 


|Francis Galton, F.R.S.......... H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston, 
Rev. J. Newton, J. H. Thomas. 
Sir Rutherford Alcock, K.C.B.|H. W. Bates, A. Keith Johnston, 


Clements R. Markham. 

Major Wilson, R.E., F.R.S.,|E.G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye, J. H. 
F.R.G.S. Thomas. 

Lieut. - General Strachey,}H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, F. F. 
R.E.,C.S.L,F.R.S.,F.R.G.S.,| Tuckett. 
F.L.S., F.G.S8. 

Capt. Evans, C.B., F.B.S....... H.W: aps E. C. Rye, R. Oliphant 

Wood. 

Adm. Sir E. Ommanney, C.B.,|H. W. Bates, F, E. Fox, E. C. Rye. 
F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.A.S. 

Prof. Sir C. Wyville Thom-|John Coles, E. C. Rye. 
son, LL.D., F.R.S,L.&E. 

Clements R. Markham, C.B.,)H. W. Bates, C. E. D. Black, E. C. 
F.R.S., Sec. R.G.S. Rye. 

Lieut.-Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy,|H. W. Bates, E. C. Rye, 
C.B., K.C.M.G., R.A., F.B.S., 
F.R.G.S. 

Sir J. D. Hooker, K.C.S.I.,|J. W. Barry, H. W. Bates. 
C.B., F.B.S. 

Sir R. Temple, Bart., G.C.S.1.,| E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. Rye. 
F.R.G.S. 


liv 


REPORT— 1885. 


Date and Place | Presidents Secretaries 


1883. 
1884. 


1885. 


1833. 
1834. 


Southport Lieut.-Col. H. H. Godwin-|John Coles, E. G. Ravenstein, E. C. 
| Austen, F.R.S. Rye. 
Montreal ....Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy, C.B.,| Rev. Abbé Laflamme, J.S. O’Halloran,,. 
K.C.M.G., F.B.S.,V.P.8.G.S.| EH. G. Ravenstein, J. F. Torrance 
Aberdeen...| Gen. J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E.,|J. 8. Keltie, J. S. O'Halloran, E. G.. 
LL.D., F.B.S. Ravenstein, Rey. G. A. Smith. 


STATISTICAL SCIENCE. 
COMMITTEE OF SCIENCES, VI.—STATISTICS. 


Cambridge | Prof. Babbage, F.R.S. .. vod. E. Drinkwater. 
Edinburgh | Sir Charles Lemon, Bart....... | Dr. Cleland, C. Hope Maclean, 


SECTION F.—STATISTICS. 


1835. Dublin...... Charles Babbage, F.R.S. . W. Greg, Prof. Longfield. 
1836. Bristol...... Sir Chas. Lemon, Bart., E.RS.|Rev. J. E. Bromby, C. B. Fripp, 
James Heywood. 
1837. Liverpool...| Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon......... W. R. Greg, W. Langton, Dr. W. C. 
Tayler. 
1838. Newcastle |Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. .........| W. Cargill, J. Heywood, W.R. Wood. 
1839. Birmingham] Henry Hallam, F.R.S..........| F. Clarke, R. W. Rawson, Dr. W. C. 
Tayler. 
1840. Glasgow ...| Rt. Hon. Lord Sandon, M.P.,|C. R. Baird, Prof. Ramsay, R. W. 
F.R.S. Rawson. 
1841. Plymouth...| Lieut.-Col. Sykes, F.R.S....... Rev. Dr. Byrth, Rev. R. Luney, R. 
W. Rawson. 
1842. Manchester |G. W. Wood, M.P., F.L.S. ...|Rev. R. Luney, G. W. Ormerod, Dr. 
W. C. Tayler. 
MSA em OOLR venccenes Sir C. Lemon, Bart., M.P. ...| Dr. D. Bullen, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler.. 
1844. York......... Lieut.- Col. Sykes, F.R.S.,|J. Fletcher, J. Heywood, Dr. Lay- 
F.L.S. cock. 
1845. Cambridge | Rt. Hon. the Earl Fitzwilliam|J. Fletcher, Dr. W. Cooke Tayler. 
1846. Southamp- |G. R. Porter, F.R.S. ............ J. Fletcher, F. G. P. Neison, Dr. W.. 
ton. C. Tayler, Rev. T. L. Shapcott. 
1847. Oxford...... Travers Twiss, D.C.L., F.R.S.|Rev. W. H. Cox, J. J. Danson, F. G.. 
P. Neison. 
1848. Swansea ...|J. H. Vivian, M.P., F.R.S. ...|J. Fletcher, Capt. R. Shortrede. 
1849, Birmingham} Rt. Hon. Lord Lyttelton...... Dr. Finch, Prof. Hancock, F. G. P. 
Neison. 
1850. Edinburgh |Very Rev. Dr. John Lee,|Prof. Hancock, J. Fletcher, Dr. J. 
V.P.R.S.E. Stark. 
1851. Ipswich ...|Sir John P. Boileau, Bart. ...|J. Fletcher, Prof. Hancock. 
1852. Belfast...... His Grace the Archbishop of|Prof. Hancock, Prof. Ingram, James 
Dublin. MacAdam, jun. 
1853) Hall ti... James Heywood, M.P., F.R.S.|Edward Cheshire, W. Newmarch. 
1854, Liverpool...|Thomas Tooke, F-.R.S. .........] E. Cheshire, J. T. Danson, Dr. W. H. 
Duncan, W. Newmarch. 
1855. Glasgow ...|R. Monckton Milnes, M.P. ...|J. A. Campbell, E. Cheshire, W. New- 


1856. 


1857. 


march, Prof. R. H. Walsh. 


SECTION F (continued).—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 


Cheltenham|Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, M.P. {Rev. C. H. Bromby, E. Cheshire, Dr 
W. N. Hancock, W. Newmarch, W. 
M. Tartt. 
Dublin...... His Grace the Archbishop of| Prof. Cairns, Dr. H. D. Hutton, W. 
Dublin, M.R.LA. Newmarch, 


tea aes 


«clk 


PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. 


Date and Place Presidents Secretaries 
1858. Leeds .......| Edward Baines.........sesseree+ T. B. Baines, Prof. Cairns, S. Brown, 


1859. Aberdeen... 
1860. Oxford 


1861. Manchester 


1862, Cambridge 
1863. Newcastle 


Col. Sykes, M.P., F'.R.S. ...... 


Nassau W. Senior, M.A. ......} 


William Newmarch, F.R.S... 


Edwin Chadwick, C.B. ........ 


.|William Tite, M.P., F.R.S.... 


Capt. Fishbourne, Dr. J. Strang. 
Prof. Cairns, Edmund Macrory, A. M, 
Smith, Dr. John Strang. 
Edmund Macrory, W. Newmarch, 
Rev. Prof. J. E. T. Rogers. 


.| David Chadwick, Prof. R. C. Christie, 


EK. Macrory, Rev. Prof. J. E. T. 
Rogers. 
H. D. Macleod, Edmund Macrory. 
T. Doubleday, Edmund Macrory 
Frederick Purdy, James Potts. 


1864, Bath......... William Farr, M.D., D.C.L.,|E. Macrory, E. T. Payne, F. Purdy. 
F.R.S. 
1865. Birmingham | Rt. Hon. Lord Stanley, LL.D.,|G. J. D. Goodman, G. J. Johnston, 


1866, Nottingham 


1836. Bristol...... 


M.P. 
Prot, J., sil, ROPCTS....0.0scd- 


Litt.D. 


EK. Macrory. 
R. Birkin, jun., Prof. Leone Levi, E. 
Macrory. 


1867. Dundee ..... M. E. Grant Duff, M.P. ....... Prof. Leone Levi, E. Macrory, A. J. 
Warden. 
1868. Norwich....|Samuel Brown, Pres. Instit.| Rev. W.C. Davie, Prof. Leone Levi. 
Actuaries. 
1869. Exeter...... Rt. Hon. Sir Stafford H. North-| Edmund Macrory, Frederick Purdy, 
: cote, Bart., C.B., M.P. Charles T. D. Acland. 
1870. Liverpool...|Prof. W. Stanley Jevons, M.A.|Chas. R. Dudley Baxter, E. Macrory, 
J. Miles Moss, 
1871. Edinburgh | Rt. Hon. Lord Neaves......... J. G. Fitch, James Meikle. 
1872. Brighton ...| Prof. Henry Fawcett, M.P....|J. G. Fitch, Barclay Phillips. 
1873. Bradford ...|Rt. Hon. W. E. Forster, M.P.|J. G. Fitch, Swire Smith. 
1874. Belfast...... Lord, O;Haeam 3.)....<ca.sh see. Prof. Donnell, Frank P. Fellows, 
Hans MacMordie. 
1875. Bristol...... James Heywood, M.A.,F.R.S.,|F. P. Fellows, T. G. P. Hallett, E. 
Pres.S.5. Macrory. 
1876. Glasgow ...|Sir George Campbell, K.C.S.1,| A. M‘Neel Caird, T.G. P. Hallett, Dr. 
M.P. W. Neilson Hancock, Dr. W. Jack. 
1877. Plymouth...| Rt. Hon. the Earl Fortescue |W. F. Collier, P. Hallett, J. T. Pim. 
1878. Dublin...... Prof. J. K. Ingram, LL.D.,|W. J. Hancock, C. Molloy, J. T. Pim. 
M.R.LA. 
1879. Sheffield ...|G. Shaw Lefevre, M.P., Pres.| Prof. Adamson, R. E. Leader, C. 
8.8. Molloy. 
1880. Swansea ...|G. W. Hastings, M.P........... N. A. Humphreys, C. Molloy. 
MGBIe) VOTK. ss. 00068 Rt. Hon. M. E. Grant-Duff,|C. Molloy, W. W. Morrell, J. F. 
M.A., F.RB.S, Moss. 
1882. Southamp- |Rt. Hon. G. Sclater-Booth,|G. Baden-Powell, Prof. H. 8. Fox- 
ton. M.P., F.R.S. well, A. Milnes, C. Molloy. 
1883. Southport |R. H. Inglis Palgrave, F.R.S. |Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. S. 
i Foxwell, J. N. Keynes, C. Molloy. 
1884. Montreal ...|Sir Richard Temple, Bart.,| Prof. H.S. Foxwell, J.S. McLennan, 
’ G.C.8.1., C.LE., F.R.G.S. Prof. J. Watson. 
1885. Aberdeen...|Prof. H. Sidgwick, LL.D.,|Rev. W. Cunningham, Prof. H. §&. 


Foxwell, C. McCombie, J, F. Moss. 


MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 
SECTION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 


Davies Gilbert, D.C.L., F.R.S. 


T. G. Bunt, G. T. Clark, W. West. 


1837. Liverpool...] Rev. Dr. Robinsor 
1838. Newcastle | Charles Babbage, F.R.S.......|R. Hawthorn, 
Webster. 


Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster. 
C. Vignoles, -T. 


se eeneeeeeee 


lvi REPORT—1885. 


Date and Place Presidents Secretaries 


1839. Birmingham| Prof. Willis, F.R.S., and Robt.| W. Carpmael, William Hawkes, T. 


Stephenson. Webster. 

1840. Glasgow ....|Sir John Robinson ............. J. Scott Russell, J. Thomson, J. Tod, 
C. Vignoles. 

1841. Plymouth | John Taylor, F.R.S. ............ Henry Chatfield, Thomas Webster. 

1842. Manchester] Rey. Prof. Willis, F.R.S. ......|J. F. Bateman, J. Scott Russell, J. 
Thomson, Charles Vignoles. 

1843. Cork ......... Prof. J. Macneill, M.R.I.A....| James Thomson, Robert Mallet. 

ES445 York's.2...2.'. Joon Taylor, HRS. .ccesesceeee Charles Vignoles, Thomas Webster. ' 

1845. Cambridge |George Rennie, F.R.S.......... Rev. W. T. Kingsley. 

1846. Southamp- | Rey. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.| William Betts, jun., Charles Manby. 


ton. 
1847. Oxford...... Rey. Prof.Walker, M.A.,F.R.S.| J. Glynn, R. A. Le Mesurier. 
1848. Swansea ...| Rev. Prof.Walker, M.A.,F.R.S.| R. A. Le Mesurier, W. P. Struvé. 
1849, Birmingham] Robert Stephenson, M.P.,/Charles Manby, W. P. Marshall. 


F.R.S. 
1850. Edinburgh | Rey. R. Robinson ............... Dr. Lees, David Stephenson, 
1851. Ipswich .....| William Cubitt, F.R.S.......... John Head, Charles Manby. 
1852. Belfast...... John Walker, C.E., LL.D.,| John F. Bateman, C. B Hancock, 
F.R.S. Charles Manby, James Thomson. 
W853. Hull ......... William Fairbairn, C.E.,|James Oldham, J. Thomson, W. 
F.R.S. Sykes Ward. 
1854. Liverpool...| John Scott Russell, F.R.S. ...|John Grantham, J. Oldham, J. 
Thomson. 
1855. Glasgow ...)W. J. Macquorn Rankine,|L. Hill, jun., William Ramsay, J. 
C.E., F.R.S. Thomson. 
1856. Cheltenham |George Rennie, F.R.S..........|C. Atherton, B. Jones, jun., H. M, 
Jeffery. 
1857. Dublin...... Rt. Hon. the Earl of Rosse,| Prof. Downe W.T. Doyne, A. Tate, 
F.R.S. James Thomson, Henry Wright. 
1858. Leeds ...... William Fairbairn, F.R.S. ...|J. C. Dennis, J. Dixon, H. Wright. 
1859. Aberdeen...| Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A., F.R.S.|R. Abernethy, P. Le Neve Foster, H. 
Wright. 
1860. Oxford ...... Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine, | P. Le Neve Foster, Rev. F. Harrison, 
LL.D., F.R.S. Henry Wright. 
1861. Manchester |J. F. Bateman, O.E., F.R.S....|P. Le Neve Foster, John Robinson, 
H. Wright. 


1862, Cambridge | Wm. Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.|W. M. Fawcett, P. Le Neve Foster. 
1863. Newcastle | Rev. Prof. Willis, M.A.,F.R.S.|P. Le Neve Foster, P. Westmacott, 


J. F. Spencer. 

1864. Bath......... J. Hawkshaw, F.R.S. .........]P. Le Neve Foster, Robert Pitt, 

1865. Birmingham Sir W. G. Armstrong, LL.D.,/P. Le Neve Foster, Henry Lea, W. 
F.R.S. P. Marshall, Walter May. 

1866. Nottingham|)Thomas Hawksley, V.P.Inst.|P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, M. 
C.E., F.G.S. O. Tarbotton. 

1867. Dundee...... Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine,|P. Le Neve Foster, John P. Smith, 
LL.D., F.B.S8. W. W. Urquhart. 


1868. Norwich .../G. P. Bidder, C.E., F.R.G.S8. |P. Le Neve Foster, J. F. Iselin, C. 

Manby, W. Smith. 

1869. Exeter ...... C. W. Siemens, F.R.S..........]P. Le Neve Foster, H. Bauerman. 

1870. Liverpool...| Chas. B. Vignoles, C.E., F.R.S.|H. Bauerman, P. Le Neve Foster, T. 

; King, J. N. Shoolbred. 

1871. Edinburgh | Prof. Fleeming Jenkin, F.R.S.|H. Bauerman, Alexander Leslie, J. 
: P. Smith. 

1872. Brighton ...|F. J. Bramwell, C.E. ......... H. M. Brunel, P. Le Neve Foster, 

J.G. Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred. 

1873. Bradford ...) W. H. Barlow, F.R.S. ........./Crawford Barlow, H. Bauerman, 

E. H. Carbutt, J. C. Hawkshaw, 

J. N. Shoolbred. 

1874. Belfast...... Prof. James Thomson, LL.D.,| A. T. Atchison, J. N. Shoolbred, John 

C.E., F.R.S.E. Smyth, jun. 


PRESIDENTS AND SECRETARIES OF THE SECTIONS. lvil 


EEE SSS a_i 


Date and Place 


Presidents Secretaries 


1875. Bristol Bene 
1876. Glasgow ... 
1877. Plymouth... 
1878. Dublin ...... 
_ 1879. Sheffield ... 
‘1880. Swansea ... 
Pewee Yorkesci.i0. 
1882. Southamp- 
ton. 
1883. Southport 
1884. Montreal... 


1885. Aberdeen... 


884. Montreal... 
1885. Aberdeen... 


Date and Place 


W. Froude, C.E., M.A., F.R.S.|W. R. Browne, H. M. Brunel, J. G. 
Gamble, J. N. Shoolbred. 


C. W. Merrifield, F.R.S. ......|W. Bottomley, jun., W. J. Millar, 
J. N. Shoolbred, J. P. Smith. 

Edward Woods, C.E. ......... A. T. Atchison, Dr. Merrifield, J. N. 
Shoolbred. 

Edward Easton, C.E. ......... A. T. Atchison, R. G. Symes, H. T. 
Wood. 

J. Robinson, Pres. Inst. Mech.| A. T. Atchison, Emerson Bainbridge, 

Eng. H. T. Wood. 


James Abernethy, V.P. Inst.|A. T. Atchison, H. T. Wood. 
C.E., F.R.S.E. 

Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B.,|A. T. Atchison, J. F. Stephenson, 
LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. H. T. Wood. 

John Fowler, C.E., F.G.S. ...|/A. ‘’. Atchison, F. Churton, H. T. 

Wood. 

James Brunlees, F.R.S.E.,|A. T. Atchison, E. Rigg, H. T. Wood. 
Pres.Inst.C.E. 

Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.,|A. T. Atchison, W. B. Dawson, J. 
V.P.Inst.C.E. Kennedy, H. T. Wood. 

B. Baker, M.Inst.C.E. .........|A. T. Atchison, F. G.. Ogilvie, E. 

Rigg, J. N. Shoolbred. 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCE. 


SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 


E. B. Tylor, D.C.L., F.R.S. ... |G. W. Bloxam, W. Hurst. 
Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S. |G. W. Bloxam, Dr. J. G. Garson, W. 
Hurst, Dr. A. Macgregor. 


LIST OF EVENING LECTURES. 


Lecturer Subject of Discourse 


1842. Manchester | Charles Vignoles, F.R.S...... |The Principles and Construction of 


- 1843. Cork ......... 


1844. York......... 
1845. Cambridge 


1846. Southamp- 
ton. 


_ 4847. Oxford...... 


Atmospheric Railways. 


Sino. TiBrunel t...1.daddeseene The Thames Tunnel. 

HE, Ur ChisOns.....sessssecese- The Geology of Russia. 

Prof, Owen, M.D., F.R.S.......|The Dinornis of New Zealand. 

Prof. E. Forbes, F.R.S.......... The Distribution of Animal Life in 
the Augean Sea. 

Dry Rabinsons:f. .ssscsed-cexenss The Earl of Rosse’s Telescope. 

Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........|Geology of North America. 

Dr. Falconer, F.R.S.............| The Gigantic Tortoise of the Siwalik 


Hills in India. 
G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron.Royal| Progress of Terrestrial Magnetism. 
R. I. Murchison, F.R.S. ......|Geology of Russia. 
Prof. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. ...| Fossil Mammalia of the British Isles. 
Charles Lyell, F.R.S. .........|Valley and Delta of the Mississippi. 
W. R. Grove, F.R.S. .......0.06+ Properties of the Explosive substance 
discovered by Dr. Schénbein; also 
some Researches of his own on the 
Decomposition of Water by Heat. 
Rev. Prof. B. Powell, F.R.S. |Shooting Stars. 
Prof. M. Faraday, F.R.S....... Magnetic and Diamagnetic Pheno- 
mena. 
Hugh E. Strickland, F.G.S....|The Dodo (Didus ineptus). 


lviii 


Date and Place 


1848. 


1849. 


1850. 


1851. 


1852. 


1853. 


1855. 


1856. 


1857. 


1858. 


1859. 


1860. 


1861. 
1862. 
1863. 


1864. 
1865. 


1866, Nottingham | William Huggins, F.R.S. 


Swansea ... 


Birmingham 


Edinburgh 


Ipswich ... 


Belfast...... 


. Liverpool... 


Glasgow ... 


Cheltenham 


Aberdeen... 


Manchester 
Cambridge 


Newcastle 


Birmingham 


REPORT—1885. 


Lecturer 


John Percy, M.D., F.R.S....... 


W. Carpenter, M.D., F.R.S... 
Dr. Faraday, F.R.S. . 
Rey. Prof. Willis, M. An F. ‘R. 8. 


Prof. J. H. Bennett, M.D., 
F.R.S.E. 


Dr. Mantell, FUB.S.....ecd.cbees 
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. 


G.B.Airy,F.R.S.,Astron. Royal 

Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L., 
F.R.S. 

Colonel Portlock, R.E., F.R.S. 


Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D., F.R.S., 
F,G.5. 


Robert Hunt, F.R.S............. 
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. 
Col. E. Sabine, V.P.R.S. .. 


Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. 
Lieut.-Col. H. Rawlinson 


Col. Sir H. Rawlinson 


Hee eenees 


Wi ie Grove eh B Se vcaceare see 
Prof. W. Thomson, F.R.S. .. 
Rey. Dr. Livingstone, D.C.L. 
Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D.,F.R.S. 
Prof. R. Owen, M.D., F.R.S. 

Sir R. I. Murchison, D.C.L.... 
| Rev. Dr. Robinson, F.R.S. .. 


Rey. Prof. Walker, F.R.S. .. 
Captain Sherard Osborn, R.N. 
Prof.W. A. Miller, M.A., F.R.S. 
G.B.Airy, F.R.S. Astron. Royal 
Prof. Tyndall, ia. D., F.R.S. 

Prof?'Odling, BRS. ssss<ssde00e 
Prof. Williamson, F.R.S....... 


James Glaisher, F.R.S...... 
Prof. Roscoe, F.R.S.. 


Dr. Livingstone, F. R. S. g 
J. Beete Jukes, F.R.S.. 


Dr. J. D. Hooker, F.R.S....... 


Subject of Discourse 


Metallurgical Operations of Swansea 
and its neighbourhood. 

.| Recent Microscopical Discoveries. 

Mr. Gassiot’s Battery. 

Transit of different Weights with 
varying velocities on Railways. 
Passage of the Blood through the 

minute vessels of Animals in con- 
nexion with Nutrition. 
Extinct Birds of New Zealand. 
Distinction between Plants and Ani- 
mals, and their changes of Form. 
Total Solar Eclipse of July 28, 1851. 
Recent discoveries in the properties 
of Light. 


Recent discovery of Rock-salt at 
Carrickfergus, and geological and 
practical considerations connected 
with it. 

Some peculiar Phenomena in the 
Geology and Physical Geography 
of Yorkshire. 

The present state of Photography. 

Anthropomorphous Apes. 


......| Progress of researches in Terrestrial 


.| Electrical Discharges 


Magnetism, 
Characters of Species. 


.| Assyrian and Babylonian Antiquities 


and Ethnology. 

Recent Discoveries in Assyria and 
Babylonia, with the results of 
Cuneiform research up to the 
present time. 

Correlation of Physical Forces. 


.| The Atlantic Telegraph. 


Recent Discoveries in Africa. 

The Ironstones of Yorkshire. 

The Fossil Mammalia of Australia. 
Geology of the Northern Highlands. 
in highly 
rarefied Media, 


.|Physical Constitution of the Sun. 


Arctie Discovery. 

Spectrum Analysis. 

The late Helipse of the Sun. 

The Forms and Action of Water. 
Organic Chemistry. 

The Chemistry of the Galvanic Bat 


tery considered in relation to- 


Dynamics. 


.|The Balloon Ascents made for the 


British Association. 


..-.|The Chemical Action of Light. 
...| Recent Travels in Africa. 
++....| Probabilities as to the position and 


extent of the Coal-measures be- 
neath the red rocks of the Mid- 
land Counties. 


-|The results of Spectrum Analysis. 


applied to Heavenly Bodies. 
Insular Floras. 


ee ee 


LIST OF EVENING LECTURES. 


lix 


Date and Place 


1867. Dundee...... 


1868. Norwich ... 


¢ 


1869. Exeter 


senses 


1870. Liverpool... 


1871. Edinburgh 


1872. Brighton ... 


1873. Bradford ... 
1874. Belfast...... 


1875. Bristol ...... 


1876. Glasgow ... 


1877. Plymouth... 


1878. Dublin 


eeeeee 


1879. Sheffield ... 
1880. Swansea ... 


1381. York......... 


1882. Southamp- 
ton. 
1883. Southport 


1884, Montreal... 


1885. Aberdeen... 


Lecturer 


Archibald Geikie, F.R.S....... 
Alexander Herschel, F.R.A.S 
J. Fergusson, F.R.S......+.. 
Dr. W. Odling, F.R.S.. 

Prof. J. Phillips, LL.D. F. RS. 
J. Norman Lockyer, F. R. SHE 
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. 
Prof.W.J. Macquorn Rankine, 

LL.D., F.R.S. 
WACAS AGIs eh Habisccvsnves ans vaen 


E. B. Tylor, F.R.S. 


Subject of Discourse 


The Geological Origin of the present 
Scenery of Scotland. 


.|The present state of knowledge re- 


garding Meteors and Meteorites. 


-|Archeology of the early Buddhist 


Monuments. 
-| Reverse Chemical Actions. 
Vesuvius. 
-|The Physical Constitution of the 
Stars and Nebule. 
The Scientific Use of the Imagination. 
Stream-lines and Waves, in connec- 
tion with Naval Architecture. 
Some recent investigations and ap- 
plications of Explosive Agents. 


.| The Relation of Primitive to Modern 


Civilization. 


Prof. P. Martin Duncan, M.B.,| Insect Metamorphosis. 


F.R.S. 
Prots;W.. Ke Clifford s.ccccecces 
Prof. W. C.Williamson, F.R.S. 
Prof. Clerk Maxwell, F.R.S. 
Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P., 
F.R.S. 
Prof. Huxley, F.R.S. 


se eeeeeee 


W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.| 
F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.......... 


Prof. Tait, F.R.S.E. 

Sir Wyville Thomson, F R. 8. 

W. Warington Smyth, M.A., 
F.R.S. 


Prof. Odling; WUR.S.....css0.<s 
G. J. Romanes, F.L.S.......... 
Prof. Dewar, HIBS. .c..cssccce 


W.. Crookes, HW RiS., csssccsvceus 

Prof. E. Ray Lankester, F.R.S. 

Prof. W. Boyd Dawkins, 
F.R.S. 

Francis Galton, F.R.S....... 

Prof. Huxley, Sec. B.S. 


te teee 


W. Spottiswoode, Pres, R.S. 


Prof. Sir Wm. Thomsen, F.R.S8. 

Prof. H. N. Moseley, F.R.S. 

Prot.R.iS) ball, WBS. -sesse 

Prof. J. G. McKendrick, 
F.R.S.E. e 

Prof. O. J. Lodge, D.Sc. ...... 


Rey. W. H. Dallinger, F.R.S. | The 


Prof. W. G. Adams, F.R.S.... 
John Murray, F.R.S.E.......... 


The Aims and Instruments of Scien- 
tific Thought. 

Coal and Coal Plants. 

Molecules. 


‘Common Wild Flowers considered 


in relation to Insects. 
The Hypothesis that Animals are 
Automata, and its History. 
The Colours of Polarized Light. 
Railway Safety Appliances. 


.| Force. 


The Challenger Expedition. 

The Physical Phenomena connected 
with the Mines of Cornwall and 
Devon. 

The new Element, Gallium. 

Animal Intelligence. 

Dissociation, or Modern Ideas of 
Chemical Action. 

Radiant Matter. 

Degeneration. 

Primeval Man. 


.| Mental Imagery. 


The Rise and Progress of Paleon-~ 
tology 

The Electric Discharge, its Forms 
and its Functions. 

Tides. 

Pelagic Life. 

Recent Researches on the Distance 
of the Sun. 

Galvani and Animal Electricity. 


Dust. 

Modern Microscope in Re- 
searches on the Least and Lowest 
Forms of Life. 

The Electric Light and Atmospheric 
Absorption. 

The Great Ocean Basins. 


ube REPORT—1885. 


LECTURES TO THE OPERATIVE CLASSES. 


Date and Place Lecturer Subject of Discourse 
1867. Dundee...... Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D.,F.R.S.| Matter and Force. 
1868. Norwich ...|Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. |A Piece of Chalk. 
1869. Exeter ...... Prof. Miller, M.D., F. R.S. ...|Experimental illustrations of the 


modes of detecting the Composi- 
tionof the Sun and other Heavenly 
Bodies by the Spectrum. 
1870. Liverpool...|Sir John Lubbock, Bart.,M.P.,|Savages. 
F.R.S. 
1872. Brighton ...|W.Spottiswoode,LL.D.,F.R.S.|Sunshine, Sea, and Sky. 
1872. Bradford ...|C. W. Siemens, D.C.L., F.R.S.| Fuel. 


1874, Belfast ...... Prot, Od ling OR. D.cscceserees The Discovery of Oxygen. 
1875. Bristol ...... Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. |A Piece of Limestone. 
1876. Glasgow ...|Commander Cameron, C.B.,)A Journey through Africa. 
RN. 
1877. Elymouth...|W. H. Preece ......2..cscsesceseee Telegraphy and the Telephone. 
1879. Sheffield ...]W. E. Ayrton .......00...ss000e Electricity as a Motive Power. 
1880. Swansea ...|H. Seebohm, F.Z.S. ............ ;The North-East Passage. 
BSE WOLK ...cceres Prof. Osborne Reynolds,| Raindrops, Hailstones, and Snow- 
F.R.S. flakes. 
1882. Southamp- |John Evans, D.C.L. Treas.R.S.| Unwritten History, and how to 
ton. read it. 
1883. Southport |Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S. ...| Talking by Electricity—Telephones. 
1884. Montreal ...|Prof. R. 8. Ball, F.RB.S.......... Comets. 


1885. Aberdeen,..|H. B. Dixon, M.A. ............ The Nature of Explosions, 


lxi 


OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES PRESENT AT THE 
ABERDEEN MEETING. 


SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 
President.—Professor G. Chrystal, M.A., F.R.S.E. 


Vice-Presidents—Professor C. Niven, F.R.S.; Lord Rayleigh, ¥.RB.S. ; 


Professor A. Schuster, F.R.S.; Professor G. G. Stokes, Sec.R.S. . 
Professor Sir W. Thomson, F.R.S. 


Secretaries—R. E. Baynes, M.A.; R. T. Glazebrook, F.R.S. ; Professor 
W. M. Hicks, F.R.S. (Recorder) ; Professor W. Ingram, M.A. 
SECTION B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 

President.—Professor H. E. Armstrong, Ph.D., F.R.S., Sec.C.S. 


Vice-Presidents—Professor Brazier, F.C.S.; Professor A. Crum Brown, 


F.R.S.; Professor Hartley, F.R.S.; Professor H. McLeod, F.R.S. ; 
Professor W. A. Tilden, F'.R.S. 


Secretaries.—Professor P. Phillips Bedson, D.Sc. (Recorder); H. B. 
Dixon, M.A.; H. Forster Morley, D.Sc. ; W. J. Simpson, M.D. 


SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. 
President.—Professor J. W. Judd, F.R.S., Sec.G.S. 


Vice-Presidents.—John Evans, Treas.R.S.; Rev. George Gordon, LL.D. ; 


T. F. Jamieson, LL.D.; Rev. J. M. Joass, LL.D.; Professor O. ou 
Marsh, M.A.; Professor W. C. Williamson, F.R.S. 


Secretaries —C. E. De Rance, F.G.S.; J. Horne, F.R.S.E.; J. J. H. 
Teall, F.G.S.; W. Topley, F.G.S. (Recorder). 


SECTION D.—BIOLOGY. 


President.—Professor W. C. McIntosh, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. and E., 
F.L.S. 


Vice-Presidents.—Professor C. C. Babington, F.R.S. ; Professor I. Bayley 
Balfour, F.R.S.; Professor Cleland, F.R.S.; Sir John Lubbock, 


Bart., F.R.S.; Professor J. S. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S.; Pro- 
fessor W. Stirling, F.R.S.E.; Professor Trail, F.L.S. 


Secretaries —W. Heape; J. McGregor-Robertson, M.B.; J. Duncan. 
Matthews, F.R.S.E.; Howard Saunders, F.L.S. (Recorder); H. 
Marshall Ward, M.A. 


lxii REPORT—1885. 


SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY. 
President.—General J. T. Walker, C.B., R.E., LL.D., F.R.S. 


Vice-Presidents.—Professor James Donaldson, F.R.S.E.; Admiral Sir EH. 
Ommanney, C.B., F.R.S.; Lieut.-Colonel R. L. Playfair; Dr. John 
Rae, ¥.R.S. 


Secretaries—J. S. Keltie; J. S. O'Halloran, F.R.G.S.; E. G. Raven- 
stein, F.R.G.S. (Recorder); Rev. G. A. Smith, M.A. 


SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 
President.—Professor Henry Sidgwick, LL.D., Litt.D. 


Vice-Presidents.—Professor Adamson, LL.D.; Dr. Alexander Bain; 
Major P. G. Craigie; Sir Richard Temple, Bart., G.C.S.1. 


Secretaries—Rev. W. Cunningham, B.D.; Professor H. 8. Foxwell, 
M.A. (Recorder) ; C. McCombie; J. F. Moss. 


SEC'LION G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE, 
President.—Benjamin Baker, M.Inst.C.E. 


Vice-Presidents—W. H. Barlow, F.R.S.; Sir James N. Douglass; Pro- 
fessor James Thomson, F.R.S.; Professor W. C. Unwin. 


Secretaries—A. T. Atchison, M.A.; F. G. Ogilvie, M.A., B.Sc.; E. 
Rigg, M.A. (Recorder) ; J. N. Shoolbred, B.A. 


SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY, 


President.—Francis Galton, M.A., F.R.S., President of the Anthropo- 
logical Institute. 


Vice-Presidents—Dr. Alexander Bain; Professor D. J. Cunningham, 
M.D.; Professor Flower, F.R.S.; W. Pengelly, F.R.S.; Professor 
Struthers, M.D.; Professor W. Turner, F.R.S. 


Secretaries.—G. W. Bloxam, F.L.S. (Recorder); J. G, Garson, M.D.; 
Walter Hurst, B.Sc. ; A. McGregor, M.D. 


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lxiv 


REPORT—1885. 


Table showing the Attendance and Receipt 


Date of Meeting Where held Presidents Old Life | New Life 
Members | Members 

1831, Sept. 27 ...) York ...........e-00++ The Earl Fitzwilliam, D.C.L. ae é 
1832, June 19 ...| Oxford ...........+..- | The Rey. W. Buckland, F.R.S. aoe : 
1833, June 25...) Cambridge ......... The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S. “ne ane 
1834, Sept. 8. ...) Edinburgh ......... Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L....... tee = 
1835, Aug. 10...| Dublin .............. The Rev. Provost Lloyd, LL.D. cee “Be 
1836, Aug. 22 ...| Bristol ...........+++. The Marquis of Lansdowne ... oe eae 
1837, Sept. 11 ...| Liverpool ............ The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S. tee oes 
1838, Aug. 10 ...| Newcastle-on-Tyne The Duke of Northumberland 535 SC 
1839, Aug. 26 ...| Birmingham......... The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt he ee 
1840, Sept. 17 ...| Glasgow ...... sees The Marquis of Breadalbane... = oot 
1841, July 20...| Plymouth ............ The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. 169 65 
1842, June 23 ...| Manchester ......... The Lord Francis Egerton...... 303 169 
1843, Aug.. 17 ...| Cork ..........2..20+0e] The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S....... 109 28 
1844, Sept. 26 ...| York .........-02.000 The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D. ... 226 150 
1845, June 19 ...| Cambridge ......... Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart. 313 36 
1846, Sept. 10 ..., Southampton ...... Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart. 241 10 
1847, June 23 ...| Oxford .........cce»=- Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart....... 314 18 
1848, Aug. 9 ...| Swansea .........00+ The Marquis of Northampton 149 3 
1849, Sept. 12 .... Birmingham......... The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D. 227 12 
1850, July 21...| Edinburgh Cos Sir David Brewster, K.H....... 235 9 
1851, July 2 ...) Ipswich .......0....... G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal 172 8 
1852, Sept. 1 ...| Belfast ............+- Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. 164 10 
LBHS Sept Dic.) Hull ~.ccecesreccesves William Hopkins, F.R.S8. ...... 141 13 
1854, Sept. 20 ...| Liverpool ............ The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. 238 23 
1855, Sept. 12 ...| Glasgow ............ The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. 194 33 
1856, Aug. 6 ...; Cheltenham ......... Prof. C. G. B. Daubeny, M.D. 182 14 
Spi, Aue, 26....| Dublin) ...+.ss.-c6rs The Rev.Humpbhrey Lloyd, D.D. 236 15 
Repss Sept. 22 ..,| Leeds....csa..sa.ceces Richard Owen, M.D., D.C.L....| 222 42 
1859, Sept. 14 +) Aberdeen ......:.00s. H.R.H. the Prince Consort ... 184 27 - 
e607 dune 27...) Oxford ......-c0.cssee |The Lord Wrottesley, M.A. ...) 286 21 
1861, Sept. 4 .... Manchester seseeeeee) WiliamFairbairn,LL.D.,F.R.S. 321 113 
1862; Oct. J ...| Cambridge ......... Tke Rey. Professor Willis, M.A. 239 15 
1863, Aug. 26 .... Newcastle-on-Tyne| Sir William G. Armstrong, C.B. 203 36 
SGA WCHU ELS .cc])DAbl /..2.-.00s-0>escee Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A. 287 40 
1865, Sept. 6 ...) Birmingham......... Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D. 292 44 
1866, Aug. 22 ...| Nottingham ......... William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S. 207 31 
1867, Sept.4 ...| Dundee............... The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C.B. 167 25 
1868, Aug: 19 ...| Norwich ............ Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. 196 18 
HSGOs AGE. LO. MKCLOR: cseasencenesss Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L....... 204 21 
1870, Sept. 14 ...| Liverpool ............ Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D....... 314 39 
1871, Aug. 2 ...| Edinburgh ......... Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D. 246 28 
1872, Aug. 14 ...| Brighton ............ Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. ... 245 36 
1873, Sept. 17 ...| Bradford ............ Prof. A. W. Williamson, F. RS. 212 27 
Hei eAme. 19)... .| BELASD casecsesesces Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S 162 13 
T8ib; Aug. 25) ...| Bristol ...2.-.2....0.. SirJohn Hawkshaw,C. E. »F'.R.S. 239 36 
1876, Sept. 6 ...| Glasgow ............ Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S 221 35 
Wiis AUS) Loss.) bymoutiiee. cscss5so2 Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S 173 19 
AS%G, Aug, 14-255) Dublin’ 3.60.22. s0000s W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S. 201 18 
1879, Aug. 20...) Sheffield ............ Prof.G. J. Allman, M.D., F.R.S. 184 16 
1880, Aug. 25 ...| Swansea ............ A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S.. 144 ll 
MSBiepATI TS Le. cc|) MOTK secseceaccesseses Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R RS 272 - 28 
1882, Aug. 23 ...) Southampton ...... Dr. C. W. Siemens, F.R.S.. 178 17 
1883, Sept. 19...) Southport ............ Prof. A. Cayley, D.C.L., F.R RS. 203 60 
1884, Aug. 27 ...| Montreal ............ Prof. Lord Rayleigh, FR.S. 235 20 
1885, Sept. 9 ...| Aberdeen ............ SirLyon Playfair, K.C.B.,F. RS. 225 18 


cluding Ladies. 


dnnual Meetings of the Association. 


ATTENDANCE AND RECEIPTS AT ANNUAL MEETINGS. 


Attended by Aineetrie puns paid 4 
received Ree eee 
Old New reas 4 
onual | Annual canes Ladies gare Total spr za ae Scientific 
mbers|Members| °'°S i pone Purposes 
Pe BDA LMWR Sea seceeM NAYS, Gacdctes Seay 
a G00" he ecktesee rn se seteeences 
x 208. y |r tees ee £20 0 0 
. as A POR (eer coe 167 0 O 
EA . “a NS6O - 4) a> .eexecxe 435 0 0 
bee #8 aaa TSAO) cilw..cssezaes 922 12 6 
J 1100* aa PAA a Re op 932 cater Z 
cs es ise 34 TES0; | cccasceee 1596.11, 0 
Aa oe wee 40 TBP wtesseen. 1546 16 4 
46 317 eas 60* ach SOT Nae ee 1235 10 11 
75 376 33t 31% 28 US LB ieg li cust < nee 1449 17 8 
71 185 oat 160 = PCCREE YT fae orc 1565 10 2 
45 190 9F 260 See wa ea vite dette oak 981 12 8 
94 22 407 172 35 OZ, b -Santt es 831 9 9 
65 39 270 196 36 SB hel, Bie 685 16 0 
97 40 495 203 53 S20. oe] ae Seen 208 5 4 
54 25 376 197 15 819 |£70700)| 275 1 8 
93 33 447 237 22 1071 963 00] 15919 6 
28 42 510 273 44 1241 1085 00; 34518 O 
61 47 244 141 37 710 62000] 391 9 7 
3 60 510 292 9 1108 1085 00| 304 6 7 
6 57 367 236 6 876 903 00] 205 0 0 
21 121 765 524 10 1802 1882 00; 38019 7 
42 101 1094 543 26 2133 | 231100] 48016 4 
04 48 412 346 9 1115 1098 00] 73413 9 
56 120 900 569 26 2022 201500; 50715 4 
11 91 710 509 13 1698 193100] 61818 2 
25 179 1206 821 22 2564 278200] 68411 1 
77 59 636 463 47 1689 1604 00] 76619 6 
84 125 1589 791 15 3138 3944 00] 1111 5 10 
50 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 0 | 1293 16 6 
54 209 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 0 0 | 1608 3 10 
82 103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 00] 1289 15 8 
149 766 508 23 1997 2227 00] 1591 7 10 
105 960 771 11 2303 2469 00] 175013 4 
118 1163 771 7 2444 2613 0 0| 1739 4 O 
h17 720 682 45t 2004 2042 00] 1940 0 0 
107 678 600 17 1856 1931 0 0 | 1622 0 O 
195 1103 910 14 2878 3096 00/1572 0 O 
127 976 754 21 2463 2575 0 0| 1472 2 6 
80 937 912 43 2533 2649 00] 1285 0 0 
99 796 601 11 1983 2120 0 0] 1685 O O 
85 817 630 12 1951 1979 0 0} 1151 16 O 
93 884 672 17 2248 2397 0 0 260) O76 
185 1265 712 25 2774 3023 00] 1092 4 2 
59 446 283 11 1229 1268 00] 1128 9 7 
93 1285 674 17 2578 2615 00} 72516 6 
74 529 349 13 1404 1425 0 0 | 1080 11 11 
41 389 147 12 915 899501 ON NTS TA W7 
176 1230 514 24 2557 2689 0 0 ATO So) gl 
79 516 189 21 1253 1286 00] 1126 111 
323 952 841 5 2714 3369 00] 1083 3 3 
17 219 826 74 |26&60H.§) 1777 | 153800] 1173 4 0 
BY] 122 1053 447 6 2203 2256 0 0 | 1385 0 0 


dies were not admitted by purchased Tickets until 1843. 


lxv 


Year 


1831 
1832 
1833 
1834 
1835 
1836 
1837 
1838 
1839 
1840 
1841 
1842 
1843 
1844 
1845 
1846 
1847 
1848 
1849 
1850 
1851 
1852 
1853 
1854 
1855 
1856 
1857 
1858 
1859 
1860 
1861 
1862 
1863 
1864 
1865 
1866 
1867 
1868 
1869 
1870 
1871 
1872 
1873 
1874 
1875 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 
1884 
1885 


+ Tickets of Admission to Sections only. 


§ Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Honorary Members for this Meeting. 


OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1885-86. 


‘ PRESIDENT. 
Tre RicHTr Hon. SIR LYON PLAYFAIR, K.C.B,, M.P., Pu.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. &E., F.C.S. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS., 
His Grace the Duke of RICHMOND AND GorpDoN, K.G., D.C.L., Chancellor of the 
University of Aberdeen. 

The Right Hon. the Harl of ABERDEEN, LL.D., Lord-Lieutenant of Aberdeenshire. 
The Right Hon. the Earl of CRAWFORD AND BALCARRES, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 
JAMES MArTHEWS, Esq., Lord Provost of the City of Aberdeen. 

Professor Sir WILLIAM THOMSON, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.R.A.S. 
ALEXANDER Barn, Esq., M.A., LL.D., Rector of the University of Aberdeen. 
Professor W. H. Firowrr, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Pres. Z.S., Director of 
the Natural History Museum, London. 

Professor JOHN STRUTHERS, M.D., LL.D. 


PRESIDENT ELECT. 
Sir Wint1Am Dawson, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.B.S., F.G.S., Principal of McGill College, Montreal, Canada. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT. 
The Right Hon. the EARL oF BRADFORD, Lord-| The Right Rev. the Lord BisHop OF WORCESTER, 
Lieutenant of Shropshire, D.D. 
The Right Hon. Lorp LricH, D.C.L., Lord-Lieu- | THomas MARTINEAU, Esq., Mayor of Birmingham. 
tenant of Warwickshire. Professor G. G. Sroxss, D.C.L., LL.D., Pres. R.S. 
The Right Hon. Lorp Norton, K.C.M.G. Professor W. A. TILDEN, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. 
‘The Right Hon. Lonp Wrorrrstry, Lord-Lieu-| Rey. A. R. VARDY, M.A. 
tenant of Staffordshire. Rev. A. W. WATSON, D.Sc., F.R.S. 


LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT BIRMINGHAM, 
J. BARHAM CARSLAKE, Esq. | Rev. H. W. Crosskny, LL.D.,F.G.S. | CHARLES J. Hart, Esq. 


LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT BIRMINGHAM. 
J. D. GOODMAN, Esq. 


ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


ABNEY, Capt. W. DE W., F.R.S. 

BALL, Professor R. S., F.R.S. 
BATEMAN, J. F. LA TROBE, Esq., F.R.S. 
BLANFORD, W. T., Esq., F.R.S. 
BRAMWELL, Sir F. J., F.R.S. 

CROOKES, W., Esq., F.R.5. 

DAWEINs, Professor W. Boyn, F.R.S. 
Dr LA Rove, Dr. WARREN, F.R.S. 
DEWAR, Professor J., F.R.S. 

FLOWER, Professor W. H., F.R.S. 
GLADSTONE, Dr. J. H., F.R.S. 
GLAISHER, J. W. L., Esq., F.R.S. 
GopwWIn-AUSTEN, Lieut.-Col. H. H., F.R.S. 


HAWKSHAW, J. CLARKE, Esq., F.G.S. 

HENRIcrI, Professor O., F.R.S. 

Huaeurs, Professor T. McK., F.G.S. 

MARTIN, J. B., Esq., F.S.S. 

M‘Leop, Professor H., F.R.S. 

MOSELEY, Professor H. N., F.R.S. 

OMMANNEY, Admiral Sir E., C.B., F.R.S. 

PENGELLY, W.., Esq., F.R.S. 

PERKIN, Dr. W. H., F.R.S. 

Sorsy, Dr. H. C., F.R.S. 

TEMPLE, Sir R., Bart., G.C.S.1. 

THISELTON-DygER, W. T., 
F.B.S. 


Esq., C.M.G., 


GENERAL SECRETARIES. 
Capt. DouGiAs GALTON, C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, London, S.W. 
A. G. VERNON Harcourt, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Cowley Grange, Oxford. 


SECRETARY. 
ArtTHuR T, ATCHISON, Esq., M.A., 22 Albemarle Street, London, W. 


GENERAL TREASURER. 
Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., University College, London, W.C. 


EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and 
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years, 
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and 
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting. 
TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). 
Sir Joun Lupsock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres. L.S. 


The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec. R.S., F.R.A.S, 
The Right Hon. Sir Lyon PLAyrarr, K.C.B., M.P., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 


PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS. 
Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.1. Sir John Hawkshaw, F.R.S. 
Sir G. B. Airy, K.C.B., F.R.S. Prof. Stokes, D.C.L., Pres. R.S. Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S, 
The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T. Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. Sir A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S. 
Sir Richard Owen, K.C.B., F.R. Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, LL.D. | Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S. 
LL 
RS, 


The Duke of Devonshire, K.G. 


S. 
Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., .D. | Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S. Prof. Cayley, LL.D., F.R.S. 
Sir William R. Grove, F.R.S. Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.S. Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., Sec. B.S. 


GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS. 


Dr. Michael Foster, Sec. R.S. | P. L. Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S., 


F. Galton. Esq., F.R.S. 
George Griffith, Esq., M.A., F.0.S. ! Prof. Bonney, D.Sc., F.R.S. 


Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S. 


AUDITORS. 


John Evans, Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. | W. Huggins, Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. | W.H. Preece, Esq., F.R.S. 


= 


Ixvii 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. 


Report of the Council for the year 1884-85, presented to the General 
Committee at Aberdeen, on Wednesday, September 9, 1885. 


‘Tun Council have received reports during the past year from the 
General Treasurer, and his accounts for the year will be laid before the 
General Committee this day. 

Since the Meeting at Montreal, the following have been elected 
Corresponding Members of the Association :— 


Bowditch, Prof. H. P. Kikuchi, Prof. Dairoku. 
Brush, Prof. G. J. Michelson, A. A. 

Gibbs, Prof. J. Willard. Newcomb, Prof. Simon. 
Gibbs, Prof. Wolcott. Powell, Major J. W. 
Greely, Lieut. A. W. Ray, Captain P. H. 
Jackson, Prof. C. Loring. Thurston, Prof. R. H. 


The Council have nominated Professor Struthers, M.D., LL.D., to 
‘be a Vice-President at the Meeting at Aberdeen. 

Soon after the commencement of the present year, Professor Bonney, 
the Secretary, informed the Council that a considerable increase in the 
endowment of his Professorship at University College would demand 
+hat in future a larger share of his time should be devoted to teaching. 
As unfortunately the state of his health for some months past had pointed 
+o the need of diminishing rather than increasing his work, he regretted 
that he would be unable to offer himself for re-election at the present 
Meeting. The Council received this announcement with very great 
regret. Professor Bonney not only brought to the office of Secretary a 
leading scientific position, but also combined with this advantage great 
energy, zeal, and discretion. It was largely due to his powers of organi- 
‘sation and tact that the exceptional and grave difficulties which attended 
the holding of last year’s Meeting at Montreal were surmounted, and it 
was brought to a successfulissue. The Council have nominated Mr. A. T. 
Atchison, M.A., who for some years past has rendered most efficient 
assistance as one of the Secretaries of Section G, to the office of Secretary, 
vacated by Professor Bonney. 

During the present year the Council have considered the stipend 
paid to Mr. Stewardson, the Clerk of the Association, and the amount 
assigned to the General Treasurer to enable him to obtain such assistance 
as may be requisite. Mr. Stewardson was engaged in the year 1873 at a 
salary of 120/., which was subsequently augmented to130/. The Council 
now recommend that for the present year it be raised to 135/., and be 
subsequently increased (subject to the usual conditions) by a sum of 51. at 
the end of each three years till a maximum of 1601. be reached ; also that 
the yearly sum assigned to the General Treasurer be increased from 501. 


to 601. 
d2 


lxvili REPORT—1885. 


On meeting again in Great Britain, the Council venture to express: 
to the General Committee their belief that the anticipations of a successful 
meeting, expressed in the Report presented at Montreal, have been fully 
justified by the results, and once more give utterance to the gratitude, 
which must be felt by all who visited Canada, for the liberal hospitality 
and cordial reception which welcomed them there. It will be long before 
this visit is forgotten, or the stimulus, which its exceptional circumstances 
gave to the energy and life of the Association, ceases to be felt. Towards 
the close of that Meeting the happy idea occurred to several members of 
the Association that it would be an appropriate memorial of the visit 
of the British Association to found a Medal at McGill University, to be 
given annually for proficiency in Applied Science. The idea, once started, 
was warmly espoused, and a subscription list was opened, with Lord 
Rayleigh, the President, as Treasurer, and Messrs. W. Topley and H. T.. 
Wood as Secretaries. The result has been that a sum of about 5001. 
will be transmitted to the authorities of the McGill University for invest-. 
ment. This will enable them to offer, as an annual prize, a Gold Medal 


and a sum of money. The first award has already been made. The- 


Council, acting nnder the powers conferred upon them by the General 
Committee on Nov. 11, 1884, have instructed Mr. Wyon to prepare, at 
the cost of the Association, a suitable die for the Medal. 

The Council, in virtue of the powers conferred upon them by the 
General Committee at Montreal, in regard to the report concerning 
Corresponding Societies, have formed the Corresponding Societies’ 


Committee. The Report of the Committee will be presented, and a con- _ 


ference of Delegates, appointed under the new rules, will be held during 
the present meeting. 

The following resolutions were referred by the General Committee to 
the Council for consideration and action, if desirable :— 

‘That the Council of the Association be requested to communicate 
with the Government of the Dominion of Canada in order (1) to call 
the attention of the Government to the absence of trustworthy informa- 
tion concerning the tides of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the adjoining 
Atlantic coast, and to the dangers which thence arise to the navigation ; 
(2) To urge upon the Government the importance of obtaining accurate 
and systematic tidal observations, and of tabulating and reducing the 
results by the scientific methods elaborated by Committees of the Associa- 
tion ; and (3) to suggest the immediate establishment of a sufficient 
series of observing stations on the coast of the Dominion.’ 

A memorial in accordance with the above resolution was adopted 
by the Council and forwarded to the Government of the Dominion of 


Canada. To this a reply was received from the Canadian Minister of” 


Marine, expressing regret that the Dominion Government were unable 
at the present time to undertake a special survey of the tides and currents 
in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The Council, however, are not without 


hope that the proposed observations may be regarded as deferred rather 


than as refused. 


‘ That the Council memorialise the Canadian Government as to the 
urgent necessity of encouraging investigation and publication of reports 
with respect to the physical characters, languages, social, industrial, and 
artistic condition of the native tribes of the Dominion.’ 


A memorial in accordance with the above was also adopted by the- 


Council and forwarded to the Government of the Dominion of Canada. 


: 


: 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL. lxix 


‘The receipt of this was acknowledged, and the Council were informed 
that it would be duly considered by the Dominion Government. 


‘That the attention of the Council be drawn to the advisability of 
communicating with the Admiralty for the purpose of urging on them 
the importance of the employment of the Harmonic Analysis in the 
Reduction of Admiralty Tidal Observations.’ 

The above recommendation was duly considered, but the Council, 
while fully conscious of the importance of the subject, deemed the time 
inopportune for pressing the matter on the attention of the Admiralty. 


‘That the Council be requested to examine the feasibility of insti- 
tuting a scheme for promoting an International Scientific Congress, to meet 
at intervals in different countries, and to report thereon to the General 
Committee at the next meeting of the Association.’ 

This most important question has been very fully considered by the 
Council during the past year. The importance of such a Congress can 
hardly be doubted ; at the same time there are many serious difficulties in 
devising a practical scheme, and many considerations to be taken into 
account, before it would be prudent to undertake so great a departure 
from the ordinary procedure of the Association, as would be involved by 
‘such schemes as have seemed most feasible. The following is a brief 
history of what has been done: At the conclusion of the Montreal Meeting 
a Committee of the Council (of which Mr. Vernon Harcourt, the General 
Secretary, was a member) took the opportunity of being present at the 
meeting of the American Association at Philadelphia to confer with some 
members of the Committee in America, from whom the latest and most 
definite proposal of an International Scientific Association has emanated. 
After returning to England, a letter was received by Mr. Vernon Harcourt 
from Dr. 8. C. Minot, Secretary to the above Committee, which was laid 
before a Committee of the Council. As a result of their consideration of 
this letter, the Secretary entered into an informal correspondence with 
Dr. C. 8. Minot. The intent of this correspondence was to bring about 
an exchange of views and a discussion of certain difficulties which pre- 
sented themselves at first sight, and as it, in effect, contains the outline of 
a scheme, the Council (with Dr. Minot’s permission) have resolved to place 
it, together with extracts from his letter to Mr. Vernon Harcourt, in the 
hands of the General Committee. Copies of it are accordingly distributed 
with this Report. The Council, in the next place, deemed it desirable to 


ascertain what support the proposal of a joint meeting of the British 


ae oo 


Association and of the International Scientific Association, in the suggested 
rudimentary form, would meet with from the more important scientific 
societies in London ; for, without their favourable countenance and the 
permission to use the rooms of such as were conyeniently situated, the 
project would necessarily be abortive. A circular was accordingly ad- 
dressed to a number of the London scientific societies, with the result 
that out of 29 societies which sent answers, three expressed their inability, 
im consequence of formal difficulties, to reply at present; two were 
opposed to the scheme; five were favourable; and the rest were not 
hostile. It should, however, be remarked, that while a willingness to 
lend rooms was very generally shown, any approbation of the scheme was 
expressed in very guarded terms, and amounted, in the majority of cases, 
to little more than a non-expression of disapproval. In these circum- 
stances the Council invite the General Committee to take the matter into 


lxx REPORT—1885. 


their consideration during the Aberdeen Meeting, and suggest that the 
secord meeting of the General Committee would be the most convenient: 
opportunity for a discussion. 


One vacancy in the Council has been caused by the lamented death 
of Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys; another by the resignation of Prof. Prestwich; it 
follows, therefore, that in accordance with the rule, three other members 
will retire. The retiring members will be :-— 


Sir F. J. Evans. Prof. W. G. Adams. 
The Right Hon. G. Sclater-Booth. 


The Council recommend the re-election of the other ordinary Members: 
of Council, with the addition of the gentlemen whose names are distin-. 
guished by an asterisk in the following list :— 


Abney, Capt. W. de W., F.R.S. Hawkshaw, J. Clarke, Esq., F.G.S8. 

Ball, Prof. R. S., F.R.S. Henrici, Prof. O., F.R.S. 

Bateman, J. F. La Trobe, Esq., Hughes, Prof. T. McK., F.G.S. 
F.R.S. *Martin, J. B., Esq., F.S.S. 

*Blanford, W. T., Esq., F.R.S. '*M‘Leod, Prof. H., F.R.S. 

Bramwell, Sir F. J., F.R.S. Moseley, Prof. H. N., F.R.S. 

*Crookes, W., Esq., F.R.S. Ommanney, Admiral Sir E., C.B.,. 

Dawkins, Prof. W. Boyd, F.R.S. F.R.S. 

De La Rue, Dr. Warren, F.R.S. Pengelly, W., Esq., F.R.S. 

Dewar, Prof. J., F.R.S. ‘Perkin, Dr. W. H., F.R.S. 

Flower, Prof. W. H., F.R.S. Sorby, Dr. H. C., F.R.S. 

Gladstone, Dr. J. H., F.R.S. Temple, Sir R., Bart., G.C.S.I. 

Glaisher, J. W. L., Esq., F.B.S. *Thiselton-Dyer, W. T., Esq.,. 

See sneten, Lieut.-Col. H. H., C.M.G., F.R.S. 


RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AY THE 
ABERDEEN MeerinG IN SEPTEMBER 1885. 


[When Committees are appointed, the Member first named is regarded as the 
Secretary, except there is a specific nomination. ] 


Involving Grants of Money. 


That Professor G. Carey Foster, Sir William Thomson, Professor 
Ayrton, Professor J. Perry, Professor W. G. Adams, Lord Rayleigh, 
Dr. O. J. Lodge, Dr. John Hopkinson, Dr. A. Muirhead, Mr. W. H. 
Preece, Mr. Herbert Taylor, Professor Everett, Professor Schuster, Dr. 
J. A. Fleming, Professor G. F. Fitzgerald, Mr. R. T. Glazebrook, Professor 
Chrystal, Mr. H. Tomlinson, Professor W. Garnett, Professor J. J. 
Thomson, and Mr. W. N. Shaw be reappointed_a Committee for the 
purpose of constructing and issuing practical Standards for use in 
Electrical Measurements; that Mr. Glazebrook be the Secretary, and 
that the sum of 40/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor Balfour Stewart, Professor Schuster, Professor Stokes, 
Mr. G. Johnstone Stoney, Professor Sir H. E. Roscoe, Captain Abney, and 
Mr. G. J. Symons be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of con- 
sidering the best methods of recording the direct intensity of Solar Radia- 
tion; that Professor Balfour Stewart be the Secretary, and that the un- 
expended sum of 20/1. be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor Balfour Stewart (Secretary), Mr. Knox Laughton, Mr. 
G. J. Symons, and Mr. R. H. Scott be reappointed a Committee, with 
power to add to their number, for the purpose of co-operating with Mr. 
E. J. Lowe in his project of establishing a Meteorological Observatory 
near Chepstow on a permanent and scientific basis, and that the unex- 
pended sum of 25/. be again placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor G. H. Darwin, Sir W. Thomson, and Major Baird be 
a Committee for the purpose of preparing instructions for the practical 
work of Tidal Observation; that Professor Darwin be the Secretary, 
and that the sum of 50/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Professors Balfour Stewart and Sir W. Thomson, Sir J. H. 
Lefroy, Sir Frederick Evans, Professor G. H. Darwin, Professor G. 
Chrystal, Professor S. J. Perry, Mr. C. H. Carpmael, Professor Schuster, 
Mr. G. M. Whipple, and Captain Creake be reappointed a Committee for 
the purpose of considering the best means of comparing and reducing 
Magnetic Observations ; that Professor Balfour Stewart be the Secretary, 
and that the sum of 40/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor G. Forbes, Captain Abney, Dr. J. Hopkinson, 
Professor W. G. Adams, Professor G. C. Foster, Lord Rayleigh, Mr. 
Preece, Professor Schuster, Professor Dewar, Mr. A. Vernon Har- 
court, Professor Ayrton, and Sir James Douglass be reappointed a Com- 
mittee for the purpose of reporting on Standards of Light; that Professor 
G. Forbes be the Secretary, and that the sum of 20/. be placed at their 
disposal for the purpose. 


}xxil REPORT—1885. 


That Professor Crum Brown, Mr. Milne-Home, Mr. John Murray, 
and Mr. Buchan be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of co- 
operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society in making meteoro- 
logical observations on Ben Nevis; that Professor Crum Brown be the 
Secretary, and that the sum of 1001. be placed at their disposal for the 
purpose. : 

That Professors Armstrong, Lodge, and Sir William Thomson, Lord 
Rayleigh, Professors Schuster, Poynting, J. J. Thomson, Fitzgerald, Crum 
Brown, Ramsay, Frankland, Tilden, and Hartley, Captain Abney, Messrs. 
W.N. Shaw, H. B. Dixon, J. T. Bottomley, W. Crookes, and Shelford 
Bidwell, and Dr. Fleming be a Committee for the purpose of considering 
the subject of Electrolysis in its Physical and Chemical bearings; that 
Professor Armstrong be the Chemical Secretary and Professor Lodge the 
Physical Secretary, and that the sum of 201. be placed at their disposal 
for the purpose. 

That Professors McLeod and Ramsay and Mr. W. A. Shenstone be a 
Committee for the further investigation of the Influence of the Silent 
Discharge of Electricity on Oxygen and other gases; that’ Mr. W. A. 
Shenstone be the Secretary, and that the sum of 201. be placed at their 
disposal for the purpose. 

That Professors Williamson, Dewar, Frankland, Crum Brown, Odling, 
and Armstrong, Drs. Hugo Miiller, A. G. Vernon Harcourt, F. R. Japp, 
and H. Forster Morley, and Messrs. C. E. Groves, J. Millar Thomson, V. H. 
Veley, and H. B. Dixon be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of 
drawing up a statement of the varieties of Chemical Names which have 
come into use, for indicating the causes which have led to their adoption, 
and for considering what can be done to bring about some convergence 
of the views on Chemical Nomenclature obtaining among English and 
foreign chemists; that Mr. H. B. Dixon be the Secretary, and that the 
sum of 5/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. W. T. Blanford, Professor J. W. Judd, and Messrs. W. Car- 
ruthers, H. Woodward, and J. 8. Gardner be reappointed a Committee 
for the purpose of reporting on the Fossil Plants of the Tertiary and 
Secondary Beds of the United Kingdom; that Mr. J. S. Gardner be the 
Secretary, and that the sum of 20/. be placed at their disposal for the 
purpose. 

That Professor T. McK. Hughes, Dr. H. Hicks, Dr. H. Woodward, 
and Messrs. E. B. Luxmoore, P. Pennant, and Edwin Morgan be a Com- 
mittee for the purpose of exploring the Caves of North Wales; that 
Dr. H. Hicks be the Secretary, and that the sum of 251. be placed at 
their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. R. Etheridge, Mr. T. Gray, and Professor John Milne be 
reappointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating the Volcanic 
Phenomena of Japan; that Professor John Milne be the Secretary, and 
that the sum of 50/7. be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Messrs. R. B. Grantham, C. E. De Rance, J. B. Redman, W. 
Topley, W. Whitaker, and J. W. Woodall, Major-General Sir A. Clarke, 
Admiral Sir E. Ommanney, Sir J. N. Douglass, Captain Sir F. J. O. 
Evans, Captain J. Parsons, Captain W. J. L. Wharton, Professor J. 
Prestwich, and Messrs. H. Easton, J. S. Valentine, and L. F. Vernon 
Harcourt be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of inquiring into 
the Rate of Erosion of the Sea-coasts of England and Wales, and the 
Influence of the Artificial Abstraction of Shingle or other Material in that 


RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. lxxiii 


Action; that Messrs. De Rance and Topley be the Secretaries, and that 


the sum of 201. be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 


That Messrs. H. Bauerman, F. W. Rudler, J.J. H. Teall, and H. J. 
Johnston-Lavis be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of investi- 
gating the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius and its neighbourhood ; that 
Mr. H. J. Johnston-Lavis be the Secretary, and that the sum of 30/. be 
placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. J. Evans, Professor W. J. Sollas, Dr. G. J. Hinde, and Messrs. 
W. Carruthers, R. B. Newton, J. J. H. Teall, F. W. Rudler, W. Topley, 
W. Whitaker, and E. Wethered be a Committee for the purpose of carry- 
ing on the Geological Record ; that Mr. W. Topley be the Secretary, and 
that the sum of 100/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. R. Etheridge, Dr. H. Woodward, and Professor T. R. Jones 
be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of reporting on the Fossil 
Phyllopoda of the Palzozoic Rocks; that Professor T. R. Jones be the 
Secretary, and that the sum of 15/. be placed at their disposal for the 
purpose. 

That Mr. Stainton, Sir John Lubbock,’ and Mr. McLachlan be a 
Committee for the purpose of continuing a Record of Zoological Litera- 
ture; that Mr. Stainton be the Secretary, and that the sum of 1001. be 
placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. John Murray, Professor Cossar Ewart, Professor Alleyne 
Nicholson, Professor MclIutosh, Professor Young, Professor Struthers, 
and Professor McKendrick be reappointed a Committee for the purposes 
of a Marine Biological Station at Granton, Scotland; that Mr. John 
Murray be the Secretary, and that the sum of 751. be placed at their dis- 
posal for the purpose. 

That Professor Ray Lankester, Mr. P. L. Sclater, Professor M. Foster, 
Mr. A. Sedgwick, Professor A. M. Marshall, Professor A. C. Haddon, 
Professor Moseley, and Mr. Percy Sladen be reappointed a Committee for 
the purpose of arranging for the occasional occupation of a table at the 
Zoological Station at Naples; that Mr. Percy Sladen be the Secretary, 
and that the sum of 501. be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor Cleland, Professor McKendrick, Professor Ewart, 
Professor Stirling, Professor Bower, Dr. Cleghorn, and Professor McIntosh 
be a Committee for the purpose of continuing the Researches on Food 
Fishes and Invertebrates at the Marine Laboratory, St. Andrews ; that 
Professor McIntosh be the Secretary, and that the sum of 75/. be placed 
at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Mr. J. Cordeaux, Mr. J. A. Harvie-Brown, Professor Newton, 
Mr. W. Eagle Clarke, Mr. R. M. Barrington, and Mr. A. G. More be 
appointed a Committee for the purpose of obtaining (with the consent 
of the Master and Elder Brethren of the Trinity House and the Commis- 
sioners of Northern and Irish Lights) observations on Migration at 
Lighthouses and Lightvessels, and of reporting on the same; that Mr. 
J. Cordeaux be the Secretary, and that the sum of 301. be placed at their 
disposal for the purpose. 

That Professor Cleland, Professor McKendrick, and Dr. McGregor- 
Robertson be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the 
Mechanism of the Secretion of Urine; that Dr. McGregor-Robertson 
be the Secretary, and that the sum of 10J. be placed at their disposal 
for the purpose. 

That General J. T. Walker, Sir J. H. Lefroy, Lieut.-Colonel Godwin- 


lxxiv REPORT—1885. 


Austen, Mr. W. T. Blanford, Mr. Sclater, Mr. Carruthers, Mr. Thiselton-. 


Dyer, Professor Struthers, Mr. G. W. Bloxam, Mr. H. W. Bates, Lord. . 


Alfred Churchill, Mr. F. Galton, Mr. J. S. O'Halloran, Mr. Coutts. 


Trotter, and Professor Moseley be a Committee for the purpose of 


furthering the Exploration of New Guinea, by making a grant to Mr, 


Forbes for the purposes of his Expedition ; that Mr. H. W. Bates be the 


Secretary, and that the sum of 1501. be placed at their disposal for the 
purpose. 

That General J. T. Walker, Sir J. H. Lefroy, Sir William Thomson, 
Mr. Alexander Buchan, Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, Mr. John Murray, Dr. Rae, 


Mr. H. W. Bates, and Captain W. J. Dawson be a Committee for the- 


purpose of organising a systematic investigation of the Depth of the per- 
manently Frozen Soil in the Polar Regions, its geographical limits, and 
relation to the present Pole of greatest cold; that Mr. H. W. Bates be the 
Secretary, and that the sum of 5/. be placed at their disposal for the- 
purpose. 


That Professor Sidgwick, Professor Foxwell, the Rev. W. Cunning-- 
ham, and Professor Munro be a Committee for the purpose of inquiring’ 


into the Regulation of Wages under the Sliding Scales; that Professor 
Munro be the Secretary, and that the sum of 10/. be placed at their dis- 
posal for the purpose. 

That Mr. W. H. Barlow, Professor J. Thomson, Captain D. Galton, 


Mr. B. Baker, Professor W. C. Unwin, Professor A. B. W. Kennedy, Mr.. 


C. Barlow, Mr. A. T. Atchison, and Professor H. 8. Hele Shaw be a 


Committee for the purpose of obtaining information with reference to. 


the Endurance of Metals under repeated and varying stresses, and the 
proper working stresses on Railway Bridges and other structures subject 
to varying loads; that Mr. A. T. Atchison be the Secretary, and that 
the sum of 101. be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 


That Dr. Garson, Mr. Pengelly, Mr. F. W. Rudler, and Mr. G. W.. 


Bloxam be a Committee for the purpose of investigating the Prehistoric 
Race in the Greek Islands; that Mr. Bloxam be the Secretary, and. 
that the sum of 20/. be placed at their disposal for the purpose. 

That Dr. E. B. Tylor, Dr. G. M. Dawson, General Sir J. H. Lefroy, Dr. 
Daniel Wilson, Mr. R. G. Haliburton, and Mr. George W. Bloxam be 


reappointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating and publishing” 


reports on the physical characters, languages, and industrial and social 
condition of the North-Western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada; that 


Mr. Bloxam be the Secretary, and that the sum of 501. be placed at their 


disposal for the purpose. 
That Mr. Francis Galton, Dr. Beddoe, Mr. Brabrook, Professor 
Cunningham, Professor Flower, Mr. J. Park Harrison, Professor A. 


Macalister, Dr. Muirhead, Mr. F. W. Rudler, Professor Thane, and Dr.. 


Garson be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of defining the 
Racial Characteristics of the Inhabitants of the British Isles; that 


Dr. Garson be the Secretary, and that the sum of 101. be placed at their 


disposal for the purpose. 


Not involving Grants of Money. 


That Mr. James N. Shoolbred and Sir William Thomson be reap-. 
pointed a Committee for the purpose of reducing and tabulating the Tidal. 


Observations in the English Channel made with the Dover tide-gauge,. 


RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. lxxv 


and of connecting them with observations made on the French coast ; 
and that Mr. Shoolbred be the Secretary. 

That Professor Barrett, Professor Fitzgerald, and Professor Balfour 
Stewart be a Committee for the purpose of reporting on the Molecular 
Phenomena attending the Magnetisation of Iron; and that Professor 
Barrett be the Secretary. 

That Professor G. H. Darwin and Professor J. C. Adams be reap- 
pointed a Committee for the Harmonic Analysis of Tidal Observations ; 
and that Professor Darwin be the Secretary. : 

That Mr. John Murray, Professor Schuster, Sir William Thomson, 
Professor Sir H. E. Roscoe, Professor A. S. Herschel, Captain W. de W. 
Abney, Professor Bonney, Mr. R. H. Scott, and Dr. J. H. Gladstone be 
reappointed a Committee for the purpose of investigating the practica- 
bility of collecting and identifying Meteoric Dust, and of considering the 
question of undertaking regular observations in various localities; and 
that Mr. Murray be the Secretary. 

That Professors A. Johnson, Macgregor, J. B. Cherriman, and H. J. 
Bovey and Mr. ©. Carpmael be reappointed a Committee for the purpose 
of promoting Tidal Observations in Canada; and that Professor Johnson 
be the Secretary. 

That Professor Sylvester, Professor Cayley, and Professor Salmon be 
reappointed a Committee for the purpose of calculating Tables of the 
Fundamental Invariants of Algebraic Forms; and that Professor Cayley 
be the Secretary. 

That Professors Everett and Sir William Thomson, Mr. G. J. Symons, 
Sir A. C. Ramsay, Dr. A. Geikie, Mr. J. Glaisher, Mr. Pengelly, 
Professor Edward Hull, Professor Prestwich, Dr. C. Le Neve Foster, 
Professor A. S. Herschel, Professor G. A. Lebour, Mr. A. B. Wynne, 
Mr. Galloway, Mr. Joseph Dickinson, Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. E. Wethered, 
and Mr. A. Strahan be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of 
investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature down- 
wards in various Localities of Dry Land and under Water ; and that Pro- 
fessor Everett be the Secretary. 

That Professor Cayley, Sir William Thomson, Mr. James Glaisher,. 
and Mr. J. W. L. Glaisher (Secretary) be reappointed a Committee for 
the purpose of calculating certain tables in the Theory of Numbers 
connected with the divisors of a number. 

That Professors Tilden and Ramsay and Dr. W. W. J. Nicol be a 
Committee for the purpose of investigating the subject of Vapour Pressures 
and Refractive Indices of Salt Solutions; and that Dr. W. W. J. Nicol 
be the Secretary. 

That Professors Ramsay, Tilden, Marshall, and W. L. Goodwin be 
a Committee for the purpose of investigating certain Physical Constants 
of Solution, especially the expansion of saline solutions; and that Pro- 
fessor W. L. Goodwin be the Secretary. 

That Professors W. A. Tilden and H. EH. Armstrong be a Committee 
for the purpose of investigating Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives; and 
that Professor H. E. Armstrong be the Secretary. 

That Professor Sir H. E. Roscoe, Mr. Lockyer, Professors Dewar, 
Liveing, Schuster, W. N. Hartley, and Wolcott Gibbs, Captain Abney, 
and Dr. Marshall Watts be a Committee for the purpose of preparing 
a new series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements; 
and that Dr. Marshall Watts be the Secretary. 


Ixxvi REPORT—1885. 


That Professors Dewar and A. W. Williamson, Dr. Marshall Watts, 
Captain Abney, Dr. Johnstone Stoney, Professors W. N. Hartley, McLeod, 
Carey Foster, A. K. Huntington, Emerson Reynolds, Reinold, and 
Liveing, Lord Rayleigh, Professor Schuster, and Professor W. Chandler 
Roberts be a Committee for the purpose of reporting upon the present 
state of our knowledge of Spectrum Analysis; and that Professor W. 
Chandler Roberts be the Secretary. 

That Professor E. Hull, Dr. H. W. Crosskey, Captain Douglas Galton, 
Professor J. Prestwich, and Messrs. James Glaisher, E. B. Marten, G. H. 
Morton, James Parker, W. Pengelly, James Plant, I. Roberts, Fox 
Strangways, T. S. Stooke, G. J. Symons, W. Topley, Tylden-Wright, E. 
Wethered, W. Whitaker, and C. E. De Rance be reappointed a Com- 
mittee for the purpose of investigating the Circulation of the Under- 
ground Waters in the Permeable Formations of England, and the Quality 
and Quantity of the Waters supplied to various towns and districts from 
these formations; and that Mr. De Rance be the Secretary. 

That Professors J. Prestwich, W. Boyd Dawkins, T. McK. Hughes, 
and T. G. Bonney, Dr. H. W. Crosskey, and Messrs. C. E. De Rance, 
H. G. Fordham, J. E. Lee, D. Mackintosh, W. Pengelly, J. Plant, and 
R. H. Tiddeman be reappointed a Committee for the purpose of record- 
ing the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and 
origin of the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting 
other matters of interest connected with the same, and taking measures 
for their preservation ; and that Dr. Crosskey be the Secretary. 

That Sir A. Taylor, Professor Bayley Balfour, Dr. Crombie Brown, 
Dr. Cleghorn, and Sir John Lubbock be a Committee for the purpose of 
considering whether the condition of our Forests and Woodlands might 
not be improved by the establishment of a Forest School. 

That Sir Joseph D. Hooker, Sir George Nares, Mr. John Murray, 
General J. T. Walker, Admiral Sir Leopold McClintock, Dr. W. B. 
Carpenter, Mr. Clements Markham, and Admiral Sir Erasmus Ommanney, 
be a Committee for the purpose of drawing attention to the desirability 
of further research in the Antarctic Regions, nearly half a century having 
elapsed since the last exploration; and that Admiral Sir Erasmus 
Ommanney be the Secretary. 

That General J. T. Walker, Sir J. H. Lefroy, Sir William Thomson, 
Mr. Alexander Buchan, Mr. J. Y. Buchanan, Mr. John Murray, Mr. 
Francis Galton, Mr. H. W. Bates, and Mr. E. G. Ravenstein, with 
power to add to their number, be a Committee for the purpose of taking 
into consideration the combination of the Ordnance and Admiralty Sur- 
veys, and the production of a batho-hypsographical map of the British 
Islands ; and that Mr. H. G. Ravenstein be the Secretary. 

That General J. T. Walker, Sir William Thomson, Sir J. H. Lefroy, 
‘General R. Strachey, Professor A. 8. Herschel, Professor G. Chrystal, 
Professor C. Niven, Professor J. H. Poynting, and Professor A. Schuster 
be a Committee for the purpose of inviting designs for a good Differential 
Gravity Meter in supersession of the pendulum, whereby satisfactory 
results may be obtained, at each station of observation, in a few hours, 
instead of the many days over which it is necessary to extend pendulum 
observations ; and that Professor J. H. Poynting be the Secretary. 

That Dr. J. H. Gladstone, Professor Armstrong, Mr. William Shaen, 
Mr. Stephen Bourne, Miss Lydia Becker, Sir John Lubbock, Dr. 
H. W. Crosskey, Sir Richard Temple, Sir Henry E. Roscoe, Mr. James 


RECOMMENDATIONS ADOPTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE. Ixxvit 


Heywood, and Professor N. Story Maskelyne be reappointed a Committee 
for the purpose of continuing the inquiries relating to the teaching of 
Science in Elementary Schools; and that Dr. J. H. Gladstone be the 
Secretary. 

That the Corresponding Societies Committee, consisting of Mr. F. 
Galton, Professor Williamson, Captain Douglas Galton, Professor Boyd 
Dawkins, Sir Rawson Rawson, Dr. Garson, Mr. J. Evans, Mr. J. 
Hopkinson, Mr. Whitaker, Mr. Symons, Professor Meldola (Secretary), 
and General Pitt- Rivers, be reappointed. 

That Mr. Mollison be requested to report on the present state of our 
knowledge of the Mathematical Theory of Thermal Conduction. _ 

That Mr. P. T. Main be requested to draw up a Report on our experi- 
mental knowledge of the Properties of Matter with respect to volume, 
pressure, temperature, and specific heat. 

That Mr. Glazebrook be requested to continue his Report on Optics. 

That Professor J. J. Thomson be requested to continue his Report on 
Electrical Theories. 


Communications ordered to be printed in extenso in the Annual 
Report of the Association. 


Mr. Meldrum’s paper, ‘A Tabular Statement of the dates at which, 
and the localities where Pumice or Volcanic Dust was seen in the 
Indian Ocean’ (with one plate). 

Professor O. J. Lodge’s paper ‘ On Electrolysis,’ opening the discussion 
on Electrolysis. : 

Mr. Harker’s paper ‘ On Slaty Cleavage.’ 

That Mr. Whitaker be requested to enlarge his List of Works on the 
Geology of Staffordshire by the addition of lists on Warwickshire and 
Worcestershire, and that the same be printed in full in the Report. 

Mr. Stephen Bourne’s paper ‘On the use of Index Numbers in the- 
Investigation of Trade Statistics.’ 

Mr. W. H. Preece’s paper ‘On the Strength of Telegraph Poles.’ 

Mr. A. 8. Biggart’s paper ‘On the Forth Bridge Works,’ with the 
necessary plates. 

Mr. J. N. Shoolbred’s paper ‘On the Electric Lighting of the Forth 
Bridge.’ 

Mr. C. Barlow’s paper ‘ On the Tay Bridge,’ with the necessary plates. 


Resolutions referred to the Council for Consideration, and Action if 
desirable. 


That the Council be requested to reconsider the proposal of holding a 
General International Congress, and to report to the General Committee 
thereon at the next Meeting of the Association. 

That the Council be requested to consider the desirability of admitting 
Jadies as Officers of the Association, or as Members of the General or: 
Sectional Committees. 

That the Council be requested to consider the advisability of rendering 
the special Reports of the Association more accessible to the scientific: 
public by placing them on sale in separate form. 

That the printed Reports on Special Subjects be offered for gale to- 


Ixxviii REPORT—-1885. 


the general public at the time of the Meeting, or as soon afterwards as 
possible. 

That the Council be requested to so modify the Rules of the Associa- 
tion as to permit of a Sectional Meeting being held at an earlier hour 
than eleven, and the Sectional Committee previously, due notice being 
given to the Section on the previous day. 

That a memorial be presented to H.M. Government requesting them 
to enlarge the existing Agricultural Department of the Privy Council, 
with the view of concentrating all administrative functions relating to 
Agriculture in one fully-equipped Board and Department of Agriculture. 

That the Council be requested to consider and take steps, if they think 
it desirable, to memorialise the Government to undertake the more 
systematic collection and annual publication of Statistics of Wages, anda 
periodical industrial census. 

That a memorial be presented to H.M. Government in favour of the 
establishment of a National School of Forestry. 


SYNOPSIS OF GRANTS OF MONEY. 


lxxix 


Synopsis of Grants of Money appropriated to Scientific Pur- 
poses by the General Committee at the Aberdeen Meeting in 
September 1885. The Names of the Members entitled to 
call on the General Treasurer for the respective Grants are 


prefixed. 
Mathematics and Physics. 
£ 
*Foster, Professor G. Carey.—Hlectrical Standards ............ 40 
*Stewart, Professor Balfour.—Solar Radiation .................. YO 
*Stewart, Professor Balfour.—Meteorological Observations 
eae EON ay 8 bck ecaslys an bertsppadsorsduerr eet cose 46 Rese nns 25 


Darwin, Professor G.H.—Instructions fur Tidal Observations 50 
*Stewart, Professor Balfour.—Comparing and reducing Mag- 


Bee DESEV ALONG i. 5 join hopi2s-nmapebddnrbyelenaudth eos ons ivesus 40 
*Forbes, Professor G.—Standards of Light ..................... 20 
*Brown, Professor Crum.—Ben Nevis Observatory ............ 100 
*Armstrong, Professor.—Physical and Chemical bearings of 

RUG tg gia 35 <0 9n v'ns ah tn So fucalinnwas (tua enuineeeey se: 20 

Chemistry. 
M‘Leod, Professor.—Silent discharge of Electricity into at- 

MRSA RES oc and coke eI EN Ste) 2,» eaivonwciav es 20 
*Williamson, Professor A. W.—Chemical Nomenclature...... 5 

Geology. 

*Blanford, Mr. W. T.—Fossil plants of the Tertiary and 
Se memietaty, CUS 251 <h0.2. ak eee ee ee 20 
Hughes, Professor T. McK.—Caves of North Wales ......... 25 
*Htheridge, Mr. R.—Volcanic Phenomena in Japan.....,...... 50 
*Grantham, R. B.—Erosion of Sea Coasts .............0.cecceeee. 20 
_ *Bauerman, Mr. H.—Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius ...... 30 
| *Evans, Dr. J.—Geological Record ...............ccccceceseecesece- 100 
*Etheridge, Mr. R.—Fossil Phyllopoda ................0..0000008. 15 
Carried: forward t 5.50 <5¢-Gp eh ec ne ontth lee euroaeenne £600 


* Reappointed. 


oe o2 


SO S0So oo S79 


on Oro oO oS oS SS 


lxxx REPORT—1885, 


Bewaly ds 

Brought forward............ a6 vivian io Sec eae em 600 0 © 
Biology. 

*Stanton, Mr. H. T.—Zoological Record...................eseeeees 100 0 0 


i=) 
i=) 


*Murray, Mr. J.—Marine Biological Stationat Grantham ... 75 
*Lankester, Professor Ray.—Zoological Station at Naples... 50 0 0O 
Cleland, Professor.—Researches in Food Fishes and Inver- 


febrata.at St. Andrews astvat beens viasave.veee-spanntbegomel 75 0 0 
*Cordeaux, Mr. J.—Migration of Birds ...........0 0...cs cee eee eee 30 0 0 
Cleland, Professor.—Mechanism of Secretion of Urine ...... 10— 0 @ 
Geography. 
Walker, General J. T.—New Guinea Exploration ............ 150 0 @ 
Walker, General J. T.—Invesiigation into depth of perma- 
nently frozen soil in Polar Regions ...............:06seeeeeees 5. 0,, 0 
Economic Science and Statistics. 
Sidgwick, Professor.—Regulation of Wages under sliding 
EMME Gite anid g Sie y 5 oie U6 peo 42 abin's qn es yeh oth ~~ ao Sere 10 0 0 


Mechanics. 


Barlow, Mr. W. H.—Effect of varying stresses on metals... 10 0 O 


Anthropology. 
Garson, Dr.—Invyestigation into a pre-historic race in the 
REPRISE EIBIUGAE Sopa iae'ooh sha ann vn wices's-ss saibevenienase qesecne team 20) 6 


*Tylor, Dr. E. B.—Investigation into North-Western Tribes 
OO RN TCG PROSE ee el BE GaP BEAP SBS ARSC OStScduaddaceeo- 50 0 0 


£1195 0 0 


* Reappointed. 


The Annual Meeting in 1886. 


The Meeting at Birmingham will commence on Wednesday, Sep-. . 


tember 1. 
Place of Meeting in 1887. 


The Annual Meeting of the Association will be held at Manchester. 


GENERAL STATEMENT. 


lxxxi 


General Statement of Sums which have been paid on account of 
Grants for Scientific Purposes. 


£ 3s. da. 
1834. 
Tide Discussions ........ tates BO miley O 
1835 
Tide Discussions ..........+s++6 62,.,0,. 0 
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0 
£167 VU O 
1836. 
Tide Discussions .............4+ 163 0 0 
British Fossil Ichthyology ... 105 0 0 
Thermometric Observations, 
Es co hisacagecussedeloosacecs 50 0 0 
Experiments on _ long-con- 
tinted Heat .......sscecesoeoe LigeeslinisO 
Rain-Gauges ...........ssseeeeees 913 0 
Refraction Experiments ...... 15 0 0 
Mena NUtAtiON...c...sescsereeee 60 0 0 
Thermometers ............sss00e 15 6 0 
£435 UO O 
1837. 
SiGe DISCUSSIONS ..........0s00s 284 1 0 
‘Chemical Constants ............ 2413 6 
Mimnar Nutation.................. TO, AOR EO 
Observations on Waves ...... 100 12 0 
Bbides af Bristol .........-0..0000 150 0 0 
‘Meteorology and Subterra- 
 nean Temperature............ 93 3 0 
_ Vitrification Experiments 150 0 0 
Heart Experiments ............ 8 4 6 
Barometric Observations ...... 30 0 0 
MMPPETISUCLCTS |. «0. cco .ceccccscsecesnes 1118 6 
: £922 12 6 
eee 
1838. 
Tide Discussions ............00+ ois Olan 0 
‘British Fossil Fishes............ 100 0 0 
‘Meteorological Observations 
_ and Anemometer (construc- 
i) ree 100 0 0 
Cast Iron (Strength of) ...... 60 0 0 
Animal and Vegetable Sub- 
stances (Preservation of) 19 110 
way Constants ............ 41 12 10 
SEE EHOES) ..cccnscscocsecssenss 50 0 0 
Btn OF Plants: sessaesseeacess tom, OO 
BI ETVETS  ....csciseacccecnse 3.6.6 
ducation Committee ......... 50 0 0 
Heart Experiments .......... Ral ure Ding it O 
Land and Sea Level............ 267 8 7 
Steam-vessels..............sc0000- 100 0 O 
Meteorological Committee 31 4 9505 
} £932 2 2 
a FJ 
1839. 
Fossil Ichthyology ............ 110 0 0 
Meteorological Observations 
at Plymouth, &c. ..........5. 63 10 0 


1885. 


£8. a. 
Mechanism of Waves ......... 144 2 0 
Bristol FiGes) . ot nadpsescch-tedcens 35.18 6 

Meteorology and Subterra- 
nean Temperature............ 2111 0 
Vitrification Experiments ... 9 4 7 
Cast-Iron Experiments......... 103 0 0 
Railway Constants ............ 28 7 2 
Land and Sea Level............ 274 1 4 
Steam-vessels’ Engines ...... 100 0 0 
Stars in Histoire Céleste ...... 171 18 6 
Stars in Lacaille ...........s«0» 1. 0n 0 
Stars in R.A.S. Catalogue 166 16 6 
Animal Secretions............... 10 10 O 
Steam Engines in Cornwall... 50 0 0 
Atmospheric Air .....c.s.sasces ci ile: 
Cast and Wrought Iron ...... 40 0 0 
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 3.0 «0 
Gases on Solar Spectrum...... 22 0 0 

Haurly Meteorological Ob- 

servations, Inverness and 
RUSS STG akonaeacenesesean sas cs 49 7 8 
Fossil Reptiles .........ssecssees i fat ees 
Mining Statistics ............... 50 0 0 
£1595 11° 0 

1840. 

RISTO GNOCS A iecasnseesaassastres 100 0 0 
Subterranean Temperature... 13 13 6 
Heart Experiments .........+.. 1819 0 
Lungs Experiments ............ 813 0 
Tide Discussions ..........+0+++ 50 0 O 
Land and Sea Level....... eee Gye 
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 242 10 O 
Stars (lacaille))i2c......-.csenecs 415 0 
Stars (Catalogue) ......sesssses 264 0 0 
Atmospheric Air .........2....- 15 15 0 
Wiateniontiront is. tocsecc-ceass 10 0 O 
Heat on Organic Bodies ...... 2026 
Meteorological Observations. 5217 6 
Foreign Scientific Memoirs... 112 1 6 
Working Population............ 100 0 O 
School Statistics ............0+ 50 0 O 
Forms of Vessels .........e0+«: 184 7 0 

Chemical and Electrical Phe- 
MOMENAN .cqavereerecamenasscss 40 0 0 

Meteorological Observations 
at Plymouth ..........c..se =, 00 O10 
Magnetical Observations...... 185 13 9 
£1546 16 4 

1841. 

Observations on Waves ...... 30 0 0 

Meteorology and Subterra- 
nean Temperature...........- 8 8 0 
ACtINOMETETS .....0.20e0ccee+cs000 1050. 10 
Earthquake Shocks ........... Lie 30 
Acrid Poisons..........s+ss00 zs, 6) 0) 10 
Veins and Absorbents ...... .. 3-0 O 
Mud IMCRIVers? .c.c.sescensisence 5 0 0 

e€ 


lxxxli 

£8. Ga. 
Marine Zoology .......seseeceseee 15 12 8 
Skeleton Maps .......-c.ssceceee 20 0 0 
Mountain Barometers ......... 618 6 
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 185 0 0 
Stars (Lacaille)...........:..06 oe oto, Horr 
Stars (Nomenclature of) ...... 17 196 
Stars (Catalogue of) ............ 40 0 0 
Water on Iron ..............0006 50 0 O 
Meteorological Observations 

FIbPUNVCINESS Wrsec sere snceenae - 20 0 0 
Meteorological Observations 

(reduction of) ...........0. peepee ty 
Fossil Reptiles .......... AaAace soO 0 0 
Foreign Memoirs ..........0006+ 62 0 6 
Railway Sections ..............- 3 fej ahi Maral 0) 
Forms of Vessels ........+ss00e- 193 12 0 
Meteorological Observations 

Bi eel yAWOUG Ves caeseveststas ess 55 0 0 
Magnetical Observations...... 6118 8 
Fishes of the Old Red Sand- 

EISSIGy Socasonesnoconascnon peeve LOO! OO 
Mides at Weithe*t -cesasssecesse 50 0 0 
Anemometer at Edinburgh... 69 1 10 
Tabulating Observations...... 9 6 3 
CES OL MeTionsscettesossts cate 7 oes s CO 
Radiate Animals ............ Mere RO) 

£1235 10 11 

1842. 

Dynamometric Instruments.. 113 11 2 
Anoplura Britanniz ............ 52 12 0 
Tides at Bristol ..............00 59 8 O 
Gases on Light .............0c00 30 14 7 
Chronometers.......00.....e008 Seep Otel at O 
Marine Zoology..........0.--.00. Tew ep) 
British Fossil Mammalia...... 100 0 O 
Statistics of Education......... 20 0 0 
Marine Steam-vessels’ En- 

DAMON Mitac cncdenedasecsscaeleter 28 0 0 
Stars (Histoire Céleste) ...... 59 0 O 
Stars (Brit. Assoc. Cat. of) .. sae) Ou a, 
Railway Sections ............+0. 161 10 O 
British Belemnites ............ 50 0 0 
Fossil Reptiles (publication 

Of REPO)” c.ccccccccessassancee 210 0 0 
Forms of Vessels ...........200+ 180 0 0 
Galvanic Experiments on 

Rocks ....... Sees each eeeecee tee 5 8 6 
Meteorological Experiments 

BG PIYMOUbL |<. ..0c seus encanes 68 0 0 
Constant Indicator and Dyna- 

mometric Instruments ...... 90 0 0 
HOTeeLOL WINGY bs.c...2+0<cee5s 10 0 0 
Light on Growth of Seeds ... 8 0 O 
Vital Statistics ............... «. 50 0 0 
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 8 1 11 
Questions on Human Race... 7 9 O 

£1449 17 8 
ee 


1843. 
Revision of the Nomenclature 
OL Stars oscars 


rEPoRT—1885. 


£8. de 
Reduction of Stars, British 
Association Catalogue ...... 25 0 0 
Anomalous Tides, Frith of 
HORDA GN cestccatiscessseeneneneres 120 0 O 
Hourly Meteorological Obser- 
vations at Kingussie and 
MAVETNCSS : s. cewasnoesseanseanre 77:12 8 
Meteorological Observations 
at Plymouth: ..:<thsstscceueets 55 0 0 
Whewell’s Meteorological 
Anemometer at Plymouth. 10 0 0O 
Meteorological Observations, 
Osler’s Anemometer at Ply- 
MOG vas dteseecwees see steers 20 0 0 
Reduction of Meteorological 
Observations <2cidecccsres ese . 30 0 0 
Meteorological Instruments 
and Gratuities ........ eee ee 39 6 O 
Construction of Anemometer 
at Inverness ..... Coren eh 5612 2 
Magnetic Co-operation......... 10 8 10 
Meteorological Recorder for 
Kew Observatory ............ 50 0 0 
Action of Gases on Light...... 186 eae 
Establishment at Kew Ob- 
servatory, Wages, Repairs 
Furniture, and Sundries... 133 4 7 
Experiments by Captive Bal- 
TOONS ©! ‘scu.va'vecee tee veneneeneeens 81 8 0 
Oxidation of the Rails of 
Railways. ssscissssatsssecesaccee 20 © 0)"0 
Publication of Report on 
Fossil Reptiles ...........0c0+. 40 0 0 
Coloured Drawings of Rail- 
Way Sections: ....:.s./scerecves 147 18 3 
Registration of Earthquake 
SHOCKS!.....s.ccecsavectssaneeiee 300 0 
Report on Zoological Nomen- 
CLACURG, -scvetinckessans ceteneeeete 10 0 0 
Uncovering Lower Red Sand- 
stone near Manchester ...... 4 4 6 
Vegetative Power of Seeds... 5 3 8 
Marine Testacea (Habits of). 10 0 0 
Marine Zoology ........csseseeees 10 0 0 
Marine Zoology .......sesereeeeee 2 14 11 
Preparation of Report on Bri- 
tish Fossil Mammalia ...... 100 0 0 
Physiological Operations of 
Medicinal Agents ............ 20 0 0 
Vital Statistics ......ccscssseess. 36 5 8 
Additional Experiments on 
the Forms of Vessels ..... ot TO: HOO 
Additional Experiments on 
the forms of Vessels ......... 100 0 0 
Reduction of Experiments on 
the Forms of Vessels ...... 100 0 0 
Morin’s Instrument and Con- 
stant Indicator ............... 69 14 10 
Experiments on the Strength 
Of Materials ........0....0s00e 60 0 0 
£1565 10 2 


GENERAL STATEMENT. 


£ 8 ds 
1844. Electrical Experiments at 
Meteorological Observations Kew Observatory ............ 4317 8 
at Kingussie and Inverness Maintaining the Establish- 
Completing Observations at ment in Kew Observatory 14915 0 

PVMNOUEI rie ice0s.. cess sede siove For Kreil’s Barometrograph 25 0 0 
Magnetic and Meteorological Gases from Iron Furnaces... 50 0 0 

Co-operation ...........0...08 The Actinograph ..........0s00. 15 0 0 
Publication of the British Microscopic. Structure of 

Association Catalogue of Shells ....sivecssczscdacteesabwcs 20 0 0 

PERE oc scsccadcseacedicecwcsee Exotic Anoplura ......... 1843 10 0 0 
Observations on Tides on the Vitality of Seeds ......... 1843 2 0 7 

East Coast of Scotland ... Vitality of Seeds ......... 1844 7 0 0 
Revision of the Nomenclature Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 0 

SSIMSRES Mag ancvacnena te. 1842 6 | Physiological Action of Medi- 
Maintaining the Establish- CIES! | nde dtidecicvee. seeks 20 0 0 

ment in Kew Observa- Statistics of Sickness and 

SAUD CG Bas 5 c's es" ows esaneeires waesens 3 Mortality in York............ 20.0.0 
Instruments for Kew Obser- Earthquake Shocks ...... 1843 1514 8 

BORE arsae ent < odebcecsdcscacse 3 £831 9 9 
Influence of Light on Plants 0 
Subterraneous Temperature 

MOMICCIANG o_o... ..cesecccqeuens 0 ad __, 1846. 

Coloured Drawings of Rail- British Association Catalogue 

way PICOUIOUS. ce. ccc scenccrs cho 6 of Stars sceccccccssccccses 1844 211 15 0 
Investigation of Fossil Fishes Fossil Fishes of the London 

ofthe Lower Tertiary Strata (0) Clay. ttt eereeeseesseeseneceece tee. 100 0 O 
Registering the Shocks of Computation of the Gaussian 

Earthquakes ............ 1842 10 Constants for 1829 ......... 50 0 0 
Structure of Fossil Shells ... 0 | Maintaining the Establish- 

Radiata and Mollusca of the ment at Kew Observatory 146 7 

#igean and Red Seas 1842 0 | Strength of Materials | segereeo 60 0 
Geographical Distributions of Researches in Asphyxia ...... 6 2 

Marine Zoology......... 1842 Q | Examination of Fossil Shells 10 0 
Marine Zoology of Devon and Vitality Of Seeds: ..i%56: 1844 2 10 

Wgerinyalll's.....<.--Svevedese revs 0 © | Vitality of Seeds ......... 1845 7 3 
Marine Zoology of Corfu...... 0 0 | Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 
Experiments on the Vitality Marine Zoology of Britain... 10 0 

.. EE eee 0 © | Exotic Anoplura ......... 1844 25 0 
Experiments on the Vitality Expenses attending Anemo- 

Ti et i ees ee 1842 7 3 INMELETS ssc white ctiaatdaestet ke 11 6 
Exotic Anoplura ...........00.. 0 © | Anemometers’ Repairs......... 2 6 
Strength of Materials ......... 0 © | Atmospheric Waves ............ 3 3 
Completing Experiments on Captive Balloons ......... 1844 8 8 

the Forms of Ships ......... 0 © | Varieties of the Human Race 
Inquiries into Asphyxia ...... OnE0 p\- : 1844 7 6 38 
Investigations on the Internal tatistics of Sickness and 

Constitution of Metals...... 00 Mortality in York............ i2 0 0 
Constant Indicator and Mo- £685 16 0 
rt rin’s Instrument ...... 1842 10 0 0 
% £981 12 8 1847. 
® Computation of the Gaussian 
y 1845. Constants for 1829............ 50 0 O 
_ Publication of the British As- Habits of Marine Animals... 10 0 0 
_ _ sociation Catalogue of Stars 351 14 6 | Physiological Action of Medi- 
Meteorological Observations CIN CS ig ee So cscae sosacea veces see es 20 0 0 
BMRAGHINVEINESS .........cic0.nces 30 18 11 | Marine Zoology of Cornwall 10 0 O 
Magnetic and Meteorological Atmospheric Waves ............ 6 9 3 

WO-Operation ........scccceses 16 16 8 | Vitality of Seeds ............... Fh | oii 
Meteorological Instruments Maintaining the Establish- 

at Edinburgh..............0.0 LS "9. ment at Kew Observatory 107 8 6 
Reduction of Anemometrical £208 5 4 

Observations at Plymouth 25 0 0 ———— 


e2 


lxxxiv 


£ 3s. d. 
1848. 
Maintaining the EHstablish- 
ment at Kew Observatory 171 15 11 


Atmospheric Waves ........++ 310 9 
Vitality of Seeds ..........+0++ 915 0 
Completion of Catalogue of 

SLATS) Mies aot enasaarieacieassnnsoelaes 70 0 O 
On Colouring Matters ......... 5 0 0 
On Growth of Plants ......... 15 0 0 

£275 1 8 
1849. 
Electrical Observations at 

Kew Observatory .......+0.+6 50 0 0 
Maintaining the Hstablish- 

ment at CittO........eseeseeeee 76 2 5 
Vitality of Seeds .......s..s000 bee8 al 
On Growth of Plants ......... 5 0 0 
Registration of Periodical 

PHENOMENA,.......00srerecreoree KO (0) 
Bill on Account of Anemo- 

metrical Observations ...... i a: 10 

£159 19 6 
1850. 
Maintaining the Establish- 

ment at Kew Observatory 255 18 0 
Transit of Earthquake Waves 50 0 O 
Periodical Phenomena......... FEO) 
Meteorological Instruments, 

AZOLES J... ..ccsecccvccereccrecesss 25 0 0 

£345 18 O 
1851 
Maintaining the Establish- 

ment at Kew Observatory 

(includes part of grant in 

SHO) Geeasteats Suviechesccecnatse 309 2 2 
Theory of Heat .........sceseeeee 20 le 
Periodical Phenomena of Ani- 

mals and Plants..........0+++ 5 aOrO 
Vitality of Seeds ...........000 5 6 4 
Influence of Solar Radiation 30 0 0 
Ethnological Inquiries......... 12 0 0 
Researches on Annelida ...... 10 0 0 

£391 9 7 
1852. 
Maintaining the Establish- 

ment at Kew: Observatory 

(including balance of grant 

LODUUSDO\cereced sears cmascch esse 233 17 8 
Experiments on the Conduc- 

tion Of Heat ..........secsas0e By og 
Influence of Solar Radiations 20 0 0 
Geological Map of Ireland... 15 0 0 
Researches on the British An- 

MEU aivs se wecckscecaiscnessinass 10 0 O 
Vitality of Seeds ...........0006 10 6 2 
Strength of Boiler Plates...... 10 0 0 

£304 6 7 


REPORT—1885. 


£ 8. d. 
1855. 
Maintaining the Establish- 
ment at Kew Observatory 165 0 O 
Experiments on the Influence 
of Solar Radiation ......... 15 0 O 
Researches on the British 
ANMECLIAA........00cnreerverses «ai LOOK 0 
Dredging on the East Coast 
Of Scotland.....cssseseccensex-s 10 0 0 
Ethnological Queries ......... 5.05240 
£205 0 O 
1854. 
Maintaining the Establish- 
ment at Kew Observatory 
(including balance of 
former prant))........sccsscsses 330 15 4 
Investigations on Flax......... 11 0 0 
Effects of Temperature on 
Wrought Tron............s.e00 10 0 0 
Registration of Periodical 
PhenoOMena......seeceeeresrecee 10 0 O 
British Annelida ........sse0e 10 0 O 
Vitality of Seeds ...........0008 5 2 38 
Conduction of Heat ...........+ 4 2 0 
£380 19 7 
1855. 


Maintaining the Establish- 


ment at Kew Observatory 425 0 0 
Earthquake Movements ...... LOR GAG, 
Physical Aspect ofthe Moon 11 8 5 
Vitality of Seeds ...........+6 oe LOD Taam 
Map of the World.............+ 15 0 6 
Ethnological Queries ......... 5 06 
Dredging near Belfast......... 4 0 0 

£480 16 4 
1856. 
Maintaining the Establish- 
ment at Kew Observa- 
tory :— 
1854......00- £75 0 0 
1868. ..d0 £500 0 OF te, 88 
Strickland’s Ornithological. 

SYNONYMS .....ceseveeseeeeeees 100 0 6 
Dredging and Dredging 

OTMS .....00seveseccecvecpraves 913 0 
Chemical Action of Light ... 20 0 0 
Strength of Iron Plates ...... 10.0 «0g 
Registration of Periodical 

PhenoMend........cseeeeeceeeee 10 0 0 
Propagation of Salmon......... 10 0 0 

£734 13 D 
1857. 
Maintaining the Establish- 

ment at Kew Observatory 350 0 0 
Earthquake Wave Experi- 

TLGTICS eee eencrntcednscese sass ss 0 0 
Dredging near Belfast......... 10 0 9 
Dredging on the West Coast 

of Scotland .. 3. sce scecusessnse 10 0 0 


Sth ee 


: 
: 


GENERAL STATEMENT. 


£ 8 
Investigations into the Mol- 

lusea of California ......... 10 0 
Experiments on Flax ......... 5 0 
Natural History of Mada- 

GASCAT ........creccecesesceveoeee 20 0 
Researches on British Anne- 

BeAr dcseadscea sates» session esse 25 0 
Report on Natural Products 

imported into Liverpool... 10 0 
Artificial Propagation of Sal- 

PAUSE Graces ssscjosesscesaessnnsas 10 0 
Temperature of Mines......... 7 8 
Thermometers for Subterra- 

nean Observations...........- 5 7 
DALC=DOALS .........ceeccerscsenese 5 0 

£507 15 
1858. 
Maintaining the Establish- 

ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 
Earthquake Wave Experi- 

PERDRIDST eeerescsacctcescccscsesses« 25 0 
Dredging on the West Coast 

BPERISCOULANG soo. 20sassesececes es 10 0 
Dredging near Dublin......... 5 0 
Vitality of Seeds .............05 5 5 
Dredging near Belfast......... 18 13 
Report on the British Anne- 

(he Eee eee erence tienes <2 25 0 


Experiments on the produc- 
tion of Heat by Motion in 


a 


0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
4 
0 
4 


poco oO "oS 


Oo 


OP TLISIE ¢ chapemaba hc pngaceerene gree 20 0 0 

Report on the Natural Pro- 

ducts imported into Scot- 
LLU h cee Gane g OO SRUC EERE EIR TERE Si LOMO O 
£618 18 2 

1859. 

Maintaining the Establish- 
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 O 
Dredging near Dublin......... 15 0 0 
Osteology of Birds ............ 50 0 0 
MEP UNICAtA ..2.:...ccsceeeses 5 0 0 
Manure Experiments ......... 20 0 0 
British Meduside ............... a OF 0 
Dredging Committee ......... 5 0 0 
Steam-vessels’Performance... 5 0 O 

Marine Fauna of South and 
West of Ireland............... 10 0 0 
Photographic Chemistry ...... 10 0 0 
Lanarkshire Fossils ............ 20 0 1 
Balloon Ascents.........sesseess- 39 11 O 
£684 11 1 

1860. 

Maintaining the Establish- 
ment at Kew Observatory 500 0 0 
Dredging near Belfast......... 16 6 0 
Dredging in Dublin Bay...... 15 0 0 

Inquiry into the Performance 
of Steam-vesselis ............ 124 0 0 

Explorations in the Yellow 
Sandstone of Dura Don ... 20 0 0 


lxxxv 


cay Oy Ue 
Chemico-mechanical Analysis 

of Rocks and Minerals...... 25 0 0 
Researches on the Growth of 

Pl aniis ) .oxa<aastaestisacateereress 10 0 0 
Researches on the Solubility 

(DiES ISITE: a See Saeco eCRpaeOne 30 0 0 
Researches on the Constituents 

Of Mantresiy -ecterese<cse-s2- 25 0 0 
Balance of Captive Balloon 

ACCOUNTS: ssenecutmemesedenceee-5 113 6 

£766 19 6 
1861. 
Maintaining the Establish- 

ment of Kew Observatory... 500 0 O 
Earthquake Experiments...... 25 0 0 
Dredging North and East 

Coasts of Scotland ......... 23 0 0 
Dredging Committee :— 

1860...... £50 0 0 

1861025525822:0 -Or-fo-e Ay Ov O 
Excavations at Dura Den...... 20 0 0 
Solubility of Salts. ............ 20 0 0 
Steam-vessel Performance ... 150 0 O 
Fossils of Lesmahago ......... 145 0 0 
Explorations at Uriconium... 20 0 0 
Chemical Alloys ..............- 20 0 0 
Classified Index to the Trans- 

ELLOS eaten ter aereseden seen eees 100 0 0 
Dredging in the Mersey and 

DGGr wz saccheteeserteteeessereseac: 5 0 0 
DapiCincles enrenek mrnacecren case 30 0 0 
Photoheliographic Observa- 

LOT 0F » legne cece pcoOeROLOCE CLOSE 50 0 O 
PEISOW UD tices cn aesncctatee coe sates 20 0 0 
Gauging of Water............06. 10 0 O 
Alpine Ascents:<2..::.....-c-c«s 6 510 
Constituents of Manures...... 25 0 0 

£1111 5 10 
1862. 
Maintaining the Establish- 

ment of Kew Observatory 500 0 O 
Patentliaws'..c.ccccsccvesesecess 21 6 0 
Molluscaof N.-W. of America 10 0 0 
Natural History by Mercantile 

Manined ;,sc2usiteseeet. 3. 8etee 5 0 0 
Tidal Observations ............ 25 0 0 
Photoheliometer at Kew ...... 40 0 0 
Photographic Pictures of the 

SUNS sage soxeebacss eetee es 150 0 0 
Rocks of Donegal............... 25 0 0 
Dredging Durham and North- 

umbeérlandl, -...:.2steeseteeess 25 0 0 
Connexion of Storms ......... 20 0 0 
Dredging North-east Coast 

of Scotland............s0ccesers 6 9 6 
Ravages of Teredo ..........05 311 0 
Standards of Electrical Re- 

SIStHANCE#; sacasaccscccsecsdtagees 50 0 0 
Railway Accidents ............ 10 0 0 
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0 
Dredging Dublin Bay 10 0 0 


Jxxxvi 
£ 8. da. 
Dredging the Mersey ......... (hers We) 
Prison Wiet . -..Jcsesecccvowecnsens 20 0 0 
Gauging of Water.............+- 1210 0 
Steamships’ Performance...... 150 0 0 
Thermo-Electric Currents ... 5 0 0 
£1293 16 6 
1863. 
Maintaining the Establish- 

ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0 
Balloon Committee deficiency 70 0 0 
Balloon Ascents (other ex- 

CDSS) saarclsvnenss-:enebsanee 25 0 0 
THUD ZO AN sais ecarpeces snesyebeaeeser 25 0 0 
OoalHassils’ Sicsessassepemecesees 20 0 0 
EIOYTINES cc eugsensse decssne Pinte 20 0 0 
Granites of Donegal............ SO My) 
IBrisOnVDiGtie t svsasermaeatescensss 20 0 0 
Vertical Atmospheric Move- 

TOSS) Ragoson epee eee 13 0 0 
Dredging Shetland ....... 50 0 0 
Dredging North-east coast of 

SRD UIANC casesa css seraasna.tote 257 20..40 
Dredging Northumberland 

nate lel Dike a-ha RE eee TE FEE) 
Dredging Committee superin- 

ENOCNCE Wises sates chsasecues ese Oi Fc 
Steamship Performance ...... 100 0 0 
Balloon Committee ..........-. 200 0 0 
Carbon under pressure ......... 10 0 0 
Volcanic Temperature ......... 100 0 0 
Bromide of Ammonium ...... S00).0 
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 O 
Electrical Construction and- 

PDISETIPUbION | 5...0c0cacccsnesste 40 0 0 
Luminous Meteors ............ Ger Oe) 
Kew Additional Buildings for 

Photoheliograph ..........0. 100 0 0 
Thermo-Electricity ............ 15 0 0 
Analysis of Rocks ..........0. cow OY (0) 
FEV AROIMA ss sawesewecadies aaSariice =a 10 0 0 

£1608 3 10 
oe 
1864. 
Maintaining the Establish- 

ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0 
Coall Fossil) |. .seseeseswsvenea voce 20 0 0 
Vertical Atmospheric Move- 

TMEN US) caawatnde «sss chee cewmne es oe - 20 0 0 
Dredging Shetland ............ 75 0 0 
Dredging Northumberland... 25 0 0 
Balloon Committee ............ 200 0 0 
Carbon under pressure ...... 10 0 0 
Standards of Electric Re- 

SISUANCE\ Aawenadcns aestawondes sae 100 0 0 
Anallysisiof Rocks’, . .........0= 10 0 0 
ERY GTOIGA, | y.ccancascnacncscesecses 10 0 0 
ASktham'’s Gitbh feetctisct.ccu.e. 50 0 0 
Nitrite of Amyle ................ 10 0 0 
Nomenclature Committee ... 5 0 O 
Rain-GaPes .....asenn.csshevscses 1915 8 
Cast-Iron Investigation ...... 20 0 0 


REPORT—1885. 


£ 38d 

Tidal Observations in the 
ERAIMET Nccnsuaanccdtrcdvereennes 50 0 0 
Spectral Rays....ccccocccsersvsees 45 0 0 
Luminous Meteors .........++- 20 0 0 
£1289 15 8 
1865. ——_—————— 


Maintaining the Establish- 


ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0 
Balloon Committee ............ 100 0 O 
ELV Grolda. 20) css nnnsscenscconsaneee 13 0 0 
Rain-Gauges’ .c.rocanssncnseureens 30 0 0 
Tidal Observations in the 

He hvbed oly mere eco ete oc Ot Sn) 
Hexylic Compounds ............ 20 0 0 
Amyl Compounds ..........-.... 20 0 0 
Trish 1OLah ssvaecsscsccescceonssee 25 0 0 
American Mollusca ............ Bb 190 
Organic Acids! Gictesteceetseeee 20 0 0 
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 10 0 0 
Hury pterus (5. ..sacsesssswaapeerera 50 0 O 
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 O 
Malta Caves Researches ...... 50 0 O 
Oyster Breeding ...........ss0« 25 0 0 
Gibraltar Caves Researches... 150 0 0 
Kent’s Hole Excavations...... 100 0 0 
Moon’s Surface Observations 35 0 O 
Marine Fauna ..........ssceoves 25 0 0 
Dredging Aberdeenshire ...... 25 0 0 
Dredging Channel Islands ... 50 0 0 
Zoological Nomenclature...... 5 0 0 
Resistance of Floating Bodies 

in Water ssowdessuepsniuetsv oases 100 0 0 
Bath Waters Analysis ......... 8 10 10 
Luminous Meteors .........+6. 40 0 0 

SL591S 7 LO 
1866. 
Maintaining the Establish- 

ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 0 0 
Lunar Committee .............0 6413 4 
Balloon Committee ............ 50 0 0 
Metrical Committece............ 50 0 O 
BritishaRaintall<, rss sesacteuee 50 0 0 
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 16)¢ O80 
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed... 15 0 0 
Luminous Meteors ............ 50 0 O 
Lingula Flags Excavation ... 20 0 0 
Chemical Constitution of 

CastiAron i.nccsieccssencteeeus 50 0 0 
Amyl Compounds ........ beeper 2D I OPSO 
Electrical Standards............ 100 0 0 
Malta Caves Exploration ...... 30 0 0 
Kent’s Hole Exploration ...... 200 0 O 
Marine Fauna, &c., Devon 

and Cormwall.t. 2.20... cece. 25.0 0 
Dredging Aberdeenshire Coast 25 0 0 
Dredging Hebrides Coast 50 0 O 
Dredging the Mersey ......... 5-070 
Resistance of Floating Bodies 

Ay WALGER ean ccaeaeces decoy sees 50 0 0 
Polycyanidesof Organic Radi- 

CAS ipe candessdaeeat-feeeass <tea 29.0 0 


£ 

Rigor Mortis ....ssseseeseseeeees 10 
Trish Annelida ..........0..-.00+ 15 
Catalogue of Crania............ 50 

Didine Birds of Mascarene 
PEACE) ons scscncesecsane 50 
Typical Crania Researches ... 30 
Palestine Exploration Fund... 100 
£1750 1 


GENERAL STATEMENT. 


8. 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
3 


a. 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 


4 


1867. 
Maintaining the Establish- 
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 
Meteorological Instruments, 


IEMIGRTIMIC foocaccccnccocescsersese 50 
Lunar Committee ............... 120 
Metrical Committee............ 30 
Kent’s Hole Explorations 100 
Palestine Explorations......... 50 
Insect Fauna, Palestine ...... 30 
EIS Raiifall jcc. ees ecese 80 50 
Kilkenny Coal Fields ......... 25 
Alum Bay Fossil Leaf-Bed... 25 
Luminous Meteors ............ 50 
Bournemouth, &c., Leaf-Beds 30 
Dredging Shetland ............ 75 
Steamship Reports Condensa- 

SIRES econ van tansecadsnmast o's 100 
Electrical Standards............ 100 
Ethyl and Methyl series ...... 25 
Mossi! Crustacea .........0..+ 25 
Sound under Water ............ 24 
North Greenland Fauna ...... 45 


Do. Plant Beds 100 
Tron and Steel Manufacture... 25 
Patent Laws 30 


1868. 
Maintaining the Establish- 
ment of Kew Observatory.. 600 


Lunar Committee ............... 120 
Metrical Committee............ 50 
Zoological Record............... 100 
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150 
Steamship Performances ...... 100 
Beets Rainfall’... ss c.se.ee.0, 50 
Luminous Meteors............... 50 
Mireanic Acids .,.......c......45 60 
Fossil Crustacea................+. 25 
li ON ee 25 
oy BMGT DILG ovcccnccas sane 25 
4% ganic Remains in Lime- 
stone Rocks ............ “nee 25 
Beottish Earthquakes ......... 20 
oo Devon and Cornwall... 30 
British Fossil Corals ......... 50 
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ............ 50 
Greenland Explorations ...... 100 
ESM HOTS 2....2.0c08snccedsbiee 25 
Tidal Observations ............ 100 
Underground Temperature... 50 


Spectroscopic Investigations 
of Animal Substances ....... 5 


o ooocoocoooooco ooocoococoecocoece 


clocooocoooooo coococoeocecocKo oo 


o oooocoocoeco cocoococoecoc]eso 


£ 38. d. 
Secondary Reptiles, KC. ...s.000e 30 0 0 
British Marine Invertebrate 
AUN) deNerenndacmecsdessaessnass 100 0 O 
£1940 0 O 
1869. 
Maintaining the Establish- 

ment of Kew Observatory... 600 0 0 
Lunar Committee.....s.sesececeee 50 0 0 
Metrical Committee............0++ 25,0 70 
Zoological Record ..........+000: 100 0 0 
Committee on Gases in Deep- 

WELL WabGr *scocccssnsacenserdene 25 0 0 
British Rainfall...............+0. 50 0 0 
Thermal Conductivity of Iron, 

CCE aried ila Cer npabicriscoonichtryaanc 30 0 0 
Kent’s Hole Explorations...... 150 0 0 
Steamship Performances ...... 30 0 0 
Chemical Constitution of 

Cast Itont:t:1:stesnecsase=ansens 80 0 
Iron and Steel Manufacture 100 0 0 
Methyl Series...........0ceeseees 30 0 0 
Organic Remains in Lime- 

SHOE LOCKS ee hearers eeanaecs 10 0 0 
Earthquakes in Scotland...... AG OPO 
British Fossil Corals ......... 50 0 0 
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ............ 30 0 0 
WOSSIL LOA seeaestspsteaseccnsss 25 0 0 
Tidal Observations ............ 100 0 0 
Underground Temperature... 30 0 0 
Spectroscopic Investigations 

of Animal Substances ...... 5 0 0 
OrPanie ACIGS** it ti.cescnecevess 12 eO 
Kiltorcan Fossils ...........+0++ 20 0 0 
Chemical Constitution and 

Physiological Action Rela- 

(LOUS cc cpacsngecensscsgacsssees 15 0 O 
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 O 
Utilization of Sewage ......... FT 0 
Products of Digestion ......... LOREM OO 

£1622 0 0 
1870. 
Maintaining the Establish- 

ment of Kew Observatory 600 0 0O 
Metrical Committee............ 25 0 0 
Zoological Record.........s0+066 100 0 0 
Committee on Marine Fauna 20 0 0 
Hats In Fishes... ...vevsecssesesese 10 0 0 
Chemical Nature of CastIron 80 0 0 
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0 
Heat in the Blood............... 15 0 0 
British Rainfall.................. 100 0 0 
Thermal Conductivity of 

Tron, &cs Qe toate 20 0 0 
British Fossil Corals............ 50 0 0 
Kent’s Hole Explorations 150 0 0 
Scottish Earthquakes ......... 4 0 0 
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ............ 0 0 
Fossil Flora ...sessssees 0 0 
Tidal Observations ..........4+ 0 0 
Underground Temperature... 50 0 0 
Kiltorcan Quarries Fossils ... 20 0 0 


Ixxxviili 

£ 3. a. 
Mountain Limestone Fossils 25 0 0 
Utilization of Sewage ......... 50 0 0 
Organic Chemical Compounds 30 0 0 
Onny River Sediment ......... 3.0 0 

Mechanical Equivalent of 
ELGAD: <onaaiaerd eaves cspaa sence 50 0 0 
£1572 0 O 

1871. 

Maintaining the Establish- 
ment of Kew Observatory 600 0 0 

Monthly Reports of Progress 
Ins CheEMIStLy: »..<scacneciessese 100 0 0 
Metrical Committee............ 25 0 0 
Zoological Record............... 100 0 0 

Thermal Equivalents of the 
Oxides of Chlorine ......... 10 0 0 
Tidal Observations ...........+ 100 0 O 
MOSSUPM OTA! sisscsscsasecscsesess 25 0 0 
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0 
British Fossil Corals ......... 25 0 0 
Heat in the Blood............... 1 
IB MIPISHPRAINLAL <ccsceccsscnesns 50 0 O 
Kent’s Hole Explorations ... 150 0 0 
Fossil Crustacea ...ccsssesssoee 25 0 0 
Methyl Compounds ..,......... 25 0 O 
TIMATIOD] CCHS): 0000050 sho seee cae 20 0 0 

Fossil Coral Sections, for 
Photographing ....s.ccsssess- 20 0 0 
Bagshot Leaf-Beds ............ 20 0 0 
Moab Explorations ..........06 100 0 O 
Gaussian Constants .........066 40 0 0 
£1472 2 6 
ee 


1872. 
Maintaining the Establish- 


ment of Kew Observatory 300 
Metrical Committee............ 75 
Zoological Record.............+. 100 
Tidal Committee ............... 200 
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 
Organic Chemical Compounds 25 
Exploration of Moab............ 100 
Terato-Embryological Inqui- 

TLC Pessessansscssucesshes Padoeness 10 
Kent’s Cavern Exploration.. 100 
Luminous Meteors ............ 20 
Heat in the Blood.............06 15 
Fossil Crustacea .............06 25 
Fossil Elephants of Malta ... 25 
Mannan OBJECtS \, spsccceckwsaiec oe 20 
Inverse Wave-Lengths......... 20 
British Rainfall.......... daeiee ss 100 


Poisonous Substances Antago- 


Essential Oils, Chemical Con- 
SbubmbloOn,, KC. ssessleatewscadees’ 
Mathematical Tables ......... 
Thermal Conductivity of Me- 
PAIS Ue eiteconcees aaacshbapaaas wes 


oo oo oo oeocoqoqcooroo oooooeos 


colo oo G9 ocoocoooeocoo ocoocecoeso 


REPORT—1885. 


SlIoo SOSSoOSoCOCOOoOSCOSCOSoSCSOSO & 


Solo eoo coooo coo cosoeeeoooo oc coeocoe 


£ 8. 
1873. 

Zoological Record...........+00« 100 0 
Chemistry Record............+++ 200 0 
Tidal Committee .............0. 400 0 
Sewage Committee ..........0. 100 0 
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 
Carboniferous Corals ......... 25 0 
Fossil Elephants ............... 25 0 
Wave-Lengths .........sseeceeee 150 0 
British Rainfall: .c..ct-.sesssess 100 O 
Hssential Oils.......0s0000screerse 30 0 
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 O 
Gaussian Constants ........ Sane LED. 
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 
Underground Temperature... 150 0 
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 
Fossil Flora, Ireland............ 20 0 
Timber Denudation and Rain- 

fall cocina conetaanensaeacemnee 20 0 

Luminous Meteors............+++ 30. O 
£1685 0 
1874. 
Zoological Record............... 100 0 
Chemistry Record.............06 100 0 
Mathematical Tables ......... 100 0 
Elliptic Functions............... 100 0 
Lightning Conductors ......... 10 0 
Thermal Conductivity of 

ROCKS. scsesrcencecdsc deem 10 0 
Anthropological Instructions, 

KC. Sl. ccccpenetcesenuesoereeneas 50 0 
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 150 0 
Juminous Meteors ............ 30 0 
Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 
British Raintall....c...-scseenee 100 0 
HISSEMUAL OLS: can camara ssnemeee 10 0 
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 25 0 
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 
Mauritius Meteorological Re- 

SCALCH .. serseneotsecntssameanenen 100 0 
Magnetization of Iron ......... 20 0 
Marine Organisms............++. 30 0 
Fossils, North-West of Scot- 

NAING caoncscsecs secaasiilopaemieens 2 10 
Physiological Action of Light 20 0 
Trades UnIOUS oc..<ecensdeaseesl 25 0 
Mountain Limestone-Corals 25 0 
Erratic Blocks ".........ccssesecs 10 0 
Dredging, Durham and York- 

shire Coasts .......ssssesssens 28 5 
High Temperature of Bodies 30 0 
Siemens’s Pyrometer ......... 3 6 
Labyrinthodonts of Coal- 

MEASULES..0.00.cccccceseovensess 7 15 

£1151 16 
1875. 
Elliptic Functions ............ 100 0 O 
Magnetization of Iron ......... 20 0 0 
British Hainiall er acess .csseces 120 0 0 
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0 
Chemistry Record...... ceness act 100 0 0 


GENERAL STATEMENT. 


£ s. d. 
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0 
Estimation of Potash and 

Phosphoric Acid...........000+ 10 0 0 
Isometric Cresols .............++ 20 0 0 
Sub-Wealden Explorations... 100 0 0 
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0 
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 50 0 0 
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 15 0 0 
Underground Waters ......... LOD Op 0 
Development of Myxinoid 

SHAME EE co pacancesvscsessedesses 20 0 0 
Zoological Record............+++ 100 0 0 
Instructions for Travellers... 20 0 0 
Tntestinal Secretions ......... 20 0 0 
Palestine Exploration ......... 100 0 0 

£960 0 O 

1876. 

Printing MathematicalTables 159 4 2 
British Rainfall.................. 100 0 0 
MMPS TIGAW 0005 0c0--ccccecseoveree 915 0 
Tide Calculating Machine ... 200 0 0 
Specific Volume of Liquids... 25 0 0 
Tsomeric Cresols ...........0.4. 10 0 0 
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty- 

rate on Ethyl Sodaceto- 

RPE paaeatansaasacesceces-- 5 0 0 
Estimation of Potash and 

Phosphoric Acid............... 13 0 0 
Exploration of Victoria Cave, 

PRIN Ma ates stecccssesesscccsce. 100 0 0 
Geological Record............... 100 0 0 
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0 
Thermal Conductivities of 

Oo EL GEE So aa nee reba 10}'0'0 
Underground Waters ......... LOM O-" 6 
Earthquakes in Scotland...... 110 0 
Zoological Record............... 100 0 0 
BRIE BIING S82... - ec eecoecesnes By 0) 0 
Physiological ActionofSound 25 0 0 
Zoological Station......... Spesee 75 0 0 

Intestinal Secretions ......... 15 0 0 
Physical Characters of Inha- 

bitants of British Isles....., 1315 0 
Measuring Speed of Ships ... 10 0 0 
Effect of Propeller on turning 

of Steam Vessels ............ 5 0 0 

£1092 4 2 
} 1877. 

Liquid Carbonic Acids in 
BPPMENGTALS .........20cenccesccesee 20 0 O 
Elliptic Functions ............ 250 0 0 
Thermal Conductivity of 

OE ¢ {eee SPL 
Zoological Record............0+6 100 0 0 
BONES |CAVEIT, .....sencccascceses 100 0 0 
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0 
Luminous Meteors ............ 30 0 0 
Elasticity of Wires ..........+. 100 0 O 
Dipterocarpz, Report on...... 20 0 0 


ES bob 
Mechanical Equivalent of 

RG Atgatepie teenneesncanyscciocsscnas 35 0 0 
Double Compounds of Cobalt 

and, Nickel. ....scsesosseseasass 8 0 0 
Underground Temperatures 50 0 0 
Settle Cave Exploration ...... 100 0 O 
Underground Waters in New 

Red Sandstone ........ see 10 0 0 
Action of Ethyl Bromobuty- 

rate on Ethyl Sodaceto- 

ACETALE ......sscceccecceesccees LOO, 0 
British Earthworks ..........+. 25 0 0 
Atmospheric Elasticity in 

ETCH AN. > oa cesweende ganacenataee 15 0 0 
Development of Light from 

Coal GaSe 5: sscnhesnuvsamasnceasn 20 0 0 
Estimation of Potash and 

Phosphoric Acid..........2.... 118 0 
Geological Record............+ = 100, 0.50 
Anthropometric Committee 34 0 0 
Physiological Action of Phos- 

phoric Acid, &€......s.ssee+++s 15 0 0 

£1128 9 7 
1878. 
Exploration of Settle Caves 100 0 0 
Geological Record..............+ 100 0 0 
Investigation of Pulse Pheno- 

mena by means of Syphon 

ECOFAET cc stccsectevdsdackunsese LOH Om 0 
Zoological Station at Naples 75 0 0 
Investigation of Underground 

Wealersisscncecncstouece: <tatea 15 0 0 
Transmission of Electrical 

Impulses through Nerve 

StUUChUTe sc ccsumsess-ssaverae sees 30 0 O 
Calculation of Factor Table 

of Fourth Million............ 100 0 0 
Anthropometric Committee... 66 0 0 
Chemical Composition and 

Structure of less known 

AUK AIOIAS: sere cadesa naa saeob ease 25 0 0 
Exploration of Kent’s Cavern 50 0 0 
Zoological Record ........+.s+00 100 0 0 
Fermanagh CavesExploration 15 0 0 
Thermal Conductivity of 

ROCKS arate scececcocecssetarss 416 6 
Luminous Meteors............+++ 10 0 0 
Ancient Earthworks ............ 25 0 0 

£725 16 6 
1879. 
Table at the Zoological 

Station, Naples ............... 75 0 0 
Miocene Flora of the Basalt 

of the North of Ireland 20 0 0 
Ilustrations for a Monograph 

on the Mammoth ............ LS, OF 0 
Record of Zoological Litera- 

GUEED 3. Ges ecnesssascoscacs cadasats 100 0 0 
Composition and Structure of 

less-known Alkaloids ~ - 25 0.0 


xc 
£ 8s. d. 
Exploration of Caves in 
BOLNEO™* eu ties eats deldde 50 0 0 
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 100 0 0 
Record of the Progress of 
Geolocy) Geaseressevere scencoene 100 0 0 
Fermanagh CavesExploration 5 0 0 
Electrolysis of Metallic Solu- 
tions and Solutions of 
Compound Salts.............+. 25°0 0 
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0 
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0 
Calculation of Factor Tables 
for 5th and 6th Millions... 150 0 0O 
Circulation of Underground 
WiRters . ssccsecbdesseactesnaeens TOO "0 
Steering of Screw Steamers... 10 0 0 
Improvements in Astrono- 
MiIcaliClocks *ivredaesereccctes 30 0 0 
Marine Zoology of South 
EVO cur cndscedepeecees ras sree 200 0 
Determination of Mechanical 
Equivalent of Heat ......... 1215 6 
Specific Inductive Capacity 
of Sprengel Vacuum......... 40 0 0 
Tables of Sun-heat Co- 
CINCLEUES! 5. tenadecs cbeodoeen- abs 30 0 0 
Datum Level of the Ordnance 
DULVEY ssa secdsaied. Jobless worst 10 0 0 
Tables of Fundamental In- 
variants of Algebraic Forms 36 14 9 
Atmospheric Electricity Ob- 
servations in Madeira ...... 15 0 0 
Instrument for Detecting 
Fire-damp in Mines ......... 22,0 0 
Instruments for Measuring 
the Speed of Ships ......... Loulss8 
Tidal Observations in the 
English Channel ............ 10 0 0 
£1080 11 11 
cd 
1880. 


New Form of High Insulation 

EGY ent mantiecestaeetscncstacnie 
Underground Temperature ... 
Determination of the Me- 


chanical Equivalent of 
EEC AG a oeneuemesserewunesece twas 
Elasticity of Wires ........,... 


Luminous Meteors . sons 
Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 
Fundamental Invariants ...... 
Laws of Water Friction ...... 
Specific Inductive Capacity 
of Sprengel Vacuum......... 
Completion of Tables of Sun- 
heat Coefficients ............ 
Instrument for Detection of 
Fire-damp in Mines ......... 
Inductive Capacity of Crystals 
and Paraffines ............... 
Report on Carboniferous 
PONY ZORA cccssececrsocnceces coves 


REPORT—1 885. 


— 
i=) 
oo 


le 2} 
So o oO onmooon 


417 
10 0 


co 


i) 18) tas 
Caves of South Ireland ...... 10 0 0 
Viviparous Nature of Ichthyo- 

SAUTUS ....cscéesscatersesvwvemece 10 0 0 
Kent’s Cavern Exploration... 50 0 0 
Geological Record.........+.00++ 100 0 0 
Miocene Flora of the Basalt 

of North Ireland ............ 15 0 0 
Underground Waters of Per- 

mian Formations ...........+ 5 0 0 
Record of Zoological Litera- 

CULE ies. .ccssnestsseeecteenbennes 100 0 0 
Table at Zoological Station 

at Naples --c.cscccsecesssaeeens 75 0 0 
Investigation of the Geology 

and Zoology of Mexico...... 50 0 0. 
Anthropometry ........scccsesses 50 0 0 
Patent LAWS. ..csdcsseoasasesene 5 0 0 

L731 1 7 

1881. 

Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 30 0 0 
Underground Temperature... 20 0 0 
High Insulation Key............ DO 220) 
Tidal Observations .........+6+ 10 0 0 
Fossil Poly 20a: :wiscvewswtes fonts 100: 6 
Underground Waters ......... 10! 0). 10 
Earthquakes in Japan ......... 25 0 0 
Tertiary Flora . ...0..0o.s+..-da0s 20 0 0 
Scottish Zoological Station... 50 0 0 
Naples Zoological Station 15.0. 0 
Natural History of Socotra... 50 0 0 
Zoological Record.......s+.s000+ 100 0 O 
Weights and Heights of 

Human Beings .......sc0s000. 30 0 0 
Electrical Standards............ 25 0.0 
Anthropological Notes and 

QUENIES <\.. .ssa-berwseeneueceseen 9 0.0 
Specific Refractions ...........- di cieel 

£476 3 1 
1882. 
Tertiary Flora of North of 

Treland.  .wiwishh obo. mceheadete 20,.0. 0 
Exploration of Caves of South 

of Ireland, . 1. aassscut wa. deme 10 0 0 
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15.0 0 
Fundamental Invariants of 

Algebraical Forms ......... TG) 
Record of Zoological Litera- 

GENE vee aaepease aes «sepa aeaapeeee 100 0 0 
British Polyz0a .....sc0sseccsssae 10 0 0 
Naples Zoological Station ... 80 0 0 
Natural History of Timor-laut 100 0 0 
Conversion of Sedimentary 

Materials into Metamorphic 

Rockets peseeecsts che vse yee eens 102-030 
Natural History of Socotra... 100 0 0 
Circulation of Underground 

WHILEIEEE wemeste tebbcnte tes sauces 15 0 06 
Migration of Birds ............ 15) *,02"'0 
Earthquake Phenomena of 

JAPAN. ecdseeevessvs ses ehinetes 25 0 0 


a Re 


GENERAL STATEMENT. 


£ 8s. d. 
Geological Map of Europe ... 25 0 0 
Elimination of Nitrogen by 

Bodily Exercise..............+ 50 0 0 
Anthropometric Committee... 50 0 0 
Photographing Ultra-Violet 

Bempark Spectra ..s..5:....0006 25°0 0 
Exploration of Raygill Fis- 

RT gee check avictins ook panseance = 20 0 0 

Calibration of Mercurial Ther- 
BPINOMELETS: .....,cceseceeseeces 20 0 0 
_ Wave-length Tables of Spec- 

tra of Elements...........0.0+ 50 0 0 

)Geological Record........0....«. 100 0 0 

Standards for Electrical 

Measurements ...........0+0+ 100 0 0 
Exploration of Central Africa 100 0 0 
Albuminoid Substances of 

ESA inane davense«sescouecse 10 0 O 

£1126 111 
1883. 

Natural History of Timor-laut 50 0 0 

British Fossil Polyzoa ......... 10 0 O 

Circulation of Underground 

SS eee 15 0 0 
Zoological Literature Record 100 0 0 
Exploration of Mount Kili- 

SEIMPIPRED) aio 0a nwa ces coescssssse 500 0 0 
Erosion of Sea-coast of Eng- 

land and Wales ............... 1G 0" 6 
Fossil Plants of Halifax...... 20 0 0 
Elimination of Nitrogen by 

Bodily Exercise ............+0 38 3 3 
Isomeric Naphthalene Deri- 

BRUIMIES 6c. .cscescesesen Scare ea Lbe OF 0 
Zoological Station at Naples 80 0 0 
Investigation of Loughton 

BREUPR eae 25 2Tovcascicca<esvesces 10 0 0 
Earthquake Phenomena of 

BRE oto os es sccscvccsscsecas 50 0 0 
Meteorological Observations 

MBEEHNCVIS .......ccssesceses 50 0 0 
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo- 

BEUPHOCKS ..sccascesccasceseed 25 0 0 
Migration of Birds ............ 20 0 0 
Geological Record............... 50 0 0 
Exploration of Caves in South 

BEPICCIANG. ....ceccasiceaceesoes 105 656 
Scottish Zoological Station... 25 0 0 

Mcrew Gauces..............06 eacret Onn |) 

2 £1083 3 3 

b — 
1884. 

Zoological Literature Record 100 0 0 
BEPOSS1) POLY ZOA....00.cesscreeccoees 10 0 0 

Exploration of Mount Kili- 

ma-njaro, Hast Africa ...... 500 0 0 
Anthropometric Committee... 10 0 0 
Fossil Plants of Halifax ...... 15 0 0 
International Geological Map 20 0 0 
Erratic Blocks of England ... 10 0 0 
Natural History of Timor-laut 50 0 0 


Xcel 


ml OLEoOmwor Se Co--6,. O88 So soo 
solomoce Iotoog) o ota oo® 


£ 
Coagulation of Blood........... - 100 
Naples Zoological Station ... 80 
Bibliography of Groups of 
Invertebrata ...Jacsceccscesoes 50 
Earthquake Phenomena of 
Sapany, Ld. acbvtsindebedsldsceatdes 75 
Fossil Phyllopoda of Palzo- 
ZOIC ROCKS 5, ccdesy 6b neeedncases 15 
Meteorological Observatory at 
Chepstow :, j1-scaccecetesuescars 25 
Migration of Birds............... 20 
Collecting and Investigating 
Meteoric Dust.........s0csec000 20 
Circulation of Underground 
WHAGETS ssi avacnacuet vocadtdapsareg 5 
Ultra-Violet Spark Spectra... 8 
Tidal Observations............... 10 
Meteorological Observations 
on Ben Nevis <....0.000« wade tes 50 
£1173 
1885. 
Zoological Literature Record. 100 
Vapour Pressures, &c., of Salt 
MIWNCEWIONG = oe cacetscededsessec sees 25 
Physical Constants of Solu- 
WIOTISesescsnsaccart-sanvasvent ace 20 
Recent-Polyzoa |... ..2..d ds .cacsoe 10 
Naples Zoological Station 100 
Exploration of Mount Kilima- 
MIAN ON Pescacascusseeededeards acest 25 
Fossil Plants of British Ter- 
tiary and Secondary Beds . 50 
Calculating Tables in Theory 
OF NUMDGESs. ssvewsess cvaceiees 100 
Exploration of New Guinea... 200 
Exploration of Mount Ro- 
ALND cas deewaisau cn sade cNedees 100 
Meteorological Observations 
OR BenUNGVIS ..ccccecscososes - 50 
Volcanic Phenomena of Vesu- 
Breasts anes acca vesvernnes sete 25 
Biological Stations on Coasts 
of United Kingdom ......... 150 
Meteor Dust! 22.5.0. ésesseese 70 
Marine Biological Station at 
GraniiOMy :5i.ccscsat cnaaszaeaee 100 
Fossil Phyllopoda of Paleozoic 
ROGKSs As seescdscesscesenttenen 25 
Migration of Birds ............ 30 
Synoptic Chart of Indian 
QGCaIe retetsensseaitccceccreteies 50 
Circulation of Underground 
WiaibTS!.cssenssactsscasssuscceces 10 
Geological Record .............6 50 
Reduction of Tidal Observa- 
WONG ccnidoncecteeentiee ne sseeoneees 10 
Earthquake Phenomena of 
PAPAMY cavers decescceeries ctasne 70 
Raygill Fissure .......ec.secseeee 15 
£1385 


SSS) OF OOS soos TOeSO SoS OS ©. SSO co G@ coo o "5 
Se OOS =O, SS) onesie. “Oo 16 OS. 2) oF oS oo GS 


| 


xcli REPORT—1885. 


General Meetings. 


On Wednesday, September 9, at 8 p.m., in the Music Hall, the Right 
Hon. Lord Rayleigh, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., 
resigned the office of President to the Right Hon. Sir Lyon Playfair, 
K.C.B., M.P., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.C.S., who took the Chair, 
and delivered an Address, for which see page 1. 

On Thursday, September 10, at 8 P.m., a Soirée took place in the Art 
Gallery. 

On Friday, September 11, at 8 p.m., in the Music Hall, Professor 
W. G. Adams, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., delivered a Discourse on ‘ The 
Electric Light and Atmospheric Absorption.’ 

On Monday, September 14, at 8.30 p.u., in the Music Hall, Mr. John 
Murray, F.R.S.E., delivered a Discourse on ‘ The Great Ocean Basins.’ 

On Tuesday, September 15, at 8 p.m., a Soirée took place in the Art 
Gallery. 

On Wednesday, September 16, at 2.30 p.m., the concluding General 
Meeting took place in St. Katherine’s Hall, when the Proceedings of the 
General Committee and the Grants of Money for Scientific purposes 
were explained to the Members. 

The Meeting was then adjourned to Birmingham. [The Meeting is 
appointed to commence on Wednesday, September 1, 1886. ] 


- 


— 


PRESIDENT’S ADDRESS. 


sb ie be ae 
HASH & é 

a eA, ae oe Py gta ~ pig ri Do 
Hv ee ia ‘he dias fh. “4 Bld i 

£ e ee oe iy 


hie Been 5 


>t Yi 
a | ys ° 


ADDRESS 
BY 
THE RIGHT HON. SIR LYON PLAYFAIR, 


HG. Bes) Wick ss Haass 


PRESIDENT. 


I. Visit to Canada. 


Our meeting at Montreal was a notable event in the life of the Brit- 
ish Association, and even marked a distinct epoch in the history of 
Civilisation. It was by no mere accident that the constitution of the 
Association enabled it to embrace all parts of the British Empire. Science 
is truly catholic, and is bounded only by the universe. In relation to 
our vast empire, science, as well as literature and art, is the common 
possession of all its varying people. The United Kingdom is limited to 
120,500 square miles, inhabited by 35 millions of people; but the empire 
as a whole has 85 millions of square miles, with a population of 305 millions. 
To federate such vast possessions and so teeming a population into a political 
unit is a work only to be accomplished by the labours and persistent 
efforts of perhaps several generations of statesmen. The federation of its 
science is a subject of less dimensions well within the range of experi- 
ment. No part of the British Empire was more suited than Canada to 
try whether her science could be federated with our science. Canada 
has lately federated distinct provinces, with conflicting interests arising 
from difference of races, nationalities, and religions. Political federation 
Snot new in the history of the world, though it generally arises as a 
‘Consequence of war. It was war that taught the Netherlands to federate 
It was war which united the States in America; federated 
Switzerland, Germany, and Austria, and unified Italy. But Canada 
formed a great national life out of petty provincial existences in a time 
of profound peace. This evolution gave an immense impulse to her 
national resources. The Dominion still requires consolidation in its vast 
extent, and applied science is rapidly effecting it. Canada, with its great 


expanse of territory, nearly as large as the United States, is being knit 
B2 


_-.* 


4 REPORT—1885. 


together by the iron bands of railways from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to 
the Pacific Ocean, so that the fertile lands of Ontario, Manitoba, Columbia, — 
and the North-Western Territories will soon be available to the world. 
Still practical science has much to accomplish. England and France, 
with only one-fifth the fertile area of Canada, support 80 millions of 
people, while Canada has a population not exceeding 5 millions. 

A less far-seeing people than the Canadians might have invited the 
applied science which they so much require. But they knew that with- 
out science there are noapplications. They no doubt felt with Emerson— 


And what if Trade sow cities 

Like shells along the shore, 

And thatch with towns the prairie broad 
With railways ironed o’er ; 

They are but sailing foam-bells 

Along Thought’s causing stream, 

And take their shape and sun-colour 
From him that sends the dream. 


So it was with a far-reaching foresight that the Canadian Government 
invited the British Association for the Advancement of Science to meet 
in Montreal. The inhabitants of Canada received us with open arms, 
and the science of the Dominion and that of the United Kingdom were 
welded. We found in Canada, as we had every reason to expect, men of — 
manly and self-reliant character who loved not less than we did the old 
home from which they had come. Among them is the same healthi- 
ness of political and moral life, with the same love of truth which dis-_ 
tinguishes the English people. Our great men are their great men; our 
Shakspeare, Milton, and Burns belong to them as much as to ourselves; 
our Newton, Dalton, Faraday, and Darwin are their men of science as 
much as they are ours. Thus a common possession and mutual sympathy 
made the meeting in Canada a successful effort to stimulate the progress 
of science, while it established, at the same time, the principle that all 
people of British origin—and I would fain include our cousins in the 
United States—possess a common interest in the intellectual glories of 
their race, and ought, in science at least, to constitute part and parcel of — 
a common empire, whose heart may beat in the small islands of the 
Northern seas, but whose blood circulates in all her limbs, carrying” 
warmth to them and bringing back vigour to us. Nothing can be more 
cheering to our Association than to know that many of the young com- 
munities of English-speaking people all over the globe—in India, China, 
Japan, the Straits, Ceylon, Australia, New Zealand, the Cape—have 
founded scientific societies in order to promote the growth of scientific 
research. No doubt science, which is only a form of truth, is one in all 
lands, but still its unity of purpose and fulfilment received an important 
practical expression by our visit to Canada. This community of science 
will be continued by the fact that we have invited Sir William Dawson, 
of Montreal, to be our next President at Birmingham. 


ADDRESS. 5 


II. Science and the State. 


I cannot address you in Aberdeen without recollecting that when we 
last met in this city our President was a great prince. The just verdict 
of time is that, high as was his royal rank, he has a far nobler claim to 
our regard as a lover of humanity in its widest sense, and especially as a 
lover of those arts and sciences which do so much to adorn it. On 
September 14, 1859, I sat on this platform and listened to the eloquent 
address and wise counsel of the Prince Consort. At one time a member 
of his household, it was my privilege to co-operate with this illustrious 
prince in many questions relating to the advancement of science. I 
naturally, therefore, turned to his presidential address to see whether I 
might not now continue those counsels which he then gave with all the 
breadth and comprehensiveness of his masterly speeches. I found, as I 

expected, a text for my own discourse in some pregnant remarks which 
-he made upon the relation of Science to the State. They are as 
follows :—‘ We may be justified in hoping . . . that the Legislature and 
the State will more and more recognise the claims of science to their 
attention, so that it may no longer require tlie begging-box, but speak to 
the State like a favoured child to its parent, sure of his paternal solicitude 
for its welfare; that the State will recognise in science one of its elements 
of strength and prosperity, to foster which the clearest dictates of self- 
interest demand.’ 

This opinion, in its broadest sense, means that the relations of science 
to the State should be made more intimate because the advance of science 
is needful to the public weal. 

The importance of promoting science as a duty of statecraft was well 
enough known to the ancients, especially to the Greeks and Arabs, but it 
ceased to be recognised in the dark ages, and was lost to sight during the 
revival of letters in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Germany and 
France, which are now in such active competition in promoting science, 
have only publicly acknowledged its national importance in recent times. 
Eyen in the last century, though France had its Lavoisier and Germany 
its Leibnitz, their Governments did not know the value of science. When 
the former was condemned to death in the Reign of Terror, a petition was 
presented to the rulers that his life might be spared for a few weeks in 
order that he might complete some important experiments, but the reply 
was, ‘The Republic has no need of savants.’ Earlier in the century the 
much-praised Frederick William of Prussia shouted with a loud voice, 
during a graduation ceremony in the University of Frankfort, ‘ An ounce 
of mother-wit is worth a ton of university wisdom.’ Both France and 
Germany are now ashamed of these utterances of their rulers, and make 
energetic efforts to advance science with the aid of their national resources. 
ore remarkable is it to see a young nation like the United States reserv- 
ing large tracts of its national lands for the promotion of scientific 
education. In some respects this young country is in advance of all 


4 REPORT— 1885. 


together by the iron bands of railways from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to 
the Pacific Ovean, so that the fertile lands of Ontario, Manitoba, Columbia, 
and the North-Western Territories will soon be available to the world. 
Still practical science has much to accomplish. England and France, 
with only one-fifth the fertile area of Canada, support 80 millions of 
people, while Canada has a population not exceeding 5 millions. 

A less far-seeing people than the Canadians might have invited the 
applied science which they so much require. But they knew that with- 
out science there are noapplications. They no doubt felt with Emerson— 


And what if Trade sow cities 

Like shells along the shore, 

And thatch with towns the prairie broad 
With railways ironed o’er ; 

They are but sailing foam-bells 

Along Thought’s causing stream, 

And take their shape and sun-colour 
From him that sends the dream. 


So it was with a far-reaching foresight that the Canadian Government 
invited the British Association for the Advancement of Science to meet 
in Montreal. The inhabitants of Canada received us with open arms, 
and the science of the Dominion and that of the United Kingdom were 
welded. We found in Canada, as we had every reason to expect, men of 
manly and self-retiant character who loved not less than we did the old 
home from which they had come. Among them is the same healthi- 
ness of political and moral life, with the same love of truth which dis- 
tinguishes the English people. Our great men are their great men; our 
Shakspeare, Milton, and Burns belong to them as much as to ourselves ; 
our Newton, Dalton, Faraday, and Darwin are their men of science as 
much as they are ours. Thus a common possession and mutual sympathy 
made the meeting in Canada a successful effort to stimulate the progress 
of science, while it established, at the same time, the principle that all 
people of British origin—and I would fain include our cousins in the 
United States—possess a common interest in the intellectual glories of 
their race, and ought, in science at least, to constitute part and parcel of 
a common empire, whose heart may beat in the small islands of the 
Northern seas, but whose blood circulates in all her limbs, carrying 
warmth to them and bringing back vigour to us. Nothing can be more 
cheering to our Association than to know that many of the young com- 
munities of English-speaking people all over the globe—in India, China, 
Japan, the Straits, Ceylon, Australia, New Zealand, the Cape—have 
founded scientific societies in order to promote the growth of scientific 
research. No doubt science, which is only a form of truth, is one in all 
lands, but still its unity of purpose and fulfilment received an important 
practical expression by our visit to Canada, This community of science 
will be continued by the fact that we have invited Sir William Dawson, 
of Montreal, to be our next President at Birmingham. 


ADDRESS. 5 


II. Science and the State. 


I cannot address you in Aberdeen without recollecting that when we 
last met in this city our President was a great prince. The just verdict 
of time is that, high as was his royal rank, he has a far nobler claim to 
our regard as a lover of humanity in its widest sense, and especially as a 
lover of those arts and sciences which do so much to adorn it. On 
September 14, 1859, I sat on this platform and listened to the eloquent 
address and wise counsel of the Prince Consort. At one time a member 
of his household, it was my privilege to co-operate with this illustrious 
prince in many questions relating to the advancement of science. I 
naturally, therefore, turned to his presidential address to see whether I 
might not now continue those counsels which he then gave with all the 
breadth and comprehensiveness of his masterly speeches, I found, as I 
expected, a text for my own discourse in some pregnant remarks which 
he made upon the relation of Science to the State. They are as 
follows :—‘ We may be justified in hoping . . . that the Legislature and 
the State will more and more recognise the claims of science to their 
attention, so that it may no longer require tlie begging-box, but speak to 
the State like a favoured child to its parent, sure of his paternal solicitude 
for its welfare; that the State will recognise in science one of its elements 
of strength and prosperity, to foster which the clearest dictates of self- 
interest demand.’ 

This opinion, in its broadest sense, means that the relations of science 
to the State should be made more intimate because the advance of science 
is needful to the public weal. 

The importance of promoting science as a duty of statecraft was well 
enough known to the ancients, especially to the Greeks and Arabs, but it 
ceased to be recognised in the dark ages, and was lost to sight during the 
revival of letters in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Germany and 
France, which are now in such active competition in promoting science, 
have only publicly acknowledged its national importance in recent times. 
Eyen in the last century, though France had its Lavoisier and Germany 
its Leibnitz, their Governments did not know the value of science. When 
the former was condemned to death in the Reign of Terror, a petition was 
presented to the rulers that his life might be spared for a few weeks in 
order that he might complete some important experiments, but the reply 
was, ‘The Republic has no need of savants.’ Harlier in the century the 
much-praised Frederick William of Prussia shouted with a loud voice, 
during a graduation ceremony in the University of Frankfort, ‘ An ounce 
of mother-wit is worth a ton of university wisdom.’ Both France and 
Germany are now ashamed of these utterances of their rulers, and make 
energetic efforts to advance science with the aid of their national resources. 
More remarkable is it to see a young nation like the United States reserv- 
ing large tracts of its national lands for the promotion of scientific 
education. In some respects this young country is in advance of all 


6 : REPORT—1885. 


European nations in joining science to its administrative offices. Its 
scientific publications, like the great paleontological work embodying 
the researches of Professor Marsh and his associates in the Geological 
Survey, are an example to other Governments. The Minister of Agricul- 
ture is surrounded with a staff of botanists and chemists. The Home 
Secretary is aided by a special Scientific Commission to investigate the 
habits, migrations, and food of fishes, and the latter has at its disposal two 
specially-constructed steamers of large tonnage. The United States and 
Great Britain promote fisheries on distinct systems. In this country we 
are perpetually issuing expensive Commissions to visit the coasts in order 
to ascertain the experiences of fishermen. I have acted as Chairman of one 
of these Royal Commissions, and found that the fishermen, having only a 
knowledge of a small area, gave the most contradictory and unsatisfactory 
evidence. In America the questions are put to Nature, and not to fisher- 
men. Exact and searching investigations are made into the life-history 
of the fishes, into the temperature of the sea in which they live and 
spawn, into the nature of their food, and into the habits of their natural 
enemies. For this purpose the Government give the co-operation of the 
navy, and provide the Commission with a special corps of skilled naturalists, 
some of whom go out with the steamships and others work in the 
biological laboratories at Wood’s Holl, Massachusetts, or at Washington. 
The different universities send their best naturalists to aid in these in- 
vestigations, which are under the direction of Mr. Baird, of the Smith- 
sonian Institution. The annual cost of the Federal Commission is about 
40,0001., while the separate States spend about 20,000/. in local efforts. 
The practical results flowing from these scientific investigations have 
been important. The inland waters and rivers have been stocked with 
fish of the best and most suitable kinds. Kven the great ocean which 
washes the coasts of the United States is beginning to be affected by the 
knowledge thus acquired, and a sensible result is already produced upon 
the most important of its fisheries. The United Kingdom largely depends 
upon its fisheries, but as yet our Government have scarcely realised the 
value of such scientific investigations as those pursued with success by 
the United States. Less systematically, but with great benefit to science, 
our own Government has used the surveying expeditions, and sometimes 
has equipped special expeditions to promote natural history and solar 
physics. Some of the latter, like the voyage of the ‘ Challenger,’ have 
added largely to the store of knowledge; while the former, though not 
primarily intended for scientific research, have had an indirect result 
of infinite value by becoming training-schools for such investigators 
as Edward Forbes, Darwin, Hooker, Huxley, Wyville Thomson, and 
others. 
In the United Kingdom we are just beginning to understand the 
wisdom of Washington’s farewell address to his countrymen, when he said : 
‘Promote as an object of primary importance institutions for the general — 
diffusion of knowledge. In proportion as the structure of a government 


ADDRESS. a 


gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion should be 
enlightened.’ It was only in 1870 that our Parliament established a 
system of national primary education. Secondary education is chaotic, 
and remains unconnected with the State, while the higher education of 
the universities is only brought at distant intervals under the view of the 
State. All great countries except England have Ministers of Education, 
but this country has only Ministers who are the managers of primary 
schools. We are inferior even to smaller countries in the absence of 
organised State supervision of education. Greece, Portugal, Egypt, and 
Japan have distinct Ministers of Education, and so also among our 
Colonies have Victoria and New Zealand. Gradually England is gathering 
materials for the establishment of an efficient Education Minister. The 
Department of Science and Art is doing excellent work in diffusing 
a taste for elementary science among the working classes. There are 
now about 78,000 persons who annually come under the influence of its 
science classes, while a small number of about two hundred, many of them 
teachers, receive thorough instruction in science at the excellent school 
in South Kensington of which Professor Huxley is the Dean. I do not 
dwell on the work of this Government department, because my object is 
chiefly to point out how it is that science lags in its progress in the United 
Kingdom owing to the deficient interest taken in it by the middle and 
_ upper classes. ‘The working classes are being roused from their indiffer- 
ence. They show this by their selection of scientific men as candidates at 
the next election. Among these are Professors Stuart, Roscoe, Maskelyne, 
and Riicker. It has its significance that such a humble representative of 
science as myself received invitations from working-class constituencies 
in more than a dozen of the leading manufacturing towns. In the next 
Parliament I do not doubt that a Minister of Education will be created 
as a nucleus round which the various educational materials may crystallise 
in a definite form. 


III. Science and Secondary Education. 


Various Royal Commissions have made inquiries and issued recom- 

_ mendations in regard to our public and endowed schools. The Com- 
missions of 1861, 1864, 1868, and 1873 have expressed the strongest 
4 disapproval of the condition of our schools, and, so far as science is 
concerned, their state is much the same as when the Duke of Devon- 
_ Shire’s Commission in 1873 reported in the following words :—‘ Con- 
_ sidering the increasing importance of science to the material interests of 
_ the country, we cannot but regard its almost total exclusion from the 
_ training of the upper and middle classes as little less than a national mis- 
fortune.’ No doubt there are exceptional cases and some brilliant examples 
of improvement since these words were written, but generally throughout 
the country teaching in science isa name rather than a reality. The 
Technical Commission which reported last year can only point to three 
schools in Great Britain in which science is fully and adequately taught. 


8 REPORT—1885. 


While the Commission gives us the consolation that England is still in 
advance as an industrial nation, it warns us that foreign nations, which 
were not long ago far behind, are now making more rapid progress than 
this country, and will soon pass it in the race of competition unless we 
give increased attention to science in public education. A few of the 
large towns, notably Manchester, Bradford, Huddersfield, and Birming- 
ham, are doing so. The working classes are now receiving better 
instruction in science than the middle classes. The competition of 
actual life asserts its own conditions, for the children of the latter find 
increasing difficulty in obtaining employment. The cause of this lies in 
the fact that the schools for the middle classes have not yet adapted 
themselves to the needs of modern life. Itis true that many of the 
endowed schools have been put under new schemes, but as there is no 
public supervision or inspection of them, we have no knowledge as to 
whether they have prospered or slipped back. Many corporate schools 
have arisen, some of them, like Clifton, Cheltenham, and Marlborough 
Colleges, doing excellent educational work, though as regards all of them 
the public have no rights and cannot enforce guarantees for efficiency. 
A Return just issued, on the motion of Sir John Lubbock, shows a 
lamentable deficiency in science teaching in a great proportion of the 
endowed schools. While twelve to sixteen hours per week are devoted to 
classics, two to three hours are considered ample for science in a large 
proportion of the schools. In Scotland there are only six schools in the 
Return which give more than two hours to science weekly, while in many 
schools its teaching is wholly omitted. Every other part of the kingdom 
stands in a better position than Scotland in relation to the science of its 
endowed schools. The old traditions of education stick as firmly to 
schools as a limpet does to a rock; though I do the limpet injustice, for 
it does make excursions to seek pastures new. Are we to give up in 
despair because an exclusive system of classical education has resisted 
the assaults of such cultivated authors as Milton, Montaigne, Cowley, and 
Locke ? There was once an enlightened Emperor of China, Chi Hwangti, 
who knew that his country was kept back by its exclusive devotion to the 
classics of Confucius and Mencius. He invited 500 of the teachers to 
bring their copies of these authors to Pekin, and after giving a great 
banquet in their honour, he buried alive the professors aloug with 
their manuscripts in a deep pit. But Confucius and Mencius still reign 
supreme. I advocate milder measures, and depend for their adoption on 
the force of public opinion. The needs of modern life will force schools 
to adapt themselves to a scientific age. Grammar-schools believe them- 
selves to be immortal. Those curious immortals—the Struldbrugs— 
described by Swift, ultimately regretted their immortality, because they 
found themselves out of touch, sympathy, and fitness with the centuries 
in which they lived. 

As there is no use clamouring for an instrument of more compass and 
power until we have made up our mind as to the tune, Professor Huxley, in 


ADDRESS. 9 


his evidence before a Parliamentary Committee in 1884, has given a time- 
table for grammar-schools. He demands that out of their forty hours 
for public and private study, ten should be given to modern languages and 
history, eight to arithmetic and mathematics, six to science, and two to 
geography, thus leaving fourteen hours to the dead languages. No time- 
table would, however, be suitable to all schools. The great public schools 
of England will continue to be the gymnasia for the upper classes, and 
should devote much of their time to classical and literary culture. Even 
now they introduce into their curriculum subjects unknown to them 
when the Royal Commission of 1868 reported, though they still accept 
science with timidity. Unfortunately, the other grammar-schools which 
educate the middle classes look to the higher public schools as a type to 
which they should conform, although their functions are so different. 
It is in the interest of the higher public schools that this difference 
should be recognised, so that, while they give an all-round education and 
expand their curriculum by a freer recognition of the value of science as 
an educational power in developing the faculties of the upper classes, 
the schools for the middle classes should adapt themselves to the needs 
of their existence, and not keep up a slavish imitation of schools with a 
different function. 

The stock argument against the introduction of modern subjects into 
grammar-schools is that it is better to teach Latin and Greek thoroughly 
rather than various subjects less completely. But is it true that 
thoroughness in teaching dead languages is the result of an exclusive 
system? In 1868 the Royal Commission stated that even in the few 
great public schools thoroughness was only given to thirty per cent. of 
the scholars, at the sacrifice of seventy per cent. who got little benefit 
from the system. Since then the curriculum has been widened and the 
teaching has improved. I question the soundness of the principle that it 
is better to limit the attention of the pupils mainly to Latin and Greek, 
highly as I value their educational power to a certain order of minds. 
As in biology the bodily development of animals is from the general to 
the special, so is it in the mental development of man. In the school a 


_ boy should be aided to discover the class of knowledge that is best suited 


j 


7 
= 

Ped 

7 


4 


for his mental capacities, so that, in the upper forms of the school and in the 
university, knowledge may be specialised in order to cultivate the powers 


of the man to their fullest extent. Shakspeare’s educational formula 


may not be altogether true, but it contains a broad basis of truth— 


No profit grows, where is no pleasure ta’en ;— 
In brief, sir, study what you most affect. 


The comparative failure of the modern side of school education arises 
from constituting it out of the boys who are looked upon as classical 
asses. Milton pointed out that in all schools there are boys to whom the 
dead languages are ‘like thorns and thistles,’ which form a poor nourish- 
ment even for asses. If teachers looked upon these classical asses as 
beings who might receive mental nurture according to their nature, 


10 REPORT—1885. 


much higher results would follow the bifurcation of our schools. Saul 
went ont to look for asses and he foundakingdom. Surely this fact 
is more encouraging than the example of Gideon, who ‘ took thorns of 
the wilderness and briars, and with these he taught the men of Succoth.’ ! 
The adaptation of public schools to a scientific age does not involve 
a contest as to whether science or classics shall prevail, for both are 
indispensable to true education. The real question is whether schools 
will undertake the duty of moulding the minds of boys according to their 
mental varieties. Classics, from their structural perfection and power of 
awakening dormant faculties, have claims to precedence in education, 
but they have none to a practical monopoly. It is by claiming the latter 
that teachers sacrifice mental receptivity to a Procrustean uniformity. 

The universities are changing their traditions more rapidly than the 
schools. The via antiqua which leads to them is still broad, though a 
via moderna, with branching avenues, is also open to their honours and 
emoluments. Physical science, which was once neglected, is now 
encouraged at the universities. As to the seventy per cent. of boys who 
leave schools for life-work without going through the universities, are 
there no growing signs of discontent which must force a change? The 
Civil Service, the learned professions, as well as the army and navy, are 
now barred by examinations. Do the boys of our public schools easily 
leap over the bars, although some of them have lately been lowered so as 
to suit theschools ? So difficult are these bars to scholars that crammers 
take them in hand before they attempt the leap ; and this occurs in spite 
of the large value attached to the dead languages and the small value 
placed on modern subjects. Thus, in the Indian Civil Service examina- 
tions, 800 marks as a maximum are assigned to Latin, 600 to Greek, 500 
to chemistry, and 300 to each of the other physical sciences. But if we 
take the average working of the system for the last four years, we find 
that while sixty-eight per cent. of the maximum were given to candidates 
in Greek and Latin, only forty-five per cent. were accorded to candidates in 
chemistry, and but thirty per cent. to the other physical sciences. Schools 
sending up boys for competition naturally shun subjects which are dealt 
with so hardly and so heavily handicapped by the State. 

Passing from learned or public professions to commerce, how is it 
that in our great commercial centres, foreigners—German, Swiss, Dutch, 
and even Greeks—push aside our English youth and take the places of 
profit which belong to them by national inheritance ? How is it that in 
our Colonies, like those in South Africa, German enterprise is pushing 
aside English incapacity ? How is it that we find whole branches of 
manufactures, when they depend on scientific knowledge, passing away 
from this country, in which they originated, in order to engraft themselves 
abroad, although their decaying roots remain at home ?? The answer to 


1 Judges viii. 16. 
? See Dr. Perkins’ address to the Soc. Chem. Industry, ‘Nature, Aug. 6, 1885, 
p. 333. 


ADDRESS. 11 


these questions is that our systems of education are still too narrow for 
the increasing struggle of life. 

Faraday, who had no narrow views in regard to education, deplored 
the future of our youth in the competition of the world, because, as he 
said with sadness, ‘our schoolboys, when they come out of school, are 
ignorant of their ignorance at the end of all that education.’ 

The opponents of science education allege that it is not adapted for 
mental development, because scientific facts are often disjointed and 
exercise only the memory. Those who argue thus do not know what 
science is. No doubt an ignorant or half-informed teacher may present 
science as an accumulation of unconnected facts. At all times and in all 
subjects there are teachers without wsthetical or philosophical capacity 
—men who can only see carbonate of lime in a statue by Phidias or 
Praxiteles; who cannot survey zoology on account of its millions of 
species, or botany because of its 130,000 distinct plants ; men who can look 
at trees without getting a conception of a forest, and cannot distinguish a 
stately edifice from its bricks. To teach in that fashion is like going to 
the tree of science with its glorious fruit in order to pick up a handful of 
the dry fallen leaves from the ground. It is, however, true that as 
science teaching has had less lengthened experience than that of literature, 
its methods of instruction are not so matured. Scientific and literary 
teaching have different methods; for while the teacher of literature rests 
on authority and on books for his guidance, the teacher of science 
discards authority and depends on facts at first hand, and on the book of 
Nature for their interpretation. Natural science more and more resolves 
itself into the teaching of the laboratory. In this way it can be used as 
a powerful means of quickening observation, and of creating a faculty of 
induction after the manner of Zadig, the Babylonian described by 
Voltaire. Thus facts become surrounded by scientific conceptions, aud 
are subordinated to order and law. 

It is not those who desire to unite literature with science who degrade 
education ; the degradation is the consequence of the refusal. A violent 
reaction—too violent to be wise—has lately taken place against classical 
education in France, where their own vernacular occupies the position of 
dead languages, while Latin and science are given the same time in the 
curriculum, In England manufacturers cry out for technical education, 
in which classical culture shall be excluded. In the schools of the middle 
classes science rather than technics is needed, because, when the seeds of 
science are sown, technics as its fruit will appear at the appointed time. 
Epictetus was wise when he told us to observe that, though sheep eat 
grass, it is not grass but wool that grows on their backs. Should, how- 
ever, our grammar-schools persist in their refusal to adapt themselves to 
the needs of a scientific age, England must follow the example of other 
European nations and found new modern schools in competition with 
them. For, as Huxley has put it, we cannot continue in this age ‘of full 
modern artillery to turn out our boys to do battle in it, equipped only 


12 REPORT— 1885. 


with the sword and shield of an ancient gladiator.’ In a scientific and 
keenly competitive age an exclusive education in the dead languages is 
a perplexing anomaly. The flowers of literature should be cultivated and 
gathered, though it is not wise to send men into onr fields of industry to 
gather the harvest when they have been taught only to cull the poppies 
and to push aside the wheat. 


IV. Science and the Universities. 


The State has always felt bound to alter and improve universities, 
even when their endowments are so Jarge as to render it unnecessary to 
support them by public funds. When universities are poor, Parliament 
gives aid to them from imperial taxation. In this country that aid kas 
been given with a very sparing hand. Thus the universities and colleges 
of Ireland have received about thirty thousand pounds annually, and the 
same sum has been granted to the four universities of Scotland. Com- 
pared with imperial aid to foreign universities such sums are small. A 
single German university like Strasburg or Leipsic receives above 
40,0001. annually, or 10,0007. more than the whole colleges of Ireland or 
of Scotland. Strasburg, for instance, has had her university and its 
library rebuilt at a cost of 711,000/., and receives an annual subscription 
of 43,000. In rebuilding the university of Strasburg eight laboratories 
have been provided, so as to equip it fully with the modern requirements 
for teaching and research.'! Prussia, the most economical nation in the 
world, spends 391,000/. yearly out of taxation on her universities. 

The recent action of France is still more remarkable. After the 
Franco-German War the Institute of France discussed the important 
question :-—‘ Pourquoi la France n’a pas trouvé d’hommes supérieurs au 
moment du péril ?’ The general answer was because France had allowed 
university education to sink toa low ebb. Before the great Revolution 
France had twenty-three autonomous universities in the provinces. 
Napoleon desired to found one great university at Paris, and he crushed 
out the others with the hand of a despot, and remodelled the last with the 
instincts of a drill-sergeant. The central university sank so low that in 
1868 it is said that only 8,0001. were spent for true academic purposes. 
Startled by the intellectual sterility shown in the war, France has made 
gigantic efforts to retrieve her position, and has rebuilt the provincial 
colleges at a cost of 3,280,000/., while her annual budget for their support 
now reaches half a million of pounds. In order to open these provincial 
colleges to the best talent of France, more than five hundred scholarships 
have been founded at an annual cost of 80,0001. France now recognises that 
it is not by the number of men under arms that she can compete with her 
great neighbour Germany, so she has determined to equal her in intellect. 


1 The cost of these laboratories has been as follows :—Chemical Institute, 35,0007. ; 
Physical Institute, 28,000/.; Botanical Institute, 26,000/.; Observatory, 25,0002. ; 
Anatomy, 42,0007.; Clinical Surgery, 26,0002.; Physiological Chemistry, 16,000Z. ; 
Physiological Institute, 13,9007, 


ADDRESS. 18} 


You will understand why it is that Germany was obliged, even if she had 
not been willing, to spend such large sums in order to equip the university 
of her conquered province, Alsace-Lorraine. France and Germany are 
fully aware that science is the source of wealth and power, and that the 
only way of advancing it is to encourage universities to make researches 
and to spread existing knowledge through the community. Other 
European nations are advancing on the same lines. Switzerland is a 
remarkable illustration of how a country can compensate itself for its 
natural disadvantages by a scientific education of its people. Switzerland 
contains neither coal nor the ordinary raw materials of industry, and is 
separated from other countries which might supply them by mountain 
barriers. Yet, by a singularly good system of graded schools, and by the 
great technical college of Ziirich, she has become a prosperous manufac- 
turing country. In Great Britain we have nothing comparable to this 
technical college, either in magnitude or efficiency. Belgium is reor- 
ganising its universities, and the State has freed the localities from the 
charge of buildings, and will in future equip the universities with efficient 
teaching resources out of public taxation. Holland, with a population of 
4,000,000 and a small revenue of 9,000,000/., spends 136,000. on her 
four universities. Contrast this liberality of foreign countries in the 
promotion of higher instruction with the action of our own country. 
Scotland, like Holland, has four universities, and is not very different 
from it in population, but it only receives 30,0001. from the State. By a 
special clause in the Scotch Universities Bill the Government asked 
Parliament to declare that under no circumstances should the Parlia- 
mentary grant be ever increased above 40,0007. According to the views 
of the British Treasury there is a finality in science and in expanding 
knowledge. 

The wealthy universities of Oxford and Cambridge are gradually con- 
structing laboratories for science. The merchant princes of Manchester 
have equipped their new Victoria University with similar laboratories. 
Edinburgh and Glasgow Universities have also done so, partly at the 
cost of Government and largely by private subscriptions. The poorer 
universities of Aberdeen and St. Andrews are still inefficiently provided 
with the modern appliances for teaching science. 

London has one small Government college and two chartered colleges, 
but is wholly destitute of a teaching university. It would excite great 
astonishment at the Treasury if we were to make the modest request that 
the great metropolis, with a population of four millions, should be put 
into as efficient academical position as the town of Strasburg, with 
104,000 inhabitants, by receiving, as that town does, 43,000. annually for 
academic instruction, and 700,000. for university buildings. Still, the 
amazing anomaly that London has no teaching university must ere long 
cease. 

It is a comforting fact that, in spite of the indifference of Parliament, 
the large towns of the kingdom are showing their sense of the need of 


14 REPORT—1885. 


higher education. Manchester has already its university. Nottingham, 
Birmingham, Leeds, and Bristol have colleges more or less complete. 
Liverpool converts a disused lunatic asylum into a college for sane people. 
Cardiff rents an infirmary for a collegiate building. Dundee, by private 
benefaction, rears a Baxter College with larger ambitions. All these 
are healthy signs that the public are determined to have advanced science 
teaching ; but the resources of the institutions are altogether inadequate 
to the end in view. Evenin the few cases where the laboratories are effi- 
cient for teaching purposes, they are inefficient as laboratories for research. 
Under these circumstances the Royal Commission on Science advocates 
special Government laboratories for research. Such laboratories, sup- 
ported by public money, are as legitimate subjects for expenditure as 
galleries for pictures or sculpture; but I think that they would not be 
successful, and would injure science if they failed. It would be safer in 
the meantime if the State assisted universities or well-established colleges 
to found laboratories of research under their own care. Even sucha 
proposal shocks our Chancellor of the Exchequer, who tells us that this 
country is burdened with public debt, and has ironclads to build and 
arsenals to provide. Nevertheless our wealth is proportionally much 
greater than that of foreign States which are competing with so much 
vigour in the promotion of higher education. They deem such expenditure 
to be true economy, and do not allow their huge standing armies to be 
an apology for keeping their people backwards in the march of knowledge. 
France, which in the last ten years has been spending a million annually 
on university education, had a war indemnity to pay, and competes suc- 
cessfully with this country in ironclads. Hither all foreign States are 
strangely deceived in their belief that the competition of the world has 
become a competition of intellect, or we are marvellously unobservant of 
the change which is passing over Europe in the higher education of the 
people. Preparations for war will not ensure to us the blessings and 
security of an enlightened peace. Protective expenditure may be wise, 
though productive expenditure is wiser. 
Were half the powers which fill the world with terror, 
Were half the wealth bestowed on camps and courts, 


Given to redeem the human mind from error— 
There were no need of arsenals and forts, 


Universities are not mere storehouses of knowledge; they are also 
conservatories for its cultivation. In Mexico there is a species of ant which 
sets apart some of its individuals to act as honey-jars by monstrously 
extending their abdomens to store the precious fluid till it is wanted 
by the community. Professors in a university have a higher function, 
because they ought to make new honey as well as to store it. The 
widening of the bounds of knowledge, literary or scientific, is the crown- 
ing glory of university life. Germany unites the functions of teaching 
and research in the universities, while France keeps them in separate 
institutions. The former system is best adapted to our habits, but its 


ADDRESS. 15 


condition for success is that our science chairs should be greatly increased, 
so that teachers should not be wholly absorbed in the duties of instruc- 
tion. Germany subdivides the sciences into various chairs, and gives to 
the professors special laboratories. It also makes it a condition for the 
higher honours of a university that the candidates shall give proofs cf 
their ability to make original researches. Under such a system, teaching 
and investigation are not incompatible. In the evidence before the 
Science Commission many opinions were given that scientific men en- 
gaged in research should not be burdened with the duties of education, 
and there is much to be said in support of this view when a single 
professor for the whole range of a physical science is its only represen- 
tative in a university. But I hope that such a system will not long 
continue, for if it do we must occupy a very inferior position as a nation 
in the intellectual competition of Europe. Research and education in 
limited branches of higher knowledge are not incompatible. It is true 
that Galileo complained of the burden imposed upon him by his numerous 
astronomical pupils, though few other philosophers have echoed this com- 
plaint. Newton, who produced order in worlds, and Dalton, who brought 
atoms under the reign of order and number, rejoiced in their pupils. 
Lalande spread astronomers as Liebig spread chemists, and Johannes 
Miiller biologists, all over the world. Laplace, La Grange, Dulong, 
Gay Lussac, Berthollet, and Dumas were professors as well as discoverers 
in France. In England our discoverers have generally been teachers. 
In fact I recollect only three notable examples of men who were not— 
Boyle, Cavendish, and Joule. It was so in ancient as well as in modern 
times, for Plato and Aristotle taught and philosophised. If you do not 


_ make the investigator a schoolmaster, as Dalton was, and as practically 


| 


our professors are at the present time, with the duty of teaching all 
branches of their sciences, the mere elementary truths as well as the 
highest generalisations being compressed into a course, it is well that 
they should be brought into contact with the world in which they live, 


_ 80 as to know its wants and aspirations. They could then quicken the 


’ 


* 


q 


P 


« 
5 


‘ 


pregnant minds around them, and extend to others their own power and 
love of research. Goethe had a fine perception of this when he wrote— 
Wer in der Weltgeschichte lebt, 


Wer in die Zeiten schaut, und strebt, 
Nur der ist werth, zu sprechen und zu dichten. 


Our universities are still far from the attainment of a proper com- 
bination of their resources between teaching and research. Even Oxford 
and Cambridge, which have done so much in recent years in the equip- 


ment of laboratories and in adding to their scientific staff, are still far 


behind a second-class German university. The professional faculties of 
the English universities are growing, and will diffuse a greater taste for 
Science among their students, though they may. absorb the time of the 
limited professoriate so as to prevent it advancing the boundaries of 


16 REPORT—1885. 


knowledge. Professional faculties are absolutely essential to the existence 
of universities in poor countries like Scotland and Ireland. This has 
been the case from the early days of the Bologna University up to the 
present time. Originally universities arose not by mere bulls of popes, 
but as a response to the strong desire of the professional classes to dignify 
their crafts by real knowledge. If their education had been limited to 
mere technical schools like the Medical School of Salerno which flourished 
in the eleventh century, length but not breadth would have been given to 
education. So the universities wisely joined culture to the professional 
sciences. Poor countries like Scotland and Ireland must have their 
academic systems based on the professional faculties, although wealthy 
universities like Oxford and Cambridge may continue to have them as 
mere supplements to a more general education. A greater liberality 
of support on the part of the State in the establishment of chairs of 
science, for the sake of science and not merely for the teaching of the 
professions, would enable the poorer universities to take their part in the 
advancement of knowledge. 

T have already alluded to the foundation of new colleges in different 
parts of the kingdom. Owens College has worthily developed into the 
Victoria University. Formerly she depended for degrees on the 
University of London. No longer will she be like a moon reflecting cold 
and sickly rays from a distant ]uminary, for in future she will be a sun, 
a centre of intelligence, warming and illuminating the regions around her. 
The other colleges which have formed themselves in large manufacturing 
districts are remarkable expressions from them that science must be 
promoted. Including the colleges of a high class, such as University 
College and King’s College in London, and the three Queen’s Colleges in 
Ireland, the aggregate attendance of students in colleges without university 
rank is between nine and ten thousand, while that of the universities is 
fifteen thousand. No doubt some of the provincial colleges require 
considerable improvement in their teaching methods; sometimes they 
unwisely aim ata full university curriculum when it would be better for 
them to act as faculties. Still they are all growing in the spirit of self- 
help, and some of them are destined, like Owens College, to develop into 
nniversities. This is not a subject of alarm to lovers of education, 
while it is one of hope and encouragement to the great centres of 
industry. There are too few autonomous universities in England in 
proportion to its population. While Scotland, with a population 
of 33 millions, has four universities with 6,500 students, England, 
with 26 millions of people, has only the same number of teaching 
universities with 6,000 students. Unless English colleges have such 
ambition, they may be turned into mere mills to grind out material for 
examinations and competitions. Higher colleges should always hold 
before their students that knowledge, for its own sake, is the only object 
worthy of reverence. Beyond college life there is a land of research 
flowing with milk and honey for those who know how to cultivate it. 


ADDRESS. 17 


Colleges should at least show a Pisgah view of this Land of Promise, 
which stretches far beyond the Jordan of examinations and competitions. 


V. Science and Industry. 


In the popular mind the value of science is measured by its applica- 
tions to the useful purposes of life. It is no doubt true that science 
wears a beautiful aspect when she confers practical benefits upon man. 
But truer relations of science to industry are implied in Greek mythology. 
Vulcan, the god of industry, wooed science, in the form of Minerva, with 
a passionate love, but the chaste goddess never married, although she 
conferred upon mankind nearly as many arts as Prometheus, who, like 
other inventors, saw civilisation progressing by their use while he lay 
groaning in want on Mount Caucasus. The rapid development of industry 
in modern days depends on the applications of scientific knowledge, 
while its slower growth in former times was due to experiments being 
made by trial and error in order to gratify the needs of man. Then an 
experiment was less a questioning of Nature than an exercise on the mind 
of the experimentalist. Fora true questioning of Nature only arises when 
intellectual conceptions of the causes of phenomena attach themselves to 
ascertained facts as well as to their natural environments. Much real 
science had at one time accumulated in Egypt, Greece, Rome, and Arabia, 
though it became obscured by the intellectual darkness which spread 
_ over Europe like a pall for many centuries. The mental results of Greek 
science, filtered through the Romans and Arabians, gradually fertilised 
the soil of Europe. Even in ages which are deemed to be dark and un- 
' prolific, substantial though slow progress was made. By the end of the 

fifteenth century the mathematics of the Alexandrian school had become 
_ the possession of Western Europe; Arabic numerals, algebra, trigo- 
nometry, decimal reckoning, and an improved calendar having been 
added to its stock of knowledge. The old discoveries of Democritus and 
_ Archimedes in physics, and of Hipparchus and Ptolemy in astronomy, 
_ were producing their natural developments, though with great slowness. 
_ Many manufactures, growing chiefly by experience, and occasionally 
- lightened up by eee of science throughout the prevailing dark- 
ness, had arisen before the sixteenth century. ys knowledge of the pro- 
perties of bodies, though scarcely of their relations to each other, came 
through the labours of the alchemists, who had a mighty impulse to 
work, for by the philosopher’s stone, often not larger than half a rape- 
seed, they hoped to attain the three sensuous conditions of human enjoy- 
ment, gold, health, and immoriality. By the end of the fifteenth century 
Many important manufactures were founded by empirical experiment, 
with only the uncertain guidance of science. Among these were the 
compass, printing, paper, gunpowder, guns, watches, forks, knitting- 
needles, horseshoes, bells, wood cutting and copper engraving, wire- 
drawing, steel, table glass, spectacles, microscopes, glass mirrors backed 
by amalgams of tin and lead, windmills, crushing and saw mills. These 
1885. C 


— 


~ 


18 REPORT—1885. 


important manufactures arose from an increased knowledge of facts, 
around which scientific conceptions were slowly concreting. Aristotle 
defines this as science when he says, ‘Art begins when, from a great 
number of experiences, one general conception is formed which will 
embrace all similar cases.’ Such conceptions are formed only when 
culture develops the human mind and compels it to give a rational 
account of the world in which man lives, and of the objects in and around 
it, as wellas of the phenomena which govern their action and evolution. 
Though the accumulation of facts is indispensable to the growth of science, 
a thousand facts are of less value to human progress than is a single one 
when it is scientifically comprehended, for it then becomes generalised in all 
similar cases. Isolated facts may be viewed as the dust of science. The dust 
which floats in the atmosphere is to the common observer mere incoherent 
matter in a wrong place, while to the man of science it is all-important 
when the rays of heat and light act upon its floating particles. It is by 
them that clouds and rains are influenced ; it is by their selective influence 
on the solar waves that the blue of the heavens and the beauteous colours 
of the sky glorify all Nature. So, also, ascertained though isolated facts, 
forming the dust of science, become the reflecting media of the light of 
knowledge, and cause all Nature to assume a new aspect. It is with the 
light of knowledge that we are enabled to question Nature through direct 
experiment. The hypothesis or theory which induces us to put the ex- 
perimental question may be right or wrong; still, prudens questio dimidium 
scientice est—it is half way to knowledge when you know what you have 
to inquire. Davy described hypothesis as the mere scaffolding of science, 
useful to build up true knowledge, but capable of being put up or taken 
down at pleasure. Undoubtedly a theory is only temporary, and the 
reason is, as Bacon has said, that the man of science ‘ loveth truth more 
than his theory.’ The changing theories which the world despises are 
the leaves of the tree of science drawing nutriment to the parent stems, 
and enabling it to put forth new branches and to produce fruit ; and 
though the leaves fall and decay, the very products of decay nourish the 
roots of the tree and reappear in the new leaves or theories which succeed. 

When the questioning of Nature by intelligent experiment has raised 
a system of science, then those men who desire to apply it to industrial 
inventions proceed by the same methods to make rapid progress in the 
arts. They also must have means to compel Nature to reveal her secrets. 
A@neas succeeded in his great enterprise by plucking a golden branch 
from the tree of science. Armed with this even dread Charon dared not 
refuse a passage across the Styx ; and the gate of the Elysian fields was 
unbarred when he hung the branch on its portal. ‘l'hen new aspects of 
Nature were revealed— 


Another sun and stars they know 
That shine like ours, but shine below. 


It is by carrying such a golden branch from the tree of science that in- 


ADDRESS. 19 


ventors are able to advance the arts. In illustration of how slowly at 
first and how rapidly afterwards science and its applications arise, I will 
take only two out of thousands of examples which lie ready to my hand. 
One of the most familiar instances is air, for that surely should have been 
soon understood if man’s unaided senses are sufficient for knowledge. Air 
has been under the notice of mankind eyer since the first man drew his 
first breath. It meets him at every turn ; it fans him with gentle breezes, 
and it buffets him with storms. And yet it is certain that this familiar 
object—air—is very imperfectly understood up to the present time. We 
now know by recent researches that air can be liquefied by pressure and 
cold; but as a child still looks upon air as nothing, so did man in his 
early state. A vessel filled with air was deemed to be empty. But man, 
as soon as he began to speculate, felt the importance of air, and deemed 
it to be a soul of the world upon which the respiration of man and the 
god-like quality of fire depended. Yet a really intelligent conception of 
these two essential conditions to man’s existence—respiration and com- 
bustion—was not formed till about a century ago (1775). No doubt long 
before that time there had been abundant speculations regarding air. 
Anaximenes, 548 years before Christ, and Diogenes of Apollonia, a century 
later, studied the properties of air so far as their senses would allow them ; 
so, in fact, did Aristotle. Actnal scientific experiments were made on air 
about the year 1100 by a remarkable Saracen, Alhazen, who ascertained 
important truths which enabled Galileo, Torricelli, Otto de Guericke, and 
others at a later period to discover laws leading to important practical 
applications. Still there was no intelligent conception as to the compo- 
sition of air until Priestley in 1774 repeated, with the light of science, an 
empirical observation which Eck de Sulbach had made three hundred 
years before upon the union of mercury with an ingredient of air and the 
decomposition of this compound by heat. This experiment now proved 
that the active element in air is oxygen. From that date our knowledge, 
derived from an intelligent questioning of air by direct experiments, has 
gone on by leaps and bounds. The air, which mainly consists of nitrogen 
and oxygen, is now known to contain carbonic acid, ammonia, nitric acid, 
ozone, besides hosts of living organisms which have a vast influence for 
good or evil in the economy of the world. These micro-organisms, the 
latest contribution to our knowledge of air, perform great analytical 
functions in organic nature, and are the means of converting much of its 
potential energy into actualenergy. Through their action on dead matter 
the mutual dependence of plants and animals is secured, so that the air 
becomes at once the grave of organic death and the cradle of organic life. 
No doubt the ancients suspected this without being able to prove the de- 
pendence. Euripides seems to have seen it deductively when he describes 
the results of decay :— ; 

Then that which springs from earth, to earth returns, 

And that which draws its being from the sky 

Rises again up to the skyey height 


20 rneport—1885. 


The consequences of the progressive discoveries have added largely to 
our knowledge of life, and have given a marvellous development to the 
industrial arts. Combustion and respiration govern a wide range of 
processes. The economical use of fuel, the growth of plants, the food of 
animals, the processes of husbandry, the maintenance of public health, 
the origin and cure of disease, the production of alcoholic drinks, the 
processes of making vinegar and saltpetre—all these and many other 
kinds of knowledge have been brought under the dominion of law. No 
doubt animals respired, fuel burned, plants grew, sugar fermented, before 
we knew how they depended upon air. But as the knowledge was 
empirical, it could not be intelligently directed. Now all these processes 
are ranged in order under a wise economy of Nature, and can be directed 
to the utilities of life; for it is true, as Swedenborg says, that ‘ human 
ends always ascend as Nature descends.’ There is scarcely a large 
industry in the world which has not received a mighty impulse by the 
better knowledge of air acquired within a hundred years. If I had time 
I could show still more strikingly the industrial advantages which have 
followed from Cavendish’s discovery of the composition of water. I wish 
that I could have done this, because it was Addison who foolishly said, 
and Paley who as unwisely approved the remark, ‘that mankind required 
to know no more about water than the temperature at which it froze and 
boiled, and the mode of making steam.’ 

When we examine the order of progress in the arts, even before they 
are illumined by science, their improvements seem to be the resultants of 
three conditions. 

1. The substitution of natural forces for brute animal power, as 
when Hercules used the waters of the Alpheus to cleanse the Augean 
stables; or when a Kamchadal of Eastern Asia, who has been three 
years hollowing out a canoe, finds that he can do it in a few hours by 
fire. 

2. The economy of time, as when a calendering machine produces 
the same gloss to miles of calico that an African savage gives to a few 
inches by rubbing it with the shell of a snail ; or the economy of produc- 
tion, as when steel pens, sold when first introduced at one shilling apiece, 
are now sold at a penny per dozen; or when steel rails, lately costing 
451. per ton, can now be sold at 5/. 

3. Methods of utilising waste products, or of endowing them with 
properties which render them of increased value to industry, as when 
waste scrap iron and the galls on the oak are converted into ink ; or the 
badly-smelling waste of gasworks is transformed into fragrant essences, 
brilliant dyes, and fertilising manure; or when the eflete matter of 
animals or old bones is changed into lucifer-matches. 

All three results are often combined when a single end is obtained— 
at all events, economy of time and production invariably follows when 
natural forces substitute brute animal force. In industrial progress the 
sweat of the brow is lessened by the conceptions of the brain. How 


ADDRESS. 21 


exultant is the old Greek poet, Antipater,! when women are relieved of 
the drudgery of turning the grindstones for the daily supply of corn. 
‘Woman! you who have hitherto had to grind corn, let your arms rest 
for the future. It is no longer for you that the birds announce by their 
songs the dawn of the morning. Ceres has ordered the water-nymphs to 
move the heavy millstones and perform your labour.’ Penelope had 
twelve slaves to grind corn for her small household. During the most 
prosperous time of Athens it was estimated that there were twenty slaves 
to each free citizen. Slaves are mere machines, and machines neither 
invent nor discover. The bondmen of the Jews, the helots of Sparta, 
the captive slaves of Rome, the serfs of Europe, and uneducated labourers 
of the present day who are the slaves of ignorance have added nothing 
to human progress. But as natural forces substitute and become cheaper 
than slave labour, liberty follows advancing civilisation. Machines 
require educated superintendence. One shoe factory in Boston by its 
machines does the work of thirty thousand shoemakers in Paris who 
have still to go through the weary drudgery of mechanical labour. The 
steam power of the world, during the last twenty years, has risen from 
113 million to 29 million horse-power, or 152 per cent. 

Let me takea single example of how even a petty manufacture improved 
by the teachings of science affects the comforts and enlarges the resources 
of mankind. When I was a boy, the only way of obtaining a light 
was by the tinder-box, with its quadruple materials, flint and steel, burnt 
rags or tinder, and a sulphur-match. If everything went well, if the box 
could be found and the air was dry, a light could be obtained in two 
minutes ; but very often the time occupied was much longer, and the 
process became a great trial to the serenity of temper. The consequence 
of this was that a fire or a burning lamp was kept alight through the 
day. Old Gerard, in his Herbal, tells us how certain fungi were used to 
carry fire from one part of the country to the other. The tinder-box 
long held its position as a great discovery in the arts. The Pywidicula 
Igniaria of the Romans appears to have been much the same implement 
as, though a little ruder than, the flint and steel which Philip the Good 
put into the collar of the Golden Fleece in 1429 as a representation of 
high knowledge in the progress of the arts. It continued to prevail 
till 1833, when phosphorus-matches were introduced ; though I have been 
amused to find that there are a few venerable ancients in London who 
still stick to the tinder-box, and for whom a few shops keep a small 
supply. Phosphorus was no new discovery, for it had been obtained by 
an Arabian called Bechel in the eighth century. However, it was for- 
gotten, and was rediscovered by Brandt, who made it out of very 
stinking materials in 1669. Other discoveries had, however, to be 
made before it could be used for lucifer-matches. The science of com- 
bustion was only developed on the discovery of oxygen a century later. 
Time had to elapse before chemical analysis showed the kind of bodies 


1 Analecta Veterum Grecorum, Epig. 39, vol, ii. p. 119. 


22 rnEPORT—1885. 


which could be added to phosphorus so as to make it ignite readily. So 
it was not till 1833 that matches became a partial success. Intolerably 
bad they then were, dangerously inflammable, horribly poisonous to the 
makers and injurious to the lungs of the consumers. It required another 
discovery by Schriétter in 1845 to change poisonous waxy into innocuous 
red-brick phosphorus in order that these defects might be remedied, and 
to give us the safety-match of the present day. Now what have these 
successive discoveries in science done for the nation, in this single manu- 
facture, by an economy of time? If before 1833 we had made the same 
demands for light that we now do, when we daily consume eight matches 
per head of the population, the tinder-box could have supplied the de- 
mand under the most favourable conditions by an expenditure of one 
quarter of an hour. The lucifer-match supplies a light in fifteen seconds 
on each occasion, or in two minutes for the whole day. Putting these 
differences into a year, the venerable ancient who stil! sticks to his 
tinder-box would require to spend ninety hours yearly in the production 
of light, while the user of lucifer-matches spends twelve hours; so that 
the latter has an economy of seventy-eight hours yearly, or about ten 
working days. Measured by cost of production at one shilling and six- 
pence daily, the economy of time represented in money to our population is 
twenty-six millions of pounds annually. This is a curious instance of the 
manner in which science leads to economy of time and wealth even in a 
small manufacture. In larger industries the economy of time and labour 
produced by the application of scientific discoveries is beyond al! measure- 
ment. Thus the discovery of latent heat by Black led to the inventions 
of Watt; while that of the mechanical equivalent of heat by Joule has 
been the basis of the progressive improvements in the steam-engine which 
enables power to be obtained by a consumption of fuel less than one- 
fourth the amount used twenty years ago. It may be that the engines of 
Watt and Stephenson will yield in their turn to more economical motors ; 
still they have already expanded the wealth, resources, and even the terri- 
tories of England more than all the battles fought by her soldiers or all 
the treaties negotiated by her diplomatists. 

The coal which has hitherto been the chief source of power probably re- 
presents the product of five or six million years during which the sun shone 
upon the plants of the Carboniferous Period, and stored up its energy in this 
convenient form. But we are using this conserved force wastefully and 
prodigally ; for, although horse-power in steam engines has so largely in- 
creased since 1864, two men only now produce what three men did at 
that date. It is only three hundred years since we became a manufactur- 
ing country. According to Professor Dewar, in Jess than two hundred 
years more the coal of this country will be wholly exhausted, and in half 
that time will be difficult to procure. Our not very distant descendants 
will have to face the problem—What will be the condition of England 
without coal? The answer to that question depends upon the intel- 
lectual development of the nation at that time. The value of the in- 


ADDRESS. 23 


tellectual factor of production is continually increasing ; while the values 
of raw material and fuel are lessening factors. It may be that when the 
dreaded time of exhausted fuel has arrived, its importation from other 
coal-fields, such as those of New South Wales, will be so easy and cheap 
that the increased technical education of our operatives may largely over- 
balance the disadvantages of increased cost in fuel. But this supposes 
that future Governments in England will have more enlightened views as 
to the value of science than past Governments have possessed. 

Industrial applications are but the overflowings of science welling 
over from the fulness of its measure. Few would ask now, as was con- 
stantly done a few years ago, ‘ What is the use of an abstract discovery 
in science?’ Faraday once answered this question by another, ‘ What 
is the use of a baby?’ Yet round that baby centre all the hopes and 
sentiments of his parents, and even the interests of the State, which 
interferes in its upbringing so as to ensure it being a capable citizen. 
The processes of mind which produce a discovery or an invention are 
rarely associated in the same person, for while the discoverer seeks to 
explain causes and the relations of phenomena, the inventor aims at pro- 
ducing new effects, or at least of obtaining them in a novel and efficient 
way. In this the inventor may sometimes succeed without much know- 
ledge of science, though his labours are infinitely more productive when 
he understands the causes of the effects which he desires to produce. 

A nation in its industrial progress, when the competition of the world 
is keen, cannot stand still. Three conditions only are possible for it. It 
may go forward, retrograde, or perish. Its extinction as a great nation 
follows its neglect of higher education, for, as described in the proverb of 
Solomon, ‘ They that hate instruction love death.’ In sociology, as in 
biology, there are three states. The first of balance, when things grow 

neither better nor worse; the second that of elaboration or evolution, as 
we see it when animals adapt themselves to their environments; and the 
third, that of degeneration, when they rapidly lose the ground they have 

-made. For a nation, a state of balance is only possible in the early stage 
of its existence, but it is impossible when its environments are constantly 
changing. 

The possession of the raw materials of industry and the existence of a 
surplus population are important factors for the growth of manufactures 
in the early history of a nation, but afterwards they are bound up with 
another factor—the application of intellect to their development. England 
could not be called a manufacturing nation till the Elizabethan age. No 
doubt coal, iron, and wool were in abundance, though, in the reign of 
the Plantagenets, they produced little prosperity. Wool was sent to 
Flanders to be manufactured, for England then stood to Holland as 
Australia now does to Yorkshire. The political crimes of Spain from the 
reign of Ferdinand and Isabella to that of Philip III. destroyed it as a 
great manufacturing nation, and indirectly led to England taking its 
position. Spain, through the activity and science of the Arabian intellect, 


24 REPORT—1885. 


had acquired many important industries. The Moors and the Moriscoes, 
who had been in Spain for a period as long as from the Norman 
Conquest of this country to the present date, were banished, and with 
them departed the intellect of Spain. Then the invasion of the Low 
Countries by Philip II. drove the Flemish manufacturers to England, 
while the French persecution of the Huguenots added new manufacturing 
experience, and with them came the industries of cotton, wool, and silk. 
Cotton mixed with linen and wool became freely used, but it was only from 
1738 to the end of the century that the inventions of Wyatt, Arkwright, 
Hargreaves, Crompton, and Cartwright started the wonderful modern 
development. The raw cotton was imported from India or America, but 
that fact as regards cost was a small factor in comparison with the intellect 
required to convert it into a utility. Science has in the last hundred 
years altered altogether the old conditions of industrial competition. She 
has taught the rigid metals to convey and record our thoughts even to 
the most distant lands, and, within less limits, to reproduce our speech. 
This marvellous application of electricity has diminished the cares and 
responsibilities of Governments, while it has at the same time altered the 
whole practice of commerce. To England steam and electricity have 
been of incalculable advantage. The ocean, which once made the coun- 
try insular and isolated, is now the very life-blood of England and of 
the greater England beyond the seas. As in the human body the blood 
bathes all its parts, and through its travelling corpuscles carries force to 
all its members, so in the body politic of England and its pelagic exten- 
sions, steam has become the circulatory and electricity the nervous 
system. The colonies, being young countries, value their raw materials as 
their chief sources of wealth. When they become older they will dis- 
cover it is not in these, but in the culture of scientific intellect, that their 
future prosperity depends. Older nations recognise this as the law of 
progress more than’ we do; or, as Jules Simon tersely puts it—‘ That 
nation which most educates her people will become the greatest nation, 
if not to-day, certainly to-morrow.’ Higher education is the condition of 
higher prosperity, and the. nation which neglects to develop the intel- 
lectual factor of production must degenerate, for it cannot stand still. 
If we felt compelled to adopt the test of science given by Comte, that its 
value must be measured by fecundity, it might be prudent to claim indus- 
trial inventions as the immediate fruit of the tree of science, though only 
fruit which the prolific treehas shed. But the test is untrue in the sense 
indicated, or rather the fruit, according to the simile of Bacon, is like the 
golden apples which Aphrodite gave to the suitor of Atalanta, who lagged 
in her course by stooping to pick them up, and so lost the race. The 
true cultivators of the tree of science must seek their own reward by 
seeing it flourish, and let others devote their attention to the possible 
practical advantages which may result from their labours. 

There is, however, one intimate connection between science and in- 
dustry which I hope will he more intimate as scientific education becomes 


ADDRESS. 25 


more prevalent in our schools and universities. Abstract science depends 
on the support of men of leisure, either themselves possessing or having 
provided for them the means of living without entering into the pursuits 
of active industry. The pursuit of science requires a superfluity of wealth 
in a community beyond the needs of ordinary life. Such superfluity is 
also necessary for art, though a picture ora statue is a saleable commodity, 
while an abstract discovery in science has no immediate or, as regards 
the discoverer, proximate commercial value. In Greece, when philo- 
sophical and scientific speculation was at its highest point, and when 
education was conducted in its own vernacular and not through dead 
languages, science, industry, and commerce were actively prosperous. 
Corinth carried on the manufactures of Birmingham and Sheffield, while 
Athens combined those of Leeds, Staffordshire, and London, for it had 
woollen manufactures, potteries, gold and silver work, as well as ship- 
building. Their philosophers were the sons of burghers, and sometimes 
carried on the trades of their fathers. Thales was a travelling oil 
merchant, who brought back science as well as oil from Egypt. Solon 
and his great descendant Plato, as well as Zeno, were men of commerce. 
Socrates was a stone-mason ; Thucydides a gold-miner; Aristotle kept a 
druggist’s shop until Alexander endowed him with the wealth of Asia. 
All but Socrates had a superfluity of wealth, and he was supported by 
that of others. Now if our universities and schools created that love 
of science which a broad education would surely inspire, our men of 
riches and leisure who advance the boundaries of scientific knowledge 
could not be counted on the fingers as they now are, when we think of 
Boyle, Cavendish, Napier, Lyell, Murchison, and Darwin, but would be as 
numerous as our statesmen and orators. Statesmen, without a following 
of the people who share their views and back their work, would be feeble 
indeed. But while England has never lacked leaders in science, they have 
too few followers to risk a rapid march, We might create an army to 
support our generals in science, as Germany has done, and as France is now 
doing, if education in this country would only mould itself to the needs 
ofa scientificage. It is with this feeling that Horace Mann wrote :—‘ The 
action of the mind is like the action of fire ; one billet of wood will hardly 
burn alone, though as dry as the sun and north-west wind can make it, 
and though placed in a current of air; ten such billets will burn well 
together, but a hundred will create a heat fifty times as intense as ten— 
will make a current of air to fan their own flame, and consume even 
- greenness itself.’ 
1 VI. Abstract Science the Condition for Progress. 
The subject of my address has been the relations of science to the public 
weal. That is a very old subject to select for the year 1885. I began it 
_ by quoting the words of an illustrious prince, the consort of our Queen, 
who addressed us on the same subject from this platform twenty-six 
years ago. But he was not the first prince who saw how closely science 


26 rREPORT—1585. 


is bound up with the welfare of States. Ali, the son-in-law of Mahomet, 
the fourth successor to the Caliphate, urged upon his followers that men 
of science and their disciples give security to human progress. Ali loved 
to say, ‘Eminence in science is the highest of honours,’ and ‘ He dies not 
who gives life to learning.’ In addressing you upon texts such as these, 
my purpose was to show how unwise it is for England to lag in the 
onward march of science when most other European Powers are using 
the resources of their States to promote higher education and to advance 
the boundaries of knowledge. English Governments alone fail to grasp 
the fact that the competition of the world has become a competition in 
intellect. Much of this indifference is due to our systems of education. 
I have ill fulfilled my purpose if, in claiming for science a larger share in 
public education, I have in any way depreciated literature, art, or philo- 
sophy, for every subject which adds to culture aids in human develop- 
ment. I only contend that in public education there should be a free 
play to the scientific faculty, so that the youths who possess it should 
learn the richness of their possession during the educative process. The 
same faculties which make a man great in any walk of life—strong love 
of truth, high imagination tempered by judgment, a vivid memory which 
can co-ordinate other facts with those under immediate consideration—all 
these are qualities which the poet, the philosopher, the man of literature, 
and the man of science equally require and should cultivate through all 
parts of their education as well as in their future careers. My contention 
is that science should not be practically shut out from the view of ayouth 
while his education is in progress, for the public weal requires that 
a large number of scientific men should belong to the community. This 
is necessary because science has impressed its character upon the age in 
which we live, and as science is not stationary but progressive, men are re- 
quired to advance its boundaries, acting as pioneers in the onward march 
of States. Human progress is so identified with scientific thought, both 
in its conception and realisation, that it seems as if they were alternative 
terms in the history of civilisation. In hterature, and even in art, a 
standard of excellence has been attained which we are content to imitate 
because we have been unable to surpass. But there is no such standard 
in science. Formerly, when the dark cloud was being dissipated which 
had obscured the learning of Greece and Rome, the diffusion of literature 
or the discovery of lost authors had a marked influence on advancing 
civilisation. Now, a Chrysoloras might teach Greek in the Italian uni- 
versities without hastening sensibly the onward march of Italy; a 
Poggio might discover copies of Lucretius and Quintilian without 
exercising a tithe of the influence on modern life that an invention by 
Stephenson or Wheatstone would produce. Nevertheless, the divorce of 
culture and science, which the present state of education in this country 
tends to produce, is deeply to be deplored, because a cultured intelligence 
adds greatly to the development of the scientific faculty. My argument 
is that no amount of learning without science suffices in the present state 


ADDRESS. 27 


of the world to put us in a position which will enable England to keep 
ahead or even on a level with foreign nations as regards knowledge and 
its applications to the utilities of life. Take the example of any man of 
learning, and see how soon the direct consequences resulting from his 
learning disappear in the life of a nation, while the discoveries of a man 
of science remain productive amid all the shocks of empire. As I am in 
Aberdeen I remember that the learned Dutchman Erasmus was intro- 
duced to England by the encouragement which he received from Hector 
Boece, the Principal of King’s College in this University. Yet even in 
the case of Erasmus—who taught Greek at Cambridge and did so much 
for the revival of classical literature as well as in the promotion of spiritual 
freedom—how little has civilisation to ascribe to him in comparison with 
the discoveries of two other Cambridge men, Newton and Cavendish. 
The discoveries of Newton will influence the destinies of mankind to the 
end of the world. When he established the laws by which the motions 
of the great masses of matter in the universe are governed, he con- 
ferred an incalculable benefit upon the intellectual development of the 
human race. No great discovery flashes upon the world at once, and 
therefore Pope’s lines on Newton are only a poetic fancy :— 


Nature and Nature’s laws lay hid in night, 
God said, ‘ Let Newton be,’ and all was light. 


No doubt the road upon which he travelled had been long in preparation 
_ by other men. The exact observations of Tycho Brahe, coupled with the 
discoveries of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo, had already broken down 
the authority of Aristotle and weakened that of the Church. But though 
the conceptions of the universe were thus broadened, mankind had not 
yet rid themselves of the idea that the powers of the universe were still 
regulated by spirits or special providences. Even Kepler moved the 
planets by spirits, and it took some time to knock these celestial steers- 
men on the head. Descartes, who really did so much by his writings to 
force the conclusion that the planetary movements should be dealt with 
as an ordinary problem in mechanics, looked upon the universe as a 

_ machine, the wheels of which were kept in motion by the unceasing 
_ exercise of a divine power. Yet such theories were only an attempt to 
regulate the universe by celestial intelligences like our own, and by 
standards within our reach. It required the discovery of anall-pervading 
law, universal throughout all space, to enlarge the thoughts of men, and 
one which, while it widened the conceptions of the universe, reduced the 
earth and solar system to true dimensions. It is by the investigation of 
the finite on all sides that we obtain a higher conception of the infinite— 


Willst du ins Unendliche schreiten, 
Geh nur im Endlichen nach allen Seiten. 


Ecclesiastical authority had been already undermined by earnest inquirers 
such as Wycliffe and Huss before Luther shook the pillars of the Vatican. 


28 REPORT—1885. 


They were removers of abuses, but were confined within the circles of 
their own beliefs. Newton’s discovery cast men’s minds into an entirely 
new mould, and levelled many barriers to human progress. This intel- 
lectual resnlt was vastly more important than the practical advantages 
of the discovery. It is true that navigation and commerce mightily 
benefited by our better knowledge of the motions of the heavenly bodies. 
Still, these benefits to humanity are incomparably less in the history of 
progress than the expansion of the human intellect which followed the 
withdrawal of the cramps that confined it. Truth was now able to 
discard authority, and marched forward without hindrance. Before this 
point was reached Bruno had been burned, Galileo had abjured, and both 
Copernicus and Descartes had kept back their writings for fear of offend- 
ing the Church. 

The recent acceptance of evolution in biology has had a like effect in 
producing a far profounder intellectual change in human thought than 
any mere impulse of industrial development. Already its application to 
sociology and education is recognised, but that is of less import to human 
progress than the broadening of our views of Nature. 

Abstract discovery in science is then the true foundation upon which 
the superstructure of modern civilisation is built; and the man who 
would take part in it should study science, and, if he can, advance it for 
its own sake and not for its applications. Ignorance may walkin the path 
lighted by advancing knowledge, but she is unable to follow when science 
passes her; for, like the foolish virgin, she has no oil in her lamp. 

An established truth in science is like the constitution of an atom in 
matter—something so fixed in the order of things that it has become 
independent of further dangers in the struggle for existence. The sum 
of such truths forms the intellectual treasure which descends to each 
generation in hereditary succession. Though the discoverer of a new 
truth is a benefactor to humanity, he can give little to futurity in com- 
parison with the wealth of knowledge which he inherited from the past. 
We, in our gencration, should appreciate and use our great possessions— 


For me your tributary stores cembine, 
Creation’s heir; the world, the world is mine. 


ia 
REPORTS - ) 
| STATE OF SCIENCE. | 


REPORTS 


ON THE 


prATE OF SCIENCE. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. CAREY Foster, 
Sir W. THomson, Professor AyRTON, Professor J. PERRY, Pro- 
fessor W. G. ApAms, Lord Ray.LercuH, Dr. O. J. LopGr, Dr. Jonn 
‘Hopkinson, Dr. A. Murrgeap, Mr. W. H. Preece, Mr. H. Taytor, 
Professor EVERETT, Professor ScuusTER, Dr. J. A. FLEMING, Pro- 
fessor G. F. FirzGEraup, Mr. R. T. GLAzEBROOK (Secretary), Pro- 
fessor CHrysTaL, Mr. H. Tomuinson, and Professor W. GARNETT, 

appointed for the purpose of constructing and issuing practical 

Standards for use in Electrical Measurements. 


uy 

Tue Committee report that during the year the standards of resistance, 

4 in terms of the legal ohm refer red to in the last Report, have been con- 
structed, and their values determined in accordance with the resolution 
adopted on June 25, 1884. 

i The one-ohm standards were generally referred to the original B.A. 
units of the Association by combining in multiple are with the standard 
one of the 100 B.A. units, and determining by Carey Foster’s method the 
difference between the combination and a B.A. unit, and then assuming, 
in accordance with the resolution, that 1 B.A. unit = ‘9889 lecal ohm. 

The following values were thus found for the two standards. 
The temperatures were taken by a thermometer graduated to tenths 
of a degree centigrade, which had been compared with the Kew standards. 


Resistance Coil, Elliott, No. 139, , 100. 


Date Temperature | Resistance 

WNov.24,1s84 . . 114 -99878 

os. . |. 11°-6 ‘99890 

2 = : 5 12°:9 “99916 

MG 13°5 ‘99930 

i 13°5 “99931 

12, a 5 F 15°3 “99979 

July 30, 1885 e : : 17°°2 1°00027 

Be aOay! 55 3 : ; 18° 1 1:00061 
Mean value . 5 3 999515, at 14°°1 C. 


Temperature coefficient : 3 000271 


REPORT—1885. 


Resistance Coil, Elliott, No. 140, ¢, 101. 


Date Temperature Resistance 

Nov. 24, 1884 é : 11°4 “99813 
eNO. Gs Fi a ila ho955 “99515 
EGE i 355 12°°8 “99847 
Nove, 55 229 “99851 
Dec. 5; ” 13°4 “99865 
ee 15°4 “S99LT 
July 30, 1885 : ; 17°-2 ‘99961 
pete am f 2 z 18°°0 “99983 


998815, at 1491 C. 
000259 


Mean value : : 
Temperature coefficient 


The ten-ohm standards were then compared with the one-ohm by 
means of the arrangement suggested by Lord Rayleigh, and described in 
the Report for 1883, and from these values were obtained for the coils of 
higher resistance. 

The results are contained below. 


No. of Coil Resistance Temperature 
No. 141, G, No. 102 | 10:00103 16°-7 
No. 142, @, No 103 10-00169 16°75 
No. 143, @, No 104 99-9977 16°-05 
No. 144, ¢, No. 105 100-0108 16°-05 
No. 145, ®, Xo 106 1,000:306 17°-4 
No. 146, G, No. 107 1,000-276 174 
No. 147, No 108 10,0024 17°35 
No. 148, xy No. 109 10,002'4 17°35 


These experiments were carried out at the Cavendish Laboratory by 
the Secretary and Mr. H. Wilson, of St. John’s College. 

At the request of M. Mascart, the Secretary compared with the 
legal ohms of the Association three mercury copies of a legal ohm, 
constructed by M. J. R. Benoit, of Paris. A detailed account of these 
experiments was laid before the Physical Society.'_ The values found are 
given below. 


= Value found by Value found by : 
Soot Tees M. J. R. Benoit Bate Gs he 
37 100045 "99990 “00055 
38 1-00066 100011 00055 
39 "99954 OOD ‘000387 
Mean 1:00022 99972 “00049 
1 Phil, Mag. Oct. 1885. 


ON STANDARDS FOR USE IN ELECTRICAL MEASUREMENTS, 33 


The work of testing resistance-coils has been continued, and a table 
of the values found for the various coils examined is given. 


British Association Units. 


No. of Coil Resistance in B.A. Units Temperature 
Elliott, No. 122 J 10:0163 19°°8 
10-0017 15°°2 
G, No. 61 U 9-9885 105 
Elliott, No. 58 99834 14°05 


Legal Ohms. 


No. of Coil Tesaniee in fag Ohms Temperature 
iy No. 150 99895 11°7 
¢, No. 151 ‘99974 13°-9 

Elliott, 149, ¢, No. 152 -99912 12°-5 
Elliott, 136, ¢, No. 153 ‘99977 12°-4 
¢, No. 154 1:00032 17°3 


The Committee hope that arrangements may be made for issuing 
standards of electro-motive force and constructing standards of capacity. 
In conclusion, they would ask to be reappointed, with the addition of the 
names of Professor J. J. Thomson and Mr. W. N. Shaw, with the re- 


newal of the unexpended grant of 50/. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors A. JOHNSON 
(Secretary), J. G. MacGrecor, J. B. CHERRimAN, H. T. Bovey, 
and Mr. C. CarPMAEL, appointed for the purpose of promoting 
Tidal Observations in Canada. 


Tur Committee have represented to the Canadian Government the 
importance of publishing tide-tables for Canadian waters, and the neces- 
sity for this purpose of establishing stations for continuous tidal observa- 
tions, recommending that the observations be subsequently reduced by 
the methods of the British Association. 

They have pointed to the example of the United States Government, 
which has provided tide-tables for both the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. 

In urging the practical side of the question they have more especially 
referred to the tide-tables for British and Irish ports published by the 
Admiralty, which give the rate and set of the tidal currents in the waters 
Surrounding the British islands; and they have drawn attention to the 
heavy annual losses caused by ignorance of these currents in Canadian 
waters, as shown by the wreck list. 

1885. D 


34 REPORT—1885. 


In order to strengthen their representation from this point of view, 
they deemed it well to get the opinions of Boards of Trade and ship- 
owners and shipmasters. On inquiry it appeared that the Montreal 
Board of Trade were at the very time considering the question, which 
had been brought independently before them. On learning the object of 
the Committee they gave it their most hearty support, and addressed a 
strong memorial on the subject to the Dominion Government. 

The Boards of Trade of the other chief ports of the Dominion also 
sent similar memorials. The shipowners and masters of ships, to whom 
application was made, were practically unanimous in their testimony as 
to the pressing need for knowledge on the subject. 

The representations of your Committee were made through the 
Minister of Marine, with whom an interview was obtained, at which a 
memorial was submitted. Copies of the answers of the shipmasters (a 
large number of which had been received) were submitted at the same 
time. Full explanations, in reply to the inquiries of the Minister, were 
given, more especially on practical points connected with the proposed 
observations at fixed stations and the reductions, for which your Com- 
mittee are largely indebted to a corresponding committee appointed by 
the Council, consisting of the Right Hon. Sir Lyon Playfair, Professor J. 
Couch Adams, Sir William Thomson, and Professor Darwin. 

During the session of Parliament the Royal Society of Canada also 
addressed petitions to the Governor-General and the two Houses of 
Parliament, strongly urging the need of tidal observations. 

The reply of the Minister of Marine stated that, owing to the large 
eutlay on the Georgian Bay Survey, and on the expedition to Hudson’s 
Bay during the past summer (1885), the Government did not propose to 
take action in ithe matter of tidal observations at present. This un- 
favourable answer, it will be cbserved, is made to depend on a temporary 
financial condition, and your Committee have reason to believe that if 
the financial prospects improve by next session of Parliament, the Govern- 
ment will take the matter into earnest consideration; they therefore 
suggest that the Committee be reappointed. 


Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. JonN Murray 
(Secretary), Professor ScHUSTER, Professor Sir WILLIAM THOMSON, 
Professor Sir H. E. Roscor, Professor A. 8. HERSCHEL, Captain 
W. pve W. Abney, Professor Bonney, Mr. R. H. Scott, and Dr. J. 
H. Guapstone, appointed for the purpose of investigating the 
practicability of collecting and identifying Meteoric Dust, and 
of considering the question of undertaking regular observations 
in various localities. 

Tue Secretary reported that collecting apparatus had been sent to various 

oceanic islands, and that a report would be prepared by next year on the 

specimens received. 


ON THE HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 35 


Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors G. H. 
Darwin and J. C. Apams, for the Harmonic Analysis of Tidal 
Observations. Drawn wp by Professor G. H. Darwin. 


I. Recorp or WoRK DURING THE PAST YEAR. 


THe edition of the computation forms referred to in the second report is 
now completed, and copies are on sale with the Cambridge Scientific 
Instrument Company, St. Tibbs’ Row, Cambridge, at the price of 2s. 6d. 
each. Some copies of the first report, in which the theory and use of 
these forms are explained, are also on sale at the same price. A few 
copies of the computation forms have been sent to the librarians of some 
of the principal Scientific Academies of Europe and America.! 

In South Africa, Mr. Gill, at the Cape, and Mr. Neison, at Natal, are 
now engaged in reducing observations with forms supplied from this 
edition. 

A memorial has been addressed to the Government of the Dominion of 
Canada, urging the desirability of systematic tidal observation, and the 
publication of tide-tables for the Canadian coasts. There seems to be 
good hope that a number of tide-gauges will shortly be set up on the 
_ Atlantic and Pacific coasts, and in the Gulf of the St. Lawrence. The 
observations will probably be reduced according to the methods of the 
British Association, and the predictions made with the instrument of the 
Indian Government. 

Major Baird has completed the reduction of all the tidal results obtained 
at the Indian stations to the standard form proposed in the Report of 1883, 
and Mr. Roberts has similarly reduced a few results read before the 
Association by Sir William Thomson and Captain Evans in 1878. All 
these are now being published in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society,’ 
in a paper by Major Baird and myself. 

A large number of tidal results have been obtained by the United States 
Coast Survey, and reduced under the superintendence of Professor Ferrel. 
Although the method pursued by him has been slightly different from that 
of the British Association, it appears that the American results should be 
comparable with those at the Indian and European ports. Professor 
Ferrel has given an assurance that this is the case; nevertheless, there 
appears to be strong internal evidence that, at some of the ports, some 
of the phases should be altered by 180°. The doubt thus raised will 
probably be removed, and the paper before the Royal Society will 
afford a table of reference for all—or nearly all—the results of the 
harmonic method up to the date of its publication. 

The manual of tidal observation promised by Major Baird is now com- 
pleted, and will be published shortly. This work will explain fully all 
the practical difficulties likely to be encountered in the choice of a station 
for a tide-gauge, and in the erection and working of the instrument. 
Major Baird’s great experience in India, and the success with which the 
operations of which he has had charge have been carried out, render his 


" Namely, the Royal Societies of London and Edinburgh, the Royal Irish Aca- 
demy, the Academies of Paris, Berlin, and Vienna, the United Coast Survey, and the 
Cambridge Philosophical Society. 

D2 


36 REPORT—1885. 


advice of great value for the prosecution of tidal observation in other 
countries. The work also explains the method of measuring the tide 
diagrams, entering the figures in the computation forms, and the sub- 
sequent numerical operations. 


TI. Cerrain Factors anp ANGLES USED IN THE ReEpucTION oF TIDAL 
OBSERVATIONS. 


In completing the reduction of the results of harmonic analysis to the 
standard form, a number of angles and factors are required which de- 
pend on the longitude of the moon’s node. Tables of these angles and 
factors have been computed under the superintendence of Major Baird.' 
It may happen, however, that the tables are inaccessible to the computer, 
and the computation from the full formule might be somewhat laborious. 
It happens that the angles », £, »’, 2v’’ (the meanings of which are ex- 
plained in the Report of 1883) are all expressible in the form 


A sin N+B sin 2N+C sin 3N+...., 
where N is the longitude of the moon’s node, and that the coefficients 
diminish with such rapidity that the first two terms are probably sufficient 


for all practical purposes. 
Also the several factors f are reducible to the form 


A+B cos N+C cos 2N+...., 
and three terms are practically sufficient. 

I have obtained the approximate formule given below in this form. 
The rigorous results having been tabulated, it appeared easier to work 
from them instead of from analytical expressions in terms of the longitude 
of the moon’s node. I find, then, the following results :— 

Schedule I. Approximate Formule for Angles. 
vy =12°°9 sin N—1°3 sin 2N, 
£ =v—1°-07 sin N, 
(for K,) »’ =8°8 sin N—0°6 sin 2N, 
(for K,) 2v’=17°8 sin N—0%5 sin 2N. 
Also A =16°51+43°44 cos N—0°19 cos 2N, and 4,=16°'36. 
For the meanings of A and A, the reader must refer to Part IV. 


Approvimate Formule for Factors f. 
For M, and other tides, 
cos4 47 


=1-0003—:0373 cos N+'0002 cos 2N. 


: A, 
For 0, £2 Leos’ 2 _.1.00884:1886 cos N—-0146-c0s AN. 
sin w cos” 4 cos! 47 


ForK, ... .. «. + f=1:0243+-2847 cos N+:'0080 cos 2N. 

ForK, . .. . . . ~ £=1-0060+-1156 cos N—:0088 cos 2N. 
m2 

ForMf . . f=—S™/ __1.04994-4135 cos N—-0040 cos 2N. 


sin? w cost 47 


1 Some of these are given in the Report of 1883. 


ON THE HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 37 


For Mn, 


poses sin’ TF __}-0000—-1299 cos. N+ 0013 cos 2N. 


~(—$sin?w) (—$ sin? i) 


Even if all the terms in 2N were omitted, the approximations might be 
good enough for all practical purposes. 


TII. On tHe Periops cHOsEN FoR Harmonic ANALYSIS IN THE 
Comeutation Forms. 


Before proceeding to the subject of this section, it may be remarked 
that it is unfortunate that the days of the year in the computation forms 
should have been numbered from unity upwards, instead of from zero, as 
in the case of the hours. It would have been preferable that the first 
entry should have been numbered Day 0, Hour 0, instead of Day 1, 
Hour 0. This may be rectified with advantage if ever a new issue of the 
forms is required, but the existing notation is adhered to in this section. 

The computation form for each tide consists of pages for entry of the 
hourly tide-heights, in which the entries are grouped according to rules 
appropriate to that tide. The forms terminate with a broken number of 
hours. This, as we shall now show, is erroneous, although this error may 
not be of much practical importance. 

In §9 of the Report for 1883 the following passage occurs :— 

‘The elimination of the effects of the other tides may be improved by 
choosing the period for analysis not exactly equal to one year. For 
suppose that the expression for the height of water is 


A, cos n,¢+B, sin n,t+A, cos not +B, sinn gt. . . (61) 


‘where n, is nearly equal to m,, and that we wish to eliminate the 
Mo-tide, so as to be left only with the 1-tide. 
‘Now, this expression is equal to 
{A, +A, cos (n,;—n,)t—By sin (n,—72)t} cos sal (62) 
+ {B, +A, sin (7 —n,)t+B, cos (n, —N)t} sin nyt . 


‘That is to say, we may regard the tide as oscillating with a speed ,, 
but with slowly varying range.’ 

Although this is thus far correct, yet the subsequent justification of 
the plan according to which the computation forms have been compiled 
is wrong. 

In the column appertaining to any hour in the form we have nt a 
Pe of 15°, if m, be a diurnal, and of 30°, if n, be a semidiurnal 
tide. 

Consider the column headed ‘p-hours’; then n,;{=15° p for diurnals, 
and 30° p for semidiurnals. 

Hence (62), quoted above, shows us that, for diurnal tides, the sum of 


all the entries (of which suppose there are qg) in the column numbered 
p-hours, is 


38 REPORT—1885. 


15 Beas 
io 15° p{4yg+-Agl cos (mma) P+ e081 (m1 —R2) (+ ey 


Ny 


+ cos[ (nm —79) (2+ 22) 1+ e .]+B: [&e.]} +sin 15°p {&e} (a) 


ny ny 


And for semidiurnal tides the arguments of all the circular functions in 
(a) are to be doubled. 

Now, we want to choose such a number of terms that the series by 
which A, and B, are multiplied may vanish. This is the case if the series 
is exactly re-entrant, and is nearly the case if nearly re-entrant. 

The condition is exactly satistied for diurnal tides, if 

9 
(ny, —1y)q— =277, 
ny 
where ¢ is either a positive or negative integer. And for semidiurnal 
tides, if 


Ar 
—I5 ——=9; e 
(n, ma) wr 


That is to say, 
(2, —n2)qg=,", for diurnal tides, 
or 
(n; —n2)qg=43n,", for semidiurnal tides. 


It is not worth while attempting to eliminate the effect of the semi- 
diurnal tides on the diurnal tides, and vice vers, because we cannot be 
more than a fraction of a day out, and on account of the incommensurability 
of the speeds we cannot help being wrong to that amount. 


S Series. 


Now suppose we are analysing for the S, tide, and wish to minimise 
the effect of the M, tide. 


Then ,=2(y—n)=2 x 15° per hour, 


ny=2(y—2), 
Ny —Ng=2(o—n)=1°'0158958 per hour. 


The equation is 
1°-0158958q¢=15° r. 


Tf r=25, q=369-13. 


Thus 25 periods of 2(¢—n) is 369°13 mean solar days. It follows, 
therefore, that we must sum the series over 369 days in order to be as 
near right as possible. 

Now this is equally true of all the columns, and each should have 369 
entries. ; 

Hence, in order to have 369 entries in each column, the present S, 
computation form should have the last three entries cut off. The divisors 
are to be, of course, changed accordingly. 


M Series. 


Now consider that we are analysing for M,, and wish to minimise the 
effect of the S, tide. Hence 


ON THE HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 39 


Ny =2(y —o)=2 x 14°-4920521 per hour, 
Ny=2(y—n), 
N, — y= —1°-0158958 per hour. 

Hence, taking 7 negative, the equation is 
1°-0158258g=14°-4920521>. 

Tf 7=25, g=356°63. 

Thus 25 periods of 2(¢—») is 356°63 of mean lunar time. 

Tt follows, therefore, that we must have 357 entries in each column. 


Thus the M, computation form should have the row numbered 357 
complete, adding 9 more entries. 
There are no ‘changes’ amongst these 9 entries. The divisors are 
to be modified accordingly, here and in all subsequent cases. 
K Series. 
To minimise the effect of M, on K,, we have 
N=2y=2 x 15°-0410686 per honr, 
ny=2(y—0), 
Ny —Ng=2(o—n)=1°'0158958 per hour. 
1°-0158958q=15°:0410686r. 
If r=25, g=370'14. 
Hence we should complete the row numbered 370. 


The last 3 entries of the existing tables are to be cut off. 
To minimise the effect of O on K,, we have 


n= y=15°:0410686 per hour, 
No=y —2c, 
Ny —Ng=2o0=1°-0980330 per hour. 
1°-0980330qg=15°:0410686r. 
If r=27, q=369'85. 


Thus g=370 again gives the best result, and confirms the conclusion 
from the above. 


The N Series. 
Here Ny =2y — 304+ a7=2 x 14°'2198648 per hour. 
To minimise the effect of M,, 


Ny, —Ng=(o—w)=—0°'5443747 per hour. 
0°544.3747q=14°'2198648r. 
If r=13, g=839-58. 
Hence we should complete the row numbered 340. 


There is no justification for the alternative offered in the computation 
forms of continuing the entries up to 369% 3" of mean solar time. 


The L Series. 
Here N= 2y—o—w=2 x 14°°7642394 per hour. 


40 rErorr—1 8865. 


To minimise the effect of M., 
Ng=2y—20, 
Ny, —Ng=o —7=0°'5443747 per hour. 
0:5443747g=14°'764.2394r. 
If r=18, g=352-58. 
Hence we should complete the row numbered 353. 
There is no justification for the alternative offered in the computa- 
tion forms of continuing the entries up to 3694 3" of mean solar time. 
The v Series. 
Here n,=2y—30—a + 2n=2 x 14°'2562915 per honr. 
To minimise the effect of My, 
Ny = 2y—2e, 
Ny, —Ng= —o — 7+ 2n=—0°'4715211 per hour. 
0:4715211qg=14-2562915r. 
If r=11, q=332°6. 


Hence we should complete the row numbered 833. 
There is no justification for the alternative offered in the computation 
forms of continuing the entries up to 369% 3° of mean solar time. 


The Series. 
Here ny =2y—o+a—2n=2 x 14°°7278127 per hour. 
To minimise the effect of M,, 
Ny =2y —2e, 
Ny, —Ny=o + w—2n=0°'4715211 per hour. 
0°4715211g=14°7278127r. 
If r=11, q=343°58. 
Hence we should complete the row numbered 344. 
There is no justification for the alternative offered in the computation 
forms of continuing the entries up to 369% 35 of mean solar time. 
The 2N Series. 
Here n,=2y—40+2a=2 x 13°-2476774 per hour. 
To minimise the effect of M,, 
Nyg=2y —22, 
N, —Ny= —2(6—w) =1°:0887494 per hour. 
1:0887494y=13:947677 40. 
If r=26, g=333°08. 


Hence we must complete the row numbered 333. 
The T Series. 
Here N= 2y —3n=2 x 14°:9794657 per hour. 
To minimise the effect of M,, 
Nyo=2y —2e, 
N, —N,g=20 —3n=0°'97 48272 per hour. 
0°9748272q=14'9794657r. 

If r=24, g=368°79. 


ON THE HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 4] 


Hence we must complete the row numbered 369. 


The R Series. 
Here ny=2y—n=2 x 15°-0205343 per hour. 
To minimise the effect of M,, 
No=2y —2e, 
Ny —Ny=2o —n=1°-0569644 per hour. 
1:0569644q=15°02053487. 
If r=25, q=355'28, and r=26, q=369-49. 
Hence we should either complete the row numbered 355 or that 
numbered 369. 
The 2MS Series. 
Here n= 2y—40 + 2n=2 x 13°°9841042 per hour. 
To minimise the effect of M,, 
No=2y— 2a, 
N, —Ng= —2(¢—n) = —1°'0158958 per hour. 
1:0158958g=13'9841042r. 
If r=24, g=380°37, and r=25, q=344'13. 
Hence we should either complete the row numbered 330 or that 
numbered 344, 
The 25M Series. 
Here N= 2y +20 —4n=2 x 15°°5079479 per hour. 
To minimise the effect of M,, 
Ny=2y —2o, 
Ny —Ng=4(a—n)=2°'0317916 per hour. 
2°0317916q=15-5079479r. 
If r=48, g=366°37. 
Hence we should complete the row numbered 366. 
The O Series. 
Here _ 1 =y —20=13°'9430356 per hour. 
To minimise the effect of K,, 
nNea=Y> 
2, —Ng= — 2a= —1°:0980530 per hour. 
1:0980330q=13°9430356r. 
if r=27, g=342°85. 
Hence we should complete the row numbered 343, cutting off the 
last three entries in the present forms. 
The P Series. 
Here nN, =y—2n=14°-9589314 per hour. 


It is open to question whether it is best to minimise the effect of 
K, or of O. 


49 REPoRT—1885. 


For K, take No=Y; 
Ny —Ny= — 2n= — 0°'0821372 per hour. 
0:0821372g=14-9589314r, 
If r=2, g=364'24. 
Hence we should complete the row numbered 364. 
For O, take N= y—2e, 
Ny —Ng=2(o—n) =1°'0158958 per hour. 
1:0158958¢=14'9589314r. 
If r=25, g=868'12. 
Hence we should complete the row numbered 368. 
It is better to abide by this, for in the former case n,—m» varies very 


slowly ; and we may be satisfied that on stopping with row 368 the effects 
of O and K, will both be adequately eliminated. 


The J Series. 
Here Ny =y+o—c7=15°'5854483 per hour. 
To minimise the effect of Ky, 
No=Y73 
Ny —N =o —w@=0°'5443747 per hour. 
0°5443747q=15°58544337. 
If r=12, g=343'56, and r=13, g=372°19. 
To minimise the effect of O, 
no=y—20, 
N\—Ny=30 — @=1°°6424077 per hour. 
1°6424077q=15°58544337. 
If r=36, g=341'6, and r=39, g=370°09. 
Since in the latter case n,—n, varies three times as fast as in the 


former, it will be better to abide by this,and stop either with phe row 
numbered 342 or that numbered 370. 


The Q Series. 
Here 2, =y — 30+ a=13°3986609 per hour. 
To minimise the effect of K,, 
No=Ys 
2, —No= — (30—a@) = — 1°-6424077 per hour. 
1:6424077q=13°3986609r. 
If r=38, g=310-00. 
To minimise the effect of O, 
No=y—2e, 
N\ —Ng= — (o— 7) = —0°'5443747 per hour. 
0°5443747q=13°3986609r. 
If r=12, g=507°36. 


Since in the former case n,;—, varies about three times as fast as in 


ON THE HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 43 


the latter, it will be better to abide by the former, and stop with the row 
numbered 310. 

With regard to the quaterdiurnal and terdiurnal tides, it does not 
signify where we stop; but it seems more reasonable to stop with the 
exact year of 365 mean solar days. These tides are called MS, MN, 
MK, 2MK. 

Schedule II. 


Periods over which the Harmonic Analysis should extend. 


Tuitil of series | | Nomber of day and hoor of cat day 4 To 20" of ac peal 
S 369% 23h 3684 23h 
M 357 23 369 1 
K 370 23 | 368 23 
| 340 23 358 15 
L 353 23 358 14 
: 333 23 350 8 
d Bd. 23 350 8 
oN 333. 23 358 2 
T 369 23 369 11 
355 98 354 11 

or 370 23 or 369 11 
OSM 366 23 353 23 
0 343 23 368 23 
P 368 23 368 23 
d 342 23 329 3 

or 370 23 or 596 «1 
Q 310 23 347 0 


In the second column the numbers are given to the nearest mean 
solar hour. 


44 REPORT—1885. 


IV. A Comparison oF THE Harmonic TREATMENT OF TIDAL OBSERVATIONS 
WITH THE OLDER MeETHops. 


§ 1. On the Method of Computing Tide-tables. 


There is nothing in the harmonic reduction of tidal observations 
which necessitates recourse to mechanical prediction of the tides. It 
may happen that it is desirable to produce a tide-table by arithmetical 
processes, and that the computers prefer to use the older methods of 
corrections, or it may be desired to obtain the tidal constants in the har- 
monic notation from older observations. For either of these purposes it 
is necessary to show how the harmonically expressed results may be 
converted into the older form, so that the constants for the fortnightly 
inequality in time and height, and the corrections for parallax and 
declination, may be obtained from those of the harmonic analysis, and 
conversely. 

In the following sections I propose, therefore, first to reduce the har- 
monic presentment of the resultant tide into the synthetic form, where 
we have a single harmonic term depending on the local mean solar time 
of moon’s transit, and on corrections depending on the R.A., declination, 
and parallax of the perturbing bodies. Subsequently it will be shown 
how a synthesis may be carried out more simply by retaining the mean 
longitudes and elements of the orbits. 


§ 2. Notation for Mean Heights and Retardations derived from the Harmonic 
Method. 


The notation of the Report of 1883 is adopted ; and I shall carry the 
approximation to about the same degree as has been adopted by the older 
writers. Closer approximation may, of course, be easily obtained. 

In the Report of 1883 the mean height of a tide is denoted by H, 
and the retardation or lag by x. In the present note it will be necessary 
to refer to several of the H’s and «’s at the same time, and therefore it 
is expedient to introduce the following notation :— 


Schedule III. 


Initial of | Mean height} Retardation | Initial of | Mean height | Retardation 
tide (H) (Kk) | tide (H) (k) 
M, M Qu Li L Od 
6 iS ar T T Or 

Lunar K, Je 2« R R 26 

Solar K, NGL 2 O M’ pe! 

Ke Ky 2 | P S! fel 
N N 2y K, K, Ky 


In this schedule we assume T and R (of speeds 2y—3n and 2y—n) to 
have the same lag as S,; and we use v in a new sense, the old v, the 


1 T use height to denote semi-range. All references to this Report will simply 
be by the date 1883. ‘ 


ON THE HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 45 


R.A. of the intersection of the equator with the lunar orbit, being 
denoted by y,. The initials of each tide are used to denote its height at 


any time. 


§ 3. Introduction of Howr-angles, Parallaxes, and Declinations. 


We must now get rid of the elements of the orbit and of the mean 
longitudes, and introduce hour-angles, declinations, and parallaxes. 


At the time ¢ let a, é, J be )’s R.A., and declination, and hour-angle. 
and a,, 6, w, ©’s R.A., and declination, and hour-angle. 


Let 7 be )’s longitude in her orbit measured from ‘ the intersection,’ 
and a—v, (v, being the » of 1883) be )’s R.A. measured from the 


intersection. _ 
The annexed figure exhibits the relation of the several angles to one 


another. 
Z M__ orB/T 


= T) fs 
a—7 EQUATOR 


The spherical triangle affords the relations 


tan («—yv,)=cosItanl, sne=sinIsind . . . . (1) 
From the. first of (1) we have, approximately, 
a=1+v,—tan*Z7sin2i” . . . . . . (2) 


Now, s—é is the moon’s mean longitude measured from I, and s—p is 
the mean anomaly. Hence, approximately, 
b==e— E+ Zemin(s—p) ys ee (8) 
And therefore, approximately, 


a=s+v,—F+2esin(s—p)—tan?3/sin2(s—é) .: . (4) 
Now, t+h being the sidereal hour-angle, 
i tla ey are télé. ‘verde (5) 


Therefore, from (4) and (5), 
t+h—s—(v,—£)=+2esin(s—p)—tan?5Tsin2(s~Z). . (6) 
By the second of (1) we have, approximately, 
cos?é = 1—}sin*?I+ $sin*Icos2(s—f) . . . . (7) 
Hence, if A be such a declination that cos?A is the mean value of cos? 6, 
we have 
cos?A = 1—tsin? I 


eee ei 


and cos?A,=1—4sin?o 
From this we have (neglecting terms in sin*4) the following relations: — 


cost4I=cos?A, sinIcos?4I=)/2sinAcosA, sin? [= 2sin? A, 
cos! w= cos?A,, sinwcos*zw= /2sinwcosw, sin?w=2sin? A, 


46 REPORT—1885. 


Thus we may put 


cost‘}I __cos?A sinIcos*}I.. _ sin2A 
= a ’ . == - 
cos‘ 4w cost}: cos” A, sinwcos?4w costsi sin2A, (9) 
sin? I __sin?A a 


sat =, tan? 47=1tan?A 
sin?(1—3sin?i) sin?A/ ere 


An approximate formula for A and the value of A, are 
A=16°51+43°-44cos N—0°'19 cos 2N, A,=16°86 . . (10) 


The introduction of A and A, in place of I and w entails a loss of 
accuracy, and it is only here made because former writers have followed 
that plan. It may easily be dispensed with. 

Now iet us write 

D=cos2(s—8&), D'=sin2(s—£) 


|, ne 


II =cos(s—p), II’=sin (s—p) 
From (7) and (8), 
cos? 6 —cos? A sinccosé dé 
= — = ) | i EA a pas 9 
= sin?A : " osin2A dt °° “aS 


Then, if we write for the ratio of the moon’s parallax to her mean paral- 


lax P, we have 
P—1=ccos(s—p), 


and 
1 1 dP 
II =—— P=] Tl’= ee . . . . 
es gaa) a (13) 
Hence D, D’, 11, 11’ are functions of declinations and parallaxes. The 
similar symbo!s with subscript accents are to apply to the sun. 
Now (6) may be written by aid of (9) and (11), 
Qt+h—s—(v.—é)]=20+4+4ell’—Ditan®A . . . (14) 


The left-hand side of (14) is the argument of M, (see Sched. B. i. 
1883), and from (9) the factor of M, is cos’A/cos*A,. Hence, subtracting 
the retardation 24 from (14) we have 


2A 
M,)= _ Moos [ (20+ 4ell’ — D'tan?A) — 2p 
(at,) = 25> Meos [( )— 24] 


expanding approximately, : 
(M,) = © Mf cos2(W—p) 


cos*A, 
cos?A . 
ee ay = 
Pay 4 Me sin2(l—p) 
2. sin2A D! Msin2(wW—,) +. Tlo-8 Saas (15) 
cos*A, 


We shall see later that the two latter terms of (15) are nearly 
annulled by terms arising from other tides, and as in the case of the sun 
the rates of change of parallax and declination are small, we may write 


by symmetry, 
: (8) 8 cos2(d,2) 6°. ae 


ON THE HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 47 


Tn all the smaller tides we may write 
t+h—s—(»,—f)=yv. 

A general formula of transformation will be required below. Thus, if 
cos 2a= X, sin2x—X’, 
cos 2(p=a—a)=(X= tan2(a—p)X’) cos2(~—a) 

xe . 
es a a eo 9 fa & 4 
cos an ie 20/—n) (17) 
The lunar K, tide. 
From Sched. B. i., 1883, we have 


m2 
Lunar K,=~ es ES ee eee 


sin?m(1—3sin?/) 


sin?A ; 
= sat cos2[w+ (s—£)—«]. 


Applying (17) with X=D, X’=D’', a=x, and taking the lower sign, 


ot 
eae K,— = er] (D+ tan 2(«— p)D') cos2(b—«) 
/ 


,sin (bp) J. IK a) 


~ 60s 2(k—pe 


/ 


In the case of the sun we neglect the terms in D’, for the same reasons 
as were assigned for the similar neglect in (16), and have 


Solar K,=K/"D,cos2(f,—x) » . . 2). . (19) 
The tide N. A 
From Schedule B.1., Report 1883, 
(N= 0083! _ Neos [2(t-+-h—s— 1, +2) —(s—p) —201, 
7 


cost $weos*4 


Then (N) = 22°" Neos2[¥—y—F(s—p)]. 


cos?A, 


_ Then applying (17) with X=II, X’=Il’, a=», and taking the upper 
sign, but writing »—v instead of »—p, because this tide being slower 
than M, suffers less retardation, 


(N)= = Nf a + tan 2(p—7)II’) cos2(p— v) 


os?A, 
It’ P 
+ SeBqecay sin 2—w) | (20) 


The tide L. 


We shall here omit the small tide of speed 2y—c+a, by which the 
true elliptic tide is perturbed. ‘Thus the F# in the column of arguments 
in Sched. B. i., 1883, is neglected, and we have 


41 
(L)=— BLS 7 Le re PER eres +(s—p)—2)] 


cos*Sw cost 47 


_ __c¢os?A ad Ser a 
= can cone? A+4(s—p)]. 


48 REPORT—1885. 


Applying (17) with X=0, X’=1', a=), and taking the lower sign, 
and changing the sign of the whole, because of the initial negative sign, 


2 
= 0088 pf (tan 2(-—p 1008242) 


in : ; 
0 ee 2b-n)| - (21) 


The sum of N and L. 

In order to fuse these terms an approximation will be adopted. The 
L tide is just as much faster than M, as N is slower, but the N tide should 
be nearly 7 times as great as the L tide; hence the tan2(A—}) in (21) 
will be put equal to tan2(#—v). We then have 


(N)+(L)= = [ (a+ tan 2(u-- v) 1’) (Ncos2(y— v) — Leos2(y—X)) 


+II’(Nsec2(n—1) + Lsec2(\—p)) sin 2¥—») | 
But 


Neos2(W—v)—Lcos 2(p —d) = cos 24,( N cos 2v — Lcos 2X) 
+ sin 2W(Nsin 2r—Lsin2a), 


Then writing 
Nsin2v—Lsin2X (22) 


WN cos2v —Lcos2X 


tan Ze= 


so that « is nearly equal to v, we have 


= " vy— s2 
(3) 4 (Ly SOeS Neos2r— Heos2Y (a1 + tam2(u—s)W)e082(4-—<) | 
: / 


cos 2e 


cos?A - : 
_ cost [ (av seo2(qe—») + bsee2(A—p)) sin 2 — | (23) 
In the symmetrical term for the sun, with approximation as in (16), 
we get 
(T) +(R)=(L—R)Ueos2(p,—-0) - ss ss (24) 

This terminates the semidiurnal tides which we are considering ; but 
before proceeding to collect the results some further transformations must 


be exhibited. 
Let us consider the function D+aD’, where « is small. From (12) 


we see that 
cos?e—cos?A  , 2sindcosé dé 


D 2D! = << ———— +5’ ——- 

= sin?A +2? Tama dt 

Hence, if d’ be the moon’s declination at a time earlier than the time of 

observation by «/2c, then ; 
D+eD'!= 


cos?0’—cos?A 
sin? 
Hence, in (17), 
D+-tan 2(« pr acoso’ — cos? 
+r tan (k—p) 95 Soe . . . . (25) 
when 6! isthe moon’s declination at time .f—57°°3 tan 2(k—p)/2c. The 
period 57°°3 tan 2(k— p)/20 may be called ‘the age of the declinational 


inequality.’ 


ON THE HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 49 


gain, 1 a dP) 
%: / J 3 3 
Ii+<all rt ea aes 


Hence, if (P’—1)/e denotes the value of (P—1)/e ata time a/(¢—7) 
earlier than that of observation, then 
Wan =1(p’—1). 
e 
Hence, in (23), 


1+ tan {(u—r)1'=1(P'—1) MrT 005 


where P’ is the ratio of the moon’s parallax to her mean parallax at a 
time 7,f—57°°3 tan 2(u—v)/(e—a). The period 57°°3 tan2(u—v)/(e—a) 
may be called ‘ the age of the parallactic inequality.’ 

In collecting results we shall write the sum 


M,+8,+K,+N+1L+R+T=A,. 


For reasons explained below we omit terms depending on the rate 
of change of solar parallax and declination. 
Then, from (15), (16), (18), (19), (23), (24), (25), (26), we have 


- cos2A Mcos 2(¥—p) + S cos 2(W,—Z) 


> cos?A, 
ee cos 20—Ky+ ones K/' cos 2(,—«) 
ao eerie —M tan?A, ) sin 2(b—p) 
- oe (P—1) cee ot oo 2b 8) 
an ey 62 ®) 05 2(v,-—Z) 


e, 


eosA 6L. aP _ Nsece2(u—v)+Lsec2(A—p)\ = 97) _ 
cos"A, o—a 7 (Sif e ) sin 2 #) 


(27) 


It may easily be shown, from Schedule B. i., 1883, that in the equi- 
librium theory K’—Mtan?A,=0, and 4M—(N+L)/e=0; hence the 
terms depending on rates of change of declination and parallax are small. 
This also shows that we were justified in neglecting the corresponding 
terms in the case of the sun. Also, since the faster tides are more 
augmented by kinetic action than the slow ones, the two functions, 
written above, which vanish in the equilibrium theory are normally 
actually positive. The formula (27) gives the complete expression for 
the semidiurnal tide in terms of hour-angles, declinations, and parallaxes, 

_ with the constants of the harmonic analysis. 
We shall now show that with rougher approximation (27) is reducible 
toa much simpler form. 


ce retardation of each tide should be approximately a constant, plus 
: E 


5U REPORT—1885. 


a term varying with the speed. Hence all the retardations may be 
expressed in terms of ¢ and p, and 


It is ag that « differs very little eae g, and that 


kK—M_2(m—¥) Sp 
o o—@ o—)7 


The time ({—,)/(¢—n) is called ‘the age of the tide,’ for reasons 
explained below, and «—p, p—v, not being large angles, do not differ 
much from these tangents. Hence the ages of the declinational and 
parallactic inequalities are both approximately equal to the age of the 
tide. 


Let «, then, denote ({—)/(o—»), the age of the tide. 


Now, as an approximation, we may suppose that heights of the lunar 
K, tide, the N and L tides bear the same ratio to the M, tide as in the 
equilibrium theory ; and that the solar K,, the T and R tides bear the 
same ratio to the 8, tide as in that theory. Then reverting to the nota- 
tion with J, w, i in piace of A, A,, and writing 


( cos $1 \'= f 
cos Sw cos ti : 


we have 
sin? A x7 sin? Toye 087A zp ae cet pM, 
ea cost 32” cos? A, 
K!'= 3sin? mS, T=3eS, R=1eS. 
cos*sw 


Also, since (22) may be written 


‘ N sin 2(u—v)+Dsin 2(A—p) 
tan(22—2c)=—__ = : 
mag a) N cos 2(up—v)—Lcos2(A—p)’ 
we have, treating p—v, \—p, p—e as small, approximately, 
e=p—2e(o—c)=p—Z(A—r). 


Also 
cos?A Ncos 2v—L cos 2X 
cos? A , cos 2¢ re 


Then reverting 1o mean longitudes, and substituting the age of tide 
where required, we find, on neglecting the difference between « and a 


For the lunar declinational term, 
2 tan? $7 £M cos 2[s—#o—<] cos 2(—Z) ; 
For the solar declinational term, 
2 tan? dw S cos 2h cos 2(W,—Z); 
For the lunar parallactic term, 
3efM cos [s—p—a(c—a)] cos 2h Y—p+3e(e—c)];5 


ON THE HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 51 


For the solar parallactic term, 
de,S cos (h--p,) cos 2[b,—¢]. 


Then omitting the terms depending on changes of declination and 
parallax, we have as an approximation, 


hy=fM | cos 2(W—p) +2 tan? $7 cos 2[s—cer—E] cos 2(W—Z) 
+3e cos [s—p—w(s—az)]| cos 2[V—p+ 2e(0— =i] 


+S | 1+2 tan? jw cos 2h+Be,cos (h—p,) | eos 2-2). . (28) 
| = 


In the equilibrium theory we have the lunar semidiurnal tide depend- 
ing on 7~* cos? 6 cos 2. Now it is obvious that cos?d introduces a 
factor 142 tan? I cos 2 (s—é), and 7? a factor 1+3e cos (s—p). Thus, 
if we could have foreseen the exact disturbance introduced by friction and 
other causes in the various angles, the formula (28) might have been 
established at once ; but it seems to have been necessary to have recourse 
to the complete development in order to find how the age of the tide will 
enter. 


§ 4. Reference to Time of Moon's Transit. 
It has been usual to refer the tide to the time of moon’s transit, and 
we shall now proceed to the transformations necessary to do so. 


cos” A /cos? A , goes through its oscillation about the value unity in 
19 years ; it is therefore convenient to write for, say, a whole year, 


2 
u,= 4 uw ) 
cos" A, 

9 
oe 2A | 

and similarly, N,=°* & ; 
Vagtr cos?A,;) fF 2 2 +» (29) 
__cos?A 
°eos?A 77 J 
/ 


We also observe that K” and K/’, being the lunar and solar parts of 
the mean K, tide, and their ratio being ‘464 (Report, 1883), 


K" =68303 K,, K/'='31697 K, . . . . (30) 


It will also be seen that in all the terms arising from the sun, excepting 
that in K,’, the argument of the cosine is 2(~,—2). It will be con- 
venient, and sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes, to replace 
«by ¢ in this solar declinational term K/’. 

We shall now proceed to refer the tide to the moon’s transit at the 
place of observation. 

Let a,, h, be )’s R.A and ©’s mean longitude at )’s transit—say 
upper transit, for distinctness. Then the local time of transit is given by 
the vanishing of W, and since ~=t+h—a, it follows that the time-angle 
of )’s transit (at 15° to the hour) is a,—h,. 

| Now let r (mean solar hours) be the interval after transit to which the 


_time-angle ¢ refers; then, since 
: E2 
| 


52) REPORT—1885. 


dh _ i da * XSaee Wiehe tira 
apt a o+(G —2),y n=15°, y—o=14°'49, 
Y=t+h—a 

=[(y—n)r+a,—h ol+[h+9]—[aator+ (0) 


P= >on ae or. 


For the sake of brevity, put 
T= (y- a)r, 


so that T is r converted to angle at the rate of 14°49 per hour. Then 
we have 


‘ig (Gor ee BD 


Similarly putting a, for ©’s R.A. at )’s transit, we have 
y=t+h—a, 
=[y— rte, —hel+[ hot ar]—[at er (0) 
so that 
Soa pa Cae 


Then let 
A=0;5=-0,, + >», » « ¢¢ ie eee 


So that A is the apparent time of }’s transit, reduced to angle at 15° 
per hour, and we have 


p=T+A+ (o-Se)> een 
dt 
It is only in the two principal tides that we need regard the changes 
of R.A. since )’s transit, and in all the smaller terms we may simply put 
Y=T, J,=T+A. 
The first pair of terms of (28) now become 
M, cos 2[T— (Ge-#)r-H)+8 cos 2[T4+A+ (0-5 r— ], 
and these are -e equal to 
M, cos 2(T—p)+8 cos 2(T +A—Z) 
Ir fda a, ! x 
+ia0( ap? yee sin 2(T—) — Ge a8 sin 2[T+4A—Z] (84) 


We may now collect together all the results, and write them in the 
form of a schedule. 


* It would be better to put 
A=a,—a,+ 22" q, 
13 fimo 1 
If this be used the correction (40) for ©’s change of R.A. becomes small. 


53 


ON THE HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 


‘(d—1,)g us 


(2-—V +1L)z 800 


(?—,L)¢ 800 


(/—J,)g urs 


(9-F +.1)3 800 


(*—1)¢ 800 


(-F+L)3 us 


(d—)z us 


(2-V +L) 800 
(!— 1,)Z 800 


IOJOR,T OIpOMog 


a 6 7P a—D 
Caer ers KV) ap tT 
'g ; 
. leew. © aus gre gee tbe 
3G SOO 2 (t— 2) ie 


XZ 800 °'T —4g 809 ON 


(?— y)z s00\7p ‘Vv ,uIS 9 
“3 $89. / yp ¢ 800 9 us 


('v ZUe} Tf — § 
/ 
4 v ,uls 
ve Ale 75 zs00—/2 7800 + 
‘ ay zuls 
M 689-— 800 — ,9 ,800 


ross BER. «2 gif sage 


‘pp LG cm 


+ 


IP \ O81 


Stee 8 


que1oyya0p 


‘AI an paysg—sepyy, [uuniprwag 


* xuered jo asuvyqg ¢ 


xXU[eIegd © 


. . e . . XUrT]| VIC te 


WOT}VUIpep Jo osuryy 


‘ * woryenipeqd O 


‘ * * uorneurped ¢ 


" * “wy jo eduvqy © 


‘" * wap Jo esurqyg 
* *  aeros pedroung 


* + geuny tedioumg 


wey, JO uorydr1oseq 


| 


54 REPORT—1885. 


Definition of symbols :— 


a, 6, a, 6, )’s and ©’s R.A. and declination at moon’s transit ; 
A=a—a,, apparent time of )’s transit at the port. 


ay Stan 8(k—p)s 


c’ )’sdecl. atthe time (generally earlier than transit)7 — 9 
o 


P, P, the ratio of )’s and ©’s parallax to mean parallaxes. 
P' the ratio for ) at the time (generally earlier than transit) 


™ 5703 tan 2(—v). 
C 


aa 


7 the time elapsed since )’s transit in m.s. hours; T the same time 
reduced to angle at 14°-49 per hour. 

A such a declination that cos? A is the mean value of cos?6; A has a 
13-yearly period. 

A, such a declination that cos? 4, is the mean value of cos? ¢,. 

e, e, eccentricities of lunar and solar orbits; « the )’s mean motion; 
e the mean motion of the )’s perigee. 


M. NN; Db, contsa 

MeN LL. cost Ay 

M, 8, Ky, N, L, T, R the mean semi-ranges H of the tides of those 
denominations in the harmonic method. The retardations found by 
harmonic analysis are 2 for M,, 2¢ for S., 2« for Ky, 2v for N, 2d for L, 
and 2¢ for T and R. ° 
N sin 2v—D, sin 2X 


Sin =" — Sin * 96 to be taken in the same quadrant 
N cos 2v—L cos 20’ : 


Lastly tan 2e= 
as 2, 
§ 5. Synthesis of the Several Terms. 
Consider the two principal terms in Schedule IV. 
M, cos 2(T—p) +S cos 2(T4+ A—Z). 
They may be written in the form 
H cos 2(T—9¢), 
where H cos 2(u—)=M, +S cos 2(A—f+4+p), 
H sin 2(u—)=S sin 2(A—f4+p). 
If we compute ¢ corresponding to the time of moon’s transit from the 
formula 
S sin 2(A—f+p) 
M,+Scos2(A—f+p)’ 
then » reduced to time at the rate of 14°49 per hour is the interval 
after moon’s transit to high water, to a first approximation. The 
angle ¢+90°, similarly reduced, gives the low waters before and after the 
high water, and ¢+180° gives another high water. The high waters 


and low waters are to be referred to the nearest transit of the moon. 
The height or depression is given to a first approximation by 


H=J/(M,?+8?+2M,S cos 2 (u—9)). 


tan 2(u—9) = 


ON THE HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 55 


This variability in the time and height of high water, due to variability 
of #, is called the “fortnightly or semi-menstrual inequality i in the height 
and interval. The period (¢—,)/(¢—7) is called ‘the age of the tide,’ 
because this is the mean period after new and full moon before the 
occurrence of spring tide. 


§ 6. Corrections. 


The smaller terms in Schedule IV. may be regarded as inequalities in 
the principal terms. They are of several types. Consider a term 
B cos 2(T—)3). 

Then 

B cos 2(T—)=B cos 2(3—¢) cos 2(T—¢) +B sin 2(3—¢) sin 2(T—¢). 


Hence the addition of such a term to Hcos2(T—@¢) gives us 
(H+6H) cos 2(T—¢—éo), where 


cH=B cos 2(B—¢), 2Hég~=Bsin2(B—¢). . . . (85) 

Next consider a term Csin2(T—p). Putting 6=y+47, we have 
cH=—Csin2(u—¢), 2Hég¢=C cos 2(u—) . . . (36) 
Next consider a term cos 2(T+A—Z). Putting B=f—A, we have 
cH=E cos 2(A—f+6), 2H¢¢=—H sin2(A—f+9) . . (37) 
4 Lastly, consider a term F’sin 2(T+A—Z). Putting b={—A-+41, we 
a éH=F' sin2(A—f+ 6), 2H¢g=F cos2(A—f4+¢) . . (88) 
In writing down the corrections we substitute 14°49é¢ for ¢9, and 
introduce a factor so that the times may be given in mean solar hours and 

the angular velocities in degrees per hour. 


Change of Moon’s R.A., Sched, IV. 
This is of type (36), and gives 


ieee et (ao ) 7M, Sie Cpa) 
180\de (39) 
seie977.27 (24 _ 4) Mo cos (u—$) | 
; 180 & ) a eae ) 
This correction to the height is very small. 
Change of Sun’s R.A., Sched. 1V.* 
This is of type (38), and gives 
ise ia? “ays sin 2(A—£+4) 
(40) 


or da 
nays 7 A= 
ct=—15-977 Tap (o- a) re 7 7 008 2(A—¢+¢) 


* With the value of A suggested in footnote to (32) («—da,/dt)r becomes 
{(¢—1)o—(eda, |dt—pn)] | (y—c) at high water. This is obviously very small. 


56 REPORT—1885. 


Moon’s Declination, Sched. IV. 
This is of type (35), and gives 
ast padety 
(a a ible 32 aaa 


sin? A, 
(41) 
2 {hequyCO8’ o — fon A noo Ke .« Ve 
ot=15-977 ain? A, 683 5 sin 2(k—¢) | 
Sun’s Declination, Sched. IV. 
This is of type (37), and gives 
sor C8 A, 917 K, con 2(A—C+9) 
sin* A, (42) 
cos? 6,—cos? A, 4,» Ko: = 
ot = — 1)-977 —_+ __—' -317 _2 sin 2(A—2+¢@) 
sin? A, H. 
Change of Moon’s Declination, Sched. IV. 
This is of type (36), and gives 
a= é cos é dé ( 683 Ky <M tnnd 4,) sin’ 2(p—¢) 
asin? 4, dt \cos 2(x—p) (43 
ee ha sin 6 cos 6 do ( 683 Ky ey ee *4,) ) ae 
a oH sin? A, dt \cos2(k—p) ant 4, ) con eae 
Moon’s Parallax, Sched. IV. 
This is of type (85), and gives 
sH=(P'~1)Ne cos anal cos 2X cos 2(e—4) 
e€ cos 2e (44) 
N, cos 2v—L, cos 2X .. , 
Oo Site " fie ° ° = 
t=15-977(P’—1) er sin 2(e—¢) 
Sun’s Parallax, Sched. IV. 
This is of type (37), and gives 
sar 1)! Eee ap 
Se z . (45) 
of= —1»-977(P,—1) = sin 2(A—f+9) 
e, 


Change of Moon’s Parallax, Sched. IV. 
This is of type (36), and gives 


ys a < (4mt,— Nese hey) +H, 200 BAe) sin 2(p—9) 
o—a dt € (46) 
Be Ada hae _ N,sec2(u—v) +L, sec2(’— p) = 
(a s)a ae (4m. ; eos 2(u—$¢) 


The lunar corrections involving sines are small compared with those 
involving cosines. 

To evaluate these corrections we must compute 7 from 9 reduced to 
time at 14°°49 per hour. 

In the right ascensional terms, da/d and o are to be expressed in 
degrees perhour. da/dt is the hourly change of )’s R.A. at time of 
)’s transit, and da,/dé is the hourly change of ©’s R.A. at time of )’s 
transit. 


— 


[27] 


ON THE HARMONIC ANALYSIS OF TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 57 


Similarly, dé/dt is to be expressed in degrees, if « be in degrees. 
&/, P’ can be found for the antecedent moments, 57°°3 tan 2(«—p)/20, 
and 57°3 tan 2(u—v)/(*—7a), before the time r. 


§ 7. The Diurnal Tides. 


I shall not consider these tides so completely as the semidiurnal ones, 
although the method indicated would serve for an accurate discussion, if 
it be desired to make one. 

The important diurnal tides are K,, O, P. 

From Schedule B ii., 1883, we have 


sin I cos? 37 : 
0)=—S - 008 3 eM’ cos [t+h—v,—2(s—2)4+42—p']. 
(9) sin w cos? $w cos* $7 eatin’ GOs ed 
By (9) the coefficient is sin 2\/sin 24,, and we shall put, as in the 
case of the semidiurnal tides, 


Then, since +h=W+a, 
(0)=M,! cos [W+ (a+r) —2(s—8) +47] 
= M_!cos.O7 foe, brévityoe)\..- 7 e) . « & « Ge) 
Again, from Schedule C, 1883, 
(P)=S" eos ft—h+4n—2'} ; 
Then let y=2(s—h)+7,—2—¢’ +p’, and we have 
(Py=B8" cos (OF) ad ee etre AO) 
Whence 
(O)+(P)=[M,'+ 8’ cos x] cos Q—S’ sin x sin Q. 
If we put, 
H!' cos (p’—9')=M,'+ S’ cos x 
H! sin (p’—¢')=S’ sin x. 
(0) + (P)=H! cos (O+p'—9") 
=H cos [+ (a—v) —2(s—£) +47—9'] « (49) 


Where 
H'=/ {M,?2+ 8S? +2M,'8' cos x} 
S’ sin Bet ese Mra sh) 
and tan ('—9’)= Seve J 
P Be Gate M,'+ 8’ cos x 


The rate of increase of the angle y is twice the difference of the mean 
motions of the moon and sun, but it would be more correct to substitute 
for s and h the true longitudes of the bodies. It follows from (50) that 
¢’ has a fortnightly inequality like that of 9. 

{ is very nearly equal to 7’, and where the diurnal tide is not very large 
we may with sufficient approximation put 


(a—v,) —2(s—£)=—(s—5). 
So that with fair approximation 
(O)+(P)=H' cos [T—(s—é)+}r-9’/] . . . (51) 


58 REPORT—1885. 


The synthesis of the two parts of the K, tide has been performed in 
the harmonic method (Report, 1883), and we have 


(K,)=f,K, cos (t+ h—1’—}2r—«,). 
Then, writing f,k,=—K,, we have 
(K,)=K, cos (T+a—v'—47—c,}) «. . . © (52) 
We have next to consider what corrections to the time and height of 


high and low water are necessary on account of these diurnal tides. 
If we have a function 


h=B+Heos2(T—¢) +H, cos(nT—/), 


where 7 is nearly equal to unity, and H, is small compared with H; its 
maxima and minima are determined by 
sin 2(T—y)= a" sin (nT = 8): 
If T=T, be the approximate time of maximum, and T,+0T, the true 
time, then, since the mean lunar day is 24°84: hours, and the quotient when 
this is divided by 87 is 0-988, we have in mean solar hours, 


éT = o-ogsam sin (nT, —/3) 


And the correction to the maximum is 
,¢H=H, cos (nT, —/) 
Again if T=T, be the approximate time of minimum, and T,+cT, 
the true time, then 


yn 
oT, =0°9 : 
oT, 88 Ti 


sin (nT, —/) 
og Bar 154) 


And the correction to the minimum is 
oH=Hy, cos (nT, —/) 


In the case of the correction due to (O)+(P), 7 is approximately 


1——*_, and for the correction due to K,, ” is approximately a 
y74. 


VO: 


$8. Direct Synthesis of the Harmonic Expression for the Tide. 


The scope of the preceding investigation is the establishment of the 
nature of the connection between the older treatment of tidal observa- 
tion and the harmonic method. It appears, however, that if the results 
of harmonic analysis are to be applied to the numerical computation of a 
tide-table, then a direct synthesis of the harmonic form may be preferable 
to a transformation to moon’s transit, declinations, and parallaxes. 


Senvidiurnal Tides. 


We shall now suppose that M, is the height of the M, tide, augmented 
or diminished by the factor for the particular year of observation, accord- 
ing to the longitude of the moon’s node, and similarly K, generically for 
the augmented or diminished height of any of the smaller tides. As 


ON THE MNARMONIC ANALYSIS OF TIDAL OBSERVATIONS. 59 


before, let 2u, 2% be the lags of M,, S,; and 2«, generically, the lag of 
the K tide. 


Let 6=f[+h—s—r,+é. 

Then 0 might be defined as the mean moon’s hour-angle, the mean 
moon coinciding with the true, not at Aries, but at the intersection. 

Let the argument of the K tide be written generically 2/0+u—«]. 

Then 


hj=M, cos 2(0—p) +S cos 2[64+s—h+v,—£—2]+K, cos 2[9+u—«] ' 
yee koe 
If we write 
6o=S—Mo+s, 
and ‘ 
FH cos 2(u—¢)=M,+ 8 cos 2[s—h—f, +p] 
HT sin 2(u—o)=S sin 2[s—h—f, +p], 
the first two terms of (55) are united into 
Fhieo08 200 po of) Sa ae eo (BB 
with fortnightly inequality of time and height defined by 
; S sin 2(s—h—f,+,) 
M,+Scos2(s—h—Cotp)tr .. « » (57) 
H=/[M.2+58?+2MS cos2(s—h—Z,+p)]) 


tan 2(u—¢)= 


The amount of the fortnightly inequality depends to a small extent 
on the longitude of the moon’s node, since ¢, and M, are both functions 
of that longitude. 

For the K tide we have 


K, cos 2(0+u—«)=K, cos 2(u—« +9) cos 2(0—9) 
—K, sin2(u—«+ ) sin 2(0—¢@). 
Hence 
éH= K, cos 2(u—«+¢) ) 
(58) 


oo = — 


dork : Poinawiite.; Medtie 
ayy Ma AUK +9) | 

It is easy to find from the Nautical Almanac (see Moon’s Libration) 
the exact time of mean moon’s transit on any day, and then the successive 
additions of 125420601 or 12 25™ 145-16 give the successive upper and 
lower transits. The successive values of 2(s—h) may be easily found by 
successively adding 12°-618036 to the initial value at the time of the first 
transit of the mean moon, and ¢ may be obtained from the table of the 
fortnightly inequality for each value of 2(s—h). 

The function wu is slowly varying, e.g., for the K, tide 21=2(s—£) 
+2(7,—v"’), and the increment of argument for each 125-420601 may be 
easily computed once for all, and added to the initial value. 

In the case of the diurnal tides it will probably be most convenient to 
apply corrections for each independently, following the same lines as those 
sketched out in § 5. 

The corrections for the over tides M,, S,, &c., and for the terdiurnal 


60 REPORT—1885. 


and quaterdiurnal compound tides, would also require special treatment, 
which may easily be devised. 

At ports, where the diurnal tide is nearly as large or larger than the 
semidiurnal, special methods will be necessary. 

Although the treatment in terms of mean longitudes makes the cor- 
rections larger than in the other method, yet it appears that the compu- 
tation of a tide-table may thus be made easier, with less reference to 
ephemerides, and with amply sufficient accuracy. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Rospert H. Scorr 
(Secretary), Mr. J. Norman Lockyer, Professor G. G. STOKES, 
Professor BALFouR STEwarT, and Mr. G. J. SyMons, appointed 
for the purpose of co-operating with the Meteorological Society 
of the Mauritius in their proposed publication of Daily 
Synoptic Charts of the Indian Ocean from the year 1861. 
Drawn wp by Mr. R. H. Scorr. 


Tue Committee have the honour to forward, for the inspection of the 
members of the Association, a copy of the Charts for the month of March 
1861, with some specimens for January of the same year, and the com- 
plete number for February which appeared some yearsago. These docu- 
ments have recently arrived from the Mauritius. 

As the work has now made decided progress, the Committee have 
applied for and obtained the grant of 50/. placed at their disposal by the 
General Committee. 

As soon as the requisite documents are received from Dr. Meldrum, 
the Committee will submit a formal account of their expenditure with 
tle necessary vouchers. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. JAMES N. SHOOLBRED 
(Secretary) and Sir WituiaM TuHomson, appointed for the re- 
duction and tabulation of Tidal Observations in the English 
Channel, made with the Dover Tide-gauge; and for connecting 
them with Observations made on the French coast. 


Your Committee herewith beg to submit the High Water and the Low 
Water Observations for the years 1880, 1881, 1882, and 1883, obtained 
from the records of the self-registering tide-gauges at the ports of Dover 
and of Ostend respectively. 

The observations, in erder to facilitate comparisons, are reduced to 
Greenwich time and to the common datum-plane of 20 feet below the 
Ordnance datum of Great Britain. 

As the reduction and tabulation of the present series of tidal observa- 
tions has proved a longer operation than was anticipated, there has been 
hardly sufficient time to consider the best form in which those observa- 
tions should be placed for comparison, nor for the more suitable deductions 
which may be drawn from such comparison. 

Your Committee, therefore, request to be reappointed. 


re 


ON STANDARDS OF WHITE LIGHT. 61 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor G. ForBes (Secre- 
tary), Captain ABNry, Dr. J. Hopkinson, Professor W. G. ADAMS, 
Professor G. C. Foster, Lord RayLeicH, Mr. PREECE, Professor 
ScuustErR, Professor DEwar, Mr. A. VERNON Harcourt, and Pro- 
fessor AYRTON, appointed for the purpose of reporting on Stand- 
ards of White Light. Drawn wp by Professor G. ForBEs. 


Tue experimental work of the Committee during the past year has not 
been extensive, as they had no funds at their disposal for experimental 
research, and they have been chiefly occupied with reviewing what has 
been done in the past and laying plans for future operations. 

Lord Rayleigh has constructed an instrument which he calls a mono- 
chromatic telescope, by means of which the illuminated screens of a photo- 
meter may be examined, allowing light only of one definite colour to pass. 
It was hoped by Lord Rayleigh that experiment might show that, with 
some suitably chosen colour, this instrument, used with any ordinary 
photometer, would, in comparing lights of different intensities and tem- 
peratures, give to each a candle-power which would be sufficiently 
accurate to represent for commercial purposes the intensity of the light. 
The Secretary has made some experiments at the Society of Arts, where 
he was kindly permitted to use the secondary batteries and glow lamps; 
but the results so far are not definite enough to justify their publication. 

Mr. Vernon Harcourt has been engaged on an inyestigation on the 
barometrical correction to his pentane standard; and on another con- 
cerning the possibility of using lamp-shades as a protection from air 
currents. His researches are communicated independently to the meeting. 

Captain Abney and General Festing have continued their observations 
on the intensity of radiations of different wave-lengths from incandescent 
carbon and platinum filaments at different temperatures, which will go far 
to assist the Committee in their work. 

Other isolated experiments have been made by members of the Com- 
mittee, which will be published in due course. 

Most of the members have examined the experiments of the Trinity 
Board at the South Foreland. 


Existing Standards. 


A consideration of existing standards convinces the Committee that 
the standard candle, as defined by Act of Parliament, is not in any sense 
of the word a standard. The French ‘bec Carcel’ is also liable to vari- 
ations; and with regard to the molten platinum standard of Violle, it 
seems that the difficulty of applying it is so great as to render its general 
adoption almost impossible. 

With regard to the so-called standard candle, the spermaceti em- 
ployed is not a definite chemical substance, and is mixed with other 
materials, and the constitution of the wick is not sufficiently well defined. 
Hence it is notorious that interested parties may prepare candles con- 
forming to the definitions of the Act which shall favour either the pro- 
ducer or consumer to a serious extent. In view of these defects of the 
standard candle, it is a matter of great importance that a standard of 
light should be chosen which is more certain in its indications. 

The Committee have looked into the merits of different proposed 
standards, and the majority feel satisfied that, for all the present com- 


62 | REPORT—1885. 


mercial requirements, the pentane standard of Mr. Vernon Harcourt— 
since it has no wick and consumes a material of definite chemical com- 
position—when properly defined, is an accurate and convenient standard, 
and gives more accurately than the so-called standard candle an illumi- 
nation equal to that which was intended when the Act was framed. 

Yet the Committee, while desirmg to impress the Board of Trade and 
the public with these views, do not feel inclined at present to recommend 
the adoption of any standard for universal adoption until, further in- 
formation on radiation having been obtained from experiment, they may 
learn whether or not it may be possible to propose an absolute standard, 
founded, like electrical and other standards, on fundamental units of 
measurement——a standard which, for these reasons, would be acceptable 
to all civilised nations. They are, however, inclined to look upon the 
pentane lamp as an accurate means of obtaining an illumination to replace 
the so-called standard candle. 


Proposed Experimental Researches. 


Radiation is measured as a rate of doing work, and consequently 
radiation might be measured in watts. The illumination (or luminous 
effect of radiation) depends partly upon the eye, and is a certain function 
of the total radiation. This function depends upon the wave-length of 
the radiation, or on the different wave-lengths of which the radiation, if 
it be compound, is composed. This function of the radiation perceived 
by the eye is partly subjective, and varies with radiations of different 
wave-lengths and with different eyes. Thus the illumination cannot, like 
the radiation, be expressed directly in absolute measurement. But the 
connection between the illumination end the radiation can be determined 
from a large number of experiments with a large number of eyes, so as to 
get the value of the function for the normal human eye. This function, 
however, is constant only for one source of light, or, it may be, for sources 
of light of the same temperature. It appears, then, that, in the first 
instance at least, a standard should be defined as being made of a definite 
material at a special temperature. 

The energy required to produce a certain radiation in the case of a thin 
filament of carbon or platinum-iridium heated by the passage of an electric 
current can be easily measured by the ordinary electric methods, and the 
radiation may be measured by a thermopile or a bolometer, which itself 
can be standardised by measuring the radiation from a definite surface 
at 100°C., compared with the same at 0°C. The electric method 
measures the absorption of energy; the thermopile measures the total 
radiation. These two are identical if no energy is wasted in convection 
within the glass bulb of the lamp, by reflection and absorption of the glass, 
and by conduction from the terminals of the filament. Captain Abney and 
General Festing have come to the conclusion that there is no sensible loss 
from these causes. The Committee propose to investigate this further. 
This constitutes a first research. 

No research is necessary to prove that with a constant temperature of 
a given filament the luminosity is proportional to the radiation, because 
each of these depends only upon the amount of surface of the radiating 
filament. It will be necessary, however, to examine whether with 
different filaments it be possible to maintain them at such temperatures as 
shall make the illumination of each proportional to the radiation. This 
will be the case if spectrum curves, giving the intensity of radiation in 


ON STANDARDS OF WHITE LIGHT. 63 


terms of the wave-length when made out for the different sources of light, 
are of the same form. ‘Thus a second research must be undertaken to 
discover whether the infinite number of spectrum radiation curves, which 
can be obtained from a carbon filament by varying the current, are 
identical in form when the filament is changed, but the material remains 
so far as possible of constant composition. 

It will be an object for a later research to determine whether, when 
the radiation spectrum curve of any source of light has been mapped, a 
similar curve can be found among the infinite number of curves which 
can be obtained from a single filament. 

The next step proposed is to examine a large number of carbon or of 
platinum-iridium filaments, and to find whether the radiation spectrum 
curve of different specimens of the same material is identical when the 
resistance is changed in all to « times the resistance at 0° C. If this 
law be true, a measurement of the resistance of the filament would be a 
convenient statement of the nature of the radiation curve. If, then, a 
number of filaments were thus tested to give the same radiation spectrum 
curye, their luminosities would in all cases be proportional to their 
radiations, or (if there be no loss in convection, conduction, absorption, 
and reflection) proportional to the electrical energies consumed, 

Thus it might be hoped to establish a standard of white light, and to 
deiine it somewhat in the following manner :—A unit of light is obtained 
from a straight carbon filament, in the direction at right angles to the middle 
of the filament, when the resistance of the filament is one-half of its resistance 
at 0° C., and when it conswmes 10° C.G.S. wnits of electrical energy per second. 

Since Mr. Swan has taught us how to make carbon filaments of 
constant section by passing the material of which they are composed 
through a die, it is conceivable that another absolute standard should be 
possible—viz., a carbon filament of circular section, with a surface, say, 
+ ip 8q. centimetre, and consuming, say, 10° C.G.S. units of energy per 
second. 

Whether such standards are possible or not depends upon the experi- 
ments of the Committee. The probability of success is sufficient to render 
these experiments desirable. 


Proposed Later Experimental Researches. 


Should these hopes be realised, and an absolute standard of white 
light thus obtained of a character which would commend it to the civilised 
world, it would then become an object of the Committee to find the ratio 
of luminosity when the radiation spectrum curve of the standard filament 
is varied by varying the current, and consequently the resistance of the 
filament. 

Thus, by a large number of subjective experiments on human eyes, a 
multiplier would be found to express the illumination from the standard 
lamp, with each degree of resistance of the filament. 

A research, previously hinted at, would then be undertaken—viz., to 
find whether the radiation spectrum curves of all sources of illumination 
agree with one or other of the curves of the standard filament. It is not 
improbable that this should be the case except for the high temperature 
of the electric arc. 

Should this be found to be true, then photometry would be very 
accarate, and the process would be as foliows:—Adjust the standard fila- 
ment until its radiation spectrum curve is similar to that of the liyht to be 


64 REPORT—1885. 


compared. (This would probably be best done by observing the wave- 
length of the maximum radiation, or by observing equal altitudes on 
either side of the maximum, the instruments used being a spectroscope 
and a line thermopile or a bolometer.) The total radiation of each is then 
measured at equal distances by the thermopile. The resistance of the 
filament is measured, and its intensity in terms of the unit of white light 
obtained therefrom by the previous research. The luminosity of the 
compared source of light is then obtained directly. 

The Committee desire to be reappointed, and to enable them to carry 
out the researches indicated they ask for a grant of 30/. 


Second Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor BALFrour 
Srewarr (Secretary), Mr. J. KNox Laucuton, Mr. G. J. Symons, 
Mr. R. H. Scorr, and Mr. JoHNSTONE STONEY, appointed for 
the purpose of co-operating with Mr. E. J. Lowe in his project 
of establishing a Meteorological Observatory near Chepstow on 
a permanent and scientific basis. 


Swce their reappointment in 1884 this Committee have met twice, and 
have placed themselves in correspondence with Mr. Lowe. 

In this correspondence the Committee have expressed their opinion 
that the establishment of a permanently endowed meteorological observa- 
tory on a good site, such as that of Shire Newton, is a matter of undeniable 
scientific importance. 

The attitude which the Committee have taken will be rendered appa- 
rent by the following letter written by their Secretary to Mr. Lowe :— 

‘The Committee request me to point out to you that the main feature 
of your proposal, which interests the British Association and the scientific 
public generally, is the prospect which it holds out of the establishment 
of a permanent institution by means of which meteorological constants 
could be determined, and any secular change which may take place 
therein in the course of a long period of years be ascertained. It will be 
for you and the local authorities to decide what amount of work of local 
interest should be contemplated, and on this will the scale of the observa- 
tory mainly depend. The Committee are therefore unable to say what 
amount of capital would be required. They would point out four con- 
ditions which they hold to be indispensable :— 

‘1. The area of ground appropriated should be sufficient to ensure 
freedom from the effect of subsequent building in the neighbourhood. 

‘2. A sufficient endowment fund of at least 150/. annually should be 
created. 

‘3. The control should be in the hands of a body which is in itself 
permanent as far as can be foreseen. 

‘4, The land for the site shall be handed over absolutely to the above- 
mentioned governing body.’ 

This communication from the Committee is now under the considera- 
tion of Mr. Lowe and his friends, but until the precise amount of the 
local meteorological requirements is ascertained and further progress is 
made in the scheme the Committee consider that they would not be justi- 
fied in any more prominent action than that which they have already taken. 

They would request their reappointment, and that the unexpended sum 
of 251. be again placed at their disposal. 


ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 65 


Report of the Commvittee, consisting of Professor BALFoUR STEWART 
(Secretary), Sir W. Tuomson, Sir J. H. Lerroy, Sir FREDERICK 
Evans, Professor G. H. Darwin, Professor G. CHRYSTAL, Professor 
S. J. Perry, Mr. C. H. CarpmMaet, and Professor SCHUSTER, 
appointed for the purpose of considering the best means of 
Comparing and Reducing Magnetic Observations. Drawn wp 
by Professor BALFOUR STEWART. 


Iy presenting their report to the British Association the Committee 
would begin by referring to the appendix, in which are embodied sug- 
gestions of great value which they have received from men of science at 
home and abroad. The Committee desire to express their thanks to the 
authors of these contributions. 

While a final discussion of these communications cannot be attempted 
in this first report, it is nevertheless evident that magneticians are not 
agreed as to the best method of determining absolutely the solar-diurnal 
variations of the three magnetic elements—that is to say, the diurnal 
variation resulting after the elimination of all disturbed observations. 
The point in dispute is the method of distinguishing and separating the 
disturbed from the undisturbed observations. On the whole, the feeling 
is against the method of Sabine, on account of the arbitrary nature of his 
separating value. 

An alternative method has been proposed by Dr. Wild, Director of the 
Central Russian Observatory (Appendix, No. VII.). This method seems 
to be in some degree analogous to that pursued at Greenwich (Appendix, 
No. IX.). Dr. Wild selects those curves which appear to the eye to be 
free from the short-period irregularities characteristic of disturbances, 
and considers the results obtained from their measurement to embody a 
trustworthy representation of the solar-diurnal variation for the time and 
place in question. He finds a remarkable uniformity and simplicity of 
type in the variation as given by the different selected curves. 

While the Committee recognise in this a method which may ultimately 
meet with general acceptance, they think there are various points con- 
nected with it which require investigation. 

In the first place, it would be desirable to prove, by means of an 
exhaustive discussion of some one element—as, for instance, the declina- 
tion—to what extent curves selected by the eye do, as a matter of fact, 
present this uniformity and simplicity of type. 

There are abundant materials available for this purpose at the Kew 
Observatory, and it is hoped that through the kindness of the Kew 
Committee this point may eventually be settled. 

Again, it would be desirable to ascertain whether the apparently 
normal days at one station coincide with those at another; and, if so, 
whether there is a definite or nearly definite relation in type and range 
between the corresponding smooth curves of two widely separated stations 
of not very dissimilar latitude. 

_ This point will form one of the subjects of a discussion undertaken by 
Sir J. Henry Lefroy, who proposes to compare the curves of Toronto and 
ae oe together for the years 1849-53. 

: F 


66 REPORT—1885. 


The Committee are of opinion that these are steps which might at 
once be taken, so as to push on this part of the subject. 

The Committee would call attention to the completeness of the mag- 
netical information which is given by the present method of publication 
adopted by the Astronomer Royal. He now gives, in addition to the 
mean values of the magnetic elements for each day and the mean diurnal 
curves for each month, the amplitude of the diurnal curve for each day, 
and particulars of all disturbances, small as well as large. (See Appendix, 
No. IX.) 

Until a method is generally accepted for determining the normal solar- 
diurnal variation, it seems premature to raise any discussion on the best 
way of estimating disturbances, since these cannot well be measured 
except from the basis of such a normal. 

The Committee would, however, allude to various investigations, 
chiefly connected with disturbance, which are being undertaken by some 
of its members. The thought seems generally to have occurred that dis- 
turbances may denote the method by which the earth rights itself with 
respect to the magnetic forces acting upon it (see Appendix, No. II., para- 
graphs 11 and 12), and this idea underlies the various researches about 
to be named.! 

The first of these is that already mentioned as having been taken up by 
Sir J. H. Lefroy, with the concurrence of the Astronomer Royal—namely, 
a comparison of magnetic movements photographically recorded at 
Toronto and Greenwich in the years 1849-53. Stations so far asunder 
(3,100 miles), and on different continents, appear calculated to throw 
light on many questions which are not much advanced by comparison of 
stations in geographical proximity. 

The following are primd facie conclusions which may require modifica- 
tion when the work has been gone through, but which already seem to 
have a bearing on the physical explanation of the phenomena :— 

a. A similar state of magnetic weather, so to speak, prevails generally 
at both stations, so that where numerous or extensive deviations from 
normal regularity occur at the one, there is generally something corre- 
sponding at the other. 

b. The correspondence very seldom amounts to similarity of movement 
or identity of time. 

c. The changes of declination at Toronto are more rapid than at 
Greenwich. This is especially observable about the time of the morning 
easterly extreme. Bold sweeping curves with a long time measure are 
much less common at Toronto than at Greenwich, and can seldom be 
identified. 

d. On the other hand, shocks of small angular amount breaking a 
uniform line are often capable of identification, and are simultaneous, 
or nearly so, at both stations. 

e. Although the declination was westerly at both stations, the move- 
ments of disturbance are very frequently, probably usually, in opposite 
directions at any given time—easterly at Greenwich, or decreasing the 
absolute declination, when they are westerly, or increasing it, at Toronto. 

f. The same days would generally be selected to form normal curves 
at both stations. 


1 A similar idea seems to have occurred to Dr. Wild (see foot-note to his communi- 
cation, Appendix, No. VII.). 


ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 67 


g. Slight auroral displays in Canada generally produce a marked effect 
at Toronto, but none at Greenwich. 

h. It is not easy to answer the question whether a state of disturbance 
succeeding one of calm begins or ends at the same time at both stations, 
neither beginning or ending being, in general, sufficiently definitely 
marked. 

zi. It appears impossible to assign a value based on angular movement 
alone which will be a valid test, whether such movement is due to dis- 
turbing causes or not. 

j- Angular movements at Toronto appear to be larger than at Green- 
wich, the magnets being (in 1849-50) similar—namely, 2 feet in length. 

The second research is by the Rev. 8. J. Perry and Professor Stewart, 
who, with the sanction of the Kew Committee, are engaged in a com- 
parison of the simultaneous disturbances of the declination at Stonyhurst 
and at Kew. Calling the first S, and the second K, they have obtained 
the following preliminary results, which may, however, ultimately require 
some modification :— 


S 


1) Sis always greater than K, or the ratio = is always greater than 
yss Ke ys § 


unity. 
(2) This ratio appears to depend in some way on the duration of the 
disturbance. 

(3) But not, as far as can be seen at present, upon its magnitude. 

A third research is by Professor Stewart and Mr. W. Lant Carpenter, 
who are making a preliminary trial of four years of Kew declination dis- 
turbances (separated by Sabine’s method), in order to ascertain whether 
the aggregate daily disturbance depends upon the relative position of the 
sun and moon, and also whether it is affected by meteorological storms. 
The following provisional result has been obtained from the years 1870-73 
A which the lunation is divided into 8 parts, (0) denoting new, and (4) 

ull moon. 


Mean Daily Aggregate of Disturbance of Declination at Kew.' 


(Unit +},th of an inch, measured on the curve.) 


OD) bel athicl2)o7 i) B)enoe Aded peri (Es +0 CO 
MAA deified!) 9 A045. 95, oe 8B Yr 94,0107 > 710K 


The Committee desire to draw the attention of magneticians to the 
urgent need of obtaining more accurate knowledge than we possess at 
present of the daily variation of the vertical force. No attempt to fix 
the cause of the daily variation can be made until the daily variation of 
each component of the magnetic force is known. 

In conclusion, the Committee desire their reappointment, with the 
addition to their number of Captain Creak and of Mr. G. M. Whipple, 
Director of the Kew Observatory, and they would request that the sum 
of 501. should be placed at their disposal, to be spent as they may think 
best on the researches mentioned in this report. 


1 The late Professor J. Clerk Maxwell was, it is believed, the first to suggest that 
the lunar-diurnal variation of the earth’s magnetism may be caused by distortion, and 
Dr. Schuster has suggested that, if there is found to be a relation between magnetic 


disturbances and atmospheric storms, it may be of the same nature. 
F2 


68 REPORT—1885. 


APPENDIX. 


Suggestions for the Committee on Magnetical Reductions. 


I. By Professor Barour Srewart, F.R.S. 


1. The following suggestions are founded on the methods proposed by 
several magneticians, including Sabine, Broun, Lefroy, Capello, and Buys 
Ballot. To Senhor Capello I am especially indebted for the trouble he 
has taken in explaining his views, with which these suggestions are 
almost identical. 

2. The measurements derived from self-recording magnetographs may 
be used for two purposes, the first being to ascertain the solar diwrnal 
variation, by which name we designate that variation which is exhibited 
by comparatively undisturbed observations. The second of these pur- 
poses is to ascertain the laws which regulate disturbances. Now disturbances 
may act in two ways. Jirst, they may exhibit a diurnal variation different 
from that of the undisturbed observations, which we may call the dis- 
turbance diurnal variation; and, secondly, they may exalt or depress the 
day’s value of the particular element in question. 

As a matter of fact I believe they act in both these ways. It appears 
to me that it is of very great importance that these two effects of dis- 
turbance should be exhibited and studied together, and yet not impro- 
perly mixed up with one another. 

3. Let me explain my meaning with reference to the method of Sabine, 
which I believe to be, in many respects, an excellent one. Sabine did a 
very great deal in finding out and exhibiting the diurnal variations of the 
disturbed and undisturbed observations, but he did not greatly study, 
along with these, the effect of disturbances in altering the daily mean 
values of an element, so that it was reserved for Broun to discover that 
there were changes in the daily values of the horizontal force which were 
practically simultaneous at the various stations of the globe. Let us first 


of all consider the hourly values of declination, as this element presents — 


fewest difficulties. 
Declination, 


4, Here, I imagine, the first thing is to determine the solar diurnal 
variation, or that presented by the comparatively undisturbed observations, 
and for this purpose I fail to see a better plan than that proposed by 
Sabine. This method may be described as follows: 

5. Suppose that we have hourly observations at a station, then, first 
of all, we should arrange these into monthly groups, each hour by itself. 
We should then reject, as disturbed observations, all those which differ 
by more than a certain amount from their respective normals of the same 
month and hour, the normals being the hourly means in each month after 
the exclusion of all the disturbed observations. For the purpose of 
ascertaining the true solar diurnal variation, it seems probable that a 
considerable choice might be allowed in selecting the separating value 
implied in the above process, one value serving, for this purpose, probably 
as well as another a little above or below it. 

6. Perhaps under ordinary circumstances a value which will exclude 
as disturbed about one-twentieth of the whole body of observations will be 
found convenient. 

7. Let us now imagine that we have determined by this process 


ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 69 


the undisturbed normals for each hour, for each month. I agree with 
Sir J. H. Lefroy in thinking that the best plan of investigating disturb. 
ances is, in the first place, to obtain the various departures of individual 
observations from their respective normals for that month and hour. It 
would be desirable to embody these departures in a fresh table, in which 
{except for those who are colour-blind) the negative departures might be 
given in red ink and the positive in black. 

8. In this table, at the right of the twenty-four departures for the 
various hours of the day, I should represent the mean departure for that 
whole day either in red or black. It would thus be seen, at a glance, 
whether the average of the whole day was affected by disturbance, in 
what direction, and to what extent. 

9. li is here assumed that, during the month in question, no alteration 
of scale value or other instrumental change has taken place. Never- 
theless at stations which have a considerable secular variation of decli- 
nation, and for which this is known, it might be desirable to introduce, 
say to the extreme right, a column embracing a small residual correction, 
applicable to each day’s departures, on account of secular change. 

10. I imagine that a monthly table, constructed after the method 
which I have described, will afford a full and satisfactory basis for the 
discussion of disturbances. 

11. It is probable that the smaller departures will follow the law of 
the ordinary solar diurnal variation, and, in that case, there should be as 
many black as red sums in these minor departures, or, in other words, the 
algebraic sum of these should be zero, while the sum taken without 
respect to sign or colour should represent the amount of oscillation or 
disturbance obeying the ordinary law, this being a point which it is of 
interest to determine. No doubt the larger disturbances will obey some 
other law, and it will be necessary to separate them into two categories, 
those increasing and those diminishing the declination. Here I should 
follow Dr. Buys Ballot’s advice, and allow the observations themselves to 
determine where the one law ends and the other begins. It is just possible 
that sometimes the day’s mean may be decidedly different from what it 
ought to be, and yet the diurnal variation for that day be as nearly as 
possible the same as for undisturbed observations. A table, such as that 
now described, will show, at a glance, whether such a state of things ever 
takes place. 


Horizontal and Vertical Force. 


12. The horizontal and vertical force magnetographs are different 
from the declination magnetograph, inasmuch as their indications are 
affected by change of temperature, by loss of magnetism, and possibly, 
in the case of the vertical force instrument, by other circumstances not 
well understood. 

13. It will be noticed that, in treating the deciination resulis by 
Sabine’s method, we perform oar operation upon the individual declina- 
tion values. Now it might be said, why not (your object being to find 
the solar diurnal variation) take the departure of the individual hours of 
a day from the mean of that day, and treat each month’s departures by 
Sabine’s method ? 

14. The reply would be that the mean of a day is more likely to be 
affected by disturbance than the monthly mean of an hour. For disturb- 
ances, when they come, generally affect several consecutive hours, thus 


70 REPORT—1885. 


altering the daily mean, but, on the other hand, they are less likely to 
affect the same hour during consecutive days. Were we able to obtain 
daily means of declination, unaffected by disturbance, it would be better 
to adopt this method of treatment, because it would obviate the intro- 
duction of any residual correction due to the progress of secular change 
or annual or semi-annual variation. Now in the force magnetographs 
the case is different. Here there is a certainty that some—perhaps even 
a considerable—change will be produced in the values belonging to a given 
hour in the course of a month from instrumental changes alone, so that 
treating the observations after the manner pursued with the declination 
might lead to erroneous results. 

15. On the other hand, if there were no disturbance, the difference of 
the various hourly observations of a day, from the mean of that day, 
would give us a good indication of the solar diurnal variation, provided 
the diurnal range of temperature was inconsiderable, as is generally the 
case for self-recording instruments. 

16. These remarks render it manifest that some method of obtaining 
probable values of the undisturbed daily means is, in the case of the 
force instruments, of vital importance, and Senhor Capello has adopted 
a method of this kind in his treatment of his force observations. I would 
venture to remark that the most unexceptionable basis upon which to 
determine the undisturbed daily means of horizontal and vertical force 
would seem to be given by the information already assumed to be obtained 
from the declination magnetograph for the same month. 

17. Here, as a result of the application of Sabine’s method, we have 
rejected a certain number of hourly observations as disturbed. Now let 
us reject, as a preliminary step to something more complete, precisely the 
same hourly observations of the horizontal and vertical force as being, in 
all probability, disturbed, and make use of the remainder, or of that part 
of the remainder which represents whole, or nearly whole, days free from 
disturbance, to aid us in determining, by a curve, the most probable values. 
of the undisturbed daily means. I here assume that there is no sudden 
jamp in the month’s readings from change made on the instrument or 
any other cause; if there be such, the portions before and after the jump 
will have different values, and must be treated by appropriate methods 
which need not here be discussed. Suffice it to say that, by rejecting 
frorn the month’s observations those hours which were separated as dis- 
turbed in the declination, and treating the remainder in the manner 
suggested, we obtain, aided, perhaps, by a slight equalisation, numbers 
representing very nearly the undisturbed daily values of the records 
given by the instruments. 

18. Having obtained these, our next operation is to obtain the hourly 
differences from each day’s undisturbed mean. ‘These differences, so 
obtained, we propose to treat in the same manner in which we treated 
actual declination observations. It is, therefore, to these differences that 
Sabine’s process should be applied, so that ultimately, when we have 
applied it, we shall obtain those departures of each hour from the daily 
mean which characterise undisturbed observations—in other words, we 
obtain the solar diurnal variation. 

19. Having obtained this, we have at once the means of obtaining a 
table similar, in all respects, to that which we have recommended for the 
declination. For instance, if the departure of a given hour of a given 
day from the undisturbed mean of that day were +9 whereas, according 


ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. ye | 


to the solar diurnal variation for undisturbed observations, it should have 
been +3, the number +6 would be inserted in the table, and so on. 

20. It will be seen at once that we shall be able to ascertain by the 
method now described, if disturbance (as Broun supposed) alters the 
daily average values of the horizontal force. For in the horizontal force 
instrument any comparatively short period change of average daily value 
is hardly likely to be caused by instrumental alteration, but is most pro- 
bably due to magnetic causes, more especially if the same change takes 
place simultaneously at various stations. 

There are, however, more serious difficulties connected with the 
vertical force instrument, but into these I cannot now enter. 


II. By Sir J. Henry Lerroy, K.C.M.G., F.RB.S. 


1. The statement of the question appears to assume that the first, or 
chief, object of continuous automatic registers of magnetic changes is to 
extend the large number we already possess of mean determinations of 
solar-diurnal variations, and to add fresh numerical or quantitative values 
of the deviations from these means, produced by the causes we class as 
irregular. 

2. This appears to me to be persevering in a path we have been travel- 
ling for forty years without reaching, or even seeing the way, to any 
physical explanation of the phenomena. 

3. There are about seventy-five points on the globe at which the 
diurnal variation, including disturbances, has been determined by eye- 
observations, hourly or bi-hourly, with more or less completeness and 
precision. The irregular, or non-solar-diurnal, effects have as yet been 
eliminated for a few only (ten or twelve) of these points, but this nnmber 
has proved sufficient to bring out pretty clearly certain general laws to 
which no key has yet been found. 

4. Unless it can be shown that a multiplication of numerical data 
promises to bring us to a conclusion, I am inclined to think that the 
laborious compilation of more data of the same kind by measurements 
from photographic registers, which are less precise than the old eye- 
observations, is rather a misdirection of energy, unless indeed at stations 
widely remote from any others, and where new facts may be expected 
(see, for example, the very anomalous diurnal curve at Reikiavik, Iceland, 
‘ Athabasca volume,’ p. 297). The recent circumpolar stations would 
have come into this category if they had used self-recording instruments. 

5. Airy and Sabine have both taken +3'3 of declination as the 
measure of a disturbed observation at Greenwich and Kew respectively.! 
If it is true, as remarked by Professor Balfour Stewart (par. 5), that the 
precise measure is of no great consequence, is it worth while to spend 
much time over making out a new value independently for any part of 
Great Britain ? 

_ 6. The arbitrary nature of Sabine’s mode of treatment of observations 
is to me a strong objection to the continuance of it. 

For example, he threw out as disturbed all the observations at Point 
Barrow which deviated 22/87 from the normal,? and at Fort Carlton ? all 
which deviated 60. But I think I have sufficiently shown that in high 
latitudes in America the mean value of disturbance is about three times 


1 Phil. Trans. 1860-1863. 2 Phil. Trans. 1857. 3 St, Helena, vol. ii. 


72 REPORT—1 885, 


as great in the early morning hours as it is in the afternoon. Conse- 
quently we must either disregard a great many observations by day, which 
are really disturbed, or include a great many by night, which are not, 
unless we say that instability is the same thing as disturbance. 

7. What, then, is to be done with the photographic registers? How 
can they be compared unless by ordinates, measured at points agreed 
upon, such as the Géttingen hours ? 

Ireply (1) that I think that each observer should minutely scan his own 
records, and note the time, direction, and amount of movements. (2) That 
the efforts of magneticians should be addressed to the cheap publication 
and prompt interchange of the registers of each week, reproduced and 
reduced by photography to a uniform scale, say 15mm. to 1 hour, with a 
view to the discovery of periodically recurring movements of whatever 
nature; of movements apparently local, or not generally traceable ; and 
of movements which were general, in one or more elements, over a large 
part of the earth’s surface. 

It hardly meets this suggestion to say that we have hundreds of 
projections of disturbances already, and that nothing has come of it. It 
is true; but these projections are scattered through many volumes, are 
upon all sorts of scales, and are rarely comparative. 

8. The student having by his eye-comparison grasped the general 
features of the movements constituting disturbance at some particular 
epoch, or presenting an exceptional character, the need of measurements 
would arise, and if a reference to the mean of the day or the mean of n 
days or of the calendar month is necessary, such mean can be ascertained. 
I am not sure that it often will be, and I doubt whether our adherence to 
the calendar month is rational. Why should movements on May 31 be 
referred to the mean for May rather than the mean for June? The more 
accurate, though more laborious, plan would be to refer them to the mean 
for May 31 + 10 days. 

9. The end of the needle which points to the equatorial region has in 
every locality a mean position in relation to the meridian from which it 
is continually deviating, and to which it always returns. It appears to 
me open to question whether the relation of the direction of the move- 
ment to the absolute declination, as increasing it or diminishing it, has — 
much to do with the question. At least it seems to assume that the 
normal position is due to the same physical causes as produce the devia- 
tions, and therefore I think that the deviations, whether of the polar or 
equatorial end, should be simply noted as east or west without regard to 
sign. In the southern hemisphere it is the equatorial end that we observe. 
Regions where the north end is actually directed to the south, as at Port 
Kennedy and the Alert’s winter quarters (1875-6), will require negative 
signs, 

10. It seems probable (1) that the mean position of the needle above 
referred to is always perpendicular to the direction of electric currents in 
the crust of the earth, or the atmosphere, or both, originating in a thermo- 
electric action of the sun on the meridian, and propagated north and south 
from the ecliptic; (2) that the position of the meridian of the place, in 
reference to the sun, determines the direction of the mean deviation of 
the needle from its normal position or the mean solar-diurnal movement, 
and that the amount is determined by a balance of forces still to be clearly 
defined. The amount is known at a sufficient number of stations to test 
any law laid down. 


ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 73 


11. It appears that so long as the sun is above the horizon of the place, 
there is comparatively little disturbance. In other words, the hours most 
habitually disturbed are before sunrise and after sunset. It is true that 
disturbances, once originated, display themselves simultaneously at dis- 
tant localities, irrespective of the hours of the day ; but the above seems 
to give probability to a conjecture that they originate in that hemisphere 
from which the sun is absent, and on those meridians which are at the 
time in the condition of greatest mean disturbance. 

12. Of known pbysical causes, the influence of sudden internal per- 
turbations analogous to those which become perceptible to our senses, as 
earthquakes and the like, seems to me the most nearly to meet the 
observed facts. They cannot be due to any atmospheric cause. Nor is it 
very probable that anything extra-terrestrial, such as solar perturbations, 
can operate with such vigour and suddenness upon otr electric circula- 
tion. That there is a sympathy or correspondence between seismic dis- 
turbance and magnetic disturbance has been often shown, but I am not 
aware that it has ever been followed up in a comprehensive way. 

That this view implies some relation between the internal perturba- 
tions referred to, and the position of the part of the globe in which they 
originate in respect to the sun, as being in the hemisphere turned away 
from him, appears to follow, but I do not see any absurdity in such a 
supposition. 

13. Since continuous automatic registration affords a means of tracing 
the correspondence of either short-time or long-time movements with 
other observed phenomena, seismic movements, solar outbursts, auroral 
discharges, and atmospheric changes, for example such as no multiplication 
of eye-observations can do, this appears to me the first use to put it to. 
Forty years of eye-observation have added enormously to our store of 
facts, but brought us little if anything nearer a theory. Is it not time to 
_ try some other line of investigation ? 

14. With respect to the behaviour of the horizontal component during 
disturbances, depending as it does upon two variables, the dip and total 
force, it is rather unsatisfactory, but we have good and extensive data, 
and whatever principle of measurement or solution is applied to, the 
declination, must, I apprehend, be extended to this element. 

15. With respect to the vertical component I doubt whether the 
available data are as yet comparable in precision with those of the other 
two elements. I saw, however, some admirable curves at Toronto, pro- 
duced by Professor Carpmael’s new instrument (I feel doubtful now 
whether they were curves of A Y or A@), which had all the character and 
freedom of those of the horizontal force, and when these have been worked 
ap and discussed we shall know a good deal more about the influence of 
disturbances in increasing or diminishing the dip and total force. 


III. By Professor Scuuster, F.R.S. 


T should like to submit to the Committee a few points to which their 
attention, in my opinion, might with advantage be directed. 

: It is now nearly fifty years since Gauss applied the method of expan- 
sion in spherical harmonics to the elements of terrestrial magnetism. He 
considered his results only as preliminary, on account of the incomplete- 
ness of the data on which he had to work. 


74 REPORT—1885. 


We possess now so much more information on the mean value of the 
terrestrial elements at different places, that, it seems to me, a repetition 
of the calculations of Gauss would lead to valuable results. Such a cal- 
culation would not only be of theoretical importance. For we might in 
this way detect many points of interest, as, for instance, where if anywhere 
masses of iron are present near the surface of the earth in sufficient 
quantity to affect the magnetic elements. At such places we should ex- 
pect the harmonic analysis to give correct results only if extended toa 
large number of terms, so that if we confine ourselves, like Gauss, to four 
or five terms only, and find considerable differences between the calculated 
and observed values at some part of the earth’s surface, we should have 
our attention specially directed to that part. 

It is only by a reduction such as that of Gauss that we shall be able 
to find out where we require further observations, and where a multiplica- 
tion of observations is unnecessary. 

It would be very desirable if we could extend the analysis of spherical 
harmonics to the daily variation of the elements and to magnetic dis- 
turbances generally. But it seems to me that if, as is likely, these changes 
are due to electric currents either above or below the earth’s surface but 
near it, the analysis would have to be carried to a large number of terms 
before it would yield satisfactory resulis. But this, of course, isa matter 
which the actual calculation only can settle, and we ought therefore, at 
any rate, to make the attempt to apply the method of Gauss to the daily 
variation. With our present knowledge of that variation at different 
places of the earth’s surfaces, there ought to be no difficulty in finding 
out whether five or six terms are sufficient to represent it, taking ac- 
count, of course, also of those terms which have their origin outside the 
earth. 

Some observations of Sabine made near the magnetic pole! seem to 
point to the fact that part of the diurnal variation is due to a vertical 
component of an electric current crossing tbe earth’s surface. Whether 
such a vertical component exists can be determined without difficulty, for 
we can actually measure it by taking the line integral of magnetic force 
at a given time over a closed curve on the earth’s surface. 

I should like, therefore, to propose to the Committee to find out, in the 
first place, what determinations of the magnetic elemerts ought to be 
taken account of in the reductions. In countries where we possess a great 
number of accurate data, it would seem only an increase of labour to take 
account of all of them. On the other hand, where we possess few 
measurements we should in all probability have to use even approximate 
determinations. It is a point for the Committee to decide whether we 
ought to take the places which are to be included in the calculation spread 
as evenly as possible over the earth’s surface, or whether a preponderance 
should be given to places near the magnetic poles or at other places of 
special importance. Also whether the more accurate observations ought 
to be weighed. Should the Committee approve of these reductions, it 
would be well to ask at the next meeting of the Association for a suflicient 
grant to engage the assistance of one or two computers. 

I should like in conclusion to submit a few observations respecting 
the remarks made by Professor Balfour Stewart and Sir Henry Lefroy. 
The function of the Committee seems to me to be a double one. In the 


' See Encyclopedia Britannica—Terrestrial Magnetism (art. Meteorology). 


_ ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 75 


first place, they are to discuss the best methods of reducing magnetic ob- 
servations ; but, before these methods can be put into execution, we must 
secure that the observations taken at different places are sufficiently 
homogeneous to admit of a common treatment. As we have to deal not 
with the individual observations, but with numbers which have already 
been reduced at the different observatories, it is clearly of importance that 
these preliminary reductions should be done everywhere in the same 
manner. Professor Stewart’s suggestions refer exclusively to this point, 
while Sir Henry Lefroy rather discusses the question as to how the measure- 
ments already in existence can be made to yield information of physical 
value, and as they are treating of different matters, there does not seem 
to me to be necessarily any real difference of opinion between them. 
While agreeing entirely with a great many of the remarks made by Sir 
Henry Lefroy, I believe that some common method of reduction like that 
proposed by Professor Stewart is necessary before we can gain any know- 
ledge of magnetical disturbances. With regard to the proposals them- 
selves, the principal question will always be, whether the different heads 
of observatories can be made to agree on a uniform plan. The exact 
nature of the method of reduction is a matter which has to be settled 
chiefly by those who have practical experience in magnetic observatories. 

The method of rejecting disturbed observations, commented upon by 
Sir Henry Lefroy, is, no doubt, open to objection. If it was simply our 
object to gain information on the mean value of magnetic elements, no 
observation however much disturbed ought to be rejected ; but as soon as 
we suspect that the mean value is not the normal value—that is to say, 
that disturbances act more frequently in one direction than in another— 
we are necessarily driven to adopt some method of rejecting disturbed 
observations. The objections raised by Sir Henry Lefroy against the par- 
ticular method employed by Sabine seem to me to be, however, very 
serious, but I can see no difficulty in amending that method so as to 
render it free of the difficulty. 


IV. Letter from Professor G. H. Darwin, F.R.S. 


Cambridge : 
June 10, 1885. 

A pricri I should not have thought of distinguishing between mean 
and normal values, but I suppose that it is desirable to do so. It is 
obvious that if all the observations for a month are analysed, we get the 
mean harmonic constituents. Then if we recompute the values with 
these constituents (which may be done with a tide predicter), and sub- 
tract the hourly values from the observations originally analysed, we get 
a series of residuals. Supposing from those residuals we arbitrarily cut 
out a certain number which are above some arbitrarily chosen magnitude, 
and submit the rest to harmonic analyses, and supposing these present 
us with a new series of constituents with pretty constant phases and 
amplitudes, then it would seem to me that we should be justified in the 
hypothesis that normal and mean are not the same thing. I must suppose 
that some process more or less equivalent to this has been carried out. 

I do not observe that any proposal is made to submit the monthly 
constants derived from harmonic analysis to a further analysis, and thus 
to derive the annual, semiannual, and terannual inequalities of the con- 


76 REPORT—1885. 


stituents. My meaning is that we ought to express the result in sets of 
terms of this form. 


Ay+A,cos6+A,cos29+ ... re: 
+a,sinO6+a,sin26+.... $ 


By +B, cos 64+ B, cos 20+... ee 
+b, siné6é+b,sin20+.... p 


I had some time back a letter from Chambers at Bombay in which he 
says that he considers he has detected a lunar inequality. Now, unless 
this is certainly incorrect, is it not desirable to submit the quantities to 
analysis according to lunar time? I take it that your proposal as to 
spherical harmonic representation is to put the Ag, Aj, As, a, de, &e., 
as constants multiplied by spherical harmonic functions of the latitude 
and longitude of the place of observation, Gauss had, as I fancy, only 
considered the mean values in this way, and you are proposing to treat 
the diurnal inequality in a similar manner. 

If much harmonic analysis is to be done, some form nearly like that 
used for tidal reductions would seem to be useful. 

The chief complication of those forms consists in the fact that the 
tide-heights are taken at exact solar hours, whereas we want measure- 
ments taken also at mean lunar and a number of other kind of hours. 
All this is avoided in your case, unless indeed you carry out an analysis 
for the alleged lunar influence. 

Yours sincerely, 
G. H. Darwin. 


V. Notes on the above Suggestions. By Professor Batrour Stewart. 


The suggestions of the Committee are invited upon the following 
points : 

1. Do they agree with the suggestion of Dr. Schuster, that it is of 
importance to ascertain the solar-diurnal variation of the three magnetic 
elements at various stations of the earth’s surface, with the view of treat- 
ing these after the method of Gauss ? 

2. Assuming that observations made at stations near the magnetic 
pole need special treatment, do the Committee think with Sir Henry 
Lefroy that even in ordinary localities the method of Sabine is objection- 
able for obtaining a correct value of the solar-diurnal variation? Asa 
good many declination observations have been treated by this method it 
is of importance to set the question at rest, and the suggestions of the 
Committee are invited as to the best means of doing this. 

3. What do the Committee think of the herein-recorded method of 
obtaining the solar-diurnal variations in the case of the horizontal and 
vertical force instruments? I may state that a point of immediate 
scientific importance arises regarding the V. F. solar-diurnal variation, 
inasmuch as the observers at Lisbon and Bombay suspect that this, unlike 
the diurnal variations of the other two elements, does not vary with the 
state of the sun’s surface. It would be very desirable to obtain con- 
clusive evidence of this from other stations, 


ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 40 


VI. Remarks on Magnetic Reductions. By Senhor Caretto. 


The method of the separation of the disturbances of the readings of 
the bifilar and the vertical force, of which I have sent a réswmé, and the 
examples of the calculation of the last year, seems practical enough to me, 
although it will give some trouble. It has, however, retained the prin- 
cipal fault, the arbitrary nature of the quantity which constitutes the 
disturbance. To practise this method upon the hourly observations of 
the vertical force is not, I think, more difficult than upon the bifilar. 

With respect to the vertical-force instrument of this observatory, I do 
not find it very inferior to the bifilar, except for some months on two or 
three occasions, during which the equilibrium position was not good, for 
the curves had shown a jumping motion; otherwise it has answered 
almost as well as the bifilar, notably in the three or four last years, 
where the coefficient of temperature is very much reduced by the adop- 
tion of a contrivance to compensate the effects of temperature. 

Our photographs already embrace twenty-one complete years. The 
meteorological work, and the care connected with the administration of 
the observatory and the meteorological stations absorb the greater part 
of our time. The reductions of the magnetic observations are very much 
behind, and it would be difficult to advance simultaneously all the 
elements as they should be; therefore I think that it would be convenient 
to establish an agreement upon the work which by preference it is de- 
sirable to accomplish, and for what period for a general comparison. 
With regard to No. 7 of the suggestions of Sir J. H. Lefroy, I am en- 
tirely of his opinion, and I will add my ideas upon some researches that 
I think would throw light upon the causes of the disturbances. 

1. Ina paper by Messrs. Capello and B. Stewart (‘ Proc. R.S.,’ January 
28, 1864) upon a first comparison of the disturbances at Kew and at 
Lisbon, we have recognised that of the little and abrupt disturbances of 
three to five minutes’ duration (which are called peaks and hollows), and 
which are seen simultaneously in the three curves, those of the dech- 
nation and of the vertical force are in the same direction at Kew and in 
the contrary direction at Lisbon; that is to say, while the north end of 
the declination needle at Lisbon goes towards east the same end of the 
vertical-force instrument dips. The contrary happens at Kew, the north 
end of the declination needle going towards east, while the same end of 
the vertical-force raises itself. 

Again, on the other hand, we have also recognised the agreement of 
the behaviour of the peaks and hollows of the declination curves at Kew 
and at Lisbon. Thus one vertical peak at Lisbon corresponds always to 
a hollow at Kew, and vice versd. It would be interesting (1) to extend 
this research upon peaks and hollows further; that is to say, between 
more distant observatories, employing the utmost rigour possible in the 
time-measures, in order to recognise if the times of the appearances of 
the peaks are absolutely the same, or if there is a sensible difference in 
the most distant observatories. (2) Again, we ought to look in some 
observatory immediately between Lisbon and Kew in order to see if the 
vertical-force peaks correspond sometimes to the peaks, sometimes te 
the hollows of the declination. 

2. For the study of the disturbances I think it would be necessary 
that each observatory furnished with magnetographs should make pro- 


78 REPORT—1885. 


jections upon the plane perpendicular to the inclination-needle, of the 
movement during the disturbance of the dipping pole of such a needle 
supposed to be suspended without friction by its centre of gravity.’ 

This projection ought to be constructed by means of the declination 
variations (Ad) and those of the inclination ( A‘) ; the first being multi- 
plied by the cosine of the inclination (cos 7), in order to its reduction in 
the inclination direction. 

The readings of the three curves being made at the time of the first 
meridian, chosen at intervals of 2m., 3m., or 5m., according to the 
degree of precision which is desired, their differences are taken by com- 
parison with the first reading, and these differences should be reduced 
according to the values of the coefficients. In combining the values of 
the movements of the vertical force and of the bifilar, we find by the 
known formula (4issini cos (FZ = “* )) the variations of the incli- 
nation; these variations are projected upon the chart in vertical directions, 
having reference to the first reading, and those of the declination in 
horizontal directions, employing a convenient scale. 

Here is an example:—Four hours of the disturbance of the Ist of 
February, 1881, 0h. to 4h. (time of Pawlowsk) at Kew, and Lisbon 
readings being at the intervals of five minutes. 

Tt is noticed that all the movements are reproduced in the two figures, 
They are generally at great length, and now and then deformed at Kew 
and of different inclination by comparison with the horizontal line. 
All the movements at Lisbon and Kew are executed in the manner con- 
trary to the hands of a watch. The aspect is sooner at Kew. 

If we make a similar research upon other more distant observatories— 
for example, Pawlowsk and Toronto—the same movements are still re- 
marked ; but some aspects are completely deformed, the movements at 
Toronto being executed in the manner of the hands of a watch. 

The measurements in these researches have been taken from the 
curves of a scheme of a study of Mr. Wild upon the disturbances of 
February 1, 1881. 


VII. Observations on Magnetic Reductions. By Dr. H. Witp. 


As Messrs. Balfour Stewart and Brito Capelloin the ‘ Suggestions for 
the Committee on Magnetical Reductions,’ as well as Herr T. P. van der 
Stok in the ‘Communications of the International Polar Commission,’ 
No. 109, have clearly shown, there are to be distinguished in the varia- 
tions of the magnetic elements—Ilst, their normal daily periods; 2nd, 
the slow and constant changes which the absolute values of the days’ 
means of these show; 3rd, the eventually different daily periods which 


1 T think that it would be possible to construct a very simple instrument which 
could well register by photography all such disturbances, which would make these 
researches less laborious, avoiding all the measures and reductions which are always 
laborious. Let alittle needle be suspended conveniently by the centre of gravity, 
employing a thread of silk. In one point of this needle let there be a mirror per- 
pendicular to its magnetic axis. A luminous slit might be made to fall almost 
perpendicularly upon the mirror, registering the movement in all the directions of 
the needle. In order that these movements should not be confounded and super- 
posed, the registering cylinder should proceed by jerks from hour to hour, or oftener 
according to experience. 


ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 79 


the deviations from the normal daily path show.! In how far we are to 
conceive of the two last variations as disturbances must, in my opinion, 
be decided by experience. 

In any case we require, for the fixing and estimation of these last varia- 
tions, a distinct starting point, which the normal daily path may present. 

It is, therefore, specially important here to establish this normal dail 
path of the magnetic elements. Nowregarding the method which Sabine 
has devised for this, and also used so much, there is, in the first place, 
displayed what Lefroy, Weyprecht, and others have made so prominent, 
the arbitrary nature of the limits which are assumed for the expulsion of 
the so called disturbed data. Among the different proposals which have 
been made for a rational fixing to these limits the most worthy of notice 
is that of Buys Ballot, in which these limits are to be set where the devia- 
tions begin to show another period. Van der Stok has distinctly modified 
the Sabine method for the discovery of the normal daily path. His 
altogether very complicated method suffers, in my opinion, from the same 
wide evils as the Sabine method, viz., that it proceeds from the daily 
paths, derived, like them, from the sum of all observations without dis- 
tinction, i.e. including disturbances. Now it is evidently, as Weyprecht 
has already shown, impossible out of the so procured data to get rid alto- 
gether of the influence of the disturbances on the normal daily path, if 
these are not quite irregularly distributed over the day, but are all subject 
to a certain daily period. Lefroy again, in his working out of observations 
at Fort Simpson and Lake Athabasca, has not employed all the data for 
the deriving of the first hour’s means, but only the days and hours which, 
according to him, were not to be regarded as disturbed, i.e. where the 
amplitude of the movements does not go beyond a certain limit. The 
fact that the exclusion of these movements is not settled through the 
criterion of Buys Ballot on the one hand, as well as the consideration, on 


the other, that days with not less amplitude of movement may also be 


disturbed, because the disturbed periods might unite with the normal 
periods, so as to weaken themselves through interference (which, as we 
shall see, is partly the case), prevents the method from being satisfactory. 
In the Programme and in the Sittings of the fourth International Polar 
Conference in Vienna (April 1884) I have given out and developed a 
new method for the derivation of the normal daily path of the magnetic 
elements (see ‘Communications of the International Polar Commission,’ 
No. 94, p. 199; No. 97, pp. 208, 211; No. 98, pp. 254, 255, 257, 258), 
which is supported by the observation that in the magnetograph traces, 
even at the epoch of maximum disturbances, in every month are to be 
found a number of days in which a quite regular, and also as regards 
these days concerned a recurring periodical path is distinctly recognised. 
_ I regard these days as days with undisturbed daily paths, and the 
ourly means of all these days as representative of the normal daily path 
of the elements concerned in the month in question, according to its 
relative as well as to its absolute size. The selection of these normal days 
may from the first likewise seer very arbitrary ; in practice, however, 
this is not the case, as hardly a doubt can arise as to which days are to 
be taken, and besides the result will not be very distinctly different 
whether one chooses one or two days more or less, if from the first one 
? For the sake of simplicity I have spoken here only of the daily periods ; clearly 


for the remaining periods also, which show the variations of the earth’s magnetism, 
suitable distinctions can be made. 


80 REPORT—1885. 


only takes the precaution to eliminate through linear interpolation any 
sudden and individual disturbances which in such days at times 
show themselves. The differences of all the observed data from the so 
obtained values of the normal daily path in each month I regard as 
deviations from the normal, effected by some disturbing circumstances. 
Should, e.g., all these deviations for all hours’ values be put in the form 
of a table, and should each be distinguished as positive and negative, 
either by certain signs or, according to Balfour Stewart, by different 
colours, we should recognise at once, from the similarity of the signs and 
the nearly similar size of the figures, whether a day was disturbed uni- 
formly positive and negative, and from the recurrence of the positive 
figures at certain hours, and negative in certain cther hours on different 
days, whether the disturbance points to a new period different from 
the normal daily periods. In order to establish these conclusions with 
numerical correctness, it is best to group the deviations according to their 
extent, separating negative and positive, and then to investigate their 
periodicity as Buys Ballot has proposed. 

Herr D. Miller has worked out according to these principles the 
jottings of the magnetograph in the Observatory of Pawlowsk for the 
period of the International Polar Expedition, August 1882 to August 1883. 
His important results have been laid by me before the Imperial Academy 
of Science, May 21 and June 2, 1885, and are at present published 
in the ‘ Repertorium for Meteorology.’ Without entering into the details 
of Herr Miiller’s results, I only remark that the success of the first 
attempt seems to speak well for this method. The course of the contained 
normal daily path in the separate months has unexpectedly become regular 
for all three elements—declination, horizontal and vertical intensity, and 
also for inclination and total intensity. The days’ means of the normal 
days show proportionally small differences, and only the greater devia- 
tions have a pronounced different periodicity, which again is different for 
the positive and negative. Herr Miiller has therefore only pointed out 
the latter as disturbances, and the former as simple oscillations about the 
normal path. For two months, October 1882 and March 1883, I have 
prepared a comparison of Sabine’s method for the declination with that 
got by Miiller from my method. Here, in the calculation according to 
Sabine, + 2 is assumed as the limiting value for the expulsion of dis- 
turbances ; and these operations for individual hours were repeated as 
often as eight times. In spite of this, there is shown by a glance at the 
enclosed table that even by the Sabine method the influence of the pre- 
vailing positive disturbances late in the forenoon, and of the maximum of 
the negative disturbances in the afternoon, could not be eliminated from 
the result. I have the intention to get worked out according to this new 
method, which, in short, is applicable to all these data, certain traces of 
magnetographs in St. Petersburg and later in Pawlowsk from 1870, and 
have for this purpose for the whole period chosen the normal days out of 
the photograms. 

From this came the unexpected result that the number of these at the 
time of the minimum of the sun spots is not so much greater than at the 
time of the maximum. 


81 


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82 REPORT— 1885. 


VIII. Letter from Sir Frederick Evans to Professor Stewart. 


21 Dawson Place, Bayswater, London, W. : 
May 9, 1885. 


Dear Professor Balfour Stewart,—I shall be glad to render the 
Magnetic Committee all the assistance in my power, but I have been much 
out of sorts in my health for some time, and cannot so well undertake 
any work requiring much application. 

On Tuesday I leave London for a few days, and will take the papers 
with me you forwarded on the 6th instant. 

Until we see our way more clearly, it is the discussion of the dis- 
turbances of the Declination needle which appears to me the most im- 
portant to break ground upon. Ona clear insight of the probable laws 
at a few selected stations in both hemispheres, a discussion of other 
elements might well follow. Too grand a scheme and complicated 
methods of research would, I fear, break down. Sabine’s methods had, at 
least, simplicity to recommend them. 

A letter to the above address will reach me. 

Yours faithfully, 
Frepk. Jno. Evans. 


IX. Letter from the Astronomer Royal to Professor Stewart. 


Royal Observatory, Greenwich, London, §.E. : 
July 8. 


Dear Prof. Stewart,—The printed suggestions for the Committee on 
Magnetical Reductions arrived at a very busy time, and since then I have 
been away from home; hence the delay. 

As there is some difficulty in discussing abstract questions, I think 
it would save misunderstanding if you would make your suggestions with 
reference to our Magnetical Results for 1883, now in the press, of which 
I send youacopy. There are several additions and alterations which I 
have introduced in consultation with Mr. Ellis, in order to give as much 
information as practicable about the magnetic curves. We now give, in 
addition to mean values of the magnetic elements for each day and the 
mean diurnal curves for each month, the daily range, 7.c., the amplitude 
of the diurnal curve for each day, and particulars of all disturbances, 
small as well as large (either in the notes or in the plates). Harmonie 
analysis also has been applied to the diurnal variations for each month 
and for the year. 

Now the question is, how far the suggestions of the Committee are 
carried out in the results given. As for rejection of disturbances, I am 
inclined to agree with Sir Henry Lefroy in his objection to Sabine’s 
mode of treatment. At Greenwich the practice has been to draw @ 
pencil curve smoothing down the irregularities of the trace, and to reject as 
disturbed those days for which a continuous pencil curve, agreeing gene- 
rally in form with the normal curve, could not be drawn through the trace. 
I see no reason to modify this. 

Yours very truly, 
W. H. M. Curistiz. 


ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 83 


X. Letter from George M. Whipple, Esq., to Professor Stewart. 


Kew Observatory : 
July 29, 1885. 

Dear Prof. Stewart,—I have carefully read the paper you were so 
good as to forward to me, ‘ Suggestions for the Committee on Magnetical 
Reductions,’ and must confess that I am in most points fully in accord- 
ance with Sir H. Lefroy. 

I would much rather trust to the solution of the various problems of 
Terrestrial Magnetism by a farther and more extended series of com- 
parison of curves than by an extension of numerical processes. 

The reduction of the Fort Rae observation shows how enormously 
large and frequent the variations may be in some parts of the earth; 
and such being the case, I fail to see how any useful purpose could be 
served by the repetition of the calculations of Gauss. 

I think that magneticians should endeavour, if possible, to enter into 
communication with geologists and seismologists, and endeavour to trace 
out clearly the causes of (what I would term) superficial variations, pro- 
bably due, Prof. Schuster says, to electric currents, for localities well 
furnished with magnetic observatories, such as Europe, rather than to 
attempt at once to solve the whole problem of distribution throughout the 
earth of magnetic matter. Tam, yours faithfully, 

G. M. Wuiprtz, Superintendent. 


P.S.—I enclose also copy of some remarks addressed by Capt. Dawson 
and myself to the Vienna Congress on the subject. 


Further and additional remarks on the questions to be submitted to the 
Vienna International Polar Conference. 


We are of opinion that careful inspection of the observations them- 
selves will suffice to show the days and hours when the diurnal curve 
follows its normal course. From days and hours selected by this inspec- 
tion, mean curves may be obtained, and ultimately by interpolation a 
Series of hourly values may be arrived at for every day in the year. 

Readings differing from these values by more than a certain separat- 
ing value should be set aside and discussed as disturbances. It appears 
to us probable that the principle of determining the mean monthly diurnal 
curves for each station from observations selected only on such days as 
are shown by evidence of magnetographs elsewhere to have been mag- 
netically calm, assumes beforehand a uniformity of magnetic conditions 


_ over the globe, and might, therefore, fail at certain stations. A rough | 


comparison of Fort Rae and Kew Observatory results indicates to us that 
itis rather more advisable to deal with hours and not with days as a 


whole, and that therefore some rule, either Sabine’s or Lloyd’s, must of 


: 
: 
: 
. 


necessity be adopted. 

There seems no objection to the application, first, of Lloyd’s rule to 
throw out disturbances, and then to the subsequent classification of these 
disturbances after the method suggested by Wild. 

We fail to see as yet any method of introducing possible corrections 
for sun-spot periodicity into observations made during so short an inter- 
val of time at stations where no previous observations have been taken ; 


and therefore recommend that this disturbing element be omitted entirely 
G2 


84 REPORT—1885. 


Lt; ~— Ia 


from the proposed international discussion, and left entirely to specialists 
for snbsequent treatment. , 

With regard to the discussion of disturbances, we would suggest that 
each expedition should draw up a list of the days, selected according to : 
Gottingen time, considered by them a disturbed day, and then from a 
comparison of such lists the Conference should decide on what days 
should be selected for particular discussion in addition to the term days. 

Question 3.—Dr. Wild’s suggestion as to plotting the curves is so 
very convenient that we have already adopted it in making preliminary 
curves of the Fort Rae observations. It will be necessary in addition, 
however, to decide upon the scale of abscissee to be used for the 20- 
second interval observations on term hours. We suggest the employment 
of a scale giving six minutes of abscissee to each minute of time. 

Questions 4 and 5.—The conversion of Gaussian units into those of 
the C.G.S. system is so simple that it is unnecessary for the Conference — 
to disturb the existing historic system. The Kew Observatory has already 
for years published their results in both systems. The foot-grain system ~ 
is rapidly becoming obsolete, most magnetometers now constructed having 
métre instead of foot scales. 


XI. Letter from General Lefroy to Professor Stewart. 


82 Queen’s Gate, S.W.: 

July 15, 1885. 
My dear Professor,—I have carefully read, and return herewith, the 
papers of Senhor Capello and Dr. Wild. I have difficulty in attaching — 
a physical idea to the ingenious method of projection proposed by Senhor — 

Capello. He gives the movement, projected on a plane perpendicular to 

the dip of the axis or intersection of the plane of dip and the plane of 
declination; but I do not see how the variations of total force are to be — 
shown in conjunction with this, or with what physical notions to connect — 
the resulting curves. The actual realisation of the suspension of a 
needle by its centre of gravity without friction in any direction, especi- 
ally if counterpoised to carry a mirror, would be a great achievement, — 
but, with great respect, I doubt its being possible. Still his comparison — 


of Lisbon and Pawlowsk is very curious, and strongly confirms my belief 


that, be our stations few or many, the results at all of them must be 
brought into one view, by identity of treatment and prompt circulation, 
to obtain a clue, and to effect this we want a Deus ex machina. i 

My file of bulletins of the International Polar Commission does not go_ 
beyond Part 5. I have not seen Herr van der Stok’s communication, which — 
Dr. Wild refers to. It has occurred to me, following a hint of Lloyd’s,! 
that the area of movements would be a good measure of the forces pro- 
ducing them, and that it might be possible by an instrument on the prin- 
ciple of Amsler’s planimeter to integrate these areas for the whole 
twenty-four hours, or any not very small portions of it, in moderate dis- 
turbances. The extremely active ones would not be easily measurable. 
To take cognisance, as has sometimes been done, of those movements 
only which coincide with hours of mean time or Gottingen time, appears 
to me to forego the special advantages of continuous record. I agree 
with Dr. Wild that there is no difficulty in selecting the normal days at 


1 Trans. R.I.A., vol. xxii. 


ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 85 


any station, but whether they would be the same at other stations has 
not, as far as I know, been ascertained. Lloyd,as you know, worked out 
the consequences of adopting every possible value of disturbance test. 
Sabine has given two or three values, all purely empirical. If my plan 
of areas were practically feasible, it does seem to me free from that ob- 
jection. Dr. Wild appears to disregard magnitude, and to refer all the 
observed data to his normal values, and I think nothing less comprehen- 
sive will be found satisfactory inthelong run. It is gratifying, however, 
to find that his results are not widely different from those obtained by 
Sabine’s method. As Dr. Wild quotes Toronto, I suppose that some 
limited circulation and occasional comparison does go on, but Carpmael 
has no staff to keep it up regularly. We all want more hands, which 
means more money. 
Believe me faithfully yours, 
J. H. Lerroy. 


XII. Observations, §c. By Cuartes Cuaupers, F.R.S. 
Superintendent, Colaba Observatory, Bombay. 


There can be little doubt that the activity displayed during the last 
quarter of a century in the record of the phenomena of terrestrial mag- 
netism was induced mainly by the interesting results to which Sabine 
was led in his discussions of the observations of the British, colonial, and 
other observatories ; that it was in the hope of extending and completing 
such results by wider observation, that men of science in all parts of the 
civilised world urged upon their respective Governments the advisability 
of establishing magnetical observatories. ew who have studied Sabine’s 
Memoirs—displaying, amongst other remarkable generalisations, the out- 
lines of a system of the globe in respect of the regular solar diurnal: 
variations and the variations of these with the season of the year, and 
connecting with the sun-spot period variations of the range of the regular 
diurnal variation of declination and of the aggregate amounts of dis- 
turbance—will doubt the wisdom of the influence thus brought to bear 
on the guardians of the public purse, nor, whatever else may be done, of 
the propriety of carrying the work to the legitimate conclusion of extend- 
ing and completing Sabine’s results. To act otherwise, in the absence of 
a physical theory to which there is as yet no clue, would be to admit a 
change of judgment which there is nothing in the circumstances of the 
present day, any more than there was at the time when the work of auto- 
matic registration was initiated, to justify, and would, moreover, be to 
discourage the statesmen who, by the provision of funds, have aided in 
the production of records of the crude phenomena, from making farther 
Sacrifices in that direction: these dignitaries would, in their capacity of 
trustees for society, rightly complain that they had been led to expect 
systematised knowledge, but had been given instead piles of records of 
unused facts, and that the responsibility and expense of preserving these 
4s scarcely a substitute for the reward they had been dazzled with the 
promise of, 

2. In my opinion the scientific authorities, on whose advice much 

- money has been spent in procuring many years’ continuous records, are 
bound in honour to see that the representations which induced the various 
- Governments to provide funds are justified by at least a full carrying out 


86 REPORT—1885. 


of the original purposes as to the uses to which the records were to be 
applied. 

PPS. The fact is that funds have been expended too exclusively upon 
material appliances, and upon agency for working them: the statesman 
can understand that his country gets a tangible return when observatory 
buildings, instruments, operators, records, and reports appear before him 
as a result of the grants that he makes; but it is for the man of science, 
the original adviser, to make him understand that these are very delusive 
results unless supplemented by appropriate measurement, computation, 
and discussion. 

4, And this is the more important inasmuch as the cost of utilising 
the records, even up to the point suggested by Sabine’s examples, will 
at least equal the amount that has been expended in their production. 
It is indispensable that inexpensive measuring, copying, and computing 
power should be used, under skilled direction, on a large scale; and here 
it is that the main part of the cost arises. It would be simple waste of 
superior energy to set a cultivated physicist to the appalling task of per- 
forming the simple but multitudinous series of operations that are involved 
in any adequate treatment of the observations ; and it is to the insufficiency 
of suitable agency in the working power of existing observatories that is 
probably to be attributed the fact that so little has yet been done in the 
way of independent reduction and discussion of the records of the auto- 
matic magnetic instruments. That the work before us is laborious and 
costly is, however, no argument against the undertaking of it if we have 
reason to believe that an adequate return will be obtained; and a more 
costly process is to be preferred to a less costly one if the quality of the 
results that are the outcome of it is higher in a corresponding degree. 

5. I cannot but think that the wonderful progress made during the 
last century in the experimental sciences is apt to make us unduly im- 
patient of the necessarily slower progress of the observational sciences. 
tf astronomy had, during the progress of observation, to have its period 
of phenomenal generalisation—its Ptolemy, its Copernicus, its Kepler— 
before light as to the mode of physical causation dawned upon its 
Newton, is it much to be wondered at that a much more complicated 
science, as terrestrial magnetism undoubtedly is, should have to pass 
through its period of discovery of general phenomenal relations—relations 
which the physical theory will ultimately have to explain—before the 
conditions essential to the conception of a general theory can be laid 
down? 

6. It will be seen that whilst I have no faith in the flights of genius 
that would look at the crude facts as nature presents them to us, and 
from such complex data devise a theory to unravel the complexity, I have 
the greatest confidence in appropriate methods of analysation as leading 
to relatively simple phenomenal generalisations, and thence, inevitably in 
the long run, to the desired physical theory. The first step to be taken 
should, I think, be to collect together all accessible results that have 
already been worked out and published of the nature of— 

(1) The regular solar-diurnal variations ; 

(2) The disturbance variations—dinrnal, annual, and secular; and 

(8) The lunar-diurnal variations ; 
and to convert the expression of them for each of the elements, declination, 
horizontal force, and vertical force, as far as available, into metre-gramme- 
second or ©.G.S. units of force. If not already done, the averages of 


ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 87 


(1) should be calculated for each month from the separate results of all 
the years that are available, and curves be constructed to represent these 
average monthly variations according to time-scales and force-scales which 
would be marked on the curve-forms. It would be convenient that the 
curves should appear, for any one station, in a row, beginning with 
January, on a long narrow slip of thick paper, so that the sets of curves 
for any one station might be placed close under those of any other 
station for easy comparison. For preservation, the slips of paper would 
be kept in a portfolio, not bound into a book. Curves on a less elaborate 
scale, as would be suggested by the meagreness (or fulness) of the 
materials collected, might similarly be constructed on slips to represent 
the variations (2) and (3). Such series of curves, to the extent to which 
data for them would be found easily accessible, would, I imagine, con- 
stitute a conclusive answer to those who doubt the utility of extending 
investigation in the same direction; but, taking continuity of change of 
character of the variations in passing from place to place as a criterion 
of the value and importance of the results obtained, they would also 
serve the further purpose of suggesting whether and where Sabine’s 
methods are exact enough, or to what extent the application of even more 
laborious processes of reduction would be justified. These curves should 
be lithographed on thick slips of paper, and distributed amongst the 
directors of observatories and other students of terrestrial magnetism ; 
and, as little in the shape of description or comment need accompany 
them, the originals could be produced by agency of an order that should 
be readily obtainable, and that would require but little supervision, from 
some specialist member of the Committee. 

The curves might, with advantage, be accompanied by a table of the 
absolute values of the elements declination, horizontal force, and vertical 
force for each station; and also by tables of ranges of the solar-diurnal 
variations of each element on the average of each full year. 

7. It has been well established by Broun and myself that the so-called 
lunar-diurnal variation is a function both of the season of the year and 
of the age of the moon, and there is reason for believing that the bulk of 
the phenomena is really a part of the regular solar-diurnal variation, a 
part that reverses its character four times in the course of the lunation. 

Now the adoption, by Sabine’s process, of a uniform solar-diurnal 
variation for the whole of a calendar month, whilst perhaps accurate 
enough for the determination of the general character of the disturbance 
laws, leaves much to be desired when the object we are in quest of is a 
minute variation which has, in the case of the declination, a less range 
than a single minute of arc, and which is subject to variation of character 
with change of season. Here we require that a mean solar-diurnal 
variation should be calculated for each individual day, in order that the 
elimination of mean solar effect should be nearly complete; and knowing 
that either a part of the solar-diurnal variation, or the bulk of the lunar- 
diurnal variation, runs through a cycle of change in a lunation, the best 
period for which to calculate the daily means is a mean lunation, or the 
nearest odd number of mean solar days to a mean lunation—that is to say, 
twenty-nine days. The importance of this period should be kept in view 
from the first, whether or not there is any immediate purpose of investi- 
gating the lunar-diurnal variations, and my present object is not so much 
to advocate the inclusion of such investigations in the first general 
scheme of operations as to explain why the period of twenty-nine days 


88 REPORT—1885. 


enters into modifications that I would suggest of the procedure proposed 
by Dr. Balfour Stewart in dealing with the horizontal force tabulations, 
but which modified process should, I think, be applied also to the de- 
clination tabulations. 

Tt is not a general rule that the hours at which the bulk of disturb- 
ance occurs are the same for both the elements declination and hori- 
zontal force; and hence—though it is highly probable that disturbance 
of some degree in one element occurs on the same day as disturbance of 
another degree in the other—we cannot with safety allot the disturbances 
to identical hours. 

8. First, I would substitute for Sabine’s classification of disturbances 
as ‘larger’ and ‘smaller,’ a division into those that are without the 
limits set by the normal + the separating value, and those that are 
within those limits; and instead of rejecting disturbed observations I 
would, at such step of Sabine’s process for separating the larger dis- 
turbances, replace each disturbed entry by the same number minus the 
disturbance without the limits—as apparent at that stage. The dis- 
turbances without the limits would be separated and the laws of their 
variations determined by the methods that Sabine applied to his larger 
disturbances, but the disturbances within the limits would remain in- 
volved with the regular variations until a late stage of the investigations. 

9. Secondly, as regards progressive change in the readings, both of 
the declination and horizontal force instruments, it would, I think, gene- 
rally suffice to treat that change as uniform during the course of a month. 
Having entered the hourly tabulations for a given month on a table 
(A call it) having the hours marked at the top of the columns and the 
days of the month in the first or left-hand column, and having taken 
daily means, I would take the mean of the first fifteen of those daily 
means and the last fifteen of the preceding month’s table A as the mean 
number for the beginning of the month ; and similarly the mean number 
for the end of the month would be the mean of the last fifteen daily means 
of that month and the first fifteen of the next following month. Change 
at the uniform rate indicated by the mean numbers! for the beginning 
and end of the month I would eliminate from the original hourly tabula- 
tions of table A, and enter the new number on a new table (B), to which 
I would proceed to apply Sabine’s (modified) process. This would lead 
to a general knowledge of the regular solar-diurnal variations for each 
month, and of the laws of the disturbance variations ; and here a rest- 
ing-place might be found if it were desired to compare results from 
different stations before proceeding with more elaborate reductions. 

10. To proceed, however, I would next, having obtained the amounts 
of disturbance without the limits, eliminate these amounts from the re- 
spective disturbed observations of table A, calling the table thus altered 
(A’), and this table should form the basis of discussion in respect of the 
regular solar-diurnal variations for each day, the lunar-diurnal variations, 
and the laws of variation of disturbances within the limits. 

From table (A’), and the corresponding table of the preceding and 
following months, I would construct another similar table (C), each entry 
in which would be the 29-day mean of the numbers for the same hour 


1 The effects of disturbances without the limits on the daily means I would take 
to be sufficiently indicated by the departures of those means from corresponding 
daily means, as calculated from the mean numbers for the beginning and end of the 
month, with a uniform rate of change from one to the other. 


‘ Ma 


ola 


ON COMPARING AND REDUCING MAGNETIC OBSERVATIONS. 89 


in table (A’), viz., of the numbers for the day of the entry and the four- 
teen preceding and fourteen following days. The numbers of table C 
for all the hours of a given day we may take to represent very approxi- 
mately the mean solar-diurnal variation—plus a constant—for that day, 
the average extending over the lunation of which that day is the middle 
day. They will be affected by progressive change of the values of the 
tabulations, and by disturbance within the limits. 

11. Lastly, the excesses of the numbers of table (A’) over the corre- 
sponding numbers in table C, plus a constant round number,! should be 
entered on a fourth table (D). The numbers of this table, which will be 
affected only by that part of the solar-diurnal variation which goes 
through a cycle of change in a lunation, and by disturbance within the 
limits, we may proceed to arrange in new tables with reference to the 
moon’s age and the season (or month) of the year,? and so determine 
the character of the variations which the luni-solar-diurnal variation is 
subject to. Having done this, a further elimination will put us in pos- 
session of residual numbers, the variation of which must be attributed 
solely to disturbances within the limits, and may be studied and the 
numbers be manipulated accordingly. 

12. I agree with Dr. Balfour Stewart that the time has not yet 
arrived for laying down rules for the treatment of the vertical force 
tabulations. 


XIII. Letter from the Rev. Professor 8. J. Perry, F.R.S. 


September 8, 1885. 


Dear Dr. Schuster,—I have read over the Report Dr. Stewart kindly 
forwarded, and I cannot help thinking that our first step should be to 
collect the results already obtained for the Daily Range of the Declina- 
tion, reduce the means already worked out to a common scale, and then 
distribute the whole in a tabular and in a graphical form. Much might 
be learnt from seeing these results in a collective form, and we could then 
hetter judge how far processes more laborious than those of Sir Edward 
Sabine are like to repay the labour. 

If all observations are made use of in deducing the Daily Mean Range 
the Disturbance period will certainly interfere with the Solar Diurnal 
Range, and if we pick out quiet curves in which the Daily Range is well 
marked, we are very liable to give undue weight to variations in the 
Daily Range which are independent of ordinary disturbances. 

Yours very truly, 
S. J. Perry. 


? The constant round number is added to avoid the inconvenience of having to 
deal afterwards with positive and negative numbers. 

* Ifaseparate table be allotted to each day of the moon's age, the resulting 
mean variations will be practically the same whether the hours refer to the solar or 
the lunar day ; and as the numbers available are for the exact hours of the solar day, it 
18 Convenient to let the arrangement of the table be for the solar day rather than for 
the lunar day, 


90 REPORT—1885. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Crum Brown 
(Secretary), Mr. MitneE Home, Mr. Jonn Murray, and Mr. 
Bucwan, appointed for the purpose of co-operating with the 
Scottish Meteorological Society in making Meteorological Obser- 
vations on Ben Nevis. 


Dorinc the past twelve months the observations on Ben Nevis have 
been made every hour, by night as well as by day. This remarkable 
continuity in the observations, conducted under such great difficulties, is 
due to the enthusiasm and undaunted devotion to the work evinced by 
Mr. Omond and his assistants, and to the completion of the Observatory 
building last summer with its tower, which admits of a ready egress 
from the Observatory when the doors are blocked with rapidly accumu- 
lating snow-drifts, except during those rare occasions, of which the winter 
months of 1884-85 afforded only one example, in the great storm of 
February, when from 6 p.m. of the 21st to 8 a.m. of the 22nd no light 
could be carried in a lantern outside to the instruments. This inter- 
ruption refers only to the observations of the temperature of the air. 

During the year the most notable additions made to the observations 
refer to the rainfall and the wind. The actual precipitation—rain, sleet, 
snow, or hail—has been collected with rain-gauges specially designed for 
the purpose, and measured with the greatest care every hour since 
June 24, 1884, with, it is believed, a very close approximation to the 
truth ; and the hourly results for each month have been calculated. 

In the end of October the anemometers designed by Professor 
Chrystal for the Observatory, to register continuously the velocity and 
direction of the wind, were added to the observing instruments. Unfor- 
tunately, however, in the colder months of the year the deposition of 
ice-crystals, which Mr. Omond has described in a recent paper, renders 
all anemometers quite useless, except at rare intervals. During the 
seven months from November 1, 1884, to May 51, 1885, there was only a 
mean of thirty days in which the anemometer was in working order. 
During these days the greatest velocity was on the night of April 24-25, 
when for twelve hours the mean velocity was seventy-four miles, rising 
one hour to eighty-one miles. 

Estimations of wind-force have continued to be made every hour 
during the year, and the results show, as in the previous year, that the 
wind is above the mean daily force during the night and below it during 
the day. The maximum occurred from 2 to 3 A.M. and the minimum 
from 2 to 3 p.m., the difference between the extremes being between two 
and three miles an hour. The means of the observations made since the 
Observatory was opened sbow that the same relation holds good during 
each of the four seasons. These peculiarities in the diurnal variation in 
the velocity of the wind on Ben Nevis are of the greatest importance, 
especially in view of similar curves obtained at other high-level obser- 
vatories situated on mountain peaks, and by Mr. Archibald Douglas from 
his balloon observations and experiments, and their bearing on atmo- 
spheric movements. 

During July 1885 the anemometers have been continuously at work, 
and there are now before us a month’s complete hourly records of 
reccrded velocities and estimated wind-force. The curves drawn from 


aif 
4 


ON METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS ON BEN NEVIS. 9} 


the results of these two methods are closely congruent. This double set 
of observations supply the data for a more exact conversion of the 
estimations of wind-force, according to Beaufort’s scale, into their equiva- 
lents in miles. A large number of similar observations made on board 
the Challenger also form a valuable contribution to this inquiry. So 
far as the observations go, they appear to indicate that the equivalents in 
miles usually given for the higher numbers of Beaufort’s scale are too 
small. From 8 to 9 am. of August 9 the anemometer registered 
86 miles, and during this hour the estimated force was from 8 to 9 
of the scale. The equivalent in miles for this force, provisionally 
adopted by the Meteorological Council, is from 48 to 56 miles. What is 
the number of miles when an estimated force of 10 or 11, which has 
been not unfrequently recorded during the colder months of the year, is 
reached and maintained for some time remains to be seen. Instances 
will in all probability occur during the autumn before the ice-deposits of 
the wind practically seal up the anemometer for the winter months. 

The mean temperature for the year ending May 1885 was 30°6, or 
0°-3 below the calculated normal temperature given in last year’s Report. 
The temperatures for the same period for stations. in the more immediate 
neighbourhood were from 0°-3 to 0°4 below their normals, being thus 
identical with the deviation from the normal at the Observatory. The 
extremes of temperature for the year were 60°'1 at 2 p.m. August 9, and 
11° 1 at midnight and 1 a.m. February 16, thus giving a range of 49°-0. 
The coldest week yet experienced was the week ending February 21, the 
mean of which was 16°-2. In this week the lowest temperature for the 
year occurred, and the humidity fell to 22. Great dryness associated 
with great cold scarcely ever occurs in the weather records of the Ben, 
and in this case the exceptionally cold dry weather terminated with the 
great storm of the 21st and 22nd February already referred to. 

From the observations of the maximum and minimum thermometers 
the mean daily range of temperature is—in winter, 6°°8; spring, 6°°4; 
summer, 7°1 ; and autumn, 6°-6—there being thus little variation with 
season. From the dry bulb, there is only 0°-7 between the mean coldest 
and mean warmest hour of the day in winter, but in summer the diffe- 
rence is 3°°0. It follows that in all seasons, but particularly in winter, 
the changes of temperature which occur are only in a subordinate degree 
due to the direct influence of the sun, but are chiefly caused by the 
passage of cyclones and anti-cyclones over the Observatory. Indeed, it 
may be regarded that, in the stormy months of winter, the Ben Nevis 
observations present the cyclonic and anti-cyclonic changes of tempera- 
ture in their simple conditions, uninfluenced by the heat of the sun. 

Lower relative humidities were observed than during the previous 
year. On January 20, the mean of the twenty-four hours gave the very 
low mean humidity of 82. On the 15th of the same month, at 5 A.m., the 
dry bulb was 20°-9 and the wet 16°-2, which from Glaisher’s tables indi- 
cates a dew-point at —16°-2 and a humidity of 19, being respectively the 


_ lowest yet noted on the top of Ben Nevis. The lowest temperature ever 


observed anywhere in the British Islands was —16°-0, at Springwood 
Park, near Kelso, in December, 1879, which closely agrees with the lowest 
dew-point on Ben Nevis. As regards atmospheric pressure, it is only in 
winter that the afternoon minimum falls below the mean daily pressure ; 
in summer this daily minimum is 0-007 inch above the daily mean. On 
the top of Ben Nevis, atmospheric pressure of the three seasons, spring, 


92 REPORT—1885. 


summer, and autumn, is above the daily mean for fifteen hours, from 10 a.m. 
to midnight, and below it for nine hours, from 1to94.m. In June, when 
the sun’s heat is most powerful, the afternoon minimum is the least 
pronounced, and the diurnal curve of pressure tends towards a single 
maximum and minimum, similar to what occurs in the same months over 
the open sea in the higher latitudes. Except in mid-winter these seasonal 
peculiarities of the pressure are seen in the results of each month’s obser- 
vations, and the regularity in the changes from month to month, in the 
times of occurrence of the four phases of the pressure, is very striking. 
The sunshine-recorder shows 464 hours of sunshine for the twelve 
months, which is about 11 per cent. of the possible sunshine. As regards 
the partition of the sunshine through the hours of the day, the most note- 
worthy circumstance is that during spring, summer, and autumn the 
amount is very considerably greater before noon than after it. As com- 
pared with the afternoon, the sunshine of the forenoon is 43 per cent. 
greater in spring, 50 in summer, and 33 in autumn, whereas in winter the 
amounts are nearly equal. During summer the maximum sunshine occurs 
from 6 to 94.m. This diminution in sunshine later in the day is no doubt 
caused by the ascending aerial currents which rise from the heated sides 


of the mountain during the warm hours of the day, and the condensation ” 


of the aqueous vapour into cloud which is the consequence. 

Very heavy rainfalls are of frequent occurreace on Ben Nevis. Of 
single hours the largest was 1-302 inch, from noon to 1 p.m. of December 
10, 1884. The largest daily fall was 4-264 inches, on December 10, 
1884, a fall all but equalled by that of October 25, which was 4°231 
inches. A fall of at least one inch occurs, on the average, one day in 
seven. Combining all the rainfall observations made since June, 1881, 
the following are the averages; those from July to September being for 
four years, June and October for three years, and November to May 
one year only. 


inches inches inches 
January . : ait doen SMa: F : . 837 | September . - 944 
February . , . 16:94 | June. : . . 880 | October : . 11:08 
March . : . 12°89 | July. : : . 10°70 | November . . 19°30 
April : : . 4:85 | Angust . 5 . 11:24 | December . . 25°20 


Year, 146°14 inches. 


There can be little doubt that the Ben Nevis Observatory has the 
largest rainfall of any place in Scotland at which a rain-gauge has hitherto 
been observed. 

The observations at Fort William by Mr. Livingston, consisting of 
eye observations six times a day, and continuous records of the atmo- 
spheric pressure and temperature by a barograph and thermograph, 
have been regularly carried on during the year. It is not possible to 
over-estimate the value of these sea-level observations at Fort William, in 
their relations to the observations made on the top of Ben Nevis, it being 
from these relations that the Ben Nevis observations have their supreme 
importance in discussing the great problem of the weather changes of 
North-western Europe. This inquiry is now being carried on under the 
superintendence of the Directors of the Observatory. 


ON THE RATE OF INCREASE OF UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 93 


Seventeenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor 
Everett, Professor Sir W. THomson, Mr. G. J. Symons, Sir A. C. 
Ramsay, Dr. A. Gerkrz, Mr. J. GLAISHER, Mr. PENGELLY, Pre- 
fessor Epwarpd Hu.., Professor Prestwica, Dr. C. LE NEVE 
Foster, Professor A. S. HERSCHEL, Professor G. A. LEBour, Mr. 
GaLLoway, Mr. JoserpH Dickinson, Mr. G. F. Deacon, Mr. E. 
WETHERED, and Mr. A. STRAHAN, appointed for the purpose of 
investigating the Rate of Increase of Underground Temperature 
downwards in various Localities of Dry Land and under 
Water. Drawn wp by Professor EVERETT (Secretary). 


Tux present Report is for the two years which have elapsed since the 
summer of 1883. . 

Observations have been taken in a deep bore at Richmond, Surrey, 
by Mr. Collett Homersham, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. It is on the premises of 


‘the Richmond Vestry Waterworks, on the right bank of the Thames, 


and about 33 yards from high-water mark. The surface is 17 feet above 
Ordnance datum. 

The upper part consists of a well 253 feet deep, with an internal 
diameter of 7 feet at top and 5 feet at bottom, which was sunk in 1876 
for the purpose of supplying water to the town of Richmond, and carried 
down to the chalk. From the bottom of the well a 24-inch bore-hole 
was sunk to the total depth of 434 feet, thus penetrating 181 feet into 
the chalk. This portion of the work was completed in 1877. Above 
the chalk were tertiaries, consisting of 160 feet of London clay, 60 feet 
of the Woolwich and Reading beds, and some underlying sands. The 
water yielded at this stage was about 160 gallons a minute, and when 
not depressed by pumping was able to rise 4 or 5 feet above the surface. 
Its ordinary level, owing to pumping, was about 130 feet lower. 

In 1881 the Richmond Vestry determined to carry the bore-hole to a 
much greater depth, and the deepening has been executed under the 
direction of Mr. Homersham’s father, who is consulting engineer to the 
Vestry. 

The existing bore-hole was first enlarged and straightened, to enable 
a line of cast-iron pipes, with an internal diameter of 164 inches, having 
the lower end driven water-tight into the chalk at a depth of 438 feet, 
to be carried up to the surface. The annular space surrounding this pipe 
served to furnish an uncontaminated supply of water to the town during 
the deepening. 

The total thickness of the chalk was 671 feet. Below this was the 
upper greensand, 16 feet thick; then the gault clay, 2014 feet thick; 


‘then 10 feet of a sandy rock, and a thin layer of phosphatic nodules. 


Down to this point the new boring had yielded no water. Then followed 
a bed 87} feet thick, consisting mainly of hard oolitic limestone. Two 
small springs of water were met with in this bed at the depths of 1,203 
and 1,210 feet, the yield at the surface being 1} gallons a minute, with 
power to rise in a tube and overflow 49 feet above the ground. A partial 
analysis of this limestone rock showed it to contain 2'4 per cent. of 


94 REPORT—1885, 


sulphide of iron in the form of pyrites. At the depth of 1,239 feet this 
limestone rock ended, and hard red sandstone was found, alternating 
with beds cf variegated sandy marl or clay. After the depth of 1,253 
feet had been attained, the yield of water steadily increased as the boring 
was deepened, the overflow at the surface being 2 gallons a minute at 
1,254 feet, 8 gallons at 1,363 feet, and 11 gallons at 1,587 feet. It rose 
to the top of atube carried 49 feet above the surface, and overflowed; 
and a pressure-gauge showed that it had power to rise 126 feet above 
the surface. 

The diameter of the bore was 16} inches in the chalk, 133 inches in 
the gault, 114 inches in the oolitic limestone, and at the depth of 1,334 feet 
it was reduced to a little under 9 inches. At 1,337 feet the method of 
boring was changed, and instead of an annular arrangement of steel 
cutters, a rotary diamond rock-boring machine was employed. The bore- 
hole, with a diameter of 84 inches, was thus carried down to 1,367} feet, 
at which depth, lining tubes having to be inserted, the diameter was re- 
duced to 7} inches, and this size was continued to 1,447 feet, at which 
depth the boring was stopped. 

The bore-hole was lined with strong iron tubes down to the depth of 
1,364 feet ; and those portions of the tubes that are in proximity to the 
depths where water was struck were drilled with holes to admit the 
water into them. Three observations of temperature were taken at the 
depth of 1,337 feet, during the interval between the removal of the steel 
borers and the erection of the diamond boring-machine. The bore-hole 
was full of water, which was overflowing at the rate of from three to four 
gallons a minute. The thermometer employed was an inverted Negretti 
maximum, supplied by the secretary. In each case the temperature re- 
corded was 753° F. In the first observation, March 25, 1884, the ther- 
mometer was left for an hour anda quarter at the bottom of the bore-hole, 
and three weeks had elapsed since the water was disturbed by boring. 
The second observation was taken on March 31, when the thermometer 
was 54 hours at the bottom. In the third observation special precau- 
tions were taken to prevent convection. The thermometer was fixed 
inside a wrought-iron tube, 5 feet long, open at bottom. The thermo- 
meter was near the lower end of the tube, and was suspended from a 
water-tight wooden plug, tightly driven into the tube. There was a 
space of several inches between the plug and the thermometer, and this 
part of the tube was pierced with numerous holes to allow the escape of 
any cold water which might be carried down by the tube. The tube was 
one of a series of hollow boring-rods used in working the diamond drill- 
machine. By means of these it was lowered very slowly, to avoid dis- 
turbance of the water as much as possible; and the tube containing the 
thermometer was gradually worked through the sand at the bottom of 
the bore-hole. The lowering occupied five hours, and was completed at 
noon on Saturday, June 7. 

Cement, mixed with sugar, for the purpose of slow setting, was imme- 
diately lowered on to the surface of the sand, and above this a mixture of 
cement and sand, making a total thickness of 3 or 4 feet of cement 
plugging. The thermometer was left in its place for three full days, the 
operation of raising being commenced at noon of Tuesday, June 10, and 
completed at 5 p.m. The thermometer again registered 755° F., exactly 
the same as in the two previous observations which were taken without 
plugging. It would therefore appear that the steady upflow of water in 


= 


ON THE RATE OF INCREASE OF UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 95 


the lower part of the bore prevents any downward convection of colder 
water from above. 

The boring has since been carried to the depth of 1,447 feet, with a 
diameter reduced to 7} inches, and Mr. Homersham made preparations 
for a final observation at the bottom with a plug consisting of a thick 
india-rubber disc covered with cement and sand ; but the vestry declined 
to incur the responsibility of having the rods lowered again for this 
purpose; and as some pieces of broken lining-tube had fallen in, there 
would have been serious risk of jamming. Mr. Homersham accordingly 
contented himself with lowering the thermometer to the bottom without 
plugging. It remained down for six days (February 3 to 9, 1885), and 
gave a reading of 763° F. The water overflowing at the surface had a 
temperature of 59° F. 

To deduce the mean rate of increase downwards, we shall assume a 
surface temperature of 50°. This gives for the first 1,337 feet an increase 
of 254°, which is at the rate of 1° F. in 52-4 feet, and for the whole 
1,447 feet an increase of 262°, which is at the rate of 1° F. in 54:1 feet. 
These results agree well with the Kentish Town well, where Mr. Symons 
found in 1,100 feet an average increase of 1° in 55 feet. 

Mr. Homersham carried on a lengthened correspondence with the 
secretary as to the best manner of taking the observations, and the 
method devised by him as above described will furnish a useful model for 
future observers. 

Thanks are also due to the Richmond Vestry for permission to 


observe, and to the contractors, Messrs. Docwra, for the loan of their 


apparatus. 

Mr. Galloway (member of the Committee) has furnished observations 
taken during the sinking of a shaft to the depth of 1,272 feet in or near 
the Aberdare valley, Glamorganshire. The name of the place is Cwm- 
pennar, and the position of the shaft is on the slope on the east side 
of the valley, near the summit of the hill which separates it from the 
oo valley. The mouth of the shaft is about 800 feet above sea 

vel. 

Observations were taken at four different depths, 546 feet, 780 feet, 
1,020 feet, and 1,272 feet, the thermometer being in each case inserted, 
and left for twenty-four hours, in a hole bored to the depth of 30 inches, 
at a distance not exceeding 2} yards from the bottom of the shaft for the 
time being. About eight hours elapsed between the completion of the 
hole and the insertion of the thermometer. The strata consist mainly 
of shales and sandstone, with a dip of 1 in 12, and the flow of water into 
the shaft was about 250 gallons per hour. 

The first of the four observations was taken in the fireclay under the 
Abergorkie vein; the second in strong ‘ clift’ (a local name for arena 
ceous shale) in disturbed ground; the third in bastard fireclay under a 
small rider of coal previously unknown; the fourth in ‘clift’ ground two 
yards above the red coal vein, which overlies the 9-foot seam at a height 
of from 9 to 12 yards. The observations were taken by the manager, 
Mr. John Beith, and are as follow: 


Depth in ft. Temp. Fahr, 
546 =~ 56° 
. 780 594° 
1,020 63° 


1,272 664° 


96 REPORT—1885. 


Comparing consecutive depths from 546 feet downwards, we have the 
following increments of temperature :— 


34° in 234 ft., giving 1° for 67 ft. 
34° ,, 240 ,, ” 69 ,, 


210 ~ 7. 
35 ” 252) »55 ” 72 55 


—showing a remarkably regular rate of increase. A comparison of the 
first and fourth observations gives an increase of 105° in 726 feet, which 
is at the rate of 1° F. in 69°1 feet. As the surface slopes about 1 in 5, and 
the pit is near the summit of a ridge, it is probable that in level ground 
of similar material the rate would be about 1° F. in 60 feet. 

As a check upon this result, we find that this rate of decrease reck- 
oned upwards from the smallest depth (546 feet) would give a surface 
temperature of (56 — 7-9 =) 48°'1, which, as the elevation is 800 feet, is 
probably very near the truth. 

Mr. Garside has sent an observation of temperature taken by himself 
in the roof of the Mersey tunnel in August 1883. The temperature was 
53°, the depth below Ordnance datum being 92 feet. A great quantity 
of water from the river was percolating through the sides of the tunnel. 

On August 13, 1884, he verified his previous observation in Denton 
Colliery (15th Report). The second observation was made at the same 
depth as the first (1,317 feet), in the same pit and level, and under the 
same circumstances, except that the thermometer was allowed to remain 
fourteen days in the hole bored for it, instead of only six hours. The 
temperature observed was the same as before, namely 66°. 

Mr. Garside has also supplemented his previous contribution to our 
knowledge of the surface temperature of the ground in the Hast Man- 
chester coal-field (16th Report) by two more years’ results from the 
same observing stations. The following are the collected results, includ. 
ing the year previously given :— 


Croft House, in the centre of Ashton-wnder-Lyne, 345 ft. above sea. 


| Mean of Max. 
= 4 ft. Deep 1 ft. Deep | ‘and Min. Air 


1gs2 | 4795 4452-2 48°-4 
1883 | 46°6 45°°5 47°-8 
1884 |  48°3 47°°3 48°-9 
Means | 47-5 46°°3 48-4 


District Infirmary, 501 ft. above sea. 


Mean of Max. 
— | 4 ft. Deep 1 ft. Deep and Min. Air 


1882 45°-9 45°°6 46°°6 
1883 46°°3 45°°3 46°°3 
1884 AT°-7 47°3 48°-2 
Means | 46°°6 46° 1 47°-0 


ee EE 


Giving equal weight to the 4-foot and 1-foot ‘observations, we have @ 
mean surface temperature of 46°-9 at an elevation of 345 feet, and 46°°4 


" é 


ON THE RATE OF INCREASE OF UNDERGROUND TEMPERATURE. 97 


at 501 feet. The difference between them agrees well with the generally 
accepted rate of 1° for 300 feet, and indicates about 48° as the surface 
temperature at small elevations, such as 30 feet. The pits in the East 
Manchester coal-field from which we have observations, namely, Astley 
Pit (Dukinfield), Ashton Moss, Bredbury, Denton, and Nook Pit, are all 
sunk in ground at elevations of between 300 and 350 feet. It would 
‘therefore appear that the assumption of a surface temperature of 49°, 
which we made in reducing these observations, is about 2° in excess of 
the truth. 

A very elaborate paper on Underground Temperature has recently 
been communicated to the Royal Society by one of the members of the 
Committee—Professor Prestwich. It contains probably the fullest col- 
ection that has ever been made of observations of underground tempera- 
ture, accompanied in most cases by critical remarks; and adduces 
arguments to show that most of the temperatures observed are too low, 
owing to the influence of the air in mines, and of convection currents in 
wells. Professor Prestwich is disposed to adopt 1° F. in 45 feet as the 
most probable value of the normal gradient. 


Report on Electrical Theories. 
By Professor J. J. THomson, M.A., F.R.S. 


‘In this report I have confined myself exclusively to the consideration of 
‘those theories of electrical action which only profess to give mathematical 
‘expressions for the forces exerted by a system of currents, and which 
make no attempt to give any physical explanation of these forces ; for it 
is evident that before we can test any theory of electrical action we must 
know what the actions are which it has to explain, and we cannot do this 
‘until we have a satisfactory mathematical theory. I have further limited 
myself to the consideration of the fundamental assumptions of each 
theory, and have not attempted to give any account of its mathematical 
‘developments, except in so far as they lead to results capable of distin- 
guishing between the various theories. 

I have divided the theories into the following classes :— 

1. Theories in which the action between elements of current is deduced 
by geometrical considerations combined with assumptions which are 
>. explicitly, at any rate, founded on the principle of the Conservation 
-of Energy. 

This class includes the theories of Ampére, Grassmann, Stefan, and 
Korteweg. 

2. Theories which explain the action of currents by assuming that 
the forces between electrified bodies depend upon the velocities and accele- 
rations of the bodies. 

This class includes the theories of Gauss, Weber, Riemann, and 

—Clausius. 
3. Theories which are based upon dynamical considerations, but which 
neglect the action of the dielectric. 
__ This class contains F. E. Neumann’s potential theory and v. 
-Helmholtz’s extension of it. 
4. C. Neumann’s theory. 
1885, H 


98 ; REPORT—188). 


5. Theories which are based upon dynamical considerations, and which: 
take into account the action of the dielectric. 

This class includes the theories of Maxwell and v. Helmholtz. 

We shall now proceed to the detailed consideration of these theories. 


Theories in which the action between elements of current is deduced by 
geometrical considerations combined with certain assumptions which 
are not explicitly, at any rate, founded on the Principle of the Oonser- 
vation of Energy. 


The best known theory of this class is that of Ampére. Others, 
however, have been giveu by Grassmann, Stefan, and Korteweg, which 
we shall consider in order. 


Ampere’s Theory. 


This theory was first published in 1820. In 1823 appeared his great. 
paper, the ‘ Mémoire sur la Théorie Mathématique des Phénoménes 
Electro-dynamiques,’ Mémoires de I’ Institut, t. vi., which Maxwell de-- 
scribes as ‘ perfect in form and unassailable in accuracy,’ and which at 
once brought the action between electric currents under the power of 
mathematics. Ampere founded his theory on certain postulates which 
he attempted to establish by experiment; inasmuch, however, as he 
always dealt with closed circuits in his experiments and elements of 
circuit in his postulates, the experimental evidence is not quite satis- 
factory. Ampere’s experiments have been repeated by v. Ettingshausen ! 
with much more delicate apparatus. 

The postulates used by Ampére are as follows. The first four are 
given in the words of Professor Tait :—? 

I. ‘ Equal and opposite currents in the same conductor produce equal 
and opposite effects on other conductors; whence it follows that an 
element of one current has no effect on an element of another which lies 
in the plane bisecting the former at right angles.’ 

II. ‘ The effect of a conductor bent or twisted in any manner is 
equivalent to that of a straight one, provided that the two are traversed 
by equal currents and the former nearly coincides with the latter.’ 

Ill. ‘No closed cirenit can set in motion an element of a circular 
conductor about an axis through the centre of the circle and perpendicular 
to its plane.’ 

IV. ‘ In similar systems traversed by equal currents the forces are 
equal.’ 

V. ‘ The action between two elements of current is a force along the 
straight line joining them, and proportional to the product of the lengths 
of the elements and the currents flowing through them.’ 

It follows from IV. that the force between two elements of current 
varies inversely as the square of the distance between them. 

The assumption V. is one that can only be justified by the correctness 
of the results to which it leads. We have no right to assume @ priori 
that the action is equivalent to a single force, and not to a force and a 
couple: and we have no more right to assume that the force is along the 
line joining the elements than we have to assume that the force between 

1 © Ueber Ampére’s elektrodynamische Fundamentalversuche,’ Wien. Ber, (11), 77. 


p. 109, 1878. 
? Tait’s Quaternions, 2nd edit. p. 249. 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 99 


two small magnets is along the line joining their centres, and in this case 
the assumption is untrue. It is in the nature of the assumption V. that 
Ampeére’s theory differs from others of this class. The second part of 
I. depends upon V. It is not true unless we assume that the force 
between two elements is along the line joining them. 

Ampére deduces the force between two elements of current from these 
principles in the following way :—Suppose we have two elements of current 
of lengths ds,, ds. traversed by currents of strengths 7, j respectively. 
Let us take the line joining the centres of these currents as the axis of a ; 
let the plane of ds, and x be taken as the plane of wy; let 6), 9. be the 
angles which ds), ds) respectively make with the axis of z, » the angle 
which the plane through ds, and 7 makes with the plane of ay. 

By Ampére’s second proposition the action of ds, on ds, will be the 
sum of the action of 


ds, cos @, or a, along 
ap sin 6, or , along 
on 
J ds cos 0, or a, along 
ds, sin 4 cos n or [3g along y 
ae sin 6, sin 7 or Yq along z. 


Now by proposition I. «, cannot exert a force on either (3, or yo, 
because it is in planes which bisect 3, and y, at right angles, so that the 
only component on which a, can exert aforceis ay. Let the force between 
these components be 


where 7 is the distance between the centres of the elementary currents. 
__ In the same way we can show that the only component on which /, 
can exert any force is 3,. Let the force between these two elements be 


iS PPro. 
T 


Thus the force between the two elements ds,, ds, is 


= {aaa + BB Ao}, 


2 
or, substituting for ajay, (2,3, their values: 


J: {a cos 0, cos 0. + b sin 0, sin 0, cos n} 77 ds, dsg. 


The proposition III., that the action of a closed circuit on an element of 
current is always at right angles to the element, leads on integration to 
the condition 

2a +b=0, 


so that the force between the two elements equals 
os {cos 6, cos 6,—2 sin 0, sin 0, cos 7} ij ds, dsy. 


From this we are able to find the force between any two circuits or parts 


of circuits. To find the force on a magnetic system, Ampére used his 
H2 


100 REPORT—1885. 


principle that the magnetic action of an electric current was the same as 
that due to a magnetic shell bounded by the circuit and magnetised to 
the proper intensity. In this way Ampere gave a complete theory of the 
action of currents upon currents and upon magnets—in fact, a complete 
theory of all the effects produced by a current which were known when 
his paper was published. 

It is difficult to overrate the service which Ampére’s theory has 
rendered to the science of electrodynamics. Perhaps the best evidence 
of its value for practical purposes is the extreme difficulty of finding any 
experiment which proves that it is insufficient. In spite of this, how- 
ever, as a dynamical theory it is very unsatisfactory. If, as we are led 
to do by Ampére, we attach physical importance to elements of current, 
and regard them as something more than mathematical helps for calcu- 
lating the force between two closed circuits, then we are driven to ask, 
not only what is the law of force between the elements, but what is the 
energy possessed by a system consisting of two such elements. If we do 
this, and find this energy by calculating the amount of work required to 
pull the elements an infinite distance apart, we arrive at the conclusion 
that the energy must depend upon the angles which the elements make 
with each other and with the line joining them; but if this is so, then 
the force between the elements cannot be along the line joining them, 
and there must in addition to this force be couples acting on the elements. 
For these reasons we see that Ampére’s theory cannot give the complete 
action between two elements of current. What it does—and this for 
practical purposes is an advantage and not a disadvantage—is to give 
in most cases, instead of the complete action between two elements, that 
part of it which really affects the case under consideration. 

Before discussing cases, however, in which the terms which Ampére 
neglects might be expected to produce measurable effects, we shall, in 
order to compare the various theories more easily, proceed to consider 
other theories of the same class. 


Grassmann’s Theory.! 


The method by which Grassmann obtains his theory is very remark- 
able. He objects to Ampére’s formula for the force between two elements 
of current, because it makes the force between two parallel elements 
change from an attraction to a repulsion when the angle which the ele- 
ments make with the line joining them passes through the value cos! 2/3, 
and the object of his investigation is to get a law of force free from this 
peculiarity, and which, while giving the same result as Ampére’s for closed 
vircuits, shall yet be as simple as possible. He begins by regarding any 
circuit as built up of ‘ Winkelstréme,’ 7.e., currents flowing along the two 
infinite lines which form any angle. He points out that a circuit of any 
shape can be built up of such currents; the circuit abc, for example, 
may be regarded as built up of the ‘ Winkelstréme’ eaf, fbg, and gce. 

Grassmann proceeds to calculate by Ampére’s formula the action of 
a ‘Winkelstrom’ upon an element of current (a). Since the ‘ Winkel- 
strom’ will have no action upon an element of current perpendicular to 
its plane, we see that it is only necessary to calculate its action upon the 
component (a’) of ain its own plane. Grassmann does this by calcu- 
lating the effect due to each arm of the ‘ Winkelstrom’ separately. He 


1 Poge. Ann. 64, p 1, 1845; Crelle, 83, p. 57 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 101 


finds expression for the forces along and perpendicular to a’, due to an 
infinite rectilinear current starting from a definite point. The force of 
such a current along a’ does not depend on the angle the current makes 
with the line from its end to a’, so that the effects of two such currents 
starting from the same point and flowing in opposite directions, 7.e. of a 
‘ Winkelstrom,’ will be to produce no force along a’; thus the effect of a 
‘ Winkelstrom ’ on an element of current in its own plane will be a force 
at right angles to the element. The force at right angles to a’ due toa 
rectilinear current will consist of two parts, one independent of the angle 
made by the current with the line joining its end to the element, the 
other depending upon this angle. The first part will vanish when we 
consider a ‘ Winkelstrom’; the second part only will produce any effect. 


t 


Now Grassmann says that it will much simplify the analysis, and obviously 
(since any closed circuit may be built up of ‘Winkelstréme’) lead, for 
closed circuits, to the same result as Ampére’s formula, if we suppose that 
the law of force between elements of currents is such that the only effects 
produced by a rectilinear current are those which do not vanish for a 
*Winkelstrom,’ and hence that a straight current exerts on an element of 
eurrent a force at right angles to the projection of the element on the 
plane containing the centre of the element and the rectilinear current, 
and that the magnitude of this force is 

aj ds’ 

r 


Tag 
co 5 


where 7 is the strength of the rectilinear current, j the strength of the 


102 REPORT—1885. 


element of current, ds’ its projection on the plane through its centre 
containing the straight current, 7 the distance of the element from the 
end of the straight current, and a the angle which the rectilinear 
current makes with the line joining its extremity to the elementary 
current. By taking the difference of two such rectilinear currents, 
Grassmann finds the action of an element (f) of current on another 
element (a) is a force at right angles to a’, the component of ain the 
plane containing / and the middle point of a and equal to 


.. dods' 
7] 


== SiON OS 
oa 


where 0 is the angle which 3 makes with 1, do the length of (3), andj the 
current flowing through it. 

The direction of the force is along AB, where A is the centre of the 
element (a) and B the point where the normal to a’ is cut by / produced 
in the direction of the current. 

If we treat this theory in the same way as we did Ampére’s on p. 
99 by considering the action of the component ay, B, of an element of 
current ds, on the components ay, [o, y2 of another element ds5, we see 
that Grassmann’s theory is equivalent to supposing that a, exerts no 
force on ao, (so, Or 72; that 3, exerts a force Aja, on ay at right 
angles to a, in the plane of ay, and a force Aj3,35 on fy, at right angles 
to it, that is, along the line joining the element, and that it exerts no 
force on Yo. 

Thus we see that Grassmann’s theory is equivalent to replacing 
Ampére’s assumption, that the force between two elements of current 
acts along the line joining them, by the assumption that two elements of 
current in the same straight line exert no force on each other. 

As a dynamical theory of electrodynamics, Grassmann’s theory is open 
to the same objection as Ampére’s, that it does not take into account the 
couples which may exist between the elements, and also to the additional 
objection that, according to it, the action of an element of current ds, on 
another element ds, is not equal and opposite to the action of ds, on 
ds,, so that the momentum of the two elements ds, and ds, will not 
remain constant, and, as the theory does not take into account the sur- 
rounding ether, there is no way of explaining what has become of the 
momentum lost or gained by the elements. As a piece of geometrical 
analysis, however, the theory is very elegant and worthy of the author of 
the ‘ Ausdehnungslehre.’ 

From the way in which Grassmann’s theory was developed we see 
that between closed circuits it must give the same forces as Ampére’s; for 
unclosed circuits this is not the case, and Grassmann, at the end of the 
paper quoted above, mentions a case where the two theories would give 
opposite results, assuming that unclosed streams exist. Suppose we have 
a magnet ws and an unclosed current AB in the same plane as the 
magnet and passing through its middle point, then if Ampére’s theory 
be true, the magnet will twist in one direction; if Grassmann’s, it will twist 
in the opposite. This depends upon the change, according to Ampere’s 
theory, of the force between two parallel elements from attraction to repul- 
sion, when they make the angle with the line joining them at less than 
sin-!1/,/3, while according to Grassmann’s theory, there is no such 
change. 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 103 


Stefan’s Theory.' 


This resembles Ampére’s theory very closely, except that Stefan does 
not make the assumption that the force between two elements of current 
is along the line joining them: this difference leads to the introduction 
of two forces which Ampére neglects. 

We shall use the same notation as when we discussed Ampére’s 
theory, and consider, as before, the action of an element of current ds, 
on another element ds,. Stefan, like Ampere, assumes that we may 
replace an element of current by its component, so that we have to con- 
sider the action of the components (a, /3,) of ds, on the components 
(49, Bo, Y2) of ds). 

As in Ampére’s theory, the component a, is supposed to exert a force 

Aa) A 


v2 


on a», this force by symmetry must be along the line joining the 
elements. 
a, is supposed to exert a force on , equal to 
Ca Py 
ple 


along the axis of y. We can see that this force may exist, for it is 
conceivable that it should be in the same direction as }, when a, points 
from the middle of ds, to the middle of ds,, and in the opposite direction 
to , when «a, points in the opposite direction. Stefan assumes that a, 
exerts no force on (3, parallel to the axis of z, and no force at all on yp. 

{, is supposed to exert a force on ay parallel to the axis of y and 
equal to 


We may see, by the same reasoning as we used before for the force 
between /3, and a,, that it is conceivable that this force may exist. 3, is 
supposed to exert no force on a, parallel to the axis of z. 

As in Ampére’s theory, /3, is supposed to exert a force on /3, equal to 


2 1B a 
this force must by symmetry be along the line joining the elements; 3, 


is supposed to exert no force on yo. 
Thus the action of ds, on ds, consists of a force 


1 ae 
2 { Gad, + bP, \ 
along the line joining the elements, and a force 
fi 
ae { ca, 35 + dpyag \ 


at right angles to this line in the plane containing ds, and r. If we take 


1 Stefan, Wien. Sitzungsberichte, 59, p. 693, 1869, 


104 REPORT—1885. 


arbitrary coordinate axes and suppose that «, y, z are the coordinates of ds,, 
wl, y', z! those of ds,, then the z component of the force on ds, due to ds, 
is shown by Stefan to be equal to 


lat d, (a'—2x) d at dee! a it di | al —@ 
Vj AS, AS, { ™ ds, ds5 r +n ds, 7 ds maple ds, 7 ds, ak oP a cos « b 


with similar expressions for the force parallel to the axes of y and z. 
Here i, j are the currents through ds), ds, respectively, ¢ is m8 angle: 
between the elements of current, and 


n=4{a—b—c+2 2a} 
= —i{a—b+2c—d} 
g=4 fa+2b—c—d}. 


We see from this expression for the force parallel to # that the last 
term is the only one which does not vanish when integrated round two: 
closed circuits of which ds, and ds, are elements. So that the force will 
depend only upon q; the value of g will depend upon the units we adopt : 
in Stefan’s work qg is put equal to —1/2. 

This is the only condition to be got by considering the translatory 
force between two circuits; we can get another by considering the couple 
acting on the closed circuit, supposed rigid, of which ds, forms a part. 
For the z component N of this couple Stefan finds the expression 


= ly da! dy _dy' dz 
N= ijq || G74 cos edeydey — ‘gel {jo ae a} dads 


dss ds, dsy ds, 


But supposing the two circuits to have a potential 


ag cose | 
vy c r us) dsy, 


we can easily see that the couple 


1» 1 = 54 ' 
BP age Ye ey se {{ Lypael dy «dy dx 7 SiN 
=1) \| 73 COS € ds, ds, U7 || a, ‘Pa ds, — ds, da, f ds,dxo 3 


thus if two circuits have a potential 
P= o 
or substituting for p and q their values, 
2a+6+c—2d=0. 
If c=0 and d=0, as in Ampére’s theory, this relation becomes 
2a+b6=0, 


which is the same relation as Ampere deduced by finding the condition 
that the force due to a closed circuit on an element of current should be 
at right angles to the element, and Stefan has proved that on his theory 
the same condition leads to the equation 


P= 


i.e., the same cordition as the one which expresses that two closed circuits 
have a potential. 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 105 


Stefan shows that, from the consideration of the action of closed 
circuits on elements of other circuits or of themselves, it is impossible to. 
get any other relation between the quantities a, b, c, d, so that we have 
only two relations between the quantities a, b, c, d, and thus two of them 
must be indeterminate. 

We may give any values we please to these quantities, provided they 
satisfy these two relations ; if we put c = 0, d= 0 we get Ampére’s theory ; 
if a = 0,c = 0, Grassmann’s ; and we can get a number of other theories by 
giving different values to these quantities. 

Stefan’s theory is open to the same objection as Ampére’s, since it 
does not take into account the couples which one element may produce 
on another. He also limits the generality of his theory by supposing that 
the force between two elements of currents in one plane is in that plane. 


Korteweg’s Theory. 


According to this theory, the forces between two elements of current 
are the same as in Stefan’s theory ; Korteweg, however, considers in 
addition the couples which one element may produve on another. 

If we use the notation we adopted in discussing Stefan’s theory, we 
have, considering the force on dsy, a force 


- {aajay + 03, Bo} 
along the line joining the elements, and a force 
= {cao + das/3,} 


parallel to the axis of 7. 
In addition.to these forces, Korteweg supposes that from the action of 
a, on 3, there is a couple whose axis is parallel to the axis of z equal to 


fa 1Po, 


and from the action of a, on yy a couple on y, whose axis is parallel to. 
the axis of y and equal to 


—fajy2; 


from the action of /3, on a, there is a couple on a, whose axis is parallel 
to the axis of z and equal to 


92149, 


and from the action of (, on y, there is a couple on y, whose axis is. 
parallel to the line joining the elements and equal to 


hay. 


If we now take arbitrary co-ordinate axes, the forces on the element ds.. 
are the same as those given by Stefan’stheory. The couples, however, are 
different. The component parallel to the axis of «of the couple on 
ds, is given by the equation 

L=|* dr (: elas, a) — a—d—c dr dr 


1 1 
sas : — (y'z —z'y) 
7 ds, ds ds, we ds, ds 4 : 


' Crelle, xe. p. 49, 1881. 


106 REPORT—1885. 


fo ong ts Gia ole ce dr dyt : 2) 
r2 ds\d8y y y rds, aga” dsy 
(h+g) adr { afl danny 4) , se 

a9 ae (y'-y) dss (z'—2) ag 

h L—f dr dy \ 


+ ot & {w@-n -@—2 2h 


dy dz dy dz 6 
i a 2) A Oe I] is, dso, 
g { dsy ds, ds, ds, \ age 


‘with similar expressions for the components of couple around the axes of 
y and z. 

By making the force between two closed circuits have the same value 
as that given by Ampére’s theory, Korteweg finds that 


a+ 2b—d—c = — 3A?, 


where A is a constant quantity whose value depends upon the unit of 
-eurrent adopted. 

By making the couples produced by one closed circuit on another 
have the same value as that given by Ampére and the potential theory, 
he finds that 


d rh) + (q—h) r—c + 2A?= 0. 
dr J 


Korteweg considers that the experiments of v. Ettingshausen, quoted 
above, prove (1) that the force on an element of circuit produced by a 
closed circuit is at right angles to the element, and (2) that the couple on 
an element due to a closed circuit has the value given by Ampere’ 8 theory. 
The first condition gives 


c— b= 2A?; 
the second the two conditions 
S (rk) —f=0 
h+g=0. 


And he points out that we cannot get any more conditions. by consi- 
dering the action between two closed circuits, or the action of a closed 
circuit on an element of another. ; 
It should be noticed that since, according to this theory, part of the 
action of one element of a cireuit on another consists of a couple, the 
condition that the force due to a closed circuit on an element of another 
‘should be at right angles to the element is not, asin Stefan’s theory, iden- 
tical with the condition that the expression for the couple exerted by one 
-closed circuit on another should be the same as that given by Ampére. 
This theory is valuable because it is the most general one of the class 
we are considering which has been published. It is the only one which 
takes into account the couples, and by giving special values to the quan- 
tities a, b, c, d, f, g, h, wecan get any of the other theories of this class. _ 


om ~- 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 107 


On the theories which eaplain the action of currents by assuming that the 


forces between two electrified bodies depend upon the velocities and ac- 
celerations of ihe bodies. 


According to these theories a body conveying an electric current con- 
tains equal quantities of positive and negative electricity, so that it will 
not exert any ordinary electrostatic effect: the positive electricity is sup- 
posed, however, to be moving differently from the negative. In some of 
the theories (Weber’s, Gauss’s, Riemann’s) Fechner’s hypothesis, that the 
electric current consists of positive electricity moving in one direction 
(the direction of the current), and an equal quantity of negative elec- 
tricity moving at the same speed in the opposite direction, is assumed ; 
in other theories (Clausius’) only one of the electricities is supposed to 
move, the other remains at rest. We can see in a general way how the 
assumption that the forces between two electrified particles depend on 
the velocities and the accelerations of the particles can explain the effects 
produced by an electric current. 

Let us take first the mechanical action between two circuits A and B, 
and let us consider the action of an element (a) of A on an element (b) 
of B. Weshall consider first the action of the two electricities which are 
flowing through a on the positive electricity which is flowing through 6. 
Since the motion of the positive electricity in a relative to that of the 
positive electricity in b is not the same as the motion of the negative 
electricity in a relative to that of the positive in b, the forces due to the 
positive and negative electricities in a will not counterbalance, so that 
there will be a resultant force on the positive electricity in b depending 
on the inequality between the motion of the positive and negative 
electricities in a relative to that of the positive in 6. Similarly there 
will be a force on the negative electricity in b depending on the in- 
equality between the velocities of the positive and negative electricities 
in @ relative to that of the negative in b, and, except for special laws of 
force and special values of the velocities of the electricities in b, this force 
will not be equal and opposite to the force on the positive electricity in ), 
80 that a mechanical force on b will be produced by the currents through a. 

Let us now consider how inductive forces can be explained by this 
hypothesis: let us suppose that the element a is moving, and that the 
element bis at rest. The velocity of the electricity in a will be the 
resultant of the velocity with which the electricity flows through a and 
the velocity of translation of a itself, so that since the velocities of flow 
of the positive and negative electricities are different, the actual velocity 
of the positive electricity will differ in magnitude from the velocity of 
the negative (unless, assuming Fechner’s hypothesis, the element a is 
moving at right angles to itself); thus the force due to the positive 
electricity in a on a unit of positive electricity at b will not be equal and 
Opposite to that due to the negative electricity in a, and thus there will 
be an E.M.F. at } due to the motion of a. This explains induction due to 
the motion of the primary circuit. 

Let us now consider induction due to the variation of the intensity of 
the current in the primary circuit. According to all the theories there 
is a force produced by a moving electrified body proportional to the first 
power of the acceleration of that body. Let us consider the elements a 
and 6 again, and suppose that a variable current is flowing through a and 
no current through b ; then if we suppose that a variation in the intensity 


108 REPORT— 1885. 


of a current is accompanied by an alteration in the velocity of flow, 
the acceleration of the positive electricity will, if we take Fechner’s. 
hypothesis, be equal and opposite to that of the negative ; but since there 
is a part of the force due to the moving electrified body which changes. 
sign both with the electrification and “the acceleration, the force due to 
the acceleration of the positive electricity will be equal in all respects 
to that due to the acceleration of the negative, so that there will bea 
resultant force on a unit of positive electricity at b, and this force is the 
electromotive intensity at b due to the alteration of the intensity of the 
current ina. In this way we can explain the induction due to the varia- 
tion of the current in the primary circuit. 

Theories of this kind have been given by Gauss, Weber, Riemaun,. 
and Clausius, and these writers have given expressions for the force 
between two electrified particles moving in any way. We shall after- 
wards consider these expressions in detail, but we may remark in passing 
that the theories of Gauss, Weber, and Riemann have much in common ; 
among other things they all lead to impossible results. In addition 
Clausius has shown that, unless we make Fechner’s hypothesis about a. 
current, viz. that it consists of equal quantities of positive and negative 
electricity moving with equal speeds in opposite directions, a current would 
on these theories exert a force on an electrified body at rest. 

The question of the forces due to moving electrified bodies is 
interesting in connection with electrolysis. Taking the ordinary view 
that the current is carried by the ions, we know from Hittorf’s researches 
that the anion and the cation move at different rates, so that the forces 
produced by these will be different ; hence we should expect an electrolyte: 
conveying a current to exert a force on a charged particle at rest. 

We shall now go on to consider the various theories separately. 


Gauss’s Theory.' 


Gauss assumes that the force between two particles separated by a 
distance r and charged with quantities of electricity e and e’ is along the 
line joining the particles and equal to 


ee! 1 2 3 dr 2 
Sita ye s(t) } 3 


where w is the relative velocity of the two particles and ¢ is a constant. 
This law will, if we make Fechner’s hypothesis, explain the mechanical. 
force between two circuits; but, since it contains no term depending on 
the acceleration, it cannot explain the E.M.F. produced by the variation 
of the strength of the current inthe primary ; it is also inconsistent with 
the principle of the Conservation of Energy, and so we need not consider 
it any further. 
W. E. Weber's Theory.” 


Weber assumes that the force between two charged particles, using” 
the same notation as before, is 


. or dir 
S{ital? we? a) DE 


1 Gauss’s theory was published after his death in his collected works, G6ttingen 
edition, vol. v. p. 616. See also Maxwell's Electricity and Magnetism, 2nd edit. vol, 
li, p. 440. 

2 Weber’s theory was published in 1846 in dbhandlungen der Koniglich-Sach— 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 109 


This formula is not inconsistent with the principle of the Conservation of 
Energy ; making Fechner’s hypothesis, it will explain the mechanical force 
between circuits conveying currents ; it will also explain induction due 
both to the motion of the primary and the alteration in the strength of the 
current in the primary. We shall see, however, that it makes a body 
under certain circumstances behave as if its mass were negative; 7.e. if it 
were acted on by a force in a direction opposite to that in which it is 
moving, its velocity would continually increase. 


Riemann’s Theory. 


This is explained in his ‘Schwere Electricitiit und Magnetismus,’ 
edited by Hallendorff, p. 327. According to this theory the force be- 
tween two electrified bodies is not altogether along the line joining them, 
but consists of the following parts :— 

1. A force along the line joining the particles equal with the same 
notation as before to 


2. A force on the first particle parallel to its velocity relative to the 
second equal to 
cr? dt 


3. A force on the first particle parallel to its acceleration relative to 
the second equal to 
2ee! f 


cr * 


where f is the relative acceleration of the particles. 

There are of course similar forces acting on the second particles, and 
we see from the form of the expressions of the forces that the force on the 
first particle is equal and opposite to the force on the second. Riemann’s 
law of force is not inconsistent with the principle of the conservation of 
energy, and it explains the mechanical force between two circuits; hence 
it must explain the induction of currents. We shall see, however, that it 
is open to the same objection as Weber’s theory, viz. that it makes an 
electrified particle under certain circumstances behave as if its mass were 
negative. 

Clausius’ Theory. 


If x, y, 2 are the co-ordinates of the first electrified particle, a’, y', z’ 
those of the second, then according to this theory the z component of the 
force on the first particle is equal to 


er ee ashi a Sf ae 
ee Vd vv cos ¢/o?)— = als 7) | 


With similar expressions for the components parallel to y and z, here 


sischen Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften, 1846, p- 211; it is reprinted in Zlectro- 
dynamische Maassbestimmungen, 1871. A good account of the theory is given in 
Maxwell’s Electricity and Magnetism, 2nd edit. vol. ii. chap. xxiii. 

’ This theory is given in Crelle, vol. 82, p. 85. There is also a full abstract in 
Wiedemann’s Beiblatter, vol. i. p. 143. 


a 


v and v’ are the velocities of the first and second particles respectively, 
and «is the angle between their directions of motion. We may analyse 
these forces a little differently, and say that the force on the first particle 
consists of — 

1. A force along the line joining the particles equal to 


110 REPORT—1885. 


it l—vv' cose|e? | 


2. A force parallel to the velocity of the second particle and equal 
to 


3. A force parallel to the acceleration of the second particle equal 
to 


ee’ dv! 


@r dt- 


We have, of course, corresponding expressions for the force on the second . 
particle. 
Clausius’ formule differ from those of Gauss, Weber, and Riemann 
in two very important respects. | 
1. They make the forces between two electrified bodies depend on the _ 
absolute velocities and accelerations of the bodies, while the others make 
them depend only on the relative velocities and accelerations. 

2, They do not make the forces between the bodies equal and oppo- 
site, so that the momentum of the system does not remain constant. | 
These results show that if this theory is true, we must take the ether 
surrounding the bodies into account. The first result can then be 
explained by supposing that the velocities which enter into the formule 
are the velocities of the bodies relatively to the ether at a considerable 
distance from the bodies, and the second result by supposing that the 
ether possesses a finite density, and that the momentum lost or gained by 

the bodies is added to or taken from the surrounding ether. 

The case is analogous to the case of two spheres A and B moving in 
an incompressible fluid; in this case the forces on the sphere A depend 
on the velocities and accelerations of B relativeiy to the fluid ata great 
distance from the sphere, and are independent of the velocity and accele- 
ration of A; the forces are not equal and opposite, and the momentum 
lost or gained by the system is added to or taken from the momentum of 
the fluid. At the end of this section we shall see that, if we assume that 
variations in what Maxwell calls the electric displacement produce effects 
analogous to those produced by ordinary conduction currents, we get 
the same forces between moving electrified bodies as are given by Clausius’ 
theory. 

Clausius’ theory is not inconsistent with the principle of the con- 
servation of energy, and we shall see that it does not lead to the same 
difficulty as the theories of Weber and Riemann, viz., that under special 
circumstances a body would behave as if its mass were negative. 

Assuming that in an electric current we have equal quantities of 
positive and negative electricity moving with different velocities, Clausius 
has shown in the paper already cited that his theory gives Ampere’s 
results for the mechanical force between two circuits, and the usual 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 11E 


_ expression for the induction due to the motion of the primary circuit, or 
variation in the strength of the current passing through it. 

Frohlich ' urges against Clausius’ law that since, according to it, an 
electric current in motion exerts an electromotive force on a moving 
electrified particle, even though the particle is moving at the same rate- 
as the circuit, every current on the earth’s surface ought to exert an 
electromotive force on an electrified particle relatively at rest, since each 
is moving with the velocity of the earth. This force is one that can 
be derived from a potential, so that the integral of the force taken round 
a closed curve would vanish, and thus, even if this result were true, two 
circuits would not induce currents in each other if they were relatively 
at rest. Budde? points out, however, that the moving circuit would exert 
an electromotive force at each point of itself, and thus cause a separation 
of the electricity in the circuit, so that it would get coated with a distri- 
bution of electricity, tbe electrostatic action of which would balance that 
due to the action due to its motion on a point relatively at rest. The 
velocities which enter into Clausius’ formule are velocities relative to the 
ether, so that if the ether moves with the earth, an electric current will, 
according even to this theory, exert no electromotive force on a point 
relatively at rest, and there will be no electrification on the surface of 
the circuit. The velocity ec which occurs in all these theories is a velocity 
comparable with the velocity of light. 


General Considerations on these Theories.* 


We shall now go on to discuss a general way of treating theories of 

_ the kind we have been considering. Perhaps the best way of doing this 
_ is to consider not the forces between the electrified bodies, but the energy 
possessed by them. If the energy depends on the electrification there- 
_ will be forces between two electrified bodies. Now the potential energy 
depends on the electrification, and this dependence produces the ordinary 
electrostatic forces between two electrified bodies at rest. If, however, 
the kinetic energy as well as the potential depends on the electrification, 
then the forces between two electrified bodies in motion will be different 
from the forces between the same bodies at rest. An easy way of seeing 
this is by means of Lagrange’s equations. 

If T be the kinetic energy, and w a co-ordinate of any kind, then we 
have, by Lagrange’s equations, 


Aly 
d av _ dv = external force of type z. 


di dé da 
Hence if we have any term T’ in the expression for the kinetic energy,. 
we may, if we like, regard it as producing a force equal to 
4 at at 
dt dz da” 


TS 


A simple illustration of this is afforded by the centrifugal force. In 


1 Frohlich, Wied. Ann., ix. p. 277, 1880. 

2 Wied. Ann., x. p. 553, 1880. 

3 See Clausius ‘On the Employment of the Electrodynamic Potential for the 
Determination of the Ponderomotive and Electromotive Forces,’ Phil. Mag., 1880, v. 
10, p. 255. 


2 REPORT —1885. 


the expression for the kinetic energy of a moving particle there is the 
term : 
4inr? 6?, 


where ¢ is the distance of the particle from some fixed point, and @ the 
angle which the radius from this point to the particle makes with some 
fixed line; m is the mass of the particle. This term, by the above rule, 
will give rise to a force of type 7, i.e., along the radius vector equal to 


mre?, 


and this.is the ordinary centrifugal force. 

Now let us consider a moving electrified body. If it is symmetrical, 
and moves in an isotropic dielectric, it is evident that the electrification, 
if it enters at all, can only enter as a factor of the total velocity 4g, 
and cannot affect the separate components of the velocity differently. 

Let us suppose that the body is charged with a quantity of electricity 
denoted by e, then the kinetic energy, if it depends on the electrification, 
must be of the form 


amg” + fle)g’, 


‘where f(e¢) denotes some function of e. Now f(e) must be always 
positive, for if it were negative we could make 


dn + fle) 


negative, and then the electrified body would behave like one of negative 
mass. The simplest form satisfying this condition which we can take for 
_f(e) 18 ae”, where « is some positive constant; so that the form of ex- 
pression for the kinetic energy may be taken as 


din + ae?)q?. 


Now let us go on to the case where we have two electrified bodies present, 
with charges e and e’ of electricity ; let m and m’ be their masses, q, q’ 
their velocities, of which the components parallel to the axes of a, y, z 
are (u, v, w), (uv, v’, w’) respectively, the co-ordinates of the particles 
being (2, y, 2), (2, y’, 2’). 

If everything is symmetrical, the expression for the kinetic energy, 
if it only involves second powers of the charges of electricity, will be of 
the form 


Ling? + 4mq’? + ae?q? + fe? q?+ee' x. f {u, v, w, uv’, v', w} 


‘where f (u, v, w, wv’, v', w’) is a quadratic function of u, v, w, w, v', w’. 
By Lagrange’s equations we see that the last term will give rise to a 
‘force parallel to the axis of « on the particle whose charge is e equal to 


Sia { df _ a df i 
de dtduJ’ 


with similar expressions for the forces parallel to 7 and z. We can 
see, by substituting in this expression, that we get Weber’s law if we 
amake 


Bes reli 5% Ee; 2 
— “ww t ti" wv) +! Zw — wy’; 


rT Hi cf 


» 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES, 113 
Riemann’s law, if we make 
fH L{unuy + (vv) + (ww); 
r 
Clausins’ law, if we make 
.— t {uu’ + vo’ + ww'}; 
r 


and that we cannot get Gauss’s law in this way; this is in accordance 
with the fact that Gauss’s law does not satisfy the principle of the 
conservation of energy. This way of considering the theories enables us 
to see that neither Weber’s nor Riemann’s formule can be right, for if 
they were, an electrified body, when in presence of another, would, under 
certain circumstances, behave as if its mass were negative. Thus take 
Weber’s law as an example: let us suppose that two electrified bodies are 
moving along the line joining them, which we may take as the axis of a; 
then the expression for the kinetic energy, putting in the value of f which 
corresponds to Weber’s law, is 

/ 
mg? + 4mq’? + ae?g? + Bel2q/? + — {y-—q}%, 


«pp! 
so that if dm + ae? 4 82 


be negative, then the coefficient of q* in the kinetic energy will be nega- 
tive, and the body will behave as if its mass were negative; and, by 
sufficiently increasing e’ or diminishing r, we can make this expression 
negative, so that Weber’s law leads to results which are inconsistent with 
experience. This result of Weber’s law was first pointed out by Helmholtz. ! 

Exactly the same objection applies to Riemann’s theory, and indeed 
we see that it will apply to any theory which makes the force between 
two electrified bodies depend on relative velocities and accelerations. 

The same objection need not apply to Clansius’ theory, for substitut- 
ing the value of f belonging to his theory, the kinetic energy equals 


(dm + aet)y?+ (Lm! + fe?)q!? + ee! M1 008 «, 
so that the kinetic energy will be always positive if 


2 o2 p/2 2 
(4m + ae’) (4m! + Be!2)> a 


This condition will evidently be satisfied if 
2 
10g 


and this relation does not involve the electrification. We cannot assume 
that we can make r so small that this condition is not satisfied, for r has 
a minimum value depending upon the shape and size of the electrified 
bodies. For example, if these are spheres, 7 cannot be less than the 
sum of their radii. On the other hand, a and f may be functions of the 


1 Ueber die Theorie der Elektrodynamik. Crelle, vol. Ixxv. p. 535; Collected 
Works, Bd. 1, S. 647. 


1885. 


114 REPORT—1885. 


sizes of the electrified bodies, and the geometrical relations may be such 
that the condition written above must be always satisfied. 


Physical reasons why the force between two electrified bodies should depend 
on their velocities and accelerations. 


If we assume Maxwell’s hypothesis that a change in the electric 
polarisation produces the same effect as an electric current, then we see 
that the kinetic energy of an electrified body must be different from the 
kinetic energy of the same body moying at the same rate but not electri- 
fied. For let us suppose that we have an electrified body at rest, and 
consider the amount of work necessary to start it with a velocity g. It 
is evident that it will be greater than when it is not electrified, for when 
it is electrified and in motion the electric polarisation in the surrounding 
dielectric will be in changing, and so in addition to starting the body 
with a velocity g we have, if Maxwell’s hypothesis be true, to establish 
what is equivalent to a field full of electric currents. The production of 
these currents of course requires work, so that more work is required to 
start the body with a velocity g when it is electrified than when it is not ; 
in other words, the kinetic energy of a moving electrified body is greater 
than that of one not electrified, but under similar conditions as to mass and 
velocity. In fact in this case electricity behaves as if it possessed inertia. 

In a paper published in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine,’ April 1881, I 
have shown that the kinetic energy of a charged sphere of radius a and 
niass m moving at a velocity q 


2 
é 
— 4mq? + 2 B ig 


where j: is the magnetic permeability of the surrounding dielectric and 
e the charge on the sphere. If there are two spheres in the field, then 
I have shown in the same paper that the kinetic energy 


e? ve!? ee! 
=imq?+ 75 ~ q’? + 4m'q? + 25 =n q? + ae) qq’ COS €, 


where corresponding quantities for the two spheres are denoted by plain 
and accented letters. We see from this expression that the forces 
between the spheres are exactly the same as those given by Clausius’ 
formule. It would not, however, be legitimate to go and develope the 
laws of electrodynamics from this result in the way that Clausius does, 
as Clausius’ conception of an electric current does not accord with that 
of the displacement theory. We may remark that in this case the part 
of the kinetic energy due to the electrificaticn is always positive. 


On theories which are based on dynamical considerations, but which 
neglect the action of the dielectric. 


F, E. Neumann! was the first to develope a theory founded on the 
principles of the Conservation of Energy. His theory was based upon 
the assumption that two elements of circuit ds, ds’, traversed by currents 
«, ’ possess an amount of energy equal to 


/ 
cv cose 
, ee sates OLE 
a 


1 ‘Die mathematischen Gesetze der inducirten electrischen Stréme,’ Schriften der 
Berliner Academie der Wissensch., 1845. 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 115 


where A is a constant which depends upon the unit of current, r is the 
distance between the elements, and « the angle between their directions. 
F, E. Neumann showed that this assumption leads to the same law of 
force between two closed circuits as that given by Ampére, and also ex- 
plained by means of it the induction of electric currents. v. Helmholtz ! 
has investigated the most general expression for the energy possessed by 
two elements of current which is consistent with the condition that the 
force between two closed circuits should be the same as that given by 
Ampére’s theory. We shall consider this theory in detail, as it includes 
all theories of this class, and we shall wish to refer to it when we come 
to discuss the relative merits of the various theories. v. Helmholtz 
begins by showing that the most general expression for the energy of two 
elements of circuit consistent with Ampére’s laws for closed circuits is 


Aaa’ 


= {(1 + &) cos « + (1 — &) cos 8 cos 6’} ds ds’, 


A 
2 


where 9 and 6’ are respectively the angles ds and ds’ make with the line 
joining the elements, / is a constant, and the other symbols have the same 
meaning as before. 

Let us call this quantity T ; then we know that T denotes the existence 
of a force dT /dr or 


Af?cd 
t @ 


2 


—} {(1 + &) cos « + (1 — &) cos 4 cos 6'} ds ds! 


along r, and a force — dT/rd0 at right angles to r in the plane of ds and 
#, and in such a direction that it tends to diminish 6; this force equals 


Agata : ‘ do’ 
4 2 (1—k) (sin 4 cos 6’ + cos 0 sin 6’ a) 


and since 


ae 
—-=Ccos 
do UB 


where 7 is the angle between the plane containing r and ds and that 
containing r and ds’, the transverse force 


Azcud! 


= (1—k) {sin 4 cos 6’+cos 4 sin 6’ cos n}. 


=—1 
a 2 


We see that these forces will coincide with those assumed in Korte- 
weg’s theory if the quantities a, b, c, d, which occur in that theory, have 
the following values : 


a= — A? 
fa obey Ae 
22 id =e 


d=4 (1-4) A? 
So that whatever “be the value of /:, these quantities” satisfy the con- 
dition g 
2a+6b+¢—2d= — 3A% 


* Crelle, Ixxii, p. 57; Gesammelte Werke, vol. i. p. 545. 
12 


116 REPORT— 1885. 


According to Stefan, it is necessary if two circuits have a potential 
that 
Qa+b+c¢—2d=0. 


But Stefan did not consider the couple exerted by one element of 
circuit on another. The couples acting on the element ds’ will be as 
follows. There will be a couple tending to increase 6’, i.e. a couple 
whose axis is at right angles to both ds’ and r, equal to dT /d6’, i.e. to 

Biss 
4 — {(1+k) sin 6 cos 6’ cos n—2 cos 6 sin 6'}, 
and another couple tending to increase 7, 7.e. a couple whose axis is along 
the line joining the elements equal to dT /dn, 7.c. to 


| aig 


r 


4 (1+£) sin 6 sin 0’ sin 7. 


We see that these will agree with the couples in Korteweg’s theory of 
pois ee: page G+), ~ porque GtD, 
T T , 


Let us return to the consideration of the energy of the circuits, and 
suppose that, instead of currents flowing along linear circuits, we have a 
distribution of them throughout space. If u, v, w be the currents in 
the element dz, dy, dz, then the part of the energy contributed by this 
element will be 

— A? {Uu+Vv+ Wu} "da dy dz, 
where 


v=3(([{a+Ht+a-H=> fue—H+ey—n+w@-9} } 
dé dy dé, 


with symmetrical expressions for V and W, where 
P= (@— fy? + (y—n)? + @— 6)? 


We may write the expressions for U, V, W in the form 
dw u 
=4(1-—k) — = Oh 
b>—270 m+ {il £ dyn dé 
db v 
mee ae ee oh 
v=ta-)% + [| 228 an ae 
eee Me er (ta dn dl, 
. dz er 
x dr dr dr\ 3; : 
where y = {\| (« di + v iy w 5) dé dy df 


If u, v, ware the components of the ordinary conduction current, e the 
volume density of the free electricity, then 


du , dv , dw de 
ao aig ae noe”: 


and if 7, m, n be the direction cosines of the normal to a surface at which 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 117 


the currents become discontinuous, o the surface density of the electricity 
on this surface, then 


lL (u—u) + m (v—v') + 2 (w—w') + = == @, 


Remembering these equations, Y may be transformed into 


de do 
se EM ae oe 
ee yde+ [fro ds ; 


or if ¢ denote the electrostatic potential of the free electricity, we see 


wn be f(t h dgcs 
y= = I;geae 


Substituting this value of J we find 
do 


Sait 4ru, 


7°U = (1k) 


viv = (1-1) TE — Ano, 


2 
v2W = (1k) 28 — dew, 


We also see that 
dU , dV , dW ___ 1,4 
: dz dy eo dt 


In order to get the equations connecting the electromotive force with the 
variation of the electrodynamic potential, Neumann made use of Lenz’s 
law, and assumed that, since by that law the electromotive force tending 
to*increase the current in an element of circuit moving with a velocity 
w in the direction s would be of the same sign as 


—Xw, 
where X is the force along s on the element per unit of length per unit 


of current flowing through it, it was actually equal to this quantity 
multiplied by a constant c, 7.e. to 


—cXw; 
but if Ti ds be the energy of the element of current whose length is 


ds, and current strength #, 

dT 
) Ee 
ds’ 
ds 


= Bes 


so that the electromotive force per unit of length of the element 


and w 


118 REPORT—1885. 


v. Helmholtz has shown that it follows from the principle of the Conser- 
vation of Energy that if the energy in the elements da, dy, dz, traversed 
by currents uw, v, w, be 


A? (Uu+Vv+ Ww) da dy dz, 
then the components of the electromotive force parallel to the axes 2, y, z 
respectively, due to the variation in the electrodynamic potential, will be 
ajgam lav Saw. 


dt’ dt dt ? 
the free electricity produces an electromotive force whose components are- 
__ dd do dd 


dz’ dy ; dz? 
so that the total electromotive force parallel to 2, y, z 
dd dU 
— ee 
dx dt 
Now if o be the specific resistance of the conductor, ow equals the elec- 
tromotive force parallel to the axis of a, so that 


—_% _ 42 WU, 
hae alae = ae” 
so that by the preceding equations 


vi Orn aheey > dy eVindd=) dU 

read ey ae a 
with similar equations for V, W. The quantities U, V, W and their 
first differential coefficients with respect to w, y, z are continuous, and 
these equations enable us to find them if we know the value of 4,. 
the potential of the free electricity. Helmholtz shows that the whole: 
energy in the field due to the currents may be written 


A? dU dV\?, (dV_dW?, dW _ dU? dp 4 

al ee Nee ee LAS eet yy (ae da dy d 
alli dy =) ee = Hs ad = (Zi) ee 
so that if & be negative, this expression may become negative, and in 
that case the equilibrium would be unstable; hence we conclude that: 
only those theories are tenable for which k is positive. 


The equations written above are those which hold in a conductor, 
in an insulator the equations are 


rape? 


dedt 
do 
2V = is) 
v?V=(1 Sagat 
d*¢ 
2Ww =(1—k) — 
pa fe dz dt 
ep — 0. 


v. Helmholtz shows that in the conductor the electrostatic potential & 
satisfies the equation 


2 7 dp _ no, 0p 
‘ {e+ eth ance 


See 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 119 


so that if the conductor has an infinitely small resistance, the equation 
becomes id 
24—A2.%% 
b= A*k Te 
This represents a wave motion, the velocity of propagation of which is 
1/AVk. If k, as in Neumann’s theory, be equal to unity, then the 
velocity of propagation is 1/A, and from the value of A, found from 
experiments on the force between circuits conveying currents, this is 
nearly equal to the velocity of propagation of light. Thus, according to 
Neumann’s theory, in a perfect conductor an electrostatic disturbance is 
propagated with the velocity of light. In an insulator ¢ satisfies the 
equation 
V?o=0; 


and this represents a motion propagated with an infinite velocity, and 
thus, according to this theory, an electrostatic disturbance is propagated 
with an infinite velocity in a perfect non-conductor. In an imperfectly 
conducting substance the velocity of propagation of a wave motion would 
depend upon the length of the wave. ; 

Let us now go on to consider, what, according to this theory, are the 
forces acting on an element of circuit conveying acurrent. Let us suppose 
that the element ds forms an element of a circuit through which a current 
tis flowing ; then the energy of the circuit will be 


dx dy dz | 
2 Se ae — 
A |: {usev awe | as, 


In order to find the force parallel to z, let us suppose that each element 
of the circuit receives an arbitrary displacement 2, parallel to the axis of 
z; then the alteration in the energy will be 


5 f dU da dV dy aes : = d da 
atl bm Engh aa" aide dz ds + A? 1. U a ds. 


Integrating the second term by parts, we see that it may be written 
5 dU dz , dU dy , dWdz 
2 SNe 4 —  _ —_ 
[A2.Udce] —A | oe fois ia ds se ee at dw ds. 


Substituting this value for the second term, we see that the alteration in 
the energy, 


dy (dV _dU\ dzfdU dW). 
Se A2 2 ef OL 7 Ne ee ; 
~ eahaaniae ladle | * lds \de dy) ds\dz dz ) pe ip 


hence we see by the Conservation of Energy that there is a force on each 
element of current parallel to the axis of x, equal to 


fy dV_dU)_ dz BCL yr 


ds\ du dy ds\dz dx 
and by symmetry forces parallel to y and z equal respectively to 
pees (a PN -2(2-2) Vas, 
ds\ dy dz ds\du dy 
SdujdU0 dw —n v) bas 


"Vas dz du ds “dy dz 


120 REPORT—1885. 


so that the resultant of these forces is at right angles to the element. In 
addition to these forces there are other forces at places where the quantity 
U is discontinuous, or, since U is continuous, at places where « is discon- 
tinuous, whose components parallel to the axes of «, y, z, are respectively 


A?0%, A?VEr, A?7Wea; 


but oc equals de/dt, the rate at which the free electricity is increasing 
at the place, so that we have at any place where the free electricity is 
changing a force whose components are 
ere 
A?U Ta 
ove 
A?’V i’ 
ayy de 
Jia at 
We saw before that the force acting on the circuit per unit length is 
at right angles at each point to the element of circuit at that point, so 
that, unless a circuit includes places at which the quantity of free electri- 
city is changing, the circuit will behave as if it were acted on by forces 
which were everywhere normal to the elements on which they act. In 
the experiments which have been made to test whether the force on the 
element is at right angles to it, there have been no points where the free 
electricity is changing, so that these experiments do not contradict Neu- 
mann’s theory, although, according to it, the force on an isolated element 
is not necessarily at right angles to that element, for in addition to the forces 
normal to the element we have forces equal to A?Ude/dt, A? Vde | dt, A? Wde/ dt 
parallel to z, y, z respectively, acting at the ends, the resultant of these 
two forces is a force whose components parallel to the axes of 2, y, z are 
respectively " 
A? de dU ds 
dtds ’ 
A? de dV ds 
A?de dW ds 
dtidsne 


and as these forces are not necessarily at right angles to the element, the 
resultant force is not necessarily so; the effect of these forces could not, 
however, be detected unless there was a discontinuity in the current. 

v. Helmholtz in the memoir! which we have already quoted shows 
that, according to his extension of F. E. Neumann’s theory, the forces 
between two elements of circuit ds and ds’ may be looked upon as made 
up of— 

(1) A repulsive force on ds due to an end of ds’, equal (per unit 
length) to 


<en'S, de’ 1 dr 


dt rds’ 


1 Ueber die Theorie der Elektrodynamikh, dritte Abhandlung, Crelle, lxxviii. pp. 273, 
324, 1874; Gesammelte Werke, p. 723. 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 121 
(2) A repulsive force on ds due to ds’, equal per unit length to 


A®! 
_ { 2 cos (ds ds’) — 3 cos (rds) cos (r ds’) \ : 


7 


(3) A repulsion between the ends of ds and ds’, equal to 
2 dede! | 
dt dt” 


(4) A repulsion on ds’, due to an end of ds equal per unit length to 


-~F+HA 


deldr 
—A*' —f =, 
* dtr ds 

The second of these is the only one considered in Ampére’s theory. We 
must remember in calculating these forces that each element has two 
ends. 

Let us now go on to find the couples acting at each point of the 
circuit. If the tangent to the circuit makes an angle 6 with the axis of z, 
and the plane containing the tangent and the axis of z an angle @ with 
the plane of xz, then we may write 


ad = sin 6 cos ¢, 
a : : 

= = sin 6sin ¢, 
d. 

= = cos 6, 


so that with the same notation as before the energy equals 
Aol. (US+v44we ds 
ds ds ds 
= Arf (U sin @ cos ¢ + V sin 8 sin g + W cos 6) ds, 


so that if increase by ¢¢, the alteration in the energy equals 


A? [: (—Usin 6 sin ¢ + Vssin 0 cos 4) 39 ds, 


so that the couple tending to increase ¢, i.e. the couple whose axis is 
parallel to the axis of z, equals 
A’. (V sin 8 cos ¢ — Usin @sin ¢) 
per unit length of current ; this may be written 
dx di 
2 sa Sh eee 
a. (ve —ud), 
hence the couples parallel to the axes of y and are by symmetry re- 
spectively 
dz d: 


Ae, {ut _wH 
ds ds 


dy dz 
2 cet J pc 
At {wt vel. 


122 REPORT—1885. 


The axis of the resultant couple is perpendicular to the element and to 
the vector whose components are U, V, W. 

In another paper! v. Helmholtz discusses the force acting per unit of 
volume on a conductor traversed by electric currents; he shows that, 
according to the potential theory, if w, v, w are the components of current 
through an element dx dy dz, and X, Y, Z the components of the force 
acting on this element of volume per unit of volume, then 


xa + (f-) +0 (S-) 08] 


du dv dw dv de 

E Med =e ‘<a =) + val 
du aw vs TW) | a] 
‘dz ‘y)t at | 


He then discusses the aia of the pa law to sliding contacts, 
that is, contacts such as those made by a wire dipping into mercury; in 
the derivation of the forces from the potential law it is assumed that the 
displacements are continuous, and it might be objected that we have no 
right to apply the law in this case as the motion of the wire and the 
mercury seems at first sight discontinuous. v. Helmholtz, however, 
points out that, as the wire carries the mercury with it as it moves, the 
motion is not really discontinuous and that Neumann’s law is applicable. 
The question of sliding contacts comes prominently forward when we 
compare the various theories; we shall return to it again in this con- 
nection. 

v. Helmholtz also in this paper investigates the electromotive forces 
acting on a conductor in motion; he shows that if the components of the 
velocity of the conductor at any point are a, 3, y, then P, Q, R, the com- 
ponents of the electromotive force, are given by the equation 


Pap (9 — 2) + 7(q ae) ty Oat VB+Wy), 


dy 
with similar equations for Q and R. 

He also investigates the difference between the results of Ampére’s 
and Neumann’s theory for the E.M.F. due to induction. The results are 
complicated ; for practical purposes it is sufficient to notice that when 
there is a mechanical force tending to make the body move in a certain 
direction, there must be an HE. M.F. when the body moves in that 
direction. 


Z=A? [ 


CO. Newmann’s Theory. 


C. Neumann assumes that the electric potential energy is propagated 
with a finite velocity, and that if two electrified bodies are in motion, the 
mutual potential energy is not ee’ /7, where r is the distance between them, 
but ee’/7’, where 7’ is the distance between them at a time ¢ before, 
where ¢ is the time taken by the potential to travel from the one body to 
the other. 

The energy considered in C. Neumann’s theory is a kind of energy 
quite different from any that we have experience of; it is not poten- 


1 Ueber die Theorie der. Elektrodynamik, Crelle, lxxviii. pp. 273-324, 1874; 


Gesammelie Werke, vol. ii. p. 703. 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 123 


tial energy, because that at any time depends only on the position of the 
system at that time ; it is not kinetic, because that depends only on the 
position and velocity of the system at the time under consideration, 
whilst Neumann’s energy depends on the velocity and position of the 
system at some previous time. In spite of all this, however, Neumann 
applies the ordinary dynamical processes to this energy just as if it were 
kinetic or potential ; and in this way arrives at the same expression as: 
Weber for the force between two moving electrified bodies. The rest of 
the theory is the same as Weber’s, except that Neumann’s assumption 
about the nature of a current is different from Weber’s. According to 
Weber, an electric current consists of equal quantities of positive and 
negative electricity, moving with equal velocities in opposite directions. 
According to Neumann, the positive electricity alone can move, the nega- 
tive being attached to the molecules of the conductor. Riecke and Clausius 
have shown that with this assumption and Weber’s law a steady current 
must exert a force upon a particle at rest and charged with electricity, and 
must in consequence produce an irregular distribution of electricity over 
any conductor in its neighbourhood. 


Theories which are founded on dynamical considerations and which take 
into account the action of the dielectric. 


In the theories we have hitherto considered, the influence of the 
medium which exists between the currents has been left altogether out of 
account. In the theories which we shall now proceed to discuss, the in- 
fluence of this medium is taken into consideration. This is, perhaps, the 
most important step that has ever been made in the theory of electricity, 
though from a practical point of view it is comparatively of little import- 
ance; in fact, for practical purposes almost any one of the preceding 
theories will satisfy every requirement. 

Faraday was the first to look upon the dielectric as an important 
agent in electrical phenomena; he was led to this by his desire to get rid, 
as far as possible, of the idea of action at a distance, which was so pre- 
valent in his time, but to which his researches have given the death-blow- 
In his ‘ Experimental Researches,’ § 1164, speaking of electrostatic in- 
duction, he says, ‘I was led to suspect that common induction itself 
was in all cases an action of contiguous particles, and that electrical 
action at a distance (7.e. ordinary inductive action) never occurred except 
through the influence of surrounding matter.’ And later on he gives his: 
views as to the nature of the effect in the medium; in § 1298 of the 
‘Researches’ he says, ‘Induction appears to consist in a certain 
polarised state of the particles into which they are thrown by the electri- 
fied body sustaining the action, the particles assuming positive and 
negative points or parts, which are symmetrically arranged with respect 
to each other and the inducting surfaces or particles. This state must 
be a forced one, for it is originated and sustained only by force, and 
sinks to the normal or quiescent state when that force is removed. It 
can be continued only in insulators by the same portion of electricity, 
because they only can retain this state of the particles.’ He gives an ex- 
perimental illustration of his view in §1350. He says, ‘ As an illustration 
of the condition of the polarised particles in a dielectric under induction 
I may describe an experiment. Put in a glass vessel some clear rectified 


124 REPORT—1885. 


oil of turpentine, and introduce two wires passing through glass tubes, 
when they coincide with the surface of the fluid and terminating in balls 
or points. Cut some very clean dry white silk into small particles, and 
put these also into the liquid; then electrify one of the wires by an 
ordinary machine and discharge by the other. The silk will immediately 
gather from all parts of the liquid and form a band of particles reaching 
from wire to wire, and if touched by a glass rod will show considerable 
tenacity; yet the moment the supply of electricity ceases the band will 
fall away and disappear by the dispersion of its parts. The conduction 
by the silk is in this case very small, and after the best examination I 
could give to the effects, the impression on my mind is that the adhesion 
of the whole is due to the polarity which each filament acquires, exactly 
as the particles of iron between the poles of a horse-shoe magnet are held 
together in one mass by a similar disposition of forces. The particles of 
silk therefore represent to me the condition of the molecules of the 
dielectric itself, which I assume to be polar, just as that of the silk is. 
In all cases of conductive discharge the contiguous polarised particles of 
the body are able to effect a neutralisation of their forces with greater or 
less facility, as the silk does also ina very slight degree. Further we are 
not able to carry the parallel, except in imagination; but if we could 
divide each particle of silk into two halves, and let each half travel until 
it met and united with the next half in an opposite state, it would then 
exert its carrying power (1307), and so far represent electrolytic 
discharge.’ 

And it is not only in statical electricity that Faraday recognised the 
importance of the dielectric. When he is discussing his discovery of the 
induction of currents, which he ascribes to the assumption of what he 
called the electrotonic state by the body in which induced currents are 
developed, he says, § 73, ‘It may even exist in non-conductors,’ that is, 
that there is an electromotive force acting on the surrounding dielectric 
due to the variation in the primary current. Again, in § 1661, he says, 
‘ Now though we perceive the effects only in that portion of matter which, 
being in the neighbourhood, has conducting properties, yet hypotheti- 
cally it is probable that the non-conducting matter has also its relations 
to, and is affected by, the disturbing causes, though we have not yet dis- 
covered them. Again and again the relation of conductors and non- 
conductors has been shown to be one, not of opposition in kind, but only 
in degree (1334, 1603); and therefore for this, as well as for other 
reasons, it is probable that what will affect a conductor will affect an 
insulator also, producing, perhaps, what may deserve the term of the 
electrotonic state (60, 242, 1114).’ And though he was unable to detect 
these effects experimentally, the following paragraph (1728) shows that 
his belief in their existence was not shaken: ‘ But then it may be asked, 
What is the relation of the properties of insulating bodies, such as air, 
sulphur, or lac, when they intervene in the line of magnetic action ? 
The answer to this is at present merely conjectural. I have long thought 
there must be a particular condition of such bodies, corresponding to the 
state which causes currents in metals and other conductors (26, 53, 191, 
201, 213); and considering that the bodies are insulators, one could 
expect that state tobe one of tension. I have, by rotating non-conduct- 
ing bodies near magnetic poles, and poles near them, and also by causing 
powerful electric currents to be suddenly formed and to cease around 
and about insulators in various directions, endeavoured to make some 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 125 


such state sensible, but have not succeeded. Nevertheless as any such 
state must be of exceedingly low intensity, because of the feeble intensity 
of the currents which are used to induce it, it may well be that the state 
may exist, and may be discoverable by some more expert experimentalist, 
though I have not been able to make it sensible.’ 

Maxwell was the first to express Faraday’s ideas in mathematical 
language. In his papers on ‘Physical Lines of Force’ in the ‘ Philogo- 
phical Magazine’ for March, April, May, 1861, and January, February, 
1862, he developes a theory of electricity according to which the energy 
of the electro-magnetic field resides in the dielectric as well as in the con- 
ductors; later, in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for 1865, he greatly 
extended Faraday’s ideas as well as put them into definite mathematical 
language, and this without reference to any special theory of the mechan- 
ism which produces electrical phenomena. We shall devote some time to 
discussing Maxwell’s theory, as it is freer from serious objections than any 
other, while at the same time it covers a much wider ground. 

We shall begin by referring to Maxwell’s view of the state of the 
dielectric in the electric field. Maxwell supposes that the dielectric is 
changed, and perhaps the clearest way of describing this change is that 
of Faraday in the extract already quoted. Maxwell’s nomenclature as to 
_ this change is a little unfortunate ; instead of speaking, like Faraday, of 

the polarisation of the dielectric, he speaks of the change as consisting 
of an electric displacement, which in isotropic media isin the direction of 
the electromotive force. Mathematically the two things are identical ; 
we may either say of a wire that it is negatively electrified at one end A, 
and positively at the other end B, or else that there is a displacement of 
positive electricity from A to B, so that there is an excess of positive 
electricity at B and adeficiency at A. But though the words ina mathe- 
matical sense are identical, still the word displacement seems to connote 
special qualities which limit the generality of the conception in an unde- 
sirable way ; the word displacement seems to imply motion in the direction 
of displacement, while polarisation only implies that there isa vector 
change of some kind in the dielectric. The condition of the dielectric is 
quite analogous to the state of a piece of soft iron placed in a magnetic 
field. The polarisation or displacement is in isotropic media in the direc- 
tion of the electromotive force and proportional to it, just as the magnetic 
induction in isotropic media is in the direction of the magnetic force and 
proportional to it. It was this proportionality combined with the fact that. 
as soon as the electromotive force is removed the dielectric springs back, 
as it were, to its original state, that led Maxwell to use the word dis- 
placement. He looked on the case as analogous to that of an elastic 
solid, which springs back to its original position when the external force 
is removed, and in which the displacement is proportional to the im- 
pressed force. To avoid any unnecessary definiteness we shall use the 
term dielectric polarisation instead of electric displacement. Thus. 
according to this view the dielectric in the electric field is polarised. 
This polarisation means change of structure of some kind, and to produce 
this change of structure work is required. The energy in the polarised 
dielectric will be greater than the energy when it was unpolarised, for if 
the energy were less the dielectric would go into the polarised condition 
of itself, without the application of any external forces. 

It is rather difficult to see what is meant in Maxwell's theor 


by the 
phrase ‘ quantity of electricity.” According to the old twosflait theory 


126 REPORT—1885, 


an electrified body was supposed to contain a certain quantity of some- 
thing called electricity, rules were given for measuring this quantity, 
and the phrase ‘quantity of electricity’ meant something quite definite, 
Tn Maxwell’s theory, where everything is referred to the dielectric, the 
meaning of the phrase is not so obvious. We can, however, arrive at 
some idea of what is meant by the consideration of what are called ‘tubes 
of force.’ Let us suppose at first that the dielectric is air. A line of 
force is a line whose direction at any point coincides with the direction of 
the electromotive force at that point, so that we may conceive the electric 
field to be filled with lines of force. If we consider the lines of force 
passing through some small closed curve, they will form a tube, and such 
a tube is called a tube of force ; and if the dimensions of the tube are such 
that the product of the cross section at any point and the electromotive 
force at that point is constant and equal to 47, the tube is called a unit 
tube. We may thus conceive space to be filled with unit tubes of force. 
Since the electromotive force inside a conductor vanishes these tubes will 
end at the surface of a conductor. And the quantity of electricity on the 
conductor will be equal to the excess of the number of lines of force which 
leave the conductor over those which enter it. A tube is said to leave the 
conductor when the direction of the electromotive force is along the normal 
drawn outwards, and to enter it when the direction of the electromotive force 
is along the normal drawn inwards. As the conductor moves about it may 
be supposed to carry the tubes of force along with it, so that the number of 
tubes which end on the conductor remains constant. This way of look- 
ing at electrification is quite satisfactory as long as we keep to one 
dielectric air; when we have to consider different dielectrics it requires 
modification, because the electromotive force changes abruptly as we pass 
from one dielectric into another, so that a tube which was a unit tube in 
one dielectric is not so in another. It is easy, however, to extend the 
definition of unit tubes so as to meet this difficulty ; for if the tubes pass 
from one dielectric A into another B the ratio of the product of the cross 
section and electromotive force is constant for all the tubes and depends 
only on the nature of the dielectrics ; this ratio is the ratio of the specific 
inductive capacities in Band A. Air is taken as the standard dielectric, 
and the specific inductive capacity of another dielectric A is the ratio of 
the product of the electromotive force and cross section of a tube in air 
to the product of the same quantities for the same tube in the dielectric 
A. Thus if we amend our definition and say that a circuit tube is one 
such that the product of the cross section, the electromotive force, and the 
specific inductive capacity of the medium in which the cross section is 
situated is equal to 47, then the quantity of electricity on a conductor is 
equal to the excess of the number of unit tubes which leave the conductor 
over the number of those which enter it. In this way we get an idea of 
what is meant by ‘ quantity of electricity’ in Maxwell’s theory. Maxwell 
accounts for the forces observed between electrified bodies by a system 
of stresses in the dielectric separating them ; as, however, at present we 
wish to compare Maxwell’s theory with other theories which do not 
touch upon this point, we shall discuss this part of the theory separately 
later on and go on to discuss those points which are involved in all the 
theories. 

The next great point in Maxwell’s theory is the development of 
Faraday’s remark that the electrotonic state may exist even in non-con- 
ductors, 7.e., that the dielectric surrounding a changing current is acted 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 127 


on by electromotive forces which polarise it. This statement is one as 
to whose truth nobody seems to entertain any doubt, whilst the state- 
ment that changes in the dielectric polarisation produce effects analogous 
to those produced by ordinary conduction currents is by no means so 
universally received, and yet the one seems the necessary consequence of 
the other. If we regard the whole electric field as a dynamical system, 
and to fix our ideas consider an element a of the dielectric, and the cur- 
rent, which is supposed to vary, then, since a variation in the current 
polarises a, 7.e., produces a change in its structure, there must be 
mechanism connecting the current with the element a; but if this is so 
then it follows from dynamical principles that a non-uniform variation 
in the structure of a must produce a change in the current—in other 
words, that a change in the rate of change of the polarisation of a pro- 
duces an electromotive force on the current, i.e. that the change of polarisa- 
tion produces an effect analogous to that of an ordinary conduction 
current. We may illustrate this by a purely dynamical example. Sup- 
pose we have a dynamical system defined by two co-ordinates p and q, 
and let T be the kinetic energy of the system and V the potential energy ; 
then by Lagrange’s equation the force tending to increase q 


Mind Mair eet dh. 
agay Weeds 


Now if there is a force tending to alter g which depends upon the 
acceleration of p, there must be a term in the kinetic energy of the 


form 
Apd; 


but if we apply Lagrange’s equations to the p co-ordinates we see that 
this term implies the existence of a force tending to increase p equal to 


ad 
cw Aq, 


sso that an acceleration of gq will produce a force tending to alter p. 
To make this applicable to the case of the current and the dielectric, we 
have only to suppose that p represents the current, g the polarisation of 
the dielectric. That a change in # produces a change in q is shown by 
the fact that the dielectric is polarised when the current is changing, and 
this shows that there must be a term of the form Aj@, in expression for 
the kinetic energy ; from this it follows that a change in 4, 7.e., in the rate 
of change of the polarisation, will produce an E.M.F. on the circuit. As 
the variation of the dielectric polarisation produces the same effect as a 
conduction current, we must in the case, when both conduction current 
and alteration in the polarisation are present, look upon the true or effec- 
tive current as the sum of the conduction current and the change in the 
polarisation. 

The components f, g, h of the dielectric polarisation are defined by the 
equation 

K K K 
inde gee ge 

where K is the specific inductive capacity of the medium, X, Y, Z the 
components of the electromotive force. If u,v, w are the components 
of the effective current, p, g, r the components of the conduction 


128 REPORT—1885. 


current, then Maxwell in his paper on a ‘Dynamical Theory of the 
Electromagnetic Field,’ ‘ Phil. Trans., 1885,’ puts 


2h grip ett dg ay 4th 
u=pt-—, =q+—, wart oe 
é pee Nag ae or et: Dig, 
Since PRE a 
Bg: dg dh 
d cy gs NB ata 
ne He dy Gas? 


where p is the volume density of the free electricity, we see that 


du dv dw 
ase aati) 
de dy in dz 


If the values of the quantities in a medium A be denoting by putting 
the suffix 1 to the symbols representing them, and those in another 
dielectric B by putting the suffix 2, then if /, m, m are the direction 
cosines of the normal from A to B, we have at the boundary of the two 


media 
d 
L(pi-p2) + ™ (41-4) + (m1 —1) = = 


L(fi—fo) + m (g1—g2) + 2 (hi —hg) = — 9, 
where o is the surface density of the electricity ; thus 
1 (uy —Ug) + m (¥;—vq) + 2 (W1;— Wg) =0; 


so that wu, v, w satisfy the same equations as the components of the velocity 
of an incompressible fluid. 

This assumption about the magnitude of the effects produced by the 
alteration in the dielectric polarisation makes the mathematics of the 
theory as simple as possible. If Maxwell had merely assumed that the 
alteration of the dielectric polarisation produces effects analogous to those 
produced by ordinary conduction currents, and that the equivalent con- — 
duction current was proportional to the rate of alteration of the dielectric 
polarisation, then these equations would have been 


dX 
at’ 
a 
a 
aid, 
dt ” 


u=p+a 
=qt 


w=r+ 


so that in a homogeneous dielectric 
du , dv, dw =—#f1.48t} 
ee aera ger Fy 
d dN aN 
U(u,— Uy) + m (vj — %) + 2 (W1— 2) = =o qj =i 
where N is the component of the electromotive force normal to the 
surface. 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 129 


Maxwell’s assumption is that a=K/4, and this makes the equations 
much simpler; it is, however, important to remember that Maxwell’s 
theory of the dielectric involves the two assumptions— 

Ist. That alterations in the dielectric polarisation produce effects 
analogous to those of ordinary conduction currents ; 

2nd. That the magnitude of the equivalent conducting current 


=a { = B} /dt, where F is the electromotive force at the point ; this is 
Tv 


equivalent to saying that all the currents are closed currents, and that 
there is no discontinuity in them. 

Maxwell developes his theory by means of the principle of the Con- 
servation of Energy. 

Let us consider an electric field full of currents, whether ordinary 
conduction currents or polarisation ones. Then this field may be looked 
upon as a material system, and all the phenomena have to be explained as 
the effects of the motion of this system ; a current must be looked upon 
as a change in the structure of the system, and so capable of representa- 
tion by means of the differential coefficients of the co-ordinates fixing 
the system; we can thus represent the current at each point as the 
differential coefficient of some generalised co-orilinate fixing the system ; 
the components uw, v, w of the current passing through an element dz, 
dy, dz may be looked upon as the rates of change of some generalised 
co-ordinates ; we may write the energy as 


a(|{ cw + Gv + Hw} de dy da, 


where F', G, H may be looked upon as momenta corresponding to 
u,v, w. It remains to identify F, G, H with known quantities. Maxwell 
does this by the aid of Faraday’s result, that the electromotive force 
round a circuit equals the rate of diminution of the number of lines of 
force passing through it. 
Let us consider a single linear circuit in which the current is 7, or 
say dq/dt, then the energy 
dq { dz dy et 
=}/2 = at -s 
| Ee eee + 
where ds is an element of circuit; but by Lagrange’s equation the force 
tending to increase q, i.e., the electromotive force in the circuit, 
d da dy dz 
=— |. Pye —~ + H— jds; 
zi ll tik z) o3 


so that (F ioe Sere Seed +HS)as 
ds ds ds 
equals the number of lines of force passing through the circuit ; but if dS 


be an element of surface closing up the circuit, 7, m, n the direction cosines 
of the normal, then by Stokes’ theorem f 


daz dy dz 
\(®. a +G abe HS ) ds 


dH dG dF dH aqaG@ dF 
(hi dhe aeRirese a See SS ; 
ih ‘a = )t™ dz mt da 7) f 483 
1885. K. 


130 REPORT—1 885. 


but the number of lines of force passing through the circuit 
=|{cu + mb + nc)d8, 


where a, b, c are the components of magnetic induction, so that 


= 7H_aG 
dy dz’ 
pate _ do - 
dz dx’ 
dG _d¥F 


To connect a, b, c with the current, Maxwell makes use of the prin- 
ciple that the line integral of the magnetic force taken round any closed 
curve equals the current flowing through the curve. This leads to the 
equations— 


dy dp 
try Oe 
dy dz’ 
la d 
Ary" —&Y 
dz dx’ 
4. wt da. 
da dy’ 
so that if u be the coefficient of magnetic permeability, 
Ae scape tee, 
yi dy dz 
and so on. Substituting the values of a, b, c, given above, we find 
g g 
d fd¥F , dG , dH 
4 a { a ae bees \ —v7F 
iets da | da: Cay aw dz aia 


with similar equations for G and H. 

Now v. Helmholtz, in his paper ‘ Ueber die Bewegungsgleichungen der 
Elektricitit fiir ruhende leitende Koérper’ (Crelle, Ixxii. p. 57 ; Gesam- 
melte Werke, ii. p. 545), has investigated the most general expressions 
for F, G, H, consistent with the force between two closed circuits agree- 
ing with that indicated by Ampére’s theory, and he finds that if the 
circuits are closed circuits, as Maxwell assumes all circuits to be, then 


ae eh 
de dy dz ’ 
and therefore Arpu=— 7?F, 


with similar equations for Gand H. These equations are sufficient to 
determine the quantities F, G, H. 

Maxwell does not at once put dF/dz+dG/dy+dH/dz=0; he writes J 
for this quantity, and puts 


x 
Then Bal [(M de dy de +X; 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 131 


as, however, he subsequently puts J=0, we may at once simplify the 
equation by making this assumption. 
Since the kinetic energy equals 


3{{{(Fu +Gv+Hw)dz dy dz, 


we see by Lagrange’s equations that the electromotive force tending to 
increase u 
— dF. 
dt ’ 
in addition to this there is the force arising from the electrostatic poten- 
tial ¢, so that the total electromotive force parallel to the axis of « 
me a 
Ty db ode 
so that if o be the specific resistance of the substance, K its specific induc- 


tive capacity, then 
F. Ene ana 
PGR TN ae. dn 


. 


? 


_ df__1fdF, do] _KJ@F, a \ 
prt hin OS aits Pole ‘ie | de dedi 
but we saw before that 


Arpu=— 77°F; 
substituting for wu this value, we see 


An dF d CE, dd 
op_4te f dE aa es mat 
nae o { dt 7 a ao dt? “ae dt J’ 


thus in the dielectric the equation becomes 


@2E 
¥ ere { a ae } ; 


in the conductor 
Aur dE do 7 
= oe RN, 
o dt Tak f 


‘The equation for the dielectric shows that it represents a wave-motion 
propagated with the velocity 1/./ Ku; the numerical value of this velocity 
agrees very approximately with the velocity of light, and this led Max- 
well to the theory that the changes in the structure of the dielectric 
which take place when the dielectric is polarised are of the same nature 
as those which constitute light. This theory, which is called the electro- 
magnetic theory of light, might almost as justly be called the mechanical 
theory of dielectric polarisation. Kirchhoff, in his paper ‘ Ueber die 
Bewegung der Electricitét in Drihten’ (Pogg. Ann., vol. c. 1857 ; 
Gesammelte Werke, p. 131), was the first to point out that some elec- 
trical actions are propagated with the velocity of light. In this paper he 
considers the motion of electricity in wires whose diameters are small 
compared with theirlength. There are three things which have to be con- 
sidered in this problem—(1) the self-induction of the electric current, and 
K2 


132 REPORT—1885. 


if the medium be taken into account, that of the polarisation currents in 
the dielectric. This self-induction produces very much the same effect 
as if the electric current possessed momentum—(2) the electrostatic action 
of the free electricity which tends to bring things to a definite state, and 
corresponds very much to the spring in a material system. Then, lastly, 
there is the electrical resistance, which corresponds to friction in an ordinary 
system. We see from the analogy that if the resistance be small enough, 
the electrical system will vibrate ; if, however, the resistance is large, 
the electrical disturbance will be propagated in the same way as heat. 
Kirchhoff in his paper considers the propagation of electrical disturbance 
along a wire under various conditions: we shall only consider here one 
of these cases; that of an endless wire. In his solution Kirchhoff only 
considers the self-induction of the current flowing along the wire; he 
does not consider the effects in the surrounding dielectric. He shows 
that if e be the quantity of electricity per unit length of the wire, and 


e=X sin ns, 


where s is the length of a portion of the wire measured from some fixed 
point, then X satisfies the differential equation 

OR , Wer gx Ac? aX 

de Y67i dt 2 at? 
where ¢ is a quantity which occurs in Weber’s theory, and is the velocity 


with which two charged particles must move if the electrodynamic 
attraction between them balances the electrostatic repulsion ; 


r is the resistance of the wire in electrostatic measure ; y = log L/a, 


where / is the length of the wire and a the radius of its cross section. 
The form of the solution of this equation depends on the magnitude of 
32y 
oro 

If this quantity be large, the solution takes the form representing the 
propagation of a wave along the wire with the velocity c/./2. Weber’s 
researches show that this velocity is very nearly equal to the velocity of 
light. If, however, the above-mentioned quantity be small, then the 
solution of the equation takes the same form as the formula which 
expresses the conduction of heat along the wire. We must not, however, 
take this to mean that the electric disturbance is propagated with an 
infinite velocity, so that if we had an infinitely delicate electrometer at a, 
finite distance from the source of disturbance we could detect an electrifi- 
cation after an indefinitely short time, for it seems obvious that the 
electrical resistance cannot increase the velocity of propagation any more 
than the resistance of the air could increase the velocity of propagation of - 
a disturbance along a line of particles connected by an elastic string. 
The conditions at the end help to determine the form of the solution, and 
these cannot make themselves felt until the disturbance has reached it;. 
thus the heat form of solution probably only holds after a time from the 
commencement of the disturbance greater than the time taken by light. 
to travel along the wire. If we take the case of a copper wire one square 
centimetre in area, we shall find that the wave form of solution will hold 
if the wire is not more than 100 miles in length, while the heat form 
will correspond to wires which are much longer than this. Kirchhoff’s 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 133 


solution only refers to the propagation of a disturbance in a conductor, 
while Maxwell’s refers to the propagation of such a disturbance in the 
dielectric. 

Maxwell considers the effect of the motion of the medium on the elec- 
tromotive force; he shows that the electromotive force parallel to the 
axis of « ot 

= cw — bw wnat aaa 
where w, v, w are the components of the velocity of the medium conveying 
electric action. Here y is not the electrostatic potential merely; it is 
equal, as Helmholtz has shown,! to the electrostatic potential plus the 
term 
Fu + Gv + Hw. 


We must remark here that u, v, w are the components of the velocity of 
the medium conveying the electric action, i.e. the ether, and this need 
not necessarily be the same as the velocity of the dielectric. 


v. Helmholtz’s Dielectric Theory. 


y. Helmholtz, in the paper? to which we have so often referred, con- 
siders the effect of the polarisation of the dielectric; he supposes that 
when an electromotive force X, parallel to the axis of «, acts on an 
element of a dielectric, it puts it into such a state that it produces the 
same effect as if there were electricity of surface-density x on the face 
dy dz of the element, and art equal quantity of electricity of the opposite 
sign on the parallel face, x being given by the equation 


X= eX, 


the variations in the electromotive forces acting on the dielectric are 
supposed to produce the same effect as ordinary conduction currents 
whose components are %, , 3, where x, p, 3 are the components of a 
vector quantity which in isotropic media is parallel to the electromotive 
force and equal to the product of « and the intensity of the force. This 
agrees with Maxwell’s assumption, provided 


e= K/4r, 


where K is the specific inductive capacity of the dielectric. If ¢ be the 
electrostatic potential of the free electricity, ) the potential due to the 
polarisation of the dielectric, then Helmholtz shows that 


2 fats t otwhs t fats t + y } 
+4 { (144m) £ (0-49) b= — ey, 


where E is the volume-density of the free electricity. The corresponding 
equation in Maxwell’s theory is of the same form, provided 


1 + 4re = K.. 


1 Ueber die Theorie der Elektrodynamik ; die celektrodynamische Krifte in 
bemegten Leitern, Crelle, Ixxviii. p. 309; Gesammelte Werke, ii. p. 745. 

2 Ueber die Theorte der Elektrodynamik, Crelle, lxxii. p. 57; Gesammelte 
Werke, i. p. 544. 


134 REPORT— 1885. 


This relation seems inconsistent with the previous one; it may, how- 
ever, be reconciled with it in the following way :— 
The potential due to a quantity E of electricity at a point distant. 
r from it is proportional to 
E 
(1+4:re)r° 


If ¢, be the value of « for air, the potential under the same circumstances: 
in air is proportional to 

pees, 

(1+ 4re))r’ 
if, then, we define unit potential as the potential at unit distance from 


unit of electricity in air, the potential due to a quantity E in another 
medium will be 


1+47e r. 


Tae} EK 


We see that this is equivalent to increasing the unit of potential, and 
therefore the unit electromotive force, 1+4:e) times, so that if we use 
the new unit the equations will be 


€ 
X=T 4 Arey x, 
df 1t+4re d 
Ta Tedee, det Wht eS oAeE, 


These will coincide with Maxwell’s equation if we make « and ¢) each 
infinite and put K=e/€>. 

Returning to Helmholtz’s theory, if w, v, w are the components of the 
total current 


u=pt+%, 
v=qTD, 
w=r+3, 


where p, q, 7 are the components of the conduction current. 
Helmholtz puts 
du dv dw dp 
dat dy + da =~ ae? 


where p is the volume-density of the free electricity, and if o be the 
surface-density of the free electricity at any point of a surface separating 
two media, w,, 1, W,3 U2, V2, W, the components of the current in the 
two media, 1, m, n the direction cosines of the normal to the surface 
drawn from the first medium to the second, then according to vy. Helm- 
holtz 
de 
1 (u,—u2) +m (v1; —%9) +n (Ww, —uy) =F. 


According to Maxwell the corresponding equations are 
du do | dw_ 
da* dy da TP 
I (u, —Ug) +m (vj —v2) +2 (w, —wWy)=0. 


ta et te et 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 135 


As it is in the difference between these equations that the difference 
in the theory really lies, it will be instructive to look at them from 
another point of view. We know of no way in which the quantity of free 
electricity can be altered except by electricity being conveyed by con- 
duction currents to the place where the alteration takes place. Assuming, 
then, that the alteration in the density is caused by such currents 


ap 07. Oe 
da* dy? da dé? 


de 
l (pi —p2) +m (41-2) #2 (1-72) =F 


So that Helmholtz’s equations taken in conjunction with these are 

equivalent to the condition 
dz dy 4d 
det dy ur 
L (¥;—Z2) +m (1 —- Do) +” (31-32) =0. 

Thus on Helmholtz’s theory the dielectric currents behave like the 
flow of an incompressible fluid, while on Maxwell’s theory it is the total 
current, which is the sum of the conduction currents and the dielectric 
currents which behave in this way. 


The equations we have arrived at for the dielectric currents seem 
inconsistent with Helmholtz’s definition of them ; for since 


=0; 


x=eX, 


with similar equations for p and 3, and since in a medium at rest 


where U, V, W are the components of the vector potential. If we consider 
a surface separating two portions of the same dielectric and coated 
with electricity whose surface-density is o, we have, since U, V, W are 
not discontinuous on crossing the surface, 


5 Punks i ; £4 fn df, d d do72 
l a? sts i tO (31-3 = —*§ [' at” ay* Si al 
where [2 uf +m za +n Z| denotes the difference between the values 
dx dy dz Jy 
d d 
of 1 2 +m at <on the two sides of the surface. 
do do do]? 1 
= [? dz ™ dy t™ i ee % 
do 


so that 1 (%)—¥2)-+m (Bi—Ba) +" Gi) =] ap 


and so cannot vanish if the surface-density of the electricity changes ; 


136 REPORT—1885. 


thus Helmholtz’s equation seems to be inconsistent with the principle 
that the change in the quantity of free electricity is caused by conduction 
currents. In the case above considered, Maxwell’s equations lead to no 
difficulty ; it does not foilow, however, that Maxwell’s assumption that 
the total current behaves like the flow of an incompressible fluid is 
absolutely necessary. We shall consider later on the differences which the 
abandonment of this assumption will make in the theory. 

We shall now go on to consider Helmholtz’s equations and compare 
them with the corresponding ones in Maxwell’s theory. 

The quantities U, V, W are given by equation of the form 


—1 (py) ib ay 
U=4 (1-4 4 + |[[eaa dt, 


where & is the constant which we mentioned before as occurring in 
Helmholtz’s theory, and 


= Lae D 5, 
pa b[fep avi 


where ¢ is the electrostatic potential ; it follows from these equations 
that 


dz dy dz dt 
The corresponding equation in Maxwell’s theory is 
a , av, aw_y 
de dy da ”’ 


so that these equations coincide if s=0. We can see from the value of x 
given on page 116 that, on Helmholtz’s theory, this quantity would also 
vanish, whatever be the value of k, if the total current behaved like the 
flow of an incompressible fluid. 

If a, 6, y are the components of the magnetic force, then on Helm- 


holtz’s theory 
aya {Oe — daw \, 
= i 


dy dz dtd 

da_ dy _ { ap \ 
dz rs dt dy aitigo 
dp da ae \ 
PHA —4 

dx dy didz J’ 


where A is a quantity depending on the unit of current adopted, and is 
such that the force between two parallel elements of currents at right 
angles to the line joining them is 


2 
i Gaede. 


where r is the distance between the elements, 77 the current through them, 
and ds ds’ their lengths ; the corresponding equations on Maxwell’s theory 


are 
dy _ dB _ 
mee oe 


with similar equations for v and w. 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 137 


If X, #, v are the intensities of magnetisation, $ the coefficient of 
induced magnetisation, the equations satisfied by the components of the 
dielectric and magnetic polarisation are of the type 


v3x= Are (1+ 479) Awex 12 pe (14473) (1+4:) \ a 
~ (1+4rreg) (1447S) di? k dz 
. dx , dp <3 | 
gaia ee ’ 


ik Are (14479) 24*r 
zz (1+ 4:re9) (144735) dt’ 
where €) and 3, are the values of « and $ for air. 

These equations show that the dielectric and magnetic polarisations 
are propagated by waves. For the dielectric polarisation longitudinal 
waves are propagated with the velocity 

1 { (1+47e) (1+4 9) (14473 ) 3. 
A Amel 


‘Transverse waves are propagated with the velocity 


1 (1+4e9) (1 +4235) 
A 4re (14+473) : 


Longitudinal waves of magnetic disturbances are propagated with 
an infinite velocity, and traverse ones with the same velocity as the 
transverse waves of dielectric polarisation. The electrostatic potential is 
propagated with the velocity 1/A/%. In Maxwell’s theory the corre- 
sponding equations are 


dx 
V?a=uK 7? 
d?X 

ae Nn cee 
be 


where p is the magnetic permeability and K the specific inductive capacity, 
so that for both dielectric and magnetic polarisation the velocity of the 
longitudinal wave is infinite, while the velocity of the transverse wave is 
1//uK. The velocity of propagation of the electrostatic potential is 
infinite. If in Helmholtz’s theory we put k=0, 3,=0, ¢/e9 =K, while 
both « and ¢ are infinite, we see that the results of his theory will in this 
respect agree with Maxwell’s. 

Though in Maxwell’s theory the velocity of propagation of the electro- 
. static potential is infinite, and in Helmholtz’s theory 1/A./k, the electro- 
motive force at a point, and consequently the dielectric polarisation, does 
not travel with an infinite velocity in Maxwell’s theory, or with the 
velocity 1/A./% in Helmholtz’s. We can see the reason of this more 
easily from Maxwell’s theory, as the equations are simpler. 

Using the notation of that theory, viz., f, g, h, for the components of 
the electric displacement, F, G, H for the components of the vector 
potential, and ¢ for the electrostatic potential, then in a dielectric the 
equations are 


138 REPORT—1885. 


de df__ PR ay 
K dt dé dzxdt’ 
; 7) eae 
but, since dor a v7F, 
Dp iea tte ed 
eas Fl i 
pK ™ dt? a 


Now, since 7*#=0, a particular solution of this differential equation 
will be 


we see that 


dF , do 
-_.+ _' =0 
dt % daz ‘ 


while the general solution will be the sum of this solution and the 
general solution of 


1 _o @F 
are r= —— 
nes de 


The particular solution is propagated at the same rate as ¢, while the other 
part of the solution represents a wave travelling with the velocity 1//uK. 
Since the part of the solution which travels at an infinite rate satisfies 
the equation 

dF , do 

zee i) 

dt i dz 


or iv 


we see that the electromotive force due to the change in the vector 
potential just balances the electrostatic electromotive force, so that until 
the part of the vector potential which travels at the rate 1/./»K comes 
up the resultant electromotive force vanishes. This explains how the 
electromotive force on Maxwell’s theory travels at a different rate from 
the potential, and a similar explanation will apply to Helmholtz’s theory. 
Helmholtz’s equations for a conductor are 
bie ode 8 | os t7, sot 
ov?u= (14479) 4A oe v7 + (1+ 47$—hk) A or 

where o is the specific resistance of the conductor ; on Maxwell’s theory 
the equations are 


du 
oyu = Arp ai 


These equations differ by terms involving the unknown constant k; but 
v. Helmholtz’s! investigations on the motion of electricity along thin 
conducting wires show that there is not much hope of distinguishing be- 
tween the theories by experiments on conductors. We have seen that 
we can make certain equations which occur in Helmholtz’s theory 
coincide with the corresponding ones in Maxwell’s by giving par- 
ticular values to certain constants. The difference in Helmholtz’s and 
Maxwell’s views as to the continuity of the currents is too serious to let 
us expect that we should ever get a complete agreement between the 


1 Ueber die Benegungsgleichungen der Elektricitat fiir ruhende leitende Kérper. 
Gesammelte Werke, vol. i. p. 603. 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 139 


theories; and, in fact, make as many assumptions about the constants as 
we may, there are still differences between the theories. 

In order to get as general a theory of these dielectric currents as 
possible, we shall investigate the consequences of assuming merely that 
these currents are proportional to the rate of change of the electromotive 
force, and write dielectric current=y (rate of change of the electromotive 
force), where 7 is a constant which for the present is left indeterminate; 
Tn Maxwell’s theory »=K/47, where K is the specific inductive capacity 
of the dielectric ; in Helmholtz’s theory, 7 is also proportioual to the spe- 
cific inductive capacity. We shall denote the components of the dielec- 
tric currents by the symbols f, 7, h; the components of the conduction 
current by p, g, 7, and the components of the total current by wu, v, w, so 
that 


u=p roy? 
du . dv , dw 


— f= ee | 
de dy dz i 
L (u,—ug) +m (vj) — v2) +0 (W,—w2) =; 
on Maxwell’s theory { and & are each zero. 
If F, G, H are the components of the vector potential, then by 

y. Helmholtz’s investigation of the most general expression possible for 
these quantities consistent with the condition that the forces between 
closed circuits should agree with those given by Ampére’s laws, 


Paz —y e+e [la dn dé, 


Let us put 


with similar expressions for G and H, where & is a constant and 


dr dr dr ; 
¥= |([n( u get v Ty + w Zz) dé dn dé. 
Transforming this expression we see, using the same notation as before, 


that 
Y= || re {0 Gr —ua)-+m (1-09) +n (wo —m)} dS 


du , dv , dw - 
ids ges EAN Ee) 
Nal ee gee 


=| [ur Bds— il} pr P dé dn dé, 


where dS is an element of a surface at which there is discontinuity in: 
U, 0, W. 

Let us now consider the equations which hold in a perfectly insulating 
dielectric. 

The rate of change of the z component of the electromotive force in a 
medium at rest 

a4 a?k de d*p 

a dt das 


where ¢ is the electrostatic potential ; it also equals f/n, so that 


140 REPORT—1885. 


Since in this case there is no conduction current w =f, and the pre- 
ceding equation for F shows that 


°F =} (1-4 yy — dey, 
av 
substituting for f 
2 2 
v2F—} (1-2) Lo = 4am {3 EF, dp 


“dt? © da dt J° 
if a + + ca x, we get, by differentiating this expression, 
dx dy dz 
with regard to # and the corresponding equations for G and H with 
regard to y and z respectively, and adding 


d? d 
Po al 7 ig 2 ’ 
Vx 4, (1-4) Vv Y= dem) Sx +S o\ 
Now, as the dielectric is a perfect insulator, there are no conduction 


currents, so that the density of the free electricity remains constant, 
and therefore 


Muss 26 = 
av? 
From the expression for ) we see that 
vty = + 87rP 
om Pe , 49%) 
= Srnp (> a" di” p 
ad? 


= — Srnp —X. 
me ae 
Substituting this value of ‘wv in the equation for x, we get 


d? 
Vx = 4anpk an 


which represents the propagation of a normal wave with the velocity 
1//4ank. 


The transverse wave is propagated with the velocity 1/“4rnp, so 
that if the view that light consists of electric or magnetic disturbances be 
correct, since experiment shows that this velocity is very nearly equal to 
1/“ Kp, we must have 4rn = K orn = K/4z, which is Maxwell’s theory. 
So that if we assume that light is an electric phenomenon, then in those 
media in which its velocity = 1/ »K Maxwell’s theory that the electric 
currents flow like an incompressible fluid must be true. 

If a, 8, y are the components of the magnetic force, then, since 


—1/71 ~~ & u 
F=3(1 wm) + al || ae an ar, 


we see from Ampére’s formula for the magnetic force due to a circuit 
that 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 141 


where V is the magnetic potential due to the magnetism in the field both 
permanent and induced. From these equations we get 


{da a8) gag a dF , dG , dH 


dy da 


dz\dze ~ dy dz 
== Apo + {4 Gd —k) vp - x} 


instead of the equation 


We have been obliged to introduce another assumption'here, viz., that 
the magnetic force due to an element of current is given by Ampére’s 
expression. 

We could not assume Maxwell’s way of connecting currents with 
magnetic force, viz. that the total current flowing through any closed 
curve is equal to the line integral of the magnetic force round the curve, 
for the result can only be true when the currents flow like an incom- 
pressible fluid. 

Let us now go on to consider the force acting on the medium convey- 
ing the current. 


If we consider a continuous distribution of currents, the kinetic 
energy 


= All| (Fu + Gv + Hw) da dy dz. 


If we derive the force parallel to x by the variation of the energy in 
the usual way we find, just as in Helmholtz’s paper,! that the force 
parallel to x 


dG dU dH dU du , dv . dw 
= eee ete? ts, — — —) —F(_ + 42 
oe a) +” (ae 7) Gta te} 


or with our notation 

dG dU dH dU 
and that on any surface where there is a discontinuity in the values of 
u, V, w there is a force equal per unit of area to 


? F {1 (u — U2) + m(r — v2) + 0 (w, — ws)} 
or FX. 


In the same paper it is shown that it follows from the principle of the 
Conservation of Energy that the force exerted by a distribution of cur- 
rents equals the force given by Ampére’s expression along with a force 
at the point &)¢ whose component parallel to the axis of « equals 


d dv , dw\x—& / / U 
{II ata =) a ¢ (e—&)+0' (y—n)+w (2%) ) de dy dz 
+|| 1 (wy — az) +m (vy — 02) + m (a, — wa) }2F (w@-9 
+0' (y—n) +! @ —2))d8; 


1 Die elektrodynamischen Krifte in beweyten Leitern, Crelle, Ixxviii. p. 298. 
1874, or Gesammelte Werke, vol. i. p. 733. 


142 REPORT—1885. 


or with our notation 


[fee (w (@—f) +0 (y—n)+u'(@- )) de dy di 


74 


+ f[2*2e Ww @—8) +0! yn) +w (0) a, 


where w’, v’, w’ are the components of the current at the point ££; 
so that in addition to Ampére’s forces we have additional forces 
wherever P and = have finite values. From the above expressions we see 
that any element where P has a finite value exerts a repulsive force equal 
per unit of volame to 


eo 
—zicos8, 
, 


tending from the element; where r is the distance of the element from 
the point at which the force is reckoned, 7 the intensity of the current at 
this point, and 6 the angle between the direction of the current and r. 
Any element of surface where has a finite value exerts a repulsive 
force equal per unit of surface to 


Dt as 
— 2008 0, 
r 


where the notation is the same as before. Of course none of these forces 
exist in Maxwell’s theory. They could be most easily detected in cases 
where the part of the forces given by Ampére’s theory vanishes as it 
would for the case of an endless solenoid. In this case, though the 
Amperian forces vanish, the forces due to the discontinuity in the current 
do not, so that if the endless solenoid were to move under the action of 
external currents it would denote the existence of discontinuity in the 
current. An experiment of this kind has been made by Schiller; we 
shall discuss the results of it later. ; 

To sum up, the differences between the most general theory which 
takes into account the action of the dielectric, and Maxwell’s, are— 

1. The existence of a normal wave in the general theory, but not in 
Maxwell’s, 

2. The difference in the velocity of propagation of the transverse 
wave. 

3. The difference in the relation between electric currents and mag- 
netic force. 

4, The forces which arise from discontinuity in the currents. 


The Experimental Evidence as to the Truth of the various Theories. 


The theories we have considered may be divided into two great classes, 
according as they do or do not take into account the action of the dielec- 
tric surrounding the various conductors in the field. The first thing, 
therefore, that we have to do is to see whether experiment throws any 
light on this point. 

When a dielectric is in an electric field it experiences a change in its 
structure ; this is rendered evident by the alterations in its volume and 
elasticity observed by Quincke, by the change in its optical properties 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES 143 


observed by Kerr, and also by the fracture of the dielectric when the 
field is made sufficiently intense. So that whenever an electromotive force 
acts on a dielectric it produces a change in its structure which we shall 
always speak of as polarisation. This, strictly speaking, has only been 
directly proved for electromotive forces produced by charges of statical 
electricity ; but, unless we are prepared to say that the electromotive 
force due to statical electricity is in some way different from that due to 
a changing current, we must admit that when an electromotive force of 
the latter kind acts on a dielectric it polarises it. And we are not with- 
out experimental evidence that the electromotive force due to variations 
in the vector potential does produce some of the effects of the electromo- 
tive force due to a charge of statical electricity. Rowland’s experi- 
ments have shown that a moving electrified body will set a magnet 
placed near to it in motion. It follows from this, by dynamical prin- 
ciples, that if we have the charged body initially at rest and move the 
magnet it will, if no other forces act upon it, be set in motion; so that 
in this case there is an electromotive force due to the motion of the 
magnet, t.e., the variation in the vector potential produces the same 
effect on the electrified body as the electromotive force due to a charge of 
statical electricity. For this reason we shall suppose that the electro- 
motive force due to the variation in the vector potential always produces 
effects on a dielectric on which it acts of the same type as those which 
have been observed to arise from the action of an electromotive force due 
to a charge of statical electricity. 

Let us now consider a magnet surrounded by a dielectric. If we set 
the magnet in motion, we produce an electromotive force which polarises 
the dielectric. Let us, to fix our ideas, consider an element of the dielec- 
tric and the magnet. When the magnet moves it polarises the dielectric ; 
it follows from dynamical principles (an extension of the principle of 
action and reaction),! that if the polarisation of the dielectric be 
altered, the magnet will move, so that a change in the polarisation of a 
dielectric produces a magnetic force. 

Again, let us instead of the magnet consider a coil of wire conveying 
a current. A change in the rate of flow of the current produces a 
change in the polarisation of the dielectric; it follows that a change in 
the rate of change of the polarisation of the dielectric will produce a 
change in the current, i.e., will produce an electromotive force. 

It follows too, from dynamical principles, that as the change in the 
polarisation of an element of the dielectric due to the change in the 
current depends on the distance of the element from the current, there 
must be a force between the current and the element when the polari- 
sation of the latter is changing. Thus we see that a change in the 
polarisation of the dielectric must produce all the effects of an ordinary 
conduction current, so that it is only absolutely necessary to consider 
how the experimental evidence affects those theories which take the 
action of the dielectric into account. As, however, the experiments 
which have been made are few in number, and are all concerned with 
interesting points, we shall consider them in their relation to all the 
theories, and not only to those which take the dielectric into account. 


_* See a paper by the author of this report ‘On some Applications of Dynamical 
Principles to Physical Phenomena,’ Phil. Trans., 1885. 


144 REPORT—1885. 


Schiller’s Hxperiments. 


The first experiment which we shall discuss is one made by Schiller, 
and described by him in Poggendorf’s Annalen, vol. clix. pp. 456, 537 ; 
it was intended to test the potential theories of Neumann and Helm- 
holtz. We saw that, according to these theories, in an unclosed circuit 
there are, in addition to the forces due to the elements of current, and 
which are expressed by Ampére’s law, forces arising from the discon- 
tinuity of the currents at the ends of the circuit. If we have an end of a 
circuit where the current stops, and the electricity accumulates at the 
rate de/dt, it will exert on an element of current of length ds traversed 
by a current of intensity i a force tending to the end and equal to 


where 0 is the angle between the element of current and the radius drawn 
to it from the end. If we calculate from this expression the couple pro- 
duced by an end on an endless solenoid, or on what is practically the 
same thing, a ring magnet, we shall find that the couple tending to turn 
the ring about an axis in its own place will not vanish, while the couple 
arising from the forces given by Ampére’s law will. Thus if the ring 
rotates, as it should according to the potential theory, it must be from 
the action of the end. 

In Schiller’s experiment the end of the current was the end of wire 
connected with a Holtz machine. This was placed near to a ring magnet 
which was suspended by a long cocoon fibre; the magnet was protected 
from electrostatic influences by being enclosed in a metal box connected 
with the earth. Schiller determined the intensity of magnetisation of 
the ring magnet and the quantity of electricity passing through the 
point, and he calculated that if the potential theory were true, he ought 
to get a deflection of the magnet of about 27 scale divisions, instead of 
which there was no perceptible deflection. 

This experiment shows conclusively that the potential theory is wrong 
if we neglect altogether the action of the dielectric, and assume the cur- 
rent to stop at the end of the wire. If, however, we take the dielectric 
into account, the experiment tells us nothing as to whether Maxwell’s 
theory or the more general one is true; for since the current from the 
Holtz machine is steady, as much electricity flows out from the end of 
the wires as arrives there; and thus there is really no discontinuity in 
the current, the only difference being that before reaching the end the 
current is flowing through copper and after passing it through air. The 
condition of things at the end of the wire remains steady, and thus the 
quantities which we denoted by P and = vanish. 

The experiment might, however, be modified so as to be capable of 
distinguishing between the theories which take the dielectric into account, 
For suppose that, instead of letting the electricity escape through the 
point, we never let the potential at the end of the wire get so high as to 
allow the electricity to escape ; then if the wire is initially uncharged, the 
condition at the end will be changing whilst the wire is charging up, and 
thus = will have afinite value; so that if the magnet were sufficiently 
delicate and remained undeflected, whilst the point was surrounded by 
dielectrics of all kinds, it would show that Maxwell’s theory is correct. 

I have calculated the effect which would be produced on Schiller’s 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 145 


suspended magnet, and find that it is too small to be observed ; as, how- 
ever, the time of charging up the wire will be very small compared with 
the time of vibration of the magnet, the effect will be of the nature of an 
impulse, so that in this case there will be considerable advantage in 
having the moment of inertia of the suspended magnet small; while, 
as Schiller arranged the experiment, there was no such advantage, as the 
thing expected was a steady deflection. Thus if the ring magnet were 
retained it would be desirable to make the opening of it as small as pos- 
sible, retaining the same cross action. I think the arrangement could 
be made sensitive enough to be deflected if the value of = were any 
considerable fraction of the rate of increase of the electricity at the end 
of the wire. 

There is another way in which the continuity or discontinuity of the 
current might be tested, and which might perhaps be more delicate than 
the last. We saw on p. 141 that at any point of a current at which 3 
had a finite value the mechanical force on the element is not at right 
angles to the element. In addition to the ordinary force at right angles 
to the element, there is a force in the direction of the vector potential 
equal in magnitude to the product of the values of the vector potential 
and &. 

The existence of this force could be tested 
_ by an arrangement of the following kind :— 
AB and CD are light movable segments 
of the same circle, having balls covered with 
_ paraffin A, B, C, D fastened to their ends. 
_ These segments are connected with a very light 
framework which can rotate about an axis per- 
_ pendicular to the plane of the segments; the 

segments touch at their middle points contact- 
pieces which are connected with a Holtz ma- 
chine. EF is the section of an electromagnet 
concentric with AB and CD; the whole is surrounded with a metal 
cylinder to screen it from external electric influences. When a current 
is passing through the electromagnet it produces a vector potential, 
whose direction is at right angles to the radius from O, the centre of the 
_ electromagnet perpendicular to its axis. Thus if » exists there will be a 
couple tending to twist the system AB, CD about its axis, but if } exists 
at all it will be when the electrical condition of the balls A, B, C, D is 
changing, so that unless the currents are continuous we should expect the 
System to rotate when the balls are being charged up. I have calculated 
that the system might easily be made sensitive enough to be sensibly 
deflected on charging or discharging, provided 3 is an appreciable fraction 
of the rate of change of the surface-density of the electricity on the balls. 


Schiller’s Second Huperiment. 


Schiller has made another experiment, which shows that Ampére’s 
theory fails for unclosed circuits. The first form of the experiment con- 
sisted in having a solenoid placed over a condenser one of whose plates 
could rotate about a vertical axis coinciding with the axis of the solenoid. 
One end of the solenoid was connected to one plate of the condenser and 
the other end to the other plate. When the solenoid ‘is connected toa 


' Pogg. Ann., clix. p. 456; clx. p. 333. 
1885. L 


146 REPORT—1885. 


battery the condenser will charge up and there will be radial currents of 
electricity in the plates; the current passing through the solenoid will 
produce a magnetic force which will, if Ampeére’s theory be true, act on 
the radial currents in the plate of the condenser and set it in rotation. 
Schiller found that this effect was too small to be observed, so he modi- 
fied the experiment in the following way. Let us suppose that we have 
the two plates of the condenser rigidly attached to their axis and placed 
in a field symmetrical about its axis, in which the vertical component 
of the magnetic force is not uniform. Then if a current be sent through 
the upper plate, down through the axis, and out at the lower plate, the 
couple tending to twist the lower plate will not be equal and opposite to 
that tending to twist the upper one, as the magnetic force is not equal at 
the two plates, and thus the condenser will be set in rotation. Con- 
versely, if the condenser be set in rotation in the magnetic field, and two 
electrodes of a galvanometer be connected with its axis, then if Ampére’s 
theory be true there will be an electromotive force acting round the 
galvanometer circuit, which will produce a current, and this current 
could be much more easily detected than the rotation in the first form of 
the experiment. Schiller calculated the deflection which he ought to get 
if Ampére’s theory were true, and found that he could easily detect it if 
it existed; as he was not able to see any deflection, we must conclude 
that Ampére’s theory is not the true one. 

It is easy to see that, according to the potential theory, there would 
be no current in the galvanometer ; for, as everything is symmetrical about 
the axis, the potential is not altered by the rotation. The following 
calculation will show that, according to the dielectric theories, there should 
be no current through the galvanometer. 

For if a,b,c are the components of magnetic induction, F, G, H 
those of the vector potential, X, Y, Z those of the electromotive force, 
then 


K pe plated porous Heh, 


dt dt dx dé dt dt 
diz da ad da dy ca 
Y= ¢—— 6 -5——ahe 7 + H—}: 
sj eaglh ai agence Ree 


Suppose the condenser is rotating with an angular velocity w about 
the axis of Z; then the E.M.F. arising from one plate is, if R be its radius, 


R 
daz ch 
—(ps Gt) 
o| ert (F has a)? 
/0 
T dee dy _ .RO 
Now F - + G ai oRO, 


where © is the component of the vector potential along the direction 
of motion of a point on the circumference of the plate of the condenser. 


—e 


But the line integral of the vector potential round any curve equals — 


the number of lines of magnetic force passing through it, so that, since — 


the field is symmetrical, 


R 
Qn | cr dr = 27 RO. 
}0 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 147 


From this equation we see that the H.M.F. due to the rotation vanishes 
for each plate, so that, according to this theory, there should be no current 
through the galvanometer. 

This experiment of Schiller shows that both Grassmann’s and Clau- 
sius’ theories must be wrong, as well as Ampére’s and Korteweg’s, for 
we can easily see that they would make the disc rotate in the way in 
which Schiller first tried the experiment, and if this were so, it follows 
from dynamical principles that a current must be produced in the second 
form of the experiment. 

This would seem to be the case even if we take into account the cur- 
rents in the dielectric, unless we suppose that all the circuits are closed, 
for if all the circuits are closed then the disc will not rotate, as all the 

theories agree. If the circuits are not closed we may divide the currents 
in the disc into two parts, one part being of such magnitude as to form 
with the dielectric currents closed circuits; then the forces on this part 
and the dielectric will form a system in equilibrium; and there remains 
the other part of the currents, the action of the magnet on which ought to 
set the disc in rotation. Taking Schiller’s experiments together, we may 
say that they show that the dielectric must be taken into account, and 
that some form of the potential theory is the only one of the theories we 

are considering which can give the expression for the forces due toa 
distribution of currents. 

Although these two experiments of Schiller’s show that of the 
theories we have discussed only the dielectric ones can be retained, we 
shall describe one or two more experiments which have been or could be 

made to distinguish between the various theories. Clausius’ and Grass- 

-mann’s theories lead to the same expression for the force between two 
elements of current, so that these theories stand or fall together. Grass- 

-%Imann in his paper! describes an experiment which would distinguish 
between his theory and Ampére’s, or, in fact, any other except Clausius’ 
which has ever been published. 

Suppose that NS and SN are two mag- 
nets whose north and south poles are de- 
noted by N and § respectively, and that 
these magnets are fastened together by a 
rod NS, the system being suspended by a 
cocoon thread attached to the middle point 
of NS. Let AB be an unclosed circuit, say yy 


@ Wire joining the plates of a charged con- i 
denser ; then, according to Grassmann’s and 

Clausius’ theories, the system will rotate in Swern 

such a way that the sense of rotation is re- ; 

lated to a vertical line drawn downwards s : “s 


like rotation and translation in a right- 
handed screw. According to every other theory it will rotate in the 
opposite direction. 

Another experiment has been made by v. Helmholtz,? which shows 
that the potential theory leads to wrong results unless the action of the 
dielectric is taken into account. bb is a rotating conductor, to the ends 
of which large condenser plates are attached, which, when in rotation, 
come very near to the similar plates c, c. The plates b and care segments 


’ Pogg., Ixiv. 1, 1845. 2 Wissenschaftliche Abhandlungen, vol. . 783. 
L2 


148 REPORT—1885. 


of coaxial cylinders. In v. Helmholtz’s experiments bb was rotated 
between the poles of a powerful electromagnet. The plates c, ¢ were 
connected with a commutator, which put them to earth when the rotating 
piece was in the position A, and to the plates of a Kohlrausch condenser 
when it was in the position B. Now suppose there is a difference of 
potential between b and c; suppose, for clearness, that > is at a higher 
potential than c, then when the rotating piece is in the position A the 
positive electricity goes to earth, and the negative is left to go to the 
Kohlrausch condenser, when the rotating piece gets to the position B. 
The change in this condenser was measured by a quadrant electrometer. 
y. Helmholtz found that the needle of the electrometer was deflected when 
the piece bb was rotating. Since everything is symmetrical about the 
axis of rotation, there would be no difference of potential between the 


oer eater eae 
4 
O b Oa 5 


Cc 


plates b and c, according to the potential law, if we neglect the action of 
the dielectric. According to Ampére’s law there will be a difference of 
potential between b and c equal to Oaw, where a is the radius of the rotat- 
ing piece, w its angular velocity, and © the vector potential along the 
direction of motion of the disc. According to the dielectric theory there 
will also be the same difference of potential between ) and ¢ if we sup- 
pose that there is no discontinuity in the motion. We shall suppose that, 
instead of the velocity changing abruptly from wa to zero as we pass 
from the rotating conductor to the dielectric, there is a layer of the 
dielectric next to the conductor in which the change of velocity is very 
rapid, one side of the layer moving with the velocity wa, the other side 
being at rest. Then, using the same notation as before, we have— 
_, dy _,de_d dx dy aH 
A Al wenn meet aie Wi 
., ab ded dzx dy at 
ide dt ° di dy y at la aoa ; 


Integrating across the thin layer of the dielectric, in which the velocity 


is changing rapidly, we see that the difference of potential between b 


and ¢ equals 


da dy 
H 
dt aie dt os 


dz 


dt’ 
where da /dt, dy/dt, dz/dt are the velocities of a point on the boundary 


Fr 


i i, 


ae ee 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 149 


of the moving conductor. This equals Qaw, the same value as that 
given by Ampere’s theory, so that in this case the two theories lead to 
identical results, which are in agreement with the result of Helmholtz’s 
experiments. 

Rontgen has recently published! a preliminary account of some 
experiments which seem to prove directly that the variations in the 
dielectric polarisation produce effects analogous to those due to a 
current. 

This completes the account of the experiments which have been made 
to test the various theories. As the result of them we may say that they 
show that it is necessary to take into account the action of the dielectric, 
but they tell us nothing as to whether any special form of the dielectric 
theory, such as Maxwell’s or Helmholtz’s, is true or not. 

I have described two experiments which would decide whether 
Maxwell’s theory that all circuits are closed is true or not. It seems to 
me, however, that even if Maxwell’s theory be wrong, Helmholtz’s is not 
the only alternative. I have givena sketch of a theory in which I have 
tried to make as few assumptions as possible; al] that I have assumed is 
that when a dielectric is acted on by a changing electromotive force, 
it behaves like a conductor conveying a current whose intensity is pro- 
portional to the rate of change of the electromotive force. We know 
from experiment that it produces effects of the same character, and I 
have assumed as the simplest assumption I could make that for the same 
dielectric the equivalent current is proportional to the rate of change of 
the electromotive force, so that equivalent current = 7 (rate of change 
of electromotive force). 

Both Maxwell and Helmholtz assume that » depends only on the 
specific inductive capacity of the dielectric, but I think it is preferable, 
until we have more experiments on this point, to look on » as the measure 
of a new property of a dielectric, and not to assume that it is merely a 
function of the specific inductive capacity, the only experimental evi- 
dence for this being the by no means perfect agreement between the refrac- 
tive index and the reciprocal of the square root of the specific inductive 
capacity. To prove Maxwell’s theory of closed circuits it would not be 
sufficient to prove that for one medium, say air, 7 = K/4z, for it is quite 
conceivable that electrical phenomena may be simpler in a dielectric like 
air, Where the electrical behaviour of the ether seems to be but little 
affected by the presence of the dielectric, than in such a one as glass or 
other substance possessing a comparatively large specific inductive 
capacity, when the effect of the ether is seriously modified by the 
presence of the medium. 

Since in the theory I have sketched the values of 


du dv, dw 
de dy dz : 
and 1 (uy — Uy) + m (v) — vo) + 1 (wW, — We) 


are not zero, but arbitrary, inasmuch as they involve y, in order to find 
the value of the force between two circuits where there is any dis- 
continuity in the currents we shall require to know the value of the 
quantity # which occurs in vy. Helmholtz’s theory. 

The most pressing need in the theory of electrodynamics seems to 


1 Phil. Mag., May. 1885. 


150 rEPoRT—1885. 


be an experimental investigation of the question of the continuity of these 
dielectric currents; we have experimental proof that they exist, but we | 
do not know whether Maxwell’s assumption that they always form closed 
circuits with the other currents is true or not. If Maxwell’s assumption 
should turn out to be true, we should have a complete theory of electrical 
action; if, on the other hand, it should turn out to be wrong, then we 
should have to go on to determine the quantity /. This quantity is diffi- 
cult to determine, as its influence on all closed circuits disappears. It 
influences, as v. Helmholtz has shown, the rate of propagation of the 
electric potential along conducting wires, and I think we can see that it 
would influence the time of oscillation of an irregular distribution of elec- 
tricity over a conducting shell. The easiest way, however, of determin- 
ing this quantity would seem to be the straightforward one of measuring 
electrostatically the value of the electromotive force due to a variation 
in the charge of a condenser; the expression for the vector potential, as 
we saw on p. 140, involves /, so that if we measure the electromotive 
force, which is equal to the rate of variation of the vector potential, we 
shall determine the value of the vector potential, and consequently of k. 


AppEeNnpDIx I. 


Since the Report was written I have had through the kindness of the 
author an opportunity of seeing the advance proofs of a paper by Pro- 
fessor J. H. Poynting, of Mason’s College, Birmingham, ‘ On the Connexion 
between Electric Current and the Electric and Magnetic Induction in 
the Surrounding Medium,’ which is about to appear in the ‘ Philosophical — 
Transactions.’ 

The views expressed in this paper are rather a new way of looking at 
Faraday and Maxwell’s theory than a new theory of electrodynamic 
action, as however it brings the action of the dielectric into great 
prominence it is instructive to consider it. 

The paper is largely based on a previous one by the same author on 
the ‘ Transference of Energy in the Electromagnetic Field,’! it is therefore 
necessary to give a brief account of this paper. 

In it the author shows that the rate of increase of the energy inside 
any closed surface equals 


EL [|e — Ox) + mOP’— aR) +m (a! — BPD} AS, 


where dS is an element of surface, /, m,n the direction cosine of the 
normal te dS, a, 2, y the components of magnetic induction, and 
P’, Q’, R’ given by the following equations :— 


dk db 
em 
fsa ge Oe 
a dt dy’ 
dH dy) 
ey erncab os! 


1 Phil. Trans., 1884, part ii 


4 


where F, G, and H are the components of the vector potential and yf the 
electrostatic potential ; thus if the medium is at rest P’, Q’, R/ are the 
components of the electromotive force at the point. 
Professor Poynting interprets this equation to mean that the components 
parallel to the axes of «, y, z of the flow of energy across each element of 
surface are respectively 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. Pak 


i Sy ; 
1 @p-en, 
Ler — Ra), 


[pal f 
a, 62 a — P’p), 


so that according to this view the energy flows in the direction which is 
at right angles both to the magnetic and electromotive forces, and in the 
direction in which a right-handed screw would move if turned round 
from the positive direction of the electric intensity to the positive 
direction of the magnetic intensity; the quantity of energy crossing in 
unit time unit surface at right angles to this direction being 


2 . Electromotive force at the point x magnetic force 
Tr 
x sine of the angle between these forces. 


This interpretation of the expression for the variation in the energy seems 
open to question. In the first place it would seem impossible @ priori to 
determine the way in which the energy flows from one part of the field 
_ to another by merely differentiating a general expression for the energy 
in any region with respect to the time, without having any knowledge of 
the mechanism which produces the phenomena which occur in the 
electromagnetic field: for although we can by means of Hamilton’s or 
_ Lagrange’s equations deduce from the expression for the energy the 
_ forces present in any dynamical system, and therefore the way in which 
the energy will move, yet for this purpose we require the energy to be 
expressed in terms of coordinates fixing the system, and it will not do to 
take any expression which happens to be equal toit. The problem 
of finding the way in which the energy is transmitted in a system whose 
mechanism is unknown seems to be an indeterminate one; thus, for 
example, if the energy inside a closed surface remains constant we cannot 
unless we know the mechanism of the system tell whether this is because 
there is no flow of energy either into or out of the surface, or because as 
much flows in as flows out. The reason for this difference between what 
we should expect and the result obtained in this paper is not far to seek. 
Though the increase in the energy inside a closed surface equals 


|e - Q'y) +... JdS, 


it does not follow that the components of the flow of energy across each 
element of surface are (R/ — Q’y)/4z, &c., for we can find quantities 
u, v,w which are of the dimensions of rate of change of energy per unit 
area, and for which 


{Je + mv +nw)dS= 0. 


152 REPORT—1885. 
The following values of w, v, w satisfy this condition :— 
"=O "aa 
Ret a as dz dt ace}, 
cee at § ua A it 


where » is the magnetic permeability and F, G, H are the components 
of the vector potential, or if J be the electrostatic potential 


se em 

warts z l dy a}, 
_dfay afm) 
da a} dx | dz F 


d fd are! a} {er 
ee 
dx \ dy dy 


If the values of w, v, w which satisfy these conditions be denoted by 
the (%, 7, W), (U2, Vg, W2) . . . then the flow across any element of 
surface might have for its 2 component— 


ye BB - V7) + Aim + Xa te + As ty + nated 


where A,, Ag, Az are arbitrary constants, thus we see that the components 
of the flow of energy, instead of being uniquely determined by this pro- 
cess are really left quite indeterminate by it. Though thisis so, it is very 
instructive to follow Professor Poynting’s description of the way in which 
the energy flows in some special cases; we shall select a very simple one, 
the case of a current flowing along a straight wire. Here the lines of 
electromotive force are straight lines parallel to the wire, the lines of 
magnetic force are circles with their centres on the wire, and their planes 
at right angles to it. Then, since according to the view expressed in 
the paper, the energy moves at right angles both to the electric and 
magnetic forces, it must in this case move radially inwards to the wire 
where it is converted into heat. The energy, instead of being supposed 
to be transmitted through the wire, is regarded as transmitted by the 
dielectric ; and though we may not regard the exact law of flow of 
the energy as established, still it is very important that this view 
should be brought into prominence. Another important point brought 
prominently forward in this paper is the view that magnetic force is 
always the sign of transference of energy, according to Professor 
Poynting ; indeed, there must be transference of energy from-one part of 
the field to another to give rise to magnetic force. Thus, according to 
his view, no magnetic force would be exerted by the discharge of a leaky 
condenser, because in this case he considers the energy to be confined to 
the space between the plates of the condenser and to be converted into 
heat where it stands. If the plates were connected by a metallic wire, 
the energy could flow out and be converted into heat in the wire and 
this motion of energy would give rise to magnetic forces, so that magnetic 


a 


forces would be produced by the discharge of a condenserin this way, but not 
by leakage. In this case the theory differs from Maxwell’s, as according 
to that theory the alteration in the electromotive force would produce 
magnetic forces in either case. 

In Professor Poynting’s second paper, which we have already men- 
tioned, the fundamental principles of electrodynamics are described as 
the results of the motion of the tubes of electromotive and magnetic 
force. Maxwell develops electrodynamics from the principles :— 

Ist. That the total electromotive force round any closed curve is 
equal to the rate of decrease of the total magnetic induction through the 
curve. 

2nd. The line integral of the magnetic force round any closed curve 
is equal to 47 times the current through the curve. 

Professor Poynting restates these principles in the following way :— 

1. ‘Whenever electromotive force is produced by change in the mag- 
netic field, or by motion of matter through the field, the E.M.F. per 
unit length is equal to the number of tubes of magnetic induction 

cutting or cut by the nnit length per second, the H.M.F tending to 
produce induction in the direction in which a right-handed screw would 
move if turned round from the direction of motion relatively to the tubes 
towards the direction of the magnetic induction.’ 

The second principle he states in the following way :— 

_ * Whenever magnetomotive force is produced by change in the electric 
field, or by motion of matter through the field, the magnetomotive force 
per unit length is equal to 47 times the number of tubes of electric 
induction cutting or cut by unit length per second, the magnetomotive 
force tending to produce induction in the direction in which a right- 
handed screw would move if turned round from the direction of the 
electric induction towards the direction of motion of the unit length 
relatively to the tubes of induction.’ 

_ By magnetomotive force is meant the line integral of the magneto- 
motive force round a tube of induction. This statement includes the 
more special one that the line integral of the magnetic force round any 
closed curve is equal to 47 times the number of tubes passing in or out 
through the curve per second. 

The development of these principles leads to equations which are 
practically the same as those obtained by Maxwell, the chief difference 
being that the quantity corresponding to Maxwell’s J is no longer 
arbitrary or rather redundant. 

Professor Poynting also introduces into his equations the time 
integrals of the components of the magnetic force as fundamental quan- 
tities, and regards the components of the magnetic as the differential 
coefficients of these quantities with regard to the time. This method of 
representing magnetic force was also used by Professor Fitzgerald in his 
paper on the Electromagnetic Theory of the Reflection and Refraction 
of Light.! It has the advantage of calling attention to the dynamic 
character of magnetic phenomena. In Professor Poynting’s paper some 
of the applications of his method of regarding electrical phenomena are 
worked out with great detail for some of the simpler cases. 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 153 


1 Phil. Trans., 1880, part ii. 


154 REPORT—1885. 


Appenpix II. 
ON THE STRESS IN THE DIELECTRIC. 


In the preceding Report we have had so frequently to refer to the 
action of the dielectric that it may be convenient to give a very brief ac- 
count of the work which has been done on the stresses which are supposed 
to exist in it. We shall confine ourselves to the work which has been 
done on the stresses in the electrostatic field; those existing in the electro- 
magnetic field are of a similar nature, so that any remark applying to 
one will also apply to the other. The idea of explaining the forces 
in the electrostatic field by means of stresses in the dielectric seems to be 
due to Faraday, who describes ! the stress in the medium by saying that 
the lines of force tend to contract and also to repel one another. The 
magnitude and distribution of this stress was investigated by Maxwell; ? 
he found that in a medium whose specific inductive capacity was K, and 
at a point where the electromotive force is R, a tension equal to KR?/8 
per unit area along the lines of force combined with a pressure of the 
same amount at right angles to these, would produce the effects observed 
in the electrostatic field, that is, at a pointin a dielectric, the resultant of 
these stresses would be a force whose components, parallel to the axes of — 
w, y, 2, are eX, eY, eZ respectively, e being the charge of electricity at the 
point, and X, Y, Z the components of the electromotive force. It may be 
observed that this system of stress could not be produced by the strain 
in an elastic solid at rest: this points to the kinetic origin of electrostatic 
phenomena. 

These stresses are in equilibrium at a point in a dielectric where there 
is no free electricity. At the junction of two media, whose specific inductive 
capacities are K, and K,, and in which the electromotive forces are 
R, and R,, and whose interface is perpendicular to the lines of forces, 
the stresses are not in equilibrium, but there is an unbalanced stress 
(K, R,? — K, R,”) /87 which will tend to’ make the boundary move 
towards the medium whose specific inductive capacity is K, ; if these 
dielectries are liquids, their interface may become curved so that the forces 
due to surface tension balance this stress. 

Quincke,® who has experimentally investigated the effects of electrifi- 
cation on various dielectrics, such, for example, as the effects on the glass 
of a Leyden jar, has found that the effects on different bodies are very 
different ; he finds, for example, that though the effect of the electrification 
on the dielectric of the Leyden jar is generally to produce an expansion, 
yet in some substances, such as the fatty oils, contraction takes place.‘ 
This diversity in the effects of electrification on different dielectrics shows 
that the distribution of stress cannot be so simple as was supposed by 
Maxwell. It also shows that there must be forces in the electric field 
which are not recognised either by Maxwell’s theory or the theory of 
action at a distance. More general theories have been given in order to 
meet this difficulty. 


1 Experimental Researches, § 1297. 

* Hlectricity and Magnetism, 2nd edition, p. 149. 

3 Wied. Ann., x. pp. 161, 374, 513; Jbdid., ix. p. 105; Phil. Mag., vol. x. p. 30° 
(1880). 

* The fatty oils are also an exception to the rule that the index of refraction 
equals the square root of the specific inductive capacity. . a 


a 


* 


- 


ON ELECTRICAL THEORIES. 155 


y. Helmholtz ' has supposed that a change in the density of a dielec- 


tric might alter its specific inductive capacity, and he has investigated 


the consequences of this supposition. Korteweg and Lorberg ? have 


‘inyestigated the more general case, when the specific inductive capacity 


of a strained dielectric is supposed to be a function of the strains. 
Korteweg supposes that if the body suffers dilatation e along the lines of 
force, and dilatations fand g at right angles to them, then the specific 
inductive capacity = K—ae—/ (f+g). Helmholtz assumed that 
a =f. The presence of strain in a dielectric must influence the specific 
indifctive capacity, for Quincke has shown that the various coefficients of 


_ elasticity are altered under the influence of electricity. Lorberg, lL.c., has 
_ found the distribution of stress in the medium when the specific inductive 


capacity alters in this way. He finds that there is a tension along the 


line of force equal to 
K tL 6 
dese 18 et RS 
(= sf 3) 


and a pressure at right angles to them equal to 


dy 
= Sy A 
p dz ot 
where 
R? dk @ aise d 4, dp? d do do 
a — 2S (GENRE pe (a —— ye 9 pea 
An cz Ef daz (/ D sah dx (aot) da a dy G58) da dy 
d- ay dd do 
Seer ee dhe 


Where ¢ is the potential, and p the volume density of the free electricity. 
The part A of this force exists even when there is no free electricity at 


_ the place under consideration ; if the dielectric were a fluid, these terms 


would indicate forces tending to move the fluid when placed in a variable 


electric field; this motion, however, seems not to have been observed. 


The supposition made by Korteweg and Lorberg is not the most general 
one that could be made; we might assume that the specific inductive 
capacity of the strained body became different in different directions, so 
that the body would behave like a crystal. Dr. Kerr’s experiments on 
the double refraction in liquids placed between the poles of a powerful 
electrical machine seem to point to this conclusion. 

Kirchhoff? has made similar assumptions to those of Korteweg and 
Lorberg on the effect of strain on the specific inductive capacity, and has 
arrived at similar equations ; in the second paper he applies these equations 
to some cases which Quincke investigated experimentally. 


} vy. Helmholtz, Wied. Ann., xiii. p. 385; Wissenschaftl. Abh. vol. i. p. 298. 
* Korteweg, Wied. Ann., ix. p. 48; Lorberg, Wied. Awn., xxi. p. 300. 
8 Wied. Ann., xxiv. p. 52, 1885; Tbid., xxv. p. 601, 1885. 


156 REPORT—1885. 


Second Report of the Comnuttee, consisting of Professor SCHUSTER 
(Secretary), Professor BALFoUR STEWART, Professor STOKES, Mr. 
G. JOHNSTONE Sroney, Professor Sir H. E. Roscor, Captain 
ABNEY, and Mr. G. J. Symons, appointed for the purpose of 
considering the best methods of recording the direct intensity of 
Solar Radiation. 


Tue Committee, working on the lines of their last report, have given their 
attention to the best form of a self-recording actinometer, and have come 
to the following conclusions :— 

1. It seems desirable to construct an instrument which would be a 
modification of Professor Stewart’s actinometer adapted for self-registra- 
tion—the quantity to be observed being, not the rise of temperature of 
the inclosed thermometer after exposure for a given time, but the excess 
of its temperature when continuously exposed over the temperature of the 
envelope. 

2. As the grant to the Committee will not admit of the purchase of 
a heliostat, it will no doubt be possible to procure the loan of such an 
instrument, and, by making by its means sufficiently numerous com- 
parisons of the instrument proposed by the Committee with an ordinary 
actinometer, to find whether the arrangement suggested by the Committee 
is likely to succeed in practice. The Committee would therefore confine 
their action for the present to the carrying out of such a series of 
comparisons. 

3. The size of the instrument might be the same as that of Professor 
Stewart’s actinometer. 

4. The instrument should have a thick metallic enclosure, as in the 
actinometer above mentioned, and in this enclosure there should be 
inserted a thermometer to record its temperature. Great pains should 
therefore be taken to construct this enclosure so that its temperature shall 
be the same throughout. 

5. The interior thermometer should be so constructed as to be readily 
susceptible of solar influences. It is proposed to make it of dark glass, 
of such kind as to be a good absorber, and to give it a flattened surface 
in the direction perpendicular to the light from the hole. 

6. It seems desirable to concentrate the sun’s light by means of a 
lens upon the interior thermometer, as in the ordinary instrument. For 
if there were no lens the hole would require to be large, and it would be 
more difficult to prevent the heat from the sky around the sun from 
interfering with the determination. Again, with a lens there would be 
great facility in adjusting the amount of heat to be received by employing — 
a set of diaphragms. There are thus considerable advantages in a lens, 
and there does not appear to be any objection toits use. 

The Committee have not drawn their grant (201.). They suggest 
that they be reappointed, and that the unexpended sum of 201. be again 
placed at their. disposal. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. Land 


Report on Optical Theories. 
By R. T. Guazesrook, W.A., F.R.S. 


Ds. Luoyn’s well-known Report on Physical Optics was presented to the 
_ Association at its meeting in Dublin in 1834—fifty-one years ago. Since 
that time the question of double refraction has been treated of very fully 
by Professor Stokes in the Report for 1862, but unfortunately he con- 
fined himself to that one branch of the subject. The years immediately 
succeeding that in which Dr. Lloyd’s report was read were marked by 
work of great importance, which has formed the basis for much that has 
since been done, and it is necessary, before writing of recent progress in 
the subject, to consider somewhat carefully the researches of Green, 
MacCullagh, Cauchy, and F. Neumann. 
_ This I propose to do, in as brief a manner as possible, for that part of 
the subject which is not included in Professor Stokes’s report. I then 
propose to go on to the consideration of more modern work, treating sepa- 
rately (1) of the simple elastic solid theory, (2) of theories based on 
7 mutual reactions of matter and ether, (3) of the electro-magnetic 
theory. 


¢ 
k Part I.—Inrtropuction. 


‘ 
| THE WORK OF MACCULLAGH, NEUMANN, GREEN, AND CAUCHY. 


s Chapter I.—MacCuttaau. 


§ 1. Fresnel! himself had developed a theory of reflexion and re- 
fraction, and had arrived at formule giving the intensities of the reflected 
and refracted waves in terms of the incident. 

__ In obtaining these he relied on the two following principles :— 

_ The resolved parts of the displacements parallel to the face of inci- 
dence are the same in the two media. 

The total energy in the reflected and refracted waves is equal to that 
in the incident wave. 

He further supposed that the rigidity of the ether is the same in all 
transparent media, and hence that reflexion and refraction are produced 
by a change of density ; from this it follows that the refractive index of 
a medium is proportional to the square of the density of the ether in the 
medium. The direction of vibration is considered to be perpendicular to 
the plane of polarisation. According to this theory there is a discon- 
tinuity in the component of the vibration at right angles? to the surface. 

§ 2. An elegant geometrical expression of the laws to which these 
principles lead was given by MacCullagh. He defines as the trans- 
versal of a ray the line of intersection of the wave front and the 
plane of polarisation ; the length of this line being proportional to the 


, ' Fresnel, Ann. de Chim. et de Physique, t. xlvi. p. 225; Wuvres completes, 
ep. 107. 


*- For a further consideration of this point see p. 186. 


158 REPORT—1885. 


amplitude of the vibration multiplied by the density of the medium. 
Then Fresnel’s results may be expressed by the statement that the trans- 
versal of the incident ray is the resultant, in the mechanical sense of the 
word, of those of the reflected and refracted rays. 

This first suggestion of MacCullagh’s was modified by reading some 
of Cauchy’s work on double refraction, from which it appeared possible 
that the vibrations of polarised light might lie in the plane of polarisa- 
tion instead of at right angles to it. Adopting, then, this hypothesis, 
a transversal represents in addition the direction of vibration; and if the 
further supposition is made that the ether is of the same density in all 
media, so that reflexion and refraction arise from variations in its 
rigidity and not in its density, expressions very nearly identical with 
Fresnel’s can be found for the intensities of the reflected and refracted 
rays, while at the same time the principle of the continuity of the 
displacement normal to the surface is satisfied. 

§ 3. These three principles— 

(1) The ether is of the same density in all media, 

(2) The displacement is the same on both sides of the surface of 
separation of the two media, 

(3) Theenergy of the incident wave is equal to that of the reflected 
and refracted waves 
—were applied by MacCullagh to the problem of reflexion and refrac- 
tion at the surface of a crystal, and the results of a first investigation 
were communicated to the meeting of the Association in 1834, 

The theory as there given was somewhat modified in consequence of a. 
paper by Seebeck in Poggendorff’s ‘ Annalen,’ and took its final form in 
a memoir read before the Irish Academy! in January 1837. MacCullagh 
in this paper states his fundamental principles, not as based on mechanics, 
but merely as those which had led him to a solution, the results of 
which agree closely with the experiments of Seebeck and Brewster. 

The analysis of the problem is greatly simplified by the introduction 
of the idea of ‘ uniradial directions.’ 

In a crystal, for any given direction of incidence, there are two posi- 
tions for the incident transversals, which give rise each to only one 
refracted ray—there are corresponding positions for the reflected trans- 
versals. These directions of the incident transversals are the wniradial 
directions. 

For a uniradial direction the incident, reflected, and refracted trans- 
versals lie in one plane, and the refracted transversal is the resultant of 
the other two. : 

The transversal is normal to the plane containing the ray and the 
wave normal. The polar plane is defined as a plane through the trans- 
versal and parallel to the line joining the extremity of the ray to the 
point in which the wave normal meets the surface of wave slowness, here 
designated the ‘index surface.’ j 

It is hence proved that for a uniradial direction the incident and 
reflected transversals lie in the polar plane of the refracted ray, and then 
the principles of equivalence of vibrations and of vis viva lead to 
equations to determine the relation between the azimuths of the trans- 
versals referred to the plane of incidence. , 


' MacCullagh, ‘On the Laws of Crystalline Reflexion and Refraction,’ Januaryyl 
1837, Trans. of Royal Irish Academy, vol. xviii. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 159 


These give— 
sin 79’ tan x 
cos 9’ sin (¢ + ¢’) 
= — co Djetem 6! f(a 
tan 0, cos (¢ + ¢’) tan ops" din (= 9’) 


tan 6 = cos (@ — 9’) tan 6! + 


(1) 


__ The theory is applied to Iceland spar, and agrees with experiments of 
Brewster and Seebeck. 

_ $4. The same problem is considered by Neumann! ina long paper 
ead in 1835 before the Berlin Academy, and in a second memoir pub- 
lished separately in Berlin 2 in 1837, and the same results deduced from 
similar hypotheses. 

§ 5. In 1839 MacCullagh attempted to found his theory on a dyna- 
ical basis by finding an expression for the potential energy of the ether 
hen strained by the passage of the waves of light, and applying to the 
tpressions thus obtained Laplace’s principle of virtual velocities, 

‘This leads to a volume integral which holds throughout the space 
cupied by the medium, and a surface integral to be taken over the 


_ The surface integral taken in connection with the principle of the 
eontinuity of the displacement gives the conditions at the surface, and 
Pee are shown to be identical with the conditions found in the previous 
ie 
= Be tnfoscor Stokes, in the Report on Double Refraction, has pointed out 
“the error in the fundamental expression assumed by MacCullagh for the 
‘energy, and this error of course affects the theory of reflexion. 
if 


Chapter II.—Greern. 


 §1. Tue correct expression for the energy, and the correct laws of re- 
‘Hexion and refraction on a strict elastic solid theory, had at the date of 
MacCullagh’s paper been given by George Green ‘ in a memoir read before 
he Cambridge Philosophical Society in December 1837. 

_ The potential energy of the medium is shown to be a function (¢) 
of the three principal elongations s,, sj, s3, and the three principal 
shearing strains a, (3, y. 


_* Neumann, ‘ Theoretische Untersuchung der Gesetze nach welchen das Licht an 
der Griinze zweier vollkommenen durchsichtigen Medien reflectirt und gebrochen wird.’ 
cumann, “Ueber den Einfluss der Krystallfliichen bei der Reflexion und tiber 
die Intensitat des gewéhnlichen und ungewOhnlichen Strahls.’ See also ‘ Vorlesungen 
liber theoretische Optik,’ von Dr. F. Neumann, edited by Dr. E. Dorn. Leipzig: 1885. 
_ * MacCullagh, ‘An Essay towards a Dynamical Theory of Crystalline Reflexion 

| and Refraction,’ Zrans. of Royal Trish Academy, vol. xxi. 
* Geo. Green, ‘On the Laws of Reflexion and Refraction of Light at the Common 


| Surface of two Non-crystallised Media,’ Camb. Phil. Trans. 1838, and Papers of the 
| late Geo. Green, p. 243. 


160 REPORT—1885. 


This fanction is then expanded in the form 
=P thi thot. --- 


$v, &e., being homogeneous functions of the orders 0, 1, 2 of the small 
quantities s), sy, &e. 

The equations of motion depend on 6¢, and so, $9 being constant, it 
does not appear. If the medium in its equilibrium position is unstrained 
@, vanishes also, and in general ¢, contains twenty-one arbitrary coeffi- 
cients. 3 may be neglected compared with ¢,. If the medium be not 
initially free from strain, ¢, will introduce six more coefficients, so that 
finally we find the most general form of # for our purposes involves 
twenty-seven coefficients.’ 

Green then supposes the medium to be symmetrical with regard to 
three rectangular planes, and obtains finally as the form for ¢, taking the 
case in which the medium is initially strained, the valuae— 


du dv dw 
— 26 = 2A—— + 2B — + 2C - 
? da es dy ze dz 


du? dvu\? dw? 

+ a(y+ +} 
da de da 

An 2 Iy\ 2 2 

ee he) Gad 
du\? dv\? dw? 

ee eee ay t 

+ 0 (H+ m (241 (3) 
dx dy dz 


4 2P du dw + 2Q du dw 49 du dv 


dy dz de dz da dy 
dv dw? du , dw? du , dv? 
1D py hoe ae Mi oa NG see 
cs G . i) T G * 7) “ihe he % z) (1) 


If the medium be initially unstrained A=B=C=(0, while, further, if 
it be completely isotropic, 


G=H=I1=2N+R 
L=M=N (2) 
Petes 


And introducing two new constants, A and B, 


du dv dw? 
Suis, SSN chi ous Ser \ 
Pe (Ss dy ot dz ] 


du dv\? du dw? dv dw\? 
B ade Wi ade Eat) 2 SOS hs 
‘3 Ge + 7.) iy Gr a a) i (= t a 
dv dw dwdu , du dv 
~~ \dy dz eda Sas as 2 y ttl cara 


1 For the difference between this and Cauchy’s theory see Prof. Stokes’s report. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 161 


According to Green’s theory of double refraction, founded simply on 
the supposition that the displacements are in the wave front in a crystal, 


1 = i aay 


P=p—2L 
Q=,1—2M ; ; - (4 
R=p—2N 
The equations of motion are given by 
day de} p(T eS) ri) — a9} Onda Soke 
di? dt? dt? 


In treating of the problem of reflexion this integral is applied to the 
whole of the two media, and is transformed by partial integration into a 
volume integral, which may be written 


2 2, 2 
|\|@edy a { (Ge _ x) ou + (os -¥) de + (Gr 2 Jew, 


and a surface integral, which we may write 
[Jay dz (Kew — X, bm) 
+ dzdu (¥ év — Y, 6v,) 
+ da dy (Lew — Z, dw,). 


These two integrals must vanish separately. Green’s work as to the 
former, on which the propagation of light depends, has been considered 
by Professor Stokes. It leads to the three equations— 


d?u d fdu . dv , dw 7 
Se CA = By? 
aia idari st ake a nes 
d?y d {du , dv , dw 
panes CANE etl et toe By? : ‘ 
P ae ( ») dy (Etzt a) ke Ss (6) 


daw __ d (du , dv , dw 9 
pov=(A—B) 4 atta) Bye | 
which form the basis of the whole theory of isotropic elastic solids. 

§ 2. The latter integral equated to zero gives us the surface condi- 
tions; for over the surface, according to Green, who treats the ether in 
the two media as two separate elastic solids always in contact with each 

other, we must have 
U=U,, V=V}, W=W), ; d ; gS) 
and hence eines) ‘prrolivt ue 
eK ¥ SV; BA : ; - (8) 


These six equations determine the motion completely. 

Using Green’s notation, and considering only the case of two homo- 
geneous media, let us take the plane z=0 as the separating surface. 
Then the surface conditions become 


U=U), V=V1, W=V, 


1885. M 


162 REPORT—1885. _ 


du , dv , dw dv dw 
Abd ib pble easel ag 99) Ba ee gaa 
A(T iF dy ci dz ii 7) 


clu dv dw,’ dv dw 
P(t eo 201. <2) 
Nee 55 dy Tee ) le Bie | 


B(= +5) = B, (3 +7) 
dy daz dy da 
du , dw du dw 
prc ae a) I 3 peel ot donk 
a(S 35 7.) : ( dz # 7) 
when «=0. 


The problem now resolves itself into two cases. Let us take the plane 
of incidence as the plane zy, and suppose that the vibrations in the 
incident wave are perpendicular to this, then— 

Casz I.—Light polarised in the plane of incidence, 


(9) 


=, =v=v,—0, 


and the conditions are 


w= } 
dw dw ‘ ; : a GLO) 
Ba = By, —_ 
dx Py da 


Now, we have seen that Fresnel originally assumed that the rigidity of 
the ether is the same in all media, and the density different. Green, 
adopting this view, puts B=B,, A=A,,* and the above formule lead him 
to results agreeing with those given by Fresnel’s simple theory for this 
case, while, by making the angle of refraction imaginary, it is shown that 
the wave, when totally reflected, undergoes just the change of phase given 
by Fresnel. 

Case II.—Light polarised at right angles to the plane of incidence, the 
vibrations being therefore in that plane. 

Then w= w,=0, and the surface conditions are 


US Uj, v=), 


du, dv dv du, , dv,\ dv 
At eat — ) 2B = Ab if Se pak | 
ates dy : ( daz i dy Fj am} dy 


du , dv\ _ du, , dv, 
SE aes * OF pe 
We have here four equations to. determine two unknowns, viz. the inten- 
sities of the reflected and refracted rays, and it is clear, therefore, that 
two more quantities must come under consideration. 

Now, in the general case it follows from the equations of motion given 
above that two waves can traverse the medium. In the one of these the vibra- 
tions are transverse, and travel with the velocity. / B/p. This constitutes the 
light-wave. In the other the vibrations are longitudinal, and travel with the 
velocity,/ A/p. In the case before us, then, reflexion gives rise to both 
these, and we have two reflected and two refracted waves. But experi- 


(11) 


* The physical meaning of these constants and the relations implied by these 
sonditions will be considered later, see p. 167. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 163 


ment tells us, to a high degree of approximation, that the whole of the 
energy of the incident light appears in the reflected and refracted light. 
Weare therefore forced to suppose not merely that the longitudinal wave 
does not affect our eyes as light, but also that it does not absorb any 
material part of the incident energy. This conclusion is confirmed when 
we recollect that on arriving at a second refracting surface this longi- 
tudinal wave would, if it existed, set up transverse vibrations which 
would be visible, so that on passing through a prism, for example, there 
would always be two emergent rays. 

Now, Green shows that very little energy will be absorbed by the 
longitudinal vibrations, provided that the ratio A/B be very small or 
very great; and, further, that the condition of stability of the medinm 
requires that A/B should be greater than 4/3. He therefore concludes 
that A/B is very great—practically infinite, or that the wave of longi- 
tudinal vibrations travels with a velocity enormously greater than that of 
light. 

; The equations are then solved, assuming that B=B, and A= A,,* by 
the substitutions— 


dx dy 
(12) 

y = _o 

dy dx 


The symbol ¢ represents the longitudinal or, as Sir Wm. Thomson 
has called it, the pressural wave, and W the transverse or light wave. 

It is shown that by the reflexion a difference of phase is produced 

between the reflected and incident and the refracted and incident waves, 
and expressions are found for the intensities of the reflected and refracted 
waves in terms of that of the incident. According to these expressions, 
the intensity of the reflected wave never vanishes, but reaches a minimum 
when 9 + ¢'= 90°. The minimum value of the ratio of the two intensi- 
ties will be for air and water about 1 /151, while for a diamond or other 
substance of great refractive index it would be much greater still. 

§ 3. This result, then, of the theory is in direct antagonism to the fact 
that light is very nearly completely polarised by reflexion from most 
transparent surfaces at the polarising angle, while the values found for 
the change of phase do not agree with the experiments of Jamin,! 
Quincke, and-others, and the theory as left by Green is certainly incorrect. 
We shall, however, return to this point later. 

Green does not apply his equations to the problem of crystalline 
reflexion, and, indeed, his theories of reflexion and of double refraction are 
entirely inconsistent, for the former supposes the ether to have the same 
rigidity in all bodies, while the latter attempts to explain double refrac- 


ie by making the rigidity of a crystal a function of the direction of the 
strain. 


* This last equation, as we shall see later, is not necessary. 
_ ' Jamin, Ann. de Chimie (3), t. xxix. p. 263 ; Quincke, ‘Experimentelle optische 
Untersuchungen,’ Pogg. Ann. See also Haughton, Phil. Mag. (4), vol. vi. p. 81. 

? See p. 192. 


M 2 


164 REPORT—1885. 


Chapter ITI.—Cavucay. 


§ 1. Cauchy’s optical researches were being published about this 
same period, and a very full and interesting account of them, and of the 
work of other French authors, is given by M. de St. Venant in a paper to 
which I am greatly indebted for much valuable information.' 

Canchy’s work on elastic solids began in 1822, and in 1829 he pre- 
sented to the Academy his first memoir on isotropic media. His more 
generally known memoir followed in 1830,” containing his work on 
double refraction and the propagation of light in a crystal. An account 
of this is given in Professor Stokes’s report in 1862, His first work on 
dispersion, which he explained (following a suggestion of Coriolis) by the 
addition of terms involving differential coefficients above the second, was 
published in 1830.3 The great memoir, ‘Sur la dispersion de la 
lumiére,’ in which he developed this principle, appeared between 1830 and 
1836 ;4 and in this same memoir he first considered the problem of reflexion 
and refraction, which led him to the idea of elliptic polarisation and 
a more general expression for the possible displacements of a molecule 5 
in a plane wave. 

§ 2. Further considerations on the subject of reflexion and refraction 
led him to conclude that, in order to obtain Fresnel’s expressions for the 
intensities of the reflected and refracted rays in terms of that of the 
incident, it was necessary that not only the displacements, but their 
differential coefficients with respect to the normal to the surface of 
separation, should be continuous across that surface. This continuity 
had to be rendered compatible with the rest of his theory, in which the 
ether is considered as differing both in density and elasticity in different 
media. It is, however, quite inconsistent with the true surface con- 
ditions established by Green, Neumann, and MacCullagh on their various 
hypotheses—the conditions, namely, that the displacements and the stresses. 
over the surface should be the same in the two media; and Cauchy, in con- 
sequence, was led to conclude that the method of Lagrange, by which the 
above conditions were first established, is inapplicable to questions of this 
kind.? But, as St. Venant points out, these surface conditions do not in 
the least depend on Lagrange’s method of virtual velocities, but on the 
fundamental elementary principles of mechanics, and can never be recon- 
ciled with Canchy’s theory of continuity so long as it is supposed that 
the rigidity of the ether varies from one body to another. 

§ 3. In 18398 Cauchy re-established his equations of motion for an 
isotropic medium, basing them on analytical considerations of symmetry- 
For a perfectly isotropic body he arrived at the equations— 


du dé 


bee pes 2, 
Pag = (A B)_ + By*u : t - (13) 
pt) du dw dw 
&c., where SH TGR R, 


1 De St. Venant, ‘Sur les diverses maniéres de présenter la théorie des ondes 
lumineuses,’ Ann. de Chimie (S. iv.), t. xxv. p. 335. 

2 Cauchy, Ewercices de Mathématiques, t. v. pp. 19-72. 

3 Cauchy, Bulletin de M. de Ferussac, t. xv. p. 9. 

4 Nouveaux Exercices de Mathematiques. 5 C, R. t. vii. p. 867. 

6° C. R.t. viii. p. 374; t. x. p. 266. 

1 GC. R. t. xxvii. p. 100; t. xvi. p. 154; t. xxviii. pp. 27, 60. 

2 C. R. t. viii. p. 985; Evercices d@ Analyse, t. i. p. 101. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 165 


already given by Green.! And in cases in which the axes can only be 
turned together about the origin, a third coefficient comes in, in the form 


of terms, such as 
dw dv 
Caer ): 


In 1849? Cauchy propounded the idea that the ether atoms in a body 
such as a crystal are disposed, as it were, in shells round the matter atoms 
in such a manner as to have different elastic properties at different points 
of the same shell; the shells, however, are regularly placed, and the 
properties of the ether repeat themselves at similar points in the different 
shells. It results from this that the constants in the equations of motion 
will be periodic functions of the equilibrium positions of the molecules, 
and for optical effects we have to do with the average displacement over 
a small volume of the medium.* 

The general equations established by Cauchy lead to a normal wave 
travelling with a velocity equal to / A/p. According to his earlier theory, 
resting on the law of action between the molecules of ether, A and B are 
not independent, and it is possible by suitably choosing the law of force 
to make A vanish or even be negative. The theory‘ of reflexion and 
refraction led him to conclude that A was a small negative quantity, so 
that the normal disturbance ceases to be propagated as such. 

§ 4. Cauchy’s work was continued by Briot,’ starting from the 
equations of motion deduced from the mutual action between two par- 
ticles of ether, and the supposition suggested by Cauchy that the ether 
within a crystal is in a state of unequal strain. In treating of dispersion 
Briot points out that it cannot be explained in the manner originally 
suggested by Cauchy, for there is no reason why the terms in his differ- 
ential equations from which it arises should be insensible ina vacuum if they 
are sensible in ordinary transparent media. He therefore makes it depend 
on terms arising from a periodic distribution of the ether within material 
bodies, and shows that to obtain Cauchy’s dispersion formula the law of 
action between the molecules must be as the inverse sixth power of the 
distance. In his memoir on reflexion and refraction, however, he adopts 
Cauchy’s views as to the disappearance of the normal wave, and this is 
quite inconsistent with the above law, while the ether and matter mole- 
cules must attract each other with a force varying as the inverse square 
of the distance. 

§ 5. The problem of reflexion and refraction for both isotropic and 
crystalline bodies is treated of in a memoir published in 1866-67,° start- 
ing from Cauchy’s principle of continuity, to which he gives an extended 
meaning in the second memoir. He at first supposes the vibrations in 
the crystal to be rigorously in the plane of the wave, and, adopting 
MacCullagh’s methods of the uniradial direction, arrives at his equations. 
The work is then extended to the general case in which the vibrations 


1 See p. 161. 

* C. R. t. xxix. pp. 641, 644, 728, 762; t. xxx. p. 27. 

* For the further development of this by M. Sarrau, see p. 174. 

* C. R. t. ix. pp. 677, 727, 765. On this point cf. Green’s theory. See also 
Stokes’s, Brit. Assoc. Report, 1862, and pp. 170-195. 

* Briot, Hssais sur la théorie mathématique de la lumiére. Paris, 1864. 

* Liouville’s Journal, t. xi. p. 305; t. xii. p. 185. 


166 REPORT— 1885. 
| 
are quasi-transversal, and it is shown how the simpler forms of the — 
equations are modified by this. ; 
Thus, for the uniradial directions in the case in which the longitudinal 
disturbance is supposed to be strictly normal to the wave, if y is the 
angle between the ray and the wave normal, 0, 6’, and 6, the azimuths 
of the planes of polarisation, measured from the plane of incidence, of the 
incident reflected and refracted waves, @ and 9’ the angles of incidence 
and refraction, and m a quantity depending on the angle between the 
plane of the wave and the direction of vibration, then— 


i Ulta 0 0 an lt i! 

tan 6 = tan 0’ cos (¢ — 9’) + cos 0’ sin (9 + "| (14) 
sonal Cee eee f 

tan 0, = tan 0’ cos(¢ + ¢’) cos 0’ sin (9 — 9’) 


é 


These formule agree with those of MacCullagh if we put m = 1. 


Chapter IV.—Etuipric Potarisation. Comparison oF REsuLTs. 


§ 1. The peculiar phenomena presented by quartz had been explained 
by Airy in 1831! on the assumption that the two waves were elliptically 
polarised. In 1836% MacCullagh made a further advance, and showed 
how the addition of certain terms to the differential equations of motion 
would lead to the elliptic polarisation required by Airy’s theory. The 
equations assumed by MacCullagh, for the existence of which he does 
not attempt to assign a mechanical reason, were— 


i acu ote 


dt dz dz if 
Me _ pie _ ohn se 
de dz dz 


Where A = a”, B = a? — (a? — 3b?) sin? 6, 


a and b being constants, and @ the angle between the optic axis and 
the wave normal—the axis of z. The two waves resulting from these 
equations are shown to be elliptically polarised, while their velocity is 
given by the equation 

: An? C? 
(w? — A) (uw? —B) ==, 


(16) 


dX being the wave length. The rotation of the plane of polarisation 
produced by the passage of a plane polarised ray through a plate of 
crystal cut at right angles to the axis, and of unit thickness, is 277C /a*n?. 

MacCullagh shows that the results of this hypothesis as to the form 
of the equations agree fairly with Airy’s experiments, and that the 
agreement would be made somewhat more close by the hypothesis that C 
varies slightly with 0. 


1 Airy, ‘On the Nature of the Two Rays produced by the Double Refraction of 
Quartz,’ Camb. Phil. Soc. Trans. vol. iv. pp. 79, 198. 

? MacCullagh, ‘On the Laws of the Double Refraction of Quartz,’ Ivish Trans. 
vol. xvii. p. 461. . 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 167 


§ 2. Terms of asimilar kind were first applied by Airy ! to explain 
the magnetic rotation of the plane of polarisation discovered by Faraday. 
Airy starts by calling attention to the fundamental difference between 
the rotation produced by quartz and that due to magnetic action. In 
quartz, sugar, etc., by reflecting the ray back along its original path the 
rotation is reversed, so that the ray emerges with its plane of polarisation 
unaltered, while in bodies under magnetic action the rotation is doubled 
by the same process. It is as if the former effect were due to a heliacal 
arrangement of the molecules, the latter to a continuous rotation of them 
round the lines of force. Airy shows that the effects produced can be 
accounted for by the introduction into the equation for w of terms 
involving odd differential coefficients of v with respect to the time, and 
he works out the case in which the equations are 


d?u du rou v 
dt? dz? dt 
(17) 


The two possible velocities for a wave of period r are given by 
f=, t= = 


Te RUT 5 Pet yy 
us or 


dv d3y 

aed ae would also 
lead to the effect observed; though they would differ in the law, express- 
ing the relation between the velocity and the wave length. Airy 
remarks that ‘the equations are given, not as offering a mechanical 
explanation of the phenomena, but as showing that they may be ex- 
plained by equations, which equations appear such as might be intro- 
duced by some plausible mechanical assumption.’ 

§ 3. The attempt to estimate the relative value of the theories of 
reflexion and refraction just developed is rendered easier if we consider 
the physical meaning of the two constants involved. The importance of 
this has been continually insisted upon by Sir Wm. Thomson? in his 
numerous writings on the subject of elasticity, which have done so much 
to clear away difficulties and obscurities; and though these writings 
belong to the later period of our subject, we shall consider here some of 
the results they lead to. 


It is pointed out also that terms such as 


__ To Green, Cauchy, and MacCullagh, A and B are constants, appearing 


in the most general form of the equations, and on which the rate of propa- 
gation of waves depends; their connection with the other physical pro- 
perties of the solids is not considered. Now an isotropic ‘elastic solid is 
one which possesses the power of opposing resistance (1) to change of 
shape, (2) to change of volume, and has in consequence only two prin- 
cipal moduluses of elasticity. 


__} Airy, ‘On the Equations applying to Light under the Action of Magnetism,’ 
Phil. Mag. (3), vol. xxviii. p. 469. 

? See especially, Thomson, ‘Elements of a Mathematical Theory of Elasticity,’ 
Phil. Trans. 1856, p. 481; Thomson and Tait, A Treatise on Natural Philosophy, 
vol. i. ; Thomson, article ‘ Elasticity,’ Encyclopedia Britannica, ninth edition, 1880. 


168 REPORT—1885. 


On the value of the one, the rigidity, , in the notation of Thomson 
and Tait, depends the resistance which the body can oppose to a stress 
tending to produce distortion or change of shape without change of 
volume, and it is measured by the ratio of the shearing stress—or stress 
tending to produce distortion—to the strain or alteration of shape pro- 
duced. It can be shown that this is equal to the constant, B, of Green’s 
theory. And the velocity of a wave of transverse displacement, since it 
does not produce changes in the volume of the body through which it 
passes, depends only on the ratio of the rigidity to the density. 

On the value of the other principal modulus depends the resistance 
which the body can offer to compression or change of volume when sub- 
jected to a uniform hydrostatic pressure at all points of its surface. The 
compression produced is measured by the ratio of the change in volume 
to the original volume, and the modulus of compression, k, is the ratio of 
the stress to the compression it produces. 

It has been shown by Thomson that the relation between A and the 
principal moduluses is given by the equation A= + $n, so that k, the 
modulus of compression, is equal to A—3$B. 

The expression for the stresses arising from simple elongations e, f, g 
in the directions of the axes, and from simple shears a, 3, y round the 
axes, are found; they are 


N, = (hk + gnje + (k — 3n)(f + 9) 
=(k + gnj(eet+ ft g)—2nf + 9) 
du , dv , dw dv , dw 
= pe ee == as! 
= dx dy z) Pal z) 
etc., using Green’s notation, and 


dv , dw 
Aly — — _ —_—- 
3 2, = B ( Zz + aa) , 


etc., and from these Green’s expression for the energy can be obtained. 
We may note that the velocity of propagation of the longitudinal waves 
»/ A/p depends on both the modulus of compression and the rigidity. 

According to the mathematical theories of Navier, Poisson, Cauchy, 
and De St. Venant, there is a definite relation between » and & for all 
bodies given by the equation n = 3k or B=43A. Stokes! was the first 
to point out that this could not be true universally, and this conclusion 
has been confirmed by the experiments of Wertheim and Kirchhoff for 
various metals. 

Thus, on the assumption that the properties of the ether are those of 
an elastic solid, Cauchy’s theory in its original form, independently of the 
consideration of his surface conditions, must be rejected. In his later 
theory, as we have said, he does admit the second constant A.? But, we 
have seen that the existence of the two constants A and B implies that 
there will be two waves in the medium, while the absence of the wave of 
normal vibrations in light, combined with the conditions of stability, 
requires that A should be great compared with B, and this again requires 
that &, the modulus of compression, should be great compared with n, the 


1 Stokes, ‘On the Friction of Fluids in Motion and the Equilibrium and Motion 
of Elastic Solids,’ Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc. 1845; Math. Papers, i. p. 75. 
2 See pp. 164, etc. 


” 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 169 


rigidity. Thus we are compelled to treat the ether as an elastic solid of 
yery great—practically infinite—incompressibility. Now, the cubical 
dilatation produced by a given state of strain is measured by e+f+g, or 
du , dv 4 de 
de dy dz 
should be zero. It is not, however, admissible to omit the terms in 
e+f+g in the equations, for they occur with the constant A as a factor, 
and the physical condition that these terms should vanish implies also 
that A should be very large. To obtain the correct equations we must 
put 


, and the condition of incompressibility requires that this 


du , dv, dw\_ 
Gea (Sots) b, 
and they then become 
Gish sy Aine page eg ino 10 aulal poe 
dt? da 


et cetera. 
§ 4. MacCullagh and Neumann omit the terms in p entirely from 
their equations, both within the medium and over the surface, and are led 
in consequence to erroneous results, though, as we shall see later, their 
theories (modified so as to include the terms) have been developed by 
Lord Rayleigh! and Lorenz. Green, as we have seen, is perfectly con- 
sistent throughout; but his final equations, unfortunately, are not con- 
firmed by experiment. If we assume the rigidity of the ether to be the 
same in the two media, it is not difficult to show that Cauchy’s surface 
conditions are identical with those of Green, or, to be more accurate, that 
Green’s correct equations expressing the continuity of the stress and of 
the displacement over the surface reduce to Cauchy’s. Green obtains his 
surface condition from the value of a certain integral over the surface ; 
they may be obtained, perhaps more simply, from the equations of motion 
of an element dS of the surface ; for, taking the case when the plane z=0 is 
the bounding surface, let » be the thickness of the element, N,, N,’ the 
stresses on it parallel to the axis of x, then we have 
2 
prdsS4=(N-M)ds . .  . (9) 
Hence, when » is indefinitely decreased, N,=Nj,’, with other similar 
equations. On Green’s supposition that A—A,, B=B,, these conditions 
for Case I. (vibrations normal to the plane of incidence) lead to 


ww, 
dw s dwy 5 : 5 * . (20) 
de dz’ 
and for Case II. (vibrations in the plane of incidence) to 
hn Us 
du __ du, dv Zi dv, . . (21) 
dz dx’ de da’ 


which are Cauchy’s conditions. The difference between the two theories 
hes in their treatment of the waves of longitudinal displacement. 


1 See p. 189. 


170 REPORT— 1885. 


According to both Green and Cauchy they depend on a function ¢, 
where 


d = goe (arty + eo ’ , ‘ . (22) 
And in both theories ? Wye, oh, 
c 
a’? + 0? = = : z : x . (28) 
Green puts A/p very large, so that a’?+?=0, and 
= e+’"{K sin (by + ct) + Los(by + ct)} . - (24) 
while Cauchy, without any dynamical justification, writes A/p=—c?/k?, 


k being a large quantity, so that Ais a small negative quantity. Hence 
a/?24+52= —f?, 

The assumption of a negative value for A leads to the conclusion that 
the modulus of compression is negative—that is, that the medium is such 
that pressure causes it to expand and tension to contract, and this alone 
is fatal to the theory. 

§ 5. We come, then, to the conclusion that the phenomena of reflexion 
and refraction cannot be explained, any more than the phenomena of 
double refraction, on a purely elastic solid theory involving a sudden 
change of properties on crossing the interface. Green’s theory is the 
only possible consistent one, and it, in its original form, leads to results 
differing from experiment. 


Part IJ.—Moprern Drvetorments or THE ExAstic Sorin THeory. 


We now come to the consideration of rather more modern investiga- 
tion on this subject. The limits of space will confine us to the theoretical 
work which has been done. The great experimental researches of Fizeau, 
Jamin, Quincke, Cornu, and others, will only be occasionally referred to. 
A complete account of these must be left for some future time. 


Chapter I.—Gurnrrat Properties oF THE HrHER ON THE ELASTIC 
Som THeEory. 


The elastic solid theory of the propagation of light and double refrac- 
tion has been discussed in various papers by Haughton, Lamé, St. Venant, 
Boussinesq, Von Lang, Sarrau, Lorenz, Rankine, Lord Rayleigh, Kirch- 
hoff, and others. 

§ 1. Haughton considered the problem of the general equations of an 
elastic solid in a paper read before the Irish Academy in 1846, in which 
he adopts Canchy’s views as to the constitution of the medium. These 
views are modified in a second paper,! read in 1849, in which the general 
equations are formed, and the correct expression found for the potential 
energy. 

In this paper Haughton shows how to calculate the strain in any 
direction produced by a given elongation in the same direction. This 
strain is proved to be inversely proportional to the fourth power of the 
radius of a certain surface, called by Rankine the tasimonic surface. A 
form is found for the equation to the surface of wave slowness, which is 
said to reduce to MacCullagh’s if the vibrations be strictly transversal ; 
but, in making the reduction, the dilatation 0 is equated to zero, its co- 


1 Haughton, ‘ On a Classification of Elastic Media and the Law of the Propaga- 
tion of Plane Waves through them,’ Zvish Trans. vol. xxii. p. 97. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. VFI 


efficient remaining a finite quantity, and in consequence the results are 
erroneous. 

§ 2. Lamé is the author of numerous papers, in the ‘Comptes 
Rendus’ and elsewhere, on the propagation of waves through an elastic 
medium, and his results are summed up in his ‘ Legons sur |’ Elasticité.’ ! 
The general form of the equations for the strains are shown to contain 
twelve constants, which become six if the dilatations be equated to zero, 
and three when planes of symmetry are taken for the co-ordinate planes. 
The equations of motion finally obtained may be written 


du — 2 du _ | _ 72 d (dw _ “) (1) 
dt? dy ei da rats dz , ; 
etc., which agree with MacCullagh’s and with Green’s if we omit the 
terms involving the dilatation. The arguments to be advanced against 
the theory are identical, then, with those which Professor Stokes has urged 
against MacCullagh’s. 

§ 3. St. Venant has written many most important papers on the 
subject of elasticity. He still adheres to Cauchy’s theory and the form of 
the equations of an elastic solid deduced from the hypothesis of direct 
action between the molecules of the medium, and in his last great work 
on the subject, the annotated French edition of Clebsch’s ‘ Elasticity,’ 
states his reasons for so doing in §$ 11, 16. However, in the work he 
employs Green’s expression for the energy, with the twenty-one co- 
efficients—‘ Vu la controverse actuelle ot la majorité des avis est con- 
traire au ndtre.’ 

§ 4. In & paper printed in 1863? he criticises Green’s theory of double 
refraction, arguing that Green’s conditions for the tranversality of the 
vibrations lead to isotropy. This conclusion is frequently repeated in St. 
Venant’s* papers, and it will therefore be well to investigate the point 
somewhat closely. 

Let us suppose that we have a simple elongation « in a direction 
1, ™,, %,,in a medium fulfilling Green’s conditions. Let 1, ms, no, 1s, 
m3, 3 be the direction cosines of two lines at right angles in a plane 
normal to 1,, m,, 7, and let us investigate the stresses N,’, N,’, N,’, 
T,’, T,’, T;’ on the faces of an element normal to these directions. Then 
St. Venant’s argument rests on the fact that N,’ is independent of the 
direction of the elongation, while T,’and T,’ vanish, and that this would 
be the case in an isotropic medium. This last statement is of course 
true, but on Green’s theory N,’, N;' do depend on the direction, which 
they would not do in an isotropic medium, and T,’ has a finite value, 
while for an isotropic medium it would vanish. 

The values for the stresses may be shown to be— 

ye 

N,! = in B(L int +Xn)} 

Nz! = {u—2(L1,? + Mm,?+ Nn,”)} «| : F (2) 
T,’ = 2 {Li,l3 + Mmm; + Nirgns} | 

Le == Ts’ = 0 

1 Lamé, Lecons sur ? Elasticité. Paris: Gauthier Villars, 1866. 

? St. Venant, ‘Sur la distribution des élasticités autour de chaque point d’un 
solide,’ Liowville’s Journal, 8. ii. t. viii. p. 257. 


4 . a De St. Venaut, ‘Théorie des ondes lumineuses,’ Ann. de Chim. 
- iv. p. 22, 


172 REPORT—-1885. 


For an isotropic solid we should have N,’=N;'=(u#—2L)e and 
‘T,/=0. Thus Green’s medium in which the propagation of transverse 
waves is possible has properties which distinguish it from an isotropic 
solid, for a simple elongation produces on any plane parallel to the direc- 
tion of the elongation a normal stress which depends on the position of the 
plane, while it also produces shearing stress about an axis parallel to the 
direction of the elongation; and although the theory does not explain 
double refraction satisfactorily, yet it is not open to De St. Venant’s criti- 
cisms on this point. 

§ 5 In the same paper St. Venant proposes a modification of Cauchy’s 
theory which leads to Fresnel’s wave surface without any more conditions 
than are required by Green; for, putting in Green’s expression, 


ApS Ep? + Gn? =X | 


l, m, n being the direction cosines of the wave normal, the equation to 
determine the velocity becomes— 


{po V2 — X — Gl? — Hm? — In} [(p V? — X)? — (p V2 —X) 
{M+N)2? +(N+L)m? 4+ (1+ M) 07} + MN? + NUIm? + LMn?] 
— {((H—L) (I— L) — (LU + P)} {G22 + Nm? + Mr? + X — pV?} mn? 
— {(I—M) (G—M) — (M+Q)*} {N2? + Hm? + Ln? + X— pV} v7? 
—{(@—N) (H—N) — (N+ B)?} (MP? + Lm? + In? + X — pV?} Pm? 
+ {(G—M) (H—N) (I-—L) + (G—N) (H-L) (I—M) 
—2(L+P) (M+Q) (N+ R)} Pm? =0 . y Y ; . (4 


And this will reduce to Fresnel’s surface if A = B= OC; that is, if the 
equilibrium stresses are equal, and the four conditions 


(H—L) (IL) =(L+P)? 

(I—M) (@—~ M)=(M+ Q)? 

(G—N) (H-N)=(N+R) - (6) 
(G—M) (H—N) (1—-L) + (@—N) (H-L) d-—) 


—2(L4+P) (M+ Q) (N+R) =0 
are satisfied. 

These equations include those of Green’s first theory, and are approxi- 
mately those which arise from what. St. Venant calls an ellipsoidal 
distribution of elasticities. Under certain circumstances the tasinomic 
surface—which, it will be remembered, gives the tension in any direction 
produced by a simple elongation in that direction—reduces to an ellipsoid, 
and then the distribution of elastic constants is named by St. Venant 
ellipsoidal. This distribution is produced when an isotropic medium is 
unequally strained in three perpendicular directions. The theory is 
interesting, and important as showing that Fresnel’s wave surface can 
be deduced from the general elastic solid theory on other assumptions as 
regards the constants than those given by Green, and that the vibrations 
in this case are not necessarily in the wave front. There will, however, 
in this case be a quasi-normal wave, the velocity of which is given by the 
equation 

pV? — X— GP? — Hm? — In? = 0; 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 173: 


and if Green’s arguments as to the relative magnitude of the constants be 
still supposed to hold, the quasi-normal wave will disappear, and the 
vibrations will be very nearly indeed transversal. The theory, however, 
interesting as it is, does not enable us to overcome the difficulty of 
reconciling the theories of double refraction and reflexion so long as we 
adopt the view of Fresnel and Green, that the latter depends on difference 
of density, not of rigidity, in the two media. It is also open to the 
objection that if the medium be incompressible the displacements must 
be in the wave front, and we must get in this case Green’s conditions, 
not the above ; while if the medium be not incompressible an appreciable: 
amount of energy must exist in the form of longitudinal vibrations. 

§ 6. The question of the propagation of waves through an isotropic 
medium, which is rendered anisotropic by the production of three elonga- 
tions, a, b, c, in three rectangular directions, has been studied by 
Boussinesq.! The elastic constants are taken to be linear functions of 
these permanent strains, and the number of constants involved in their 
expression is reduced from the considerations involved in the symmetry 
of the medium and the principle of the conservation of energy, 

The equations of motion may be written 


d*u dé 
aa Q+Na)7 + (+ pa) 7 2u 


rere ine du d*u du \ 


Peg apd 


with the condition implied by the principle of the conservation of energy 
that \’/= v, while if the normal stresses in the equilibrium condition 
vanish =p. These may be deduced from Green’s equations by putting 


A=(c—p)a, B=(o-p)b, C=(e —p)e, 
G=A+p+2(p+y)a, 
L=p+p(b+e), 
P=d—-p+(y—p)(b+c), 


with similar expressions for the other constants. \ and p are the two 
elastic constants of the unstrained medium in the form in which they 
are written by Lamé, /A and (A+ ,) being the velocities of trans- 
verse and normal waves respectively, the density being taken as unity. 

It is thus shown that on the assumption that a, b, c are small quan- 
tities, such that their squares and products may be neglected, Fresnel’s 
wave surface is given ifeithero =0 ors =p. In fact, the condition « = 0 
leads to Fresnel’s surface without any assumption as to the value of 
a, b, c, for then the theory becomes identical with Green’s second theory ; 
while if c=p we have either St. Venant’s ellipsoidal condition or his 
suggested modification of Cauchy, for to this degree of approximation the 
two theories are identical. 


(7) 


1 Boussinesq, Liowville’s Journal, S. ii. t. viii. 


174 REPORT—1885. 


We may conclude, then, that Fresnel’s laws as to double refraction 
would hold in a medium stramed in the manner Boussinesq considers, 
but the theory as a whole is liable to the same criticisms as have been 
made to Green’s. Boussinesq is the author of another and different 
theory, which we shall consider later, and which gives a better explana- 
tion of the phenomena. 

§ 7. This same problem has been dealt with by Professor C. Niven,' who 
has arrived at similar results without introducing considerations based 
on molecular reactions. 

§ 8. The problem of donble refraction has been treated in a different 
manner by M. Sarrau, following up the suggestions of Cauchy as to the 
nature of the ether in a crystal, and his theory is developed in two papers 
in ‘Liouville’s Journal.’ In these papers” the density of the ether in a 
transparent medium is supposed to vary in a periodic manner from point 
to point. The ether is arranged in concentric shells of variable den- 
sity round each matter molecule, and its density, variable round each 
matter molecule, is the same at any one of a series of points situated 
similarly with regard to the matter molecules. The ether is periodically 
homogeneous, and the coefficients which occur in the elasticity equations 
are no longer constant, but are periodic functions of the co-ordinates of 
the point whose displacement is being considered ; from these equations 
are deduced a series of others with constant coefficients, containing the 
average displacements of the ether in an element of volume. It is to 
these average displacements that optical effects are supposed to be due. 

Cauchy * has indicated the path to be followed in deducing these 
auxiliary equations from the fundamental forms, and M. Sarrau arrives 
at the following conclusion. 

If the fundamental equations be represented by 


2 } 
mH F(S a. Oo yey) 


dt? “da! dy! dz! 

dv 

=e. m9) 2 4 ») a A e ey 
2 

du Al ) 

dt? d i J 


Where F, G, H are functions with periodic coefficients of w, v, w and 
their differential coefficients, then the auxiliary equations will be— 


du 
i= BV, iG ea! 
dt? 4 33 


pF A 
a nit ee a 
| 
J 


1 CO. Ntven, Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, No. 55, 1876. 

2 Sarrau, C. A. vol. lx. p.1174. ‘Sur la propagation et la polarisation de Ja lumiére 
dans les cristaux,’ Liouville’s Journal, S. ii. t. xii. p. 13; t. xiii. p. 59. 

3 Cauchy, Comptes Rendus, t. xxx. p. 17. 


(9) 


== 4 Gl + H’””’ 


{ 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 175 


F’, F’, F’” being symbolic functions obtained by substituting integral 


functions of Nas d 4 sy the periodic coefficients of F, and similarly for 
dx’ dy’ dz 
Er". 


The second memoir ! is devoted to the consideration of the problem on 
the supposition that the ether in a crystal is isotropic as regards its 
elasticity, and that the variations in density are all which we have to 
consider. Again following Cauchy, and treating the ether asa system of 
attracting and repelling points, Sarrau arrives at the equations 

du 


HBV ut Hv) Th. 1 2 . (10) 


etc., where E and F are certain connected functions depending on the law 
of force, and 6 the dilatation. 


For free space— 
E(v’) =ev’, 


LA Sa Soe 
eand f being constants. 

For the ether in a crystal, omitting the consideration of dispersion, it 
is shown that it is probable that E and F have the same forms, only 
now e and f are periodic functions of the co-ordinates. 

If we denote d/dw, d/dy, d/dz, d/dt by a, (3, y, o, respectively, then 
the equations in the crystal become, in conformity with the general rule, 


eu 7*(Fyu + Foy + F3w) + (fia + fo2 + fay), 
etc., where F, G, H, etc., f, g, h, etc., denote now symbolic functions of © 


a, B, y. 

’ “These general equations are simplified by the consideration of the 
various kinds of symmetry possible, and it is shown that in the case of 
ordinary biaxial crystals they reduce to 


i ee . dO. 

dt, =v U+ Ji da| 

Pirin cers dd | 

gitan a OF ae te ie mg a 
dw 


dé 
Greiy el hh a} 


It is further assumed that f+f,=g+g9,=h+h=0. This, of 
course, is the condition that the velocity of the normal wave should be 
zero. 

These equations are solved by putting u=Pel(/e+my+nz—wi), ete, and 


lead to E 
Poe, Ge i 
| ae ad (P1+ Qm+Rn), 
w?—f w*—g w—h 
whence 
"(2 m* n? 
ee ee ao : d 2 0GE2) 


) Liouville’s Journal, Ser. ii. t. xiii. p. 59. 


176 REPORT—1885. 


Thus the wave surface is Fresnel’s, The direction of vibration, the ray 
and the wave normal are shown to be in the same plane, but the direction 
of vibration is at right angles to the ray instead of to the wave normal. 

The assumed conditions f + f; = 0, etc., form a serious objection to the 


——— 


theory as it stands, but on this point it is “capable of modification. The — 


vibrations, of course, are not strictly transversal within the crystal, but 
I am not aware of any experiments which prove that they must be so. 
Of course, if the medium be absolutely incompressible, the displacements 
must be in the wave front, and the theory fails; but the condition of 
stability and the evanescence of the longitudinal wave require merely that 
the incompressibility should be very great compared with the rigidity, 
without being absolutely infinite. 

§ 9. M. Sarrau has considered the peculiar phenomena presented by 
quartz, and shows how on his theory the terms assumed by MacCullagh 
will arise. 

For the crystalline symmetry of such a body, the equations are shown 
to take the form— 

re dv 


a ils oe dy dz 


: ss 
aH g (ve! ai ne 88) ee 


aw v2 
gd Sl ae 2) ae (ngtmis)| 


and it follows that two elliptically polarised waves can traverse the 
medium in any given direction, 
The velocities of these waves are given by 


w=g—5(9-f) sin? 9 + 5/4 @— Aisin 0 


TS (g2 cos? 0+ f, sin? 0) x (g2cos?6—g, sin? 9) ts (14) 


jf, and g, are two constants which are probably very small, and, in that case, 
the squares of the principal velocities at right angles to the axis are ia 
and g, while the squares of the velocities parallel to the axis are given by 


+ mg 

r 

If p, represent the ratio of the axes of the ellipse in the ordinary wave, 
p. that in the extraordinary, then 
Jz cos? 8 — g, sin? 6 (15) 
gz Cos? 0 + 7; sin? 6 f 


7 


P1P2 = 


The major axis of the extraordinary ellipse is perpendicular to the prin- 
cipal plane, that of the ordinary ellipse is in the principal plane, while the 
two waves are polarised in opposite senses. 

$10. DeSt. Venant! criticises the theory in the following points, p being 
the only periodic variable, the equations, he argues, should betreated as if the 


" St. Venant, ‘Sur les diverses maniéres de présenter la théorie des ondes lumi- 
neuses,’ Ann. de Chim. (4), t. xxv. p. 335, 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. Ka 


2 
periodic coefficient was attached to the first term, p aS etc., and he states 


2 
that the development of the equations —— .... leads to different 

2 
results. Sarrau,' in reply, points out that this depends on the relative 
magnitudes of the quantities a, /3, y, o®, and the other parameters; on 
making the same suppositions in the two cases the results, he shows, are 
identical. One may, however, start from the general equations of an elastic 
solid with two coefficients, and, by supposing the coefficients to be periodic, 
arrive at the general equations already found. 

M. de St. Venant finds a difficulty in explaining dispersion, for in an 
isotropic medium the periodicity of the coefficients vanishes. This may 
be true, and yet the equations contain differential coefficients above the 
second. 

§ 11. The theory advanced by Von Lang? might perhaps more strictly 
be considered under the next section: ‘Theories based on the mutual 
action between matter and the ether.’ The theory is, however, so slight 
a modification of the ordinary elastic solid theory that it will be more 
convenient to deal with it now. 

Von Lang supposes that the displacements which come into the 
ordinary elastic solid theory are displacements of the ether relative 
to the molecules of the matter. He assumes that the ratio of the 
matter displacement to that of the ether is in general a function of the 
direction, but that for three directions we may write 


U=a*u, V=b?7, W=c?w, 


U, V, W being displacements of matter, w, v, w of ether. 

He then forms the equations of motion, and, equating the velocity of 
the quasi-longitudinal wave to zero, arrives at Fresnel’s wave surface. 
The theory cannot be regarded as having any real physical signification, 
for the elastic forces produced in the ether will depend on the real dis- 
placements of the ether particles, not on the displacements relatively to 
the matter, and the velocity of the normal wave cannot vanish, for if it 
does the medium becomes unstable. 
© § 12. Von Lang? has also given a theory of circular polarisation, 
which consists in adding to the ordinary equations terms such as 


sofdv dw 
?( ——_—_ }, 
t dy 
From this it follows that the velocity in a medium such as sugar is 
given by 


L being the wave length in air; while in quartz 


Bos 19 
w= @?— 7 ~~ ginrg 1 { (a? — c)? sin4d 
2 2 
2 oy 
+ a2 008 i) a LAG} 
Sarrau, ‘ Observations relatives a Yanalyse faite par M. de St. Venant,’ Ann. de 
Chim. (4), t. xxvii. p. 266. 


* Von Lang, ‘Zur Theorie der Doppel-Brechung,’ Wied. Ann. t. clix, p. 168. 
* Von Lang, ‘ Zur Theorie der Circular-Polarisation,’ Pogg. Ann. t. cxix. p. 74. 


1885. N 


178 REPORT—1885. 


Von Lang holds that the experimental law connecting the rotation 


and the wave length is 
I! 


Rotation = & + DP A 
and this is given by the above expressions if 
e=m+r+ 
fy 
c= m + _ + 
@= rl +5 
0s F a 
N pene 5 of dv_ dw 
o reason is given for assuming the form 4 ie rather than 
3 3 
that selected by MacCullagh, 6? (a-a , which leads to the correct 
dz dy 


relation between the rotation and the wave length without any violent 
supposition as to the form of 6”, such as is made by Von Lang; and, 
though neither theory has any mechanical basis, this fact alone is suffi- 
cient to render MacCullagh’s the more probable, while experiments on 
the size of the rings produced when convergent polarised light is trans- 
mitted through a plate of quartz cut at right angles to the axis agree 
rather better with MacCullagh’s form than with Von Lang’s. 

§ 13. Another theory of double refraction was developed by Lord 
Rayleigh! in 1871. It had been suggested originally by Rankine,? and 
Stokes in his British Association Report referred to it, and showed that in 
its original form it was untenable, The theory is also given by Boussinesq 
in a paper in ‘ Liouville’s Journal,’ 3 which will be considered in full under 
the next section. 

Lord Rayleigh points out the inconsistency already referred to be- 
tween the theories of double refraction and reflexion given by both Green 
and Cauchy, while, as we shall see when considering the polarisation 
phenomena accompanying the reflexion, diffraction, and scattering of 
light, he believes that Neumann and MacCullagh, though consistent, 
were wrong throughout. He then remarks that the analogy of a solid 
moving ina fluid would suggest that the first effect of the matter mole- 
cules in a transparent body would be to alter the apparent density of the 
solid, and that conceivably this alteration might depend on the direction 
of vibration. He supposes that the statical properties of the ether are 
not altered by the presence of the matter, and the equations of motion 


may be written 
d*u __ ap RoR ty 7 


cde de 
p dy _ dp + By% + (17) 
, Ydt? dy | 
d2w 


dp 
Se a pe ke Byv2 
7 ae Sema 


where p is written for Ac, 6 being the dilatation. 


1 Hon. J. W. Strutt, ‘On Double Refraction,’ Phil. Mag. June 1871. 
? Rankine, Phil. Mag. June, 1851. $ See p. 215. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 179 


Lord Rayleigh further assumes the medium to be absolutely incom- 
pressible, so that ¢ is zero and A is infinitely large, p remaining finite ; 
this, of course, leads to the fourth equation— 


du , dv , dw _ 
ae ae Ont ; ‘ ; (18) 
And from these equations the equation to the surface of wave slowness is 
shown to be i : : 
l m n 
yz + 72 ; + 7 = 0 : : (19) 


a? b2 c 


This, however, is not Fresnel’s surface, and experiments of a very 
high! degree of accuracy have shown that the wave surface in a 
erystal is very approximately indeed Fresnel’s surface, and of course 
this is fatal. But, as we shall see in the next section, according to all the 
theories yet proposed based on the mutual reaction between matter and 
ether, the first and most important effect of the matter is to alter the 
apparent density of the ether in the way here supposed. The mutual 

d*u 


reaction, it can be shown, will introduce terms of the form hae into the 
C 


equations, and & may conceivably depend on the direction. 

§ 14. Equations of motion practically the same as Lord Rayleigh’s 
are given by Boussinesq, Lommel, Ketteler, and Voigt, and the question 
arises, Are these equations incompatible with Fresnel’s wave surface ? 
Lord Rayleigh has, of course, proved that they are if the equation 


du dw dw —0 


expresses an absolutely necessary condition ; but it is not difficult to show 
that if, instead of the above equation, we put 


Didi Naw. oh dat 9 
adx  b? dy Pr le é : ; Spi: 
then the wave surface will be Fresnel’s, the direction of vibration will be 
normal to the ray, and will be in the plane containing the ray, the wave 
normal, and an axis of the section of the ellipsoid a?2? + b2y? + c2z2 = 1 
by the wave front, and while the velocity of propagation will be inversely 
proportional to the length of this axis. 
Assuming equations of the same form as Lord Rayleigh’s (17), we have 
to determine the pressural wave given by p= poei'@*™+™-V9 the equation 


2 2 2 
—p) = BM, | N (5 = + pm (=-1) nee (3-1) \, 


~where UW = AOget(lz+ my +nz-V), etc,, 


and this, on Lord Rayleigh’s assumption of JA + mu + nv = 0, reduces to 
AL | yum , wm 
Po = tB6,V? { aa se Te + oth . . . (21) 


’ See Stokes, Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. xx. p. 443; Abria, Anv. de Chi mie; Glazebrook, 
Phil. Trans. Pt. I. 1879; Kohlrausch, Wied. Ann. t. vi. p. 86; t. vii. p. 427. 
N 2 


180 REPORT—1885. 


while, on the hypothesis suggested above, we should find 
Po= — Bay {Al + pm+yn}. ; - (22) 


The theory as here modified would, it appears to me, agree in its results 
with all the experimental facts ; the main difficulty lies in the assumption 
of equations of the form i oe 
d a2 dt Bdz 


strictly incompressible. The value of p is generally A(z a 
x 


+ 7 2u for the medium when it is not 


dv , dw 
dy da ): 
and the introduction of p is based on the supposition that et ad + ne 

dx dy dz 
is zero, and A infinite; it is questionable if the substitution ought to be 
made, except in this case. 

§ 15. Kirchhoff’s paper on double refraction’ was read before the 
Royal Academy of Berlin, and is contained in their ‘ Transactions ;’ its 
more important part deals with the problem of reflexion and refraction. 
So far as the double refraction is concerned, it does not differ in any 
important points from Neumann’s theory. The medium is supposed to be 


incompressible, so that id ae -} ae vanishes, but the coefficient of this 
de dy dz 


expression is treated as finite, and the terms involving it in the ex- 
pression for the energy are omitted. The criticisms on Neumann’s theory, 
contained in Professor Stokes’s report, apply again here. 


Chapter IJ.—Disprrrsion or Licur. 


In 1870 Ketteler? published a paper on dispersion, which forms the 
first of his important series on that subject. He commences with an 
account of Cauchy’s theory and the various modifications which have 
been proposed. 

§ 1. Redtenbacker * had considered the problem under the supposition 
that each matter molecule is surrounded by an ether shell, and obtained 
the formula 


aR ML eh hcl ee 


\ being the wave length in the medium, and p» the refractive index. 
§ 2. Christoffel,* discussing Cauchy’s formula, already mentioned,® viz. 


had shown that, while a and & may be considerable in value, the 
other constants decrease rapidly. This two-constant formula may be 
written— 


2 pie eee |" "a 
DY Acer Neva 


1 Kirchhoff, Abhandl. der Konigl. Akad. zw Berlin, 1876. 

2 Ketteler, ‘On the Influence of Ponderable Molecules on the Dispersion of Light, 
and the Signification of the Constants of the Dispersion Formule,’ Pogg. Ann. 
t. cx). pile 

3 Redtenbacker, Dynamiden-System, Mannheim, 1857. 

4 Christoffel, Pogg. Ann. t. cxvii. 5 See p. 165. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 181 


Thus pp and dy are the refractive index and wave length for the shortest 
waves transmitted, and po/® the refractive index for the largest possible 
waves. 

§ 3. The various theories are then compared with experiment, by 
Ketteler, and it is shown that the formula 


1 B,C 
dead heioidh aati it . : ; » (25) 


represents the results of the comparison most accurately. This formula 
was obtained by Briot, working on the same lines as Redtenbacker, but he 
supposes the coefficient K, which he shows depends on the direct action 
between matter and ether, to vanish. Van der Willigen! also called 
attention to the importance of the term in A”, but could not account for 
its existence. Ketteler, following Briot, then analyses the manner in 
which these various terms arise, and shows that the force on any 
vibrating ether particle may be written 


An? Di F 
ae isplacement of particle 


2 
x {(g+WQ-L) - Sp M4 oth yh. 
This, of course, gives 


alsa by. CH eepeyais (4 tu wigan) 40, Hee MS 


The term in g + / arises from the mutual reactions of the ether particles, 
supposed to be uniformly distributed. If the action of the matter be 
simply to produce a periodic variation in the density of the ether, the 
terms in L and M are introduced, while the term involving g, + /, 
comes from a direct force expressed by mm,rf\(r) between the ether 
and matter particles m and m, respectively. If we put rf\(r) = p/r’, 
then the value of g; + h, is —4(m— 2)3myp/r"*". 

Briot supposes that the term KA?, to which this gives rise, is not 
required by the experimental results, and therefore puts n=2. Ketteler, 
however, shows that this term must be included. 

Holtzmann and C, Neumann had already insisted on the importance 
of retaining in the equations terms to express this direct action, and 
Neumann gives as the expression in an isotropic medium for the force 
arising from a displacement 1, 


Cea dz NC dat 


But the theory of dispersion in its complete form requires that the 
motion of the matter particles should also be included. ‘This is treated 
of in the next section of the Report.? 

A problem closely connected with dispersion is the relation between 
the refractive index and the density of a medium. This has been dealt 
with experimentally by various physicists, notably by Gladstone and Dale 
in England, and Ketteler in Germany. 

§ 4. L. Lorenz? has recently developed the theory of the transmission 


» Vander Willigen, Archives du Musée Teyler. 2 See p. 213, etc. 


8 L. Lorenz, ‘On the Refraction Constant,’ Wied. Ann. t. xi. 


182 REPORT—1885. 


of light through a medium consisting of a series of small spheres im- 
bedded in the ether. The velocity of light in the interspaces is the same 
as in free space, and the wave length is supposed to be great compared 
with the intermolecular distances. It is assumed, then, that the disturb- 
ance u at any point may be written u = (vp+u.)C+u,S, where the 
average values of u, and w, over the space containing some considerable 
number of molecules are zero, and C and S are written for the sine and 
cosine of kt—lz—my—nz—6. From this it follows that,if » be the refrac- 


tive index and d the density, 9 


The paper is followed by one by Lorenz and K. Prytz, giving the 
results of an elaborate series of observations which show a close agree- 
ment between this expression and experiment. 


is proportional to d.* 


Chapter IIJ.—ABeRRATION AND PHENOMENA CONNECTED WITH THE Motion 
or THE Mrpium THROUGH WHICH LiGHT IS BEING PROPAGATED. 


§ 1. The aberration of light on the undulatory theory was accounted 
for by Fresnel! on the supposition that a moving body of refractive 
index p carries with it a quantity of ether of density »?—1, the density in 
a vacuum being unity, while light is propagated through this ether, part 
of which is at rest and part moving with a velocity v (that of the body), 
as if the whole were moving with the velocity (l—p~*)v. 

The experiments of Fizean? on the displacement of the fringes of 
interference by a moving medium led to a result in close accordance with 
this theory, 

§ 2. A more general and simpler proof than the one published by 
Fresnel of the fact that this leads to the ordinary laws of reflexion and 
refraction was given by Professor Stokes in 1846.3 

In this paper Professor Stokes points out that the same result as to 
the velocity of light in the medium will be arrived at if we suppose the 
ether on entering the medium to be condensed, and on leaving it to be 
rarified, while the whole ether in the body travels with the velocity given 
above ; for, if we take two planes, one outside the other inside themedium, 
each moving with the velocity v normal to itself, the quantity of ether 
which crosses the two planes per unit time will be the same, and hence, 
if V be the velocity of the ether in the medium, then we have, since the 
densities are 1 and p? respectively, 


= we (v—V), 


and hence _ pel 
a. 


Moreover, this comes to the same thing as supposing the medium to be at 
rest, while the ether outside moves with a velocity v, and that inside 
with a velocity v/p?. The direction of a ray is shown to be that in which 
the same portion of a wave moves, moving relatively to the medium, and is 
found by drawing from a given point a line of length V/» in a direction 


* Compare this with a similar paper by H. A. Lorenz, p. 255. 

1 Fresnel, Annales de Chimie, t. ix. p. 57. 

2 Fizeau, Annales de Chimie (3), t. lvii. p. 385. 

8 Stokes, ‘On Fresnel’s Theory of the Aberration of Light,’ Phil, Mag. vol. xxviii. 
p. 76; Mathematical Papers, vol. i. p. 141. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 183 


normal to the wave, and from the extremity of this line a second of length 
v/p? in the direction of motion of the ether; the ray is the line joining 
the first. point to the extremity of this second line. The velocity of the 
ether is resolved into its components perpendicular and parallel to the 
reflecting surface, and the effect of each component is considered ; it 
is shown that rays are reflected and refracted according to the ordinary 
law of sines. 

§ 3. But in a paper six months previously Professor Stokes! had 
considered the problem in a much more general manner. He supposes 
that the earth and planets carry with them a portion of the ether sur- 
rounding them, so that close to their surfaces the ether is relatively at 
rest, while the velocity alters as we recede from the surfaces until, at no 
great distance, it is at rest in space. 

The direction in which a body is seen is normal to the waves which 
have reached the observer from the body, and the change in this apparent 
direction which arises from the motion of the ether is investigated. 

The axis of z is taken in the direction of the normal to the undisturbed 
wave, and a, 3, y are the angles which the normal to the actual wave 
makes with the axes ; u, v, w are the velocities of the ether at a point 
2, y, zat time t; V the velocity of light. The equation to the wave is 


z=C+Vi+, 


¢ being a small function of w, y and t. 

Then, by considering the displacement of the extremity of an element 
Vét, drawn normal to the wave, it is shown that at time ¢+ d¢ the equa- 
tion is j 


2=C+Vi+04+(w4+V) di, 


and hence we see that 


Ob wshiss 
dt 
From this we find— 
T 1 (dw T 1fdw 
=_ ok aes a Bs | (ase 
2 = wae" seal 2 mi vlan? 


If now 
dw __ du dw _ dv 


de dz dy dz 
so that udw + vdy + wdz is a complete differential, then 


_ Ug— Uy a) = ig, — Vv) 
er ee 3, — By == 


and these equations, it is easily seen, imply the known law of aberration. 
In an additional note it is shown that if a,, 3, be the inclinations of 
a ray at any time to the axes, then 


= ds. di. dt 
“1 =\ dz da NS 
lv dw 
dG, = ( aw way 
: da dy ) 


' Stokes, ‘On the Aberration of Light,’ Phil. Mag. vol. xxvii. p. 9 (July, 1845): 
Mathematical Papers, vol. i. p. 134. g p. 9 (July, ); 


184 REPORT— 1885. 


So that, if wdz + vdy+wdz be a complete differential, da; and dj, both 
vanish, and the path of the ray is a straight line. 

Thus, if the motion of the ether produced by the passage of the trans- 
parent medium through it have a velocity potential, all the phenomena 
of aberration will be such as are actually observed. The important ques- 
tion as to whether such a motion is probable in the ether is discussed in 
another paper.! 

§ 4, Professor Stokes’s views on the constitution of the ether are given 
in his well-known paper on fluid friction.?, He distinguishes there between 
the properties of rigidity and plasticity, pointing out that an elastic solid 
may under different external conditions become a viscous fluid, while 
the gradation between viscous and perfect fluids is quite regular. There 
seems, then, a probability that the property of rigidity will run to some 
extent through the whole series, becoming, in the case of fluids, masked 
by some other more important property. The mobility of a fluid is the 
limiting case of great plasticity ; but even a perfect fluid may admit of 
a finite, though extremely small, amount of constraint of the nature of 
shearing stress before being relieved from its state of strain by its mole- 
cules assuming new positions of equilibrium. A consideration of the 
length of a wave in light motion—abonut ‘00003 inches—renders it pro- 
bable that ‘ the relative displacement of the ether particles may be so small 
as not to reach, or even come near, the greatest relative displacement 
which could exist without the molecules of the medium assuming new 
positions of equilibrium.’ 

These same views also tend to confirm the belief that for fluids, and 
among them the ether, the ratio of A to B (the elastic constants of the 
medium in Green’s notation) will be extremely great. 

We are led, then, to conclude that, in considering the motion set up 
in the ether by a moving body such as the earth, we may treat the 
ether as an incompressible fluid, while, on the other hand, when 
dealing with the extremely small disturbance produced by the passage of 
a light-wave the rigidity of the ether may come into consideration, and 
the equations required will be those of an elastic solid. In the first case 
any tangential forces which may arise, if the fluidity be not perfect, will 
depend on the relative velocities of the parts of the fluid; in the second 
case such tangential forces will depend on the relative displacements of 
those parts. In the paper in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for 1846 
Professor Stokes shows that it is probable that a velocity potential will 
exist unless the action of the air on the ether be such as to prevent it, 
and, further, that it is improbable that the air will so act. 

For suppose a sphere started from rest in such a medinm, and then 
after a short interval stopped for a time, then started, and so on. 

The initial motion will have a velocity potential, and if the fluid 
were perfect this would continue, so that reducing the sphere to rest 
would stop the motion everywhere. But the motion with the velocity 
potential is shown to be unstable, and hence there is left in the neigh- 
bourhood of the sphere a small outstanding disturbance. This is carried 


1 Stokes, ‘On the Constitution of the Luminiferous Ether viewed with reference 
to the Phenomenon of the Aberration of Light,’ Phil. Mag. vol. xxix. p. 6; Math. and 
Phys. Papers, i. p. 153. 

2 Stokes, ‘On the Theories of the Internal Friction of Fluids in Motion, and the 
Equilibrium and Motion of Elastic Solids,’ Zrans. Camb. Phil. Soe. vol. viii. p. 287; 
Math. and Phys. Papers, i. p. 75. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 185 


off with the velocity of light, which is about 10,000 times as great as 
that of the earth, so that at the end of the second interval the ether near 
the sphere is at rest again and the same effect is repeated. It seems, 
therefore, probable that there will be a tendency to set up a motion in 
the ether not having a velocity potential, but that the beginnings of such 
motion will be propagated away into space at a very great rate, and that 
the actual motion will satisfy the condition that wde+vdy+wdz is an 
exact differential. 

In a subsequent paper Professor Stokes gives the solution of the - 
equations of motion of a sphere moving in a viscous fluid, and then 
proves that when the fluid becomes perfect the motion becomes unstable, 
so that udx+vdy+wdz is not a complete differential ; but if the tangential 
force depends, not on the relative velocities, but on the relative displace- 
ments of the molecules—that is, if for the beginnings of the variation from 
irrotational motion we must consider the rigidity of the ether (i.e, in 
our mathematics use the equations of an elastic solid)—then, as shown 
already, this nascent variation from irrotational motion will be propagated 
away by transverse vibrations, which, however, do not produce optical 
effects, either because they are too feeble or because they are discon- 
tinuous, or, if continuous, because their period falls outside that of the 
visible spectrum. , 

Or, to put it slightly differently, if the fluid has any very slight 
rigidity, a given arrangement of its parts is not necessarily one of equi- 
librium. Suppose, then, the fluid displaced from rest by the sudden 
motion of the solid, and that after a short interval the solid is stopped, 
the velocity of the fluid will be reduced everywhere to zero, but the 
resulting configuration will not necessarily be one of equilibrium, and the 
motion arising from this slight strain will be set up. 

Thus, without making Fresnel’s somewhat violent assumptions as 
to the relation between the ether within and without a transparent body, 
a perfectly reasonable and consistent account can be given of aberration 
depending only on the irrotational character of the motion induced by the 
moving body in the surrounding fluid. Unfortunately, as Professor Stokes 
points out, we have as yet no experiments competent to decide between 
the two, and he does not see how such experiments could be devised. 

§ 5. Ketteler is the author of a long series of papers connected with 
the subject of aberration, which have appeared in Poggendorff’s ‘ Annalen.’ 
The last of these! contains a summary of the results of the whole. 
The problem of reflexion and refraction at a moving surface is con- 
sidered, and it is shown that the intensities of the reflected and refracted 
rays will not be modified by the motion if the vibrations be at right 
angles to the plane of polarisation, as Fresnel supposed. 

§ 6. The papers also deal with the problem of the emission of light 
from a moving source, and the principle first enunciated by Doppler,? in 
consequence of which it follows that if the source and receptacle approach 
each other in time ¢ by a space equal to n times the wave length in the 
medium between the two, then the receptacle receives in that time n 
more vibrations than it would if the two were relatively at rest ; and if 
this nomber be N, the apparent frequency is increased in the ratio N+” 


1 Ketteler,‘ Ueber den Einfluss der astronomischen Bewegungen auf die optisch n 
Erscheinungen,’ Pt. VI., Pogg. Ann. t. cxlvii. 
? Doppler, Das farbige Licht der Doppel-Sterne. 1842. 


186 REPORT—1885. 


to N, or if V be the velocity of light, v that of the source towards the 
receptacle, in the ratio V+v to V. 

This principle has been considered by other writers, among them 
Petzval, Von Ettingshausen, Klinkerfuess,| Van der Willigen,? and 
Seccbi,? and an interesting discussion of their work has been lately 
given by H. H. Turner, in a dissertation for a fellowship at Trinity 
College, Cambridge. 


Chapter IV.—Reriexion anp RErrRActIon. 


§ 1. The various theories of reflexion and refraction advanced by 
Fresnel, Green, MacCullagh, Neumann, and Cauchy have been discussed 
by several writers, and attempts have been made to reconcile them with 
the experiments of Jamin, Quincke, and others. Jamin was the first to: 
show that by reflexion at most transparent media plane polarised light 
becomes elliptically polarised, and that this elliptic polarisation is most 
marked when the angle of incidence does not differ much from tan —!y. 
Moreover, forsome substances for which the refractive index is greater 
than 1:4 the phase of the component in the plane of incidence is re- 
tarded relatively to that at right angles to the plane, while if the index be 
less than 1°4 the reverse is the case. 

The original theories of Fresnel and MacCullagh do not in any way 
explain this phenomenon, and are therefore incomplete. 

§ 2. Cornu‘ has discussed the application of Fresnel’s theory 
to crystals, and has suggested a means of explaining the apparent 
discontinuity of the displacement normal to the surface to which that 
theory leads. The explanation—which Professor Stokes has been in 
the habit of giving, independently of Cornu, in his lectures at Cambridge— 
rests on the fact that the density of the ether is different in the two media. 
If, then, we take two planes in the two media parallel to the interface 
and at a small distance apart, the quantity of ether between the two 
planes remains the same; hence, if u, w’ be the displacements normal to the 
planes, and p, p’ the densities, the equation of continuity gives pu=p'w', 
and this is the condition assumed by Cornu in his papers. This con- 
dition, combined with those of the continuity of the displacement parallel 
to the surface, is consistent with the equation expressing the conservation 
of energy. 

The correctness of this condition depends on the view we take of the 
ether in the two contiguous media. If the two portions of ether be 
treated as two separate elastic solids in contact over a common surface, 
then over that surface the displacement must be the same in the two 
media; but the equality of the displacement normal to the surface cannot 
extend beyond a very small distance within the medium, and in the dis- 
placement is included that which comes from the pressural wave, as well 
as that which produces light. During the motion, of course, the bounding 
surface of the two media does not remain plane, but is a curved surface, 
the co-ordinates of any point on which at time ¢ are u,v+y, w+ 4. 


1 Klinkerfuess, Astronomische Nachrichten, t. xv. p. 17, t. lxvi. p. 337. 

? Van der Willigen, Archives du Musée Teyler, t. iii. p. 306. 

3 Secchi, C. #. t. Ixxxii. p. 761, t. lxxxiii. p. 117. 

* Cornu, ‘ Recherches sur la réflexion crystalline,’ Ann. de Chim. (4), t. xi. 
p. 283. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 187 


The condition of no dilatation holds throughout both media, and the 
stresses over the surface are the same in the two. 

According to this view, a small portion of ether which belongs to one 
of the two media remains of unchanged density, and always forms part 
of the same medium. 

We may, however, consider the question somewhat differently, and look 
upon the ether in the two media as continuous, but of different densities 
on the two sides of the interface. A portion of ether belonging to the 
first medium may cross the interface and become part of the second, and 
in so doing its density is changed. There will thus be a thin sheet of 
ether lying over the interface in which rapid periodic changes of density 
are occurring. 

If, then, we consider the motion on the two sides of the sheet, we 
have for its determination the fact that the quantity of matter within the 
sheet is constant, and therefore that pu=p’u’, while the motion parallel to 
this sheet will ultimately be the same in the two media, and the energy 
in the reflected and refracted waves will be equal to that in the incident. 
But this condition pu=p'u’ does not hold within the sheet where the 
variations of density are taking place, and where the effects of the 
pressural wave are appreciable. The motions denoted by w and wu’ are 
light-motions, exclusive of those which give rise solely to the pressural 
wave. Moreover, it is supposed that this layer of variable density is so 
thin that the phase of the disturbance may be treated as the same over 
its two bounding surfaces. It is further assumed that the above are the 
only conditions which hold at the surface, and these can be satisfied 
without supposing any change of phase to arise from the reflexion, As a 
fact, there are other conditions involved in the equality of the stresses 
over the surface, and to satisfy these it is necessary to suppose that when 
the vibrations are in the plane of incidence the phases of the incident 
reflected and refracted waves differ even at the surface. 

To assume Fresnel’s conditions, as is done by Cornu, without change 
of phase is equivalent to supposing that this sheet of variable density is 
indefinitely thin when compared with the wave length of light. 

Green himself considered the effect of supposing the change in 
refractive index to take place in a gradual manner, replacing the refract- 
ing surface by a regular series of layers, of indices 41, Hy, etc., each of 
thickness 7 ; and proved that the effect of such a series would be to make 
the intensity of the reflected wave more nearly that given by Fresnel’s 
tangent formula. 

The effects of supposing the change of properties from one medium to 
the other to be gradual was discussed by L. Lorenz in the year 1860. 

§ 3. In his first paper! he supposes that Fresnel’s formule express 
the result of a sudden transition, and investigates how they must be 
modified if the transition be gradual. The variable sheet is divided into 
a series of layers, each of constant density. A ray reflected at one of the 
interior layers will on emergence be retarded relatively to the ray 
reflected at the surface. Let 6 be the retardation of the ray reflected at 
a layer on which the angle of incidence is z, and let a, [3 be the angles of 
incidence and emergence, then the disturbances in the reflected ray are 
shown to be :— 


* L. Lorenz, ‘ On the Reflexion of Light at the Bounding Surface of two Isotropic 
Media,’ Pogg. Ann. t. cxi. p. 460. 


188 ' REPORT—1885. 


(1) Light polarised in the plane of incidence— 


sin (« — 3) . 
aha a i : 4 
R=<A shies BED cos kt + tan A sin ae (28) 
where 
° B > 
tan A = el (cos? Ptanz — sin? cot z \ ede P (29) 


(2) Light polarised at right angles to the plane of incidence— 


Gz2GR ran OT ht Ae ] 
R’=—A ia cos kt + tan A’sin kt - (30) 
where 
te ctl __Sin 2a sin 2 T sin 2¢ sin 26 7] dé ois (31) 


sin? 2a — sin? 23),| sin26 sin 2a | dz 


Now = is always small, hence A is small; but for sin 2a = sin 2), 


or tan a = p, tan A’ is infinite. 

Jamin’s results as to positive and negative reflexion are shown to 
follow, and if it be assumed that the density is approximately proportional 
to »?—1, the thickness of the variable sheet can be estimated, and is found 
to lie between 4', and +3, of the wave length. 

In criticising this theory, Lord Rayleigh, in a paper we shall shortly 
consider, has pointed out that Fresnel’s tangent formula does not express 
the result of sudden transition, and that Green’s formula, which does, 
deviates from the truth on the other side. On the electro-magnetic 
theory, however, the tangent formula is strictly true, and Lorenz’s 
investigations regain their interest. 

Another objection which Lord Rayleigh has made to the supposition 
of gradual transition, however, may be a serious one. It is that there 
should be some indication of colour in the light reflected near the polaris- 
ing angle, since it is to all intents and purposes a case of interference 
produced by a thin plate. It may, however, happen that the thickness of 
the plate is comparable with that of the black spot in Newton’s rings, 
and so, though big enough to modify the quantity of light reflected, is too 
small to show colour. According to Newton, the thickness of the black 
spot in a soap film is about 4, of a wave length, while Reinold and 
Riicker have recently determined it as 5, and these fall within the 
limits required by Lorenz to explain the variations from Fresnel’s tangent 
formula. 

In another paper! the problem of reflexion at a surface across which 
the density varies gradually has been more fully considered by Lorenz, 
and the surface conditions on either side of the variable layer are deduced 
according to a strict elastic solid theory, and lead to similar conclusions. 

§ 4. Cauchy gave the results of his theory of reflexion and refraction 
without the calculations which were supplied by Briot ? in France, and 
Beer? and EHisenlohr ‘4 in Germany. 


L. Lorenz, Pogg. Ann. t. cxiv. p. 238. 

Briot, Liouville’s Journal, t. xi. p. 305; t. xii. p. 185. 
Beer, Pogg. Ann. t. xci. and xcii. 

Eisenlohr, Pogg. Ann. t. civ. p. 346. 


1 
2 
3 
4 


. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 189 


An account of the various theories is also given in papers by Lord 
Rayleigh,! with a careful criticism and comparison of them all. 

In the first part of this paper Lord Rayleigh discusses fully the 
difference between the theories of Green and MacCullagh, and develops 
completely the consequences of the latter, taking into account the full 
effect of the pressural wave. This had been done first by Lorenz in the 
paper already referred to, and he showed that the results to which 
MacCullagh’s theory leads are totally inconsistent with experiment. 

Lord Rayleigh points out that the fundamental assumptions of Green 
and Fresnel amount to assuming an identity between the statical pro- 
perties of the two media, while the dynamical properties depending on 
variation of density are different; while, moreover, as we have seen 
already, Cauchy’s surface conditions, founded on the principle of the 
continuity of the displacements and their differential coefficients with 
reference to the normal, though erroneous if we suppose the rigidity of 
the ether different in the two media, become identical with Green’s if 
we adopt his fundamental hypothesis. The real difference between Green 
and Cauchy lies in their respective treatments of the pressural waves. 

The true surface conditions lead to the following results :— 

Let &, 7, ¢ be the displacements, n the rigidity, m the second 
coefficient, such that m+n is the A of Green’s papers, and D the 
density, while g? = (m + »)/D, y? =n/D for the one medium. 

Let «= 0 be the bounding surface, and let the axis of z be parallel to 
the front of the waves. And suppose f, F, and /, to represent the incident 
reflected and refracted waves, while ¢ and ¢’ are the angles of incidence 
and refraction. 

Then, for vibrations normal to the plane of incidence— 


tan 9’ a’ 

tang 2 

Fi = pad aw nl : ; AS 2 (32) 
tan @ n 


and this becomes :— 
Case I. n= 7’ (Green, Fresnel, Cauchy)— 


FY __ sin (¢’ — 
CET ra aoa Re 
Case II. D =D! (MacCullagh, Neumann)— 
x _, tan (9 — 9) 
ff tan (9 + 9) 
Now, Jamin, Quincke, and others have shown that this latter formula 


is not strictly true, and hence at this point the evidence is already in 
favour of Fresnel’s hypothesis. 


Turning now to the case of the vibrations in the plane of incidence, put: 


(34) 


d®, d¥ 
ee 
_de_ay 
2 dy dx 


1 J. W. Strutt, ‘On the Reflexion of Light from Transparent Matter,’ Phil. Mag. 


August, 1871; ‘On the Reflexion and Refraction of Light by Intensely O ue: 
Matter,’ Phil. May. May, 1872. See as 


190 REPORT—1885. 


Then ¥ refers to the light wave and ® to the pressural wave; let ’ 
refer to the incident wave, ¥” to the reflected, ¥, to the refracted, so that 
yy — Wr! euiar + by + ct) + wp! ei(-ax +by + vg 
etc. Then the surface conditions become in general, if we put 
w+" =X, y — w= Y, 
i(® + ®,) SS — OX 
® {m(a'? + b?) — 2nb?} + 2nabY 


(35) 


=©, {m'(a,’? + b?) — 2n'b*} + 2n'a,b¥, . . (36) 
n{b¥,— aX + ib(aY — a,¥,)} 
= n' {(b?X — a,?¥, + ib(aY — a,¥,)} ; » G4) 


MacCullagh, in his original work, neglects the pressural waves en- 
tirely, and puts 6 = ©, = 0, deriving his result (Fresnel’s sine formula) 
from equation (35), These results are inconsistent with (36) and (37), 
and therefore wrong. To obtain the correct solution we must remember 
that m is infinitely great, while a’? + b? is vanishingly small, and m(a’? + b?) 
=Dc?. This is what has been done by Green, and applied by Lorenz 
and Lord Rayleigh to MacCullagh’s theory. 

[Cauchy puts a’? + b> = —k?. We shall consider the consequences 


of this shortly. | 


Hence (36) becomes 
Do — D/6, = Pen = nl) {™ ————e . (38) 


Cast I, n= ~’ (Green). 


Then i 
, _ p tan (¢ — ¢') (1 + M’ tan? (¢ + ¢’)}? 
B= B= eaters! ee 


R’ and R being the amplitudes of the reflected and refracted waves, and 


= ; ; 
M equal to “ ry : while the difference of phase between the incident 


? 


and refracted waves is e where 


cot e = 2 cot (¢—¢') . ; : . (40) 
while between the reflected and refracted waves it is e’, where 
cot e = s cot (¢ +’) . § : oe (aly 


Casr II. D =D’ (MacCullagh’s corrected theory). 

The equations are very complicated and lead, when the difference in 
the rigidities is very small, to two polarising angles of 224° and 674° 
respectively, results which are thus utterly at variance with experiments. 

Cauchy’s theory leads to results the same in form as Green’s, if we 
substitute — ¢ sin @ for M, « being a certain small constant. 

The solution is contained in the above equations if we talve 


a? += — PB, a? +0 = — b,?, 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 191 


and put 


—(--—)=- : : : . (42 
A\k ky ; me 
In Eisenlohr’s account of Cauchy’s work it is assumed at first that 
the normal waves travel with the same velocity as the transverse, and 
then the solution is modified by putting for X,,, \’, the wave lengths of the 
normal waves, the values —1,,/ —1 and — 1./ —1. This modifies 
$,, and 9”, the angles of refraction and reflexion of the normal waves, so 
that their sines become imaginary, while cos @,, is real and negative, 
cos ¢” real and positive. l 
A difference of phase is thus produced, determined by the following 
equations :— 
tan e =p tan (¢ — ¢’), 
tan e’= p tan (¢ + ¢’), 


where 
m'’ — m,, 


[P m''m,, — 1’ 
= a8 

Poet J( + rary)? 
x2 

MW — 1 eS eee I 

m™ / ( + yr ain = 


Jamin’s results show that p is very small; hence we may write 


Pp 
and 


r r 
pale i qty, 


where w is small, and then 
2u sin ¢ 
t/ (# + sin? ¢) 


Cauchy puts p = « sin ¢, when ¢ is a small constant. Hence we must 
suppose that ¢ is great compared with ¢. 

Lorenz and Lord Rayleigh have both pointed out the serious objec- 
tion to be made to the theory in this form. The equation to determine © is 
ao eo mz ao and the medium will be essentiall unstable 
dz? dy? G diz’ ~ ; 
Moreover, if i be a constant, ¢ varies inversely as A, and chromatic effects 
near the polarising angle should be much more marked than they are. 

T have, however, given an account of Eisenlohr’s paper mainly because 
of another suggestion he makes, which renders it very nearly identical 
with Green’s. He suggests that the normal or pressural waves may 
yanish ‘by a sort of total reflexion, their velocity being very great com- 
pared with that of the transverse waves.’ So that we have \,, and d// 
very large instead of imaginary, and from this he finds 


( (43) 


Ser Secrane DHidd Vilonla dulttw-e'sneut) OAR 
4/ 


This vanishing by a sort of total reflexion is exactly Green’s theory, for 


192 REPORT—1885. 


if x’ be the angle of refraction for a normal wave produced by a trans- 
verse wave incident at an angle ¢, then, with the notation of Lord Ray- 
leigh’s paper, sin? y= sin? @, and hence x is imaginary unless is 
less than sin“'(n/m). That is to say, if m be infinitely large, the effects 
of the pressural wave are entirely confined to the surface, and, indeed, 
for this total reflexion, if we may so call it, of the pressural wave to 
take place, it is practically not necessary for the ratio of n to m to be 
zero. If, for example, n/m=1/100, there will be total reflexion if ¢ is 
greater than 0° 35’, and for so small an angle of incidence as this the 
component of the vibration normal to the surface on which the pressural 
wave depends would be too small to produce a measurable effect on the 
transmitted light. 

If we put A,,/N’ = py, then py is the refractive index of the medium 
for the normal vibrations, and we have for p 


ee 
0 


Now, it was shown, first by Haughton,! and then by Kurz, that the 
expressions (39-41) agree with experiment very closely if M or p be 
treated as a constant to be determined by experiment, and if we suppose 
p to have the form just given, then for sulphuret of arsenic, for which 
p= 2-454, according to Jamin, y= 1083. Green, going further into the 
mechanism of the motion, has shown, however, that on a strict elastic 
solid theory we must have \,,/X’’=A/N and po=p. The last conclusion 
Hisenlohr calls ‘ durchaus unhaltbar,’ and in this he is right if he means 
that it does not agree with experiment, but wrong if he means that there 
is a flaw in Green’s theory. The suggestion that » and jy may be 
different is due to Haughton,” but the reasons he has assigned for it have 
been shown by Hisenlohr to be invalid. Lord Rayleigh has suggested 
others which have great weight, and the importance of which will be 
more clearly seen when we come to consider some recent theories based 
on the mutual reaction between matter and the ether. The large quan- 
tities m and m’ are, in Lord Rayleigh’s paper, eliminated from the equa- 
tions by means of the relations 


m(a’? + 6?) =De?, 
m! (a,'? + 6?) = D’e?, 


D and D’ being the densities of the ether in the two media. 

Now, in the pressural wave we are only concerned with a layer of 
ether close to the bounding surface, and Lord Rayleigh’s suggestion is 
that, although the transverse vibrations are affected nearly in the same 
way as if the transition were instantaneous, it may not be so for the 
surface waves, and that therefore we may put D/D’ = p,? where po is less 
than ». There are, I think, even stronger reasons for supposing jy and 
p to be different to be derived from the theory I have already referred 
to, which will be developed later. 

Thus the papers of Lord Rayleigh, Lorenz, and Hisenlohr show, con- 
clusively, that Neumann and MacCullagh’s theory is inadmissible, and 
that Green’s strict elastic solid theory, when slightly modified in a per- 


1 Haughton, Phil. Mag. (S. 4), vol. vi. p. 81; Kurz, Pogg. Ann. t. eviil. 
2 Haughton, Phil. Mag. (S. 4), vol. vi. p. 81; Hisenlohr, Pogg. Ann. t. civ p. 346. 


ON OPPICAL THEORIES. 193 


fectly reasonable way, leads to results agreeing very closely with experi- 
ment, while Cauchy’s method of treating the pressural wave requires 
an unstable condition in the ether. 

Inanother paper Lord Rayleigh! considers the problem of reflexion at 
the confines of a medium of variable density. The incidence is supposed 
to be normal, and in, the particular problem solved completely, the density 
is supposed to vary as the inverse square of the distance from a fixed plane 
parallel to the surface. This variable medium extends between the two 
planes x= 2,, =, and the density is constant on the other sides of 
these planes, and it is shown that if the thickness of the variable layer is 
not very different from the difference in the wave lengths in the two, then, 
for the case in which the two media are air and glass, the reflexion will 
be excessively small. 

§ 5. The paper by Kirchhoff? in which the problem of reflexion and 
refraction is considered has been already referred to. The theory there 
given is, in its results, nearly the same as those of Neumann and 
MacCullagh. 

The ether is not treated strictly as incompressible, though it is 
supposed that only transverse waves are propagated, and therefore that 
the equation 

du , dv , dw_ 0 

dx dy dz 
is satisfied without the coefficient A becoming very large. These trans- 
verse waves falling on the interface of the two media would tend to set 
up longitudinal vibrations. Some surface action, however, is supposed to 
go on over the interface, the result of which is to quench these vibrations 
and the condition that this surface action should involve neither loss nor 
gain if energy is formed. This, with the three equations implied in the 
continuity of the displacement, makes four conditions from which the 
intensities and planes of polarisation of the reflected and refracted waves 
can be found. 

The theory differs from MacCullagh’s merely in recognising the 
possibility of the existence of the normal waves, and then accounting for 
their absence by means of some unknown surface action. It is not astrict 
elastic solid theory, nor does it attempt to explain of what nature the 
surface forces are which quench the normal waves. The formule to 
which it leads are identical with MacCullagh’s,? and do not offer an 
explanation of the change of phase observed by Jamin. It can hardly 
be looked upon, therefore, as a satisfactory explanation of the phenomena, 
nor can we regard Kirchhoff’s principle, as the fundamental hypothesis 
is called by various German‘ writers, as one which may replace the true 
surface conditions of an elastic solid. 


Chapter V.—Meratuic ReErexion. 


§ 1. Various experimenters—and among them Brewster, MacCullagh, 
Briot, Airy, Neumann, De Senarmont, Jamin, Quincke, Wernicke, and 
Conroy—have investigated the optical effects produced by metallic re- 


} Lord Rayleigh, Proceedings of London Math. Soc. vol. xi. No. 159. 
? Kirchhoff, Abh. der Konigl. Akad. xu Berlin, 1876 


% See Glazebrook, ‘On the Reflexion and Refraction of Light,’ Proc. Camb. Pril. 
Soc. vol. iii. p..329. 


* See Ketteler, Voigt, etc, 
1885. () 


194 REPORT—1885. 


flexions. They have shown tkat, in general, plane polarised light becomes 
elliptically polarised by such reflexion, and have measured the difference 
in phase between the components polarised in and perpendicular to the 
plane of incidence and the ratio of the intensities of these two vibrations. 
MacCullagh! was the first to attempt to express the laws of this 
elliptic polarisation mathematically. He supposes that in the case in 
question the angle of refraction becomes imaginary, so that we have 


sin ¢/= St (cos xX +7 sin x), 
7 

cos p= 2 (cos x’ +7sin x): 
Vt 


He then substitutes these expressions in the values given by Fresnel’s 
theory for the amplitude of the reflected ray, which he shews may be 
written in the form a+b,/—1. 

Thus the intensity of this ray will be represented by a?+b?, and the 
difference of phase between the incident and reflected rays will depend on 
tan~'b/a; a and b are functions of m, m’, x, and x’, and these quantities 
are connected by the equation sin?¢’+cos*¢’=1, which leads to two con- 
ditions, giving m’ and x’ in terms of m and x. 

The final formule are :— 

(1) Light polarised in the plane of incidence. 


__ D? + cos? ¢ — 2D cos ¢ cos (x— x’) 


_— 
D? + cos? @ + 2D cos 9 cos (x— x’) ae 
6 2D cos¢sin (x-—x’) 
(2) Light polarised perpendicular to the plane of incidence. 
= m4 cos? ¢ + D? — 2Dm? cos ¢ cos (x + x’) (48) 
~~ mi! cos? @ + D? + 2Dm? cos 9 cos (x + x’) 
& __ 2Dm? cos ¢ sin (x +x’) 

tan Qn = ee a (49) 

Where Dt = m4 + sin*t ¢ —2m? sin? ¢ cos ey 54 
and D? sin 2 (x— ’) = m? sin 2x ets 


These formule are simplified in the case of metals from the considera- 
tion of the fact that the proportion of light reflected at normal incidence 
is nearly unity. It follows from this that m is very large and y’ very 
small, so that we may put siny’ =0, cosy/=1 in the equations, and 
hence m’ = cos ¢/cos ¢’, 

And for Case I.— 

oe m? + m'? — 2mm! cos x 
m? + m'* + 2mm’ cos x 


2 : : 51 

t 275__ 2mm’ sin x GY 

QM, esate oe 
a m2 —m? 


1 MacCullagh, Proc. Irish Acad. vol. i. pp. 2, 159; vol. ii. 375 ; Trans. Irish Acad. 
1 xxviii. Pt. I. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 195 


and Case II.— 
pt, BF m>m'* — 2mm’ cos x 
~ 1 + mm? + 2mm’ cos x 


‘Nae (52) 
an on” — _ 2mm sin x 
r mm’? — 1 
§ 2. Cauchy ' has also given equations founded on his principle of con- 
tinuity and the assumption of a peculiar form for the refracted ray which 
agree closely with those just established. His complete theory was never 
published by himself, and was first given by Hisenlohr. It has been 
further developed and criticised in some important points by Lord 
Rayleigh. LHisenlohr? takes for the displacement in a metal at a dis- 
tance r from a source of light the expression e *’ "where X! is @ com- 
plex quantity connected with A, the wave length in air, by the equation 


A=D Re. 


Hence, using 6 and 6’ to denote the angles of incidence and refraction, 


we have 
sin 0 = Re sin 0’ . : ; : (53) 


The surface conditions of the continuity of the displacement and of 
the stresses become, as we have seen, identical with Cauchy’s conditions 
of continuity of motion in the case in which the rigidity of the ether is 
the same in the two media, and the expressions for the intensity and 
change of phase for light polarised in the plane of incidence are most 
easily obtained by transforming Fresnel’s sine formula, which is strictly 
true. 

To effect the transformation put 


cos 2a sin? 6 
CAICUR 226 le a ee renee 


R?2 
ha ate (98) 
2 gin Qy = Sin 2a sin 7) 
c? sin ze 
Then the intensity in the reflected wave is 
Bo. P=tan(f—ir) . ‘ ; : (54) 
cot f = cos (% + a) sin 2tan—1 (): 
c 
while d, the change of phase, is given by 
tan d = sin (a + w) tan 2tan-! () agphtc6 aaa 


These values agree with those given by MacCullagh if we put 
R=m a=-—y, 


* Cauchy, C. RB. t. ii. p. 427; t. viii. pp. 553, 658; t. ix. p. 727; t. xxvi. p. 86. 
Liowvilte’s Journal, t. vii. p. 338. 
* Hisenlohr, Pogg. Ann. t. civ. p. 368. 
02 


196 REPORT—1885. 


and therefore csecO=m, u=y’ 
Fe tiler, \. et eBay 


For light polarised at right angles to the plane of incidence, Hisenlohr 
proceeds by transforming Fresnel’s tangent formula in a similar manner, 
and finds 

7/2 = tan (g —im) . ; ; : (57) 
where 
cot g = cos (a — uw) sin Man "( pw : : (58) 
and the change of phase is given by 


1 


(59) 


tan d! = sin (a — u) tan 2tan™ aaa 
Hence in the general case the ratio of the amplitudes of the two 
reflected components is tan 8 where 


cos 23 = cos (a + w) sin 2tan'( ; ; (60) 


and the difference of phase is given by 


te ee eae 4 «) tan. Stent SP (61) 
(ae cos @ ) ir 
These last equations depend on Fresnel’s tangent formula, and this 
we know is not strictly true for transparent bodies. It is hardly 
probable, therefore, that the final equations for the difference of phase 
and the ratio of the amplitudes can be accepted as representing accurately 
the phenomena, and, in fact, Cauchy’s theory as here developed is no great 
advance on MacCullagh’s original expressions, with which it agrees 
throughout. 
In this theory the expression for the disturbance in the metal 
et (p—7) R(cos a+esin a), 


is € or, as we may write it, 


2 oR ot A Wd 
Ae ee e (rR cos a — ct). 


Hence the velocity of wave propagation is c/R cos a, as against c in 
air, and R cosa may be called the refractive index of the metal, while 
R sin a measures the co-efficient of absorption. Now Jamin, Quincke, 
and others have measured the quantities d — d' and # of the formule 
above, and from these Hisenlohr, in the paper already quoted, has calculated 
the values of Rand a. He finds that for silvera = 83°. This result Lord 
Rayleigh has made the basis of a serious criticism on the whole theory. 

Lord Rayleigh ! endeavours to attach a physical meaning to the con- 
stants in these formule, and in so doing starts from equations taken to 
represent the motion in the medium. 

Thus, for light polarised in the plane of incidence he assumes 
ag Wiel woof e aere 
7p +h en ae unre E 

1 Hon. J. W. Strutt, ‘On the Reflexion and Refraction of Light by intensely 
Opaque Matter,’ Phil, Mag. May, 1872. 


D, (62) 


: 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 197 


with the solutions for the two media, 


Lo Le taxtbytel) 4. 2M" ¢ (—actby +e) 
C= Le larrry+} } (63) 
where 
a = = cos 6, b=" sin 6, o = RY, 


6 being the angle of incidence. If we put y? = n/D, y?; =”/D,, we get 
from the differential equations— 


Sea et tag 2 A 
raaiar peng hae == p?, say. ‘ ‘ (64) 


From this we get sin 6’= Tain 6, and hence p is the quantity which 


we have denoted by Re’. 


Ci 7 kh a 
Hence R2e ae € _ NG ‘ ; ; (65) 


Thus R? cos 2a is positive, and R? sin 2a is negative, so that 2a lies 
between 0 and — 47 and tan 2a =h/D,v. Again, in the expression for 
the refracted wave we have a, = pa when @ is zero, and hence we find 
that the real part of is positive, the imaginary part negative, so that 
finally a lies between 0 and —iz. This result is contradicted by Hisen- 
lohr’s value for silver, in accordance with which a = 83°, from which it 
follows that the real part of »? is negative, and this Lord Rayleigh says 
is tantamount to assuming the medium to be unstable. MHisenlohr ' has 
replied to this that the objection is really one to the form of equation 
assumed by Lord Rayleigh, and that according to other theories (ey. 
Helmholtz on anomalous dispersion ”) real negative values of py? are con- 
templated. With this reply we may ina sense agree. Lord Rayleigh’s 
objection is a valid one, however, against the supposition that the 
peculiar effects of metallic reflexion may be explained by the introduction 
q2n+ 1¢ 
df2r+1 
ether, and forms an insuperable argument against the attempt to account 
for the effects on a purely elastic solid theory. When, however, we come 
to consider the theories depending on the mutual reaction of the ether 
and matter, we shall see that under certain circumstances the relation 
between the periods of the ether and matter molecules may be such as to 
= a negative value to m?, and thus render possible Hisenlohr’s value 

or a. 

The general value for a, for any angle of incidence may be shown to 

be given by 


ai= == Re { cos (w+a)+e sin (w+ a) } r j (66) 


of terms such as in the differential equations of an elastic solid 


1 Hisenlobr, ‘ On the Reflexion of Light from Metals,’ Wied. Ann. t. i. 
2 See p. 220. 


198 REPORT—1885. 


ce and w being defined by the equations of page 195, so that the expres- 
sion for the refracted wave is 


2rr 
Lege ean = | Rea cos (w+a)+ysiné+ vel, 


where, it must be remembered, w is measured in the negative direction. 
Thus the coefficient of absorption is 


a Re sin (w+ a). 
According to the experiments of Jamin and Quincke, the refractive index 
Ros a for metal varies between } and }. 

§ 3. Wernicke,'! however, deduced, from some experiments of his own, 
values lying between 3 and 4. Wernicke’s experiments, however, were 
made by measuring the light transmitted at various angles of incidence 
by thin films of metal, and assuming that the light absorbed by a thick- 
ness d may be expressed by bk“*°®, while the refractive index p is given 
by sin @/sin 6’, Hisenlohr, in the paper already quoted, shows that the 
quantity calculated by Wernicke is really {R?+sin?4}', and that his 
experiments confirm Jamin’s and Quincke’s. 

In the second paper quoted Wernicke suggests, as the complete equa- 
tions of motion, the form 


ae ame dé ar di f 
de Dh _ — Sk 2¢ d » 
pte (AB) HBP BG Y's): Yai 
and other equations might be suggested which would give for the dis- 
turbance in the metal due to a point source expressions of the form 


Ae-® sin = (or — ot) : 


Chapter VI.—Dirrraction anp THE Scarrertne or Licut sy SMALL 
PARTICLES. 


§ 1. The principle first enunciated by Huygens, and applied so trium- 
phantly by Fresnel to the phenomena of diffraction, which consists in 
breaking up a wave front into elementary portions, calculating the effect 
of each in disturbing a distant point, and then finding the total dis- 
turbance at that point by simply summing the effects due to each ele- 
ment of the wave front, is a direct consequence of the fact that the 
disturbances and velocities are so small that their squares and higher 
powers may be neglected. The differential equations found for the 
motion are linear, and the complete solution is the simple sum of all the 
individual solutions. Again, it is fairly clear that the disturbance pro- 
duced at any point by an element of a wave front will vary as the area of 
the element and the reciprocal of the distance between it and the point 
answered; but it is not so clear how the effect is related to the angles 
which the line joining the element and the point make with the wave 
normal and the direction of vibration respectively. 

In Fresnel’s theory of diffraction the consideration of effects produced 


1 Wernicke, ‘On the Reflexion of Light from Metals,’ Pogg. Ann. t. clix. and clx. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 199 


by the variation of these angles is omitted, and that, too, with perfect 
justice, for he is only concerned with the effects in the neighbourhood of 
the normal to the primary wave, and the dimensions of the diffracting 
aperture are small compared with the distance between it and the point 
at which the effects are considered, so that the change in either of these 
angles over the whole area of the diffracting area is small. 

Again, it is clear that the effect will be a circular function of r—vt, r 
being the distance between the element and the point at which the dis- 
turbance is sought, and v the velocity of propagation; but the simple 
theory does not indicate the relation between the phase of this circular 
function and that of the function representing the disturbance in the 
original wave. 

§ 2. Both these questions received their complete and final answer in 
the year 1849 from Professor Stokes.' We will quote a few words from the 
introduction to his paper: ‘The object of the first part of the following 
paper is to determine on purely dynamical principles the law of disturb- 
ance in a secondary wave, and that not merely in the neighbourhood of 
the normal to the primary wave, but in all directions. The occurrence of 
the reciprocal of the radius in the coefficient, the acceleration of a 
quarter of an undulation in the phase, and the absolute value of the 
coefficient in the neighbourhood of the normal will thus appear as parti- 
cular results of the general problem.’ 

The equations assumed for the motion are those of an elastic solid in 
the form given by Green— 


dé dé 
= 52 af 2 2 
2 Vet (2 b = (68) 
ee an, 
te. Oye ce mae, ES 
etc., where 7 + ‘iy + 7 


In the preliminary analysis the important general theorem involved in 
the equations 
dV PR ern Py . 
——ds = ——-+— 4 __. |dxdydz = 4nM |. - [(69 
‘enh {NG i, tga) ote, a 


is proved. 
It is then shown that the solution may be written 


E == E, <5 Eo . . . . . (70) 
where dey _ dy 0, ete., | 
dy dx 
dé dn ag i) 
ag ges eae Taare 
dz * dy x dz 
and 
dé dng amas lt 
dy da 
(72) 
dey, day, ly 
da dy da 


‘ Stokes, ‘On the Dynamical Theory of Diffraction, Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc. 
vol. ix. p.1; Math. and Phys. Papers, vol. ii. p. 243. 


200 REPORT—1885. 


and that hence 
ein. Bip seee ue) 
Ss zl: cos (raydv+ ¢ (I Ge ww!')dv . (73) 


It is proved that é and wo’, w’’, w'”’ satisfy the equation 


leh 
(74) 
2 
= 6277? w 


and hence, by Poisson’s solution, 


t ara ‘ 
— {| F(at)do +  & {trea} peace) 
where f and F are the initial values of é and dé/dt respectively. 

If, then, the values of 6 and dé/dt, w and dw/dt be given initially 
everywhere, the last equation, with the similar one for w, enable us to find 
d and w at any moment throughout the space considered, and then the 
equation (73) give us &, n, and ¢. 

In solving the equations for 6, w, it is clear that if we first find the 
part of the solution due to the initial velocity, the part due to the initial 
displacement may be obtained by substituting in the solution for the 
initial velocity the initial displacement, and then differentiating with 
regard to the time; and this proposition is proved generally for a system 
in which the forces depend only on the configuration of the system, and 
which is executing small vibrations about an equilibrium position. 

The integrals are then modified by suitable transformations. 


For 2, we have £;= of where Wy = -z|||- dv. 
/ us 


Thus — 4rw is the potential of matter distributed throughout space 
with density 6, and finally it is shown that 


y= — Pall (up@ + Voy + woz) a (rat) : eG76) 


where wo, Vp, Wy are the initial values of the velocities at the point 2’, y’, 2’, 
at which dv is an element of volume, 7 the distance between 2’, y’, 2’ 
and @, y, z, the point at which W is to be found. From this ¢, can be found, 
and in a similar manner £,. The terms £,, 7, ¢, arise from a wave of 
dilatation which is in general set up by any arbitrary displacement, and 
which travels through the medium with velocity a. If the initial disturb- 
ance be such that 09 = dé, /dt = 0 everywhere, then this wave will not be 
formed. 

The terms £5, no, f arise from a wave of distortion which traverses 
the medium with velocity b. If a disturbance be produced at a point O, 
and last there for a time 7, then the motion at a point P, at a distance r 
from O, will not commence until after an interval t, where t=r/a, P will 
be disturbed by a wave of dilatation lasting for an interval 7; it will be 
disturbed by the wave of distortion after a time 7/b, and this disturbance 
will last for an interval r. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 201 


The general integral is then applied to two cases, which must be care- 
fully distinguished from each other. In the first case, suppose that a 
periodic force acting parallel to a fixed direction acts throughout a given 
element of volume in the medium. Let the plane of zz contain the fixed 
direction, and let the axis of « make an angle a with it. Let D be the 
density, and T the volume of the element, and let (DT)~—'/(#)dt be the 
velocity communicated to it in time d¢. 


Then 
) 


=. COs & -") cos a [2, er 
aa ia! a, e 2a Dr? Aer 


n=0 Lis ae ie 


r 


. i r sina f{¢ 
i= pope (! — 5) aap [eee dat | 


a 


Now, we have seen that in the ether the ratio a/b is probably very large, 
hence the first term in £, on which the normal vibrations depend, is pro- 
bably very small compared with the first term in. The molecules of 
‘am incandescent body may be looked upon, at least very approximately, 
as centres of disturbing forces, and the above equations show us how it 
is that from such centres transverse vibrations only are propagated. 

Tf the ether be absolutely incompressible, so that a /b is infinite, then 
longitudinal vibration would be impossible. 

Suppose, now, the first term in & omitted, and put f(t) =c sin 2rbt /A, 

Then for the most important term we have— 


csina . Qqr 
= —| bt — ; ; : 
iat? x (2 r) (78) 


‘ 


and the first term in £ is of the order X /xr compared with the leading 
term in. Hence, except at distances from the source which are com- 
parable with the wave length, the terms in £ may be neglected, and the 
motion is strictly transverse. 

This solution applies to the case of an element of volume vibrating in 
any given manner and emitting light into the surrounding space. Every- 
thing is symmetrical around the direction of vibration of the element of 
volume. It does not apply, as has been supposed by some writers, to 
the problem of diffraction ; for in this case we have a train of waves being 
ai through an aperture, and producing disturbance in the medium 

ond. 

_Let us suppose the aperture to be plane, and that plane waves are 
being propagated through it in the direction of its normal; take 
this for the axis of «, the plane of the aperture being « = 0, and the 
_ axis of z the direction of vibration. Let O, bea point in the aperture, 
: and consider the disturbance propagated in a small interval of time 7, 
across an element dS, at O,. This disturbance occupies a film of thick- 

ness br, and consists of a displacement f(bt’) and a velocity bf’(bt'). 
Thus, for a point O, at a distance r from O,, and at a time ¢, given by 
t=? + 1/b, the initial disturbance is the above displacement and velocity 
extending over a volume brdS about O; and if 1, m, n are the direction 


202 REPORT—1885. 


cosines of 0,0, measured from O,, then the values of £, n, depending on the 


initial velocity are— 
Inds 
| ee Z 7 ame 
i Aer? (v ’) 


f= — EE 7 (tr) 0S ee 
fee (2t-r) 


while the values depending on the initial displacement are— 


Ps ef (st-r) 
wr 


nv — _ lnnds », dye 

nf! = — OS ft (bt r) Jot vig, agen 
un — Ul—n?)ds of4,_ 

(er) 


From this it follows that the vibration at O, arising from that at O,, 
lies in the plane through O,O and the axis of z, and is perpendicular to 
the radius 0,0; and if ¢ be the angle between the axis of z and the line 
0,0, 6 that between 0,0 and the wave normal, the value of this dis- 
placement is — 


ry a gre Bie 
7 € + cos 0) sin of ( r) ; or GOL) 
Hence if (bt) = sin as bt, 
cdS . Qa 
=> b} 6 ———s — . . 
a @ + cos ) sin @ cos i C r) (82) 


and the total effect at O will be found by integrating this over the whole 
wave front. 

We have thus found the complete expression for the law of: disturb- 
ance in the secondary wave, and can see in what way it involves @ and ¢, 
and how its phase is related to that of the disturbance over the primary 
wave. 

The theory of diffraction given by Fresnel, and applied by him to 
points in the neighbourhood of the principal wave normal, is thus fully 
justified, since for such points 9 is small, and cos@ therefore approxi- 
mately unity, while ¢ is nearly constant. The expression shows that an 
addition of a quarter period must be made to the phase; but this will not 
affect the form of the diffraction pattern obtained. 

But the results of the investigation are of even more importance in 
their bearing on the relation between the position of the plane of polari- 
sation and the direction of vibration of plane polarised light. For con- 
sider a ray diffracted in a direction making an angle 0 with the incident 
wave normal, and let the plane containing the incident and diffracted 
ray be called the plane of diffraction, and let the directions of vibration 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 203. 


in the incident and diffracted rays make angles a,, a, with the normal to 
the plane of diffraction. Then the diffracted ray and the two directions 
of vibrations lie in the same plane, and the directions of vibrations are 
normal to the respective rays. Thus, if we form a spherical triangle by 
drawing lines from the centre of a sphere, parallel to the normal to the 
plane of diffraction and to the two directions of vibrations, since the 
direction of vibration in the diffracted wave is the projection on that 
wave of the direction of vibration in the incident wave, we have 


cos9=tana,cota; . : : . (83) 


Now, let a and a be the azimuths of the planes of polarisation of the 
incident and diffracted light, measured from a plane normal to the plane 
of diffraction. Then, on Fresnel’s assumption that the direction of vibra- 
tion is normal to the plane of polarisation, we have 


wait, a= 5+ Cay 
and tan a =sec 6 tan a; 
while on MacCullagh’s hypothesis 
SG) SAGE 
and 
tana=cos@tanew . : , . (84) 


These two formule can be tested by experiment, and afford a means, 
therefore, of deciding between the two theories of reflexion, and of deter- 
mining the question whether reflexion be due to a change of density or 
to a change of rigidity in the ether; for the values of a corresponding to a 
series of values of 2 can be observed for any given angle of diffraction, 
and if the values of a be taken at equidistant intervals, the values of a, 
and therefore the positions of the plane of polarisation of the diffracted 
light, will not be equidistant, but will on the first hypothesis be crowded 
towards the plane of diffraction, while on the second they will be crowded 
away from that plane. 

Professor Stokes was the first to carry out a series of observations of 
this nature; he employed a grating ruled on glass at the rate of 1,300 
lines to the inch, and the results of his experiments are decisive in favour 
of Fresnel’s hypothesis. The experiments are troublesome, and the com- 
parison of the results with theory is complicated by the fact that the 
refraction through the glass plate on which the grating is ruled also 
produces a change in the position of the plane of polarisation. The 
amount of this change is the same on the two theories, and tends to 
produce a crowding of the planes of polarisation away from the plane of 
diffraction, an effect opposite to that produced by diffraction on Fresnel’s 
theory. Moreover, we may suppose that, when the ruled face of the grating 
is towards the incident light, either the diffraction takes place in air so 
that the wave enters the glass obliquely, or that the diffraction takes 
place in the glass after the light has entered the first surface normally, 
while when the ruled surface is away from the incident light the diffrac- 
tion may take place in air after passing normally through the glass, or in 
the glass so that the light after passing normally through the first sur- 
face emerges obliquely. 


204 REPORT—1885. 


In any case we shall have 


tana=m tana. ‘ : . . (85) 


where 7 is a function of the angle of diffraction and the refractive index, 
which can be calculated on either of the above hypotheses. 

The results were reduced by plotting from the experiments a curve 
with log m as ordinates and 6, the angle of diffraction, as abscisse. The 
curves given by the two theories on either of the above assumptions 
as to the relation between diffraction and refraction were also drawn, and 
a comparison of the two results ‘leaves no reasonable doubt that the 
experiments are decisive in favour of Fresnel’s hypothesis, if the theory be 
considered as well founded.’ And, moreover, the comparison shows us 
that we must suppose the diffraction to take place before the refraction. 
Thus, when the grooved face is towards the incident light we must sup- 
pose the wave to be broken up in the air and then to be obliquely 
refracted through the glass, while when the grooved face is away from 
the light the wave must be treated as if it were diffracted in the glass 
and then obliquely refracted out, and Professor Stokes shows that it is 
& priori more probable from physical reasons that this is what takes 

lace. 

, § 3. In the results of the experiments a certain amount of irregularity 
is produced by the want of symmetry of the grooves of the grating, and 
Holtzmann,! who in 1856 repeated Stokes’s experiments, failed to obtain 
consistent results with glass gratings, and had recourse in consequence to 
a Schwerd’s lamp-black grating; with this he obtained results more in 
accordance with the theory of Neumann and MacCullagh than with that 
of Fresnel. 

Holtzmann thought that Stokes had neglected to consider the effect of 
the longitudinal waves, ‘and to this neglect he attributes the error of 
Mr. Stokes;’ and Hisenlohr,? who ‘had not read the great paper of 
Prof. Stokes,’ attributes to him the same neglect, and endeavours to 
give a theoretical account of the question from Cauchy’s standpoint. 
Of course both these authors were quite wrong in their estimate of 
Stokes’s work, and Lorenz * showed, from some decisive experiments of his 
own, that Holtzmann’s results were due to an error of his method. Lorenz 
gave a fresh demonstration of Stokes’s theorem, and arrived at the same 
results. Lorenz appears to consider his method as more general than 
that of Stokes, but this is due to a misconception on his part. The 
results of his experiments agree with Fresnel’s theory. 

§ 4, The matter has since been experimentally investigated by 
Quincke,’ who showed that the method of forming the grooves on the 
grating was of the utmost importance, and whose experiments led to no 
decisive results, and more recently by Frohlich.’ Fréhlich investigated 
the polarisation of the light reflected from a glass grating, but did not 
compare his results with theory. A few experiments of the same kind 
were made by Stokes in 1852, but he also omitted the comparison with 
theory. 


1 Holtzmann, Pogg. Ann. t. xcix. p. 446. 

2 Hisenlohr, Pogg. Ann. t. civ. p. 337. 

8 L. Lorenz, Pogg. Ann. t. cxi. p. 315. 

4 Quincke, ‘ Experimentelle optische Untersuchungen,’ Pogg. Ann. t. cxlix. p. 73. 
4 Frohlich, Wiedemann, t. i. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 205 


Réthy ! developed a theory which covers Fréhlich’s experiments, and 
arrived at a formula with which they agree closely, but his fundamental 
principles are at fault. 

In his solution Réthy adopts a method given by Kirchhoff to find the 
effects of a given source of light. 

The equations to be solved are, if we neglect the terms involving 
dilatation, 


du wu 
TE ae ONT AE, 
etc., with the condition 
du dv dw 
ak dy aN 0. 
Take " 
; r t 
= sin Qn fy—m teh F : . (86) 


Then ® and its differential coefficients satisfy the equations of motion, 
and we require to find such solutions as will satisfy the equation of 
continuity. 

Réthy takes as solutions— 


db d® 
1 Hei, oI anv Mirafo 0 wsivay igay, AE) 
and 
- Bs d?® ~ d?® eg io d?® 
° U =~ dedy C= dydz Sg Naga Typ a - (88) 


The distance r, of course, is measured from a point on the grating to 
the point at which the motion is being considered. 

Now each of these expressions of course represents the solution due 
to some arbitrary motion set up somehow over the grating. In Case I. 
the motion is a periodic twist of each element about the axis of z, while 
in Case II. it is an oscillation parallel to that axis. But Réthy does not 
show how this motion is to be set up, nor whether it can represent the 
effect of a train of plane waves falling on the grating and there diffracted ; 
and a little consideration shows that it cannot, for, according to the 
ordinary assumed properties of the ether, we cannot get the wave of 
twist only without linear displacement ; the second solution corresponds 
to that due to the action of a periodic force at the origin generating a 
certain amount of momentum, and not to the complete effect of a train 
of waves. If we compare it with Stokes’s solution, we see that it is that 
part which arises from the effects of the velocity propagated across the 
element, and omits the part due to the displacement. Stokes’s solution 
applies to the case in which energy is being propagated by waves passing 
across the orifice into the medium beyond, and depends on the direction of 
motion of these main waves. Réthy’s solution is that which arises from 
a centre of vibration situated on the surface, kept in motion by some 
external force and sending out waves in all directions into the medium. 
Still, we can arrive at a formula of the same nature as that given by 
Réthy, and which does agree with Fréhlich’s experiments, by means of a 
simple extension of Stokes’s principles. This consists in supposing that 


1 Réthy, Wied, Ann, t. xi. p. 504. 


206 REPORT—1885. 


the incident waves set up vibrations over the surface parallel to a fixed 
direction, and that these vibrations lie in the same plane as the incident 
vibrations, while these vibrations set up others in the diffracted waves 
which lie in the same plane as those over the surface, and are everywhere 
normal to the diffracted rays. Then, if ey be the angle between the 
incident wave normal and the disturbance over the surface, gy and @ the 
azimuths of the planes of polarisation on Fresnel’s hypothesis measured 
from the plane of incidence in the incident and diffracted waves, and 6 
the angle of diffraction, it can be shown that : 


cos ¢) tan =sin d cote) ++ cosdsingy . as. (39) 


This expression is given by Réthy, and agrees closely with the results 
.of Fréhlich’s experiments which were made with two gratings—the one 
of 19°76 lines to a millimetre, the other of 162 lines to a millimetre. 

The value of ey depends on the angle of incidence when this vanishes, 
so that the vibrations in the incident wave are parallel to the surface 
ey = 90°, and the above formula becomes identical with Stokes’s. 

In comparing the two it must be remembered that the azimuths of 
the planes of polarisation are measured, in Stokes’s expression, from the 
normal to the plane of incidence, while in Réthy’s they are measured 
from the plane of incidence. 

A eareful series of experiments by Cornu? also lead to the conclusion 
that the vibrations are normal to the plane of polarisation. This con- 
-clusion coincides with that arrived at by Lord Rayleigh and Lorenz from 
considerations based on the phenomena of reflexion and refraction, and 
is further strengthened by the phenomena of polarisation produced when 
light is scattered by a series of small particles. 

§ 5. Before considering this, reference must be made to a paper by 
Professor Rowland,’ of Baltimore, on the subject. This paper will be 
more completely discussed when we come to the electro-magnetic theory, 
to which it more properly belongs. Professor Rowland, however, con- 
-giders that he has discovered an error in Stokes’s work, in that according 
to it ‘ when a wave is broken up at an orifice the rotation is left discon- 
tinuous by Stokes’s solution.’ It is not quite clear, however, how this 
criticism is intended to apply; for the rotation in the main wave is 
completely determined when the displacement is known. Now, Professor 
Stokes has shown that when the orifice is of finite size the aggregate 
disturbance at any point due to all the elements of the orifice, as found by 
his formula, is the same as if the wave had not been broken up. The 
rotation, therefore, as given by this formula is also the same. 

Again, the rotation is propagated according to the same laws as the 
transverse disturbance, and hence the elementary rotation due to a given 
element of a wave propagated in a given direction is related to the 
direction and to the total rotation of the element in the same way as the 
elementary displacement propagated in that direction is related to the 
actual displacement. 

Thus, if the displacements over the wave be 


E=0,.« p=, f= esin* (bt—2), 


1 See Glazebrook, Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. vol. v. p. 254. ? Cornu, C. R. 
3 Rowland, ‘On Spherical Waves of Light,’ Phil. Mag. June, 1884. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 207 


the rotations are 


or on 


0,  OC08 5 (bt—z), 0; 


and the elementary rotation to which this gives rise is 
Cc ‘ - Ir 
v= — 778 (1 + cos 6) sin W sin = (bt — r), 


w being the angle between the axis of y and the radius vectorr. This 
elementary rotation takes place about a line perpendicular to the radius 
vector, and lying in a plane containing it and the axis of y. 

On passing from one medium to another the rotation is not neces- 
sarily continuous. The only surface conditions are that the displace- 
ments and the stresses are the same on the two sides of the surface of 
separation, and if the rigidity of the ether be different in the two media 
the rotations will be different also. But Professor Stokes’s solution 
does not apply to this case, and for the case to which it does apply is 
complete. 


Chapter VII.—Tue Scarrerine or Licut sy Smauyi Parricrzs. 


§ 1. In his experiments on the light scattered from precipitated clouds 
of fine matter, Tyndall’ showed that when the particles are sufficiently 
fine the light emitted laterally is blue in colour, and in a direction per- 
pendicular to that of the incident beam it is completely polarised. 

The full explanation of this was given by Lord Rayleigh in 1871 ina 
series of papers ® having an important bearing on our present subject— 
the relation between the plane of polarisation and the direction of vibration 
of plane polarised light. Professor Stokes, in his paper on fluorescence,3 
had indicated the connection between the two questions. 

For consider a beam travelling horizontally, and look at it vertically 
downwards: the scattered light is in great part polarised in the plane of re- 
flection. Ifthe scattering particles be small compared with the wave length 
of the incident light, the vibrations in an incident ray cannot be at right 
angles to those in a scattered ray. For the incident vibrations are 
affected by the dust particles, which in consequence of their very great 
mass relative to the ether remain practically at rest. 

We may treat the problem as if the dust particles moved exactly as 
the ether which they replace would do, and then superpose on this motion 
an equal and opposite motion. The first motion will not affect the 
regular propagation of the waves. In consequence of the second the 
particles become centres of disturbance, and set up other motions in the 
ether. These other motions will depend on the direction of apparent 
motion of the dust particles, and the optical effect in any direction will 
depend on the component of the motion at right angles to that direction. 
Now, the reflected ray is polarised in the plane of reflexion. If, then, the 


? Tyndall, Phil. Mag. (4), vol. xxxvii. 

2 J. W. Strutt, ‘On the Light from the Sky, its Polarisation and Colour,’ Phil. 
Mag. ¥eb. and April, 1871; ‘On the Scattering of Light by Small Particles,’ June, 
1871. 

* Stokes ‘On the Change of Refrangibility of Light,’ Phil. Trans. 1852. 


208 REPORT—1885. 


vibrations be in the plane of polarisation they will be at right angles to 
those in the incident light, while if the vibrations be at right angles to 
the plane of polarisation, they will come from the component of the 
original vibration, which is at right angles to that plane. If, then, on 
this supposition as to the relation between plane of polarisation and 
direction of vibration the incident light be polarised at right angles to the 
plane of reflection—i.e., in the case before us in a horizontal plane—the 
light scattered in the vertical direction should vanish, and this is found 
to be the case. This general reasoning is substantiated by Lord Ray- 
leigh in the papers before us by mathematical reasoning, and, moreover, 
he shows that the intensity of scattered light in any direction varies 
inversely as the fourth power of the wave length. 

This may be seen from a consideration of the dimensions involved. 

The ratio of the two amplitudes in the scattered and incident vibra- 
tion will be a number. It must also involve the volume of the dust 
particles, being directly proportional to it, and it also will be inversely 
proportional to 7, the distance from the disturbance; it must therefore 
depend on T/A?r. 

The mathematical expression for the disturbance is found as follows :— 
Let D’ be the density of the ether in the dust particles, D in the space 
surrounding them. Let the vibrations in the incident wave, when they 


strike the dust, be given by A cos 2 bt. Then the acceleration is 
Deters Noght Loder 
A (> b) cos —~ bt. 


In order that the wave may pass on undisturbed through the parts where 
the density is D’, force would require to be applied; the amount of the 
force will be 


_A('-D) ali Qn 


a I pan 
per unit volume, and hence a force 
2rb\? 20 
A(D’—D) (—— + OE 
(D ) ( ; ) cos ~ bt, 


conceived to act at O, the position of the particle, gives the same disturb- 
ance as is caused by the particle. Now, we have seen in Professor 


Stokes’s paper that a force F cos — bi per unit of volume produces a 


displacement at any other point given by 


F sina Or 
oe fi cat of AEA 


which is this case comes to 


D’/-DT. Qa 
C= A oa in aleos —— (bt — 7) ; : et 90} 
where a is the angle between the radius vector r and the direction of the 
force F, and the displacement takes place in the plane passing through 
the directions of the force and the radius vector, and is at right angles to 
the latter. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 209 


Lord Rayleigh’s paper concludes with another proof of the formula 
which gives the motion due to a force acting parallel to the axis of z. 
Pat for the force Ze’, then the equations of motion become, when 
expressed in terms of the rotation, 


(b?7? + n?) v0, =0 


(bax? — n*) W) = dy (91) 
(b° 7? — n?) vo, => _ 
dz 
Hence 
] ee fem 
= A | = aa Zz 
* rl ||2a( : ) aad 
Qa ee 
where k= =, 
XN b 


and the integral extends over the space T, through which the force 
acts. 


; —ikr 
Within this space +(—) is sensibly constant; and if w be the re- 
y Ue 


sultant rotation which will take place about an axis perpendicular to the 
plane through z and the radius vector, 


Lal RT Aji ay a 


Anh? Yr 
TF sin a Qr 
== ' j—— SESE — —f e ° bs 2 
Hence g [oa Achy 885 (bt—r) (92) 


In the second paper mentioned above Lord Rayleigh points out that 
the cause of reflexion may be diminished rigidity rather than increased 
density, and that in this case a scattered ray might be composed of 
vibrations perpendicular to those of the incident ray ; he then proceeds 
to describe experiments on the composition of the light of the sky, made 
with a view of showing that it is such as would result, according to the 
above formula, from light scattered by small particles. And in the third 
paper he discusses the motion in an elastic solid in which the density and 
rigidity vary from point to point. 

The problem is solved for two media differing slightly in density and 
rigidity, and it is shown that in a direction normal to the incident ray 
the rotation in the scattered ray, when the incident vibrations are parallel 
to z, is given by 


2 92 An)? 2 of AD)? y? 3 
a) sen \ ep oye ; < chee 
where 
__ BT e-itr 
dur rT 


Hence, if Anand AD are both finite, the scattered light can never 
vanish in a plane normal to the incident ray. 
1885. P 


210 REPORT—1885. 


Now we know from experiment that it does vanish, and hence either 
An or AD must be zero. If we put AD=0, it can be shown from the 
general expression for the rotation that there are six directions along | 
which the scattered ray vanishes, for the components of the rotation are 
given by— 


An yz ) 
wv, =— — 
3 Pp , Pr 
An vy 
Oe day, «78 ‘ (94) 
An 2—22 


2) oe 


Now, there is nothing in the experimental results which at all leads to 


such a conclusion. If the hypothesis of a variable density be adopted, 
and Av be put zero, then, 


D,) 
ke ay rr ; : : 4 » 2(95) 
gs, AD 2 
2 PD r 


and the light vanishes in one direction only, viz. that of the axis of z. 
This result, of course, agrees with that of the former paper, and we must 
conclude that Fresnel’s explanation of the cause of reflexion is the true 
one, while MacCullagh’s is false, and that in plane polarised light the 
vibrations are perpendicular to, not parallel to, the plane of polarisation. 
The theory as left in this paper does not explain the phenomenon of the 
residual blue discovered also by Tyndall, who found that at a certain 
stage in the growth of the particle causing the scattering some light 
is discharged by the cloud parallel to the direction of vibration of the 
incident light, and that this light is of a very intense blue tint. 

Lord Rayleigh points out that this may be due to the higher powers 
of AD/D, which have been omitted, and in a more recent paper, based on 
the electro-magnetic theory, he develops this point more completely.! 


Chapter VIII.—Gernerat Conciusions. 


§ 1. Space compels us to conclude with this the general account of 
recent work on optical theories based solely on the elastic solid theory. 
Special problems of various kinds have received their solution, but to 
these we can only allude ; indeed, for several of them the general proper- 
ties of wave motion with the principle of interference are all that are 
required. Such, for example, are the papers by Prof. Stokes, ‘On the 
Theory of certain Bands seen in the Spectrum,’ 2 ‘On the Formation of 
the Central Spot in Newton’s Rings beyond the Critical Angle.’3—This is 
shown, as was suggested by Lloyd, to be due to the surface disturbance, 
which takes the place of the refracted wave when the angle of incidence 


1 See p. 253. 
2 Stokes, Phil. Trans. 1848 ; Math. and Phys. Papers, vol. ii. p. 14. 
* Stokes, Camb, Phil. Trans. vol. viii.; Math. and Phys. Papers, vol. ii. p. 56. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 211 


exceeds the critical angle—‘On the Perfect Blackness of the Central 
Spot in Newton’s Rings, and on the Verification of Fresnel’s Formulz for 
the Intensities of the Reflected and Refracted Rays.’! In this paper is 
given the now well-known proof of Arago’s law that light is reflected in 
the same proportion at the first and second surfaces of a transparent plate. 
“On the Colours of Thick Plates,’? and ‘ On the Composition and Resolu- 
ition of Streams of Polarised Light from different sources.’ 3 

In his ‘ Investigations in Optics, with special reference to the 
Spectroscope,’ published in the ‘ Philosophical Magazine’ for 1879 and 
1880, Lord Rayleigh has considered the application of the principles of 
the wave theory to geometrical optics, and the construction of optical 
instruments. A full account of these is given in the article ‘ Optics,’ in 
the ‘ Encyclopedia Britannica.’ 

Professor Stokes’s great paper on Fluorescence‘ is chiefly experi- 
mental. The cause of the phenomena is assigned to the vibrations set up 
by the incident light in the molecules of the fluorescent substance, which 
‘themselves react on the ether and emit the fluorescent light. According 
to Stokes the vibrations in this light are never of shorter period than 
‘those in the incident light; and he in a general way endeavours to 
account for this, and shows that if the force acting on a given matter 
molecule due to a given displacement be proportional to a positive integral 
power of the displacement other than the first, then the amplitude of the 
displacements would involve the period, and there would be a tendency 
to increase the amplitudes of vibrations of lower period than that of the 
incident light, and to decrease the amplitudes in the case of vibrations 
-of higher period than that of the incident light. Thus, in a group of 
disturbed molecules we should expect all possible periods between two, 
the upper corresponding to the refrangibility of the incident light, the 
lower corresponding to the natural period of the molecules. This result, 
known as Stokes’s law, has been the cause of much discussion. Some 
physicists hold that they have found fluorescent substances which con- 
stitute an exception to it, while others,® who have carefully repeated the 
critical experiments, draw conclusions in accordance with the law ; and 
the weight of the evidence is with the latter. 

A general account of the principles of the elastic solid theory was 
‘given in his lectures at Baltimore last year by Sir William Thomson,7 
To these we shall return in the next section. 

§ 2. In concluding this part of the report we may say, then, that 
while the elastic solid theory, taken strictly, fails to represent all the facts 
of experiment, we have learnt an immense amount by its development, 
and have been taught where to look for modifications and improvements. 
We may, I think, infer that the optical differences of bodies depend 
mainly on differences in the density or effective density of the ether in 
those bodies, and not on differences of rigidity. Fresnel’s general theory 
of the cause of reflexion is thus seen to be true, and Green’s theory of 


* Camb. and Dub. Math. Jowrnal, vol. iv.; Math. and Phys. Papers, vol. ii. p. 89. 

? Camb. Phil. Trans. vol. ix. 3 Ibid 

* Stokes, ‘On the Change of Refrangibility of Light,’ Pril. Trans. 

* Lommel, Pogg. Ann. t. 143, p. 159; Wied. Ann. t. iii. viii. x.; Lubarsch, Wied. 
Ann. t. xi. 

§ Hagenbach, Pogg. Ann.; Lamansky, Journal de Physique, t. viii.; Wied. Ann. 
t. vill. and xi. 

” Thomson, Lectures on Molecular Dynamics. 


P2 


eile REPORT— 1885. 


reflexion and refraction can be made to agree with experiment by the 
simple supposition that for longitudinal and transverse disturbances 
respectively, the ether in a transparent body is loaded differently. This 
same theory of the loading of the ether will not account for double 
refraction if we assume that the vibrations are strictly in the wave front. 
If, however, we admit that in a crystal the vibrations may be normal to 
the ray, instead of in the wave front, Wresnel’s beautifal laws follow at 
once from the equations given by Lord Rayleigh, which are quite con- 
sistent with the theory of reflexion and refraction, but there is a diffi- 
culty in dealing with the pressural wave. Neither of the strict elastic 
solid theories of Green can be accepted as representing the facts of ex- 
periment, and the interesting modification of Green’s theory suggested by 
De St. Venant fails also. In all there are too many constants for the 
requirements of the experimental results, and the theories do not indicate 
the meaning of the arbitrary relations between these constants with 
sufficient clearness and certainty. 

The suggestions of Cauchy and Briot, with the elegant mathematics ot 
Sarrau on the periodic distribution of the ether in a transparent body, 
lead to expressions for the relation between the refractive index and wave 
length which agree well with experiment so Jong as we steer clear of 
substances which present the phenomena of anomalous dispersion, but 
of this they give no account. 

While the formule given by Cauchy and Hisenlohr seem to represent 
the laws of metallic reflexion with considerable exactness, the theory on 
which these formule rest, requiring as it does a negative value for the 
square of the refractive index, is inconsistent with the conditions of 
stability of an elastic solid. 

Nor is it surprising that a simple elastic solid theory should fail. 
The properties we have been considering depend on the presence of 
matter, and we have to deal with two systems of mutually interpenetrating 
particles. It is clearly a very rough approximation to suppose that the 
effect of the matter is merely to alter the rigidity or the density of the 
ether. The motion of the ether will be disturbed by the presence of 
the matter; motion may even be set up in the matter particles. The 
forces to which this gives rise may, so far as they affect the ether, enter 
its equations in such a way as to be equivalent to a change in its density 
or rigidity, but they may, and probably will, in some cases do more than 
this. The matter motion will depend in great measure on the ratio 
which the period of the incident light bears to the free period of the 
matter particles. If this be nearly unity, most of the energy in the 
incident vibration will be absorbed in setting the matter into motion, and. 
the solution will be modified accordingly. 


Parr III, 


THEORIES BASED ON THE MUTUAL REACTION BETWEEN 
THE ETHER AND MATTER. 


Chapter I.—Tue Propacation or WAVES THROUGH TWO MUTUALLY 
INTERPENETRATING MEDIA. 


§ 1. In the optical theories hitherto considered attempts have been 
made to account for the phenomena of reflexion, refraction, and dispersion 
by the hypotheses of modifications produced in the properties of the ether 


ON OPTICAL’ THEORIES. 213 


by the reaction of the material particles of the medium through which 
the light was being propagated. According to Fresnel the density of the 
ether is affected, while according to Neumann and MacCullagh it is to 
changes in the rigidity that the effects are due. 

In both cases the direct effects of the communication of momentum 
from the ether to the material particles of the transparent medium is not 
considered. Fresnel,! it is true, thought it ‘ probable’ that the molecules 
of ponderable matter should partake of the movement of the ‘ether 
which surrounds them on all sides,’ and Cauchy,” in one memoir, deals 
with the motion of two mutually interpenetrating systems of molecules, 
but without arriving at any specially important result. Voigt? states 
that about 1865 F. Neumann was in the habit of treating, in his lectures, 
the system of simultaneous equations relating to the motion of ether and 
matter. SBriot,‘ in his work on dispersion, considers the direct reaction 
between matter and ether particles, but in his final result equates, as we 
have seen,” the term expressing it to zero. 

§ 2. In 1867 a paper was presented to the French Academy by 
M. Boussinesq® on the ‘Théorie nouvelle des ondes lumineuses.’ In 
this paper the dynamical effects of momentum communicated by the 
ether to the molecules of ponderable matter are considered as the cause 
of reflexion, refraction, polarisation, dispersion, &c. 

The ether is treated as homogeneous, and of the same density and 
rigidity in all bodies, and it is supposed that when light enters a trans- 
parent medium the molecules of that medium may be set in vibration 
isochronously with those of the ether. We have thus to consider the 
forces acting on such a medium, and these may be divided into three 
parts: (1) those which arise from the elastic reactions of the ether, 
(2) those arising from the elastic reactions of the matter, and (3) those 
arising from the mutual action between matter and ether. 

Now let us consider a small element of volume, containing both matter 
andether. Let m be the density of the ether, » of the matter, u, v, w the dis- 
placements of the ether in the element, U,V, W those of the matter. 
Then, using Green’s notation, the force, measured parallel to the axis of «, 
arising from (1) will be per unit of voluame— 


10 
(A—B) 5 +Byv%, 


dud v dw 


where =de d y | da" 


ae 5 P 
For the forces arising under (2) we have to consider that m ae and 


au Ss : : 
Pap will be quantities of the same order; but p» is very great indeed 


compared with m, and hence U is very small compared with uw. The 


' «Premier Mémoire sur la double réfraction,’ Quvres completes, t. ii. p. 278. 

2 Exercices d Analyse, t. i. p. 33. 

3 Wied. Ann. t. xvii. p. 473. 

4 Essais sur la théorie mathématique de la lumiere. Paris: 1865. 

5 See p. 181. 

6 C. R. t. [xv. p. 235; Liowville’s Journal, s. ii. t. xiii. p. 313. A most clear ac- 
count of this theory is given by M. de St. Venant in the article already quoted, 
“Théorie des ondes lumineuses,’ Ann. de Chim. s. ix. t. xxv. p. 368 seq. 


214 REPORT—1885. 


forces (2) depend on U and its differential coefficients, and it is assumed 
in the theory that in consequence of the excessive smallness of U they 
may be neglected. Again, let us suppose that the dimensious of the ele- 
ment of volume are large compared with the distance through which the 
action of an ether particle on a matter particle is appreciable. Then we 
may consider the mutual reaction between matter and ether as confined 
entirely to the element of volume considered, the actions taking place 
across the surfaces of the element will just balance each other, and hence,. 
if we consider the matter and ether as one system, the force (2) will be 
zero, and the equations of motion will be 
du a?U dé 
mop +e ae = (A—-B) 7. + Bvu, ete. : Paka 


U is here the displacement of the matter occupying the same element of 
volume as the ether, whose displacement is u, but all the displacements. 
being very small, it is assumed that we may treat U and w as the dis- 
placements of the matter and ether, which when at rest occupy the same 
element of volume. Thus U, V, W are functions of wu, v, w and their diffe- 
rential coefficients with respect to 2, y, z, the initial co-ordinates, and may 
be expanded in terms of these, and it remains to find the form of the: 
expansion. 

Conditions are, of course, imposed by the fact that the medium is. 
isotropic, and it is shown that so far as second differential coefficients we 
may write 


dé 
U=Au+C7, +Dvu, etc. . : ae 
On substituting this value of U, in the equation of motion, and assuming; 
20 € mr seer) 
u=Me' = \'~ w etc., we obtain 


2 2 2 
(0-+p, A)ot= ( opti een ( Mc) e) vu. (8) 
dt" T dx 7 
And these equations, of course, give a normal wave travelling with a 
velocity [ {A + 2u + 4(C + D) x’p,/77} /(o + Ap,)]!, and a transverse 
wave with velocity [ {u +4Dz7*p,/7?}/(p + Ap,)]}. 

These velocities vary with the period of vibration in a manner which 
agrees, at least approximately, with experiment. It is clear that the 
coefficient A is positive, while the experimental fact that the velocity 
increases with the period shows that D is negative. The condition that 
A is positive merely implies that the ether tends to move the matter 
particles in the same direction as it moves in itself. 

If we suppose that the medium is not isotropically symmetrical, while 
at the same time it is such that the expressions retain the same form when 
two of the axes are turned through a small angle about the third, them 
terms B & -- =) come into the value for U, and these, it is shown, 
would cause the medium to produce rotation of the plane of polarisation 
of a plane polarised ray traversing it. This rotation would vary approxi- 
mately inversely as the square of the period, in accordance with the law 
discovered by Briot. By introducing higher differential coefficients into 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 215. 


the value of U in terms of wu, etc., it is shown that these approximate laws 
become, respectively, 


Ve=Vot(1+ S454 2... ) deuten oay oL(&) 
rie T 


V being the velocity, and Vo, «, etc. constants, while for w, the rotation 
produced by a length z of the substance, he finds 


ged Aelia Hx thi ae 


For the explanation of double refraction Boussinesq supposes that the 
constants in the above formula giving U, V, W in terms of u, v, w may 
be functions of the direction of displacement; but, arguing from the 
relative importance of A, C, and D in the ordinary theory of refraction 
(refraction is due to the existence of A, dispersion only to that of D), he 
supposes that we may toa first approximation treat C and D as constants, 
while we consider A as a function of the direction, and write for the 
three axes of symmetry, the existence of which is assumed, the values 
A(1 +a), A(1 + 6), and A(1 + y). 

This leads to the equations— 


d?u dé 
Le Lg 4 a6 2 
7B (1 + a) qe + L(1 + a) 77u 
2 
a = R(T on) el + 8) 4 ° (6) 
dt? da 
a dé 2 
Toy = K(1 + c) Fat Ut +c)V7w 


K, L, a, b, c being functions of the other constants. It is clear that 
these are the same equations as were given by Lord Rayleigh,! and 
which have been already considered. The wave surface they lead to 
is not Fresnel’s, at least if we suppose the vibrations to be necessarily 
transversal. 

By retaining the terms involving the coefficient B, the elliptic polari- 
sation produced by quartz in directions oblique to the axis is explained. 
The formula for the difference in velocity in the two elliptically polarised 
waves traversing the crystal in any given direction agrees closely with 
that given by MacCullagh. In this case the squares of the velocities parallel 


; i 4 2 
to the axis are given by the expression N(1 a aah while the ve- 


locities in a direction making an angle 6 with the axis depend on the 
equation 


Qh? 


72 


w=N + 


eae ily + 
+ 3a/ [Qt - sint 9 +87" {2N + QM — N)sinto t ] @ 
i 


1 See p. 179. 


216 REPORT—1885. 


which can also be expressed in terms of the principal velocities at right 
angles to the axis, for if w,, w, be the values of these, we have 


Aa? J? 


9 


M+WN=o,? + o,? — 


(8) 


(M = N)? = (w,? = Ww”)? 2 ei 5”) 


The laws obtained in this paper are further developed in a second 
and third in the same journal. In this third paper, Boussinesq! points 
out the necessity of including in the expression for U in terms of u 
differential co-efficients of u,v, w with respect to the time, and shows 
that the phenomena of magnetic rotation can be secoumead for by putting 
in the case of a wave travelling parallel to z— 


yeas Au — 3) 


9 
V = Av + 8 MY (9) 
C 


W= Aw 


while the phenomena presented by refraction at the surface of a moving 
body are explained on the supposition that in finding d?U /dt? we have to 
take into account the visible motion of the body, and write 


d 


d d 
= Le [ — : : , 
7 (Gt, Pa Nz) (10) 


la 


L, M, N being the components of the velocity at the point 2, y, 2; it 
is shown that in cases in which L, M, N are small compared with w’, 
the apparent velocity of light in the body is 


py oe ae 
=w+ — ly. 
B 


# being the refractive index and V the velocity of the body in the 
direction in which the light is travelling. This, of course, is the formula 
given by Fresnel. 

§ 3. M. de St. Venant,? in the article already quoted, sums up his criti- 
cism of the theory as follows: ‘Les deux hypotheses principales de cette 
théorie nouvelle me semblent bien prés de s’élever a la hauteur de choses 
démontrées.’ At the same time there remains the difficulty pointed 
out by Sarrau* of explaining on mechanical principles how the various 
terms in U, V, W arise, and on what physical phenomena the mechanical 
forces brought into action depend. 

§ 4. A further step in the progress of the theory was brought about 
by the discovery of anomalous dispersion by Christiansen‘ in 1870. Le 


1 Boussinesq, Liowville’s Journal, t. xiii. pp. 340, 425. 

? De St. Venant, ‘Sur les diverses méthodes de présenter la théorie des ondes 
lumineuses,’ Ann. de Chimie, t. xxii. 

3 «Théorie des ondes lumineuses,’ Ann. de Chim. (4), t- xxvii. p. 272. 

4 Pogg. Ann. t. 141, p. 479; t. 143, p. 250 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 217 


Roux! had found that vapour of iodine refracted red light more strongly 
than violet, and Christiansen, in the paper quoted, announced the result 
that for a solution of the aniline dye fuchsin in alcohol the refractive 
index increases from the Fraunhofer line B to D, then sinks rapidly as 
far as G, and increases again beyond. The experimental investigation of 
the subject was continued by Kundt,? who proved that this anomalous 
dispersion was marked in all substances showing strong surface color- 
ation, and that there was an intimate relation between it and the 
absorptive power of the substance. As the result of his experiments, 
Kundt was able to lay down the rule that in going up the spectrum, 
from red to violet, below an absorption band the deviation is abnormally 
increased by the absorption, while above the band the deviation is 
abnormally decreased. Kundt has been able to see this abnormal effect 
produced by the absorption of sodium light. 

On the old theory of dispersion, as developed by Cauchy and others, 
this effect was inexplicable. Boussinesq, it is true, had explained the 
phenomena in vapour of iodine by saying that it implied that the co- 
efficient D was positive; and here, in a way, lay a germ of the truth, for 
the mutual reaction theory lends itself readily to a partial explanation of 
the whole. 

§ 5. Such an explanation was first given by Sellmeyer. He had 
been led to expect the effect from theoretical reasons in 1866, and had 
endeavoured to discover it in a fuchsin solution, but without success. 
The action between the ether and matter is a periodic one of the same 
period as the light-wave traversing the ether. Owing to the enormous 
density of the matter compared with the ether its motion will in general 
be negligeably small; but if it should happen that the period of the 
natural vibrations of the matter particles coincides with that of the 
incident disturbance this will no longer be the case. The energy of the 
light-vibration will be absorbed by the matter, and this absorption will 
tend to react on the light-disturbance, and will, it can be shown, increase 
the refractive power of the medium for disturbances of greater period 
than the critical one, and decrease it for disturbances of less period. 

The problem is much the same as that of a pendulum the point of 
support of which is undergoing a small periodic disturbance. If the 
period of the disturbance be greater than that of the natural vibration of 
the pendulum the reaction of the pendulum on its support will tend to 
quicken the motion of the latter, and vice versd. 

Sellmeyer, in the papers referred to,* published in 1872, after a most 
clear and able discussion of the difficulties of the elastic solid theories, 
adopts the hypothesis that the ponderable atoms vibrate, but with much 
smaller amplitudes than the ether particles. He then proceeds to consider 
the mechanism by which this is brought about. As with Boussinesq, the 
ether is supposed to have the same rigidity and density everywhere. The 
ether particles act directly ou the matter particles, and in consequence of 
the vibrations of the former the equilibrium positions of the latter are 


1 Ann. de Chim. 8. III. t. xli. p. 285. ' 

* Pogg. Ann. t. 142, p. 163; t. 143, pp. 149, 259; t. 144, p. 128; t. 145, pp. 17 
and 164. 

% Sellmeyer, Pogg. Ann. t. 142, p. 272. 

* Sellmeyer, ‘ Ueber die durch die Ather-Schwingungen erregten Mitschwingungen 
der K6rpertheilchen und deren Riickwirkung auf die erstern, besonders zur Erklérung 
ee Dispersion und ihrer Anomalien,’ Pogg. Ann. t. 145, pp. 399, 520; t. 147, pp. 386, 


218 REPORT-——1885. 


disturbed and execute small harmonic vibrations; but the matter par- 
ticles themselves will not generally coincide with their positions of 
instantaneous rest, and so we have to consider their vibrations about these- 
positions. The equilibrium position of the matter at any instant is made 
to depend on the configuration of the ether at that instant, and may 
clearly be expressed, under the given circumstances, as a simple har-. 
monic function of the time, so that if £,,,¢, be the equilibrium co- 
ordinates at time ¢ of a given matter particle of mass m’, we may put 


Bp iad te oh ent Nl ae 


The amplitude a, will be very small. 

The force acting on the particle m’ is then considered on the assump- 
tion that the action between two particles of ether and matter respectively 
depends solely on the distance, and may be expressed by mm/f(v), and it 
is shown that, supposing that (7) is a continuous function of the co-ordi- 
nates,' the force per unit mass tending to draw m’ to its instantaneous. 
position of equilibrium is 


. ae 
RS (Ef) eee 
0 


where ¢ is a quantity depending on f and the configuration of the medium, 
which may be a function of the direction. Thus, for an isotropic medium 
we have as the equation of motion of the matter particles— 


i 


oy DAT 
a & 18 — dg sin — (t+a)}, 
which leads, of course, to the integral 


pape ay sin ™(t+a)+dsin-"+ A) . . (13) 
rf 


i eee 
except when r=6, when 


é=—7 


“ag cos 2T(rta) + bsin“(t+8) - . (4) 
ra) 
The question as to the legitimacy of the assumption involved in the 
equation 


% oe TT 
E) = ay sin —(t+a) 


is then discussed, and it is finally shown that it is correct. 

Again, it follows with great probability, from the experiments of 
Fizeau and Foucault ? on interference with long difference of path, that in 
aray of light the amplitude of vibration resolved in a given direction is not 
constant. We have, therefore, to treat a) as varying—slowly, it is true, 
compared with the rapidity of the vibrations—but still, it is probable, 
passing through many series of changes in one second. 

This leads to the result that 6, the amplitude of the natural vibrations 


1 See Stokes, Brit. Assoc. Report, 1862, p. 261. 
2 Ann. de Chim. s. ili. t. xxvi. p. 138. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 219 


of the matter particle, will always be small unless r =¢. Omitting, then, 
these from consideration, it follows that 


Fad 


Emly se ee. CB) 


and the vibrations thus set up in the matter are shown to be the cause of 
refraction ; while if r = 6 we have 


€ = —a cos eae 
6 
ae bs a : . (46). 
— = ~ 49 
dt 6 


and these vibrations are the cause of absorption. 

So far, then, the results of this investigation agree with those 
Bonssinesq has given. They are, however, more general, in that they 
contemplate the possibility of the motions of the matter particles becoming 
appreciable, and so producing absorption. The next paper considers the- 
question of the manner in which the action between the matter and ether 
affects the velocity of light. At first the direct effect of the matter on the 
ether is neglected, and the refractive power of the substance is found by 
considering the energy lost by the ether and gained by the matter in each 
vibration. The refractive power is measured by n?—1, where n is the 
refractive index. 

Now consider a volume so small that all the ether particles in it 
may be treated as in the same phase, so large that it contains many 
matter particles, and suppose the reactions considered confined to the 
ether and matter of this element. 

Then it can be shown that if m’ be the density of the ether, a the ampli- 
tude of its vibration, the energy lost by the ether is (n?—1)2x2m/a/2/7?, 
while that gained by the matter is 2x?{Smz7?a,?/(7?—<?)} /72, whence the 
important formula 


Sf AE 
13 — here Sead fo a2 ot olanily a Gy, 
n'a! 
is obtained. 
We may write this— 
K 
hele eet ait Sane? ben ee 
32. 8 


where by = we mean that all the possible values of 8, the free period of the 
matter particles, are to be taken into consideration. Now let us suppose 
that r is greater than 6, and that the matter particles have only one free 
period, then the denominator of the fraction is positive, and decreases as 
t approaches ¢. The refractive power, therefore, increases as the period 
decreases (7.e., as we go up the spectrum), and as 7 approaches the critical 
value ¢ (v.e.,as we near the absorption band) the refractive power is 
abnormally increased. Above the absorption band, supposing there be 
but one, the fraction is negative, and decreases numerically in value as r 
is still further decreased ; and until + reaches a value for which Lis 
1/c?+K, n is imaginary. 


220 REPORT— 1885, 


As 7 decreases still further the refractive power increases, but the | 
refractive index is less than unity. 

The presence of a second absorption band above the first will, of 
course, modify the conclusions. The change in refractive power is 
perhaps best illustrated by a curve, as is done in Sellmeyer’s paper. For 
the case above considered take values of the refractive power (n?—1) 
for ordinates, and the reciprocals of the periods for abscisse, then the 
equation in the case of one absorption band will be 


K 
a i ara) 
a—wv 
where a = 1/8?. 
Thus the curve is an hyperbola, with the axis of « and the linea = a 
as asymptotes. If there be two absorption bands we have 
eae L 
al a—« b—2x 
and in this case there would be two critical values for « (viz., aand b) for 
which the refractive power would become infinite, and near which the 
dispersion would be anomalous. 
In 1874 there appeared a paper by Ketteler! on the same subject. 
In an earlier paper he had enunciated as the Jaw of dispersion in a gas 
the formula 


1 being the wave length and a, § constants. 
Further comparison with experiments had led him to the formule 
Ig diem oe B 
as paar ?—C 
and he now shows that by a proper interpretation of the constants this 
will include the case of abnormal dispersion, 

§ 6. The theory of the mutual reaction between the matter and ether 
was next developed by Helmholtz, and his work was continued by 
Lommel, Ketteler, and Voigt. The method adopted by Ketteler differs 
somewhat from those of the other three. Helmholtz2 (in 1875), Lommel# 
(in 1878), and Voigt‘ (in 1883) start in the same manner to form the 
simultaneous equations satisfied by the displacements of the ether and 
matter particles in a given element of volume. Let u, v, w be the dis- 
placements of the ether particles of density im in an element of volume év, 
U, V, W those of the matter particles of density pu. 

The forces on m are, as in Boussinesq’s paper referred to aboye,> 
considering only the components parallel to the xaxis :— 


’ Ketteler, ‘Das specifische Gesetz der sogenannten anomalen Dispersion,’ Pogg. 
Ann. Jubelband, p. 166. See also p. 181. 

* Helmholtz, ‘ Zur Theorie der anomalen Dispersion,’ Pogg. Ann. t. 154, p. 582. 

* Lommel, ‘Theorie der normalen und anormalen Dispersion,’ Wied. Amn. t. iii. 

. BOO. 

: * Voigt, ‘ Theorie des Lichtes fiir vollkommen durchsichtige Medien,’ Wied. Ann. 
t, xix. p, 873. 

= Seep. Zila; 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 221 


(1) X’, arising from external impressed forces ; 

(2) X, arising from the action of the other ether particles external to- 
the element ¢v ; 

(3) A, arising from the action of the matter. 

While for p, the matter particle, they are :— 

(1) 2’, arising from external impressed forces ; 

(2) &, arising from the action of the matter external to the element ; 

(3) A, arising from the direct action of the ether. 

So that the equations of motion for an isotropic medium are— 


(i er : } 

n apt X’ + X +A, ete. | 
P (19) 

mie = felt + cH + A, ete. | 


| 


J 


Tn all three theories the impressed forces are supposed to vanish, so that 
XxX’ = &'=0. The action between the matter and ether is supposed to 
be confined to the element of volume considered—7.e. the dimensions of the 
element are treated as large compared with the distance at which the 
direct action of an ether particle on a matter particle is sensible. 
This leads to the relation! A + A= 0, independently of the value 
of A. 
The term X springs from the ordinary elastic reaction of the ether. 
Helmholtz and Lommel, considering only a wave of displacement in the 
direction of x travelling parallel to z, write for this term 


9 du 
dz® 


while Voigt considers the general forms of the expression given by the 
ordinary elastic solid theory, which, of course, reduces for the case of an 
isotropic medium to 


ev*ut+ ge, 
dz 


where 
_ du ,dv , dw 


de dy dz 


Lov) 


For the forces represented by =, Voigt again considers the general 
case of a strained elastic solid, while Helmholtz and Lommel after him 
write 
9 dU 

dt * 

For the proper values to be given to A and A there is great divergence 

of opinion shown in the three theories. 


— 


Z=—aU-—y 


1 In his paper Lommel—as has been pointed out by;Ketteler, ‘ Optische Contro- 
rersen,’ Wied. Ann. t. xviii. p. 387, and Voigt, ‘Bemerkungen zu Herrn Lommel’s 
Theorie des Lichtes,’ Wied. Ann. t. xvii. p. 468—really employs the condition A —A=0, 
for he estimates ~ and U in opposite directions. In his reply, Wied. Ann. t. xix. 
p. 908, Lommel endeavours to justify the signs used, but I think withoutsuccess. The: 
effect will be to change the sign of a coefficient in one of the terms. 


222 REPORT—1885. 


Helmholtz supposes, ‘um die Bewegungsgleichungen zu vervoll- — 
stindigen,’ that A is proportional to the relative displacement of the 
ether and atoms in the element of volume, and writes, therefore, 


A=/p2(U — u). 


Lommel supposes that the action ‘follows Newton’s law of friction,’ 
‘and depends on the relative velocity of the two; he puts, therefore, 


A= ed (U—u). 
dt 


The expression given by Voigt is much more complicated, and can 
best be considered later. Thus the equations we have to deal with are— 


2 2 
m du _ 2 + 6?(U —w) 
C dz? 


oi 20 
LU 22 2 dU ( ) 
bog =P (U—u)-a te 
d ¢ 
(Helmholtz), and 
Ou tg thn poder 
sist a a age rashes u) 
(21) 
?U ne rey? d = _ 2 9 dU * 
La pa. U uv) Aged as 
(Lommel). 


The method of solution is the same in both. w and U, which, strictly 
are the displacements of ether and matter in the same volume in the dis- 
placed condition, are treated as if they were the displacements of ether 
and matter having the same undisturbed co-ordinates x, y, z. This is 
legitimate, for U and wu are both taken to be functions of the position of 
the wave front and the time only, and hence for all points on the same 
wave front U has at a given instant the same value. 

Assume, then, 

u“u= We —kz+ in (z—ct)/e 
U = Ae7k=t+in (—ed/c+ ) (22) 
i is the coefficient of absorption, c the velocity, and 27/n the period of 
the vibration. . 5 
On substituting these valnes in Helmholtz’s equations, we find 


1 Bim B pe uae Bley 1) 
5 fx B p pn a p F (say) (23) 


bs a 


ce on? at «an? = an? (un? — a? — B?)? + yn 
and 
2k pty? 1 


cn an (pn? — a? — (37)? + An? 


== G,(87;) |! soem aan 


* In this equation the sign of 8? has been changed from that given b i 
é y Lommel in 
accordance with the remark on p. 221; but see Lommel’s repl 6 iot. Wi j 
fabled ply to Voigt, Wied. Ann. 
t A, of course, no longer has the same meaning as above, but is the amplitude of 
the matter vibrations. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 223 


‘To solve these, put 


1 = p COS w 
C ? 
k = p sin @, 
2 
‘Then 
ea p? cos 20 = F 
cz om 
u A 4 } (25) 


<” = p? sin 2u0= 
om TP Sin Aw G 
Thus the value of &, on which the absorption depends, is proportional 
to y’, the coefficient of dU /dt in the equation, and vanishes if y? is zero; 
that is, if there be no frictional resistance to the matter motion. If k& be 
at all appreciable, the light-disturbance will penetrate but a little way 
into the medium, so that for transparent media we may treat k, and there- 
fore G, as small. 
In this case we have 
1 1G 


are shan peepee : 
e ae oe 


while in the small term we may put for G/F the value 2ke/n. 
In these circumstances, then, 
Las pty? 1 


G= : x ‘ ape 
2 2a u? (n?— 7)? +4 (2? + wo”) a? ( 6) 


where 


(27) 


pr? =a? + ? — 4 /2p 
w= y*/4y? 


Thus, as » changes k/c is a maximum when n=1; if the corresponding 
values of & and c be iy and co, then 


Co (n2— 12)? yas 
B11 + gaan ae iam yf De leat 


If the value of y be zero, then, for n= 1, k is intinite compared with c; all 
the light is absorbed. 

At the same time A is large, and we have, in dealing with the motion 
of the matter particles, to consider the limit of Ae—*:, 

Turning, now, to the refraction, let C be the velocity of light in free 
space, N the refractive index, and suppose that the term 1G?/F may be 
neglected, then 


W= Or ei at p [4A (v? + 2a? — n?) (29) 
2 mn? myn? {(v? — n?)? + 4a2(1? + w)} 


a 


and the maxima and minima values of this expression lead to the limiting 
values of the refractive index. 


These, it is shown, are given approximately by n? — »? = + 2ya, which 


224 REPORT—1885. 


correspond nearly to the maxima of absorption. Thus, as we go up the 
spectrum, the refractive power is a maximum for the value of n, given by 
=v? —Qve,and a minimum for *?=v?+2vea. There is, therefore, — 
abnormal dispersion in the neighbourhood of the absorption band, but | 
elsewhere the refractive index increases with n. Again, for large values 
of n we have N?=C?m/a?. Now, if the density and the rigidity of the 
ether be the same inall bodies, we should have C? = a?/m, and therefore in 
this case N=1. Thus the light of shortest wave lengths would be trans- 
mitted without refraction, contrary to experimental results. Sellmeyer, 
however, pointed out a method of explaining this difficulty which would 
be consistent with the supposition that C? is equal to a?/m. According 
to him, we must suppose that there is a strong absorption band some- 
where just above the visible limits of the spectrum—that is to say, that 
the value of 1? —2va is just beyond the limits of the visible spectrum, 
and that owing to this the refraction below the band is abnormally 
increased. 

The paper closes with a method for constructing the form of the 
refraction and absorption curves. 

Lommel’s equations can be solved in a similar manner, and lead to 
similar formule. The two theories can best be compared with each 
other and with experiment by changing the notation slightly, and 
adopting that used by Ketteler' in his criticism of the same. Let us put, 


therefore, 


3? = Bp ie | 
y? = pr, K fo : . (30) 
i ni(I — *) 
He 
Then Helmholtz’s equations (23) and (24) become 
1S bel as B v,? B?y,4 (19? — 0?) | 3] 
oe mn a k mn? — mn? { (19? — n*)? + nv 27K} ae 
and 
2k _m BAK (32) 


n 
en a2 pomn{ (vg? — 22) + n?v\2K?} 


and if we suppose A, \,, Ap to be the wave lengths corresponding to the 
periods n, v,, and vo, we find 


fr B2 4 fd? 1) 
| BAR! nm Xi (a 
N 


Fro) es re poet A a 2 
a? ie ae he wy 
' Comes muibier res 
B2 Kw ~ ¥ (33) 
qa™ pm 5 
Te Ke 2 2 

eal Kass 
Xo? ) af AP | 


1 Ketteler, ‘Optische Controversen,’ Wied. Ann. t. xviii. p. 387. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 225 


while the ratio of the amplitudes is given by 


Fane fgiintols esl -(ngeadei? 
2 2 2) 
suena ae 

J { ie a te 
We can give asort of physical meaning to the constants in these formulee 
as follows: \, is the wave length of the natural vibrations of the matter, 
freed from any action of the ether; Ay is their wave length on the suppo- 
sition that the action between the ether and matter is proportional to 
the displacement, while the ether remains fixed; while v, and v9 are the 
frequencies of these vibrations. B yanishes when there is no matter 
present, and since the expression shows that B/m is a number, it is 

probable that B will be proportional to the matter density ; while K is a 

number on which the strength of the frictional retardation depends. 

The quantity 4,, the wave length of the free vibrations (i.e. the dis- 
tance the light-wave travels in a natural free matter period) is immensely 
great compared with X, so that A is small compared with YI, except in the 
cases in which \ does not differ greatly from \o. 

It will be seen at once that the formula for F, on which, when the 
absorption is small, the refractive index depends, in terms of the wave 
length is very complicated. Iam not aware that any attempts have 
been made to compare it carefully with theory. 

In the cases in which K is small (i.e., for transparent media) Ao will 
be an approximate lower limit to the wave length of the light trans- 
mitted. 

If we integrate the equation given by Lommel’s hypothesis, modified 
so as to agree with the principle of action and reaction, we find 


(34) 


B” 2 (x q 
2 2 = -) = (35) 


a2 2 2 B/ 
St 7 paces, 


where B’ is a constant related to the 8? of Lommel’s equations in the 
same manner as B is to GB? above. If, however, we take Lommel’s ex- 
pression strictly, to which he still adheres,! the sign of the fractional 
expression must be changed. 

If we retain the negative sign the formula (35) fails to represent the 
facts. Neglecting for a moment the effect of absorption, and supposing the 
ether to be of the same rigidity and density as in free space, the square of 
the refractive index will be rather less than unity for the longest waves; it 
will then decrease to a minimum value, which will be positive, and then 
rise rapidly through the absorption band, for which A=Ag, reaching a 
maximum a little above the band, from which it will again fall. Absorp- 
tion effects will only slightly modify these conclusions. Thus the 
spectrum above the band ought to be more refracted than that below, and 
except just near the band the refractive index should decrease as the 
wave length decreases. This is fatal to the theory in this form. In its 


* This becomes the expression given by Lommel on substituting B//u—K = &, 
4, = A,, B‘ =m(K — e), and interchanging m and u. 

? Lommel, ‘Zur Theorie des Lichtes,’ Wied. Ann. t. xix. p. 908. 

1885. Q 


226 REPORT—1885. 


original form it is not open to this criticism, and accounts for the facts, 
but its fundamental equations are hopelessly at variance with Newton’s 
third law, so long, at least, as we suppose the mutual reaction limited to 
that between the matter and ether in the element of volume considered 
—that is,so long as we may suppose that there are many molecules in an 
element of volume. The original formula for dispersion leads to results 
which, as Lommel’ has shown, agree fairly with experiment ; and by carry- 
ing the approximation a step further the agreement becomes closer still, 
so that his fundamental equations might be taken as an empirical repre- 
sentation of the facts with some approach to the truth. 

Voigt’s theory differs from these mainly in the values assigned to A 
and A and the methods by which those values are obtained; and before 
treating at length of it, it will conduce to clearness if we consider 
Ketteler’s theory, the results of which have considerable resemblance to 
the two already mentioned, while the work itself is earlier than Voigt’s. 

§ 7. Ketteler? is the author of a large number of papers on this 
subject, and the form in which he has presented his theory has varied 
somewhat, though the central idea which he has endeavoured to express 
has remained the same throughout. The idea seems to be as follows. 
The exact expression of the action between matter and ether, the A and A 
of the fundamental equations, is unknown to us, and we must therefore 
endeavour to eliminate it from the equations. This we can effect by con- 
sidering the work done per unit time on the whole system, into which, of 
course, the mutual reactions will not come, and equating it to the rate of 
change of the kinetic energy. This alone, of course, will only lead to one 
equation, and though in some of his work Ketteler appears to obtain two 
out of it, this, as we shall see shortly, is done by the aid of an additional 
hypothesis. 

It is, however, not till some of the later papers that these views are 
completely developed. In his first paper* he assumes that the action of 
the matter on the ether is to increase its rigidity by the quantity ea, and 
to introduce a resistance axp, where « is constant for the medium and a is 
some unknown function of its dynamical condition, while the forces on the 
matter are a(e’V7p'+x’p’), p’ being the matter displacement, so that, 
considering the motion parallel to z, we have for the ether 


2 2 
m = (e 4+ ea) em + akp } 


and for the matter (36) 
d2 / d2 ! 
m! waa + xp’ 
Arguments similar to those employed by Sellmeyer lead to the equation 
PXP 
aN hy (200 
fait soa (37) 


and on multiplying the first of the equations of motion by p, the second 


1 Lommel, ‘ Ueber das Dispersionsgesetz,’ Wied. Ann. t. xiii. p. 353. 

? Since the above was sent to press, Ketteler has published his optical theories in 
the form of a book, Theoretische Optik : Braunschweig, F. Vieweg und Sohn, 1885. The 
fundamental equations are formed as indicated below (Equation 43), and the remarks 
made in connection with that section apply. 

’ Ketteler, ‘Versuch einer Theorie der (anomalen) Dispersion des Lichtes in 
einfach- und doppelt-brechenden Medien,’ Carl Repertorium, t. xii. p. 322. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 227 
by p’, we find that the condition (37) requires the coefficient of a to 
vanish separately, and we are led to the two equations 

jap Bp! dp 


Up Ma 
ogee aa os 


dp), Habtalat 0.6! soul 
(Sew) #0 (ei ve) 


and these are the two fundamental equations of the theory, from which an 
expression is found for the refractive index in terms of the wave lengths 
‘and constants, viz. :— 


TOs Madhotega ass Yor aout »iseoll 4 noe 
A? 


See sea 


where the = must be taken to include the different kinds of matter 
particles in the medium. So far, at any rate, the theoretical bases of 
these expressions are no more secure than those of Lommel and Helm- 
holtz. The dispersion equation, however, is much more simple than that 
given by Helmholtz, and agrees well, as Ketteler! has himself shown, with 
experiment. 

A second paper ? develops some farther consequences and traces the 
form of the dispersion curve in various circumstances. 

In a third paper * the principles of the theory are stated and applied 
to doubly refracting media, but the equations from which he starts—the 
Same as those given above, only written with three co-ordinates—do not 
express the physical facts which they are intended to do, and the theory 
‘deduced can only be considered as empirical. 

A further attempt, based on this principle of energy alone, is made in 
# more recent paper * to establish two independent equations. Thus, the 
ether mass in an element being displaced a distance ds, the matter mass 
ds’; then the equation 


m <P ds +m! Ode! = 9 V0 Ss P ; - (40) 


is supposed to express the law of the conservation of energy for the ether 
motion ; it neglects entirely the forces on m! from the action of neigh- 
bouring matter. The conservation of energy principle alone will give 
but one equation when applied to the system, though it will of course 
eliminate the unknown reactions between matter and ether. 

Similar remarks must be made with regard to other papers* dealing 
with the formation of the fundamental equations. The equations D of 
the last article referred to are only true on the assumption that the 


' See p. 181. 

* Ketteler, ‘Zum Zusammenhang zwischen Absorption und Dispersion,’ Po0qg. 
Ann. t. 160, p. 466. 

’ Ketteler, ‘Zur Theorie der Dispersion und Absorption des Lichtes in doppelt- 
brechenden Mitteln,’ Pogg. Ann. Ergiinzung, Band viii. p. 444, 

* Ketteler, ‘Das Dispersionsgesetz,’ Wied. Ann. t. vii. p. 658. 

> Ketteler, ‘ Theorie der absorbirenden Anisotropen-Mittel,’ Monatsber. der Konigl. 
Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin, Nov. 13, 1879; < Optische Controversen,’ Wied. Ann. 
t, xviii. p. 387; < Erwiederung auf Herrn Voigt’s Kritik,’ Wied. Ann. Bd. xxi. p- 178. 

’ Q2 


228 REPORT—1885. 


reaction of the matter on the ether produces a force —m/C’ oat while 
the action of the ether on the matter is expressed by a force —mO ap | 

. . ; ie dt?” 
and, indeed, in his most recent work on the subject! he realises clearly 
that the energy principle only leads him to one equation, viz. :— 


d?p d?p! 
m ry dp + m’ aie dp’ = eV *pdp — xp'dp’ : . (41) 


e being the rigidity of the ether in free space—and then combines with 
this a ‘second equation relating to the special mode of action of the 
matter particles, which can be no other than the renowned fundamental 
equation of Bessel’s theory of the pendulum’; this may be written 

. d2p - d?o! ae 

m ae” + m! a kp! . ; , . (42) 
It is then further assumed that the matter particles exert a force Am'p’ 
on the ether, and the equations finally become— 


2 2,/ 
m ee —m'Cy 2 =eV7p + Bmp! 
43) 
2 27 , ( ) 
70} d*p / dp! Bis (ee dp 
m 0 7p +m aa = ¢ + ey 


leading to the equation 


N- NE = = ay dre boa 


where K is a quantity depending on y. When K is small, as is always 
the case in transparent media, this becomes the formula already men- 
tioned, which has been tested over so wide a range by Ketteler. It is 
clear from these last equations that the action of the matter on the ether 


ray 
is represented by m! Coe + Pm'p’, and of the ether on the matter by 


072" It is difficult to conceive of the mechanical principles which 
would lead to these terms as they stand, and the occurrence of the 
imaginary quantity in the expression for the refractive index, to which 
they lead, is a blot on the theory. 

§ 8. In fact, the form of the equations given in his earlier papers a 
leads to results which are more directly intelligible, while the equations 
themselves can, it seems to me, be established by the aid of a suggestion 
due to Ketteler himself (‘ Hine dritte Annahme,’ p. 397). 

For, taking the notation employed when considering Helmholtz and 


* In Ketteler’s paper &, é’ are used for the displacements. I have retained p, p’, in 
accordance with the notation already employed. 

1 ‘Zur Dispersionstheorie des Lichtes,’ Wied. Ann. t. xxi. p. 199. See also 
Ketteler, Theoretische Optik, p. 85, et seq. 

2 Ketteler, ‘ Optische Controversen,’ Wied. Ann. t. xviii. p. 387. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 229 


Lommel, let us assume, according to this third supposition of Ketteler’s, 
that the reaction between the ether and matter is proportional to the 
relative accelerations of the two. Helmholtz supposes it proportional to 
the relative displacements, Lommel to the relative velocities. In this 
case, then, 

a9 a? 


A=- 2 w-, 
and hence 
a) 
m qt P Gp is, 
s PU 2 a? pr i 
dt? / dt? ( i Siernlat 
Thus 
us « Bm dU_ mx 
di? m+p d® m+ p? ; ; + Gm 


ape =d2u ‘ i mm 


pp Pt d@—p—p? . . . (46) 


And, with Ketteler’s assumptions as to the forces X and 2, these may be 
written as follows— 


du (PU wy gu 
me + pe ioba 12 
Pu, &U a aepe ag m= Se 
vad @ Sieedae qt aS 
uO oa + Bap (#U +87), 


which are the same in form as Ketteler’s equations, though a? is not the 
rigidity of the free ether, while there is a relation between C and C’, for 


Gy at a Le 
po m+ (3 
48 
p— PP? 


However, this does not matter, for it is the product CC’ which comes 
into the fundamental equations of the solution, and we find 


2 
D (Aeoach)or «:) 
_ ioe (m3 
(x3 ) di?) 
nn 
2k m ais 50 
cna? 2 1 2 as ‘ ( aay) 
(aw “ck. Ping 


where D = CO’, and K is proportional to y?. 

The quantity a?/m is no longer the square of the velocity in free 
space, and cannot be put equal to unity, and, in fact, a?/m will be the 
square of the refractive index for very long waves. Ketteler (p. 398) 


230 REPORT— 1885. 


seems to consider it an objection to his theory that it gives a value dif- 
fering from unity to the refractive index for infinite waves, but the objec- 
tion is not, I think, serious. As has been stated before, the dispersion 
equation given by his theory has been repeatedly tested by Ketteler,! 
and the agreement between theory and experiment is very satisfactory.. 
Thus we may probably look upon this equation as one established em- 
pirically by his experiments, and while not agreeing with the reasoning 
employed by Ketteler in forming his equations of motion, may see in 
those equations the expression of a possible law of action between matter 
and the ether. 

§ 9. Let us now turn to Voigt’s work, which is of more recent date. 
He has been a severe critic of his predecessors, and objects strongly to 
various points in their work. 

In his first paper? on the subject Voigt, following Boussinesq,> 
remarks that md?u/dt? and pd?U /di? being quantities of the same order, 
U will be very small compared with u because p is very large compared 
with m; it is therefore not necessary to introduce terms involving U 
into the differential equations for v. To this we may reply, (1) that it is 
quite possible that the coefficients of U and its differential coefficients. 
involve » the matter density, and that in consequence the terms in ques- 
tion are comparable with md?u/dt®, and (2) that in the critical case 
near the absorption band the value of U becomes large, and may be 
quite comparable with w. 

Voigt also objects to the form adopted for = in all the previous 
theories, viz. — (kU + ydU/dt), pointing out that Helmholtz introduced 
the «U ‘zur Vereinfachung der Rechnung,’ and the ydU/dt to explain 
the transformation of light-energy into heat. If the ponderable matter 
is to be looked on as an elastic solid, then, according to Voigt, we ought 
to put for = terms like a?V?U + b?dé/dz. To this Lommel replies“ 
that the matter molecules each as a whole are not affected by the pas- 
sage of the wave of light, but that intra-molecular or atomic motions are 
set up, and that the forces arising from these are represented by his 
terms, how he does not explain. 

Of course, since it is assumed that U = Ae*t+m™@-alc” 
V?U= —(k + in/c)?U, the difference between the two will only show 
itself in a change in the refraction formula. 

The main criticism ° of Ketteler’s work relates to the method in which 
the equations are obtained. To this we have already referred. 

§ 10. After these criticisms we turn to the consideration of Voigt’s © 
own theory. His fundamental equations are, as we have seen, 


1 Ketteler, ‘Constructionen zur anomalen Dispersion,’ Wied. Ann. t. xi. p. 2105: 
‘Einige Anwendungen des Dispersionsgesetzes auf durchsichtige, halbdurchsichtige 
und undurchsichtige Mittel,’ Wied. Ann. t. xii. p. 363 ; ‘ Experimentale Untersuchung 
liber den Zusammenhang zwischen Refraction und Absorption des Lichtes,’ Wied.. 
Ann. t. xii. p. 481 ; ‘ Photometrische Untersuchungen,’ Wied. Ann. t. xv. p. 336. 

2 *Bemerkungen zu Herrn Lommel’s Theorie des Lichtes,’ Wied. Ann. t. xvii. p. 468.. 

8 See p. 213. 

4 Lommel, ‘ Zur Theorie des Lichtes,’ Wied. Ann. t. xix. p. 908. 

5 Voigt, ‘Ueber die Grundgleichungen der optischen Theorie des Herrn E.. 
Ketteler,’ Wied. Ann. t. xix. p.691; ‘ Duplik gegen Herrn Ketteler,’ Wied. Ann. t. xxi.. 
p. 534; Ketteler, ‘Erwiederung auf Herrn Voigt’s Kritik, Wied. Ann. t xxi. p. 178;: 
‘Duplik gegen Herrn Voigt,’ Wied. Ann. t. xxii. p. 217. 

® Voigt, ‘Theorie des Lichtes fiir vollkommen durchsichtige Medien,’ Wied. Ann.. 
t. xix. p. 873. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 231 
d?u 
getas —9 x A 
m IP + + ae 
PU _ Ha + =H + A 
Pe 


X/ and &’ are each put equal to zero, and the condition A +A=0 is 
assumed ; that is, it is supposed, as we have stated before, that the sphere 
of action of each ether particle on the matter is small compared with the 
dimensions of the element of volume considered. 

An expression is then found for the rate at which work is being done 
on the compound medium, and the condition formed that this expression 
should be a function of the time only. 

So far as the terms depending on the mutual reactions are concerned, 
the rate of increase of the energy is given by 


i= {e (vol.),(A Hw 4B 0 +0 tee) 
(52) 
+> fe (surface) yj. S,, = J (vol.) + J (surface) 


where the = implies that more than one medium may come into con- 
sideration, and the integrals are to extend over the whole volume of each 
separate medium and all the interfaces between the media, these being 
indicated by J (vol.) and J (surf.) respectively. 

Forms are then found for A, B, C which make J (vol.) a complete 
differential coefficient with respect to the time, and at the same time lead 
to linear equations of motion which admit of solution in the form 
—° my+nz+et) Hour possible forms are found, which are given 

elow. 


QQ) —A,=n,(u—- U)+ 03(v — V+) + 02(w — W) } 
=p, 4e-V) _ », do —W) 

Ua a | 
CRN eh a i Aa (53) 
eee prrria <i eg MERIT aye | 

ae ay — V d3(w—W) 
2 ae ) a 


It will be noticed that (1) gives us Helmholtz’s theory ; (3) gives 
us Ketteler’s in the modified form I have suggested; for an isotropic 
medium it is shown that the coefficients o and s vanish. Lommel’s form is 
not included in the above; it is therefore, we see, inconsistent with the 
conservation of energy in the medium. 

But there are other terms in the volume integral J (vol.) which will, 
when combined with suitable terms in the surface integral J (surf.), make 
the whole up to a differential coefficient of the time. 

These terms are given by 


ee day, dA, aAg 
sate Keg ha ayia Wy 


2a REPORT—1885. 


etc., and lead to terms in the volume integral 


d?(u —U) d?(u — U) d?(u —U) 


a (let us suppose) . (55) _ 


Then /’ is a function of — yw, etc., and four possible forms are found 
for A,, etc., viz. putting yx, etc., for the differential coefficients 
a(t U) etc. 
dx 
(5) f’s,a homogeneous function of x; . . . xq 
(oh fie 
— (A,); =, ete. 
( x) 5 dx ? ete 
Thus — A, = Din,; x, etc., 
with ,,=7,;. 
dx; 
(6) ore A, a =p jj a etc., 
with the conditions p,;;= 0, 
Pi = —Piis 
giving f’, = constant. 
— xy. Px: 
(7) — Aa = Bry 
with r= 1;;, 
and — 2f/, = 23r, dx: ax; 
; Y “dt dt 
3 
(8) — A= Bid Xx 


dt’ 


with qi = 0, Vi = — Via 


d?y; dx; dx, d 
df, = ae Xs), 
ee: 16\ Ge at ae df 


We have thus eight possible forms of values for A, etc., all or any of 
which may occur in the equations. In the equations for the ether, 
U, V, W, being very small compared with w, v, w, are omitted. 

An isotropic body is one in which no one direction differs in its 
properties from any other. For such a body it is supposed that the forces 
defined by 2, 4, 6, and 8 above do not exist, and a, a’ being the 
coefficients in —2/’; and — 2’, respectively, it is shown that the equation 
for plane waves travelling parallel to z is— 

du du d4 


3 pede. 4 au ! Bos Be 
(m +r) aie (e+ a) 78 +a agit nu. (56) 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 233 
and hence, m(e+a)_ 4a'x? 
[SS e ? 
cs nr2m 
m+r—- 
Aer? 


_X being the wave length in air and N the refractive index. 


The complete value for A is— 


—. .a@(u—U) d?(u—U) d*(u—U) - 
A=>-r Sas Oa +a! i AL n(u—U) . (57) 
and in the above equation (56) U has been treated as small compared 
with w. 

We see thai the first and last terms are those given by the theories 
of Ketteler and Helmholtz respectively; Voigt’s more general theory 
includes them as particular cases. The first and third terms occur in the 
theory developed by Boussinesq, which is also included in Voigt’s. 

In a further paper, in reply to some criticisms of Lommel, who argues 


that a wave propagated through the molecules of the medium must be a 


sound-wave, and that therefore the matter motion which affects the trans- 
mission of light must be intra-molecular not inter-molecular, Voigt 
shows,! by taking the matter motion into account, that the velocity of wave 
propagation in a mcdium constituted as supposed will be given by a 
quadratic equation. One root of this quadratic will be comparable with 
the velocity of light in this medium, the other with that of sound; while 
the ratio of the energy of the matter to that of the ether in the light- 
motion is the reciprocal of the same ratio in the sound-motion. 

Voigt’s theory applies only to perfectly transparent media, and its aim is 
to show that the optical properties of all such media can be explained on 
an elastic solid theory by considering the mutual reactions of two 
mutually interpenetrating elastic media. The author does not touch the 
problem of absorption, because for that purpose we require to deal with 
the molecular motion to which, in his opinion, heat effects are due, and 
these lie outside the domain of elastic solid theories. He does, however, 
deal with double refraction, circular and elliptic polarisation, and the 
yarious problems connected with reflexion and refraction. Most of these 
haye been treated of also by Lommel and Ketteler. 


Chapter II.—Dovsite Rerraction. 


We will consider first the problem of double refraction. All three 
explain it in a similar manner. Within a crystal the action of the 
matter particles on the ether will depend on the direction of vibration, 
and some or other of the constants of the theory will be functions of this 
direction. It is assumed that the ether remains isotropic, and that there 
are three axes of symmetry, which are taken as those of the co-ordinates. 

§ 1. Lommel? in his theory treats the constant we have denoted by 
@ as a function of the direction. /3?, which determines the action 
between ether and matter, and y?, on which the frictional effects depend, 


1 Voigt, ‘Zur Theorie des Lichtes,’ Wied. Ann. t. xx. p. 144. 
? Lommel, ‘ Theorie der Doppelbrechung,’ Wied. Ann. t. iv. p. 55. 


234 REPORT—1885. 


are left invariable, so that the ether equations remain unaltered, and the 
matter equations become— 
a?U 


dU 
Yae 


d 
= ta) 4 - ‘ ‘ . (58) 
and similar equations with a? and a3”. It has been shown by him that 
for a transparent medium the velocity is given by 1/r, where r is a 
radius, drawn in the direction of displacement of the surface— 


2 24 2 a? y? ! 2 = 9 2 hae = 
(+y 48-1) (sete ity i)=* +y+2 (59) 
1 a Saas 


and the directions of vibration are the axes of a section of this surface by 
the wave. 

These results are at variance with experiment, which requires that the 
wave surface should be that of Fresnel, and no reason is assigned in 
the paper for making a” rather than (3? or y? a function of the direction. 

Circular polarisation and the rotation of the plane of polarisation ! 
are also treated of by introducing into the equation for U the term 


— 20 cos os and into the equation for V, 20 cos ies where 6 de- 


pends on the strength of the magnetic force, and a is the angle 
between its direction and the axis of z. 
From this it follows that the rotation is proportional to 


a b 
tpt ; 


and the results of calculation agree fairly well with Verdet’s experiments.? 

For the rotation of sugar terms of the same kind, but without the 
cos a, are introduced. 

It has been shown long since, by Airy,? Neumann, and MacCullagh, 
that such terms in the equations would lead to results in fair agreement 
with experiment, and Lommel does not attempt any other justification of 
their existence than that the results they lead to are in agreement with 
experiment. Similar remarks apply to his paper on the properties of 
quartz,* in which the same terms are added to the differential equations 
already found for a crystalline media. The two waves travelling in any 
given direction inclined at an angle 6 to the axis are elliptically polarised. 
The elliptic paths of the particles are similar ; their ratio is given by— 


dy cos? 8 
Sr ary es 9 eee Wile 60 
Yb sin? 0 + {b? sin! 0 + do? cos! 6}! (60) 


and the difference of phase between the two by 
d? = b? sin‘ 0 + dy? cost @ . . a i 


where b and dy are functions of the refractive indices and wave lengths. 
The axial rotation is given by— 
N?—1)? 
Be ath 

? Lommel, ‘Theorie der Dehnung der Polarisationsebene,’ Wied. Ann. t. xiv. p. 523. 

2 Verdet, Ann. de Chim. (3), t. 69, p. 471. 

3 Airy, Phil. Mag. June, 1846; Neumann, Die magnetischen Dehnungen, Halle, 
1863 ; McCullagh, Roy. Irish Trans. 

* Lommel, ‘ Theorie der elliptischen Doppelbrechung,’ Wied. Ann. t. xv. p. 378. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 235 


These results are all in close agreement with experiment. 

In another paper! this formula is carried to a higher degree of ap- 

a(N?—1)? 
a. 


proximation, and reduces to Q= This agrees well with the 


measurements of Soret and Sarasin, between the wave lengths 7604 and 
2143. 

§ 2. Ketteler’s contributions to the theory of double refraction have 
been very numerous. Most of the papers already mentioned,? contain 
something on the subject. The theory given in the first of the papers 
mentioned is in its fundamental principles in close accordance with that 
developed by Lord Rayleigh in 1871, though the equations given on p. 95, 
following Von Lang, as representing the motion in a crystalline elastic 
solid are incorrect. In it a distinction is drawn between the displace- 
ment normal to the ray, which leads, it is said, to equations of the form— 


2 1 - 
(m+ mae + P= ay . ‘ . (63) 
and those in the wave front, for which the equations are— 
q 
(pio) (Ss a #) Zt gig 8B) oe Lea 


The arguments by which the second equation is deduced from the first 
are somewhat obscure ; they are, however, further developed in a later 
paper.* The ray direction is defined as that in which the energy of the 
vibration is propagated, and the direction of vibration is normal to this. 

The fundamental equations of this theory have already been given.‘ 
They are, in their final form,° 


d?u , aU rues yp 
m3 RRA CT Eo =e V7 2u+ Bm’'U | 
» (65) 
d*u aU dU 
Ot acs ay th gre Bb ery: dhe 
ached lana aiid @ slic 


where the constants Co, 3, « and y may all be functions of the direction. 
It is shown in the paper (‘ Optische Controversen ”) now before us that the 
conditions of incompressibility require that Cy, « and y should be constant, 
so that the theory turns entirely on the variability with the direction of }, 
or rather of C’, which is connected with Cy by the equation— 


Cites cos oe ales aaa 


C= po as 

An? 

; This is fatal to the groundwork of the theory, for in its form in the 
Optische Controversen’ it is assumed that C’ and Cy are unconnected. 

The paper ‘ Zur Dispersionstheorie’ starts without the term in /, 

arriving at the equation C’ + C)=0, and then (p. 203) inserts the B ‘in 


: ‘Lommel, ‘ Das Gesetz der Rotationsdispersion,’ Wied. Ann. t. xx. p. 578. 

See p. 179 ; and also Ketteler, ‘ Zur Theorie der Doppelbrechung,’ Wied. Ann. 
t. vii. p. 94; ‘Theorie der absorbirenden Anisotropen-Mittel,’ Monatsber. der Kénigl. 
Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin, November 13, 1879. 

* Ketteler, ‘Optische Controversen II.’ Wied. Ann. t. xviii. p- 631. 

4 See p. 228. 

* Ketteler, ‘ Zur Dispersionstheorie des Lichtes,’ Wied. Ann. t. xxi. p. 199. 


236 REPORT—1885. 


pets 


order to explain experimental results.’ Introducing the term CO’, as F 


defined above, the equations become— 


daily da 
m5 CF tae ev *u 
: (67) 
pe RG Sa Re 
vi Cora + de = (0 + Lorry ) | 


These equations will not lead to satisfactory results. 
Circular ' and elliptic polarisation are also treated of by Ketteler, and 
are explained on the supposition that terms of the form — ( fV + i 


come into the equation for U, and.terms + (#0 + oT) into that for V. 
d 


N?-1] : 
— N being 


the refractive index, while the value of N in a crystal like quartz may 
be found from the formula— 
N’?—1= (N,?—1) (1 + cos?0) + (Ny? —1) sin? @+ [(N,? —N,?) sin‘ 0 
+ 4°? cos? 0(N,? — 1)(N,? cos? 0+ N,? sin?9—1)}'. . (68) 
N, and N, being the refractive indices at right angles to the axis, and k, 


a constant on which the rotatory power depends. For ordinary active 
media the law of the rotation is 


The rotation in a magnetic medium is given by Q= af 


Ost > + “4, ete. : é -" \€69) 

It will be noticed that in the theories of both Lommel and Ketteler the 
rotatory terms are introduced into the equations of the matter particles, 
and affect the ether only indirectly through the values of 1, v, and w. 

§ 3. Voigt’s work? embraces double refraction and circular polarisa- 
tion. The existence of three principal axes is assumed, and for these the 
coefficients o and s in the values of f, and f,* of equations (53) vanish. 
The values of f; and /, are written down with coefficients a,, do, etc., and 
a,', ao’, etc., respectively, and finally the equation of motion for w is 
obtained in the form— 
dp d 


—— 1,U + a, 


da? : d?u du 
(m +71) Fa Sev ut = + dy. 2 


estes SS ei ee 

a dep” Oa 

+ (c3 + b3) oe + (¢y + by) wath + La [similar terms with a,’, etc.] (70) 
dady dadz dt? i 

It will be seen that there are enough coefficients here to give any 


imaginable theory of double refraction. 
Put m+7,; =, etc. Then the equations may be written 


d? du du d?u , dP 
(mate )u= aio Bis ati aati tedat . (71) 


* Ketteler, ‘ Theorie der circularen und elliptischen polarisirenden Mittel,’ Wied. 


Ann. t. xvi. p. 86. 


* ‘Theorie des Lichtes fiir vollkommen durchsichtige Medien,’ Wied. Ann. t. xix. 
p. 873. * See p. 231. 


| 
. 
4 
J 


IN OPTICAL THEORIES. 237 


Where A, =A, + as A, and A,’ being functions of a, b, c, ete., and P 


is a linear function of p and the differential coefficients oe ete. 


d 
The equations in this form may be compared with Green’s, which differ 
from them only in the facts that his coefficients of d?w/dt?, d?y/dt?, and 
@z/di? are the same, and his other coefficients are independent of the 
time. Voigt’s equations, in fact, include both Green’s and those given by 
Lord Rayleigh. 
Let r be the period of vibration, and denote m, — 7,77 by T,, ete. ; then 


it is shown that if we assume the relation - + gis + tes 0, in order to 
ye 


dy dz 
obtain Fresnel’s wave surface at all the condition T,; =T,=T,;=T is 
necessary. 

These equations being satisfied, the other relations required to give 
Fresnel’s construction on either assumption as to the connection between 
the plane of polarisation and the direction of vibration are those given by 
Green, with the addition that since in Voigt’s coefficients the period is 
involved, and since Fresnel’s construction holds for all wave lengths, each 
of Green’s relations splits into two. 

A difficulty as to the meaning of the constants leads Voigt to prefer 
Neumann and MacCullagh’s theory as to the position of the plane of 
polarisation. To obtain Fresnel’s original construction it is necessary to 
suppose B,, to be different from B,,, and this would imply that elastic 
reactions are brought into play by rotating an element of ether as a whole 
without dilatation ; that, in the ordinary notation of elastic solids, T,, is 
different from T.,. If we treat this as out of the question, then B,, must 
be equal to B,,, and Fresnel’s original construction for the plane of polari- 
‘sation is impossible. 

Circular polarisation is explained by the terms introduced by /,, f;, fs, 
and f, of above,' but the terms to which /, and f, would give rise are 
omitted as not necessary to explain any known phenomena, and the 
equations in an isotropic medium become— 


Ob ay Ob dv p' dv 
Tf Ee ie eae 


ete. ; the rotation produced by a thickness ¢ of the medium will be— 


2 
(m+ cee (e+ a) 


> 


eee apes se nec ae 


The same terms are then applied to a crystal, and the case of a uniaxial 
erystal such as quartz is worked out in full. 


The equation to determine the velocity in a direction making an angle 
6 with the axis is found to be— 


12 
(u8— a2) (w? — a? cost 0 — D4 sin? 0) =1( pu? 2 ) G3 


a and 6 being the velocities at right angles to the axis. 
_ This paper then gives a consistent account of the propagation of light 
in all known transparent bodies. We proceed to deal with the problem 


1 See p. 231. 


238 REPORT—1885. 


of reflexion and refraction on this theory, and after that to make some — 
general remarks on the whole. . 


Chapter III.—Reriexion and ReErraction. 


§ 1. Lommel, so far as I am aware, has not considered the problem 
of the reflexion and refraction of light on his theory. Ketteler, however, 
has discussed it in many of his papers. 

In one of the earlier papers ' the fundamental principles on which he 
intends to work are laid down. They are as follows :— 

I. The conservation of energy. 

Ila. The continuity of the stress parallel to the surface of separation. 

IIb. The continuity of the component of the force on an element 
resolved normal to the surface. 

III. The continuity of the displacement resolved along the surface. 

The reasons given for IIb. in place of the correct principle of the 
continuity of the stress normal to the surface are not very clearly stated. 

No assumption, except such as is implied in I. and III. combined, is 
made as to the displacement normal to the surface. 

The principles are then applied to the general problem, but in express- 
ing them in symbols, except in the case of I., the motion of the matter 
is entirely neglected. Thus the stress considered in II. is only that 
arising from the action of the ether; the part which springs from the 
reaction of the matter is omitted from consideration. Again, in forming 
the equations connecting the amplitudes of the incident reflected and 
refracted rays, IIb. is not employed. 

Ketteler’s work, then, in this paper is not really specially connected 
with his theory of the mutual reaction between the ether and matter. It 
is rather a modification of Fresnel and Green’s work, for which there 
can be no justification assigned. The problem of metallic reflexion is 
discussed, and in a second part? of the same paper that of moving media. 
In the next paper on this subject * the correct principle of the continuity 
of the stress normal to the bounding surface is introduced in place of one 
of the other conditions, but it is supposed that the term involving the 
dilatation disappears in consequence of the incompressibility of the ether ; 
in reality, as Green showed, the coefficient of that term is very large, and 
it must be retained to give correct results. Ketteler fails to see this, and 
hence concludes that the retention of Green’s longitudinal wave is 
unnecessary. He then considers, as Green had done, the problem of total 
reflexion ; and, through not taking into account the continuity of the dis- 
placement normal to the surface, appears to be able to do without the 
jongitudinal waves. The motion of the matter particles does not come 
into consideration. 

Another series of surface conditions are given in the next paper on the 
subject, and the matter particles being treated merely as a sort of 


1 Ketteler, ‘ Beitrige zur einer endgiiltigen Feststellung der Schwingungsebene 
des polarisirten Lichtes,’ Wied. Ann. t. i. p. 206. 

2 Ketteler, Wied. Ann. t.i. p. 556. 

8 Ketteler, ‘Zur Theorie der longitudinalen elliptischen Schwingungen im incom- 
pressiblen Ether,’ Wied. Ann. t. iii. pp. 83, 284. See also Theoretische Optik, p. 130. 

4 Ketteler, ‘ Ueber den Uebergang des Lichtes zwischen absorbirenden isotropen 
und anisotropen Mitteln und tiber die Mechanik der Schwingungen in denselben,’ 
Wied. Ann. t. vii. p. 107. 


- 
od ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 239 


ballast, their motions do not come into the surface conditions. While, 
finally,' Ketteler adopts the principle enunciated by Kirchhoff,? and 
already discussed above,* viz. that no work is done by the action of the 
stresses in the media on the bounding surface. In applying this principle 
he equates to zero, as Kirchhoff has done, the terms involving the dilata- 
tion ; and this, as has been already shown, leads to MacCullagh’s formule 
on his assumption as to the equality of the density in the two media, and 
to Fresnel’s if the rigidity be assumed equal in the two. The theory is 
applied to metallic reflexion and total reflexion within crystals in another 
paper. Thus, while Ketteler’s first theory> was in reality Green’s 
erroneously altered, this second theory is that given by Kirchhoff in the 
paper already quoted. Neither of them really seems to me to involve the 
distinctive features of Ketteler’s theory of the propagation of light. 

§ 2. Voigt’s theory is contained in the paper already referred to.® 

The conditions assumed are :-— 

I. The displacement of the parallel to the surface ether is continuous 
in the two media. 

II. The displacement normal to the surface multiplied by the density 
is continuous.” 

III. Kirchhoff’s principle—viz. that the work done by the stresses on 
the interface of the two media vanishes. 

Tn evaluating the expression for this work Voigt takes into account 
correctly the terms arising from the action of the matter on the ether. 
The displacements which come into the equations expressing the first 
two conditions are strictly displacements of the ether relatively to the 

matter, but since it is assumed that the motion of the matter particles 
is very small compared with that of the ether, the absolute displacements 
of the ether particles are introduced. 

The results arrived at, however, are hardly satisfactory. In the first 

place, in evaluating the expression for the work done on the surface, the 
term involving the dilatation is omitted. Voigt has taken it into account 
in his equations of motion; his reason for omitting it here is not given. 
He thus avoids the question of the so-called longitudinal vibrations. 

He then considers the case of vibrations at right angles to the plane 
of incidence, and arrives at the formule— 


E, + R, =D, 
(m, +17, —,7?) (E, — R,) sin¢, cos¢, : . (74) 


= (m2 + 72 — Ng7”) D, sing. cos, 


_E, B, and D being the amplitudes of the incident reflected and refracted 
‘Waves. 


* ‘Ketteler, ‘Optische Controversen II.’ Wied. Ann. t. xviii. p. 632. 

* Kirchhoff, Abhandl. der Berl. Ahad. 1876, p. 57. 

5 See p. 193. 

* Ketteler, ‘Ueber Probleme welche die Neumann’sche Reflexionstheorie nicht 
‘lésen 24 kénnen scheint,’ Wied. Ann. t. xxii. p. 204. 

5 See p. 162. 

® Voigt, ‘ Theorie des Lichtes fiir vollkommen durchsichtige Medien,’ Wied. Ann. 
‘t. xix. p.873. See also Voigt, ‘ Ueber die Grundgleichungen der optischen Theorie des 
-Herrn E. Ketteler,’ Wied. Ann. t. xix. p. 691, especially p. 696 seq. 
| 7 See p. 186; also Cornu, Ann. de Chim. (4), t. xi. p. 283. 
: 
: 


240 REPORT—1885. 


These become MacOullagh’s and Neumann’s formule on the assumption 
that 


M, +7) =M,+75 ) 


(75) 
Ny, = Ng ) 
They become Fresnel’s if 
€) +a, =e, + a5 
bea tani aet °? i odd a aed 
a’, =a, 


for these equations lead—remembering the value of the velocity—to the 
condition— 

m,+r;—n,7? __ sin’, 

My+%g—Ngi2 sin?d, 


For the vibrations in the plane of incidence the results of the first and 
second principles are inconsistent with that of the third, For the first 
and second give 

E,+R,) cos¢, =D, cos¢ ) 
( v ») pil Pp a 2 , : (77) 
m,(H, —R,) sing; =m, D, sing, ) 


while the first and third give, instead of this second equation, 
(m, +7; — 7,77) (EB, — R,) sind, = (my + 72 —Ng7”) D, singg. (78) 


They become consistent if we assume m, =, and, adopting Neu- 
mann’s hypothesis, 
F : r, =1o, nN, = No, 
or, adopting Fresnel’s, 
€; + a, = ey + Ag, a, =o. 


Tn another paper! it is shown that Kirchhoff’s principle, when applied 
to circularly polarising media, leads to an impossible result, and the 
principle is modified by the supposition that the work done is a function 
of the time only, and not zero. 

The theory of ordinary absorbing media is developed? from the 
supposition that terms involving a loss of energy may come in through 
the mutual reaction of the ether and matter, and it is shown that these 


would lead to terms of the form—1 +¢V tee in the equation for 
6 
u, which merely becomes, for waves travelling parallel to z, 
d?u d?u du du 
A — . - ; 
hags icc ae aie ae OA aD (79) 
where 
M,=*#, +7) —7,7? 
/! : : ; - (80 


In considering the problem of reflexion in this case, Voigt assumes 
that the plane zy being the face of incidence, Mw is continuous. The 


1 Voigt, ‘Das G. Kirchhoff’sche Princip und die Theorie der Reflexion und 
Brechung an der Grenze circular-polarisender Medien,’ Wied. Ann. t. xx. p. 522. 
2 Voigt, ‘ Theorie der absorbirenden isotropen Medien,’ Wied. Ann. t. xxiii. p. 104. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 241 


rinciple laid down in the former paper! would require that this should 
be mw, not Mw, as he points out, remarking that the equation given is only 
true under certain restrictions, and, in fact, he shows that for vibrations 
in the plane of incidence the continuity of Mw is inconsistent with the 
energy equation, at least unlessb=0. The energy equation gives— 


dw, 
dt 
and this form is assumed for the rest of the work. 

Expressions are then found for the difference of phase between the 
reflected, refracted, and incident beams, and for their relative intensities, 
and these are compared with theory on the assumption that the con- 
stant b vanishes, and that M,=M,. The results of the comparison are 
satisfactory ; but this, however, can hardly be said for the principles 
from which they are deduced, while the difficulties we have already 
alluded to as to the negative value for the real part of the square of the 
refractive index remain in their full force. 


M, Wy) = Mw, as bor 


(81) 


Chapter IV.—Tuerory or Sir Wituiam Tomson. 
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. 


§ 1. The lectures of Sir William Thomson delivered last year at 
Baltimore have developed a new interest in the theories now under con- 
sideration. After discussing at some length the elastic solid theory and 
throwing much light on it, and on the meaning of the twenty-one 
coefficients of Green’s theory, he points out its unfitness to explain the 
phenomena, and then proceeds to work out the consequences of a special 
form of reaction between the ether and matter; this he illustrates in his 
own inimitable manner by his mechanical model of the ether within 
a transparent body. This mechanical model consists of a number of 
concentric hollow spheres. ach sphere is connected with the one 
Within it by zigzag springs, and in the centre there is a solid mass 
connected also by springs with the shell next to it. The dimensions of 
these shells, which represent the matter molecules, are supposed to be 
small compared with the wave length. The interior molecule will have 
| #number of periods of vibration depending on the number and nature 
of the Spring connections, on its own mass, and on the masses of the 
shells, The springs are supposed to be massless. The shell molecules are 
distributed through the ether in very large numbers, and the outermost 
shell is connected with the ether. 

It is further supposed that the forces arising from the springs are 
proportional to the relative displacements of the centres of the shells, and 
that the ether acts on the first shell with a force proportional to the 
relative displacement of that shell and the ether surrounding it, so that, if 
& be the ether displacement, z,, x, those of the shells, m, /47”, m,/4a?, ete. 
their masses, the equations of motion are, 


y 2. 
iat qa 1 E—m) — One, — 2) 


a 88 Os (4-20) a(n —2,) 


(82) 


2 Voigt, Wied. Ann. t. xix. p. 900. See above, p. 239. 
1885. R 


242 REPORT—1885. 7 


ete. If we suppose the whole motion to be harmonic and of period 7, then 7 
the equations become | 
_ my 


aa a = C, (G = a) 7 C, (x = &o) . 2 4 (83) 
etc., from which the motion of the various shells can be determined. 
The system will represent Helmholtz’s theory if we suppose the viscous 
terms in his expression to vanish, and consider only a single shell. The 
solution in the general case is carried further by putting : 


Ni; 
oC a? C;- Cia] 


. (84) 
and Ue — Cx; | 
i BB tO 
The equations may then be written— 
C”) 
Uy, — a, —_— — 
Uo 
i (85) © 
a8 C;? 
Uy = Ag — — 
us 


etc., whence we find w, as a continued fraction. 
By differentiating these expressions with reference to r~?, and writing - 


6 for 53 We find— 
2 7 
piel atl (1) mie + (CerCiee) Misa +, etc...  . (86)) 
Wir] U4 1 Ui-2 
Hence 
du; i ? 
= Se sama? $M, 274, e . . i : .. (8738 


Thus wu decreases as 7 increases, and if we start from 7, a small quan- — 
tity, the w’s are all large and positive ; hence alternate shells are moving — 
in opposite directions, and the motion of consecutive shells rapidly 
decreases. | 

As 7 increases the w’s decrease, and after a time one will become 
negative, passing through zero—it can be shown that w, is the first one 
thus to become negative. This gives the first critical case in the solution, — 
for then «, is infinitely great compared with £, and the solution fails. 

This equation can be put into the following more convenient form— 


etry | r? k,7R, ko?Ro \ > 
Sire [cet aD 


1 


or 


pe 


where kj, ka, etc., are the critical values of 7, and R,, R,, etc., represent 
the ratio of the energy of the several shells to the whole energy of the 
system. : 
To apply this to the motion of the ether in a transparent body, let 
m,/47*, etc., represent the whole mass contained within shell No. 1 per 
unit vol., let p/4x? be the density, and e/47? the rigidity of the ether, and 
suppose the first shell, of mass m, to be connected by a spring to a massless 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 243 


herical lining, which is in rigid connection with the ether outside. 
Then the equation of motion is— 


2 2 
Be gett AAC) (a, eT SENG 
da? 

Let the solution of this represent a train of waves of period 7 and 
length A, and let V be the wave velocity for the medium. Then 


maa eye (1-4) } 


a 2 J 
pa af C7? (== Ko?Ry 90 
=< [P C7? 4 1+ “my, KT tient: “E: : ] sa. 


and if , be the refractive index, since the velocity in free space is /e/p 
we have, if we put C,«,"?R,=q,m, etc. 


pars {acta 
a 


, 8 ; 
+ qk? (Ss dé z “Ha, 84s .) — terms in qo, 1s} ° PAN EL 


: It follows from this that, g, must be very little less than unity if the 
| formula, neglecting the terms in qp, etc., is to apply to a transparent sub- 
stance such as rock salt, which gives a value for » between 1 and 2 for 
| a range of the spectrum from the visible light to the longest waves emitted 
by a Leslie cube. The formula, we note, is the same in form as that 
given by Ketteler and Briot (see above, page 181), and Ketteler has 
shown that in some fairly transparent substances the coefficient 1—gq, is 
appreciable. qg, is essentially less than unity, so that the term in 7? comes 
in with a negative coefficient. The formula, then, will explain ordinary 
dispersion fairly if we put qo, 73, etc., all zero and take r greater than x. 
The critical cases are then discussed from the form 


cy C,7? (- qr” ry: qor” ze \ 
ee aa ee ee as we - (92) 
In this, 7 is greater than x, and less than «, for ordinary refraction. 
As r decreases down to «,, »? passes through the value infinity and then 
becomes negative, we have greater and greater refraction, and then the 
waves cease to be transmitted and absorption takes place. 

And here we are met with the question—What becomes of the energy 
thus absorbed ? According to our equation the ratio x, /£ becomes infinite, 
and the solution as it stands fails to meet this difficulty. Helmholtz 
introduced the term —y?dU/dt into the motion of the first shell, and this, 
representing as it does a viscous consumption of energy by the matter 
molecules, is objected to by Sir Wm. Thomson. Helmholtz’s solution 
given on p. 221 becomes identical with that at present under discussion if 
we put y=0; it is to meet this case in which r=x, that the term in y? is 
introduced, for if & represent the co-efficient of absorption on Helmholtz’s 
theory, and we suppose y to be small, then, with Thomson’s notation, 


204 
Ea Ae ae 
(? —«,2)2 
very approximately, K being a constant, and & may be very small except 
when 7 is nearly equal to x}. 


R2 


244 REPORT— 1885. : 
In order to account for the extreme transparency of a substance sucl q 
as water, we must suppose & to be so exceedingly small that Sir — 
William prefers to consider it as zero, and says: ‘I believe that the first — 
effect when ‘light begins, of period exactly equal to x), is that each — 
sequence of waves throws in some energy into the molecule. That goes — 
on until somehow or other the molecule gets uneasy. It takes in 
(owing to its great density relative to the ether) an enormous quantity 
of energy before it gets particularly uneasy. It then moves about, and 
begins to collide with its neighbours, perhaps, and will therefore give you 
heat in the gas if it be a gaseous molecule. It goes on colliding with — 
other molecules, and in that way imparting its energy to them. This 
energy is carried away (as heat) by convection, perhaps. Each molecule 
set to vibrating in that way becomes a source of light, and we may thus 
explain the radiation of heat from the molecule after it has been got into 
it by sequences of waves of light.’ 
Helmholtz’s equations are, of course, the more general, and apply to 
an absorption band as well as to the part of the spectrum for which the 
medium is transparent. It would seem that the term —y?dU/dt may 
rightly represent just the effect of that loss of energy in the form of 
heat due to the irregular collisions of which Sir William speaks, am 
effect which is only appreciable in the result when, owing to the 
coincidence of the periods, U tends to become large compared with w, or, 
in Thomson’s notation, z, large compared with &,and in this case 2, will 
not become infinite, for the amplitude will be multiplied by the factor 
e-**, and k being large, the limit of the product comes into consideration. 
Such a system of ether with attached matter molecules is thus shown 
to account for the phenomena of dispersion. A serious difficulty, how- 
ever, is encountered when we reach the problem of double refraction. 

§2. For we may suppose, in order to account for it, that C, is a fane- 
tion of the direction, and that for two principal directions it has the 
values C, and C,’, while C, is a constant independent of the direction. 

Then, with only one enclosed mass, 


i -6) 

i 2 

Gut he es ae 
p age eal seca bile 


7? 


= 1+ 


and to give a dispersion formula resembling Cauchy’s we must have 
m,|7? considerable compared with C., and C, large compared with either. 
Hence, if p’ be a second principal index, 


and therefore Be ( G my \ 
Wh ee Sa : (9M 

p (0, + 6, 2) (+ 5) 
T T 4 


which, remembering the relative magnitudes of the quantities, and writ- 
ing D and D’ for the approximate values of the denominators, becomes 


C, — Cy 
Fhe ea el v(m 
e 2 pUDD’ (™) 


we — p= — 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 245 


so that the difference between the squares of the refractive indices will 
be inversely proportional to the squares of the wave length, and this is 
quite contrary to experiment. The question as to whether the theory 
here suggested would lead to Fresnel’s construction is not considered. 

In a later lecture Sir William returns again to the question of what 
becomes of the energy absorbed by the molecules, and of the nature of 
the ether. As to the latter he adopts Stokes’s view, that the medium may 
be perfectly elastic for the small disturbances of a light-wave, executed, 


as they are, in the twenty-million-millionth of a second, and yet be a 


perfect fluid in respect of forces which act, as may be supposed in the 
kinetic theory of gases, for the one-millionth of a second. Now, the 
numerical calculations of Professor Morley, undertaken at Sir William’s 
suggestion, show that the energy given to a system such as described 
tends to become absorbed by the vibrations of lower modes, so that the 
original energy appears as vibrations in which the period may be the 
millionth of a second instead of, perhaps, the twenty-million-millionth, and 
this energy shows itself in the motions which we deal with in the kinetic 
theory of gases, rapid it may be in themselves, but slow compared with 
the light-vibrations. 

§ 3. Metallic reflexion and the quasi-metallic reflexion of such sub- 
stances as give anomalous dispersion are dealt with, and it is shown that 
the phenomena are such as would be produced by making p”, a negative 
quantity, and this is given by values of 7 a little below the critical period. 

Thus the molecular explanation of the great reflecting power of silver 
is that the highest mode of vibration of the molecules with which silver 
loads the ether is graver than the mode of the gravest light or radiant 


heat which has ever been reflected from silver; and if, again, for certain 


modes p? is not negative, but less than unity, it shows that, conformably 
with the experiments of Quincke on gold leaves, we should expect light 
to travel through the medium faster than through air. This forms a 
marked and most important distinction between this theory and others 
which have been given to explain metallic reflexion. For the other 
theories the metallic effects arise from the importance of the viscous 
terms of the form —yduw/dt. 

In an appendix Sir William works out the problem of reflexion and re- 
fraction, following Green and Lord Rayleigh so far as ordinary transparent 
media are concerned. He then transforms Green’s formule for vibra- 
tions in the plane of incidence to the case in which p? is a real negative 
quantity, and arrives at formule expressing, on a strict elastic solid 
theory, the intensity and change of phase in a wave reflected from metal. 

According to this solution we have, if »? = — p? so that v® is positive, 
the values of ® and ¥ given by— 

Y= — »? cos (ax+by +t) +tan ei ad sin (av+ by + wf) 


v2 
v2>—] 
2 2 
¥i= — v? cos (aw+by+ut) —tand Bei (+ ax+ by + vt) 
pees 


2,2 me (RE 
= a = e~* sin (by + wt) ie) 


WY’ = 22" cos (by + wt) 
2 
4 o’ =— ee ee © gin (by ss wt) 


ys 


246 REPORT—1885. 
These are simplified if we put— 
2 2 242 | Vis 
h? = {(v2 +1) 82 + 20%} [e+ tan 0 a): =tanf 
7 Li te 


(96) 
Se Sees. 


and the displacements in the transparent medium are then, for the incident 
wave, 
_ 2a 
» 
and for the reflected, 


PE S sin (— ae + ly + wt —f). 


S sin (aw + by +t +f), 


in this case the rigidities in the two media are supposed to be equal. 
Sir William has also worked out the problem in the case in which the 
rigidities are not equal, in the hopes that by this assumption combined 
with variations in the density—or rather effective density—the variations 
from Green’s formule in the case of light polarised at right angles to the 
plane of incidence may be accounted for. He finds, however, that 
any difference of rigidity which might, combined with a difference of 
density, be sufficient to reconcile Green’s theory with experiment would 
cause the proportion of light reflected at normal incidence to be greater 
than {(#—1)/(#+4+1)}?, and this value, given by Green’s theory, 
agrees closely with Rood’s experiments. Weare thus driven back to 
Lord Rayleigh’s case of equal rigidities in the two media. For metals, 
then, we are to have the rigidities equal, and the value of »? decreasing 
from — o when r=x, to zero when 7 =«,/N, N being some large nume- 
rical quantity, and then again augmenting from zero to unity as 7 
decreases from «,/N to 0. 
The dynamics give no foundation to a theory such as Canchy’s, in 
which p? is a complex quantity. For light polarised in the plane of inci- 

dence we have, if x and m’ be the rigidities, and 
r=n' /n, ) 


(97) 
and tan e=r{v? sec? + tan26}!) 
= 4${1+7°(v?sec? 6 + tan?6) 

f= RB. cos (az + by + wt —e) . F - (98) 

eed ene Wiieeede- boyh i 


for the incident and reflected wave ; and for the refracted wave, 
2nn - 2 cay et 
Gey tO) cos(bytot) . « « (99F 


According to these formule the reflexion is total from a metal surface at 
all angles of incidence. Sir John Conroy has recently shown that the 
loss is exceedingly small. If light be polarised in any plane, then the 
vibration in the plane of incidence is retarded relatively to that at right 
angles to that plane by the amount 2f+2e—7. If we suppose v and rv 
to be both very large numerics, this retardation becomes— 


2| tan} (+ tan 0) = tan (SS) \ 
Z 


Tv 


nt Math 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 247 


and from the observations which have been made on the value of the 
principal incidence, for which the retardation is }7, we can find a value 
for rv. For silver Sir J. Conroy’s observations give (rv)! = 3°65. 

And here we are met with a great difficulty. Hxperiments show that 
there is very little chromatic effect about metallic reflexion. Thus, since 
the value of the principal incidence depends mainly on rv, this quantity must 
be independent of the period. Now »?+ 1 is approximately proportional 
to 7? when r is small compared with «,, and so this result requires that r, 
which is proportional to the effective rigidity, should also vary in a certain 
definite manner, and it is difficult to see how the theory is to give this. 
The theory is then applied to the case of a thin metal plate, and leads 
to the fact that the phase of both components is accelerated by the 
transmission. The accelerations for the two cases are given by— 


é cos 6 + € -i) \, vibrations normal to the plane of incidence, 
Tv 


écos@ + (;- r) \, vibrations in the plane of incidence, 
qT 


when dis the thickness of the plate, and e and f are found in the same 
manner as above. 

This acceleration was discovered by Quincke, but the details of his 
results do not agree well with the formule. The formule are consistent 
with Kerr’s discovery of the rotation of the plane of polarisation by 
reflexion from an iron plate when magnetised, but not with Kundt’s 
result that transmission through a thin plate of iron in a magnetic field 
produces a very large rotation of the plane of polarisation. 

In a final appendix an account is given of a gyrostatic molecule, the 
properties of which would give to the medium the heliacal effects seen in 
sugar and other active solutions. The molecule consists of a spherical 
shell in which are imbedded two gyrostats having a common axis, which 
initially is a diameter of the shell. One end of each axis is connected 
with the shell by a ball-and-socket joint, while the second extremities of 
each are connected together at the centre of the shell by a second ball- 
and-socket joint. ~ 

§ 4. Having thus given an account of the various theories proposed 
based in some way on the mutual reaction between the ether and matter, 
it remains to compare and contrast them. 

The theories of Boussinesq and Voigt have much in common, and 


| neither of the two as they stand applies to the case of bodies showing 


strong absorption, for the matter motion is entirely neglected. The theo- 
ries of Sellmeyer, Helmholtz, and Thomson come under one head in 
that they all make the mutual reaction to depend on the relative dis- 
placement of the matter’and ether. 

Lommel’s theory seems to me untenable: in its original form it con- 
tradicts the third law of motion, and if modified so as to be consistent 
with that, it leads to impossible laws for the relation between refraction 
and absorption ; besides this, his theory of double refraction does not 
lead to Fresnel’s wave surface, and there seems no reason why the co- 
efficient a”, which occurs only in the equation of motion of the matter, 
should be the one to be treated asa function of the direction. The laws of 
circular polarisation and of the double refraction in quartz, to which the 
theory leads, and which seem to agree with experiment, may be obtained 


248 REPORT—1885. 


with sufficient approximation to fit the experiments from other theories ; 
and, indeed, the fact that the wave surface in quartz does not become a 
sphere and a spheroid when the heliacal terms are neglected is fatal. 

With regard to Ketteler’s theory in the form finally given to it by its 
author,! it seems to me to have no possible mechanical basis. With the 
interpretation which he gives of the constants involved, his equations 
appear to contradict Newton’s third law as effectually as do Lommel’s, 
while, so far as the problem of reflexion and refraction is concerned, I 
cannot recognise the validity of Kirchhoff’s principle as it is applied by 
Ketteler. At the same time I think that the suggestion of Ketteler—to 
which, however, he himself takes objection—already mentioned, leads 
to results which, so far as dispersion is concerned, agree closely with 
experiment, 

We may with advantage compare the dispersion formula which it 
gives with that which comes from the theories of Helmholtz and Thomson. 
If we neglect the terms depending on viscous action, we have, accord- 
ing to Helmholtz, for p, the refractive index, 

v4 
_BYy BY} xf 


2— a ——— 
B — 1 pr,” pm, xe" iy 1) . . . (100) 
while, according to the modified form of Ketteler, 
fea 
eo 1+2 4A? i } - (101) 
oo (x3 pee 
| Xo 


Ketteler’s equations come from Thomson’s or Helmholtz’s by writing 
for C, the quantity — 4?C, /r?, or for 3? in Helmholtz’s notation — n?/3?, 
We may write Ketteler’s equation in the form of a series thus— 


a ~ ee DE el 
nis 1 =D Ag? Ao! 102 
=p [ + 2 2 nasal, ip aty ] . ( ) 


two terms of which will give us Canchy’s series with three constants. 
This modification leads also to an escape from one of the difficulties 
suggested by Sir William as to the explanation of double refraction. 
For his general expression for p? will become, if we write for C, the 
value —4r?C, /7?, 


a eae ea | SeEianinm saao8 } . (103) 
p 


Mm, \kK\2— 7? 


If we neglect for a moment the terms on which the dispersion depends, 
as being small compared with the term 47?C,/p, which gives rise in the 
first instance to refraction, we get that 


2 12 _ 47? (C, — C,') 
Pertti aa so ee 
p 
and there will be double refraction independently of the period. 
’ Ketteler, ‘ Zur Dispersionstheorie des Lichtes,’ Wied. Ann. t. xxi. p. 199. 


. (104) 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 249 


It is another question, and one which we shall discuss shortly, whether 
the double refraction thus produced will give rise to Fresnel’s wave surface. 

There seem, then, to be reasons why we should expect terms such as 
Ketteler has suggested in our equations—terms which will make the mutual 
reaction of the ether and the first matter shell depend rather upon their 
relative accelerations than upon their relative displacements. It is not so 
easy to suggest a mechanical connection between the ether and matter 
which would give rise to this force, but at the same time there is, I 
think, no mechanical reason to be urged against it. 

Voigt’s theory of wave propagation is in one way more comprehensive 
than those we have considered, while in another it is less so. It is more 
comprehensive in that it includes both sets of terms with some others in 
the expression for the mutual reaction; it is less so in that it treats the 
ratio U/w as a small quantity which may be neglected. This same 
remark applies to Boussinesq, whose work in one sense is more general 
that Voigt’s, in that he considers the effect of the attached molecules on 
the condensational or pressural wave. 

The presence of these molecules has been shown in Boussinesq’s 
paper to alter the effective compressibility of the medium as well as its 
density and its rigidity. In the ether we assume that the compressibility 
is small compared with the rigidity, so small that the ratio of the two 
may be neglected, and this must still be the case, even when the ether is 
loaded. But when dealing with the problem of reflexion we are concerned 
with the refractive index of the medium for the condensational wave. 
This will depend on the ratio of the two effective compressibilities, as 
well as on that of the two effective densities, and though either of the 
two compressibilities may vanish when compared with the rigidities, in 
considering their ratio it becomes necessary to take into account any 
change due to the loading of the ether. 

It may not be unreasonable, then, to suppose that the effective density 
of the ether for the condensational wave is different from the effective 
density for the transverse wave. This supposition would account easily 
for the variation from Green’s formula observed when plane polarised 
light polarised at right angles to the plane of incidence is reflected from 
a transparent surface, in that it would allow us to introduce the second 
constant po, as suggested by Haughton and Lord Rayleigh." 

Let us now consider Voigt’s theory. With regard to the problem of 
reflexion his surface conditions appear to be unsound. The ether is the 
continuous medium, and the surface conditions must apply to it simply. 
The conditions of continuity demand that the actual displacements of the 
ether and the actual stresses over the interface, arising, of course, in part 
from the action of the matter, should be the same in the two media. 
The validity of Kirchhoff’s principle has already been considered, and it 
has been shown that it does not lead to results in accordance with experi- 
ment, for it does not give the change of phase which in some cases 
accompanies reflexion. 

But, while this is so, Voigt’s theory shows us that the effects of the 
attached molecules may show themselves either in the rigidity or the 
density of the ether. Now, the work of Lord Rayleigh and Lorenz has 
proved that the effects of reflexion are due mainly, if not entirely, to 
differences of effective density; and so we must look to the terms in 


1 See p. 192. 


250 REPORT—1885. 


Voigt’s theory which affect the density as the most important. These 


terms are 
d? 
-( r apt n) (u—U). 


The other terms, 
(oF +058) @- 0) 
dz” dzdt? ° 


show themselves as a variation of the effective rigidity. In order to 
obtain a consistent theory of reflexion we must treat these as of secondary 
importance compared with the first terms. Now, this is inconsistent with 
both theories of double refraction as advanced by Voigt, for the first 
condition for either is that 7 and 7 must be independent of the direction. 
It would seem from this that they should be the same in all media. 
Boussinesq adopts the opposite view. He makes his double refraction 
depend on the terms which correspond to r and n, and neglects the 
variations of the others with the direction. If we do this—and we seem 
to be forced into it by the further requirements of our theory—the funda- 
mental equations in a crystal become those given by Lord Rayleigh. 
These, we have seen, if we assume the strict transversality of the 
vibrations, do not lead to Fresnel’s wave surface. On the other hand, if 
we suppose that the vibrations in a crystal are at right angles to the 
ray, not to the wave normal, the result agrees with all the consequences 
of experiment, for we obtain Fresnel’s surface as the wave surface, but 
we are left in a difficulty as to the normal wave. 

With regard to metallic reflexion, the theory as given by Sir W. 
Thomson explains completely the difficulty raised by Lord Rayleigh as to 
a negative value for »?. It does not, however, enable us to decide how 
much of the effect is due to the fact that the highest possible free period of 
the ether in the metallic medium is below that of the incident light, and 
how much is due to opacity arising from terms such as du/dt, as supposed 
by Lord Rayleigh. The correct equations to which such a theory would 
give rise are yet unsolved, but the principles required by the solution are 
well known. 

It seems, then, that this theory promises to afford us the solution of 
the difficulties which still surround theoretical optics, and to account at 
once for the phenomena of reflexion and refraction, dispersion and double 
refraction. Of course, in all cases of transparency the matter motion is 
infinitesimally small compared with that of the ether. The ether is to 
be looked upon as moving through a sort of network of fixed matter 
particles. Terms depending on the reaction between the ether and 
these fixed portions of matter will be introduced into the equations, 
and these terms will be expressible as functions of wu, v, w and their 
differential coefficients. The matter particles will not move appreciably, 
and their movement is not necessary for the explanation of refraction and 
ordinary dispersion; for on Ketteler’s modified theory we have, if we 
omit the viscous terms, 


2 Bin? 
atte Digi es ce 
= is a mp (v*—n*)? 
and the ratio of the amplitudes is ; 
§?n? 


G2 =n*)’ 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. Zon 


From the value of »? we see that 6? must be comparable with m, the 
density of the ether, so that, except when n?/(»?—n?) is a large 
quantity, the ratio of the amplitudes will be inversely as the densities, for 


$?/p» will be comparable with m/u. When, however, n?/(»? — n?) is 


large, the matter motion becomes appreciable, and the phenomena of 
anomalous dispersion arise. 


Part IV. 
THE ELECTRO-MAGNETIC THEORY. 


Chapter I.—MaxweE.i’s THrory. 


§ 1. There remains now for consideration Maxwell’s electro-magnetic 
theory. The fundamental equations of this theory are purely electrical, 
and are established on electrical principles. According to Maxwell, when 
electromotive force acts on a dielectric medium the change of condition 
known as electric displacement is produced. The two are connected by 
the equations— 

ee eriaa edt as htouhel oe 
P, Q, R being the components of the E.M.F. and 7, g, h of the dis- 
placement. K is the inductive capacity. In a crystal the equation 
holds only for the principal axes, and along these K has three different 
values. ert irts 

The rate of variation of the displacement given by f, g, h constitutes 
the current in the medium, and it is an essential part of the theory 
that— F ; : 

df | dg, dh 
de + dy tae 
vanishes everywhere. 

The current is connected with the components of the magnetic in- 
duction a, b, c by the equations— 

} doa dh 4 
——— =4 j 2 F ustedes KPT 


etc., and the magnetic force a, 3, y is given by 


eho ih. 22 aon coh oaheh actiaatat te 


etc., where p is the coefficient of magnetic capacity, 
a, b,c are also given in terms of a quantity known as the vector 
potential, the components of which are F, G, H, by the equations— 
dH dG 
a= dy ‘dz . . . . . (4) 


ete., and from these it follows that 


= A 
, docu f= a net : } J 20@S) 
etc., where 
ya iF dG, dH. 
dee dy * da? 


252 REPORT—1885. 


while the electromotive force at any point is also determined in terms of 
this same quantity F, G, H by the equations 


a¥ dv 
P= = ‘ ‘ f 
dt de | , (6) 
etc., ¥ being the electrostatic potential. From this it follows that 
d/a¥ ,@¥) -_op, dd 
Oe ae tae) OP Egg? ge a 


etc., and the vector F travels through the medium with velocity 1// Kp. 
Now, the value of this quantity can be determined by experiment, and 
agrees very closely indeed with the velocity of light. Thus the vector 
potential, and in the same way the electric displacement and the magnetic 
induction, travel through the medium with a velocity, as nearly as we can 
say, identical with that of light. 

Moreover, the electric displacement corresponding to this is in the wave 
front, and the same is the case with the magnetic induction a, b,c. By 
this motion energy is conveyed through the medium, the electrostatic 
energy depending on the electric displacement, the electro-kinetic on the 
magnetic induction, and the two can be shown to be equal. Thus the 
theory agrees with the undulatory theory of light in assuming the exist- 
ence of a medium capable of becoming a receptacle of two forms of 
energy. Electric displacement and magnetic induction are, then, changes 
of condition which can be propagated in waves of transverse disturb- 
ances through the medium with a velocity practically identical with that 
of light. Maxwell’s theory supposes that there is an intimate connection 
between the vibrations which constitute light and electric displacement ; 
according to some of his followers the two are identical, though, so far 
as I can judge, that is not necessary to the theory as he left it. 

Now, experiment shows that the value of is nearly the same for all 
media, so that it follows that on this theory the specific inductive capa- 
city of a medium—the ratio of its inductive capacity to that of air— 
should be equal to the square of the refractiveindex. Experiments have 
shown that while this law is by no means true for all substances, it is suffi- 
ciently nearly so for many to render it probable that ./ K gives the most 
important term of the index. 

In estimating the value of the comparisons we must remember that 
while K is determined by observations lasting over an appreciable time, 
the refractive index depends on vibrations of great frequency ; to compare 
the two, then, we have to adopt some dispersion formula, and find the 
value of the index for waves of infinite period, and this alone is a source 
of error. 

Again, the equations for a crystalline medium are obtained by Maxwell, 
and he shows that the velocity of wave propagation is given by Fresnel’s 
construction, while the electric displacement is in the wave front, and its 
direction is that of the axis of the ellipse which determines the velocity. 
The theory is not burdened with a wave of normal vibrations, and 
accounts quite simply for all the phenomena of double refraction. 

§ 2. The theory of reflexion and refraction of electro-magnetic waves 
was first given by H. A. Lorentz,! who follows a method of attacking the 


1 Lorentz, Schlimilch. Zeitschrift, t. xxii. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 253 


problem which is due to Helmholtz.' This we shall consider later. It was 
also solved by J. J. Thomson,’ so far as the isotropic media are concerned, 
and by Fitzgerald.* 

Some further developments of the theory are given in a paper by the 
author of this report, and read before the Cambridge Philosophical 
Society.* 

In this paper the general equations for the displacement and for the 


magnetic induction in a crystal are given. If a, 6, ¢ be the principal 
velocities given by the equation 


: 1 
—— 
pK, 
etc., then 
Pf _=2 car_ 4 fr of B dg, ~9dh 
mec FAG din a Ginn a) ae 
.» whil 
etc., while @Pa_~» ia 5 Pa, 2a 
ee as ga oa 
d f-qda , 7. db , ~.dc 
Se ee - + 6? — +67 _ : : : 
FAG in dy ie z) (9) 


If a wave of electric displacement 8’, in a direction in which the 
_ inductive capacity is K’, be traversing the medium, the electromotive 
force is 47S//K’ in the direction of displacement, and 47S’ tan y/K’ 
_ along the wave normal, when x is the angle between the ray and the 
wave normal. 

§3. The surface conditions implied by the theory, and used by Lorentz, 
J. J. Thomson, Fitzgerald, and Glazebrook, are that the electric and 
magnetic displacements normal to the interface are continuous, while the 
electric and magnetic forces in the interface are also continuons. 

The formulz obtained are identical with those given by MacCullagh 
and Neumann, electric displacement being substituted for the ordinary 
displacement of the medium. 

The theory has the very great advantage over the ordinary elastic 
solid theory that reflexion and double refraction are both explainéd by 
variations in the same property of the medium, viz. the inductive capacity. 
Variations in its value from medium to medium give rise to reflexion and 
refraction ; variations in different directions within the same medium are 
the cause of double refraction. 

§ 4. The theory has been applied by Lord Rayleigh to account for the 
various phenomena ° connected with the scattering of light by a cloud of 
small particles. These are deduced satisfactorily from the theory on the 
supposition that », the magnetic capacity, is a constant through the two 
media, and that the effects are due to variations in the inductive capacity, 
while, when terms of the second order in A K/K are included, the scattered 
light does not vanish—the incident light being plane polarised—in a direc- 


1 Helmholtz, Borchardt’s Journal, Band lxxii. 
? J. J. Thomson, Phil, Mag. April, 1880. 
’ Fitzgerald, Phil. Trans. 1881. 
| * Glazebrook, Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. vol. iv. p. 155. 
* Lord Rayleigh, ‘On the Electro-magnetic Theory of Light,’ Phil. Mag. Aug, 1881. 


254 REPORT—1885. 


tion normal to the incident light, but in one inclined at an obtuse angle 
to that in which the light is travelling. Tyndall observed this effect 
when the particles scattering the light cease to be very small. 


Chapter II.—Hetmnoirz’s THxory. 


§ 1. Helmholtz looks at the problem of the propagation of an 
electro-magnetic disturbance in a somewhat different manner, and a com- 
parison of the two theories is given by the author of this Report.! 

The electro-magnetic effects in the medium depend, according to 
Maxwell, on the values of F, G, H, the components of the vector potential, 
or, as Maxwell also calls it, of the electro-kinetic momentum, and if 
we integrate round a closed curve, the values of F, G, H satisfy the 
equation 


[Fae-+ Gay ~ Hade=|["S8* ade oil eo ya 
Tr 


where ds is an element of the curve, 7 the current at any point at a 

distance r from ds, do an element of the curve in which the current 7 is 

running, ¢ the angle between ds and do, and the integration on the right 

extends round the two curves s and o. 
From this we can show that 


K= ‘a da! dy' dz! dx 
aff) gidgide Ok ee 
And if we put 
ifisde gil so levig 
delay ert etd ® . ‘ ; . (12) 
we find that 
dJ : Pe 
= lle cig le 
ad da TT tt dadt — ; 7 
dF , db , dH 
h =o — + — 4+-—_ 
where J i cent qa 


Helmholtz, starting from the equation 
{ Fda + Gdy' + Hde = (Ae wide 
ij 


investigates,the most general form which F, G, H can have. He shows 


that we must write for a of equation (11) the value 


1 (_-k) @?o,, 
a Fall >t Taal dz'dy'dz’ yx. ; . (14) 
where & is an unknown constant. Hence 
; ao ‘ 
2 — — ry — ik )——_ 
V?F = — 4cpf + pb qa k) andi (15) 
and by comparing this with (13) we see that 
a 


' Glazebrook, Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. vol. vi. pt. ii, See also J. J. Thomson, 
« Report on Electrical Theories’ p. 133 of this volume. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 255 


If it be necessary that J should vanish, then & or = must be zero. 


According to Helmholtz, however, J is not necessarily zero, and the 
equation to determine it is— 
phK OS we BA 2 Tol at Heal, aust sgl) 
dt? 


so that J, and therefore , is propagated through the medium as a 
wave of normal disturbance with the velocity 


/e 
kK 
On Helmholtz’s theory there may therefore be a normal wave in addition to 
the transverse wave. Helmholtz’s theory becomes Maxwell’s if we put 
® = 0, and then unless the value i = is admissible J = 0, and there 
is no normal wave. If & = 0 there will still be no normal wave, for its 
velocity will be infinite. 

When we consider the problem of double refraction, we can show that 
all the possible directions of vibration L, M, N corresponding to a given 
wave normal /, m, are given by the equation— 


£24 2@-m+ 2@_iao. . (18) 


There are therefore, in general, an infinite number of such directions. 
Tf, however, we are to assume that there are only two, and those the two 
Given by Fresnel’s theory, we must have JL +mM+x2N=0. Thus 
ell’s solenoidal condition, 
df , dg , dh 


cae Gh we . . . . (19) 


is a necessary and sufficient condition to give Fresnel’s construction. 


Chapter III.—Duispersion, ere. 


According to the theory as left by Maxwell, waves of all lengths 
travel at the same rate. Dispersion does not come into consideration. 
This question has been dealt with by Willard Gibbs! and H. A. Lorentz.2 

§ 1. According to Gibbs’s views the displacements of which we are 
cognisant in the phenomena of light are the average displacements taken 
through a space which is small in comparison with the wave length, but 
contains many molecules of the body. The real displacement at each 
point of such an elementary space probably differs considerably from the 
average value, and a complete theory should take into account the two. 
This is done in Gibbs’s paper. The average displacements being &, n, Z, 
the complete displacement is taken as £ + é, &e. &, n’,Z' are denoted as 
‘the irregular parts of the displacements. It is shown that t’, n’, ¢ are 
linear functions of £, n, ¢; they are therefore of the same period, and the 
phase of the irregular displacement throughout the element Dv is the 


| 1 J. W. Gibbs, American Journal of Science, vol, xxii. April, 1882. 
* H. A. Lorentz, Wied. Ann. t. ix.; Schlimilch. Zeitschrift, t. xxiii. 


256 REPORT— 1885. 


same as that of the regular or average displacement, but the relations 
between , n, ¢ and &’, n’, ¢’ change rapidly as we pass from point to point of 
the element. 

The velocity of wave propagation is found by equating the maximum 
potential and kinetic energies of the medium. It is shown that the 
equations lead to Fresnel’s construction in the case of a crystal if the 
solenoidal condition be assumed, while the relation between yu the refractive 
index and \ the wave length is given by 


Lyon H is 27,H’ 
pe Dark? Ne 


(20) 


H, k, and H’ being constants. The objection which Briot made to 
Cauchy’s theory of dispersion may be made to this. We should expect 
dispersion ina vacuum as well as in ordinary transparent media. 

The properties of circularly polarising media are discussed in a second 
paper,! in which 2’, 7’, ¢’ are treated as linear functions of ¢, y, ¢ and their 
differential co-efficients ; and in a third paper the fundamental equations are 
re-established in rather a more general form than that given by Maxwell. 

The generality is gained partly by dealing with the average values of 
the various quantities, and partly by supposing that the relation between 
the E.M.F. and displacement is given by 


(y= 410) Eh]: =) SS See 


¢and J being two arbitrary functions, and [ | indicating that the average 
value is taken. In the simple theory ¢ is a constant, and equal to 4a/K, 
and wW zero, and this will not give dispersion. 

There seems, however, to be no reason—as has been pointed out by 
Professor Fitzgerald—against applying to the oscillations of the electro- 
magnetic field the methods and reasoning developed in the third part of 
this report. Almost the whole of the work can be translated into the 
language of the electro-magnetic theory at once. Periodic electric dis- 
placement in the ether will produce periodic electric displacement in the 
matter, and the relations between the two will depend on the ratio of the 
period of the ether vibrations to the possible free periods of the electric 
oscillations in the matter molecules ; and it is not difficult to see how the 
action between the two might depend on the relative electrical displace- 
ments and their differential coefficients. 

§ 2. Maxwell? has given a theory of the magnetic rotation of the plane 
of polarisation on this theory. He assumes (1) that the effect of mag- 
netic force is to set up molecular vortices in the medium; (2) that the 
components of the magnetic force obey the same law as the components 
of the strength of a vortex in hydrodynamics; and (3) that there arises 
in the value for the kinetic energy of the medium aterm of the form 
2C(aw, + Bwy+ yw3), ©), 2, 3 being the components of the angular 
velocity, and a, 3, y of the magnetic force. 

For the case of waves travelling parallel to z the kinetic energy is 


shown to be 
: : : , we 3d? 
cl Yo Aiea a5 th a 67) + oy(a ae et eo) . ° (22) 


1 J. W. Gibbs, American Journal of Science, vol. xxiii. June, 1882. 
2 Maxwell, Electricity and Magnetism, vol. ii. p. 40. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 257 


and the equations of motion, 


PE dn, PEL aE 
P aa + CY ai 072 + righ etc. . : . (23) 


From this it follows that the rotation per unit length is 


= a 9 
0 = mcy (i r =) (24) 
where 7 is the index of refraction, and this formula agrees well with 
experiment. 

It should be noticed that in obtaining this formula Maxwell deals 
with the displacements of an ordinary medium ; the forces assumed are 
those arising from the elastic reactions of this medium, the vortex motion 
in which is connected with the magnetic force. The displacements are 
not treated as identical with the electric displacements, nor is any indi- 
cation given of the connection between the two. 

§ 3. Fitzgerald, in the paper already mentioned, applies the theory to 
the case of reflexion from a magnetic medium.. He finds that when 
plane polarised light is reflected directly from such a medium, the 
reflected light is slightly elliptically polarised. This is not in accordance 
with Kerr’s experimental result, but Fitzgerald treats the iron as a trans- 
parent, or nearly transparent, substance with a real refractive index. 

§ 4. It was shown by H. H. Hall that when a current passes across 
a conductor in a magnetic field an electromotive force is produced whose 
strength is proportional to the product of the current and the strength of 
the field, and whose direction is at right angles to the plane containing 
the current and the field. 

By introducing into the equations for the electromotive force terms 
expressing this, so that they become 


pa PSH yg — Bl) f aigiht eae 


etc., Prof. Rowland ! has calculated the magnetic rotation of the vectors 
FP, G, H, and, on the assumption that a similar effect will be produced 
in a dielectric, arrives at the same formula as that given by Maxwell. 

§ 5. The main difficulty of the theory, and the one which stands most in 
the way of its general acceptance, is the difficulty of forming a clear phy- 
sical idea of what electric displacement is, and various analogies have been 
suggested with a view to rendering the difficulty less serious. One of these, 
due to Helmholtz,” is developed ina paper on the molecular vortex theory 
of electro-magnetic action.? It is shown there that, if the components of 
the magnetic force be identified with the molecular rotations in a con- 
tinuous medium in which the displacements are £, y, ¢, then the compo- 
nents of the electro-kinetic momentum are equal to }yé, etc.; and the 
equations of the electrical field in a conductor would imply that the 
medium in the conductor has the properties of a viscous fluid, while in a 
dielectric, so far as the motion to which the undulatory effects are due is 


1 Rowland, Phil. Mag. April, 1881. 
? Helmholtz, Crelle Journal, t. xxii. 
$ Glazebrook, Phil. Mag. June, 1881. 


1885. 8 


258 REPORT—1885. 


concerned, its properties are those of an elastic solid in which the elec- 
trical displacement f is given by 
ee d (= dn *) 

The objection that it is impossible to maintain a continuous molecular 
rotation in an elastic solid may be made to this analogy. It seems, how- — 
ever, possible that, as suggested by Professor Stokes when considering 
the problem of aberration, the ether may behave as a perfect fluid for all 
motions involving more than a very small relative displacement of its 
parts, while for such small displacements as are contemplated in the 
theory of light it has, in a dielectric, an appreciable rigidity. In a con- 
ductor the effects of this rigidity, if it exist, are masked by the more 
powerful effects of the viscosity. The fluid is no longer perfect. 


Chapter [V.—Rowtanp’s THErory Or THE PROPAGATION OF PLANE WavES. 
p 


§ 1. The propagation of waves of electro-magnetic disturbance from 
a given source has been recently very fully considered by Professor 
Rowland,! and we proceed to give some account of his paper. 

Rowland considers very generally the solution of the equations— 


(ad (ee 
Te =V*v’F,. : : ; i here 
etc., and allied equations given by the system 
_ dH, = dG, 
F on41 ay <a , ‘ . (28) 


so that F, G, H satisfy the solenoidal condition. He puts 
Fo = C,p"®_n41) eae earn 


® _ (41) being a spherical harmonic, and C,, a function of p. 
He finds 


PC, + 2 (a _ ib) os met) C,, = 0 ° , e (29) 


dp? 
whence f 
ei yeti nm (n® — 1°) (n + 2) ae a 
0,=0{1- 9°40 48 + (30) 
where c =a — ib. 
He then takes, as a special solution, 
ios n de® _,, c(p — Vt) 
Fo—iC, 5 ae ; ; : me 58) 
and a¢ n=l { AD ig to-»\ c(p —Vt) 
F, =cC_ 1p y— & aaa e Dect @rs2) 


etc., and treats the case of symmetry round the axis of w, for which 


ait eoken "Os 
—n pn! ? 


Q,-1 being a zonal harmonic with the axis of x for axis. 
1 Rowland, American Journal of Mathematics ; Phil. Mag. June, 1884. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES. 259 


Let 6 be the angle between this direction and that to the point at which 
the disturbance is required, p the distance to the point, and a the angle 
between the plane zOp and some fixed plane. 

Let 6’, 6” denote disturbances perpendicular to the radius vector in 


the plane «Op, 
P’ P” along the radius vector, and 
N’ N” normal to the wave plane «Op. 


Then it follows that if we have small electric displacements X/e~*8-Vo 
parallel to z throughout the small sphere (47R? = dv), that 


om — 20, OE sinter oer) 
0 7p 

mh (33) 
P= oc ye cos Be~® &- V9 dy | 

WN’ = 0” =P” =0 
N” sat Glen 8d \ Lies Ui) Vide 9 Bull brea 

where C,=C, (2 xt x) 
2 ‘ 

4 =0, (1- #8) ate 

tine 0 bp bp? 


This agrees with the results given by Stokes and Lord Rayleigh, already 
quoted,’ N” being proportional to the rotation. The effect of a general 
arbitrary electric and magnetic displacement is then found, 

In considering the optical problem it is pointed out that electric 
displacement is always accompanied by magnetic, and that the effects of 
the two must be considered, and according to the views of Professor 
Rowland the two must be considered independently. From the relation 
between the electrostatic and electromagnetic energy, it follows that if 
there be an electric displacement X’eY there will be a magnetic Ye®¥ 
where 

y" =_ dr yy 
VK 

The electric displacement at any other point of space is found and 
expressed as below. Let the origin be the point at which X’, Y” act ; the 
axis of z the normal to the plane of X/aY”; p the direction in which the 
effect—at a point A—is required; the angle zO.A = 0, and the angle between 
#OA and zOz = ¢; and let P’, 0’, ® be the displacements along OA, and 
normal to 6 and 9. 


Then 
3b2X'V } 0 : 7 
a vow oe ¢ [a + cos 8) (1 =) - er | en ib -Vo) 
3U2X'V . a 1 : 
qd = — EET A \ ek —ib(p-Vd) . 
Bra sin [ (1 + cos 0) (1 x) PP e (36) 
3ibX'V . iq_; 
p’ = pea — ib (ep — Vt) 
dap? sin 8 cos p [ 1 ae 
1 See p. 201. 


etry r<arg 


260 REPORT—1885. 


And we can show that in the value of ©’ it is the 1 in (1 + cos@) which ~ 
comes from the assumed magnetic disturbance, while in ©’ it is the cos 0 — 
in the same term. 

The magnetic disturbance produces no effect in the value of P’. Neglect- — 
ing the magnetic disturbance we arrive at Stokes’s result for the effect of i 
a disturbance X/e®t on the medium, which is used by Rayleigh in the © 
paper on the blue of the sky. : 

Now we may note that the result of the experiments on scattered 
light seems to disprove this hypothesis of Rowland’s as to the necessity of 
considering the two disturbances, for according to him the intensity is the — 
same at all points in the plane zy at the same distance from O, ‘This is 
not true; the intensity varies as sina if a is the angular distance of the — 
point from the axis of z. Again, it is true, of course, that the magnetic — 
disturbance accompanies the electric, but it accompanies itas a consequence, 
If we produce, by some impressed force, a variable electric displacement 
at a point in the medium, and calculate the effect due to this, we have 
done all that is necessary. There will, it is true, be magnetic displace- _ 
ment, but it can be calculated from the electric. 

Rowland’s results do not apply to the case of a wave being propa- 

ted through an aperture, for in this case we have no right to assume 
that the disturbance produced by an element is symmetrical round 
the direction of vibration. We have not a single particle or an indefi- 
nitely small sphere vibrating and sending out its effects in spherical 
waves; we have a state of motion coming in from behind the aperture, — 
and being continually propagated across it at a given point P and at 
time ¢), we must consider the circumstances at any point O of the 
aperture at a time fy such that OP=b(t—f)). For these will be the 
initial circumstances so far as we are concerned; and at this time ft), O- 
has an initial velocity and an initial displacement, Both these require to_ 
be considered in dealing with the question, and we have to adopt Stokes’s! 
method of solution, and we again arrive at his theorems with regard to 
the relation between the direction of vibration and the direction of 
diffraction. : 

§ 2. The electro-magnetic theory, if we accept its fundamental hypo-— 
theses, is thus seen to be capable of explaining in a fairly satisfactory manner 
most of the known phenomena of optics. The great difficulty is, as we 
have said, to account for the properties which the medium must have in 
order to sustain electrical stresses. These consist in an electrostatic field 
of a hydrostatic pressure KR?/87, combined with a tension KR?/4a 
along the lines of force; R being the resultant electrical force, and K” 
the inductive capacity. There will therefore be a difference of pressure 
in different directions in the ether. rs 

Combined with this difficulty there is another of a similar kind, that 
of realising mechanically what electric displacement is, of forming for 
oneself a physical idea of a change of structure in some medium of 
unknown properties which shall obey the laws implied by the various 
equations satisfied by the components of electrical displacement. 

Optical effects are certainly due to changes, periodic in space and 
time, of some properties of a medium which we call the ether. Electro- 
magnetic effects are also due to variations in properties—it may be the 
same as those which give rise to light—of the same ether. When the 


1 On this point reference has already been made, see p. 206. 


ON OPTICAL THEORIES, 261 


electro-magnetic effects become rapidly periodic they travel with the 
velocity of light, and the direction to which the change of property is 
related is in the wave front, at least for isotropic media. 

The rigidity or quasi-rigidity through which the medium has the 
power of propagating these transverse waves of small displacement may 
be given to it through other motions which are going on independently 
of the light. The free passage of the planets through space proves that 
it can have little if any viscosity or rigidity, though, according to the 
views of Professor Stokes, while behaving as a perfect fluid for all 
appreciable motions, it might conceivably be rigid for the very small 
displacements in a light-wave. Taking Sir W. Thomson’s estimate of 

_ the density of the ether as about 10-?? grammes per cubic centimetre, the 
rigidity required for the propagation of light would be about 10-1. The 
| rigidity of glass is about 2°5 x 10!!. While it might, then, be conceivable 
that the ether should have this very small rigidity and yet offer no 
appreciable resistance to the earth’s motion, it is difficult to reconcile 
_ this with its power of standing electric stress, and we are forced to con- 
@lude that the change implied in electric displacement is much more 
than a mechanical displacement of the molecules of a perfect fluid. A 
- guasi-rigidity might be conferred on the fluid by filling it with vortices, 
and it might thus become capable of conveying transverse waves and of 
standing electric stress. Electric and magnetic polarisation would then 
consist in definite arrangements of the vortex rings or filaments. Changes 
in these arrangements, or in some of the properties connected with them, 
on constitute electric and magnetic displacements, and possibly also 
ight. 

We should then have a complete electro-magnetic theory of optics, or 
‘Yather a complete theory of the ether embracing electro-magnetism and 
optics, but towards this theory our present knowledge has made only a 
small advance. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors RAMSAY, TILDEN, 

_ MarsHati, and W. L. Goopwin (Secretary), appointed for the 

_ purpose of investigating certain Physical Constants of Solution, 
_ especially the Expansion of Saline Solutions. 


Your Committee have to report as follows : 

They have obtained apparatus for determining the rates of expansion 
of saline solutions from —20° C. to +60° C. 

They have devised experiments for determining the distribution of a 
weighed quantity of water between molecular weights of two salts, the 
three substances being placed in separate vessels in the same enclosed 
Space kept at a constant temperature. 

But further progress in either of these directions was interrupted by 
the continued illness of one of the Committee. 

Your Committee respectfully ask for reappointment. 


262 . REPORT—1885. 


Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors WILLIAMSON, — 
DEWAR, FRANKLAND, CruM Brown, ODLING, and ARMSTRONG, — 
Drs. Hugo M@uuer, F. R. Japp, and H. Forster Moruey, and — 
Messrs. A. G. VERNON Harcourt, C. E. Groves, J. MILLAR ~ 


THomson, H. B. Dixon (Secretary), and V. H. VELEY, reap- 
pointed for the purpose of drawing wp a statement of the 
varieties of Chemical Names which have come into use, for 


indicating the causes which have led to their adoption, and — 
for considering what can be done to bring about some conver= — 


gence of the views on Chemical Nomenclature obtaining among 
English and foreign chemists. 


Aw account of the authorship of some of the various systems of nomen- 


clature which have been devised for the purpose of distinguishing between 


compounds formed by the union of the same elements in different propor- 


tions, has been given in the ‘ Historical Notes’ prefixed to the Second 


Report of this Committee. Among these systems the use of the termina- 


tions ous and ic, to denote respectively lower or higher degrees of saturation — 


of one element or group with another element or group, is perhaps that 
which has met with the widest acceptance. This system further directs 


that when electro-negative groups, the names of which end in ows and ic, 


unite with electro-positive groups to form salts, these terminations are to 
be changed into ite and ate respectively. 

Before proceeding to discuss the practical application of this system, 
it may be well to point out, as a minor etymological detail, that the literal 


meaning of the terminations ows and ic has altered since they were first — 


employed. Thus ous (Latin osus) ought to denote, on the part of the 
compound, richness in that element to the name of which the termination 
is attached. For example, cwprous (cuprosus) means ‘rich in copper’: 
cuprous oxide is primarily an oxide which is richer in copper than cupric 
oxide, and only by implication an oxide which is poorer in oxygen. This 
implied signification is, however, that in which the name cuprous owide 
is nowadays employed. A curious result of this change of literal meaning 
is to be found in the use of the prefix hypo to denote a still lower degree of 
saturation than that expressed by ous. Thus the name hyponitrous acid 
is taken to denote an acid containing still less oxygen than nitrous acid ; 
whereas hyponitrous really means ‘ less rich in nitrogen,’ which is the very 
opposite. Had the etymology been logically carried out, the prefix ought 
to have been hyper. A similar confusion of ideas is displayed in the use 
of the prefixes hyper and per at the other end of the scale; in place of 
these, hypo ought to have been employed. Perchromic acid does not, as 
its name literally taken signifies, contain more chromium than chromic 
acid: it contains less, and ought consequently to have been termed 
hypo-chromie acid. 

It need hardly be said that it would be ill-advised to attempt to 


change a system so firmly established as that involved in the present — 
use of these prefixes hypo and hyper; and in the above remarks on ~ 


the etymology of the subject, nothing of the kind is intended. No 
ambiguity can arise from the use of terms about the meaning of which 
everyone is agreed, and their mere etymological accuracy is, in view of 
this all-important consideration, of secondary importance. 


” aa. th 


y 


ON CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. 263 


The following list will show the application of the ic and ous nomen- 
slature to salts and salifiable oxides :— 


I. List of Salts where Two or more Series of Compounds are formed.} 


Name denoting metallic | Formula of corre- || Name denoting metallic | Formula of corre- 
radical of salt sponding oxide radical of salt sponding oxide 

Cuprous Cu,0 Chromous CrO 
Cupric CuO Chromic Cr,0, 
Mercurous Hg,0 Uranous O, 
Mercuric HgO Uranic ( Uranylic) UO, 
Aurous Au,O Manganous MnO 
Auric Au,O, Manganic Mn,0, 
Thallous T1,0 Ferrous FeO 
Thallic TIO, Ferric Fe,0, 
Stannous SnO Cobaltous CoO 
Stannic Sn0, Cobaltic Co,0, 
Cerous Ce,0, Platinous PtO 
Ceric CeO, | Platinic PtO, 


Names corresponding with platinous and platinic would be applied to 
the corresponding oxides and salts of the other metals of the platinum 

‘oup—distinguishing, however, the other oxides and salts of this group 
/ numeral or other designations. 

The designations given in this Table to the various higher and 
lower series of salts and salifiable oxides have been employed with almost 
complete uniformity by all chemists who have adopted this system of 
nomenclature. 

As a metal rarely—if ever—forms more than two salifiable oxides, the 
ous and ic terminations generally suffice for purposes of distinction so far 
as the salts of metals are concerned. 

The practice of further employing these terminations in the case of 
acid-forming oxides does not lead to confusion, since these oxides are 
distinguished by the name anhydride (or acid). Thus we have 
CrO Cr.0O3 CrO; 


Chromous oxide. Chromic oxide. Chromic anhydride 
(Chromic acid.) 

| Indifferent oxides have frequently been classified and named by 

regarding them as compounds of salifiable, with acid-forming oxides, 
Cr,0, being termed chromic chromate. For stages lower than ous, the 
prefixes hypo and sub are employed. Custom appears to have restricted 
hypo chiefly to acids and to acid-forming oxides, sub to salifiable and to 
indifferent oxides. 

With regard to the termination ous, the minor question arises, how 
far this termination ought to be written in the forms ious and eous. 
The answer is: as seldom as possible. ‘Cupreous’ has generally given 
way to ‘cuprous’; no one writes ‘chromious’ (although the name of 
the metal is ‘chromium’) ; and there is no reason why such names as 
‘ruthenious’ and ‘iridious’ should not equally be shorn of their super- 
fiuous penultimate syllable. 

A further question, concerning which considerable difference of opinion 
has prevailed, is whether any ous or ic terminations ought to be 
employed in the names of salts of which only one class is known—thus 
magnesic sulphate instead of magnesium sulphate. There is something to 


* Tn this list the term ‘salt’ is taken to include ‘haloid salts,’ but to exclude the 
halogen compounds of those elements whose oxides do not yield oxy-salts with acids. 


264 : REPORT—1885. 


be said here for both systems ; and, as the diversity of practice does not lead — 
to confusion, and consequently does but little harm (beyond in each case 
offending the ears of those accustomed to the opposite system), the ques- 
tion need not be regarded asa vital one. Objections which have been — 
urged against the use of any termination in such cases are that chemists — 
have not always been able to agree as to which termination is to be used — 
in a given case, and that, apart from this, the practice causes beginners — 
erroneously to surmise the existence of a second series of salts. The — 
objection on the other side is that the omission of the terminal ‘ic’ breaks 
the uniformity of the system and leads beginners to suppose that barium — 
sulphate, for instance, has a different constitution from cupric sulphate, 
In the case of carbon compounds, on the other hand, there is a distinct — 
advantage in affixing ic to the names of the positive radicals in ethereal 
salts. A neglect of this precaution leads to ambiguity—at all events in — 
the spoken name. Thus, though there is no ambiguity in the name ethyl 
phenylacetate when written, yet the ear cannot distinguish between it and — 
ethylphenyl acetate. This ambiguity is obviated by the use of the termi- 
nation ic: thus, ethylic phenylacetate and ethylphenylic acetate. 

In the use of the terminations ous and ic to distinguish different series — 
of acids and acid-forming oxides, the practice of chemists has also been 
very uniform. Indeed, with the exception of one or two isolated cases 
almost perfect unanimity has prevailed. 

To sum up, the ous and ic terminations when employed for purposes — 
of distinction in cases where two series of oxides, acids, salts, &e., are — 
known, have been almost free from ambiguity, and for this reason — 
deserve to be retained. On the other hand, in cases where only one series — 
is known, those chemists who have employed one or other of these : 
terminations have occasionally differed as to which ought to be used: 
the difficulty may be solved, as it has been done by some chemists, by 
avoiding the use of any termination in such cases. 5 

In complex cases where the above modes of naming prove inadequate, — 
recourse may be had to numeral designations. These appear especially — 
admissible in cases where an oxide occurs which is intermediate between — 
the ous and ic stage, and at the same time cannot be classed as a com- 
pound of oxides already classified and named. ; 

In applying numeral designations, it is most important to select only 
such as are free from hypothesis and which afford correct information, — 
In this respect, chemists appear of late years not to have been sufficiently — 
careful. As an example, arsenious oxide may be quoted; this compound 
is frequently termed ‘arsenic trioxide,’ the formula being written As.O3, _ 
and it is tacitly assumed that the molecule contains three oxygen atoms. 
There are three objections to this name :—(1) That, assuming the formula 
on which it is based to be correct, it affords no information as to the 
number of arsenic atoms associated with the three oxygen atoms; (2) © 
that it involves the assumption that arsenious oxide does not vary in 
molecular weight, whatever its physical state; and (3) that the formula 
of gaseous arsenious oxide is As,Oxg. 

In employing numeral designations to indicate molecular composi-_ 
tion in cases where this is established, it is therefore important to express” 
the number of atoms of each constituent element, as dicarbon heaachloride, 
C, Cl,. But in the case of solid and liquid bodies of which the molecular 
weight is either unknown or may vary with temperature, the name 
should indicate merely the relative proportions in which the constituents 
-are associated ; or, more explicitly, the name should indicate the propor-— 


ON CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. 265 


tion of the radical associated with what may be termed the characteristic 
element of the compound. No difficulty occurs in the case of the chlorides, 
or analogous compounds with the monad elements generally, these being 
termed mono-, di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, or hexa-chloride, &c., according as 
combination is in the proportion of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 atoms of chlorine to 
latom of the characteristic element. The application of this system 
would involve the use of the names tin dichloride and iron trichloride 
(not sesqui-chloride) for stannous and ferric chlorides respectively, names 
which accurately express the relative proportions of chlorine to metal in 
these compounds without any hypothesis as to their molecular composition 
—a composition, which in the case of the former compound, at all events, 
certainly depends on temperature. It will, however, involve a slight depar- 


ture from the existing practice when applied to oxides, sulphides, and other 


J 


compounds of polyad elements; thus oxides of the type (R,.)’’O would 
be termed hemv-oxides, since they consist of the characteristic element 
and oxygen in the proportion of one atom of the former to half an atom 
of the latter. Oxides of the type (R,)“O; would be termed sesqui- 
oxides, since the characteristic element and oxygen are present in the 
proportion of one of the former to one and a half of the latter. Oxides of 
the type R. O; would be termed sesterti-oxides, as they contain oxygen 


and the characteristic element in the proportion of two and a half 


atoms of the former to one of the latter. Oxides of the types RO, 
RO,, RO;, and RO,, would be termed respectively mono-, di-, tri-, and 


: tetr-oxides. 
Acip SAtts. 
‘ There are two distinct classes of salts to which this name has been 
given :— 


1. Salts with two or more metals, one of the metals being hydrogen. 

2. Salts formed from these by the removal of water. 

Until comparatively lately, no attempt was made to give distinctive 
names to these two classes, except that sometimes the words hydratic and 
anhydrous were used to distinguish them. The distinctive names— 
pyrophosphate, metaphosphate—which Graham gave to the two sets of 
anhydrous acid phosphates were founded on the supposition that the 
phosphoric acid (PO;) existed in them in two modifications, different 


_ from the acid of the ordinary phosphates. 


_The nomenclature used by nearly all chemists from the beginning of 
this century until about 1860 is illustrated on tables 3-6. Acid salts in 


_ which for the same quantity of base there is 2,3, . . . &c. times as much 


acid as there is in the normal salt are called bi ate, ter ate, &c. (in 
German, doppelt (or zweifach) saures Salz, dreifach saures Salz, 
&e.) In English and French the Latin adverbial numerals bis or bi, ter, 


- &. seem always to have been used until about twenty years ago, when 


Greek adverbial numerals were introduced for the anhydrous acid salts. 
Watts’s: Dictionary and Naquet are the first English and French 
authorities in which we have observed this change. 


Basic Sats. 
’ There are two distinct classes of salts to which this name has been 
given :-— 
1. Salts with two or more salt radicals, one of the salt radicals being 


hydroxyl. 


2. Salts formed from these by the removal of water. 


266 REPORT—1885. | 


These were not distinguished by name until quite recently, and are 
still very often confused. : 

The nomenclature in general use is illustrated on tables 8-12. 

Basic salts of oxygen acids in which for the same quantity of base there 
is 4, 4, &c. as much acid as there is in the normal salt are called 
di ate, tri (or tris)——ate, &c. (in German, halb saures Salz, 
drittel saures Salz, &c.) 

Basic salts of oxygen acid were also named by the proportion of base 
to acid, the proportion in the normal salt being taken as unity—bibasic, 
terbasic, &c. salts (in German, zweifach, dreifach, ete. basische Salze). 
Thus trisnitrate (drittel saures salpetersaures Saiz) is the same as terbasic 
nitrate (dreifach basisches salpetersaures Salz), Latin adverbial numerals 
- being used for multiples, and Greek adverbial numerals for submultiples. — 

The compounds of basic oxides with haloid salts (corresponding to 
the basic salts of the oxygen acids) are variously named; thus, oxy- 
chloride, bisoxychloride, basic chloride, bibasic chloride. The numerals 
here refer not to the number of atoms of oxygen and halogen, but to the 
proportion of metal combined with oxygen and halogen respectively — 
(or perhaps more correctly to the proportion of equivalents of oxygen and 
halogen) ; thus 2PbO.PbCl, is bisoxychloride, or bibasic chloride. It is 
to be noted that corresponding basic haloid and oxygen salts have not the 
same numeral ; as— 

PbO.PbCl, is basic chloride (einfach basisches Chlorid). 

PbO.Pb(NO3), is bibasic nitrate (zweifach basisches Salz), because | 
it is 2PbO.N,O,. 

2PbO.PbCI, is bibasic chloride (zweifach basisches Chlorid). 

2PbO.Pb(NO3;), is terbasic nitrate (dreifach basisches Salz), because 
it is 3PbO.N,O,. 


SunpHur Sarrs.—Table 14. 
These have sometimes, especially in German, been named as double 
sulphides, but usually, in Latin, Nnglish, French, and recently also in 
German, follow the names of the corresponding oxygen salts. 


SutpeHur Basic Satts.—Table 13. 


Compounds of normal salts with sulphides of the metal. These were 
discovered by H. Rose, and called by Berzelius sulphur basic (schwefel 
basisch), as corresponding to the compounds of normal salts with the basic 
oxide. This nomenclature has not been generally adopted, and, as will be 
seen from the table, there is little uniformity in naming these substances. 


Dovste Satrs. 

With very few exceptions, these may be classified in two sets. 
1. With a common salt radical. 2. With acommon metal. 1. Witha 
common salt radical. Here again there are two kinds. (a) Salts of 
polybasic acids. (6) Compounds of two haloid salts, or of a haloid salt, 
with a compound of a halogen and a non-metallic element. 

(a) These are named consistently with the names of the simple salts; 
as phosphate of magnesia and ammonia, phosphorsaure ammoniak- 
Magnesia, magnesium ammonium orthophosphate, ammonic magnesi¢ 
phosphate, or, with what may perhaps be called an adverbial modification 
of the first adjective, ammonio-magnesic phosphate. 

(b) Of these we may take as examples 2KF, SiF,; 2KCl, PtCl,; 
2KCN, Pt(CN),; KF, BF;; KCl, AuCl,; 4KCN, Fe(CN),; 3(KCN), 
Fe(CN);. See Tables 15, 16, 17. : 


— 


y ON CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. 267 


These have been named on three different principles :— 
(a) As double fluorides, chlorides, ete. ; for instance, fluoride of silicon 
and potassium, fluorkieselkalium. Sees 
(8) As compounds of the positive metal with a compound salt radi- 
cal; for instance, ferrocyanide of potassium, silicofluoride of potassium, 
_kieselfluorkalium. 
(y) As analogues of oxygen salts; for instance, fluosilicate of 
‘potassium, potassium fluosilicate, potassium chlorplatinate, chloraurate, 
cyanaurate. 
_ The third system seems only to be used when there is really a corre- 
sponding oxygen compound. 
- 2. With a common metal. As a well-known substance mentioned by 
most systematic writers, emerald green has been selected—table 18. 
It will be seen that where a name is given, it is either acetate and 
arsenite, or a combined name, acetoarsenite, or arsenigessigsaures Salz. 


List of Authorities referred to by their numbers in the following tables. 


No. Author Edition| Date No. Author Edition} Date 
Suebbomson’. . . .| II. 1804 || 20 | Miller Feat ag: 1856 
maihomson . . . .| IV. | 1810 || 21 | Regnault .. . «| V. 1859 

Memieehomson . . . .| V. 1817 || 22 | Rose (French) . .| —- 1862 
Mumerance. . . . .| I. 1819 || 23 | Watts’s Dictionary| — |1863-81 

| 5|Thomson . . . .| VII. | 1831 and Supplements 
Memerande. . . . .| IV. | 1837 || 24 | Naquet. . . . .| IL 1867 
7 |Ongren (Table to! IV. | 1838 |} 25 | Rose (Finkener) .| VI. /|1867-71 

} Berzelius) 26 | Fownes* 9 73 60%) Pe XS 1868 
Memrande. . . . | (UV. 1841 27 | Williamsons .) % 7) “TE 1868 

ieiGranam . , . .| XI, 1842 || 28 | Wurtz’s Dictionary.| — |1869-76 

mpemeln. . . . .| IV. |1843-4]/ 29 | Bloxam. . .. .| I. 1872 

Mime iiebig (Geiger). .| V. 1843 || 30 | Regnault Strecker- | IX. | 1877 

12 |Mitscherlich . . .| IV. | 1844 Wislicenus 
13 | Handworterbuch . |I. & IT.|/1848_64)| 31 | Kolbe, Kurzes Lehr- | — _ | 1877-8 

14 | Kopp’s Geschichte| — | 1847 buch 

(vol. iv.) 32:| Hownes. ©. «. .. «| XID) 1877 

Meee, : . . . .| I. A849) ||) Ser | Maller te ne aba Weld 
16|Graham ... .| II. |1850 &|| 34 | Roscoe and Schor-| -— |1878-81 
; 1858 lemmer 

17|\Regnault . . . .| IIL. | 1851 || 35 | FranklandandJapp| — 1884 

)18|Fownes. . .. .| V. | 1854 || 36 | Kolbe (Humpidge).| — | 1884 

19 Mame. - . | LIT. |1855-60 

16 

1. Muriat of lime. 13. Calciumchlorid, chlorcalcium (Salz- 
2. Muriate of lime. saurer Kalk) (Ca€t), 1859. 

8. Chloride of calcium (also muriate of | 14. Chlorcalcium. 

lime). 15. Chloride of calcium (CaCl+ 6Aq). 

4, Chloride of calcium. 16. Chloride of calcium (CaCl). 

5. Chloride of calcium. 17. Chlorure de calcium (CaCl). 

6. Chloride of calcium (cal+C). 18. Chloride of calcium (CaCl). 

7. Chloretum calcicum (CaCl). 19. Chlorcalcium (CaCl). 

8. Chloride of calcium or muriate of | 20. Chloride of calcium. 

lime (Cal+C). 21. Chlorure de calcium (CaC}). 
9. Chloride of calcium (CaCl). 22. = 
| 10. Chlorcalcium (CaCl). 23. Chloride of calcium (CaCl,). 2nd 
} 11. Chlorealcium (calcium chloratum) Supp. Calcium chloride. 
| (CaCl). 24. Chlorure de calcium. 


12. Chlorcalcium (CaCl). 25. Chlorcalcium. 


268 


26. 
27. 


Nonrwrpr 


a 
oe 2) 


ft pet 
== 


i 
bo 


13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
iif 


DOA OP whe 


Calcium chloride (CaCl,). 
Calcic chloride (Cl,Ca). 


. Chlorure de calcium. 

. Chloride of calcium (CaCl,). 
. Chlorcalcium (CaCl,). 

. Chlorcalcium (Ca’’Cl,). 

. Calcium chloride (CaCl,). 


. Sulphat of soda. 
. Sulphate of soda. 


Sulphate of soda. 


. Sulphate of soda. 
. Sulphate of soda, 
. Sulphate of soda (S +s”). 


. Sulphas natricus (Na $8) 


. Sulphate of soda (NaO,SO0,+ 10HO). 
. Einfach schwefelsaures Natron. 
. Schwefelsaures 


Natron (natrum 
sulphuricum) (NaO,SO,,10Aq). 


. Schwefelsaures Natron (NaS + 10Aq). 
. Schwefelsaures 


Natron, neutrales, 
1859. 


. Schwefelsaures Natron. 

. Sulphate of soda (NaO.SO,+10Aq). 
. Sulphate of soda (NaO,S80O,). 

. Sulfate de sonde (NaO,SO,). 

. Sulphate of soda (Na0O,SQ,). 

. Schwefelsaures Natron (Na0O,80O,). 

. Sulphate of soda (NaO,SO,). 

. Sulfate de soude (NaO.SO,). 


Il. 


. Supersulphate of soda, 
. Bisulphate of soda. 
. Bisulphate of soda. 
. Bisulphate of soda. 
. Bisulphate of soda. 


. Bisulphate of soda. 
. Bisulphate of soda (HO,SO,+Na 


0,80,). 


Saures (od. doppelt) schwefelsaures 


Natron (NaO,2S0, + Aq). 


. Schwefelsaures Natron und schwefel- 


saures Wasser, zweifach schwefel- 
saures Natron (NaS?+ 3H =NaS + 


HS + 2H), 

Schwefelsaures Natron, zweifach 
saures, wasserhaltendes Salz 
(NaO,SO, +£0,S0,). 

Saures schwefelsaures Natron. 


Bisulphate of soda (NaO,SO,+ HO, 
SO,). 

Bisulphate of soda (HO,SO,+Na0, 
SO,). 

Bisulfatedesoude (Na0.S0°+ HO.SO8 
+2HO). 


REPORT—1885. 


33. 


4. Calcium chloride (chloride of cal | 


. Caleic chloride (CaCl,). 
. Calcium chloride (CaCl,). 


. Normal or neutral sulphate of 
sodium. 2nd Supp. sodium sul- 
phate (Na,SO,). 

. Sulfate neutre de soude. 


. Schwefelsaures Natron. 

. Sodium sulphate (SO,Na,) 

. Sodic sulphate (Na,SO,). 

. Sulfate neutre de sodium. 

. Sulphate of soda (Na,0,S0,). 
. Neutrales schwefelsaures Natrium, 


. Schwefelsaures 


. Sodium sulphate. 
. Sodic 


. Normal sodium sulphate (also sul- 


. Sodice sulphate (SO,Nao,). 
. Sodium sulphate. 


. Bisulphate of soda (Na0,SO,+HO, 


SO, + 3HO). 

. Zweifach schwefelsaures Natron, 
Wasserhaltiges (Na0,SO,+ HO, 
80,). 


. Bisulphate of soda (Na0,HO,280,). 
. Bisulfate de soude (Na0.SO*+H 


. Bisulphate de soude. 
. Hydro-monosodic 


4, Bisulfate de soude. 
. Saures schwefelsaures Natron. 
. Sodium and hydrogen sulphate, 


. Hydrosodic sulphate (NaHS0O,). 
. Sulfate acide de sodium (SO,NaH). 
. Bisulphate of soda (Na,0,H,0,2SOz) 
. Mononatrium Sulfat, oder halb; z 
. Saures schwefelsaures Natron {On 

so, [OH 


. Sodium and hydrogen sulphate, 0 


. Hydric sodic 


Calcic chloride (or chloride of cal- | 
cium) (CaCl,). } 


cium) (CaCl,). el 


oder Dinatriumsulfat (Na,S8O,, 
10H,0). ; 
Natron, neutrales_ 
0,0Na i 


(SO.6N4, + 10H20). 


sulphate, or 
sodium (Na,SO,). 


sulphate 


phate of soda). 


0. 
SO* + 2HO). ; 


sulphate (hy: 
drated bisulphate of soda) (NaH 
SO,). 


acid sodium sulphate (280,NaH. 
30H,, or SO,Na,.S0,H,.30H,). 4 


siittigtes 


saures schwefelsaures 
Natrium. 4 


acid sodium sulphate (see 26). 
sulphate (acid sul 


es) y 


‘ soda) (NaHSO,). 
4. Hydrogen sodium sulphate (NaH 
80,). 


” ” 


»” ” 


6. Anhydrous bisulphate of soda (S+ 

e 2/). ee 

7. Bisulphas natricus Na S.. 

§. Anhydrous bisulphate of soda (S 
+ 2s’). 

| Zweifach schwefelsaures 

4 (NaO, 2S0,). 

Il. Saures (doppelt) schwefelsaures Na- 

tron, das wasserleere Salz. 


Natron 


Natron, zweifach 


saures wasserfreies Salz. 

f 5 (Not specially named.) 

16. Anhydrous bisulphate (a true bisul- 
: phate). 

17. Un véritable bisulphate (Na0.2S0,). 
8. Anhydrous bisulphate of soda (NaO, 
' 280,). 

19. Zweifach schwefelsaures Natron, 
wasserfreies Salz (Na0,2S0,), 


1. (Alkaline chromats.) 
2. Chromate of potash [red colour]. 
3. Bichromate of potash. 
4. (Not distinguished from chromates.) 
_ 5, Bichromate of potash. 
6. Bichromate of potassa (2Chr’ + P). 
7 Bichromas kalicus (KCr,). 
_ 8. Bichromate of potassa (2Chr’ + P). 
. Bichromate of potash (KO,2Cr0O,). 
). Not mentioned. 


12. Dweitach chromsaures Kali. 
13. Doppeltsaures od. rothes chrom- 


saures Kali (KO,2CrO,), 1859. 


14 ee 
$ Bichromate of potash (KO + 2Cr0,). 
16. Bichromate of potash (KO,2Cr0,), 
Bae 1858. 

17. Bichromate de potasse. 

Oy Bichromate of potassa (KO,2Cr0,). 
9. Zweifach od. rothes chromsaures 
: Kali (Ka0,2Cr0,). 

20. Bichromate of potash (KO,2Cr0,). 

4 Bichromate de potasse. 

23. Acid chromate of potassium, di- 

chromate of potassium, or bi- 


phate of sodium or bisulphate of 


ON CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. 


269 


35. Hydric sodic sulphate (SO,HoNao), 
36. Acidsodium sulphate SO, ( {oNa) 


33. 


34. 


35. 
36. 


. Bisulphate of soda, the anhydrous 


salt. 


. Un véritable bisulphate (Na0.2S0%). 


. Anhydrosulphate of sodium or an- 


sodium 
Na,0, 


hydrous bisulphate of 
(Na,8,0, = Na,SO,SO, = 
2S80,) 1875. 


. Disulfate de soude. 


. Anhydro bisulphate (SO,Na.,S0,). 
- Sodic disulphate (Na,S.0,). 

. Anhydrosulfate. 

. Neutrales Kalium Pyrosulfat. 


. Dischwefelsaures Natron 


fS0,0Na 
( oe S0:0Na) 


Pyrosulphate (Na,$,0, or Na,SO,, 
SO 


3)- 


- Sodic pyrosulphate (Na.S,0,). 
. Sodium disulphate (Na,S,0,). 
. Sodic pyrosulphate (S,0,Nao,). 


. Sodium disulphate (0 J S0:0Na) 


‘| SO,0Na 


chromate of potash (K,0.2Cr0, 
= K,CrO,,CrO,), 1863. Potassium 
dichromate (K,0.2CrO,), 1872. 


. Dichromate de potasse. 
. Saures chromsaures Kali. 
- Potassium bichromate or anhydro- 


chromate (2CrO,,K,0, or CrO,K,, 
CrO,). 


. Potassic dichromate (K,Cr,0,). 

. Bichromate de potasse (K,0,2Cr0,). 
. Bichromate of potash (K,0,2Cr0,). 
- Kalium dichromat. 

. (Neutrales) 


Dichromsaures Kali. 
(0 joe 


Cr0,0K ): 


. Potassium bichromate or anhydro- 


chromate (2CrO,,K,0, or CrO,K.,, 
CrQ,). 

Potassic dichromate, pyrochromate, 
or anhydrochromate (K,0,2CrO,, 
or K,Cr,0,). 

Potassium dichromate, or bichromate 
of potash (K,Cr,0,). 

CrO,Ko 

Dipotassic dichromate ( | O ) 

CrO,Ko 
Potassium dichromate. 


REPORT—1885. 


270 
VI. 
i _ 
2. = 
Bs _ 
4, — 
5. = 
6. — 
We = 
8. = 
9. Terchromate of potash (KO,3Cr0O,). 
10. — 
Lie -- 
12. Dreifach chromsaures Kali. 
13. Dreifach chromsaures Kali (KO, 
3CrO,). 
14. —_ 
15. — 
16. Terchromate of potash (KO,3Cr0,) 
[1858]. 
UT — 
18. _ 
19. Dreifach chromsaures Kali (KaO, 
3CrO,). 
20. Terchromate of potash (KO,3Cr0O,). 
21. — 
22. a 
Vil. 
iB _ 
2. _— 
3. — | 
4, —_— 
5. — 
6. Bichromate of chloride of potas- 
sium. 
ie —~ | 
8. Bichromate of chloride of potas- 
sium. 
9. Bichromate of chloride of potassium 
(KC1+ 2Cr03). 
10. - 
11 


15. 
. Bichromate of chloride of potassium 


Lea 


' Chromsiiure und Chlorkalium (K€t+ 2 


Cr) 


: Zweifach chromsaure Chlorkalium, 


chlorchromsaure Kali (K€+,2CrO, 


oder KO,CrO,.CrO,¢t oder 3(KO. | 


C104) + (Cr€4,2Cr05). 
(KCl, + 2Cr0,). 
(KCl + 2Cr0,). 


Bichrémate de chlorure de potassium, 
or chlorochrémate de potasse | 34 
(KC1.2Cr0°). 35 
ar 36 
Vill 
Nitrat of lead. 


Nitrate of lead. 
Subnitrate of lead. 
Subnitrate of lead. 


. Potassium trichromate (3Cr0,, Kg 


. Terchromate of potash (K,0,3Cr0,), 
. Kalium trichromat. 


. Potassium trichromate (8CrO,,K,0, 


. Potassie trichromate (K,0,3CrO,). 
. Potassium trichromate (K,Cr,0,,). 


. Dipotassic trichromate 


. Zweifach chromsaures 
. Bichromate of chloride of potassium — 


. Bichrémate de chlorure de potas- 


: Bichromate de chlorure de potassium, 


. Chlorchromsaures Kali (070.9%). 


F Dichromate of chloride of potassium, 


. Potassium chlorochromate (KCrO,Cl). 


. Potassium chlorchromate. 


. Dinitrate of lead. 
. Dinitrate of lead (2PL+n’). 


. Nitras biplumbicus (Pb*N,). 


[ 


[1863], 
[1872]. 


or CrO,K,,2Cr0,) 


or CrO,K,,2CrO,). 


7. 


ae we ne te th + ase 2 


CrO,Ko 
O 


tel 


CrO, 
O 
CrO,Ko. 


Pe ee 


Chlorkalium — 
(KaCl,2Cr0,). 


(KC1,2Cr0,). 


sium, or chlorochrémate de potasse. 


Potassium 
1872. 
Potassium chlorochromate, 
and 1879 (KCI,CrO,). 


chromatochloride, { 


or potassic chlorochromate (KC 
CrO, ?). 


a 


| 
, 
: 


8. Dinitrate of lead ((2PL+n’). 
9, Bibasic nitrate of lead (PbO,NO,+ 
PbO). 


12. Basisch 


(Pb). 

13. Zweifach basisch  salpetersaures 
Bleioxyd (2Pb0,NO;, or 2Pb0; 
¥0,.H0). 

14, — 

15. Basic salt, containing two atoms of 
oxide of lead united to one of 
nitric acid. 

16. Bibasic nitrate of lead (PbO,NO, + 


salpetersaures Bleioxyd 


PbO). 
17. Sous-azotate de plomb; azotate bi- 
basique (2PbO.NO°+ HO). 
18. Basic nitrate. 
19. Halbsaures Salz (PbO,HO,PbO,NO,). 
20. Dinitrate of lead (2PbO, NO,). 
21. (See 17). 


1, Submuriat of lead. 
2. Submuriate of lead. 
3. Submuriate of lead. 


3 ‘Oxychloride of lead. 
9. Bibasic chloride of lead (PbCl+ 
__-2PbO), Tribasic (PbC1+ 3PbO). 


13. Einfach, zweifach-, &c. basisches 
Chlorblei (PbCl+ PbO), &c. 


i 

(16. Oxychloride of lead. 

a orere 

\19. Basische Bleichloride, Oxychlorid, 
Bisoxychlorid, &c. (PbO,PbCl, 
2Pb0,PbCl, &c.) 


W — 
2. Subnitrate of bismuth. 
3. Subnitrate of bismuth. 


5. Tetartonitrate of bismuth. 
6. ey orated subnitrate of bismuth. 
| 8. iydrated subnitrate of bismuth. 
9. Subnitrate of bismuth (HO,NO, 
| +3Bi0). 


IX. 


ON CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. 


. Basic nitrates of lead; 


. Halbgesittigt 


&e.) 
. Diplumboxydchloriir ; 


. Basisch 


271 


diplumbic 
nitrate. 


. Azotate basique de plomb 


n [ BAzO, 
(B { CH *). 


. Basic nitrate. 
. Plumbic hydronitrate (PbNO,HO), 
28. Azotate diplombique (AzO,),Pb,PbO 


or parazotate, (Az,0,)Pb,, or 
orthoazotate (AzO,)/"Pb’H. 


hydratisch basisch 
Salpetersauresblei. 


. Basisches Salz Cr oe *ho,pp). 
2. Basic nitrate. 


. Dibasic plumbic nitrate (Pb2NO,, 
PbH,0,). 


. Basic nitrate, Pb(NO,)OH. 
. Plumbic 


nitrate 
(OPb’ Ho). 


hydrate, NO, 


. Basic salt. 


Oxychlorides of lead (PbO,PbC1, &c.) 


: Oxyeblorure, 


P Oxychlorides (Pb,C1,0 or PbC1,PbO, 


&c.), 1881, III. Supp. 


- Oxychlorures de plomb, 


. Oxychlorides PbCl,,PbO, &c.) 
- Basic plumbic chlorides (Pb,OCL, 


Pb,0,Cl,. &c.) 


| Oxychlorides of lead (PbCI,,PbO, 


Triplumb- 
dioxydchloriir, &c, 


. Basische Salze. 
. Oxychlorides (PbCl,,PbO, &c.) 
. Oxychlorides 


of lead (PbO,PbCl,, 
ke 


c.) 
. Basic chlorides (PbCl, + PbO, &c.) 
. Oxychlorides, 
. Oxy- or basic chloride. 


. Salpetersaures Wismuthoxyd, ein- 


fach. Basisch salpetersaures Wis- 
muthoxyd (BiO,,NO, + Aq). 
salpetersaures Wismuth- 
oxyd; Bismuthum Subnitricum 
(N,0,,Bi0 + 3Bi0,Aq.N,0,,BiO 
+2BiO). 


. Verbindung von salpetersaurem Wis- 


muthoxyd mit Wismuthoxydhy- 
drat (BiN + 3Bi#). 


272 


13. 


Basisch salpetersaures Wismuthoxyd, 
drittelsaures salpetersaures Wis- 
muthoxyd. 


. Basisch salpetersaures Wismuth. 
. A basic salt (BiO, + NO,). 
. Subnitrate of bismuth (BiO,,NO; 


26. Basic nitrate (Bi,O,,N,0,,20H., or — 


27. 
28. 


+ HO). 29. 
17. Sous-azotate de bismuth. 
18. Basic nitrate of teroxide of bismuth | .- 
(BiO,,NO, +2HO). 30. 
19. Drittelsaures Salz (Bi0,,NO,+2HO), | 31. 
Bisoxynitrat 
(2(Bi0,,3HO)Bi0,,3N0,). 
20, Subnitrate of bismuth (9HO,4NO,, 
+ 5BiO,). 32 
21. Sous-azotate de bismuth. 33 
22. — 
23. A basic nitrate (BiNO,H,O or | 34 
Bi,O,,N,0,,2H,0). 
24. Sous-azotate. 35 
25. we 
36 
XI. 
ul -- 19 
2. —_— 
3 — 20 
4, — 
5. A subsalt. 21 
6. A compound of oxide of bismuth | 22 
with chloride. 23 
i — 
8. (See 6.) 
9. A subsalt (BiC1+ 2 BiO + HO) 24 
10. Wismuthoxyd -chlorwismuth. Wis- | 25 
muthoxychloriir. Basisch salz- | 26 
saures Wismuthoxyd (BiCl,, | 27 
2Bi0,). 28 
11. Basisches Salz. 
12. (BiCl+ 2Bi#). 29 
13. Wismuth Bisoxychlorid. Zweifach- 
basisches Wismuth Chlorid | 30 
(Bi,C40, oder Bi,€4, + Bi,O;). 31 
14. _ 
15. Oxychloride of bismuth (BiCl,+ | 32 
2Bi0, + 3HO). 33 
16. Oxychloride of bismuth (BiCl,, 
2BiO,). 34 
17. Oxychlorure de bismuth (Bi,Cl,+ | 35. 
2(Bi,0, + 3HO). 36 
18. — 
XII. 
1. Oxysulphat of mercury. 10 
2. Suboxysulphate of mercury. 
3. Neutral persulphate of mercury. 12. 
4, Suboxysulphate of mercury. 
5. Disulphate of mercury. 13. 
6. A sub-salt. 
7. — 14, 
8. A sub-salt. 
9. (Hg0.S0, + 2HgO). uly 
10. Schwefelsaures Quecksilberoxyd, | 16. 
Drittel (83HgO.SO,). re 


. Oxychloride (BiCl10). 
. Bismuthous 


. Basic bismuth chloride. 


REPORT—1885. 


Bi” (NO,),,Bi,03,30H,). 


Azotate basique de bismuth (Bi!” / 
(Bi0) AzO, 


(AzO,) + H,O 
+H,0). 


or 


Basic nitrate of bismuth, also called — 
trisnitrate of bismuth (Bi,O,, 


N,O,,H,0). 
Wismuthnitrat. Bi(ONO,)(OH),. 
Basisches salpetersaures Wismuth- 


oxyd (E:} 0,Bi or NO,OBiO 
2 
+ H,0). 


. Basic nitrate (see 26). 

. Bismuthous  subnitrate  (Bi,O,, — 
2HNO,). 

. Basic bismuth nitrate, Bi (OH), 


NO,. 


. Bismuthous nitrate dihydrate, NO, 3 


(Bi'Ho,0). 


. Basic bismuth nitrate, Bi(OH),NO,. 


. Bisoxychlorid, zweifach basisches — 


Salz (2Bi0,,BiCl,). 


. Oxychloride of bismuth (BiCl,, — 
2BiO,). t 

(See 17.) ; 

. Oxychloride of bismuth (BiOCl), 
1863. Bismuthyl — chloride — 
(BiOCl), 1879. Supp. IIH. ; 


4. Oxychlorure (BiOCl). 

. Basisches Chlorwismuth. 

. Oxychloride (BiCl0). 

. Bismuth oxychloride (BiOCl). 
. Oxychlorure de bismuth (BiOCl or — 


Bi,O,,BiCl,). 


. Oxychloride ‘of bismuth, 2(BiCl,, | 


Bi,0,),H,0. 


. Wismuthoxychloriir. 
. Basisches Chlorwismuth, Wismuth- — 


oxychlorid (BiOC}). 


oxychloride, 
Bi,O,),0H, or BiOCL. 


. Bismuth oxychloride (BiOCl). 


Bismuthous oxychloride (BiOC1). 
(Bismuth 
oxychloride.) 


Basisches schwefelsaures Quecksilber- 


oxyd (3Hg0.80,). 
Basisches schwefelsaures Quecksilber- 
oxyd. 


Basisch schwefelsaures Quecksilber- 
oxyd (3Hg0.S8O,). 

Basisches schwefelsaures Queck- 
silberoxyd. j 


Basic sulphate (83HgO +S0O,). 
Sub-sulphate. 
Sel basique (3Hg0O.S0), 


2(BiCl, 


ON CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. 


18. A basic salt (3Hg0.SO,). 


19. 
20. 


21. 
22. 
23. 


24, 


7. 
8 


9, 
10. 


11. 
12. 


14. 
15, 
16, 


i, 


9. 
10. 
11, 


12, 
13, 
14, 


16. 
16, 


Drittelsaures Salz (3HgO.SO,). 
A sub-salt (3Hg0O.SO,). 
Sel basique (3HgO.SO%), 


Basic sulphate of mercury (3HgO.SO, 


= HgSO,.2Hg0). 
806?” ” 
P He 8 e2 
Sel basique He rs 
=f 


Chlorosulphuret of mercury (hg+ 
2C) + 2(hg + 28). 

Chloride and sulphuret of mercury 
(HgCl + 2HgS). 

Chlorgq uecksilber-Schwefelquecksil- 
ber, oder Chlor- und Schwefel- 
quecksilber (2HgS,HgCl). 

Schwefelbasisches Quecksilberchlorid 

. (Berzelius’ nomenclature) (HgCl, 
+2H¢g8). 

Quecksilberschwefelchlorid (Hg€t, 
+2Hg8). 


Chlorosulphuret (HgC1+2HgS). 


273 


. A basic salt (3HgO.SO,). 

. A basic salt (Hg,SO,). 

. Sulfate trimercurique(SO,Hg,2Hg0O). 
. A basic sulphate (Hg0O.SO,.2Hg0), 

. Drittelgesittigtes Mercuridsulfat. 

. Basisches Salz (SO,0,Hg + 2HgO), 

. A basic salt (3HgO.SO,). 

. A basic salt (HgSO,.2Hg0O). 

. A basic salt (Hg,SO,). 
. Trimercuric sulphate (SHgo,). 

. Basic sulphate (SO,.0,Hg + 2Hg0). 


“ 


- Quecksilbersulphuretochlorid 


(Quecksilberchlorosulphuret) 
(2H¢g8,HgCl). 


. (See No. 17.) 


Sulphochloride of mercury (Hg,S, 


Cl,). 


. Mercuric sulphochloride (Hg,S,Cl,). 
. Sulfochlorure mercurique 


(2HgS, 
HgCl,). 


. Chlorosulphide of mercury (HgCl, 


2Hg8). 


. Mercuridthiochloriir, 


4, (QHg8,HegCl,). 


Sulphochloride of mercury (HgCl, | 35. Trimercuric disulpho- (Fecin “) 
2Hg8). dichloride gr 8s 
HgCl+2H¢8S. 36. — 
XIV. 

— 17, Sulfantimoniate de sulfure de 

nas Sodium (3Na8.Sb,S,). 

as 18, _— 

— 19, Natrium sulphantimoniat (3NaS, 
Sulphoantimoniate. aye 


Sulphostibias natricus (Na Sb,). 


Fiinffachschwefelantimonnatrium, 

Antimon persulphid-Natrium (Sulpho- 
stibias natricus cum aqua) (Sb,§,, 
NaS +12Aq). 

Natrium antimon Sulphid (3 NaS+ 


Sb§,). 

Antimonpersulphid-Natrium, Anti- 
Mmonpersulphid - schwefelnatrium, 
&c., &c. (Sb,S,.NaS). 


Sulphantimoniate (3NaS.SbS,). 
1885 


. Sulphantimoniates 


20. Sulphantimoniate of sodium (3NaS, 
SbS 


; Sulfantimoniate de sulfure de sodium 


(3Na8.8b,S,) 


- Sulphantimonate of sodium (Na,SbS, 


or 3Na.8.Sb,8,). 


(Sb,S,,3M,S or 
SbS,M,). 


. Sodic sulphantimoniate (SbS,Na,). 
. Sulfo-antimoniate de sodium (Sb8, 


Na,). 


. Sulphantimoniate. 


Natriumthioantimonat (Na,SbS,). 
T 


Trisulphosodic sulphantimonate (She 


274 REPORT— 1885. 
31, SbS,Na,, or (SbS) 8,Na,. 35. 
32. Sodium-sulphantimonate. 


33. Trisodic sulphantimoniate (Na,Sb8,). | 36. 
34, Sodium thioantimonate (Na,Sb8,). 
XY. 
1. Fluat of potass and silica. 20. 
2. Fluate of potash and silica. 
8. Fluosilicate of potash. 21. 
4, Silico-fluate. 
5. Fluosilicate of potash. 22. 
6. Silicofluoride of potassium (po+2Si | 23. 
+3f). 
a _— 24 
8. Silicofluoride of potassium (po + 28i 
+ 3f). | 25. 
9. Double fluoride of silicon and potas- | 26. 
sium (2SiF,,3KF). 
10. Fluor-siliciumkalium (KF,SiF,). 27. 
11. Fluorsiliciumkalium. Kieselfluor- | 28. 
kalium (3KF,,2SiF,). 29. 
12. Fluorkiesel Kalium. 
13. Kalium-Kieselfluorid (3KE,2SiF,). 30. 
14, — SI 
15, Fluosilicate of potassium, silico- | 32. 
fluoride of potassium (Si, + KF). 
16. Double fluoride of silicon and | 33. 
potassium (2SiF,,3KF). 34, 
17. Hydrofluosilicate de potasse (3K FI, 
2SiF1,). 35. 
18. Double fluoride of silicium and 
potassium (3KF,SiF,). 36. 
19. Kieselfluorkalium. Fluorkieselkalium 
(3KaFl,2S8iF1,, oder KaFl,SiF],). 
XVI. 
1. Muriat of platinum and potass. 18. 
2. Muriate of platinum and potash. 
3. _ 19. 
4, = : 
5. Bichloroplatinate of potassium. 20. 
6. Platino-bichloride of potassium 
(pl+ 2c) + (po +c). Bl 
1. - 
8. Platino-bichloride of potassium | 22. 
(pl+ 2c) +(po+c). 23. 
9. Chloride of platinum and potassium 
(KCl + PtCl,). 
10. Zweifach Chlorplatinkalium (KCl+ | 24. 
PtCl,). 
11. Kalium iatinchlorid (KCI, + PtCl,). 25. 
12. Kaliumplatinchlorid. 26. 
13. Kalium-platinchlorid (K6t+ Pt€4,). 
14. Platinchlorid-chlorkalium. 27. 
15. Double salt of bichloride of platinum | 28. 


— 
XA 


with chloride of potassium (KCl | 29. 


+ PtCl,) 


; Chloroplatinate of potassium (KCl, | 30. 
PtCl,). Si 
. Chlorure double de platine et de] 32. 


potassium (PtCl, + KCl). 


8’N Nass). 


Silicofluoride of potassium (KF, 
SiF,). 

Hydrofluosilicate de potasse (8KFI, 
2SiF],). 


Silicofluoride of potassium. Potassic 
silicofluoride (2K F,SiF,). 


. Fluorure double de silicium et de 


potassium. 

Kieselfluorkalium. 

Double fluoride of  silicium ahd 
potassium (2KF,SiF,). 

Potassic fluosilicate (K,SiF,). 

Fluosilicate de potassium. 

Silicofluoride of potassium ORF, 
SiF,). 

Metallsilicofluoriire. 

Kieselfluormetalle (SiF,,MF,). 

Double fluoride of silicium and 
potassium (2KF,SiF,). 

Potassic silicofluoride, 

Silicofluoride. potassium  fluosili- 
cate (K,SiF,). 

Potassic silicofluoride (SiF,K,=Si 
F,,2KF). 

Potassium fluosilicate. 


Bichloride of platinum and chloride 
of potassium (PtCl,,KCl). 

Kalium-platinchlorid. Kalium-chlo- — 
roplatinat (KaCl,PtCl,). : 

Double chloride of platinum and 
potassium (KCl,PtCl,). 

Chlorure double de platine et de 
potassium (PtCl, + KCl). 


Chloroplatinate of potassium, 1866. — 
potassium platinochloride (K,Pt — 
Cl,). Supp. I. 1872. i 

Chlorure double de platine et de 
potassium. 

Kaliumplatinchlorid. 

Potassium platinochloride (2KCl, 
PtCl,). 

Chloroplatinate de potassium. 

Platinochloride of potassium (2KCl, 
PtCl,). 

Kaliumplatinchlorid. 

Kaliumplatinchlorid (2KCl,Pt(l,). 

Potassium platinochloride or chloro- 
platinate (2KC1,PtCl,). 


aS — 


ON CHEMICAL NOMENCLATURE. 275 


33. Potassic platinic chloride. 35. 
34, Potassium platinichloride or chloro- 
platinate (K,PtCl,). 36 
XVII. 
LF — 19 
2. —_ 
3. = 20. 
4, == 21 
5. —_ 
6. Cyanuret of platinum and potassium. ae 
ae — 2 
8. Cyanuret of platinum and potas- 
sium. 
9. Platino-cyanide of potassium (K, 
PtCy, + 3HO). 24, 
10. Hinfach-cyanplatinkalium (KCy, | 26. 
PtCy). 26. 
al, — 27. 
12, Kalium Platincyantir (K€y,+Pt€y | 28 
+33). 
13. Kalium Platincyaniir (K6éy+Pt€y | 29. 
+3HO). 30 
14. -= 31 
15. Platinocyanide of potassium (PtCy | 32. 
‘ + KCy or K,Cpty). 33. 
16. Platinocyanides (MCy,PtCy). 34 


17. Cyanure double de platine et de po- 


+3(2 Cu0.As0,). 


tassium (KCy + PtCy + 3HO). 35. 
18. — 36 
j XVIII. 
el: — 18. 
2. — 19 
3. — 
A, — 20 
5. _— 21 
6. — 22. 
7 — 23 
8. — 
9. Acetate and arsenite of copper, 
CuO, (C,H,O,) +3 (Cu0.As0O,). 24. 
10. Essigarsenigsaures Kupferoxyd, 25. 
/. 3(Cu0,AsO,) + C,H,Cu0,. 26. 
11. Essigsaures Kupferoxid und Arsenig- | 27 
saures Kupferoxid, A,CuO 
+3(AsO,, CuO). 28 
12. Arsenichtsaures und essigsaures | 29. 
; Kupferoxyd, (CuA + 3Cu?As). 30 
Arsenigessigsaures Kupferoxyd. 31 
16. Compound of acetate of copper, | 32. 
and arsenite of copper, Cu0.A ag 
+3(HO.2Cu0 + AsO,). 
16, Acetate and arsenite of copper, CuO, 34 
(C,H,0,)+3 (Cu0.As,0,). 
17. Une combinaison, CuO, C,H,0, ue 


Potassic platinic chloride (PtCl,, 
2KC)). 


. Potassium chlorplatinate. 


- Kaliumplatincyantir (KaCy,PtCy 


+3HO) 


. Cyanure double de platine et de 


potassium (KCy + PtCy + 3HO). 


. Platinocyanide of potassium (K,Pt 


Cy,=2KCy,PtCy,), 1866. Potassio 
platinous cyanide (K,PtCy,). 
Supp. I. 1872. 


. Plantinocyanure de potassium, (Pt 


Cy*) K? +3H20. 


. Kaliumplatincyaniir. 
. Kaliumplatincyantir (2KCy,PtCy,). 


. Potassium platinocyanide, K,Pt(CN), 


+12H,0. 


. Potassium platinous cyanide. 


. Eine Verbindung, Cu0,AcO, 


+3(2Cu0,As0,). 


. Cu0,C,H,0, + 3 (Cu0,AsO,). 
. Cu0,C,H,0,+3 (2Cu0,As0,). 


. Aceto-arsenite of copper (C,H,O, 


) 
Cu’, 3 (AsO,), Cu” or C,H,0,. CuO 
+3 (As,0,.Cu’0). 


. Cupric acetoarsenite, Cu(AsO,) 


(C,H;0,). 


. Un acétoarsénite, 


. Arsenigessigsaures Kupfer, 


Cu,(OAsO) , (OC,H,O). 


. Cupric arsenite and acetate, 


3CuAs,0,. Cu (C,H,0,)». 


. Copper acetoarsenite, 3CuAs,0, 


+Cu (C,H,0,),. 


. Double compound. 


T 2 


276 REPORT—1885. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors ODLING, Hunt- 
INGTON, and HartLey, appointed to investigate by means of 
Photography the Ultra-Violet Spark Spectra emitted by Metallic 
Elements, and their combinations under varying conditions. 
Drawn wp by Professor W. N. Hartury, F.R.S. (Secretary.) 


Tue last Report of this Committee was presented at the Southport meet- 
ing of the British Association ; since then an investigation in detail has 
been prosecuted of the changes observable in photographs of the spectra 
of the metals when a series of solutions of definite strengths is examined. 
It had previously been shown that solutions containing the same element 
in different proportions emit variations of the same spectrum, the lines 
differing in number, length, and intensity ; and the converse—namely, 
that under the same spark conditions similar solutions of the same 
strength always emit the same spectrum. Furthermore, I have shown 
the invariable character of the cadmium, tin, lead, and magnesium lines by 
observations made on about five thousand photographs, including not 
fewer than two hundred examples of other metals. The reason of this 
arises from the fact that unless the spark be almost at the highest tempera- 
ture attainable, its emissive power is insufficient to affect the photographic 
plate in the usual period of exposure ; it follows from this that when a 
condenser of constant capacity is in circuit, variable conditions such as 
may be introduced by the electrodes being near together or far apart, or 
by the use of a large or small coil, do not affect the result. Sparks are 
shortened and the character of the spectra is greatly altered by the use 
of a coil with a stout secondary wire, an instrument introduced and 
employed by M. Eugéne Demargay. The use of an instrument of this 
kind is not well adapted to the photographic method of working, because 
the nature of the sparks is such that the graphite electrodes are rapidly 
burnt away and the sparks are very short. 

For the examination of solutions chlorides are generally employed, 
but sulphates and nitrates are also used. The electrodes are nearly 
always of graphite (‘ Phil. Trans.’ p. 52, Part I. 1884) ; sometimes gold,. 
copper, or platinum electrodes are required for special purposes, wires of 
the metal being twisted into wicks. 

The solutions examined generally contained 1 per cent., '5th, yy oth, 
and +,/;;th of metal. It is seldom that more than three or four lines: 
are visible in solutions of the latter dilution, and the rapidly diminishing 
number of lines in solutions weaker than ;),th per cent. is very striking. 
In the following tables the spectra corresponding to various solutions are 
given, and attention is particularly directed to the copper, silver, and tin 
spectra as illustrating this point. In many spectra it is impossible to. 
predict the line or lines which will be found to be the most persistent. 
Tt is also noticeable that the alteration of lines consequent on the dilution 
of solutions is variable in character with different lines in the same 
spectrum. Generally speaking, long lines shorten until they disappear, 
sometimes they become attenuated before they shorten, and in other cases. 
they attenuate until they fade away altogether. 

The calcium lines H and K attenuate considerably before they shorten,, 
while the lines of copper with wave-lengths 3273°2 and 3246°9, and of 
silver, 3382°3 and 3280-1, attenuate and fade almost away before: 
shortening. 


ON THE ULTRA-VIOLET SPARK SPECTRA. 277 


Several examples could be quoted of the analysis of minerals made 
by the spectroscope, the metallic constituents being estimated quantita- 
tively with exactitude and great facility. In some cases the results 
obtained by the spectroscope inspire greater confidence than those made 
by ordinary methods. 

The descriptive tables which follow are intended to be used with 
maps drawn to the scale of wave-lengths, and to a scale of actual mea- 
surements taken from photographs, so that the lines may be readily 
identified. The scale numbers given in the tables in hundredths of an 
inch refer to photographs such as those published in the ‘ Journal of the 
Chemical Society’ (‘ Trans.’ vol. xli. p. 90, 1882), from which actual 
measurements may be taken with an ivory scale. 

The limit of sensitiveness of the spectrum reaction is perhaps the 
greatest in the case of magnesium; one part of the metal in 10,000 
millions of solution is easily detected by the appearance of the lines with 
wave-lengths 2801°6 and 27941 attenuated and shortened. By increasing 
the strength of the spark the sensitiveness may be magnified 10,000 fold. 

It was shown in the Report presented in 1883 how spectrum observa- 
tions may be applied to determining the atomic weight of an element. 
Taking into account the spectrum of beryllium, this metal could find no 
place among the triad elements, but naturally took a position at the head 
of the dyad group. According to the periodic law its atomic weight 
would thus have the value 9. This view was opposed at the time, but it 
is satisfactory to learn that it has since been completely confirmed by the 
experimental work of Messrs. Nilson and Petterson and Dr. Humpidge. 


The Zine Spectrum. 


Wave-lengths 


Scale numbers 
1 per cent. 0-1 per cent. 0-01 per cent. 
Hundredths of an inch 

108-49 3344-4 3344-4 3344-4 
113°75 3301°7 3301°7 Ba0L:7 
116°30 3281°7 3281-7 32817 
145°69 3075°6 3075°6 

194:98 2800-1 2800°1? 

252°31 2557°3 2557°3 

267-95 2501°5 2501°5 


The Thallium Spectrum. 


Wave-lengths | 
Scale numbers 


1 per cent. 0-1 per cent. 0-01 per cent. 
Hundredths of an inch 
64°55 3775°6 3775°6 3775°6 
88:7 3518-6 3518°6 
143:0 3091-0 3091:0 
172°21 2917-7 
201°87 2767°1 2767°1 27671 
259°86 2530°0 2530°0 


335:27 2299°3 2299°3 


278 REPORT—1885. 


The Cadmium Spectrum. 


Wave-lengths 
Scale numbers 


1 percent. ‘| 0:1 percent. | 9-01 per cent. | 0-001 per cent. 
Hundredths of an inch 

79°37 3612-0 3612°0 3612:0 

79°68 3609°6 3609°6 3609°6 

94°30 3466°7 3466°7 3466°7 

94°50 3465°2 3465°2 3465°2 
101-45 3402°8 3402°8 
119:0 3260°2 
205°87 27477 2747-7 
248-24 2572°3 2572°3 
326°8 2321°6 
329°85 ; 2313'5 2313°5 2313°5 
339°25 ) 2288°8 2288°8 2288°8 
348°15 | 29658 2265°8 2265°8 2265°8 
377:48 21964 
400-2 2146°8 


The Aluminium Spectrum. 


Wave-lengths 
Scale numbers gpa 
1 per cent. O-1 per cent. | 6°01 per cent. | 0°001 per cent. 
Hundredths of an inch 
49°85 J 3960°9 3960°9 3960°9 39609? 
51:16 3943-4 3943-4 3943°4 3943°4? 


The air-lines contiguous to the above are very strong, hence it is a little doubtful 
whether they are present in the spectrum of a solution so dilute as 0:01 per cent. 


£ 70-02 3713-4 
U71°05 37015 
T7917 3612-4 3612-4 3612-4 
80°5 3601°1 36011 3601°1 
82:07 3584-4 
142 86 3091°8 3091°8 3091°8 3091°8 
144°5 3081°2 3081°2 30812 3081:2 
148°5 3056 6 
191°76 2815°3 2815°3 2815°3 28153 
226:3 2659°3 2659°3 
228°26 26512 2651-2 
249-66 2566'9 2566-9 
308-55 2373°3 
309:0 2372:0 
309°6 23702 
309-94 2367°2 
310°62 2364°5 


The line with wave-length 3584°4 is both much longer and stronger 
than either 3612°6 or 8601:2, yet it is not so persistent. From appear- 
ing as a strong line it disappears rather suddenly. 

The line with wave-length 2815:3 is the strongest in this spectrum. 


ON THE ULTRA-VIOLET SPARK SPECTRA. 279 


Tabular Description of the Spectra characteristic of Solutions 
containing Magnesium. 
a a 


Wave-lengths of the lines visible 
Parts of magnesium per 100 of solution 


os i 1 | 0-1 | 0-03 | 0-02 | 0-01 | 0-003 | 0-002 | 0-001 
er er er er er er er er 
per cent. ont mh Oat. heed ene a ae uit 
Hundredths 
of an inch 
17°46 4480 4480 | 4480 
59°30 3837-9 | 3837°9| 3837-9 | 3837-9 3837-9 
59°83 {38283 3832°1| 3832°1| 3832-1! 3832-1 
60:07 3829°2 | 3829-2] 3829-2 
142°3 3096°2 | 3096-2) 3096-2 
142°85 {ner 3091-9] 3091°9 
143:18 3089°9 | 3089-9] 3089-9 
168'7 2935°9 | 2935-9| 2935:9/ 2935-9 | 2935-9 2935-9] 2935-9] 2935-9] 2935-9 
17018 2928°2 | 2928-2) 2928-2) 2928-2 2928-2 2998-2] 2928-9] 2998-9] 2998-9 


184-63 2851-2 | 2851-2) 2851:2| 2851-2 2851-2 2851-2| 2851-2) 2851-2] 2851-9 
194-55 2801°6 | 2801:6/ 2801-6| 2801-6 2801-6 2801-6) 2801-6, 2801-6] 2801-6 
195°39 2796°9 | 2796°9| 2796-9) 2796-9 2796-9, 2796-9] 2796-9) 2796-9] 2796-9 
195-95 27941 | 2794-1] 2794-1/ 2794-1| 2794-1) 2794-1| 27941] 2794-1] 2794-1 
196:92 2789°6 | 2789-6/ 2789'6| 2789°6| 2789-6 2789-6] 2789-6] 2789-6] 2789: 

198°64 2781'8 | 2781-8) 2781-8] 2781°8 | 

198-96 | 2780-2 

199°3 2778°7 | 2778-7| 2778-7 | 2778-7 | 2778-7 2778-7 

199-61 [27769 

199-97 2775°5 | 2775°5| 2775°5 | 


A line may be shortened or weakened, but its wave-length in this table denotes 
that although it may be changed it is still visible. The numbers bracketed are the 
waye-lengths of characteristic groups of lines, 


The Indium Spectrum. 
EES SSS EE ee eee eee. ee ee 
Wave-lengths 
Scale numbers SouUNRIERDRSES acer coo ee ee ee ees Ae See | 


1 per cent. 0-1 per cent. 0-01 per cent. 
Hundredths of an inch 

15°88 4510-2 4510°2 

39°91 4101°3 41013 
119°31 3257°8 
119°68 3255°5 3255°5 32555 
151'35 3038°7 30387 3038°7 
168-00 2940°8 2940°8 
177°34 2889°7 2889:7* 
214°56 2709°3 2709°3 
251°76 2559°5 
332°2 2307 2307 


0 FSS EE ee ae ae Se 


* This is barely visible. 


280 REPORT— 1885. 


The Copper Spectrum. 


Wave-lengths 
Scale numbers 


1 per cent. 0-1 per cent. | 0°01 per cent. | 0°001 per cent. 

Hundredths of an inch 

113°10 3306°8 3306°8 

115710 3289°9 

117-25* 3273°2 32732 3273°2 

120°7 3246°9 3246°9 3246°9 3246'9 

164-53 2959°5 

19013 2823°2 

201°36 2769°1 2769'1 

211°8 2721°2 

212°55 2718°4 2718°4 

213-7 2713-0 2713°0 

21671 2702°7 

216°58 2700°5 

219°37 2688°8 2688°8 

224°7 2666°7 

236°45t 2617°8 

241-1 2599-7 

241°58 2598°3 

255°94 2544°6 2544°6 

260°25 2528°8 2528°8 

261-00 25262 

266°77 2506°2 2506:2 

27091 2491°4 

271°65 2489°1 

272°72 2485°6 

276745 2473°2 

298°31 24033 

299°4 2400°1 

309-17 23716 23716 

309°57 2370°1 2370°1 

336°8 2295°0 

343-67 2277-0 

355°27f 2248-2 2248'2 

355°5 2247°7 2247-7 

357-1 Cae 2244:0 

357-32 2243°5 2243°5 


* This pair of lines differs from all others in the spectrum by not being shortened 
on dilution, but becoming attenuated till at last they disappear. They remain long 
lines till the last. 

¢ This is a very fine and very long line. 

{ This group is distinctly seen to be composed of four lines in the photographs 
of the 1 per cent. solution, and some lines, to the number of four or five, more 
refrangible than these are visible. 


ON THE ULTRA-VIOLET SPARK SPECTRA. 281 


The Silver Spectrum. 


Wave-lengths 


Scale numbers 


1 per cent. 0-1 per cent. 0°01 per cent. | 0°001 per cent. 

Hundredths of an inch 

103-94 3382°3 3382°3 3382°3 

116-45 3280°1 328071 3280°1 

168°5 2937°5 

169:3 2933°5 2933°5 

170°17 2928-2 29282 

175-02 2901°6 

176-07 2895°6 

180°44 2872°7 2872°7 

191-82 2814-5 

195-03 2798°8 

201-81 2766°4 2766°4 

204°2 2755°5 

214-22 2711°3 2711°3 

226°27 2659°6 2659°6 

227:08 2656°2 

2463 2579°9 

268°81 2506:0 2506°0 

27452 2479°9 

275°41 2476'8 

276°41 2473°3 2473'3 

279°92 2462:2 

280°52 2459°8 

282°6 24530 

284:38 2447-4 2447-4 

287°46 2437°3 2437'3 2437°3 

290°0 2429°8 2429°8 

29308 2419°9 2419°9 

295°35 2413°3 2413°3 2413°3 2413°3 

295-94 2411:3 24113 

297°94 2406°4 

29885 2404°5 

301°10 2395°7 

302°74 2390°8 

304-07 2386°7 

305°25 2383°6 

307°94 2375°5 

311:70 2364:3 

312-34 2362°3 

313°47 2359°2 2359°2 

313°88 23580 2358-0 

323°35 2331-7 23317 23317 

325-73 2325:'3 2325°3 2325°3 

327°37 2320°5 2320°5 2320°5 

328-59 2317-4 2317-4 23174 

342°55 2280°7 2280°7 

354°95 2249°9 2249°9 

35490 2247°6 2247°6 2247°6 


362°86 2230°6 


282 REPORT—1 885. 


The Mercury Spectrum. 


Wave-lengths 
Scale numbers 


1 per cent. 0-1 per cent. 0:01 per cent. 
Hundredths of an inch 
74:6 3662'9 
1 75°37 {3044 
TT:37 3632°9 3632°9 
f 137-08 3130°4 
.137:95 3124:5 3130-4 
163°37 2966°4 2966°4 
185°45 2846°8 
258-75 2533°'8 2533'8 2533°8 
364°51 2225°7 


Scale numbers 


The Tin Spectrum. 


Wave-lengths 


0:01 per cent. 


1 per cent. 0-1 per cent. 
Hundredths of an inch 
62°40 3800°3 3800°3 
107°51 3351°8 33518 
110°25 3329°9 poago 
116-03 3282°9 3282-9 
11883 3261-6 3261°6 
130°7 3174:3 31743 
152718 3033°0 3033°0 
156°29 3007°9 30079 
173°05 2912:0 
176718 2895-0 
1778 2886°9 
18247 28620 2862:0 2862°0 
{800 {202 
187:01 2833'9 2833'9 
192:3 2812°5 2812°5 
198°28 2784-0 
199°34 2778°8 2778°8 
215°35 2705'8 2705'8 2705'8 
224-95 26642 
225°98 2660°6 
226°56 2657°9 2657°9 
229°67 2645-4 
230°23 2643°2 2643°2 
233717 2631°4 2631°4 
242-65 2593-6 
243°10 2591-7 
248-70 2570°5 2570°5 
255°45 2545-6 2545°6 
269°8 2495'0 
273°4 2482°9 2482'9 
289°95 2429°3 2429°3 2429°3 
292°37 2421°8 2421°8 
310-11 2368°3 
314°85 2355°0 23550 
321°94 2335°3 
328°34 2317°9 
355°83 2247-0 


ON THE ULTRA-VIOLET SPARK SPECTRA. 283 


Scale numbers 


The Lead Spectrum. 


Wave-lengths 


1 per cent. 0-1 per cent. 0-01 per cent. 
Hundredths of an inch 

42°93 4057°5 4057°5 

67°61 3738°9 3738'9 

72:69 3682°9 3682:9* 

76°8 3639-2 3639°2 

83°31 3572°6 3572°6 3572°6 
170°45 2872°2 2872:2+ 
188°37 2832°2 2832-2 
190°30 282271 
225-41 2662°5 2662-5 
237-48 2613-4 2613-4 
247-08 2576-4 
373°43 2204:°3 


The Telluriwm Spectrum. 


Wave-lengths 
Scale numbers : 


Scale numbers 


1 per cent. 01 per cent. 0-01 per cent. 

‘Hundredths of an inch 

103-9 3382-4 33824 

116-43 3280:0 3280°0 

117°35 3273-4 3273°4 

120°77 3246 8 3246°8 

176°24 2894°3 

181:25 2867°7 

183°4 2857:0 

3441 2386°3 2386°3t 

304-92 2383°8 2383°8t 

355°18 2248-0 

355°36 2247°3§ 

357-18 2243°3 


The Arsenic Spectrum. 


Wave-lengths | 


1 per cent. 0-1 per cent. 0-01 per cent. 
‘Hundredths of an inch 
18304 2859-7 
199-22 2779°5 2779'5 
3166 2350°1 
339°14 2288°9 


0 SE ee a ee ee ee ee eee 2 eee ees eee | 
This is an exceedingly poor spectrum. 
* Barely visible. t+ Very faint. 


{ These lines appear very distinctly and are continuous in a 1 per cent. solution. 
§ The two last lines are faint, 2243°3 exceedingly so. 


284 REPORT—1885. 


The Antimony Spectrum. 


Wave-lengths 
Scale numbers 
1 per cent. 0-1 per cent. 0-01 per cent. 
Hundredths of an inch 

67°63 3739°0 

80°74 3597°8 

90°21 35046 
109°36 3336°4 
118°21 3266°6 
120°8 3246°6 
122°87 3231°6 
152°91 3029-0 
179°29 2877-1 287771 2877'1 
197-05 2789°6 2789°6 
241°65 2597°2 2597°2 2597°2 
260°33 2527°6 2527°6 
330°37 2311°8 


The Bismuth Spectrum. 


Wave-lengths 
Scale numbers 


1 per cent. 0-1 per cent. 0:01 per cent. 
Hundredths of an inch 
: 3792°7 
71°63 3695°3 
80:99 3595°7 
89°69 35105 
98:4 3430°9 
102°25 3396°7 
146°85 3067°1 3067'1 3067°1 
153°75 3023°8 3023°8 
158-98 2992'2 29921 
159°67 2988-1 
168-52 2937-5 
175°85 2897°2 2897°2 
183-91 2854°8 28548 
185-49 2846°1 2846°1 
294°66 2414-8 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor TILDEN, Professor 
W. Ramsay, and Dr. W. W. J. Nicou (Secretary), appointed for 
the purpose of investigating the subject of Vapour Pressures and 
Refractive Indices of Salt Solutions. 


I. Molecular Volumes of Salt Solutions. Part II.' 
THE molecular volumes have been determined of fifty-six solutions, 
comprising forty-seven salts of potassium, sodium, lithium, strontium, 
cadmium, cobalt, and nickel, with chlorine, bromine, chloric, carbonic, — 
sulphuric, nitric, orthophosphoric, metaphosphoric, acetic, oxalic, tartaric, — 
1 Published in Phil. Mag., 1884. 


VAPOUR PRESSURES AND REFRACTIVE INDICES OF SALT SOLUTIONS. 285 


and citric acids. The previous results were completely confirmed. 
The law is as follows :— 

The molecular volume of a salt in dilute solution is a quantity com- 
posed of two constants, one for the metal and another for the salt radical. 
It follows that the replacement of one metal, or salt radical, by another 
metal, or salt radical, is always attended by the same volume charge, no 
matter how they may be combined together. 

The presence or absence of water of crystallization in one or both of 
the salts has no effect on the above law; it therefore follows that it has 
the same volume as the solvent water. Water of constitution, however, 
shows itself in solution by possessing a volume markedly different from 
that of the rest of the water. 

These results point to the presence in solution of what may be 
termed the anhydrous salt, in contradistinction to the view that a 
hydrate, definite or indefinite, results from solution; or, in other words, 
no part of the water in solution is in a position, relative to the salt, 
different from the remainder. 


II, Saturation of Salt Solutions. Part II. 


It is found that the molecular volumes of a series of solutions of 
different strengths of the same salt may be satisfactorily expressed by 
the formula :— 

M, V. = 1800 + na + 026 — ny, 


Where x = number of molecules of salt per 100 H,0, and a, 8, and y 
constants depending on the salt, 
r=na+n7B — ny; 
and 
‘= — n? 
ae + nB — ny. 
This last is the mean molecular volume of the salt in solution. The- 
curve is a parabola, and is such that ee twice the solubility of the salt 
Y 
in question .*, £ = solubility ; but this is also the apex of the parabola ;. 
saturation is therefore reached when the further addition of salt would 
produce diminution of the mean molecular volume of the molecules. 


already present. The last molecule before saturation, enters into solution 
with a volume sensibly equal to the mean, as is shown thus :— 


(na + 076 — n¥y)—((n—1)a + (n—1)28 =@ —1)*y) =a 4+ 7p — ny, 
When n= Bay 

2y 
III, Supersaturation of Salt Solutions.’ 


In these papers experiments are described which lead to the con- 
clusion that the only truly supersaturated solutions are those which 
result from the fact that, when a hot solution is cooled, a finite time 
ig required for the excess of salt to crystallize out—what is usually 


* Published (1) Phil. Mag., June, 1885 ; (2) Phil. Mag., September, 1885, 


286 REPORT—1885. 


termed supersaturation is not really so at all. Thus a distinctly super- 
saturated solution of sodium sulphate readily dissolves a quantity of 
the dehydrated salt when brought in contact with it without access 
of air. This shows that the solution is not even saturated, much less 
supersaturated; still this may be explained by the supposition that the 
constitution of a supersaturated solution is not the same as an ordinary 
one, inasmuch as heat is necessary for its preparation; the effect of 
heat being to decompose the decahydrate, no union of water and salt 
taking place in cooling. In the second paper it is shown that this 
is entirely a mistake. Supersaturated solutions are readily prepared 
in the cold by simply enclosing the dehydrated salt in a bulb, placing 
this in a bottle with the proper quantity of water, and, after closing, 
heating the bottle to 100° for a few minutes. When the whole is cold, 
the bottle is shaken, the bulb broken, and the salt readily dissolves. If 
excess of salt be used, the solution has the same percentage composition 
as one prepared by heating the decahydrate, and allowing it to cool with 
the excess of salt to the same temperature, air being excluded. It is 
further found that when the dehydrated salt is brought in contact with 
the water, as above described, no caking together is observable, the 
powdery condition being retained till solution is complete. Thus there 
is no hydration previous to solution, as is indeed shown by the possibility 
of preparing supersaturated solutions in this way, for were the smallest 
trace of the decahydrate produced such a solution, could not be formed. 
During the act of solution, however, considerable heat is evolved, which, 
as shown above, cannot be due to hydration, but may possibly result 
from the enormous contraction, about 40 per cent., undergone by the 
Salt. 

Finally, density determinations of solutions of Na,SO, and Na,S,0,, 
of various strengths, show that in passing the ordinary saturation point 
there is nothing to indicate any change in the constitution of the solution. 
The molecular volume steadily increases from the most dilute solution 
up to the most concentrated supersaturated solution examined, exactly 
as it does with an ordinary solution which is not capable of super- 
saturation. 

From these and other experiments it follows that a so-called super- 
saturated solution is simply a saturated or non-saturated solution of 
the anhydrous salt; that any solution of a hydrated salt contains no 
hydrate of that salt, but that it is at the moment of crystallization that 
combination of the water and salt takes place. 


IV. Vapour Pressures of Salt Solutions. 1. Boiling Points of 
Saturated Solutions.! 


The method of experiment was to measure the pressure under which 
a saturated solution of the salt boiled at a definite temperature. 
The experiments included determinations at 65°, 75°, 85°, and 95° for 
NaNO, KNO;, Na.CO3, K,CO3, MnSO,, FeSO,, and the results are 
expressed in terms of degrees of rise of boiling point. This is found 
to be a quantity increasing with the temperature when the solubility 
increases ; on the other hand, it decreases when the solubility diminishes 
with rise of temperature. 

It is preferable, however, to express the effect of salt on the 


1 Published Phil. Mag., October 1885. 


Z 


-YAPOUR PRESSURES AND REFRACTIVE INDICES OF SALT SOLUTIONS. 287 


Bee) 
vapour pressure of water by the value <P ; Where p = pressure of 


vapour of pure water, p' = pressure of water vapour from salt solution 
containing 7 molecules per 100 H,O, and this, as was to be expected, is 
in all cases a diminishing quantity with rise of temperature—showing 
that, in a constantly saturated solution, a salt exercises a less restraining 
effect on the water the higher the temperature. 


2. Vapour Pressure of Water from Non-saturated Salt Solutions. 


The experiments on this subject are not yet complete, but are suffi- 
ciently advanced to justify certain conclusions regarding the behaviour 
of salts under varying conditions of temperature and concentration. 

The method employed was the same as that in the previous section, 
with this difference, that a dilute, not a saturated, solution of the salt 
was employed, and successive portions of water were distilled off and 
weighed. In this way the concentration at different pressures and at a 
definite temperature was readily determined. 

Four salts have, as yet, been examined, NaCl, KCl, NaNO;, and 
KNO;. The temperature chosen was 70°, though some experiments 
were made at 90°, 

Two of the above salts have been examined in solutions of constant 
strength at temperatures of 70°, 75°, 80°, 85°, and 90°, 

The general results are as follows :— 


(a) When temperature is constant and m varying, then 27? 
n 


increases with increase of n in the case of NaCl; is constant, or nearly 
so, with KCl, and diminishes more or less rapidly with NaNO, and 
KNO;. These results are fully confirmed by Tammann’s results, obtained 
by the Barometric method (Wiedem. Ann. 24), a close agreement being 
found between the two sets of figures. 

(8) When the concentration 8 constant but temperature varying, 
then the value of ee or 1— ae is a diminishing one with NaCl and 
a slowly increasing one in the case of the other three salts. This also is 
confirmed by Tammann’s results, and general agreement is to be found 
with the experiments of Legrand (1835), conducted in an entirely 
different way. 

Tt is believed that there is an intimate connection between this 
behaviour of the salts and their solubility, but the discussion of this 
question is postponed till the results are more numerous and complete. 


V. Expansion of Salt Solutions. 


The dilatation of solutions containing definite numbers of molecules, 
1, 3, 5, or 2, 4, 6, &c., of NaCl, KCl, NaNO,, and KNO,, have been 
determined by means of specially constructed dilatometers, and a special 
constant temperature bath, by means of which a tube 700mm. long can 
be kept for any length of time at a definite temperature, the tempera- 
ture of the one end differing from that of the other not more than 0%1. 
Thus all necessity for correction of the results for the exposed portion of 
the stem of the dilatometer is avoided. 

As in the previous section, the experiments are not yet complete, but 
have fally established the following conclusions :— 


288 REPORT— 1885. 


(a) The expansion of a salt solution is the more uniform the more 


concentrated it is. The curves representing the expansion approach more- 
nearly straight lines as 7 increases. 

() At low temperatures salt solutions expand more than water, at. 
higher ones less; there is thus a point at which the coefficient of expan- 
sion is the same as that of water. This temperature is little, if at all, 
affected by the concentration. They are as follows :— 


NAD ceo. 552602 
KO . . 50°= 55° 
NaNO, . . 80°—100° 


ie Bei. 


(y) The volumes at different temperatures may be satisfactorily ex- 
pressed by interpolation formule of the form 


V=100,000+ fa+#28; 


Where #/=#°—20°, and a and £ constants depending on the salt and the 
value of mn. In 126 determinations only two differed from the calculated 
se #2 
100,000’ 100,000 
The constants a and (6 are thus related; as 7 increases a increases, but 3 
decreases ; the expansion approximating more and more to 100,000-+a ?’. 

The results confirm in most points those of Kremers, and it is hoped 
when the experiments are complete that it will be possible to establish the- 
connection between the vapour pressures and the molecular volumes, as. 
has already been attempted by Tammann in an incomplete form. 


value by more than the mean error being less than 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Sir H. E. Roscor, 
Mr. J. N. Lockyer, Professors Dewar, WoLcorr Gisps, LIVEING, 
Scuuster, and W. N. Hartiey, Captain Abney, and Dr. MARSHALL. 
Warts (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of preparing anew 
series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements and 
Compounds. 


Tue present Report contains the completion of the tables of the spectra 
of the elements, and a portion of those of the spectra of compounds. 
The measurements are given in ten-millionths of a millimetre (or tenth- 
metres), and are based upon the measurements of the Fraunhofer lines 
by Angstrém for the whole visible rays, and the extension of the same 
series of measurements into the ultra-violet portion of the spectrum made 
by Cornu und other observers. It will be well to repeat here the funda- 
mental values of wave-length of the chief solar lines. The small correc- 
tions indicated at page 29 of Angstrém’s Memoir, ‘ Le Spectre Normal 
du Soleil,’ have been applied to his numbers—but they are uncorrected 
for the dispersion of air. Hence the numbers in the tables represent, 
wave-lengths in air,of 760™™ pressure at Upsala, and 16° C. temperature. 
The numbers taken from Thalén’s ‘Détermination des Longueurs d’Onde 
des Raies Métalliques’ in the same way have had applied to them the 
necessary small corrections to bring them into harmony with the numbers 
finally adopted by Angstrém as ‘ Valeurs définitives’ (pp. 25 and 31-32). 


ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 289 


FRAUNHOFER LINES 


1G 7604-0 
‘Bi. : 2 : : ‘ : 6867-0 
chem GED)": - - - “ : : . 6562-1 
Paap pluses 
D (Na) : ¢ - : - 5892-12 {5889-12 
E (Ca& Fe) - : : - . 526913 
By (ig). +: . : ; : : - 5183°10 
b, (Mg) ; ; : - - - . 5172716 
bs (Ni & Fe) : : : : . . 516848 
b, (Mg& Fe) . : : C ‘ - 516688 
F (BH) i : F : ; ; . 4860°72 
. G (Fe) : : : ; : : . 4307-25 
H (Ca) : ; : } A - . 3968-1 
K (Ca) : ; - , : : sodas: O 
y L (Fe) DS oh gece POE 8819'S 
M (Fe) : : 2 2 : - . 3727:0 
N (Fe) : ; : . 2 - . 3580°5 
O (Fe, double) . - ; 3 : . 3439°8 
P (Fe & Ti) : F 3 : : . 3359°2 
Q (Fe) : : : : : : . 3284°9 
R (Fe & Ca) : : ; - : . 3179-0 
r (Fe, double) . é : : . - 31443 
$, (Ni, double) . : : ; : . 3100°6 : 
Seva iiple) heweia aki 3099-5 ¥ 31000 
s (Fe) ; : : . ; : . 3046-4 
T (Fe, double) . , : : - . 3019-7 
t (Fe) : : : “ : . 2994-3 
U (Fe) ‘ : : : : - 29478 


The following symbols are employed in the tables to indicate the 
character of the lines : 


s denotes that the line is sharply defined. 

n denotes that the line is ill-defined or nebulous. 

b denotes a band, the position of the brightest part being given. 

br denotes a band sharply defined on the least refracted side, and fading away 
towards the blue. 

br denotes a band sharply defined on its more refracted side, and fading away 
towards the red. 


The widtk of a broad band is sometimes indicated by a suffiz, giving 
the width in ninth-metres; thus, 4997 b™; means that the bright edge of 
the band is the 4997, and that it fades away above 4947 ; whereas 6532 b, 
oe that the band extends from 6552 to 6512, its brightest point being 
at 6532. 


c denotes that the line is continuous. 

d denotes that the line is discontinuous, or a ‘short’ line. 

r denotes that the line is frequently ‘ reversed.’ 

A number within parentheses, thus: (3091:9), means that while a line in this 
position has been observed, no new measurements of wave-length was made 
—the wave-length being quoted from another observer. 


The intensities of the lines are expressed upon an ascending scale 
from 1 to 10; 1 being the feeblest and 10 the brightest. 


1885. U 


290 REPORT—1885. 


WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF 
THE ELEMENTS. 


SULPHUR. 
I. Band A Intensit 
Spectrum II, Line Spectrum | and Charanee 
°o 

Salet Angstrém | Hasselberg pare aod Salet il Ti: 
6579 2 
6454 2 
6421 4 
6404 6400 8 
6390 6390 6 
6321 6325 8 
6309 6310 8 
6290 6290 10 
6145 6152 1by 2 
6090 6111 1b* 2 

6030 1b’ 
6009 4 

5970 = 2b* 

5900 2b* 
5866 4 

5845 2br 
F 5810 4 
5780 5780 2b* 4 

5715 2b* 
5671 5667 5670 6 
5659°7 5657 5660 8 
5650 5655 8 
5645 5645 5639°3 5641 *) 5647 abr 10 
5618 4 
5613 5603°8 5609 | 5610 10 

5595 3b* 
5584 4 
5561°3 5568 5570 8 
5558 4 
5535 5532 ——C 3bY 2 
5516°9 5522 4 
5507°3 5508 5510 8 

5480 3bY 
5474 5470-5 - 5473 5477 8 
5451 5451-0 5452 Bs *5455 10 
5432 5438-1 5438 5432 8 
5425 5429-7 5425 3b* 6 

5418-4 
5386°6 

5365 5bY 
5345 5341-7 5338 5350 10 
5310 5322 5319-2 5304 Y 1.5320 2b° 10 
5269 2 
5231 4 
5217°8 5218 2 
5220 8b* 8 
5250 5207 ‘ 5207 5217 43 8 
5190 5191 5214-4 5199 5205 8bY 10 
5191 2 
520071 5182 10 

5160 

5143 5142-5 5143 2bY 6 
5141 2 
5140 2 


ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 29] 


Pr SULPHUR—continued. 


I. Band i Intensit 
Spectrum II. Line Spectrum and Charaeeee 
Salet Angstrém Hasselberg A (alr Salet Is iis 
5124 4 
5110 2 
5088 5102-9 5096 5103 8br 8 
5078.3 5068 2 
5040 5044-9 5044 Sb* 4 
5036 2 
2 503 5030 10 
5] ic le ea Ee 10 
so f 5013 5013 8 
pols SOE Ty nga) tte:d BODE 8 
5003 2 
4990 4994 4993-9 jie [2980 6b : 
4945 49415 4942 6bY 4 
4926 4925 4924 (4925 8 
4918°5 4922 6 
4901°9 4902 6 
4890 4884-5 4884 2b 6 
4840 8bv 
4825 4825 6 
4815-6 4813 74810 8 
4808-5 4804 4 
4795 4792°8 4791 7b’ 4 
4778°5 4777 2 
4762°8 4768 2 
4752°8 4762 2 
4755 2b* 
4734 2 
4723 2 
4714-9 4718 04715 8 
4705 5b’ 
4692 4690 b 
4671 4670 b 
4655 4657 4655 6b* b 
4630 4630 b 
4615 4610 4610 8bY b 
4593 4590 b 
4580 4580 b 
4561 4560 b 
4551°5 4552 4556 10 
4540 2br 
4524-7 4523 | 4525 10 
~ 4485-1 4485 PY 4485 10 
4470 | 8br 
4464-0 4466 4467 10 
4450 2b 
4439 4435 b 
4499 4425 b 
4367 4386 4390 3b b 
4358 4 
4350 4 
4343 4 
4336 4 
4329 4 
4320 2b 
4315 43165 b 


292 REPORT—1885. 


SULPHUR—continued. 


I. Band Intensity and | I. Band . Intensity and 
Spectrum II. Line Spectrum Chaves Spectrum II. Line Spectrum Oba tar } 
Salet | Fiticker | Salet | I. | Died|T Salet | Fier | sales ony etn 
4297 4295 8 4196 4192 b 
4284 4282 8 4187 2b 
4279 | 4 4181 4180 6 
4272 |”) 4269 | 8 4168 ape 8 
4259 free 4158 4155 6 
| 4255 4250 | 8 4140 6 
| 4241 | 4070 2b 24 
| 4229 ee 
* Double. 
TANTALUM. 
Are Spectrum | Intensity Are Spectrum | Jntensity } Are Spectrum Intensity 
| and — a and | ee and 
Lockyer Character Lockyer Character || Lockyer Character 
ee 
3998°6 3975°5 | 3942-7 
3995°7 3973°0 | 3940°3 
3995-0 39716 | 3936°3 
3991-0 3971-2 | 3914-0 
3987-4 3964°5 | 3911-0 
3979°7 3963°3 | 3906°9 
‘TELLURIUM. 
siete II. Line Spectrum Intensity and Character 
Salet Salet Huggins Thalén I. 
6645 4 
(6437) 6431 6437°2 10s 
6366 ls 
6347 In 
6290 2s 
6250 6243 5b 3n 
6228 3s 
6150 5b 
6050 (6046) | 6042 6046°2 5b 6sd 
(6012) 6010 6012°7 6sd 
| 5995 In 
(5973) 5970 5973°2 10sec 
5940 (5935) 5934 5935°2 5b 8sc 
(5856) 5854 5856°6 4sd 
5855 (5852) 5849 585271 | 7b 4sd 
(5825) 582571 4nd 
(5805) 5805°6 4nd 
57811 6sd 
(5755) 5756 575571 10sec 
5740 57411 2sd 
5735 8br 
(5707) 5708 5706°6 10sc 
5685 8b 
(5647) 5646 5647-1 10sec 
5618 561671 4sd 
(5574) 5575 55741 8sc 
5560 4b 
| (5488) 5486 5488°] 6sd 


ON WAYE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 293 


TELLURIUM—continued. 


I. Band 


Spectrum II. Line Spectrum Intensity and Character 
Salet Salet Huggins Thalén ifs is 
5470 (5477) 5476 5477°6 4b 6sd 

(5447) 5447 5447°6 8sc 
5410 4b 4sd 
5409 5408°6 
(5366) 5366 53661 6sc 
5340 4b 
(5310) 5309 5310-1 6sd 
5298 5299-1 2sd. 
5278 4b 
5220 (5217) 5222 5217-2 4b 8ne 
5172-2 2sd 
5156 (5152) 5152°2 4b 6sd 
5134 5133°2 2nd 
(5104) 51041 6sd 
5070 4b 
5038 5035-1 4sd 
5015 4b 
4970 4b 
4920 4b 
4895-1 2nd 
4870 (4866) 4866 4866°6 4b 4nd 
4832 4832-1 2nd 
4820 4b 
Hartley 4785 4785-1 2nd 
4767 and Adeney 8b 
4725 8b 
47075 4709 4sd 
4693:0 4sd 
4670 8b 
4664 In 
4652 In 
4600 46020 4602 4603°6 6b 2sd 
4599 In 
4560 6b 
4544 b 
4510 6b 
4487-0 2sd 
4480°0 4479 2sd 
4470 4b 
4436°0 2sd 
4400 44000 4b 2sd 
4378:°0 2sd 
4364°5 2sd 
4350 43530 4352 2b 2sd 
4330 4324-6 2b 4sd. 
4301-5 4302 6sd 
4292-7 2b 4sd 
a280 4287°3 4sd 
4274-4 6sd 
4259°8 4259 6sd 
4250 2b 
4221-1 6sd 
4200 2b 
f 4180°7 2sd 
(4170°3 4sd 
4150 2b 
41197 | 4sd 
4072-7 2sd 
4061-3 4063 } 6sda 


294 REPORT—1885. 


TELLURIUM—continued. 


Line Spectrum leone || Line Bees: pent Line Spectrum Tabane 
Hartle and | Hartley apa . Hartley ont 
SAWN Fes ey Character ironies ese Character and Adeney Character 

| 

4054-2 6sd 3322-7 4sd 2923-4 4sd 
4048°3 4sd 3315'8 4sd 2918°9 2sd 
4006-0 8sd 3307°1 8sc 2905°9 2sd 
3983°8 6sd 3289°6 2sc 2901°9 4sd 
3968°6 6sd 3280-0 10sc 2894°3 8nd 
3948-0 6sd 3273°4 10sec 2893°3 6sd 
3932°5 2sd 3267-4 2sd 2877-4 2sd 
3908°7 2nd 3264-6 2sd 2873°6 2sd 
3841°3 8sd 3256°3 8sd 2867-7 8nd 
3803°0 4sd 3250°8 4sd 2859°9 6sd 
3796°9 2sd 3246°8 10sec 2857-0 8nd 
3789:0 4sd 3242°1 4sd 2844°9 6sd 
3776°0 4sd f 3234-2 4sd 28400 6sd 
3771:0 4sd 3229-4 2sd 2836°9 2sd 
3765°0 4sd 3221-8 4sd 2834°4 2sd 
3759°0 4sd 3217-6 4sd 2823°2 6sc 
37540 4sd 32133 4sd f 28153 2sd 
3735'5 8sd 3210-4 2Qsd (2813-0 2sd 
3726°2 8sd 3192-2 4sc 27991 4sd 
3716°0 4sd 3188-1 4sc 2s 4sd 
3698°7 4sd 3183-7 2sd 2791-9 8nd 
3683°3 4sd 31744 4sc 2768°6 6sc 
3676'7 4sd 3168°5 4sd 1 2766°5 6sd 
3670°4 4sd 3158-4 2sd 27660 4sc 
3656°4 4sd 3154°1 4sd 2756-0 2sc 
36492 6sd 3145°7 4sd 2751°5 2nd 
3644°3 6sd 3131°7 2sd 27450 4sd 
3636°3 4sd 31247 2sd 2743-0 4sd 
3626°7 4sd 3119°5 4nd J 2739'5 4sd 
3617-0 6sd 3107°5 6sd 2738-0 4sd 
3611°0 4sd 3098°7 4sd 2723-2 2nd 
3601-7 4sd 3095°5 4sd pani 2sd 
3599°6 4sd 30880 4sd 2718-0 2sd 
3594-5 4sd 30727 6sd 2713-0 2sd 
3589°4 4sd 35063°2 2sd 2710:2 8nd 
3551°6 8sd 3052°8 2sd - f 2702-3 2sd 
3541°8 4sd 3046-0 8nce 2700°3 28d 
3533'1 4sd 3022-1 2sc { 2696-6 6nd 
3520°3 8sd 3016°6 8sd 2694-1 6nd 
3510°8 2sd 3012-1. 4sd { 2690-2 2sd 
3496°3 8sd 3004-1 4sd | 2688-2 2sd 
3483-7 2sd 2996°4 4sd J 2683-2 2nd 
3480°8 4sd 2988-8 4sd |. 2679°8 2nd 
3474-4 2sd 2976-2 4sd 2674°6 2sc 
3465°5 4sd 2975-5 4sd 2666-0 4sd 
3456°0 8sd 2973-1 2sd 2659-4 2brd 
3450°4 2sd 2966°1 8sd 2657-1 4nd 
3441-2 8sd 2960°3 2sc 2648-7 2nd 
3422°2 tsd 2956'3 2sd } 2647-0 2nd 
3415°3 4sd 2950°6 2sd 2642:3 2nd 
3407°5 8sd 2948°8 2sd 2637-0 2sd 
3382-4 10sc 2945°3 2sd 2634-7 6nd 
3374:1 4sd 2940°8 8sd 2630°5 2nd 
3362-4 8sd 2937-7 4sd 2627°8 4sd 
3352°1 6sd 2932-5 4sd 2624:3 4sd 
3329-0 6sd 292871 2sd_s| 2621:4 4sd | 


mary 


ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 295 


TELLURIUM—continued. 


Line Spectrum eaees Line Spectrum Siders | Line Spectrum In tensity 
Hartle - Hartley 4 oe Hartle aa 
and A Bae Character get dene Character anahee af ; Character 

2617-4 2sc 2420°3 2nd 2231°3 2nc 
2613°7 4sd 241875 2nd 2230°3 2nc 
2611°3 4sd 2413°3 8sc 2229:0 2ne 
2604-4 2nd 2411-4 6sc 2226'8 2nd 
2599°4 2sd 2403°7 6nd 2223°2 2nd 
2598'1 2sd 2400°0 6sc 2219°3 6btc 
2594:0 2sd f 2392°8 4nd 2216°0 2nc 
2590°1 2nd ‘| 2390-7 4nd f 2211-2 6nd 
2585:0 2nd 2386°3 10ne ‘22095 6nd 
2580°1 2nd 2383°8 10ne 2202°8 2nd 
25780 2nd J 2377-0 2nd 220071 2nd 
2574:'8 4sd | 2375°3 2nd 2196°5 2nd 
2572°4 4nd 2370°3 Sse 2192°2 6ne 
2567°8 2nd 23647 4nd 1 2189°7 6nd 
2564-1 2nd 2362°8 4nd 2186°9 2nd 
2558°7 2nd f 2359°8 4nd 2182:0 2nd 
2549°7 2nd 5 2358°6 6sd 2179-2 6nc 
2543°7 6sd 2357:0 4nd 2175°3 2nd 
2536°8 2nd 23517 2nd 2167°2 2nd 
2533°8 2sd 2344:3 2nd 2165°7 2nd 
2529°4 8sc 2340°3 2nd 2159'7 2nd 
2528°3 2nc 2336°8 2nd { 2149°7 2nd 
2525°6 2sd 2332-0 8sd 21478 2ne 
2505-2 6sd 2325°5 8sd 2146'7 2nd 
2502°7 2sd 2321-0 8sd 2142-7 2nd 
2498-6 6nd 23178 8sd 2136°5 2nd 
2491°3 2se 2310-1 2nd 2135-0 2nd 
2490°8 2nd 2303-7 2nd 2125°5 2nd 
2488-7 2sd 2301'1 2nd 2122°5 2nd 
2485°3 2nd 2297°5 2nd 2119-0 2nd 

J 2480°9 2sd 2295°0 6nc 2116:3 2nd 

 2479°6 2nd 2291°8 2nd 2113°3 2nd 
2476-7 2nd 2288°6 2nd_s|| 2110°5 2nd 
2473°2 6sd 2280°6 6nd_ || 2108°4 2nd 
2469°0 2nd 2277-2 6nd |} 2103°6 2nd 
2462:0 4nd 22857 6nd 2100°2 2nd 
2460-2 4nd 2266°2 6ne 2078°5 2nd 
2452-8 2nd J) 2264:2 2nd 2050°8 2nd 
2447°8 6sd beseae 6nc 2039°2 2nd 
2444-3 2nd 2256°6 6ne 2032°7 2nd 
2441-7 2sc 2250°0 6nd 
2438-0 8sc f 2248:0 6sc 
2432-0 2ne | 2247'3 6ne 
2429-7 2nd 2243°3 6bre 
2428-2 2se 2240°7 2nd 
2426°7 2nd 
2425°0 4nd 


296 


Spark 
Spectrum 


Roscoe 
and Schuster 


5371-4 
5369°4 
5368°3 
5367°2 
5360°3 
5352-1 
5349°6 
5347-7 
5342°3 
5340:0 
53314 ? 
5320°5 
5318°7 
5306°4 
5301-6 
5300°6 
5292°3 
5281°6 
5280°4 
5271-9 
5270°6 
5268°8 
5264°5 ? 
5261°4? 
52548 
5251°1 
5250°1 
5248°6 
5236-7 
5233°3 
5232°0 
52187 
5LOT1 
5E95 ‘1 
5192-0 
5190°3 
5185°8 
5182°8 
51T5°4 
51746 
5172°3 
5165°6 
51552 
51544 
5140°5 
5129°8 
5124-9 
5121°5 
51165 
5111°8 
5108 5 
5104-2 
5102°9 
5100°1 
5097-8 


Intensity 
and Charaeter | 


REPORT—1885. 


TERBIUM. 

Spark Spark 
Spectrum Tnitensity Spectrum 
and Character 
Roscoe Roscoe 


,and Schuster 


CR es M.D 


=] 


i>] 


PAUTWRE PWN PHO RAWANINAARARWAMAWEWEANUAANWANIWAARWAIININA 


5091°9 
5073°9 
5070°7 
5069-2 
5066°5 
5060-6 
5057-2 
5052°3 
5050°9 
5030-4 
5027°9 
5014°6 
4960'9 
49566 
4951-7 
4947-6 
4937°1 
4935°5 
493371 
4911-9 
4909-0 
4893-2 
4864-2 
4847-0 
4843-7 
4841-2 
4§21-1 
4815-0 
4799°8 
4790-2 
4781-9 
47767 
4773°6 
476671 
4757-6 
47545 
4744-8 
4743-0 
4725°4 
4720-0 
4717-0 
4715-0 
4712-0 
4703°5 
4700°2 
4686°5 
4676-1 
*4673'6 
4668-6 
4654°5 
4646-4 
4641-6 
4638-0 
4635°9 
4614-9; 


TNWWUANWATTRADEHYYNYNWANNWNWNHKEENIWHNANNWNHNFEEAMAMARABWOHEW WAH OH 


and Schuster 


Intensity 
and Character 


4603°5 
4600°3 
4597°3 
45963 
4594°3 
4593-0 
4590°8 
4589-0 
4584-1 
4581-7 
4580°5 
4576°9 
4565°7 
4560°3 
4557°6 
4553°5 
4552-4 
4543°6 
4541°3 
4539'3 
4537-2 
4523-6 
4522-7 
4521-9 
4519-2 
4511°5 
4498-7 
4497°6 
4496-9 
4483-9 
4482-8 
4480°6 
4475°9 
4473-4 
4472-2 
4470°9 
4466°9 
446671 
4462°6 
4458°3 
4454°3 
4452-6 
4449-6 
4444-0 
4441°8 
4437°8 
4435°6. 
44351 
4433°7 
4430-1 
44273 
4423'8 
4420°6 
4420°3 
4418-7 


| 


PWWONMNMOIEEWNEHDAAMNHHAIWPNHNWWNH EWE ER UDNKETNATEMWWNNTAIN PPD WWW rd 
o 


ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS, 


Spark 
Spectrum 


Roscoe 
and Schuster 


Intensity 
and Character 


TERBIUM—continued. 


Spark 
Spectrum 


Roscoe 


and Schuster 


Intensity 
and Character 


Spark 
Spectrum 


Roscoe 
and Schuster 


44143 
4408-9 
4407°7 
4406°3 
4402-7 
4401-4 
4390°4 
4387-1 
4382-4 
4380°1 


LO io) er Mori: sem oul. os 


4373°4 
4369-2 
4361-4 
4360°4 
4351°6 
4350°2 
434771 
4346-0 
4341°7 
4335°5 


DPOPEPAAH OH 1 w 


4333-4 
4329°8 
4328-4 
4326°1 
4325-0 
4318-4 
$4315°3 
$4313°1 
4308°7 


297 


Intensity 
and Character 


i 
{ 


Or bo bo Ole oe bb OD 


* Less refrangible than the Yttrium line 4673°8. 


I. Flame 
Spectrum 


Lecoq de 
Boisbaudran 


5680 


*5349 


| 
II. Spark Spectrum ae ey 
Recs | : Liveing 
uggins Thalén Aral Dewar 
6547 
6240 | 
6002 | 
5949 5947-7 
5824 | 
5771s 
5608-1 
5487 | 549071 
| 5412°6 
5360°1 
5347 =| = 5349°6 (5349-6) | 
| | 
5153 =| 5152-7 
| 5085-1 
5078 50786 
5054 5053°1 
4980 4981-6 
4945°6 
4893 4892-1 
4767 
4737 4735°6 
4112 
3775°6 
3528°3 
3517°8 
3228°1 
2943°9 


THALLIUM. 


t+ Double. 


Intensity and Character 


3n 


10sec 1 


Ill. 


298 REPORT—1885. 


THALLIUM—continued. 


SS 


Intensity In i 
Are Spectrum and Character Are Spectrum and phates 
Liveing and Dewar Liveing and Dewar 

2921°3 10 2699°7 n 
2917°8 10 2665:0 n 
2895°2 2652°3 
2825°'8 2609-4 r 
2826°9 2608°6 8r 
2714 6 n 25520 r 
2710°4 " 2517°0 n 
27088 8nr 


* 5348°0 Miiller ; 4345-1 Ketteler ; 5352 Bernard ; 5348 Riihlmann; 5348°8 Mascart, 


THORIUM. 

Spark Spectrum Eee Spark Spectrum inte 
Thalén and Character rs bh dissin ee andiCharacter 
5698°6 2sd 4863°6 6sd 
5640°1 2sd 4392°5 10nc 
5537-1 6sd 4381°5 10ne 
54461 6sd 4281:0 10sec 
53746 6sd 42775 8sc 
4919-1 6sd 4272'5 6sc 


Lockyer has observed the following lines in the arc spectrum of Thorium between 
wave-lengths 3900 and 4000 :—3999°6, 3995:3, 3993°7, 3991-0, 3989-8, 3987°3, 3986-4, 
3980°4, 3979°4, 3975°3, 3972°4, 3971-2, 3966-6, 3959-2, 3958°5, 3955-0, 39538, 3945-1, 


3944-4, 3940°3, 3937°8, 3937°2, 3936:2, 3934-7, 3931°9, 3931-1, 3928°5, 3924-4, 3918-3, - 


3900°5. 


THULIUM. 
Spark Spectrum inte Spark Spectrum Intensity 

racter and Cha 
Thalén and Character Se an ayncter 
be 1 4481-0 2 
DBIEY 5 4386°5 3 
5305°7 5 42415 2 
boe8e 4 4204-0 2 
ald 1 4187°5 2 
4615-0 2 4106°5 1 
4522-0 3 4093-0 1 


ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 299 


TIn. 
I. Spark Spectrum Hi: Intensity 
ots P Are Spectrum | and Character 
Huggins Thalén Kirchhoff cee eee apes I. HI. 
6840 6837°4 3n 
6769 
6573 | 
*6447 $6452°38) 6452°8 10ne 
*5798 F5798:12) 5798-4 10ne 
*5630 $5630°14 
*5587 755886) 5587°8 10ne 
*5564 $5562°6) 5561°6 10ne 
5366 453686) 
5347 45347-60 
*5333 453321 
5328 
5287 $5289°6 
5224 +5224-2@) 
5098 +5100°62) 5100°0 6sc 
+5021-:1® 
$4923-:10 
4858 44858-1°) 4858°1 6sc 
4584 $4584-6 4584:7 45843 8sc 
*4523 $4524-1 ||4523-9 4524:0 t10ne 
4324-6 2sd 
4215°3 2sd 
4057-0 2sd 
3961°8 6sd 
39470 2sd 
3906°6 8sd 
3859-0 8sd 
3800°3 8sc 
3783°4 8sd 
3779-0 8sd 
3763°9 6sd 
374571 10sd 
37344 8sd 
3727-0 6sd 
3707°6 8sd 
3686°7 2sd 
3667°6 2sd 
3655°5 2sd 
3623°9 4sd 
3616°9 4sd 
3609°3 8sd 
3598°3 10sd 
35740 8sd 
3549-7 6sd 
3539'3 4sd 
35148 4sd 
3487°3 4sd 
3471-1 2sd 
3412-7 8sd 
3390-4 2sd 
(3351-8 10nd 
3330°0 10sc 
3326-0 
| { 3314°6 2sd 


300 


REPORT—1885. 


TIN—continued. 


I 


II. 


Spark Spectrum Arc Spectrum 


Intensity | 
and 
Character 


II. 


ip 
Spark Spectrum| Arc Spectrum 


Hartle Livein 
and ‘Adeney and Dewar | I. |. 
| 3282-9 10nd 
(8261-6 §3260-0 10sc 
3245-0 2sd 
3219°6 4sd 
3218-0 4sd 
31743 3175-0 10se 
3141-7 
3140°6 2sd | 
3122°3 2sd 
3131-0 4sd 
3095-2 4sd 
3070°6 8sd 
3046°5 2sd | 
3033-1 3033-0 10se 
3007°9 3008°5 10sec 
2986-4 
2913-1 
2911°9 2sc 
2895-0 8sd 
2886-9 8sd 
2877-4 2sd 
2874°7 4sd 
2862°1 2862°8 10se 
2849°3 8sc 
2847-6 8sc 
2839°5 
2838°9 10se 
2813°5 
2812°5 2812°5 Sse 
2811°5 4sd 
2787°3 2787°5 4sd | 
2784-0 27847 6se ! 
2779°5 } 
2778-0 8se 
2778'8 8sc 
2765-0 4sc | || 
2754-0 4sd I} 
27518 4sd 
2749-0 4sd 
2746-0 4sd. 
27384 4sd 
2733-0 4sc 
2705°8 10se 
2664:9 8sd | 
2660-2 2660'7 8sc 
2657-9 10nd 
2645-4 8sc | 
2643-2 10nd | 
2636°5 | 
2631-5 10nd | 


Hartley 
and Adeney 


2617-9 
2613°8 
2611-0 
2606-3 
2598°5 
2593-6 
2591-7 
2570'5 
2563°2 
2557-7 
2545°6 
2530°8 
2523-4 
2514-0 
2506°0 
2499°3 
2495 0 


2488-0 
2482-9 
{ 2455°5 
2449-4 
2445°2 
2436-4 
2433°3 
2429°3 
2421°8 
2408-0 
2395°8 
2393°7 
2382°3 
2381°7 
2368°3 


2355-0 
2335°3 
2317-9 
2288-1 


2270-0 
2268°6 
2267°1 
2247-0 


2233°2 


Liveing 
and Dewar 


2593°5 
2571-0 
25575 
2546-1 
2530°7 
2523°5 


2495°5 
2493°5 


2483-1 


2429-5 
2421-5 
2407°9 


2392°5 


2364-7 
2357-7 
23545 
23343 
2317-0 


2286°9 


2282°5 
2275-4 


2251:0 
2245°8 
2231°3 


Intensity 
and 
Character 


10r 


- 


ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 301 
TiIn—continued. 

L IL. daneneity i II. pi 
Spark Spectrum} Arc Spectrum | Gparacter Spark Spectrum | Arc Spectrum Ghatencen 
Hartley Liveing I Hartley Liveing I 

and Adeney and Dewar : and Adeney and Dewar : 
2229°6 8sd 2151:2 2sd 
2221°5 8sd 2119-2 4sd 
2215°2 2sd 2113°6 4sd 
2210°1 2210°7 6sd 2079°3 4sd. 
2199-2 2198°7 2sd 2066°1 4sd 
2195-0 2194°1 2sd 


* Observed also by Lecog de Boisbaudran in the Spark Spectrum of Stannous Chloride solution. 
t Observed also by Lockyer; the ‘indices’ attached to these numbers denote the relative ‘ lengths’ of 


the lines, 


t 2sd in Hartley and Adeney’s photograph, 


I. Spark Spectrum 


Cornu | Thalén 


65560 
6543:1 
6260°4 
6257-6 
6221°1 


6214:3 


6125-4 
6097°6 
6090°6 
6083°4 
6064-7 
5998°9 
5978°2 


5998-0 


5976°9 

5965°5 
5964-4 
5951°5 
5940°3 
5920°7 
5918-2 
5898-1 


5952-0 


5921-7 
5919-0 
5899-1 
5865-4 
57381 
57141 
5701°6 
5688-6 
5679°1 
5674-4 
5661-6 
5647°1 
5643°1 
56291 


|| 4523°3, Mascart. 


§ 3259°9, Cornu. 


TITANIUM. 
II. Are Spectrum yee nae de 
Angstrém ae ie Il. 
| 4sd 
2sd 
6260°4 (6260°4) 8sc r 
*(6257°6) 10ne by 
6sd 
6218°5 
6214°3 6sd 
61270 
8sd 
6097°6 6sd 
6090°6 8sc 
6083°4 6sd 
6064:7 8sc 
5998°9 8sd 
5978°2 10se 
5965'5 10sec 
59520 10sec 
6§sd 
6sd. 
5899-1 10sec 
5865-4 10sec 
6sd 
5714:1 4sd 
2nd | 
5688°6 8sd 
5679°1 6sd | 
5674°4 10sec 
5661°6 10sec 
4sd 
5643°1 10sec 


302 REPORT—1885. 
TITANIUM—continued. 
I. Spark II. Intensity || 1, Spark IL. ees A 
ppecirum eer aes Character see BT dat Character ; 
Thalén Angstrém ees II. || Thalén Angstrém Ney a Dev at EY Il 
5597°3 2nd 5128°7 | 5128-7 | (5128°7) | 10sec | r 
5564°7 55647 6sc 5126°7 4sd 
5513°5 5513°4 10sec 5120°0 5120°0 10se 
5511°9 5511°9 10sec 51131 8sd 
5502°9 5502°9 8sc 5108°7 4sd 
5489°0 5489°0 8sc 5102°5 4sd 
54869 5486°9 6sd 5086'6 8nd 
5480°3 5480°3 8sc 5076°6 4nd 
5476'6 6sd 5071°9 4nd 
” 6473°4 5473°4 6sd 5065°6 4sd 
5470°6 5470°6 4sd 5064°5 5064:2 | (5064°5) | 10sec | r 
5448°1 5448°1 6sda 5061-4 6sd 
64459 5445°9 4sd 5052-4 6sd 
5428°7 5428°7 8sc 5043°5 6sd 
54251 | 5425-1 6sd 5039°3. | 5039:3 | (5039°3) | 8sd |r 
5418°0 5418.0 4sd 5038°1 5038°1 | (5038°1) 8sd | r 
5408°7 5408°7 8sc 5035°7 | *5035-7 | (5035°7) | 10sec | r 
5403'1 5403°1 6sc 5024°9 6sd 
5396°2 5396°2 8sc 5023°9 6sd 
5380°3 5380°3 6ne 5021°3 6sd 
5368°9 8sc 5019°5 5019°5 8sd 
5350°6 8se 5015-4 5015°7 8sd 
53369 5336°9 10se 5013-4 5013-7 | (5013-4) | 10sc | r 
5298°6 6sd 5012°3 4sd 
5296'8 10se 5006-7 5006°6 | (5006-7) | 10sc | r 
5295'6 6sd 5001°1 4sd. 
5287°9 4sd 4998°9 4998-7 | (4998-9) | 10sc | r 
5282°9 10se 4990-4 4990°5 | (4990°4) | 10sec | r 
5271°6 4sd 4988-4 6sd 
5267°3 4sd 4981°1 4981-1 | (4981'1) | 10sec | r 
5265'1 8sc 4977°9 6sd 
52630 4sd 4975°3 4sd 
5259°7 4sd 4972°3 25d 
52551 4sd 4967°8 Isd 
5251°0 4sd 4964°6 Isd 
5246°5 8ne 4947-1 2sd. 
5238°7 8ne 4937°3 8sc 
5226°2 6sd 4927°6 8sc 
5224°8 4925°1 4sd 
5224°2 4920°9 6sd 
5223°2 (5223-2) | 10nc | r 4919-1 6sd 
5217°7 4sd 4913°3 6sd 
5209°7 | 5209-7 | (6209°7) | 10nc| r || 4911-4 6sd 
5205°7 6sd 4904:0 4sd 
5200°7 6sd 4899°4 8sc 
5192°5 5192°5 | (5192°5) | 10sec | r 4884°6 48846 10sec 
5188°5 8sd 48731 4sd. 
5187-6 4869°1 8sc 
5185°3 6sd 4867°6 8sc 
5173°2 8sc 4855°1 8sc 
5153°5 6sd 48481 6sd 
5151°4 8sc 4840°1 8sc 
5147:2 6sd 4835°1 4sd 
5144:7 6sd 4819°6 8nc 


, 


A 
5 
, 
4 


- 
“ 
. 


ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 303 
TITANIUM—continued. 
Intensity Intensit 
I. Spark II. “ I. Spark Il. y 
Beceem Are Spectrum nT bene Bias teas Are Spectrum ae ne 
Thalén Angstrém ey I. |{I.]| Thalén Angstrém Rein Tey | 
48044 | 4804-4 10se 44576 4457-5 8sd 
4797°6 4sd 4455°1 4455-1 8sd 
4791°7 8sc 4452°6 4452°6 8sd 
4779-1 6sd 4449-6 4449-6 8sd 
4758°6 4758°6 10sc 4446°6 4446°6 8sd 
47571 4757-1 10sec 4443-1 4443-1 10ne 
4741°9 4741°9 8sd 4426°9 4426°9 10ne 
4722-9 4722°9 8sd 4417-9 4417°9 8nd 
470971 4709°1 8sd 4411-1 4411: 6sd 
46981 4698°1 8sd 4403°1 4403-1 6sd 
4690°7 4690°7 4690°5 8sd | r 4398°6 4398°6 6sd 
4681°6 4681:0 | (4681°6) 8sc | r 4393°1 4393:1 10ne 
4666°6 4666°6 4666°5 8sd | r 4337°5 10se 
465671 4656'1 4655°5 | 10nc |r 4323°5 4323°5 8nd 
4644-1 4644-1 4sd 4320-0 43200 2sd 
4638°9 4638°9 10ne 4318-0 ; 28d 
4629°1 4629°1 6sd 4313°5 4313°5 2sd 
4623°1 462371 8sd 4312°5 4312°5 2sd 
4616°8 46168 | (4616°8)| 8sc | r 4307°5 4307°5 2sd. 
4571°6 4571°6 10ne 4305-0 4305-0 | (43050) | 8sc | r 
4563°3 4563°3 8sd 4299°5 YE 
4555-4 4555-4 6sd 4299-0 4299-0 4299°0 10nc | r 
4551°9 4551°9 6sd 42980 r 
4549°0 | 4549-0 10nc 4295-0 42950 4295-0 2sd |r 
4543°6 4543°6 6sd 4293°8 2sd 
4535°6 | 4535-6 } 4533°2 | 10nc | r 4290-7 4290'7 | (4290°7) | 8sc | r 
4532-1 45321 4531-7 1: 4287-0 4287-0 2sd 
4526-2 4526°2 10sd 4282-0 2sd. 
4522-0 4522-0 6sd 4273-0 4273-0 2sd 
4517°6 4517°6 6sd 4263:0 4263-0 8sc 
4511°6 45116 6sd 4236°5 4236°5 8sc 
4500°8 4500°8 10ne 4185-0 4185-0 6sd 
4496-2 4496°2 8nd 4171:0 4171-0 10ne 
4481°1 6sd 4163-0 4163°0 10nc 
4468°6 44686 10sec | 
Are | ‘Are | Are 
Intensity Spectrum | Intensity Spectrum Intensity Spectrum Intensity 
and | and and 
| Lockyer Character Lockyer Character Goena Character Goris Character 
3933°2 3509-9 3235-0 
3929°0 3504-3 3232°7 
3989°20) 3925°5 3392°8 32280 
3981-5) 3923-70) 3386°2 3223°1 
3980-8 3920°5(3) 3382-0 3221°7 
3963°32) 3919°16) 33712 3216°9 
3961:7@) 3913-62) 3359°3 3215'8 
3957-20 39127 3347-0 3201-7 
3955-3 3910-46) 3346°8 3190°2 
3947-7 3904-2 3339-7 31630 
3946°8 39005 3338°2 3162-4 
3937-2 3900-0 3240°4 3161°9 
3237°5 


304 REPORT—1885. 
TUNGSTEN. 
peer Hpectram | Intensity et Spa Spectrum Intensity 
Thalén ne ee Thalén and Character 
: ! —- 
5805:1 | 4sd 50071 6sd 
5733'1 6sd 4981-1 4sd 
5648-1 4sd 4887-6 Sse 
5631°6 28d 4842-1 10se 
5513-1 | 10se 4680°6 2sd 
5491°6 j 8se 4660°6 2sd 
5223-2 10se 4659°6 28d 
5070°6 | 6sd 4302-0 6sd 
5068-1 | 6sd 4295-0 6sd 
5053°1 10se 4269-0 6sd 
50141 6sd 


Lockyer has observed the following lines in the arc spectrum of Tungsten between 
waye-lengths 3900 and 4000 :—3982°4, 3979°8, 3978°3, 3963-9, 3954-2, 3952-1, 3934-0. 


URANIUM. 

Spark Spectrum Intensity Spark Spectrum Hei Tantesrctag 
Thalén Lockyer nit Character | Thalén Lockyer | mid Clamatiet 
5913-1 4731-1 
56191 4723°1 
557971 4543°1 
5562°6 | 4472°6 
5527°1 4393°6 
5509'1 43741 
5493°6 4362-1 
5481-6 4340°6 
5479°6 3965-0 
547771 39617 
54746 3943-0 
5384°1 3931 0 
502771 


Lockyer has observed the following lines in the are spectrum of Uranium be- 
tween wave-lengths 3900 and 4000 :—3997'8, 3996°6, 3995-3, 3994-2, 3993-6, 3993-1, 
3991-9, 3988-2, 3985-1, 3983-4, 3983°0, 3979°9, 3978-1, 3977:2, 3976-0, 3974-2, 3973-2, 
3971-2, 3970°7, 3969°5, 3965°5, 3961-7, 3958-2, 3954:2, 3953-6, 3952-5, 3951-9, 3951-3, 
3950-4, 3947:4, 3942°7, 3941°8, 3941-5, 3939-3, 3934°3, 3931°0, 3929°7, 3927-0, 3925°8, 
3925-2, 3922-0, 3920°5, 3920°2, 3916°7, 3915-9, 3915-2, 3914-3, 3913-6, 3911-0, 3910°5, 
3908-2, 3907°8, 3906-0, 3903-7, 3901°8, 3901°6. 


VANADIUM. 
| Spark Spectrum Tateniey Spark Spectrum Intensity 
d Characte 
|  Thalén Lockyer 5 ae Thalén Lockyer | eg 
6240°7 6sd. 5706°1 
6109°7 5668°1 
6039°2 5414-1 
5786'1 5401°1 
57251 5240°1 


a 


_ ON WAYVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 305. 


VANADIUM—continued. 


Spark Spectrum Tnfenisity Spark Spectrum Intensity 
—_<<—150) | —..._____| and Character Ams FP ~ | and Character 

Thalén Loekyer Thalén Lockyer 
5233°2 4406-0 
5195°2 | 4400°5 

" 5191-7 | 4395-0 

4 4881°1 4389-0 

i" 4874°6 4384-0 

4864°1 4379-0 
4851°1 4352°5 

j 4843-1 4340°5 

F 4831°6 4332°5 

4593-1 4329-5 
4585°1 4310°0 
4579°1 4297-0 
45761 4292°5 | 
4459°1 4283°5 
45761 4277:0 
4459-1 4272°0 
4407°6 4268°5 
4406°1 41100 

7 4400-6 3997°9 
4395°1 3992°5 
4389°1 3989°6 
4384-1 3923-7 
4379-0 3913°6 
4576-0 3909°3 
4459:°0 3901°3 
4407°5 


Lockyer has observed the following lines in the arc spectrum of Vanadium be- 

een wave-lengths 3900 and 4000 :—3998-0, 3996°6, 3994-1, 3992-1, 3989-8, 3988-2, 
983°8, 3983°6, 3979-7, 3978°7, 3978-3, 3976°8, 3974-5, 3972°5, 3971-2, 3967-0, 3962-7, 
950°9, 3949-4, 3947-5, 3942-7, 3941-2, 3940-3, 3938-1, 3937-2, 3936-7, 3935-0, 3933°8, 
933°0, 3930°2, 3929-0, 3927-0, 3924-4, 3923-7, 3921-6, 3919-6, 3913°6, 3912-2, 3911-6, 
900°5, 3910-2, 3909-2, 3906-2. 3901-6, 3900-5. 


YTTERBIUM. 


Spark Spectrum Spark Spectrum Spark Spectrum 


| Intensity ||——-- — | “Intensity ||| Intensity. 
. Thalén Thalen 
| 2 5766'0 2 5431-7 4 
2 5749°5 1 5426°5 2 
2 5736°0 2 5414-0 2 
1 5729°5 2 5389°0 1 
10 5718°5 4 5367°0 1 
iy 5651°0 4 5363'0 1 
4 5630°5 1 5352'0 10 
4 5619-5 2 5346°5 8 
In 5587-5 4 5345°0 8 
6 5580-0 1 53340 10 
4 5559°5 1 5300°0 4 
6 5555°5 10 52790 ca 
4 55360 2 52760 2 
1 55285 2 5257-0 4 
6 5476-0 10 5243-0 2 
6 5453-0 2 5239°5 2 
4 5447-5 4 5226:0 j 
1885. ; 


306 


Spark Spectrum 


Thalén 


5217°5 
5183°5 
5134°7 
5085-0 
4993°5 
4936°5 
4935-0 


Intensity 


i=} 


fore ot 


Spark Spectrum Intensity 


Thalén 


6613-0 
6434°5 
6313°0 
6296°0 
6236°0 
6217-5 
6206-0 
6190°5 
6181-0 
6163°5 
6149:0 
6137-0 
6131:0 
6126-0 
6114-0 
6106°5 
6095-0 
6088-0 
6071:0 
6036-0 
6022°5 
6018°5 
6008-5 
6002°5 
5986°5 
57740 
5742°5 
5705°5 
56740 
5662:0 
5647:0 
5643°0 
5604°5 
5576:0 
5566°5 
55445 
5543:0 
5526°5 
5520:0 
5512°0 
5509-0 


and 
Character 


bo 
DBDHADRANWARARNNOH HEN ROMDAAEK RTH NNNK OCH ODROYFPNHHAG 


= 


i 


REPORT—1885. 


YTTERBIUM—continued. 


Spark Spectrum 


Thalén 


Intensity 


He He Ft bo 00 CO 


YTTRIUM. 


Spark Spectrum 


Thalén 


5502°5 
5496-0 
5479°5 
5473:0 
5468°3 
5466:0 
5437-0 
5423°5 
5416-0 
5402°0 
5379-0 
5320°0 
5288-0 
5205-0 
5199-5 
5195°5 
5122°5 
5118°0 
5087°5 
4981°5 
4973°0 
4881-0 
4859-0 
4854-0 
4852-0 
4844:0 
4838°5 
4822-0 
4799-0 
4760°5 
4751:0 
47320 
4728:0 
4681°5 
4657°5 
4643-0 
4526°5 
4505:0 
4486:0 
4464°5 
4422-0 


Intensity 
and 
Character 


i 


SOPRNNORFPNKROH AAO 


a 


ee = 
SCNORFROD Oe 


i 
OB NEAOH RHE ARR DRDO 


Spark Spectrum 


Spark Spectrum 


Thalén 


4397°0 
43740 
4359-0 
4309°0 
4236°5 
4176°5 
4167-0 
4142°5 
41270 
4102°5 


Are Spectrum 
Lockyer 


3999°8 


3997°8 
39961 
3991-0 
3987°4 
3982°7 
3981-7 
3981-0 
3978°7 
3977'9 
3973°'8 
3972:0 
3962-1 
3952-4 
3950°6 
3949-4 
3947-2 
3944°6 
3943-7 
3943°5 
3937'8 
39363 
3933°8 
3930-0 
3915°7 
3906-0 


Intensity 


Intensity 
and 
Character 


i 


fos) 
NE RPATERONOF 


PSs 


. 
ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF THE ELEMENTS. 307 


I. Spark Spectrum 


Thalén 


63628 
6102-20) 
$6022-70) 


5893-6) 
5816-12) 
$5756°10) 
§ 5745-1 
$5608-1 
$5577-6) 
4556310) 
$5465-6 
15436°1M 
+5336-1@ 
$5249-:7 
45233°24) 
T5158-7H 
+5121-:1% 


$5074:1 
+5048:1 
t4971-:1@ 
$4923-9@) 
$4911:32) 
t4878-1® 
7486510 
748098 
+ [4721-5 
¢||4679-6 


ZINC. 


Kirchhoff | Mascart 


6363°2 
610271 
6022-2 
5893-6 


4926-2 
4911°5 


4810-1 
4721-4 
4|4679°8 


Hartley 
and Adeney 
3813-5 
3811°5 
3757°5 
3720°5 
3713°5 
3704°5 
3694-0 
3683°0 
3668:0 
364504 
3632-2 
3623-4 
3578°2 
3560°8 
3536°8 
3529°8 
3509-2 
3491°8 


6360°7 


4923-2 
4910-5 


4809-0 
4720-6 
4678°5 


II. Are Spectrum 


Liveing 
and Dewar 


Cornu 


Intensity | 


and Character 


I. Vite 


not seen 


(4809°8) 
(4721°4) 
not seen 


bed 


308 REPORT—1885. 


Zinc—continued. 


Intensity Intensity 
I. Spark c and I. Spark | J], Are Spectrum an 
Spectrum 1 eo Character || Spectrum Grenier: 
Hartley Liveing Hartley | Liveing 
and and Cornu It and and Cornu i 
Adeney Dewar Adeney Dewar 
3344-4 3342-0 10ne 2479-2 2480-0 9sd 
33017 3301:0 10n¢e 2472°2 4sd 
3281-7 3281:0 8ne_ || f 2468-3 9sd 
3255°8 2sd_ || 2465-9 24645 4sd 
3238-7 2sd 2462°8 9sd 
32346 2sd zen 4sd 
3075°6 8sc 2459°8 9sd 
30717 3070°0 8sd 2450-0 4s 
3035°4 3035-0 8sd 2441°6 2440°0 4sd 
30241 2sd 2437°7 4sa 
3017-5 3017°0 4sd 2433-9 2sd 
29967 2sd 2430°0 
2959°5 2sd 2427-0 8sd 
2886°4 2sd 2423°3 4sd 
2856°3 2sd 24207 28d 
28001 28000 8ne 2418°8 8sd 
| ores lsd 2408-4 4sd 
2778'4 2sa 2405°3 4sd 
[2702 2770-0 8ne 2401°9 Isd 
2764°5 27560 7nd 2398°7 lsd 
2719°7 2sd 2396'4 1sd 
2711°5 27133 2sc 2393°3 1sd 
2683°8. 2684°0 2sc 239071 Isc 
2670°5 23842 isd 
2657:0 2sd 2382°8 Isa 
2607°6 2608°5 4sd 23717 isd 
2592°3 1sd 2367°8 1sd 
2589°3 1sd f 2348 7 4sd 
25861 Isd ‘ 2346:7 Isa 
2581:4 25820 4sd 2329°3 1sd 
2574°8 4sd 2315°0 4sd 
2569-4 2569°7 4sd 2308°8 4sa 
2557°3 10ne 2267-0 28a 
2635'0 2Qsd 2255-0 9sd 
2532°3 2sd 2138°5 2138°5 4nc 
25263 8sd 21042 2sd 
2521°3 8sd 2102-0 2sd. 
2514-7 | 25160 8sa__ {| ) 2099-0 20988 | Ine 
2508°7 8sd 2095°9 9sd 
2501-5 10ne 2085-4 2nd 
2497-0 isd 2077°6 lsc 
2496°6 1sd 2068-4 1sd 
2490-4 2491'5 8nd 2062°8 2063°4 Ind 
2485°9 . 8nd | 2060°8 2061-0 Inc 
2485°0 4sda 2024-2 2024-3 Inc 
2483°7 2sd 


a 
4 


* Observed also by Lecoq de Boisbaudran in the Spark Spectrum of Zinc Chloride solution, who hale 
also noted lines at 5184 and 4630. 

+ Observed also by Lockyer. The ‘indices’ attached to these numbers denote the comparative 
*lengths’ of the lines as given by Lockyer. 

§ 5739 G. Johnstone Stoney. + ‘Could not be identified,’ Lockyer. 


| Observed also in the Arc by Spgstrém. { 4725°0 and 4680-0, Hartley and Adeney. 


3 


ZIRCONIUM. 

I. Spark Spectrum II. Are Spectrum Intensity and Character 
Thalén Lockyer iE Il. 
6343°8 6sd 
6310°3 6sd 
6140°7 10sec 
6132°7 6sd 
6127-2 10sc 
5384°6 4sd 
5349°6 6sd 
5190°7 6sd 
4815:1 10se 
47711 10sc 
4738°6 10sec 
4709°6 10se 
4686°6 10sec 
4497-6 4sd 
4494-6 4sd 
4443-1 4sd 
4380°1 4sd 
4370-0 4sd 
4360-0 4sd 
4242-0 4sd 

i 4241°5 : 4sd 
ha 42285 4sd 
me 4209°5 4sd 
4209-0 4sd 

41550 8sc 


4149-0 8se 


310 REPORT—1 885. | 


WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF COMPOUNDS. | 


AMMONIA. 
Intensity Intensity } 
Flame Spectrum and Flame Spectrum and 
Character | Character 
bhi Lecoq de ec. Lecoq de | 
aya | Bhisbandral Dibbits Boisbaudran 
ay 6629 lby ¢ J 5807 3s 
 £ 6629 5s 5754 3s 
6542 5s n 5705 | a 5702 8n 
@) "6420 1b, 5664 5s 
6325 n () 5617 2b, 
Y 6293 ©) "5466 5 5470 2b", 
B 6302 6b, 6 5382 8s 
6227 2n 6) 5330 6br 
7 18 n 6180 5n t *5284 e 5252 8b,” 
6117 2n 7) 5158 8bY 
; 6045 7m k 5128 Tbr 
pee, |e {cous 6n A 5079 4b, 
: 5982 6s (8) 4997 7b 
5970 ¢ 5964 5n om 4782 4b,,* 
@) 5834 1b,, 
* Double. 


The spark spectrum of ammonia, according to Lecogq de Boisbaudran, shows one 
broad band at 5657 (5656°5 Schuster) which, with a finer slit ,is resolved into two 
bands, 5681 of intensity 7, and 5643 of intensity 8 (5686 to 5627 Schuster). Lecoq de- 
Boisbaudran obtained the ‘ Flame Spectrum’ also by use of the spark ; its production 
appears to depend upon the presence of oxygen. 


ALUMINIUM OXIDE. 
2 SS a es 2 eas oe ee 


Intensity and 


Lecoq de Boisbaudran Thalén Lockyer Character 
5457 3n 
54385 
5428-5 
5417°5 b 
84 5408 5409°8 5408 1s 
5391 5395-4 5397 2s 
5373 5377°8 3s 
5354 53574 4s 
5331 5333'6 4s 
(5190 51868 5191 . 
15175 5180°5 2s 
5161 5160-4 5166 bb 
, | 51545 
5145 5141-4 6b 
{ 5139°5 
5124 5123'8 5121 8b 
5103 (51022 5100°5 9b 
5080 50754 5080 9b 
4930°5 
4891 4890:2 4901 3b 
as 4871 4864-2 8b 
4845 4839-0 10b 


ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF COMPOUNDS. 311 


ALUMINIUM OXIDE—continued. 


Barium Iopipe. 


Flame Spectrum 


Lecoq de Boisbaudran Thalén Lockyer paenetey ae 
4739°5 
4719 4711°2 47145 In 
4698 4690°0 4694°5 3n 
Y 4 4675 4670°6 4673 4b 
4652 4649:0 4645 6b 
4567 ln 
4544 In 
1 4522 In 
4500 2n 
4478 In 
Barium CHLORIDE. 
Flame Spectrum intensity 
‘ : : and Character 
Lecoq de Boisbaudran Mitscherlich 
y 5313 5314 8b, 
a 5242 5245 10b, 
3 5205 5209 3n 
L5171 5177 4n 
B 5136 5144 9b, 
e 5064 5112 3n 
5076 
Barium BRoMIDE. 
Flame Spectrum intensity 
h 
Lecoq de Boisbaudran Mitscherlich Sogn gent 
y 5410 5393 8b, 
a 5358 5356 9b, 
3 £5304 5312 6b, 
15249 5259 6b, 
B 5206 5217 9b, 
e 5149 5179 4b, 
5102 2b, 


Intensity 
and Character 


Mitscherlich Lecoq de Boisbaudran 
5599 a 5607 9b, 
5384 B 5376 9b, 


312 REPORT—1885. 


Barium Oxipe. 


Flame Spectrum Flame Spectrum 


ee, Intensity 
Lecoq de Boisbaudran ane Saas Lecoq de Boisbaudran and Character 
6819 In 5768 4b, 
A 6499 5b,” " 5719 8b, 
6448 2n 5647 8b* 
¢ 6297 8n 5613 2n 
6239 4b [a *5536 9s] 
6178 5b 6 5492 9b,” 
Y) 6108 8b 5461 In 
6031 9b” e 5346 8b,” 
5995 2n @ 5215 8b,” 
B 5938 Ib « 5089 ish 
5867 9bv 5019 2b, 
p 5824 5b, 4974 2b, 
x 4873 6b, 
4794 1b, 
* Due to the metal itself. 
BismuTH CHLORIDE. 
Mitscherlich Intensity Mitscherlich Intensity 
/ 6582 1 BT1T 6 
6499 1 | 5681 6 
6472 2 | 5650 5 
6406 2 | 5625 5 
6359 2 5593 5 
6312 2 5527 4 
6270 3 5527 4 
6226 3 5494 4 
6182 3 5459 4 
6140 3 5428 4 
6095 4 5398 3 
6050 4 5370 3 
6018 4 5320 3 
5976 4 5286 3 
5932 5 5232 3 
5886 5 5207 3 
5834 6 | 5184 2 
5796 6 | 5156 2 
5756 6 5139 2 
6109 1 
BismuTH OXIDE. 
Mitscherlich | Intensity Mitscherlich Intensity 
| 
6382 br 5582 by 
6194 by 5444 by 
6039 by 5328 by 
5873 br 5220 br 


5717 br 


ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF COMPOUNDS. 313 


Boron TRIOXIDE. 


RS Ree eee Spor wee 
Flame Spectrum Intensity 
and Character 


Thalén Lecoq de Boisbaudran Salet 
6397 6400 3b, 
6210 6210 4b, 
6031 6030 3b, 
5781 5 5807 5800 Tb, 
5480 5480 9n 
eats 9 5439 2b, 
5188 B 5192 5200 8b, 
4957 y 4941 4910 7b, 
e 4721 4700 Bb, 
4529 4540 3b, 


TT ee 


Caucium CHLORIDE. 
ee SD ee ee es 


Flame Spectrum Intensity Flame Spectrum Intensity 
; z and Character _ ——_-... | and Character 
Lecoq de Boisbaudran Lecoq de Boisbaudran 
6442 5b, B 5933 9b,* 
6348 2n € S58iF 6n 
6320 2n 5728 2n 
n 6265 9n +8 eee 6b,” 
Ls ; 6202 10s 5517 4b,* 
6181 10s [*4226 3s] 
f 6068 7s 
76044 6s 
* Due to the metal. + Probably due to the oxide. 


CaLciumM BRoMIDE. 


Mitscherlich Intensity and Character | 
6266 6s | 
6242 6s 
6102 4s | 


CaLcium FLUORIDE. 


Mitscherlich Intensity and Character 
6060 4s 
6026 4s 
5328 6n 


5301 6n 


314 REPORT—1885. 


Caucium IopIpE. 


Mitscherlich Intensity and Character 
6270 6s 
6252 6s 
6177 4s 


Caucium OXIDE. 


Lecoq de Boisbaudran | Intensity and Character 
| 
B 6220 4D,>- 
5995 3b, 
7 £5543 6b,” 
a \ 5517 4b," 


CarBon OXIDE. 


Watts Angstrém and Piazzi-Smyth and wie 
Thalén Herschell Chaseene 
6853 1b 
6748 1b 
6622:0 3br 
6462 1b 
6060 6078:°0 4br 
5900 1b 
5817-0 3br 
5689 1b 
5610°5 5607°5 5612-0 5bF 
56088 5b 
560770 5b 
5605°5 5b 
Fine lines too close 5603°9 4b 
to measure 5602°0 4b 
55979 Ab 
55959 4b 
5591°8 5593-4 3b 
5588°3 5590°8 3b 
5585°5 5587°6 3b 
5582°5 5584°5 3b 
5578°5 5580°6 2b 
55740 55772 2b 
5570°5 55730 2b 
5566°5 5568°6 2b 
5562°2 5563°9 1b 
5557°5 5559:0 1b 
5553°9 
= 5548-4 
5542°6 
5536°7 
5530°8 
5524-4 
5518°5 
5511°6 


5505-4 


ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF COMPOUNDS. 315 


CARBON OXIDE—continued. 


* - dete Intensity 
Angstrém and Piazzi-Smyth and 
A Thalén Herschel rece 
5498-2 
5490°9 
5483-2 
B4T5:7 
5467-9 
5461-42 
5454-0? 
5449 1b 
5444 2? 
5397'S 3b 
5370 1b 
5265 1b 
51984 5197-0 
5198°7 Abe 
5198-2 6bF 
5197°7 6br 
5197-2 4b 
51963 2 
5195-7 5 
Fine lines too close 5195-0 5 
to measure 5194-2 2 
5193-1 2 
51923 2 
5191:8 2 
5191-2 2 
5190°5 4 
5190-0 4 
5188:8 6 
5186% 5188-7 6 
5186-9 12 
5184-9 6 
5183" 51843 6 
5182°5 5 
51815 5181-7 5 
5180-1 = 
51785 5179-2 5 
51771 5 
5175-0 5176-4 5 
* f 51741 5 
es 151730 5 
51709 5 
SEE. ; 5169°6 5 
5166-2 5167°5 5 
5166-7 2 
5165°9 2 
ai. 5165°5 2 
5165°2 2 
5164-6 2 
5162-0 
5015-0 1b 
4836'6 4833-5 4836-5 Bbr 
Fine lines too close 
to measure 
4829-5 4b 
4820°3 4b 
4818-1 4b 


48160 4b 


316 REPORT—1885. 


CARBON OxIDE—continued. 


p 
i . cao Intensity 
Watts Angstrim and Piazzi-Smyth and aril 
Thalén Herschell Character 
4813°5 3b i 
4811-0 3b 
4808°6 3b 
4805°7 3b 
4802°8 2b 
4799-4 2b 
4796-0 2b 
4792°5 1b 
4788°8 4b 
4785°5 4b 
4780-6 1b 
477674 1b 
4772-2 1b 
J 4767°8 2b 
(4762°8 2b 
AT5T7 1b 
47530 3b 
{ 4748-0 3b 
4697-0 2b 
4630 1br 
4568 1b 
4505 4509-0 4516-9 5br 
4395 *4394-0 4393-0 Abt 
4292 1b 
4209-0 1b 
4131-0 | 3bF 


* At the negative pole this band appears slightly displaced towards the blue—and of equal intensity 
throughout—not sharp towards the red.—ScuustT ER. 


Carson NITRIDE. 


Pliicker Liveing Intensity | 

Dibbits |Mitscherlich}| Watts and and Lockyer and 
Hittorf Dewar Character 

7080 7102 6800 2b, 
@6906 6938 6700 8b 
@)6657 6670 64954 Tby 
6486 6477 6426°7 5by 
6334 6344 6312°3 5byY 
©6193 6200 6206°2 5bY 
6010 6022 AbY 
®5892 5888 Abr 
5750 5746 4b 
5632 3b” 
5498 2b" 
5389 2b’ 
5245 bY 
4609 4607 4600 (4600) 4600 10br 
4583 4582 4574 4571°5 4574 10br 
4559 4548 4550 4548°5 4550 9br 
(+ 4537 4526 4534 4526°1 4532 9br 
4521 4505 4514 45082 4515 8br 
4508 4505 44953 4505 Tb 


4500 4502 4490:8 4500 | 6bt 


ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF COMPOUNDS. 317 


CARBON NITRIDE—continued. 


Pliicker Liveing Intensity 
Dibbits {|Mitscherlich} Watts and and Lockyer and 


Hittorf Dewar Character 


4377-0 *4381°5 
4367°1 *4371°5 
4361°3 *4364°5 
4208 4212 4220 (4215°6) 4218 4215-6 10br 


! 
| 
| 
H | 4188 4197 4210 41996 | 4205 4197°2 10b" 
t 


4171 4182 4190 4183°3 4192 4180-4 9br 


lo 4177°8 
4176°6 
| 4175°8 

4174-4 
ik 4173°5 
if 4172°6 
ti) 4171-4 
| 4169-7 


4155 4170 4174 41665 | 4176 4167°2 8br 
4147 4159 4166 41561 | 4165 4157-5 8b 


4142 4147 4160 41502 4158 41515 Tb 
4158 ? 

4136 4144:1 6br 

3854 3859 3882°7 3882°8 10br 
? 

3839 3847 3871 3870°6 9br 
? 


3867-1 
3866-4 
3865-4 
; 38648 
‘ 38639 
3863°1 
; 3862-2 
3827 3839 | 3862 3861-6 8b 
3860°8 
3859°8 
3859-2 
3858°3 
3858-0 
3815 3854-5 3857°5 Tbr 
3856'6 
3856°0 
3855°4 


* ‘Probably not connected with the presence of nitrogen.’—Livree & DEwar, ‘ Proc, Roy. Soc.,” 
No. 223, 1882, 


318 REPORT—1885. 
CARBON NITRIDE—continued. 
Pliicker Liveing Intensity | 
Dibbits |Mitscherlich) Watts and and Lockyer and 
Hittorf Dewar Character 
3850 6br } 
3589 10bt 
3583 9br 
3360 10b* 
2718 bt 
H &e. 
2588 br 
&e. 
2479 bt 
&e. 
2373 br 
&e. 
CHROMIUM CHLORIDE. 
Spark Spectrum Intensity Spark Spectrum Intensity 


Lecoq de Boisbaudran 


and Character 


Lecoq de Boisbaudran 


and Character 


6393 3b," 5566 gue 
6048 3b,” *4649 on 
5790 3b," 4343 rs 
5622 2b,* 
* Double. 
Copper CHLORIDE. 
Flame Spectrum aeanatty | Flame Spectrum iinioniey 


Lecoq de Boisbaudran 


6618 
n 6267 
6150 
¢ 6143 
6050 
6041 
5807 
5780 
5728 
5670 
5629 
5563 
5506 
5489 
5463 
a + 5439 
5422 
5405 
5385 
5355 
« 5305 
B +5260 
5239 
5210 


and Character 


t+ Becoming 5269 —b. 


|| Lecoq de Boisbaudran 


and Character 


5bY 
TbY 4 
8b 
9b,” 
8b,” 
9b,” 
9b," 
7b,” 
5b,* 
2b," 
2b, 
2b," 
6b," 
8b,” 
8b,” 
9b,” 
9b,” 
9b,” 
8b,” 
7b, 
6b,” 
3b," 
1b," 
iby 


7 
4 


7 
} 
i 


{ 


ON WAYVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF COMPOUNDS. 319 


Copper Bromipr. 


Intensity and Intensity and 


Mitscherlich ynnvoren Mitscherlich Character 
5215 by 4537 -bY 
5124 bY 4515 by 
5033 by 4462 by 
4949 by 4447 be 
4872 bv 4405 br 
4823 bY 4384 by 
4619 br 4340 by 
4593 bv 4320 br 


SR 


: Copper Iopipr. 


Intensity and Intensity and 


Mitscherlich Charactat Mitscherlich Character 
5393 5073 
5314 5018 
5232 4959 
5144 &e. 


Coprer OXIDE. 


Flame Spectrum 
i 2 Intensity and Character 
i Lecoq de Boisbaudran 


5370 6b, 


H 5106 2b,, 


I 4946 2dr 


Erpium Oxip2. 


Flame Spectrum Intensity Flame Spectrum Intensity 
Lecoq de pak Lecoq de te 
Bunsen Bei uaran Character Bunce Boishandran Character 
5 6609 Tn 5230 sf 5228 9b, 
6519 6546 8n 5204 9n 
6492 3n 5123 2b, 
6404 1b, 5038 1b, 
y 5631 8b, 4867 n 4910 4b, 
6 5514 4D, 4756 1b, 
5413 2n e 4648 6b, 
5404 B 5387 9b, 4568 2b, 
5346 3b, ¢ 4500 5b, 
5264 4b, 


320 REPORT—1885. 


Erpium PHOSPHATE. 


Flame Spectrum i 
‘ Intensity 
Lecoq de Boisbaudran pee ad 


6913 1b, 
6694 bio 
6597 ™ 
a 6526 9b, 
e 6432 7b; 
{8507 Tb, 
115463 8b, 


Flame Spectrum 


Lecoq de Boisbaudran 


5391 
5238 
B {5508 
4928 
4878 
4567 


GoLp CHLORIDE. 


Flame Spectrum Intensity 


= a Cee and Character 
| Lecoq de Boisbaudran 


5913 4b, 
€ 5752 6b,, 
5600 8b, 
5477 38 
5458 9n 
By ) 5437 be 
5418 4s 
5364 53 
5348 9n b.” 
14 pa8 6n (8 
{5311 9n 
5286 4n 
5263 9n} 
a, | 5244 4n |. 
5222 | 9n (2 
(5210 | 6n- 


Hyprocen OXxIpE. 


Tron Oxmve. 

: A Intensi i : 
Mitscherlich and Gh ee Mitscherlich 
6219 1b’ 5632 
6182 2b* 6444 
5892 4b’ 5420 


5665 4bv 


Flame Spectrum 


Lecog de Boisbaudran 


5179 

5158 
Be) 5141 
5125 
5102 
5080 
5063 
5044 
5030 
4516 
4430 


5 


See ‘ WATER.’ 


Intensity 


and Character 


2b, 
9n 
9n 
6b; 
Tb, 
5b 


Intensity 
and Character 


Intensity 


and Character 


5br 
4br 
2b’ 


> Zl 
* 


ON WAVE-LENGTH TABLES OF THE SPECTRA OF COMPOUNDS. 321 


Leap OXIDE. 


Mitscherlich 


6265 
6196 
5997 
5955 
5892 
5665 
5615 
5460 
5414 
5328 
5273 

"5220 


Liveing and Dewar 


me oe 


Boisbaudran 


Intensity 
and Character 


2b” 
2b’ 
2b” 
2b" 
3b” 
4b” 
4b¥ 
5by 
5bY 
5by 
5b” 
4bv 


Mitscherlich 


5144 
4993 
4913 
4880 
4852 
4825 
4664 
4593 
4468 
4381 
4296 


Macnesium Hypripe. 


Intensity 
and Character 


Liveing and Dewar 


5210 
&e. 
5180 


Magnesium Oxipe. 


Watts 


5006°5 
4996°5 
4985-7 
4974:7 
4963°7 
4948-7 
4934 
4924 
4914 


Liveing and Dewar 


5000 
4990 
4980 
4969 
4957 
4945 
4930 


4797 


Intensity 
and Character 


4b’ 
4br 
4br 
3b" 
3b’ 
3b’ 
2b” 
2b” 
2b” 
1b’ 
lb’ 


Intensity 
and Character 


10b* 
10br 


8br 
8br 


Intensity 
and Character 


SbF 
Tbr 
5b 
4b 
2br Lb, 
2br 
1br 
1br 
1br 


1885. 


322 REPORT—1885. 


ir 
MANGANESE OXIDE. 
Intensity | Intensity 
Lecog de | = * ||  Leeoq de 
Boisbaudran if bade ee bey | Bs oisbandran ee ee 
(6327 | | meats 5549 2b," 
6288 2s | 5611 3b,” ' 
6249 3s 5473 5b , 
6234 4s B 5433 5s \hy 4 
n( 6215 4s 5427 5423 Sby [2° | 
6204 4br | 5395 8s 4 
6187 6185 4s 5398 5391 9b 
6178 4b¥ 5367 5359 9b* j 
6150 3s 5308 2b, 
5943 3n | 5260 4b," 
5932 2s | | 5223 5229 or 
3 5915 6n 4 5189 5192 OOS Btls 
5909 lb’ | 5155 5157 6b,” 
5887 7 5135 1b 
5858 6n 5089 3b” 
5847 2b¥ 
5807 1b,” / 
5759 2b," | 
5719 3b," | 
5688 3s 
5683 3s 5 
@) 5676 4b,v { Par” | 
5644 6b” 
5614 9b” 
5607 5bY 
5587 5580 on J ! 


Thirteenth Report of the Committee, consisting of Professors J. 
Prestwich, W. Boyp Dawkins, T. McK. Huaues, and T. G. 
Bonney, Dr. H. W. Crosskey (Secretary), Dr. DEANE, and Messrs. 
C. E. DE Rance, H. G. Forpuam, J. E. Ler, D. MACKINTOSH, 
W. PENGELLY, J. Puant, and R. H. Tippeman, appointed for 
the purpose of recording the position, height above the sea, 
lithological characters, size, and origin of the Erratic Blocks of — 
England, Wales, and Ireland, reporting other matters of interest 
connected with the same, and taking measures for their preser- 
vation. 


Tue Committee have to record the following additional observations. 
Continuing his previous investigations, Mr. Luff, of Clun (Shropshire) 
has traced fragments of the Upper Llandovery grit (which are scarcely 
large enough to be called ‘boulders’) along a bee line drawn across the 
map from Clun to Rhayader, twenty-three miles W.S.W. This line 
passed through Llanbister and Abbey-cwm-hir ; crossed at right angles 
the deep valleys of the Teme and the Ithon, and passed over the extensive 
Beguildy Mountains and the long transverse range of Cambo Hill. 
Fragments of grit were found at short intervals the whole of the way, 


ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS. OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 323 


and two miles south of Rhayader the rocks of Carrig Gwinion present 
themselves as the source from which they all may have been derived. 
The specimens were very small—the largest being about one foot cube— 
and in no respect equal the remarkable assemblage of big blocks, previously 
described, on the long and high ridge forming the watershed of the Clun 
and Teme. ‘These fragments of grit, however, occur at considerable 
heights as well as in the valley bottoms—being found on the top of 
Beguildy Beacon, more than 1,700 feet above the sea. One block of 
Rhayader grit has been found north of the Clun river, but asa rule the 
lun river forms a northern boundary to this flow in a peculiarly sharp 
and striking way. A remarkable mixture of boulders occurs. Amongst 
the western boulders on the Clun Hills are (although few in number) 
quartzites from the Stiper Stones district fifteen miles north, and about 
Leebotwood, north of the Longmynd, are granites from Scotland or the 
Lake district. The flow of quartzites has overlapped and invaded the 
ground covered by the Plynlimmon stream, and the granites while doing 
the same with this local dispersion, have crossed the eastern stream of 
Arenig boulders. ; 

Professor Bonney writes that he is now satisfied, in consequence of 
information supplied to him by Professor Haghes, that the picrite boulders 
noticed by him in the Report for 1883 as occurring near the west coast of 
Anglesey, are derived from masses of rock which occur in situ to the 
north-east, especially from one near Caemawr. He has also received 
from Dr. H. Hicks specimens of a boulder of very characteristic horn- 
_ blende picrite, which the latter found lying on ‘ Dimetian’ rock, on the 
east side of Porthlisky harbour, near St. David’s. Its longer axis 
_ measured about a yard: in transverse section it was rather triangular, 
the shorter sides measuring twenty-two inches and sixteen inches respec- 
tively. No rock of the kind is known to occur in situ anywhere in the 
district. This is more fully described, and the origin of the Anglesey 
boulders discussed in a paper by Professor Bonney which has appeared 
in the ‘ Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society’ (vol. xli. p. 511). 

Mr. R. T. Andrews of Hertford has forwarded the Committee a cata- 
logue of blocks from that neighbourhood, showing that the materials 
generally spread over the north of Herts extend south to the Hertford 
district. These may be divided into three main groups. (1) Hertford- 
shire ‘ Pudding-stone’; (2) Compact sandstones; (3) Grits and coarse 
sandstones. The Hertfordshire ‘Pudding-stone’ is of course locally 
derived. The fine compact sandstones, with coarser sandstones and 
grits, are of the kind so common in the boulders of Hertfordshire and 
the adjacent counties, which have been fully described in the Report 
of the Committee for 1881. Mr. Fordham remarks upon this catalogue, 
that the derivation of the rocks cannot be stated with exactness, since there 
is little about the materials, as found in moderate sized fragments, to 
identify them with particular beds; but their characteristics generally 
show that in all probability some of them have been derived from the 
secondary rocks of the Midlands, while others have come from the millstone 
grits and other older rocks further north. The absence of igneous rocks 
in this catalogue will be noted. As igneous rocks are rare in the north 
of Hertfordshire, their apparent absence in the centre of the county shows 
that there has been a gradual diminution of igneous material towards the 
south, while at length in the centre of Hertfordshire they are certainly 
absent. 

pa 


324 


OCOaANnan ad 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 
16 


17 
18 


19 


Catalogue of Boulders found in the neighbourhood of Hertford. 


Compact Sandstone . . 


Coarse Sandstone or Grit . 


Compact Sandstone . 


Herts Pudding-stone 


” ” 


” »”> 


” ” 
Compact Sandstone . 


Coarse Sandstone or Grit . 
Compact Sandstone . 


Herts Pudding-stone 


3’ 


Ls 


REPORT—1885. 


Dimensions 


> 


COURIC? x 120 


= 


OM SD! POH tl! ib 


6” x V 5” x lV’ 4a” 


Fragment 


0” 
5” 


Diss 


rd x 


Lia Ae 


4" x 1 


6” x 1 3” x I 0” 


3” x 9” 


Sys 
4” x 
9” x 


1’ 
iv 


a LO”, 
gr x 8” 
6” x U or 


Are ee A 
GUS Sine 


13” 
ide 


6” x 3/ 3” x V 3” 


Where found | 


Brickendon 
Green, 8.W. of 
Hertford. 


Removed from 
adjacent field 
to N. of a barn 
at Clement’s 
farm. 
Angle of a 
pond; Cle- 
ment’s farm, 
Brickendon 
Green. 


In garden, 
Castle Street, 
Hertford, 


Castle Street, 
Hertford. 
In fernery. 
Bayford. 


Tyler’s Cause- 
way ; inside 
cottage-garden 
gate. 
Hill going up 
to Tolmer’s 
Church, 


” 


” 
Essendonbury 
farm; at en- 
trance gate. 


Goose Green. 
Dalmond’s 
farm ; Man- 
grove Lane. 


Ibid., close to 
a fence adjoin- 
ing farmhouse. 


Oblong and flai 
tish; rounded 


more than th 
other ; smooth 
Height above 
the sea about 
350 ft. 

Smooth, 


Height above 
sea, 230 ft. — 


Used for founda- 
tions of a she 


Smooth. 

Probably remoy- 
ed from else 
where in neigh- 
bourhood, 


Brought to gar 


den of lod 
from a plough 
ed field. 
Brought 

same field 
No, 11. 


Very irreg 
shape; __ tal 
from a neigh 
bouring gra 
pit. 


Taken out of 


ness a doubtful 
specimen. 


ON THE ERRATIC BLOCKS OF ENGLAND, WALES, AND IRELAND. 325 


CATALOGUE OF BOULDERS—continued. 


= Dimensions Where found Remarks 


0 | Coarse Sandstone or Grit . | 3’ 8” x1! 11”x 1! 7” 
| Compact Sandstone . .| 1! 3”x 1! 1” x ~~ 8” | Jenningsbury | Smooth faced; 
farm. subangular ; ob- 
tained from 
| gravel pits. 
‘Herts Pudding-stone .|3’ O” x 1! 8” x 2’ O"| Stable-yard, | From the gravel 
‘ Salisbury pits; hard and 

Arms,’ tough. 

; Hoddesdon. 
Compact Sandstone . P| 1! Gx 1’ 3” x - 10” |. aizomicravel 
pit, Roman 
| road. 
‘Herts Pudding-stone | 11% 10’ 7 | Ware ParkMill 
* Die cD BUS eae A Ware. From gravel pit, 
Park Road; 
found nearly at 
| ‘| the surface. 
| Compact Sandstone . Oot 30° Biase 8” | Pepper Hill, | Suchstones often 
+ Ware. found in this 
gravel pit; 
some of large 
dimensions; 
rather sharp 
angled, and 
smooth. 


i % WO 61 12" -xeu dO" rr Smooth; sub- 
angular. 

se Sandstone or Grit .| 2’ 8” x 1’ 5” x 1’ 3”| Amwell End, | Peculiarly rag- 

Ware. ged in shape, 


with rounded 

angles and in- 
7 dented. 

oo” ” ” 2' 2" x il 5” x i ” Flattish ; sub- 

angular; ap- 

pears as if split 

from a larger 


* block. 
Carboniferous Limestone ? Bx al Rg! oot Ware. Taken out of 
; water course; 
| Angel Mead, 
Musley Lane. 
31 | Herts ‘Pudding-stone’ .| 2’ 0” x 2’ 0” x Westmill Hill, |} Smooth and sub- 
f Ware. angular. 
32 | Coarse Sandstone or Grit .| 2’ 0” x 2’ 6’ x 1’ 4” | Opposite ‘Rose | Smooth and sub- 
and Crown,’ angular. 


; Ware. 
| Compact Sandstone . mel! LOM se Ole Hoddesdon. | Preserved in 
Bull Inn Yard. 


i) Pe a ee thle se NEO Amwell. Subangular; pro- 
bably from 

. gravel pit. 
ats ce V7"x 1! 3"x 7" | Amwell, Pep- | Rather sharp 
; per Hill. angled; from 

gravel pit. 
” " i edit 8 CAR lee 3s Ml Amwell. Subangular; 
from adjoining 

: ; gravel pit. 
i) » OS GF Dio: 1 3! Ware. From gravel pit. 


Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. ETHERIDGE, 
Dr. H. Woopwarp, and Professor T. RurErT Jones (Secretary),. 
on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks. 


REPORT—1885. 


§ I. SUPPLEMENTARY. 


ve 
2. 
3. 


4, 
5. 


6. 


7. 


Corrections in the Moffat series. 
Caryocaris Marrii, Jones. 
Lingulocaris siliquiformis, Jones, 
and L. linguleecomes, Salter. 
Solenocaris, sp. 
E. O. Ulrich’s 
Faberi. 
Helminthochiton (olim Soleno- 
caris) solenoides, Young. 
Aptychi of Goniatites, and Notes 
on the Phyllocarida. 


Orthonotella ? 


§ Il. CERATIOCARID. 


Ceratiocaris. 


A. British species. 


C. Murchisoni (Agassiz) and its 
var. leptodactylus (M‘Coy). 

. Ludensis, 7. Woodw. 

. papilio, Salter. 

. Stygia, Salter. 

. inornata, MW‘ Coy. 

. Oretonensis, H. W, 

. truncata, H. W. 

solenoides, J/* Coy. 

gobiiformis, nov. 

. Salteriana, nov. 

. cassia, Salter. 

. Sp. nov. ? 
robusta . (Salter) and var. 

longa, nov. 

. sp. nov. ? 

. decora, Phillips. 


QQ aaaneaacaaaa 


B. Doubtful genera. 


16. 
LZ. 
18. 
19. 
20. 


C.? ensis, Salter. 

C.? lata, Salter. 

C.? insperata, Salter. 
C.? sp.? 

C. perornata, Salter. 


C. Distinet from Ceratiocaris. 


21. 
22. 


s 
§ I. Supprementary.—l. Professor C. Lapworth enables us to make the — 
following corrections in the Second Report, ‘ Brit. Assoc. Report for 
1884’ :—(1) The horizon of Discinocaris gigas (p. 80) is the ‘ Llandovery, 
(2) ‘D. Browniana (p. 78) also comes from the 


in the 


Cer. ? elliptica, Mf‘ Coy. 
Physocaris vesica, Salter. 


Birkhill Shales.’ 


23. Acanthocaris scorpioides, elon- 


D. Extra-British Fossil Phyllocarida. — 


. C.? longicauda, D. Sharpe. } 
. C. Deweii, Hail. o 
and 27. C. Maccoyiana and C.. 


24 
25 


26 


28 


3] 


32. Aristozoe regina, Barrande, and 


33 


34. Colpocaris sinuata, Bradleyi, e 


. C. aculeata, Hall. 
29. C. Neetlingi, Fr. Schmidt. 
30. M. Barrande’s species of Cera- 


. M. Barrande’s Avistozoe, Oroz0ey 


. Echinocaris and its allies. 


gata, 
Peach. 


et attenuata, JP. 


acuminata, /Zall. 


tiocaris :— 
1. C. docens; 2. 0.? deci- 
piens; 3. C. Scharyi; 4. 

C. Bohemica; 5. C. in- © 
eequalis ; 6. C. debilis; 7. _ 

C. tarda; 8. C. primula. © 


Callizoe, and Nothozoe :— ‘ 
127A ami cap aa aeaS bisul- — 
cata ; 3. A. inclyta; 4. A. 
lepida ; 5. A.memoranda;, — 

6. A.orphana; 7. A. per- 
longa; 8. A. regina; 9, — 
A. (2) Jonesi; 10. O. mira ; 
11. Callizoe Bohemica 3. 
12. Nothozoe pollens. 

its abdominal appendages. 
(Bactropus, &c.). 


E. armata (punctata), Hall. 

HE. sublevis, Whitfield. 

E. pustulosa, Whitf. 

E. multinodosa, Whit/. 

E. socialis, Beecher. 

Elymocaris siliqua, Beecher. 

Tropidocaris bicarinata, in 

' terrupta, et  alternata, 
Beecher. ; 

Echinocaris Wrightiana, Daw- 
son 


elytroides, Meek. 


. 


% 


ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALHOZOIC ROCKS. 327 


Llandovery stage ;! in fact, all the British Silurian forms of Discinocaris 
come from the same general horizon—the Llandovery (Birkhill series).’ 
(3) ‘ Aptychopsis Wilsoni (p. 89) occurs in the Wenlock stage (Riccarton 
Beds).’ (4) ‘ Aptychopsis glabra (pp. 91 and 92) is from the Middle 
Silurian Buckholm Beds of the Gala Group, Meigle, Galashiels, Selkirk- 
shire. Its horizon in Tipperary may be Middle, rather than Lower, 
Silurian.’ (5) ‘ Peltocaris aptychoides (p. 93) from Duff-Kinnel belongs 
to the Llandovery stage (Birkhill Shales).’ (6) ‘ Peltocaris sp. (p. 94) 
occurs at Whitehope (not Wasthope) Burn, in the Birkhill series.’ With 
the exception of Peltocaris Harknessi, all the forms of Aptychopsis and 
Peltocaris known to Professor Lapworth are of either Llandovery or 

Lower- Wenlock age. 

2. Caryocaris Marrii. Another specimen has been observed in the 
British Museum, No. ‘42162.’ See First Report, ‘ Brit. Assoc. Report 
for 1883,’ p. 222. 

3. Linyulocaris siliquiformis. First Report, 1883, p. 223, lines 13 and 
14 from the bottom, read Schistose Bala rock, and collected by J. P., 
March 14, 1868. A fragment (from Garth) has been also noted in the 
Museum of Practical Geology, 1v 2, ‘Catal. Cambr. Sil. Foss. M.P.G.’ 
1878, p. 15. We find also another specimen of Lingulocaris lingulcecomes 
(from Garth) in the British Museum, No. ‘48001.’ See First Report, 
1883, p. 223. 

4, A form near Solenocaris, Meek, is in the Mus. Pract. Geol. x 34, 
*Catal. Cambr. Sil. Foss.’ 1878, p. 142. From Freshwater-East, Pem- 
brokeshire, north side; Ludlow Beds. 

5. Orthotonella? Fuberi, E. O. Ulrich, ‘Journ. Cincinnati Soc. Nat. 
Hist.’ vol. v. (1882 ?), p. 117, pl. 5, figs. 7, 7a, 7b, has a Phyllopodiform 
aspect, somewhat like that of Meek’s Solenocaris, and we therefore asked 
Mr. Ulrich to look at it again; and he obligingly replics that it may pos- 
sibly be one of these bivalved crustaceans. 

6. Solenocaris solenoides, Young, 1869, alluded to in our First Report, 
* Brit. Assoc. Report’ for 1883, pp. 217 and 223, as a conchiferoidal 
Phyllopod, has been further studied, good specimens having been kindly 
supplied by Mrs. Gray, of Edinburgh. It is carefully described and 
figured in the ‘ Geol. Mag.’ for August 1885, p. 356, pl. 1x, fig. 11; and, 
proving not to be a Phyllopod, is referred to Helminthochiton as H. sole- 
noides (Young); and another species ‘of the same genus has been found 
by Mrs. Gray at Thraive, near Girvan, and has been described with the 
former as H.Grayice, H. Woodward, figs. 7-10. The little ‘ oblong, obliquely 
ridged, and concentrically marked ’ bodies are moieties of the dorsal plates 
of Helminthochiton. A nearly perfect series of whole plates found by 
Mrs. Gray at Thraive, near Girvan, is figured and described in Dr. 
Woodward’s memoir. 

7. With reference to Goniatites having Aptychi or Anaptychi, and as 
to some of the so-called Phyllopodous shields being really such parts of 
Goniatites,? we have to state that, in confirmation of Herr Kayser’s 
discovery of a‘ Spathiocaris ’ in the body-chamber of a Devonian Goniatite, 
we have now seen some similar examples from Bicken; and that we 
believe some of the so-called Phyllopodous shields which come from 


} We notice that in the Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. xxxvi. 1880, p. 617, Mr. Marr 
States that Herr Dusl has three specimens of Discinocaris Browniana from the 
Strata of ‘Colonie Haidinger,’ in Bohemia (= Stage E e 1, according to Mr. Marr). 

? See the Second Report, 1884, p. 76. 


Goniatitiferous Devonian strata will have to be referred to Gonzatites. 


Thus we must look with some doubt on the following Devonian forms :— 


328 REPORT—1885. 
if 


Discinocaris dubia (Roemer) ‘ : . See Second Report, 1884, p. 79. 
NA lata (Woodward) . : E 6 Fs “i 
3 congener (Clarke) . J ; s p. 80. 
Spathiocaris Emersonii, Clarke . ‘ : 4 i “9 
a wungulina, Clarke. , F 33 5, p. 81. 
Pholadocaris Leeii, Woodward 
5 sp. } ” ” p. 82. 
Ellipsocaris Denalquei, Woodward 
( ps } é K, FA p. 83. 
Cardiocaris Roemeri, Woodward 
Pr bipartita, Woodward | 84 
s Veneris, Woodward m 72 Poon 
me Koeneni (Clarke) 
Dipterocaris pes-cerve, Clarke i 
fe vetusta (D’Arch. and De Vern.) 5 a p. 85. 
- procne, Clarke 5 


These, then, require further investigation ; but as numerous undoubted 
Phyllopoda, having structural features allied to those of the foregoing 
genera and species, occur in the Silurian strata that do not yield 
Goniatites, and as some even of the genera enumerated above are not 
always associated with Goniatites, there is no reason why members of the 
group should not occur even in Goniatitiferous strata. Thus some of the 
foregoing species may have no relationship with the Cephalopods among 
which they have been buried, but were lineal descendants of Silurian 
forms. 

In his paper in the ‘Neues Jahrbuch,’ &c., 1884, Band i. p. 275, &e., 
‘On the Phyllopod-nature of Spathiocaris, Aptychopsis, and similar 
bodies,’ met with in strata of Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous ages 
in Europe and North America, and described by M‘Coy, Salter, Barrande, 
Meek, Hall, Clarke, ourselves, and others, after an elaborate criticism of 
the subject, Herr W. Dames concludes :— 

1.—That some of the bodies in question are the Aptychi of Goniatites. 

2.—That for others, this explanation is, according to our present 
knowledge, inadmissible. 

3.—That the last are, however, in no case Phyllopods. 

1.—As intimated above, we accept the first conclusion. The British 
Museum lately obtained several specimens of these Aptychus-like bodies,! 
from the black limestone of Bicken; and Mr. Robert Etheridge, jun., 
discovered among them a specimen of a small Goniatites intumescens with 


an imperfect Aptychus in situ in its mouth-aperture. This Aptychus seems. 


to agree most nearly in form with the so-called ‘Cardiocaris lata,’ from 
Budesheim in the Hifel,? also observed by Mr. J. M. Clarke at Bicken.? 
The other specimens of Aptychus-like bodies, not in situ, but from the 
same black Devonian limestone, agree very closely with Mr. Clarke’s 
Spathiocaris Koeneni,* also from Bicken. 


? We have also seen a specimen of Aptychus sent to Mr. John Edward Lee, of 
Torquay, by Professor Ferd. Roemer, of Breslau, and labelled ‘ Aptychopsis, sp.= 
operculum of Goniatites intwmescens, Upper Devonian, Bicken, near Herborn, Nassau,’ 
in Dr. Roemer’s own handwriting. Some of these specimens have been figured in 
the ‘Geol. Mag.’ dee. 3, vol. ii. pl. ix. figs. 1-6, in illustration of a paper (pp. 345-352) 
treating of this subject in full, and of the relationship of the fossil Phyllopods under 
notice to Nebalia. 

* See ‘Geol. Mag.’ 1882, dec. 2, vol. ix. p. 388, pl. ix. fig. 13. 

$ «Neues Jahrb.’ &c. 1884, vol. i. p. 181, pl. iv. fig. 2. 4 Tbid. fig. 1. 


“a 


ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALMOZOIC ROCKS. ane 


_ 2.—Even after all those forms of supposed Phyllopod shields which 
occur in beds in which Goniatites have been found shall have been re- 
examined, we feel convinced, with Herr Dames, ‘that for others, this 
explanation is, according to our present knowledge, inadmissible.’ 

The First and Second Reports drawn up by ourselves! on the Puyt- 
LoropA fully confirm Herr Dames’ own conclusion that all the simple 
dise-like or bivalved shields met with in the older rocks cannot be 
regarded as the opercula of Cephalopods. There are indeed many special 
characters about these Paleozoic Phyllopod shields that will require to be 
carefully examined before they can all be referred to Goniatites. We 

_ would draw attention to the varied form of the notch; the absence in 
some, and the presence in others, of the dorsal suture; the presence in 
different genera of the rostral portion of the shield in the circular and 
oval forms, and the possible existence in some of a hinder trigonal shield- 
| piece (Pholadocaris, Dipterocaris) ; the shape of the shield itself; the 
ornamentation ; and, lastly, the substance composing it. Usually it is 
possible to discern the difference in character between Crustacean and 
- Molluscan structures, as also between these and obscure Ichthyic frag- 
ments. 
We note the following assertion in reference to the body-rings of 
_ Diseinocaris: ‘ Hven if the structures observed are really body-rings, no 
_ stronger proof against their phyllopod nature could be brought forward; 
for the body-rings, as well as all the other parts of the Phyllopod (except 
_ the shell), are too tender and fragile to remain recognizable in beds of such 
_ great age.’? (Dames, op. cit.) 

In the presence of the long array of Insect-remains, of the most deli- 

eate and fragile characters, discovered in the Devonian and Carboniferous 

formations of North America, France, England, and elsewhere, this 
argument against the possibility of delicate organisms being preserved 
falls to the ground; whilst the relative thickness and durability of the 
calcareous or chitinous covering of the body-segments in these ancient 
Crustacea afford no proof for or against their Phyllopod nature, any more 
than does their relatively greater size when contrasted with existing 
Entomostraca. Moreover body-rings of Ceratiocaris are by no means rare 
in some Silurian strata. 

3.—In the third conclusion, ‘ that even those forms which cannot 

be referred to Aptychi of Cephalopods, are in no case the shields of 
Phyllopods,’ Herr Dames is simply stating a matter of opinion; for of 
_ their exact nature and true zoological position Claus himself (to whom 
he seems to refer) is not at all positive, whilst Dames admits that he has 
not examined the original specimens. 
_ We have long held the opinion that the expanded disc-like shields, 
such as Peltocaris, Discinocaris, Aptychopsis, and some others, were pro- 


_ 1 Also ‘ Geol. Mag.’ 1883, dec. 2. vol. x. pp. 461-464; and 1884, dec. 3, vol. i. 
‘Pp. 348-356. 

_ * Professor A. von Koenen, replying to Herr Dames, on behalf of Mr. J. M. Clarke, 
very justly observes, ‘I cannot see that this at all meets the argument, since the 
relative age of strata is of little influence on the preservation of fossils; on the other 
hand, there are plenty of examples in which fossil animals have been furnished with 
hard, horny, and even calcareous parts which are wanting in their nearest recent 

analogues. I will only recall here Aptychus and Anaptychus’ (‘N. Jahrbuch,’ &c. 

1884, Bd. ii. p. 45). The recent Nautilus has a fleshy hood ; the fossil Ammonite had 
usually a hard calcareous operculwm, but in some Liassic forms the operculum was 

iY 


330 REPORT— 1885. 


bably related ancestrally to the larval or adult forms of Phyllopods like 
Apus, Lepidurus, &c. whilst the relationship between the living Nebalia 
and the numerous genera of Palozoic Pod-shrimps does not necessarily — 
preclude us from considering these forms as still belonging to the Enro- 
mosTRACA, although placed in Packard’s order PHYLLOCARIDA. 

As to the question of ornamentation, upon which Herr Dames insists 
so strongly, the concentric striz, marking lines of growth, appear to 
correspond most closely in character and origin with the similar decora- 
tion observable on the valves of Hstheria, Limnadia, &c. so that their 
absence upon the carapaces of Apws and Nebalia does not necessarily 
prove that shields so ornamented cannot be deemed to belong to Crustacea 
or even to the PHy.Lopopa; whilst many of the carapaces of the fossil 
genera, e.g. Dithyrocaris, Ceratiocaris, &c. have either concentric or 
anastomosing striz covering the entire surface of their carapaces ; yet 
Herr Dames has evidently no doubt that these forms are related to Nebalia, 
which has a smooth carapace destitute of ornamentation. 

He reminds us that Claus and Gerstaeker are of opinion that Nebalia 
is not a Phyllopod. Because Nebalia during its embryonal life (whilst 
still in the egg) passes through the ‘ Nauplius-’ and ‘ Zoéa-stages,’ which 
in Decapods occur partly in the free state, it has been regarded by some 
as a ‘ Phyllopodiform-Decapod.’ The potentiality of a form to attain to a 
higher existence seems to be here mistaken for actwality. Since it’never 
attains a higher development as an adult than that of a Phyllopod, and 
has no retrograde metamorphosis, may we not with as equal reason regard 
Nebalia as a highly-organised Phyllopod, as to assert that it is a Decapod 
arrested at the Phyllopod stage ? 

All who have studied the PuyLiopopa have been struck by the peculiar 
points of special interest to be observed in Nebalia.' 

Milne-Edwards, in his ‘ Histoire Naturelle des Crustacés’ (1840), 
places Nebalia in the family Apuside among the Phyllopods; at the same 
time he remarks, ‘The Nebalie are very singular little crustaceans, 
which, by reason of their stalked eyes? and their carapace, approach the 
PopopuHTHALMi4; ,they do not, however, possess branchiw, properly so 
called, but they respire by the aid of their thoracic feet, which are 
developed into membranaceous and foliaceous appendages. They resemble 
in many respects, and establish a passage between Mysis and Apus.’ 

Baird (1850) founded the family Nebaliade, and regarded Nebalia as 
a Phyllopod. 

Prof. J. D. Dana (1853), in his great work on the Crustacea, retained 
the family name (Nebaliadw), which he placed in the PuynLopopa. 

Metschnikoff in 1865 published an abstract of his account of the 
development of Nebalia Geoffroyi, and in 1868 the full essay in the 
Russian language. Fritz Miiller, in his‘ Fiir Darwin,’ states that Metsch- 
nikoff has observed ‘that Nebalia, during its embryonal life, passes 
through the Nauplius- and Zoéa-stages, which in the Decapoda occur 


1 For a very full account of Nebalia see the twelfth Annual Report of the United 
States Geological Survey, Part I. Geology, Paleontology, and Zoology, 8yo, 1883 
(Washington), ‘A Monograph of the Phyllopod Crustacea of North America, with 
remarks on the order Phyllocarida,’ by A. S. Packard, jun., pp. 295-592, and plates 
i-xxxix. See also the American Naturalist for October, November, and December, 
1882, vol. xvi. pp. 785, 861, 945. 

2 Pedunculated eyes are also present in Branchipus and Artemia, so that the 
stalked eyes of Webalia can scarcely be regarded as an essentially distinctive character- 


‘. 


a 
“ 


ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALAOZOIC ROCKS. 331 


partly (in Penews) in the free state.’ ‘ Therefore,’ he adds, ‘I regard 
Nebulia as a Phyllopodiform Decapod.’ 

In 1872 Claus gave an account, with excellent figures, of the external 
anatomy of Nebalia Geoffroyi, and in 1876 he described the internal 
anatomy. 

In 1875 in the account of the Atlantic Crustacea of the ‘Chal- 
lenger’ Expedition, Willemoes-Suhm placed the Nebaliade among the 


_ Schizopoda. 


In 1879 Dr. A. 8. Packard, jun., in the ‘ American Naturalist,’ 


yol. xiii. p. 128, proposed that Nebalia and its fossil allies should be 


placed in a new order, which he proposed to name the PHYLLOCARIDA. 
Dr. Packard writes :— 

‘The Nebaliade, represented by the existing genus Nebalia, have 
generally been considered to form a family of Phyllopod Crustacea. 


-Metschnikoff, who studied the embryology of Nebalia, considered it to be 
a‘ Phyllopodiform Decapod.”” Besides the resemblance to the Decapods, 


there is also a combination of Copepod and Phyllopod characteristics. 
The type is an instance of a generalised one, and is of high antiquity, 
haying been ushered in during the earliest Silurian period, when there: 
were (when we regard the relative size of most Crustacea, and especially 
of living Nebalic) gigantic forms. Such was Dithyrocaris, which must: 
have been over a foot long, the carapace being seven inches iong. The 
modern Nebalia is small, about half an inch in length, with the body com- 
pressed, the carapace bivalved as in Limnadia, one of the genuine Phyllo- 


pods. There is a large rostrum overhanging the head; stalked eyes; 


and, besides two pairs of antenne and mouth-parts, eight pairs of leaf- 
like, short, respiratory feet, which are succeeded by swimming-feet.. 
There is no metamorphosis, development being direct. 

‘Of the fossil forms, Hymenocaris was regarded by Salter as “ the 
More generalised type.”” The genera Peltocaris and Discinocaris charac- 
terise the Lower-Silurian period, Ceratiocaris the Upper, Dictyocaris the 
Upper-Silurian and the lowest Devonian strata, Dithyrocaris and Argas 
i Carboniferous period. Our existing north-eastern species is Nebalia 
bipes (Fabricius), which occurs from Maine to Greenland. 

_ ‘*The Nebaliads were the forerunners of the Decapopa, and form, we 
believe, the type of a distinct order of Crustacea, for which the name 
Puyxiocaripa is proposed.’ 

The order Payiuocaripa has been thus defined :— 

Puytiocartwa, Packard (1879). Body long, with five cephalic, eight. 
thoracic, and eight abdominal segments, with a thin or chitinous skin, 


Nae covered with a bivalved shell having a movable rostrum. 


ler 


es pedunculated and faceted. Upon the under side of the head are 
two pairs of antenne ; the mandibles and two pairs of maxille furnished 
with palpi. The body-segments are compressed, they support eight pairs 
of large Phyllopodiform thoracic feet. The abdomen composed of eight 
rge segments,' provided with six pairs of simple swimming-feet fringed 
with setge, of which the four anterior pairs are the largest, and the two 
posterior pairs are very small. The abdomen terminates in setaceous 
laments, or in a telson divided into three or more parts. (Zittel, 
“Handbuch der Paliontologie,’ Munich, 1885.) 


__ } The abdomen is nine-jointed, unless the last somite be considered as the telson 
(it is post-anal). It is a long and slender segment, and bears two very long narrow 
Setigerous cercopods, closely resembling those of the Copepoda. 


332 REPORT—1885. 


In 1880 Professor Claus, ‘ Lehrbuch der Zoologie,’ writes, ‘This re- 
markable form (Nebalia) was for a long time regarded as a Phyllopod, 
and in many of its characters it represents a connecting link between the 
Puytbopopa and the Maracosrraca. The structure and segmentation of 
the head and thorax resembles that of the Malacostraca, but the terminal 
region of the abdomen does not present the special form of a caudal plate 
or telson. In Nebalia we probably have to do with an offshoot of the 
Phyllopod-like ancestors of the Matacosrraca, which has persisted to the 
present time.’ He adds, ‘ Nebalia is best placed in a special group 
Lerrostraca, between the Enromostraca and Mauacostraca. The Paleo- 
zoic genera Hymenocaris, Peltocaris, &c. would have to be placed in such 
a group.’ } 

‘It is,’ writes Professor Claus, ‘in the highest degree probable that 
all these’ (Palseozoic PHytLocaripa) ‘are not true Phyllopods, but have 
belonged to a type of Crustacea, of which now there are no living 
representatives, but which, taking their origin from forms allied to the 
lower types of Entomostraca, have prepared the way for the Malaco- 
stracan type. Such a connecting link, which has served to the present 
day, we evidently find in the genas Nebalia.’ ? 

In his ‘ Handbuch der Paliontologie,’ Munich, 1885, Professor Dr. K. 
A. Zittel adopts Packard’s order Puyniocartpa, but places it under the 
Matacostraca, and between the EprRIi0PHTHALMIA and the Mrrostomata. 

In his article on the Paleozoic allies of Nebalia, Dr. A. S. Packard, jun., 
thus sums up the Payiiocaripa: ‘ From our total lack of any knowledge 
of the nature of the limbs of the fossil PuyLtocarrpa, we have to be guided 
solely by analogy, often an uncertain and delusive guide. But in the 
absence of any evidence to the contrary, there is every reason to suppose 
that the appendages of the head, thorax, and abdomen were on the type 
of Nebalia, since there is such a close correspondence in the form of the 
carapace, rostrum, and abdomen. But whatever may be the differences 
between the fossil forms represented by Ceratiocaris, &c., they certainly 
seem to approach Nebalia much nearer than any other known type of 
Crustacea; they do not belong to the Dscaropa; they present a vague 
and general resemblance to the zoéa or larva of the Decapods, but no zoéa 
has a telson, though one is developed in a postzoéal stage; they do not 
belong to any other Malacostracous type, nor do they belong to any exist- 
ing Entomostracous type, using those terms in the old sense. No 
naturalist or paleontologist has referred them with certainty to the 
Decapods or to any other Crustacean type than the Phyllopods. To this 
type (in the opinion of Metschnikoff and Claus, who have studied them 
most closely) they certainly do not belong, and thus reasoning by ex- 
lusion they either belong to the group of which Nebalia is a type, or they 
are members of a lost, extinct group. The natural conclusion, in the light 
of our present knowledge, is that they are members of the group repre- 
sented by the existing Nebalia.’ ‘The differential characters separating 
them from the Decapods or any other Malacostracous type are— 

1. The loosely-attached carapace, the two halves connected by an 
adductor muscle. 


Claus, translated by Sedgwick (Cambridge), p. 448 (footnote), 8vo, 1884. The 
Leptostraca (Claus) are thus defined: ‘ Crustacea with thin, folded carapaces, mostly 
bivalved, under which all the thoracic rings remain as free segments’ (Zittel, 
“ Handb. Paliontol.’ 1885, p. 655). 

? Claus in Siebold and Kolliker’s ‘ Zeitschrift,’ xxii. 1872, p. 329. 


weet ot 


ll 7 
; ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALOZOIC ROCKS. 333. 


2. The movable rostrum, loosely attached to the carapace. 

3. The very long and large mandibular palpus; the long slender 
appendage of the first maxilla, and the very long bi-ramous maxille. 

4, The absence of any maxillipeds. 

5. The eight pairs of pseudo-phyllopod thoracic feet, not adapted for 
walking. 

[To these we would add—Sa. The “telson”’ long and slender, with 
two long narrow setigerous cercopods as in the Copepoda. | 

6. The animal swimming on its back. 

7. No zoéa-formed larva. 

The characters which separate it from the Phyllopods are— 

1, Carapace not hinged; a rostrum present. 

2. Two pairs of well-developed long and large multiarticulate antenne ; 
the hinder pair, in the male, longer than the first pair. 

3. The thorax and its appendages clearly differentiated from the 
abdomen.’ ! 

Nebalia has been so long regarded as the surviving representative of 
those more ancient and gigantic forms of PHyLLocaripa, which existed in 
such numbers in the Cambrian and Silurian Seas, and became nearly 
extinct towards the close of the Carboniferous epoch, that any decision 
affecting its zoological position cannot be a matter of indifference to the 
paleontologist. 

But after studying its larval development and adult structural modifi- 
cations, we arrive at the fact that Nebalia is a more generalised type than 
is ordinarily to be found at the present day, ‘ combining Copepod, Phyllo- 
pod, and Decapod-like features, with other more fundamental characters 
of its own’ (Packard), which preclude us from regarding it as a true 
Malacostracan, and, although ancestrally related to that order, it never- 
theless does not attain, in our opinion, to the Malacostracan grade of 
development. They should therefore be arranged in a distinct order 
(the Puytuocaripa) between the Eyromosrraca and the MALAcosTRAca, as 
suggested by Claus. But if it is undesirable to have such an outstanding 
group, then we contend that the balance turns in favour of retaining it in 
the former division, if not in the order PHytiopopa as heretofore. 

Thus we conclude :— 

1. Some of the supposed ‘ Phyllopod shields’ from Budesheim and 
Bicken are probably Aptychi of Goniatites. 

2. That for others of the Palzozoic Phyllopods, described in the 
Reports of 1883-84, this explanation is inadmissible. 

3. That those which cannot be referred to Apftychi are still, in all pro- 
bability, Phyllopods. 

4, That the Nebalia-like forms, now placed in the order PHyuuo- 
CARIDA, are certainly not Decapods. And even if they may not with 
propriety be retained any longer in the old order Puy3iopopa (of which 
we are by no means sure), yet they may more correctly be placed beside 


» American Naturalist, 1882, vol. xvi. p. 951; and Monograph N. Amer. Phyllo- 
pods, &c, 1883, pp. 447-8. 

2 Dr. Packard writes, ‘ There is little to indicate that the Schizopods (ysis, &c.) 
have descended from a Webalia-like form, but rather from some accelerated zoéa 
form ; while the Phyllocarida have had no Decapod-blood in them, so to say, but have 
descended by a separate line from Copepod-like ancestors, and culminated, and even 
began to disappear, before any Malacostraca, at least in any numbers, appeared.” 
American Naturalist, 1882, vol. xvi. p. 873. 


334 REPORT—1 885. 


‘them in the Enromosrraca than in the MaLacosrraca, seeing they have 
not actually attained to the grade of the latter, but only approached to its 
larval development; whilst to the former the adult Nebalia has many 
very strong points of affinity. 

TI. Cerariocartp#.—Dr. Packard’s observations on the structure 
-of the Phyllopods, and his studies of the comparative anatomy of living 
and fossil forms, supply the paleontologist with sound reasoning in re- 
ferring the Phyllocarida to the Nebaliad type as a centre for a creat 
group of obscure fossil forms, and as a starting-point for the Decapoda. 
‘We have referred to his views in some detail in the foregoing pages. 


Order. Puytiocaripa, Packard. 
Genus Curatrocaris, M‘Coy. 


The generic characters of Ceratiocaris have been described by M‘Coy, 
‘Salter, H. Woodward, and Barrande in their several works and memoirs 
referred to in the sequel. James Hall, R. P. Whitfield, A. S. Packard, 
J.™M. Clarke, Fr. Schmidt, C. E. Beecher, O. Novak, and others have 
added much information, general and special, on this and allied genera. 
The appended synonymy of the genus supplies full references to published 
notices on Ceratiocaris and some of its allies. 

We offer the following diagnosis of Ceratiocaris. Carapace bivalved, 
probably with membranous attachment, no distinct hinge-joints being 
observable ; valves subovate, semiovate, subquadrate, or trapezoidal ; con- 
tracted in front with the end shar» or rounded above the median line 
of the valve; more or less truncate behind. Rostrum elliptical in shape, 
of a single lanceolate piece, chevron-marked. Antenne (?) obscure. 
Teeth often apparent. Body many-jointed, with fourteen or more seg- 
ments, of which 4-7 extend beyond the carapace, ornamented with deli- 
cate raised lines. Some or all of these segments bore small lamelliform 
branchial appendages.! Last segment, the longest, supporting three 
caudal spines, namely: (1), a strong tapering telson (style), thick at the 
top or proximal end, with its three-knobbed articulating surface (resem- 
bling that in the telson of Limulus), pointed at the other, and more or 
less spinose, as shown by the bases of little prickles; and (2), two 
shorter, simpler, lateral appendages (stylets), The surface of the valves 
has a lineate ornament, and the ventral margin has a thin raised rim. 

Respecting the abdominal appendages which Mr. R. Etheridge, jun., 
described in Appendix III. of the ‘Memoirs Geol. Survey Scotland : 
Explanation of Sheet 23,’ 1873, p. 93, he there remarks :—‘ A further 
advance in the structure of this genus of Crustacea has been satis- 
factorily established from specimens obtained at Lesmahagow by the 
Collector of the Geological Survey, viz. the presence of respiratory 
locomotive appendages. On a slab of thin-bedded shale are exposed the 
abdominal segments, telson, and caudal appendages of a Ceratiocaris. 
From the ventral margin of the terminal segment, to which are attached 
the telson-spines (Leptocheles, M‘Coy), proceeds a broad, paddle-shaped, 
membranous (?) expansion, presenting a strong marginal outline, 
with a transversely striated surface. This is followed by another similar 
appendage, proceeding in the same manner from the penultimate serment 
(somite). Along the dorsal margin there is seen what appears to be the 


1 See the ‘Sixth Report on Fossil Crustacea,’ Brit, Assoc. Report for 1872, p. 
323. ; 


e 
‘ 


7. 
* y 
f 


ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALOZOIC ROCKS. 335 


yemains of one of the corresponding “ foot-gills,” on the other side, bent 
back upon itself, and thus thrust out of place. The free ends of these 
foot-gills are attenuated to more or less rounded points. They do not 
show any evidence of having possessed a marginal fringe. The discovery 
of these branchial locomotive appendages tends to ally Ceratiocaris still 
further with the genus Nebalia. See ‘“ Geol. Mag.” vol. ix. p. 564. 
Toc.: No. 292 (Linburn or Linn Burn, about two miles N. of Muirkirk, 
Lanarkshire). In thin-bedded shale (Upper Ludlow). Collected by A. 
Macconochie.’ Mr. R. Etheridge, jun., again alludes to this interesting 
subject in the ‘ Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist.’ ser. 4, vol. xiv. 1874, p. 9. 


Crratiocaris, M‘Coy, 1849. 


1839. Onchus, Agassiz (in part). In Murchison’s ‘ Silurian System,’ p. 607. 
1848. Onchus, Phillips (in part). ‘Mem. Geol. Surv.’ vol. ii. part 1, p. 226. 
1849. Pterygotus, M‘Coy. ‘Ann. Mag. N. H.’ ser. 2, vol. iv. p. 394. 
1849. Ceratiocaris, M‘Coy. ‘Ann. Mag. N. H.’ ser. 2, vol. iv. p. 412. 
1851. Pterygotus, M‘Coy. ‘Brit. Paleeoz. Fossils,’ fase. 1, p. 175. 
(1851. Leptocheles, M‘Coy. ‘Brit. Paleeoz. Foss.’ fase. 1, p. 176. 
1851. Ceratiocaris, M‘Coy. ‘ Brit. Palzeoz. Foss.’ fase. 1, p. 136. 
1851. Pterygotus (Leptocheles), Bronn. ‘Lethza Geognost.’ vol. i. part 1, p. 40. 
1852. Onchus, James Hall. ‘ Geol. Surv. New York, Palzontology,’ vol. ii. p. 320. 
1852. Ceratiocaris, Bronn. ‘Leth. Geogn.’ vol. i. part 2, p. 539. 
1853. Dithyrocaris, Geinitz. ‘Verst. Grauwack. Sachsen,’ Heft II. p. 23. 
1853. Leptocheles, M‘Coy. ‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ vol. ix. p. 13. 
1853. Ceratiocaris (Leptocheles), Barrande. ‘Neues Jahrb. fiir Min.’ &c. 1853, Heft 
7 III. p. 342. , 
1853. Re grodaris ?, D. Sharpe. ‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ vol. ix. p. 158. 
854. Ceratiocaris et Leptovheles, Murchison. ‘ Siluria,’ 1st edit. p. 236. 
1854. Ceratiocaris, Morris. ‘ Catal. Brit. Foss,’ 2nd edit. p. 102. 
1856. Ceratiocaris, Salter. ‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ vol. xii. p. 33. 
1859. Ceratiocaris, J. Hall. ‘ Geol. Surv. New York, Paleontology,’ vol. iii. p. 420. 
1859. Ceratiocaris, Salter. In Murchison’s ‘Siluria,’ 2nd edit. (3rd including ‘Sil. 
Syst.’), pp. 262, 538. 
1860. Ceratiocaris, Salter. ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ ser. 3, vol. v. p. 158. 
1863. Ceratiocaris, James Hall. ‘Sixteenth Ann. Rep. of the Regents,’ &c. p. 72, 
° pl. 1. 
1865. Ceratiocaris, H. Woodward and J. W. Salter. Cat. and Chart of Foss. Crustacea. 
1865. Ceratiocaris, H. Woodward. ‘Geol. Mag.’ vol. ii. p. 401. 
1865. Ceratioraris, Huxley and Etheridge. ‘Catal. Foss. Mus. Pract. Geol.’ p. 79. 
1866. Ceratiocaris, H. Woodward. ‘Geol. Mag.’ vol. iii. p. 203. 
1866. Ceratiocaris, Salter. ‘Mem. Geol. Surv.’ vol. iii. p. 294. 
1867. Ceratiocaris, Salter. In Murchison’s ‘Siluria,’ 3rd edit. (4th including ‘Sil. 
Syst.’) pp. 236 and 516. 
1868. Ceratiocaris, Bigsby. ‘Thesaur. Silur.’ p. 73. 
‘1871. Veratiocaris, H. Woodward. ‘Geol. Mag.’ vol. viii. p. 104. 
1872. Ceratiocuris, H. Woodward. ‘Geol. Mag.’ vol. ix. p. 564; and < Report Brit. 
b Assoc.’ for 1872, p. 323. 
1872. Ceratiocaris, Barrande. ‘Syst. Sil. Bohéme,’ vol. i. Suppl. p. 437. 
1873. Ceratiocaris, Salter. ‘Catal. Cambr. Sil. Foss. Woodw. Mus.’ p. L177 
1873. Ceratiocaris, R. Etheridge, jun. ‘Mem. Geol. Surv. Scotl. Expl. Map 23,’ 
p. 93. 
1873. Ceratiocaris, Marschall. Nomenclator Zoologicus,’ p. 404. 
1874. Ceratiocaris, R. Etheridge, jun. ‘Ann. Mag. N. H.’ ser. 4, vol. xiv. p. 9. 
1876. Ceratiocaris, Ferd. Roemer. ‘ Lethea geognost.’ Theil i. ‘Leth. palzeozoica,’ 
Expl. pl. 19. 
1877. Ceratiocaris, H. Woodward: ‘Catal. Brit. Foss. Crust.’ p. 70. 
1877. Ceratiocaris, Miller. ‘ Catal. Paleoz. Foss. America,’ p. 213. 
1878. Ceratiocaris, Huxley & Etheridge. ‘Catal. Foss. Mus. Pract. Geol.’ p. 84. 
1878. Ceratiocaris, Bigsby. ‘Thes. Devonico-Carbonit.’ pp. 26, 246, and 247. 
1878. Ceratiocaris, Young. ‘ Proceed. R. Phys. Soc. Edinb.’ vol. iy. p- 168. 
1880. Ceratiocaris, Whittield, ‘ Amer. Journ. Sci.’ ser. 3, vol. xix. pied. 


336 REPORT—1885. 


1882. Ceratiocaris, B. N. Peach. ‘Trans. R. Soc. Edinb.’ vol. xxx. part 1, p. 73. « 

1883. Ceratiocaris, A. S. Packard, jun. ‘Monogr. North-Amer. Phyllop. Crust.’ : 
‘Twelfth Ann. Rep. U. 8. Geol, and Geograph. Survey,’ p. 450. ; 

1884. Ceratiocaris, C. E. Beecher. cs Enea Upper-Devon. Measures’; ‘ Second’ 
Geol. Surv. Penns. P.P.P.’ p. 2 

1885. Ceratiocaris, O. Novak. ‘§ Sitzungsb. k. béhm. Gesellsch. Wissensch.’ 

1883. Ceratiocaris, H. W.and T. R. J. * Report Brit. Assoc.’ for 1883, p. 217, 

1884. Ceratiocaris, T. R.J.and H.W. ‘Geol, Mag.’ Dec. 3, vol. i. p. 396. 


A. British Species. 


1, Ceratiocaris Murcutsoni (Agassiz), and its variety LEPTODACTYLUS 
(M‘Coy). 

Some imperfect caudal appendages or spines (telson or style, and 
lateral spines or stylets), from the Uppermost Ludlow strata, near 
Ludlow, were figured in Murchison’s ‘ Silurian System,’ in 1839, as fish- 
defences. These were recognised by Prof. F. M‘Coy in 1853 as being 
very similar to some analogous fossils, referred by him at first (in 1849) 
to a slender-clawed kind of Pterygotus from the Lower Ludlow, at 
Leintwardine, near Ludlow, which he separated from that genus as 
Leptocheles leptodactylus. M‘Coy suggested that Murchison’s fossil 
should be known as L. Murchisoni.! 

In each case we have only caudal spines to deal with; but M‘Coy’s 
specimens (‘ Brit. Pal. Foss.’ pl. 1 E, figs. 7, 7a, 7b) are much more slender 
than Murchison’s (‘Sil. Syst.’ pl. 4, figs. 10 and 64, and ‘ Siluria,’ pl. 19, 
figs. 1, 2), and less strongly ribbed ; and therein they seem at first sight 
to have specific differences. 

Several good examples of more or less perfect sets of the three caudal 
spines corresponding in size, strength, and ribbing with Murchison’s 
fossils have been met with. These show evidence of lines of prickles (by 
the presence of little pits, representing their bases, along one or more 
lines); and on close examination the engravings in the ‘ Sil. Syst.’ and 
‘ Siluria’ (the specimens have been lost) show some slight indications 
of this spinose ornament. This is not visible, however, in M‘Coy’s 
figures or specimens (Cambridge Museum, a /925, a/924). Of these latter, 
more delicate, caudal appendages, very few other examples occur. R 

In the collocation of these caudal appendages with their respective 
carapaces we have some doubt and difficulty. 

We have not found a carapace directly associated with any complete 
spines of either the Murchisuni or leptodactylus type except in the case of 
a very small specimen (M. P. G. x +), which appears to have the caudal 
appendages of C. Murchisoni and the carapace of Salter’s ‘ leptodactylus.” 
With regard to both, however, the late Mr. J. W. Salter satisfied himself 
that he knew their special carapaces, for he described them at p. 157 
of the ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ for March 1860: where also he refers both 
species to the Ceratiocaris of M‘Coy. Judging from his Latin diagnoses, 
he allocates to the former—‘ a cephalothorax (carapace) two inches long, 
oblong, convex, ornamented with interrupted, nearly-straight, wide-apart 
lines. The caudal appendages long, aie ania the central spine 

1 Prof. M‘Coy’s observations are as follows :-— . As before mentioned, figs. 9, 
10, and 11 [Si/. Syst. pl. 4; omit figs. 9 and 11], ‘veut the so-called Onchus 
Murchisoni, Ag., are almost identical in form, size, sculpturing, and all other — 
characters (as far as they are represented in these drawings), with the distinctly 
didactyle pincers which I have figured (Brit. Pal. Foss. pl. E, fig. 7) from Leintwar- — 
dine, under the name Lept. leptodactylus. . . . If this approximation prove correct, — 
the fossil should in future be called Leptocheles Murchisoni (Ag. sp.).—@Q. J. @. 8. 
vol. ix. 1853, p. 13, 


cyt 


ve 
- ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALZOZOIC ROCKS. 337 


(telson) strong, bulbous at its base, and with a strong dorsal rib; the 
side spines long. All ribbed. The whole animal medium-sized. Speci- 
“mens possessed by the geologists at Ludlow and by the Museum of 
Practical Geology.’ The carapace described here does not agree with 
any that we can associate with the caudal spines intended. Nor do we 
find at Ludlow exactly the kind of carapace required. 

ToC. leptodactylus Mr. Salter apportioned—‘ a cephalothorax long, tri- 
‘angular, acute in front, broad and rounded behind. Free abdominal 
‘g ements 7-8 in number, subquadrate, deeply impressed at the sides. 
“Caudal appendages long, striate; the central spine (telson) scarcely 
icker than the long lateral spines. Surface of the head (carapace) 
smooth, or marked with only very short sparse lines. Abdominal seg- 
ments strongly striate. The whole animal elongate and more than a foot 
long.’ One particular specimen in the Mus. Pract. Geol. is referred to by 
‘My. Salter at p. 158. We are at a loss here also in fitting the indicated 
(slender) appendages to the carapace described. We have examined this 
and other good specimens, labelled C. leptodactylus by Mr. Salter or at his 
direction, in which the carapace agrees with his description. One cara- 
pace is of large size, nearly perfect, about 125 mm. (5 inches) long, by 
Db) mm. at greatest height; M. P. G. x 4, ‘ Catal. Cambr. Sil. Foss.’ 1878, 
p. 142. A specimen nearly perfect, M. P. G. x + (‘ Catal.’ 1878, p. 142), 
60 mm. long by 28 mm., gives no certain indication of the length of its 
felson and its two stylets, for they are crushed off short. The abdomen 
posed is about 50 mm. In specimen D of the Ludlow Museum, which 
s the proximal portion only of the caudal spines preserved, and in 
imen B, with the appendages also broken off short, the telson was 
ribbed and pitted (—prickly), thereby differing from the spines known as 
C. leptodactylus (M‘Coy). 

__ There is also a well-preserved small specimen (M. P. G. x 4, ‘Catal.’ 
1878, p. 142), with its carapace measuring only 25 mm. in length and 
Tl mm. in height, from the Lower Ludlow of Bow Bridge, Ludlow. 
_ This is labelled ‘ C. leptodactylus,’ and belongs to the same species as the 
foregoing. Its caudal appendages are perfect, with the telson (25 mm.) 
about one-third of the length of the whole animal; but they differ from 
Moy’s C. leptodactylus, for they are not only ribbed or ridged, but the 
telson was prickly ; the laterals were probably rather more than half its 
fength. Specimen M. P. G. p 73, however, from Dudley, is a thin spini- 
form fragment, faintly striated, like C. leptodactylus. 

_ Altogether the telson (style) and stylets of these specimens have 
pa close resemblance to those known as C. Murchisoni (see above, 


p. 336). One example, from Dudley, described and figured as such by 
H. Woodward in the ‘ Geol. Mag.’ vol. iii. p. 204, pl. x. fig. 8 (stylets and 
the upper moiety of the style, 90 mm., even more than 5 inches long 
when perfect), was doubtlessly proportionate to the large carapace, 
M. P. G. x 1, above alluded to, as belonging to an animal more than 
12 inches long; the carapace, exposed segments, and the telson being 
each a third of the whole length. 

__ Other good specimens of these caudal appendages are :— 

__ Ludlow Museum, C. Lower Ludlow; Leintwardine.! Lower portion 
of the style and stylets, 180 mm. (51 inches). 


’ This is mounted with specimen D as one specimen; but the discrepancy between 
the two parts is readily seen. It is referred to in the Rev. J. D. La Touche’s ‘ Geol, 
Shropshire,’ &c. p. 77. 

1885. . Z 


338 REPORT—1885. 


Owens College Museum. From near Ludlow. Style and stylets, not 
perfect, 105 mm. 

M. P. G. 323, ‘ Catal.’ 1878, p. 118. Leintwardine. Style, 103 mm. 
This and a piece of a carapace associated are labelled ‘C. tyrannus, 
Salter.’ 

Mr. Morgan’s collection : Cwm-y-sul, near Welshpool (Wenlock Shale). 
Fragment of style, with stylets, 95 mm. 

Ludlow Museum, P. Lower Ludlow; Trippleton, near Leintwardine, 
Lower part of style and stylets, 80 mm. 

Oxford Mus. B, telson about 105 mm. (more than 4 inches); also C 
and D. The head or proximal end of the telson is marked with longi- 
tudinal wrinkly lines. From near Ludlow. 

Broken pieces :— 

Murchison’s, fig. 10, pl. 4, ‘Sil. Syst.’ (fig. 1, pl. 19, ‘ Siluria’), 
Upper Ludlow beds. One piece measures 92 mm., and more, if the piece 
lying at its end belonged to it. 

Woodward's fig. 9 (M.P.G. +7, ‘ Catal.’ p. 84), Casterton, Low Fell, 
Kirkby-Lonsdale ; Wenlock Shale. Fragments, 50 mm. 

Cambridge Museum, 0/7. Upper Ludlow beds; Benson Knot, 
Kendal. Fragment, 43 mm. 

M. P. G. x 34, ‘Catal.’ p. 142. Upper Ludlow; Benson Knot, 
Kendal. Fragments, 40 mm. 

Cambridge Museum (Marr Coll.). Upper Coldwell beds = Wenlock; 
’ south of Coldwell quarry, Windermere. Part of style and ends of 
stylets, 40 mm. 

Small fragments, smooth (? Murchison‘) ; straight and ribbed ; curved 
and ribbed (? Murchisoni); M.P.G. x 35, 34, as; from the Downton 
Sandstone; Kington, Herefordshire. 

Strongly ribbed and pitted (=spinose), British Museum; Bury 
Ditch, Salop; and Oxford Mus. D, Ludlow. 

Both in M‘Coy’s C. leptodactylus and OC. Murchisoni (the latter=Salter’s 
C. leptodactylus, in part, and his O. tyrannus and C. gigas) the last 
abdominal segment is striated with straight, somewhat inosculating, 
raised lines; and the other segments, where preserved, are similarly 
marked. A somewhat crushed specimen from Danefield, Kington, 
Herefordshire (Lower Ludlow), M. P. G. x 4 ‘Catal.’ p. 141, showing a — 
terminal segment with similar nearly straight, but wriggly, inosculating, 
thin riblets, and ridged and fluted caudal appendages, as far as preserved, 
has been labelled ‘ C. gigas’ by Salter; but this may well belong to the 
series here placed as C. Murchisoni; O leptodactylus being restricted to 
M‘Coy’s specimens and figs. 7, 7a, 7b, and a few other slender and simply 
striate forms. The carapace belonging to these is not yet known, It is 
quite possible that these rare and thinner styles and stylets may have — 
belonged to some variety of O. Murchisoni. In this case a separate specific 
name is not required for them, and they shouid be merged in C. Murchi- 
soni, as arranged in H. Woodward’s ‘ Catal. Brit. Foss. Crust,’ 1877, 
pow. 

There is little or no doubt that the figure given by Mr. Salter in the 
‘ Catal. Cambr. Silur. Fossils,’ 1873, pp. 16, 164, and 178, as illustrative 
of the genus, is O. Murchisoni, as here defined. The eye-spot, however, 
and the hinge-‘oints are, in our opinion, superfluous and not sub- 
stantiated. 


ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALHOZOIC ROCKS. 339 


The Synonyms of Crratiocaris Murcuisont (Agassiz), 1839 :— 


1839. Onchus Murchisoni, Agassiz in ‘ Silur. Syst.’ p. 607, pl. 4, fig. 10 (not figs. 9 and 

11); and Onchus, fig. 63 2, and Ichthyodorulite, fig. 64. 

1851. Leptocieles (Murchisoni), M‘Coy. ‘ Synops. Brit. Palseoz. Foss.’ fasc. 1, p. 176. 

» 1853. Leptocheles Murchisoni (Agass.), M‘Coy. ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ vol. ix. p. 13 
(omitting allusion to figs. 9 and 11, ‘ Sil. Syst.’). 

1854. Leptocheles Murchisont (M‘Coy), Murchison. ‘Siluria,’ 1st ed. p. 236, pl. 19, figs. 
1, 2, and sp. fig. 3. 

1859. Leptocheles Murchisoni (M‘Coy), Murchison. ‘Siluria,’ 2nd ed. (3rd including 
‘Sil. Syst.’), pp. 263, 538, pl. 19, fig. 1 (2 and 3 2). 

1860. Ceratiocaris Murchisoni (M‘Coy), Salter. ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ ser. 3, vol. v. 

. 157. 

1866. Diretiosaris Murchisoni, H. Woodward. ‘Geol. Mag.’ vol. ii. p. 205, pl. 10, 
figs. 8 and 9. 

1867. Leptocheles Murchisoni (M‘Coy). Salter, in ‘ Siluria,’ 4th ed. including ‘Sil. 
Syst.’ p. 134, pl. 19, figs. 1 and 2. 

1867. Leptocheles (Ceratiocaris) Murchisoni (M‘Coy). Salter, in ‘Siluria,’ 4th ed. 
p. 237, pl. 19, fig. 1 (2, 3¢). 

1867. Ceratiocaris Murchisoni (Agass.), Salter, in ‘ Siluria,’ 4th ed. p. 516, pl. 19, 
figs. L and 2. 

1877. Ceratiocaris Murchisoni (M‘Coy), H. Woodward. ‘Catal. Brit. Foss. Crust.’ 

er: 

1884. SF spoarts Pardoensis, La Touche. ‘Geology of Shropshire,’ p. 77, pl. 17, 
fig. 563. 

1884. Piatiocaris leptodactylus, La Touche. ‘Geology of Shropshire,’ p. 77, pl. 17, 
fig. 566 (young C. Murchisoni). 


The Synonyms of Cerrariocaris LEPropactyLus, M‘Coy, founded on 
certain slender tail-spines, which may have belonged to a varietal form of 
0. Murchisoni (Agassiz) :—- 


1849, Pterygotus leptodactylus, M‘Coy. ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ ser. 2, vol. iv. p. 
394. 

1851. Pterygotus leptodactylus, M‘Coy. ‘Synops. Brit. Palzoz. Foss.’ fasc. i. p. 176, 
pl. 1H, figs. 7, 7a, 7b (not figs. 7c, 72). 

1853. Leptocheles leptodactylus, M‘Coy. ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ vol. ix. p. 13. 

1859. Leptocheles leptodactylus (M‘Coy), Murchison. ‘ Siluria,’ 2nd (3rd) ed. pp. 
263, 538. 

1860. Ceratiocaris leptodactylus (M‘Coy), Salter. ‘Ann. Mag. N. H.’ ser. 3, vol. v. 
p. 157. 

1867. Leptocheles (Ceratiocaris) leptodactylus (M‘Coy). Salter, in ‘ Siluria, 4th ed. 
(including ‘ Sil. Syst.’), p. 237. 

1867. Ceratiocaris leptodactylus (M‘Coy). Salter, in ‘ Siluria,’ 4th ed. (including < Sil. 
Syst.’), p. 516. 

1873. Ceratiocaris leptodactylus, Salter. ‘ Catal. Camb. Sil. Foss.’ p. 164. 


Taking Mr. Salter’s description of the carapace of ‘ leptodactylus’ and 
the appendages of ‘Murchisoni’ as really both belonging to the latter, and 
the more slender caudal spines (leptodactylus of M‘Coy) as belonging to 
a variety of the latter, we have looked for the two-inch oblong carapace 
which Mr. Salter thought he had found for Murchisoni (‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. 
Hist.’ /.c.), but we have not met with it at Ludlow, as led to expect by 
his remarks ; nor is it in the Museum of Practical Geology, to which also 
he refers us. Indeed, we cannot help thinking that some confusion of 
the specimens is hereby indicated. 

The carapace of C. Murchisoni (as defined by us) is pyriform, or 
acutely subovate, deep behind, narrow in front; gently convex on the 
back ; outlined by a bold elliptical curve on the ventral margin, which 
Tises up to form with the dorsal edge a sharp angle in front, above the 

Z2 


340 REPORT—1885. 


median line of the valve ; but this and other features were varied by age 
and sex, and have been modified by pressure in the different specimens. — 
The antero-ventral margin is sometimes indrawn, making the point in 
front more acute. The hinder margin is truncate with an elegant ogee 
curve, full below, and ending above in the postero-dorsal angle, often 
but not always sharply defined. In some cases the ventral margin is 
much deeper than in others. Some fragments of carapaces from Leint- — 
wardine (Ludl. Mus. O., and M. P. G. 23) are ornamented with longitudinal 
lines or strie of varying strength. 

Seven abdominal segments are usually exposed. 

Good specimens of C. Murchisoni (Agass.) :— 


M.P.G. x 1.—Carapace, 125 x 55 mm., withacute prow. Smooth, longitudinal linear 
ornament. Long form of carapace. Leintwardine. 
M.P. G. x +.—Carapace, 60x 28 mm. Smooth and glazy. 
Seven segments, about 50 mm. (the last one about 20 mm.) Telson 
crushed. Long form of carapace. Leintwardine. 
Ludl. Mus. D.—Carapace, 50x 30 mm. Smooth. 
Seven segments, 55 mm. (the last one 20mm.) Some with straight 
strize. 
Telson imperfect. Short form of carapace. Leintwardine? 
Ludl. Mus. B.—Carapace, about 50x 30 mm. Short form of carapace. : 
Exposed segments (crushed up), 50 mm. With straight, wrigely — 
strive. 
Telson broken. Leintwardine. 
M. P. G. x 3.—Carapace, 40 x 20 mm., with acute prow. Smooth and glazy; rough 
at the place of the teeth. 
Five? segments, about 30 mm. Long form of carapace. Leint- 
wardine. 
M. P. G. x 3.—Carapace, 25x11mm. Small, smooth, sharp in front, marked by 
teeth inside. 
Seven? segments, 28 mm. (the last one 14 mm.) Linear ornament. 
Telson, 25 mm. Ridged and pitted (spines). (Stylets about 12 mm, 
Ridged.) Long form of carapace. The whole animal 3} inches in ~ 
length. Bow Bridge, near Ludlow. 
Ludl. Mus. A.—Carapace, 24x13 mm. Small, smooth, subovate, sharp in front. 
Seven segments, 30 mm. (the last one 12 mm.) Longitudinally 
striate. 
Telson imperfect (12 mm. preserved). Medium form of carapace. 
Leintwardine ? 
Oxford Mus. J, K, and Q.—Small individuals in the Grindrod Coll. from the Lower 
Ludlow, with features corresponding with those of C. Murchisoni. 
K is a carapace especially agreeing in form, though measuring only 
15x6mm. J isstill smaller; it is much crushed, and about 8 x 4 
mm., with an abdomen of 6 segments, probably imperfect, 9 mm. 
In Q the carapace (18 x 10 mm.) has been misshaped by pressure; 
the abdomen was about 7 mm.; and the little telson was strongly 
ridged, and at least 10 mm. long. 


Addendum. 


1853. Dithyrocaris Murchisoni (Agass.), Geinitz. ‘ Verstein. Grauwackenformation in 
Sachsen,’ u.s.w. Heft ii. p. 24, pl. 19, fig. 13. 
1866. Ceratiocaris Murchisoni, Jones. ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ ser. 3, vol. xviii. p. 40. 


This is the distal end of a tapering, costulate telson (or stylet ?), and is 
quite comparable with O. Murchisoni (Agassiz), as indicated by Dr. H. 
B. Geinitz. It was obtained from the Silurian Grauwacké beds of the 
Gunzenberg, between Méschwitz and Pohl, near Plauen, together with 
Graptolites, Orthoceras, and Pterinea. i. 


o ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALMHOZOIC ROCKS. 341 


! 2. Ceratiocaris Lupmnsis, H. Woodward. 
1871. Ceratiocaris Ludensis, H. Woodward. ‘Geol. Mag.’ vol. viii. p. 104, pl. 3, 


g. 3. 
1884. Ceratiocaris Ludensis, Jones and Woodward. ‘Geol. Mag.’ dec. 3, vol. i. p. 
396. 
i 


' This large and indeed gigantic Ceratiocaris, represented by seven 


abdominal segments, with the caudal appendages of telson and two stylets, 
in the Ludlow Museum, has been described in the ‘Geol. Mag.’ for 
March 1871, and illustrated with a reduced figure. The carapace is there 
estimated as having probably been eight inches in length. The segments 
‘giving eight inches, and the telson being about nine inches in length, the 
animal would be more than two feet in total length. As pointed out in 
the paper referred to, the telson is certainly the longest known. Thus 
we find the relative proportions to be for C. Ludensis, H.W., 144; 


©. Murchisoni (Agass.) 128 (as defined above) ; C. Deweii (J. Hall), 100; 
©. Bohemica, Barr. (Brit. Mus.), 84; C. stygia, Salter, 32; O. Netlingi, 


; 
: 
' 


| 


F. Schmidt, 26; C. papilio, Salter, 16. 

_’ The segments are ornamented along the back with imbricated or 
lattice-like raised angular lines, which pass downwards on the sides into 
oblique and then curved wrinkly lines, and these on some of the segments 
form an irregular reticulation at the anterior margin. The ultimate 
“segment is striated longitudinally with interrupted and inosculating lines. 
‘The spines are stout, tapering slowly, slightly curved inwards (down- 
wards), delicately ribbed, and bear close-set marks of the bases of small 
‘spines between or on some of the ridges. 

_ This fine specimen is imbedded in the greenish-grey, sandy, laminated 
mudstone of the Lower-Ludlow series, at Church Hill, Leintwardine, 
near Ludlow, with Graptolites. It was found by the late Mr. H. Pardoe, 
and is preserved in the Ludlow Museum. 


3. CERATIOCARIS PAPILIO. Salter. 


4 
i 

1859. Ceratiocaris, Salter. In Murchison’s ‘Siluria,’ 2nd (3rd) edit. p. 262, wood- 
ve cut fig. 1, p. 538. 
1860. Ceratiocaris papilio, Salter. ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ ser. 3, vol. v. p. 154, wood- 

cut fig. 1, and p. 155. 

1865. Ceratiocaris papilio, Salter and H. Woodward. ‘Catal, and Chart Foss. Crust.’ 
gt p. 17 (not fig. 5). 

1865. Ceratiocaris papilio, H. Woodward. ‘Geol. Mag.’ vol. ii. p. 403, pl. 11, figs. 1 
4 and 2. 

1867. Ceratiocaris papilio, Salter. In ‘Siluria,’ 3rd (4th) edit. p. 236, woodcut fig. 1 
’ (not fig. 2), and p. 516. 

1873. Ceratiocaris papilio, Salter. ‘Catal. Camb. Sil. Foss.’ p. 178. 

1873. S 2, R. Etheridge, jun. ‘Mem. Geol. Surv. Scotl. Expl. Map 
i 23, pp. 55, 56. 
1876. Ceratiocaris papilio, Armstrong and others. ‘Catal. W.-Scot. Fossils,’ p. 24. 
1877. re - H. Woodward. ‘Catal. Brit. Foss. Crust.’ p. 71. 

1878. a e Huxley and Etheridge. ‘Catal. Camb. Sil. Foss.’ p. 142. 


Of the two species, so abundant in the Upper-Ludlow Shales of the 
Logan Water, near Lesmahago, in Lanarkshire, and described (unfor- 
tunately without good figures) by J. W. Salter in the ‘Ann. and Mag. 
Nat. Hist.’ for March 1860, we have examined many good specimens. 

mentioned by Salter, one (C. papilio) has the carapace more oblong 
than the other (C. stygia), which is deepened by a greater or less angu- 
larity on its ventral margin. In the woodcut diagrams at p. 154 of his 


4 


342 REPORT—1885. 


memoir, fig. 1 is the oblong form, and figs. 2 and 3 have the deep ventral 
angle (C. stygia), and yet they are all there termed C. papilio, evidently 


‘ 


3 
1 


from oversight. In the Lesmahago district multitudes of the two species — 


seem to have been imbedded in the black mud (now shales) ; and frequent 


¢ 


references to these interesting deposits are made in ‘Siluria,’ ‘Memoirs © 


of the Geological Survey of Scotland’ (especially ‘ Explanation of Map 
23,’ p. 49, &c.), in other works on Scottish Geology, in geological manuals 
&e., and in Dr. J. R. S. Hunter’s papers in the ‘Trans. Geol. Soc. Glas- 
gow, vol. vil. pp. 56, 272, &e. 

Carapace sub- oblong ; ; Straight on the back, gently curved below; 
like the prow of a boat in front, and truncate with an ogee curve behind. 
The anterior extremity is rather sharp and is rarely preserved ; it slopes 
with a gentle curve downwards and backwards from the antero-dorsal 
angle to the ventral margin. The latter is somewhat convex in outline, 
with its greatest fulness near the middle and rather forward, but varying 
with every specimen, all being more or less squeezed out of their true 
shape. The front moiety usually keeps its shape more truly than the 
posterior region, of which sometimes the dorsal angle (as in Brit. Mus. 
© 41896,’ 41897’), and sometimes the boldly-curved ventral portion (as 
in Brit. Mus. ‘41894,’ ‘58669’; Cambridge Mus. 0/135; and M. P. G. 
X 5!;) becomes the more prominent. The surface of the valves is deli- 
cately striate, with longitudinal lines, curving parallel with the ventral 
margin, and coarser below than near the back. In some specimens the 
lines are seen to converge at, or rather, as it were, to start from, the 
postero-dorsal angles. The body-segments are obliquely striated. The 
telson (style), relatively stout, and very little longer than the laterals or 
stylets, was faintly ridged and perhaps prickly or spinose. The whole 
adult animal was probably from four to six inches long. 

Having seen but few specimens in which the caudal appendages are 
well preserved in their place (as in Brit. Mus. ‘ 41894’) we get only few 
good measurements. 

Mr. Salter says that only three or four of the abdominal segments 
were free (external to the carapace), but probably there were even five ; 
for in one specimen (Brit. Mus. ‘ 58669’) five segments of large size, 
now loose and reversed, were probably exposed beyond the carapace; and 


in another (Brit. Mus. ‘ 41895’) four, with an imperfect fifth, have been 
shifted out of place. The segments, excepting the last one, appear in — 


their compressed condition to be half as long as high, and the last one 
as long as three of the others. 


In Brit. Mus. ‘41894,’ the carapace is 60mm. long by 30mm. deep — 
(or high), and probably once rather deeper, having suffered from 


pressure. The penultimate segment is 10mm. long, and if there were 
four of that length (40 mm.), with the ultimate segment, the body-rings © 
would be nearly 80 mm. The telson was 25 mm. (stylets 18 mm.) Thue 
altogether, the animal was about 152 mm., or 6 inches, in length. 


Brit. Mus. ‘58669’ has a longer (narrowed) carapace, five body- 


rings, and a broken telson ; altogether, 61 inches long. 

In another, but smaller, individual (Brit. Mus. ‘ 41895”) the carapace, 
40 x 20 P mm. ; segments, 40 mm., but shortened ; and style, about 20 mm, 
oe 15 mm. each), make about 100 mm., or four inches, of total 
len, 

ng ten good specimens from Lesmahago we have seen two of carapace 
only; and in all the others the body-portion is shifted, and in six of them” 


ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALHOZOIC ROCKS, 343 


it is quite reversed—that is, lying at the anterior instead of the posterior 
end, as described by Mr. Salter (‘ Siluria,’ 1867, p. 236, &c.). 

The specimen Cambridge Mus. 0/135 has the rostrum lying at an 
angle across the anterior extremity. 

Of CO. papilio, good specimens from Lesmahago :— 

Cambridge Mus., 6/135. M. P. G. x44, x 3h. 

Brit. Mus. 41894, 41895, 41896, 41897, 45161, 47989, 58669. 

We have seen also some fossil carapaces from Benson Knot, Kendal 
(Upper Ludlow) which agree perfectly in form and proportions with 
U. papilio from Lesmahago, also in ornament, except that the postero- 
dorsal convergence of the striz is not present. These are Brit. Mus. 
some of those marked ‘44342’; M. P. G. x1 (‘Catal.’ 1878, p. 141); 
and Cambridge Mus. 6/35. They range from 65 mm. long and 32 mm. 
high to 75x40mm. Also a large imperfect specimen and some frag- 
ments in brown shale from Linburn, near Muirkirk (Brit. Mus., all 
marked ‘58878’). The specimen b/35 is included in O. inornata, M‘Coy, 
by Mr. Salter, ‘Catal. C. S. Foss.’ 1873, p. 177. 

Moreover, the specimen N in the Ludlow Museum has the pro- 
portions and appearance of C. papilio, as far as it is preserved (wanting 
the antero-dorsal angle), from Church Hill, Leintwardine.! 


4, CERATIOCARIS sTyGiA, Salter. 


1859. Ceratiocaris, Salter. In Murchison’s ‘ Siluria,’ 2nd (3rd) ed. p. 262, wood- 
cut fig. 2. 

1860. Ceratiocaris stygius, Salter. ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ ser. 3, vol. v. p. 154, wood- 
cut figs. 2, 3 (fig. 1 is C. papilio). 

1865. Ceratiocaris papilio, Salter and Woodward. ‘Cat. and Chart Foss. Crust.’ 


p. 17, fig. 5. 
1867. Ceratiocaris stygius, Salter. In ‘Siluria,’ 3rd (4th) ed. p. 236, woodcut fig. 2, 
and p. 517. 
1873. Ceratiocaris stygius, Salter. ‘Cat. Camb. Sil. Foss.’ p. 178. 
1873. % 9 R. Etheridge, jun. ‘ Mem. Geol. Surv. Scotl. Expl. Map 23,’ 
pp. 55, 56. 
1876. Ceratiocaris papilio, F. Roem, ‘ Leth. geogn.’ Th. i. ‘ Leth. pal,’ pl. 19, fig. 4. 
1876. = stygvus, Armstrong and others. ‘Cat. W.-Scot. Fossils,’ p. 24. 
1877. 3 as H. Woodward. ‘Catal. Brit. Foss. Crust.’ p. 73. 
1878. Bg A Huxley and Etheridge. ‘Cat. Camb. Sil. Fossils,’ p. 142. 


Carapace-valves trapezoidal; back straight, but curving down for 
a short distance to the mucronate dorsal angle of the anterior edge, 
which then slopes, with a slight convexity and at a sharp angle, down- 
wards and backwards, to about the middle of the ventral margin, where 
the valve is deepest (highest) ; the other half of the ventral edge rises 
slowly with a straight or nearly straight oblique edge to the blunt 
postero-ventral corner, whence the truncate hind margin rises, with a 
gentle concave curve, to the sharp postero-dorsal angle. When the 
valves are spread open a triangular space is left between the antero- 
dorsal angles. This condition and the shape are well shown in the 
specimen M. P.G. x 4;. The outline is often modified by pressure in 


‘ The very rich localities for these Silurian Phyllopods in the neighbourhood of 
LIndlow are enumerated and described in the Rev. J. D. La Touche’s ‘ Handbook of 
the Geology of Shropshire, 1884,’ pp- 26, 27, especially Ludford Lane, Bow Bridge, 
Leintwardine, Church Hill, and Trippleton Farm. See also the Rev. W. S. Symonds’ 
“Record of the Rocks,’ 1872, p. 194, &c. for notices of Ludlow and its environs from 
a geologist’s point of view. 


344 REPORT—1885, t 


other positions; but not to quite so great an extent, as the shape o 
C. papilio is altered by squeeze in some instances. The valves are 
delicately striate, with longitudinal lines curving parallel with the ventral 
edge, and crowded at the postero-dorsal angles. The body-segments, of — 
which probably five were outside the carapace (though often the seg-— 
ments seem to have been pushed back within the carapace after death), — 
are marked with delicate, raised, oblique, wrinkly lines on the sides, and 
ornamented on the back with an imbrication of angular lines, which pass — 
down into the lateral oblique wrinkles, M. P. G. x 4; and ;},. These © 
joints are sometimes more than twice as high aslong. The last one is 
as long as three of the others. The telson is apparently in some cases 
about half as long again as the stylets (as 50 is to 30) ; and some speci- 
mens show traces of thin costule, and perhaps of prickles. The whole 
adult animals were from 4 to 8 inches long. 

Specimen M. P. G. x 4, has the rostrum and teeth squeezed out 
loose near the front end. A large individual, Cambridge Mus. b/65, 
measures— 


Carapace * -  . 83x55mm. 
Four segments - 40 

Last segment . 95 y sare 
Telson . : ; = 50 “F 


198 mm., or nearly 8 inches. 


A small specimen, M. P. G. x 4;, measures— 


Carapace ; : - 40x 26mm. 
Four segments Be eUa) 
Last segment : SO ape? 
Telson ; , oO ee 
About p - 100 mm., or nearly 4 inches. 


C. stygia was rather larger than C. papilio; its telson was larger; the 
carapace is markedly distinct by its trapezoidal outline, deep ventral — 
region, and mucronate antero-dorsal angle, which was not nearly so — 
often lost in fossilisation as the front angle of O. papilio. In its rostrum, — 
teeth, superficial ornament of carapace and of body-rings, it seems to 
have closely resembled C. papilio. In ten good specimens from Lesma- 
hago, two are simple carapaces; three have body-segments in places, and 
five have them shifted or reversed. In this respect C. stygia seems to 
have been rather less liable to the dissolution of the membranous attach- 
ments of the body than its associate 0. papilio. 

A postero-dorsal fragment in Cambridge Museum (Marr Coll.), from 
the Denbighshire series (Wenlock), at Dinasbran, Llangollen, showing 
fine striz above, and coarse strize below, and the usual convergence of 
striz, belongs probably to C. stygia. 

An anterior moiety of a valve from near Ludlow is in the Grindrod 
Coll., Oxford Mus. G. 

Good specimens of CO. stygia from Lesmahago are Cambridge Mus. 
b/136, b/65 (the last is referred to as C. papilio, evidently by mistake, 
in ‘Cat. C. Sil. Foss.’ p. 178); M. P. G. x jy and +), x py, x 75, X aoe 
x #,; and B. M. 41898, 45154, 45155, 45156, 

In the ‘ Mem. Geol. Surv. Scotl. Expl. Map 23,’ 1873, at p. 49, Mr. R. — 
Etheridge, jun., enumerates the places near Lesmahago and Muirkirk, ing 
Lanarkshire, where Ceratiocarides have been found by the Surveyors, : 

4 


namely— 
y 4 


ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALHOZOIC ROCKS. 345 


Ceratiocaris papilio, Salter, at Dunside (Logan Water), Eaglinside Burn, Logan 
Water (2 m. 8. of Lesmahago), and Linburn. 

Ceratiocaris stygia, Salter, at Kip Burn (Logan Water), Eaglinside Burn, and 

7 Linburn. 

Ceratiocaris, caudal appendages, at Long Burn (Logan Water), Dunside (Logan 
Water), Logan Water (6 m. 8.W. of Lesmahago), Lann Burn, and Douglas 
Water. 


Abdominal segments and appendages probably belonging to O. stygia 

Oxford Museum, E, seven segments and two spines, imperfect. The 
former ornamented with angles and oblique lines, the latter with a longi- 
tudinal lineation. Leintwardine. 

B. M. ‘58878,’ Linburn, Muirkirk. A telson, not quite perfect at 
base, 35 mm. long, associated with some obliquely-striate segments. 

B. M. ‘41899,’ Lesmahago. Four segments, 27 mm., and M. P. G. 
X¥5¢, four segments, 30 mm., and in each case two short ensiform stylets 
attached (style wanting). 

B. M. ‘41900’ and ‘41901, Lesmahago. Three abdominal seg- 
ments, obliquely striate, and an ultimate segment with both oblique and 
straight strisz, probably due to two layers of the test. Telson, 30 mm. 
Tong ; and two ensiform stylets, each about 13 mm. long. 

M. P. G. x sa, 3156, sd, Logan Water, Lesmahago. Segments with 
Oblique striz (one ultimate segment has straight strie), not well pre- 
served. Probably C. stygia, as named in the ‘ Catal.’ 1878, p. 142. 

One of the specimens in the Brit. Mus. marked ‘59648,’ from Lesma- 
hago, is a small acute-ovate carapace (25 x 15 mm.), to which is attached 
a complete, but somewhat crushed body of 13-14 segments, 6-7 (15 mm.) 
of which are external, and have appended two caudal spines, of which 
the strongest may be the telson (12 mm. long), and the other, nearly as 
long, one of the stylets. 

At first sight this looks like the small 0. Murchisoni, Ludl. Mus. A., 
but it differs considerably in details. If it be nota distinct species, it 
may be the young of C. stygia. 

On another of the specimens, B.M. ‘59648,’ from Lesmahago, are 

e loose small bodies, without carapaces. The largest has 13 or 14 
Segments, 45 mm., some of which are obliquely striate. Five measure 25 
tmm., and the last one 10 mm., equal to three of the others. The telson 
is 20 mm. long. Another such specimen, smaller and narrower, 35 mm. 
dong, has 14 (?) segments; the last one 7 mm. long; appendages im- 

ect. 

___ These may be the loosened and shifted abdomens of young individuals 
of O. stygia or CO. papilio, both common at Lesmahago. They cannot be 
Mistaken for the Carboniferous Acanthocaris, Peach, or the Devonian 
Campecaris, Page. 


t 


5. CERATIOCARIS mvoRNATA, M‘Coy. 
‘1851. Ceratiocaris inornatus (Salter MS.), M‘Coy. ‘Brit, Pal. Foss.’ p. 187, pl. 1 E., fig. 4. 


(1854. as A Morris. ‘Catal. Brit. Foss.’ 2nd edit. p. 102. 

1859. =) 7 Salter. In ‘Siluria,’ 2nd (3rd) edit. p. 532. 

1860. ” ” ” ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ ser. 3, vol. v. p. 156. 
1867. 0» : » In ‘Siluria,’ 3rd (4th) edit. p. 516. 

1873. ” % 3 ‘Catal. Camb. Sil. Foss.’ pp. 177, 178. 
1877. ” Py H. Woodward. ‘Catal. Brit. Foss. Crust.’ p. 71. 


This is the third of M‘Coy’s original species. The specimen in the 


346 REPORT—1885. 


Cambridge Museum has its carapace ovate-oblong or somewhat boa’ 
shaped in outline, 50 mm. (2 inches) long, height 18 mm.; moderately 
convex ; straight or very slightly arched above and more strongly arched — 
below (both edges are partly imbedded in the matrix of the original — 
specimen, 6/5, M‘Coy’s fig. 4). The anterior end (damaged) was 
neatly rounded, sloping up gracefully from below. The posterior 
is obliquely truncate from above downwards and outwards, with the ~ 
ostero-dorsal angle distinct, and the postero-ventral angle prominent 
and blunt. Thereis no eye-spot. Traces of longitudinal striz are visible 
on the impressions of the valves in the grey, micaceous, Upper-Ludlow 
sandstone, from Benson Knot, near Kendal, Westmoreland; two spe- 
cimens (one of them good) are in the British Museum, No. ‘ 44342,’ from 
the same locality. 
The foregoing description does not quite tally with the account of the 
species in the ‘ Brit. Pal. Foss.’ p. 137, nor with that in the ‘ Ann. Mag. 
N. H.’ /.¢., but is based on the original specimen and not on the restored 
figure in the ‘ Brit. Pal. Foss.’ The figure annexed by Mr. Salter to his 
note on C. inornata in the ‘ Catal. Camb. Sil. Foss.’ 1873, p. 178, is used 
also in connection with two other species at p. 16 and p.164. In the 
latter case it is probably intended for ‘ C. leptodactylus,’ which we recog- — 
nise as C. Murchisoni. 
C. inornata approaches C. papilio in form in some cases, but we think — 
that they are quite distinct species. There are some small carapaces, one 
from Lesmahago, B. M. ‘ 59648,’ very near to C. papilio in form, and mea- 
suring 34x13 mm., and one from Benson Knot, B. M. ‘ 44342,’ measur- 
ing 35 x 14mm. These proportions are different from those of O. papilio. — 
These two are rather smaller than M‘Coy’s original OC. inornata (about — 
50 x 20 mm.), but have the same proportions, the normal height being — 
24 of the length; whilst C. papilio is larger and has less height in pro-— 
portion, the length being only twice the height, or even less. 3 


6. Ceratiocaris ORETONENSIS, H. Woodward. 
1871. Ceratiocaris Oretonensis, H. Woodward. ‘Geol. Mag.’ vol. viii. p. 105, pl. 3, 


fig. 1. 
1878. Ceratiocaris Oretonensis, H. Woodward. ‘Cat. Brit. Foss. Crust.’ p. 71. 


This Carboniferous species, described in the ‘ Geol. Mag.’ for March 
1871, approaches closely to some of the forms of Ceratiocaris found in the | 
Upper Silurian of Benson Knot—namely, C. inornata, M‘Coy. The cara- ~ 
pace (50 x 22 mm.) is larger, however, without attaining the size and | 
proportions of OC. papilio, which is also found there, and is not without — 
an apparent relationship to the former, as noticed above. In again 
examining the specimens, we find that the anterior end is not so much 
rounded as in fig. 1, but is slightly and obliquely truncate; and the © 
antero-ventral margin is more sloping and less convex; thus the greatest 
depth of the carapace is in the hinder half. Four specimens from the 
Yellow Carboniferous Limestone of Oreton and Farlow, Worcestershire, q 
not well preserved. The indistinct, ‘ eye-spot,’ mentioned ‘ab p. 105, is very 
problematical, and may have been caused by pressure on some ‘internal 
organ (teeth P). 


7. CERATIOCARIS TRUNCATA, H. Woodward. 


1871. Ceratiocaris truncatus, H. Woodward. ‘ Geol. Mag.’ vol. viii. p. 106, pl. 3, figs 2, 
1878. Ceratiocaris truncatus, H. Woodward. ‘Cat. Brit. ~ Foss. Crust.’ p. 72. 


il 


\ a 


, ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALOZOIC ROCKS. 347 


The smaller species occurring with the last (C. Oretonensis) was de- 
seribed and figured with it in 1871. The carapace (35 x 15 mm.) is 
well figured, except that (as the author remarks, p. 106) the slightly 
concave truncation of the hinder end is not well rendered by the artist. 
Its smaller size, sharp antero-dorsal angle, and nearly even ventral curve, 
distinguish it from its associates, but scarcely separate it, as far as outline 
is concerned, from some specimens of C. inornata at Benson Knot. 


8. CERATIOCARIS SOLENOIDES, M‘Coy. 


1849. Ceratiocaris solenoides, M‘Coy. ‘ Ann. Mag. N. H.’ ser. 2, vol. iv. p. 413, with 
woodcut. 

1851. Ceratiocaris solenoides, M‘Coy. ‘ Brit. Paleoz. Foss.’ fasc. i. p. 138, pl. 1 H, 
figs. 5, 5a. 

1854. Ceratiocaris solenoides, Morris. ‘Catal. Brit. Foss,’ 2nd ed. p. 173. 

1860. Cultellus? (Ceratiosolen?) rectus, Salter. ‘Ann. Mag. N. H.’ ser. 3, vol. v. 


p. 160. 
1873. Ceratiocaris solenoides, Salter. ‘Cat. Camb. Sil. Foss.’ p. 178. 
1877. sis ij H. Woodward. ‘Catal. Brit. Foss. Crust.’ p. 71. 


Prof. M‘Coy founded the genus on this species and C. elliptica in 1849. 


The original specimens in the Cambridge Mus. (6/40, b/41) are not 
exactly drawn in M‘Coy’s figs. 5 and 5a. The carapace is elongate, sub- 
cylindrical, slightly convex on the sides, with an even elliptical anterior 
curve, and an oblique truncation posteriorly. There are faint traces of 
longitudinal striz on the hollow impressions of the valves in the matrix, 
and there is a slight trace of the ventral rim. The large one is 43 mm. 
long (fig. 5) ; the smaller specimen, fig. 5a, 27 mm., is apparently broken 
behind, but does not show the double valve there as given in the figure ; 
we cannot distinguish any ‘nuchal furrow,’ nor is there any ‘ eye-spot’ : 
amark consisting of two minute adventitious pits in the anterior third 
of one of the specimens, and a little hole in another, have been mistaken 


forit. Mr. Salter thought these little fossils were Molluscan ;! but they 


certainly may well claim to be Phyllopods. There are other specimens 
in the Cambridge Mus. ; also two small individuals, one 19 mm. and the 
other only 10 mm. (marked f/142) in length. In the Brit. Mus. there 
are four, rather large, but not well preserved specimens (‘44342’). All 
the above come from the Upper-Ludlow grey micaceous sandstone of 
Benson Knot, near Kendal, Westmoreland. 


9. CERATIOCARIS GOBIIFORMIS, sp. nov. 


A form closely approaching C. solenoides in shape, but smaller, more 
acute in front, usually more vertically truncate behind, and much more 
convex on the ventral border, accompanies C. solenoides in the Upper- 
Ludlow sandstone of Benson Knot. One of the specimens marked 6/8, 
Cambridge Mus. is 27 mm. long by 9 mm. high; one in the Brit. Mus., 
No. ‘44342,’ is 30 by 10 mm.; M. P. G. x +, (‘ Catal.’ 1878, p. 142) is 31 
by 11 mm. The valves seem to have been smooth. They distantly 
resemble in outline a deep-bodied, blunt-headed little fish, without its tail. 
It is possible that this may be a varietal or sexual form of C. solenoides, 
but it seems to be sufficiently well separated from its ally to require a 
distinctive name, so we will refer to it as C. gobiiformis in our list. 


' See ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 7. ¢. p. 159, note; and Sedgwick’s ‘ Lists of Kendal 
Fossils,’ ‘ Wordsworth’s Letters on the Lakes,’ 1843-46, Appendix. 


348 ; REPORT— 1885. 


10. CERATIOCARIS SALTERIANA, sp. nov. 


Six specimens in different states of preservation, from the Lower- 
Ludlow strata, indicate the existence of a distinct species of Ceratiocaris, 
having a nearly oblong carapace, ornamented with delicate but strong 
horizontal parallel lines, rather wide apart. 

Specimen Ludlow Mus. K., from Trippleton, near Leintwardine, has — 
a carapace (23x12 mm.), five (?) abdominal segments (10 mm.), and 
appendages, of which the style (pitted with bases of little spines) is. ; 
imperfect, but a stylet maensnres, S mm. 

Another carapace M. P. G. %,, from Bow Bridge, Ludlow, well pre- 
served, is 30x15 mm., straight on the back, rounded at the ends, the 
front being highest, and the greatest depth of the carapace being at the 
anterior third of the ventral margin. A hinder moiety of another cara- 
pace accompanies the last mentioned. 

In the Cambridge Univ: Mas. a/694 is a similar carapace nearly as 
well preserved (30 x14. mm.). The ventral margin has a distinct raised 
rim. The striz and interspaces differ in tint of colour on the cast. — 
Some internal organs (teeth?) have caused a little break or hole, and 
a derangement of the striz in the antero-dorsal region. This specimen is ; 
from the Lower-Ludlow Shale at Dudley. 

Two specimens, also from the Lower Ludlow series, L and M in the 
Oxford Museum (Grindrod Coll.), evidently belong to this species, though — 
they are far from being perfect in some details. 

We wish to associate this rare but distinct species of Cerattocaris — 
with the name of our deceased friend Mr. J. W. Salter, who worked so 
long and so well on these and allied Phyllopoda. 


; 


11. Crratiocaris cassia, Salter. 
1860. Ceratiocaris cassia, Salter. ‘A. M. N. H.’ ser. 3, vol. v. p. 159. 


1867. 5 * In ‘ Siluria,’ 3rd (4th) edit. p. 516. 
1877. ES 3 H. W oodward. ‘Cat. Brit. Foss. Cr.’ p. 70. ~ 
1878. % 5 Huxley and Etheridge. ‘Cat. C. §, Foss. M. P. G’ p. 141. | 


The best preserved carapace-valve (22x11 mm.) we have seen is — 
Brit. Mus. ‘ 44342,’ from the Upper Ludlow of Benson Knot; Brit. Mus. 
‘38400,’ from the Lower Ludlow of Leintwardine is also good, but is. 
crumpled so as to have its outline modified. Originally nearly oblong, 
slightly arched above and below, truncate with hollow curve behind, — 
pointed and mucronate at the upper third in front. Ludlow Mus. HE. 
and F, and M. P. G. x + (‘Catal. C. 8. Foss.’ 1878, p. 141), seen by Mr. 
Salter, are not quite perfect. They are from a roadside quarry S.E. of 
Trippleton Farm, near Leintwardine. Ludlow Mus. F. and Brit. Mus 
*39400’ retain traces of the abdomen: in the latter, 15 mm. long, 
without appendages ; in the former much less is seen, and a short telson 
(about 5 mm.). The carapace is horizontally striate, and the telson i 
minutely pitted as if it had been spinose. The ventral margin had a 
delicate raised rim. ul 

Ludlow Mus. H., also from Trippleton, is a very small oval relic of 
a valve (13x7 mm.) possibly of C. cassia, and a loose abdomen of 5-6 © 
segments (16 mm.), with a neat little set of appendages, style, 6 mm., 
and two stylets, each 3 mm. 
Ȣ Ludlow Mus. G. may be a modified carapace of C. cassia: no locality is 
recorded for it. : 


2 


ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALZOZOIC ROCKS. 349 


12. Crratiocaris, sp. nov, ? 
Mus. Pract. Geol. x s'; (‘ Catal. C. S. Foss.’ 1878, p. 142), labelled 


“C. vesica,’ is asmall specimen, having its carapace and abdomen preserved 
in place. From the Lower Ludlow of Leintwardine. It differs very much 
from Physocaris vesica, although nearly of the same size. The carapace 
is subtriangular, 25 mm. long and 15 mm. deep at the middle of the 
yentral margin. The back is straight, but curved down at both ends to 
meet the steep upward slopes of the lower margin. The abdomen (15 mm.) 
‘comes out, as usual, from the upper part of the hinder region. It shows 
obscurely four segments (the ultimate one about 6 mm.), mostly striated 
obliquely. The appendages have been broken off short. The carapace 
is somewhat crumpled, and is roughened anteriorly, probably by the 
presence of internal organs (such as teeth, &c.). 

It is possible that this may be a very young individual of C. stygia, to 
which it somewhat approximates by its subtriangular carapace, and its 
obliquely-striate segments. Otherwise it must be a distinct species. 

Specimen Ind. Mus. J. (from Trippleton, near Leintwardine) has a 
smaller but nearly similar carapace (22x12 mm.); nearly straight on 
the back, deeply curved below, and with almost equal dorsal angles in 
front and behind, but sharp instead of being blunt. 


13. CERATIOCARIS ROBUSTA, Salter. 


1851. Pterygotus leptodactylus, M‘Coy (in part). ‘ Brit. Palsoz. Foss.’ fasc. i. p- 175, 
1. 1 E, figs. 7c, 7d. 
1860. Ceratiocaris robustus, Salter. * Ann. Mag. N. H.’ ser. 3, vol. v. p. 158. 


: 1867. by ee te In ‘Siluria,’ 3rd (4th) edit. p. 516. 
1873, 53 .< = ‘Cat. Camb. Sil. Foss.’ p. 164. 
1877. ay 8 H. Woodward. ‘Cat. Brit. Foss. Crust,’ Dele 
1878. = » Huxley and Etheridge. ‘Cat. Camb. Sil. Foss. M. P. G.’ 
5 p. 142. 


This species was founded on the caudal appendages of a species the 
carapace of which has not yet been collated. The original specimens 
figured by M‘Coy and referred by Salter to a new species are in the Cam- 
bridge University Museum (a/925, fig. 7c; a/926, fig. 7d). The telson, 
32 mm. long (longer than the figure), is straight, broadly ensiform, 6 mm. 
broad at its base. The stylets, 20 mm. long, are also relatively broad 
and ensiform or sharp-blade-like. They all seem to have once been faintly 
a and ridged or costulated. They were from Leintwardine (Lower 

sadlow). 

BF  tinsilar specimens, collected by the late Mr. Lightbody in Upper- 
Indlow beds, ‘ above Ashley Moor,’ are in the Owens College Museum, 
Manchester. One of the sets, however, has the stylets nearly as long as 
the style: whether this was due to variation of growth or to accident, we 
cannot now decide. 

_ B. M. ‘39404,’ from Leintwardine, belongs to the same species, though 
the style is rather longer (35 mm.). 

Also M. P. G. 4, (‘ Catal.’ 1878, p. 142), from Leintwardine, seems to 
belong to this form. It shows two segments and appendages. Style, 
40 mm.; one stylet present, broad and ensiform, 25 mm. long. 

__. Specimen A, Oxford Mus. (Grindrod Coll.) consists of the penultimate 
(11 mm.), and ultimate (20 mm.) segments, with a broad style (45 mm.) 
and corresponding smaller stylet (25mm.), of what seemsto bearather large 
C. robusta. The caudal spines are strong, broad, and ensiform, the style 


350 REPORT—1885. 


is fluted; the stylet flat, except its marginal rims. The two segments are 
neatly ornamented with imbricate lozenge-shaped or sharp leaf-like lines, 
each angle inclosing a smaller leaf-like lattice-work, as in Barrande’s 
C. Scharyi. This is in the Lower-Ludlow olive-grey laminated mud-— 
stone from near Ludlow with an Orthoceras. ‘ 

Another in the same Coll. (H), from the same series, consists of four 
segments (35 mm., the ultimate being 15 mm.), with style (82 mm.) and : 
a stylet (18 mm.). These spines are ensiform and broad; the stylet flat 
with edge-rims, the style ridged and pitted (= spinose, two lines visible). 
The segments are ornamented as in specimen A, but with a smaller 
pattern, and the penultimate and two higher segments have lateral 
oblique lines coming down from the angular lines which covered the 
back. 

Two other specimens in the same Collection, from the Upper (?) Ludlow, 
correspond more closely with M‘Coy’s specimens, being short trifid sets 
of broad spines—one (T) with a style 28 mm. long and stylets each 
15 mm., the other (S) having style 23 mm. and stylets 13 mm. In 
both the stylets are smooth with slight marginal rims, and the style is 
faintly fluted and pitted (= spinose), in T definitely along two rows, 
one near each margin. 


Var. longa. 


Specimen Ludlow Museum M. is a broad and much longer telson (at 
least 75 mm. long), with linear ornament, from the Lower Ludlow at Bow 
Bridge, Ludlow. A small part of a slightly curved ensiform stylet shows 
from beneath it. This may be either a variety of C. robusta, or possibly 
a distinct species. 


14, CERATIOCARIS, sp. nov. ? 


In Owens College Museum, Manchester, is a very delicate litile set 
of caudal appendages. The style (central) shows a circular section at its 
base (top), about 2 mm. wide, is 12 mm. long, and tapers gently to a sharp 
point. The lateral stylets are 8 mm.each. All are delicately ridged and 
fluted. From the Lower-Ludlow or Aymestry Limestone, on the old road 
at Mocktree ; collected by the late Mr. Lightbody. 

Mus. Pract. Geol. p 7? (‘ Catal. C. S. Foss.’ 1878, p. 118), from the 
Lower Ludlow at Leintwardine, is a somewhat similar little set of 
appendages (three spines). The middle one is the longest, 8 mm., the 
others 6 mm. ; 

These may belong to a very young condition of some of the species 
above mentioned, or possibly to a distinct species. 

In the British Museum one of those marked ‘58878’ from Linburn, 
near Muirkirk, shows a style (21 mm.), tapering, with circular section at 
base, and apparently smooth, together with a corresponding attached — 
stylet, 16 mm. long. Were these not smooth, they might be referred to 
the same species as the foregoing smaller specimens. This set differs from 
the appendages of either 0. papilio or C. stygia. 


15. CERATIOCARIS DECORA, Phillips. A 


1848. Onchus decorus, Phillips, Mem. Geol. Surv.’ vol. ii. part 1, p. 226, pl. 30, figs. 

5, 5a. P. 
1867. Ceratiocaris decorus, Salter. In ‘Siluria,’ 3rd (4th) edit. p. 516. : 
1877. 95 A H. Woodward. ‘Cat. Brit. Foss, Crust.’ p. 70. on 


ij 


i 


ie 


ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALHOZOIC ROCKS. Sok 


This is a small obscure style (?), 15 mm. long, from the Ludlow beds, 
of Freshwater-EHast, Pembrokeshire. 


B. Doubtful Genera. 
16. Crratiocaris (?) ENSIS, Salter. 


1860. Ceratiocaris? ensis,Salter. ‘Ann. Mag. N. H.’ ser. 3, vol. v. p. 159. 
1867. = 53 - In ‘Siluria,’ 3rd edit. p. 516. 
1877. “a s H. Woodward. ‘Catal. Brit. Foss. Crust.’ Deke 


In the Grindrod Collection, Oxford Museum, specimen O, we find the 
original fossil described by Mr. Salter in 1860, namely, a large telson, 
nearly 6 inches long, lying on its side and flattened, bulbous at its base, 
sword-shaped, with an incurved apex, a crenatoserrate convex dorsal 
margin, and flat sides with sub-central lateral rib (originally lozenge- 
shaped in section). From the Lower Ludlow at Leintwardine, near Lud- 
low. Not quite perfect at point, itis 145 mm. long; 16 mm. broad at the 
bulb, and 13 mm. below it. We have to add that along and close to the 
inner (concave) edge there is a multiple row of pits (= small spines or 
prickles), in threes and fours obliquely set, along the upper half, below the 
bulbous portion ; and these die out downwards in a less regular, thinner, 
and more scattered series. Casts of parasitic Polyzoa (?) cover the bulb 
and occur here and there on the spine. The arrangement of the pitting 
along the concave edge may indicate a distinct generic relationship. It 
reminds us of Barrande’s C. debilis, as figured in his ‘ Sil. Syst. Bohéme,’ 
yol. 1. Suppl. pl. 18, figs. 26-28, and pl. 31, figs. 16-19. 

There is another similar but much less distinct specimen, in the same 
Collection, from near Ludlow. 


17. CERATIOCARIS (?) Lata, Salter. 


1866. Hymenocaris? latus, Salter. ‘Mem. Geol. Surv.’ vol. iii. p. 240. 
1866. Ceratiocaris ? latus, Salter. Ibid. p. 294, woodcut fig. 5. 


1867, . = 53 In ‘Siluria,’ 3rd (4th) edit. p. 516. 
1873. > 5 3 ‘Cat. Camb. Sil. Foss.’ p. 16. 
1877. a ‘3 H. Woodward. ‘Cat. Brit. Foss. Crust.’ p. 71. 


The specimen is in the Cambridge Museum (6/299 ?), and shows 5 (?) 
abdominal segments crushed endwise, so as to be shortened (12 mm.) and 
widened (28mm.). The woodcut referred to is a restoration. The specific, 
and even generic, relationship is obscure. From the Tremadoe Slate, at 
Garth, east of Portmadoc ; collected by Mr. D. Homfray. 


18, Crrariocaris (?) INSPERATA, Salter. 
1866. Ceratiocaris ? insperatus, Salter. ‘ Mem. Geol. Surv.’ vol. iii. p. 295. 


1867. i ne A In ‘Siluria,’ 3rd (4th) edit. p. 516. 
1873: * * >. ‘Cat. C. 8. Foss.’ p. 16. 
1877. - i H. Woodward. ‘Cat. B. F. Crust.’ p. 71. 


_In the Cambridge Museum (a/275). Obscure remnant of an ultimate 
abdominal segment, with clear indications of a trifid appendage ; the 
telson or central spine seems to be the longest, but all three are broken 
off above their points. The telson is about 35 mm. long. From dark- 
grey shales between the Lower and Upper Tremadoc Slates in a railway- 
cutting above the village of Penmorfa, Portmadoc. Collected by Mr. 
D. Homfray, Mr. Salter thought that it belonged to the same species as 
the foregoing, 


352 REPORT—1885. 


19. Crratrocarts (?). 


An obscure hinder moiety (25 x12 mm.) of a carapace possibly refer- 
able to Ceratiocaris, is in the Mus. Pract. Geol. 33, ‘ Catal. C. S. Foss.’ 
1878, p. 72. From the ‘ Upper Llandovery; Onny River.’ 


20. CERATIOCARIS ? PERORNATA, Salter. 


1878. Ceratiocaris perornatus (Salter MS.), Huxley and Etheridge. ‘Catal. Camb. 
Sil. Foss.’ M. P. G. p. 142. 


Very little is known of this obscure form. One specimen M.P.G.x 74, 
and two in the Cambridge Museum, are only fragments (one rather more 
than an inch long, and the others less) of what seem to be cylindrical 
spines (like those of Echinoderms), about 5 mm. in diameter, two pitted 
all over (?) and one tuberculate. They are from the Upper Ludlow of 
Benson Knot, near Kendal, Westmoreland. 


C. Genera distinct from Ceratiocaris. 


21. CERATIOCARIS ? ELLIPTICA, M‘Coy. 
1849. Ceratiocaris ellipticus, M‘Coy. ‘Ann. Mag. N, H.’ ser. 2, vol. iv. p. 413. 


1851. . i 33 ‘ Brit. Pal. Foss.’ fasc. i. p. 137, pl. 1 E, fig. 8. 
1854. F Fr Morris. ‘Catal. Brit. Foss.’ 2nd edit. p. 103. 

1859. - ay Salter. In ‘Siluria,’ 2nd (3rd) edit. p. 538. 

1860. ie i, # ‘Ann. M.N. H.’ ser. 3, vol. v. p. 157. 

1867. - ms . In ‘Siluria,’ 3rd (4th) edit. p. 516. 

1873. a F ‘Catal. Camb. Sil. Foss.’ p. 178. 

1877. +4 Mi H. Woodward. ‘Catal. Brit. Foss. Crust.’ p. 71. 


This interesting species, one of the first two established, is represented 
in the Cambridge Museum by specimen b/15 (M‘Coy’s fig. 8), and in 
the Museum of Practical Geology by $$ (‘ Catal.’ 1878, p. 118) and x 5 
(‘ Catal.’ p. 142). The carapace is long-ovate in outline, not very 
convex, greatest convexity of surface and curvature of ventral margin ‘at 
about one-third from the anterior end’; obliquely rounded in front; 
obliquely truncate at the upper portion of the hinder end. There is a 
spot like a definite ocular tubercle in the anterior fourth and above the 
median line of each valve, and this gives it a distant likeness to a guinea- 
pig’s profile. The surface is neatly marked with delicate, longitudinal, 
parallel lines, rather far apart. The published figure of the specimen, 
6/15 (32mm. long and 13 mm. high) is reversed, and drawn too angular 
behind. It came from the Upper-Ludlow sandstone of Benson Knot. 


Specimen M. P. G. $3 is from the Lower-Ludlow beds of Leintwardine, . 


near Ludlow, and is not quite so large nor so well preserved as b /15. 
Specimen M. P. G. x75, from the Upper-Ludlow of Combe Wood, 
Presteign, is larger and more ovate or elliptical than the others, but, un- 
fortunately, is imperfect. The last two have been incorrectly labelled 
‘C, Murchisoni.’? .In 1860 Mr. Salter thought that C. elliptica was only 
a badly preserved variety of C. inornata (‘A. M. N. H.’ J. c.), but in the 
‘Catal. Cambr. Sil. Foss.’ p. 178, he recognised it as ‘ quite distinct.’ 
The above-mentioned three specimens supply the only evidence of an 
eye-spot in these British Ceratiocaridoid Phyllopods.! It is not only a 
generic character distinguishing them from Ceratiocaris, but an important 


1 The ‘ocular tubercles’ mentioned int e footnote at p. 236, Siluria, 3rd (4th) 
edit. 1867, are without doubt due to the presence of ‘teeth’ within the valves. ; 


ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALHOZOIC ROCKS. 353 


family distinction, of which, for the present, we do not propose to estimate 
the value. 
22. PHYSOCARIS VESICA, Salter. 
1860. Ceratiocaris (Physocaris) vesica, Salter. ‘Ann. Mag. N. H.’ ser. 3, vol. v. 
p. 159, woodcut fig. 
1865. Ceratiocaris (Physocaris) vesica, Salter and H. Woodward. ‘Catal. Chart. 
Foss. Crust.’ p. 17, fig. 8. 
1867. Ceratiocaris vesica, Salter. In ‘Siluria,’ 3rd (4th) edit. p. 517. 
1877. Ceratiocaris (Physocaris) vesica,H. Woodward. ‘Cat. Brit. Foss. Crust.’ p. 72. 
1878. Ceratiocaris vesica, Huxley and Etheridge. ‘Cat. C. S. Foss.’ p. 142. 


Of this curious fossil Phyllopod, described carefully by Mr. Salter in 
1860, only one specimen is known—namely, ‘Ludlow Museum U.’ It 
differs slightly from Mr. Salter’s figure, being larger, and showing an 
appearance of having been probably broken away to a little extent just 
above the front, so as to leave a notch and angle, which constitute the 
prominence in the woodcut figure. If continued over this notch the out- 
line of the shell would possibly be that of a broad oval; whereas now it 
is broadly and obliquely pyriform (25 x2%0mm.). The relative position 
_ of the animal is supposed to be indicated by the telson occupying the 
upper part of the abdominal appendages attached to the fossil. There 
are 8-9 segments in the abdomen, which appears to come out from the 
lower and hinder quarter of the carapace, and is very slender near its 
origin, but higher at its ultimate segment (5mm. long); altogether 
30mm. The telson itself is 11mm. long. One lateral spine (stylet), 
7mm., is present. The whole animal is about two inches long. 

It was collected by the late Mr. Salwey in the Lower Ludlow at 
Leintwardine, and Mr. Salter at first registered it as Ceratiocaris inflata. 


23. AcantHocaris, B. N. Peach, 


In the ‘Transact. R. Soc. Edinburgh,’ vol. xxx. Part I. for 1880-1 
(1882) Mr. B. N. Peach gave a memoir ‘On some New Crustaceans 
from the Lower Carboniferous Rocks of Eskdale and Liddesdale; and in 
Part II. for 1881-2 (1883) his ‘ Further Researches among the Crustacea 
and Arachnida of the Carboniferous Rocks of the Scottish Border.’ In 
the first memoir he described and figured his new Ceratiocaris scorpioides 
(p. 73, pl. 7, figs. 1-1f), and C. elongatus, p. 74, pl. 7, figs. 2-2f. In 
1883 he instituted a new genus, Acanthocaris, for these curious Cuma-like 
forms, and added a new species, A. attenuatus (p. 512, pl. 28, figs. 1-le). 
Acanthocaris has its body much longer than the carapace, which is small, 
with a blunt snout-like projection in front and rounded postero-ventral 
side-lobes behind. Two denticulated jaws occur within the carapace 
near the antero-ventral margin. The total length of the animal from 
1 to 2} inches. It has a much smaller carapace and longer abdomen 
than Ceratiocaris, aud the form and structure of the carapace, and the 
relative size and shape of the segments, are very distinctive. Mr. Peach 
thus describes the genus :— 

‘Carapace small and not hinged, produced anteriorly into a blunt 
snout, and posteriorly into rounded lobes. Body fusiform and long, 
composed of numerous segments which increase in length backwards, the 
Seven posterior ones being uncovered by the carapace. Third segment 
from tail tumid and notched on its ventral surface. Telson long and 
spiniform, and flanked on each side by a rudimentary spinelet. Test 
rae slightly wrinkled, but not striated longitudinally.’ 

. AA 


354 REPORT—1885. 


D. Extra-British Fossil Phyllocarida. 
24, CErRATIOCARIS (?) LonGicAuDA, D. Sharpe. 


1853. Dithyrocaris? longicauda, D. Sharpe. ‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ vol. ix. p. 158, 
; pl. 7, fig. 3. 


The ultimate segment and trifid appendage of a small Ceratiocarid of 
uncertain genus. Except that the central spine or style is the longest 
of the three, this little fossil might be almost matched with C. EH. Beecher’s 
Elymocaris siliqua, pl. 2, fig. 1, and p. 13, of his memoir in the ‘ Report 
Geol. Surv. Penns.’ 1884. The segment (about 8 mm.) is described as 
‘simple and rounded’; the spines as ‘lancet-shaped,’ . . . ‘the middle 
one somewhat rounded and twice as long as the lateral plates, which are 
nearly flat.’ . . . ‘From the upper division of the Lower Silurian forma- 
tion at Sazes, in the Serra de Bussaco.’ Collected by Senhor Carlos 
Ribeiro. In the Geological Society’s Collection (?). 

This set of spines is much stouter than the specimens M. P. G. p 23, 
and both stouter and shorter than the somewhat similar small set in the 
Owens Coll. Mus. (See above, p. 350.) 


25. Ceratiocaris Drwen, Hall. 
1852. Onchus Deweii, J. Hall. ‘ Geol. Surv. New York, Paleontology,’ vol. ii. p. 320, 
pl. 71, figs. la—1d. 
1859. Ceratiocaris Deweti, J. Hall. ‘Geol. Surv. N. Y. Pal.’ vol. iii. p. 420*. 


A fine large telson, 6 inches long, and about 20 mm. wide at its basal 
joint ; gently curved, ridged, and pitted (once spinose) ; bulbous, with a 
strong articulation, at its base (figs. la, 1b). Figured with its sharp end 
upwards. 

Also the ultimate segment (fig. 1c) of the abdomen, 23 inches 
(65mm.) by about 22mm. broad (high). Its ornament (fig. 1d) consists 
of imbricating, narrow, lanceolate, low elevations, which are obliquely 
striated, thus reminding us of the ornamentation of C. Scharyi, Barrande, 
‘Syst. Sil. Bohéme,’ p. 454, pl. 32, figs. 24-29; and we find similar orna- 
mentation in some British forms. 

O. Deweii is from the Niagara Shale (Upper Silurian) of Lockport 
and Rochester, State of New York. 


26 & 27. Crratiocaris Maccoyrana, J. Hall; and C. acumtnata, J. Hall. 


1859. Ceratiocaris Maccoyianus, J. Hall. ‘Geol. Surv. N. Y. Pal.’ vol. iii. Part I. 
(text), p. 421*, and Part II. (plates), 1861, pl. 84, figs. 1-5. 
1859. C. acwminatus, J. Hall. ZL. c. p. 417*, p. 422%, pl. 84, fig. 6, & 7 (2). 


These specimens were obtained from the Upper-Silurian Waterlime 
Group, near Buffalo, New York State. 

Fig. 1 (C. Maccoyiana) is rather obscure, and reminds us at first 
sight of an imperfect QO. stygia, with the body-segments and caudal append- 
ages reversed, so as to emerge from the anterior (broken) part of the 
carapace. 

Fig. 2 has a carapace somewhat like C. stygia, modified by pressure, 
very delicately striate, and with the abdomen reversed to ‘the antero- 
ventral part of the carapace. 

Fig. 3 shows two end segments and a trifid appendage, somewhat 
like those parts in a specimen (from Benson Knot), Cambr. Mus., 6/6, 
which we refer with doubt to O. stygia. 


sae: 


ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALHOZOIC ROCKS, 355 


Fig. 4 is a smaller and less perfect specimen. 
Fig. 5 some segments and appendages much like those of some spe- 


-cimens of C. stygia. 


Fig. 6 (C. acuminata) is an elegant carapace, ovately-trapeziform, 
slightly arched above, fully convex below, with a sloping, ogee, truncate 
posterior, and an acuminate front sloping rapidly down to the middle of the 
ventral margin, with its slope nearly parallel to that of the posterior trun- 
cation. It is finely striated longitudinally. This is very similar to some 
relatively narrow forms of C. stygia, particularly to Brit. Mus. ‘41898’ ; 
but still the details vary. It may also be compared with some forms of 
‘O. Murchisoni, such as M. P. G. x $ and x }, but not so satisfactorily. 

Fig. 7 is a crushed portion of a large carapace, delicately striate on the 
ventral region, and four (?) crushed abdominal segments. Probably of the 
‘same species as fig. 6, as intimated by Prof. Hall (p. 417*). 


28. CERATIOCARIS ACULEATA, J. Hall. 


1859. C. aculeatus, J. Hall. ‘Geol. Surv. N. Y. Pal.’ vol. iii. Part I. p. 422*; Part IT. 
(plates), 1861, pl. 80 A, fig. 10. 


This is apparently an ultimate segment (split),a broad telson (split ?), 
cand one stylet. If so, the telson is 20 mm. long, and 5 mm. broad near its 
base, and is comparable with C. robusta. Itis fromthe Waterlime Group, 
-at Waterville, N. Y. 


29. Crratiocarts Nerina, Fr. Schmidt. 


1883. Ceratiocaris Notlingi, Fr. Schmidt. ‘Mém. Imp. Acad. Sci. St.-Pétersbourg,’ 
ser. 7, vol. xxxi. p. 84, woodcut fig. 5; pl. 6, figs. 8, 9; pl. 7, fig. 12. 


This has an elegant carapace (about 72 x 38 mm.), comparable with 
some individuals of our C. Murchisoni (Salter’s ‘leptodactylus’), but not 
‘quite agreeing in all details. It is nearly semi-ovate in lateral outline, 
sharp in front, truncate with neat hollow curve behind. It closely ap- 
proaches Dr. James Hall’s CO. acwminatus, which, however, is fuller in 
the ventral margin. The surface is delicately striated longitudinally, 
‘concentric with the ventral border ; it is bordered ventrally with a thin 
raised rim. 

A fine set of caudal spines (pl. 6, fig. 8) shows a telson (style) 38 mm. 
llong, 11 mm. broad at its base, tapering rather rapidly, and ridged. The 
main ribs are tuberculate, and a blunt spine stands out on each side 
below the triangular bulb or base of the telson. One stylet (22 mm.) is 
rather broad, ensiform, and flat, except a faint median ridge. Fig. 9 is 
‘an imperfect style. 

From an Upper-Silurian limestone, near Rootzikiill, Oesel, in the 
Baltic. 

30. M. Barranpe’s Species or CERATIOCARIS. 


The following Ceratiocarides have been carefully described and figured 
‘by the late M. J. Barrande; and we proceed to point out their most 
notable features, indicating characters by which they can be compared 
with the British and other forms. 


(2.) Cerratiocaris pocreNs, Barrande. 


1856. Leptonotus Bohemicus, Barr. ‘Parall. entre la Bohéme et la Scandinavie,’ p. 58. 
1865. Hurypterus, sp. Barr. ‘Défense des Colonies,’ vol. iii. p. 235. 


AA2 


356 REPORT—1885. 


1868. Lurypterus leptonotus, Barr. Bigsby, ‘ Thes. Silur.’ p. 199. 
1872. C. docens, Barr. ‘Syst. Sil. Bohéme,’ vol. i. Suppl. p. 450, pl. 21, figs. 32-35. 


Seven segments, all somewhat displaced and those at the ends broken, 
about 80 mm. long altogether. Some are abont 20 mm. high. Longi- 
tudinal ornament of delicate, interrupted, wrinkly, raised lines of two 
sizes (fig. 35). This belongs to Barrande’s Silurian Stage! H e 2. 


(2.) CERATIOCARIS DECIPIENS, Barrande. 


1865. Hurypterus, sp. Barr. ‘ Déf. des Col.’ vol. iii. p. 235. 
1872. OC. decipiens, Barr. ‘8.8. BY vol. i. Suppl. p. 449, pl. 21, figs. 36-38. 

Three of the distal segments ; the ultimate (longest) broken. Alto- 
gether about 35mm. Much smaller than C. docens, stout-looking, sub- 
cylindrical or sub-quadrate in cross-section. The ornament is longitudinal, 
consisting of delicate, wrinkly, raised lines, in fascicules radiating back- 
wards (upwards), fig. 38. This belongs to Stage Hel. This fossil is 
so very similar to a Bactropus that it will probably be found to belong to 
one of the Phyllopods allied to Aristozoe. See further on, page 359. 


(8.) Cxratiocaris Scuaryi, Barrande. 


1872. CO. Scharyi, Barr. ‘8.58. B.’ vol. i. Suppl. p. 454, pl. 32, figs. 24-29. 
1876. C. Scharyi, F. Roem. ‘Leth. geogn,’ Th. i. ‘ Leth. pal.” Expl. pl. 19, fig. 6. 


Seven segments (75 mm., ultimate segment 23 mm.). Height of the 
highest (sixth from the end), 20 mm.; height at the end of the ultimate 
segmert, 10 mm. Proximal portion of the trifid appendage attached im 
place. Ornamented with a delicate imbrication of raised, leaf-shaped 
lines, like pointed arches, with a minute tracery of smaller leaf-like 
pattern within them: all pointing backwards (fig. 27). The same on the 
basal portion of the telson also. The ornament has some resemblance to 
the pattern on Hurypterus. It occurs also on C. Deweti, Hall, and on some 
British forms. This species belongs to Stage Ee 1. 


(4.) Crratiocaris Bonemica, Barrande. 


1853. Ceratiocaris (Leptocheles) Bohemicus, Barr. ‘Neues Jahrb. fir Min,’ &c. 1853. 
Heft iii. p. 342. 

1868. Ceratiocaris Bohemicus, Barr. Bigsby, ‘ Thesaur. Silur.’ p. 199. 

1872. C. Bohemicus, Barr. ‘Syst. Sil. Boheme,’ vol. i. Suppl. p. 447, pl. 19, figs. 1-13. 


Ultimate segment (fig. 1), 50 mm. long; with linear longitudinal 
ornament of interrupted raised lines. Telson ridged, and pitted (= spin- 
ose) along two channels on the back; linear ornament (as above) on 
the base; fragment 130 mm. Stylets (one perfect, 80 mm.), ridged. 

Near to C. Murchisoni. Several specimens of telsons and stylets are 
in the Brit. Mus., some marked ‘44878,’ ‘44428,’ and ‘44383,’ and 
some not numbered. This species belongs to Barrande’s Stage EH e 2. 


1 Barrande’s ‘ Stages’ are— 


He hid, 2 
Giada. Shares - g il, 2, snut = Passage-beds, Ludlow, Wenlock, and 
=; Pind Oy) Llandovery . 
H,e1, 2 
Second Fauna.— Stages D,d1, 2, 3,4, 5) =Bala-Caradoc, Llandeilo, Lingula- 
Primordial Fauna,—Stages C,c1 } flags, and Menevian. 


Azoic ; 3 - é ie 2 ; } = Precambrian, &c. 


ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALZOZOIC ROCKS. 357 


(5.) CERATIOCARIS INZQUALIS, Barrande. 
1868. Ceratiocaris inequalis, Barr. Bigsby, ‘Thes. Sil.’ p. 199. 
1872. as < a ‘Syst. Sil. B.’ vol. i. Suppl. p. 452, pl. 19, figs. 
14-16, 18; and Var. decurtata, figs. 17, 19. 

Some segments and appendages. Much smaller than C. Bohemica. 
Telson 70 mm. long. Stylets (fig. 18), 30 mm. long; var. decwrtata has 
them much shorter. A small crushed individual of this variety (fig. 19) 
bears the original little prickles along the telson. The lines of the longi- 
tudinal ornament are more inosculant than in C. Bohemica (fig. 15), and 
are oblique on a separate segment (fig. 16). The Brit. Mus. has two 
specimens (‘42585’). This species belongs to Barrande’s Colony d 9, 
and Stage Hel,e2. The var.toHKel. 


(6.) Crratrocaris ?! prpitis, Barrande. 
1868. Ceratiocaris debilis, Barr. Bigsby, ‘Thes. Sil.’ p. 199. 
1872. 3 3 re ‘Syst. 8. B.’ vol. i. Suppl. p. 448, pl. 18, figs. 20-25 ; 
pl. 19, figs. 20-27; pl. 26, fig. 18; pl. 31, figs. 16-19. 

Small, but like C. Bohemica in some respects. Only the appendages 
known. Style subflexuous (50 mm.), smooth on one (inner) face and 
pitted (= spinose) along two lines on the other (fig. 20). Style and 
stylets all ridged. A rostrum, probably of this species, narrow, chevron- 
marked, thin, and 6 mm. long, is shown at pl. 26, fig. 18. Ornamental 
lines, longitudinal, on the basal end of the telson (pl. 18, fig. 44). The 
Brit. Mus. has two pieces marked ‘42586,’ in one of which some frag- 
ments of a style or stylet (marked C. debilis) lie close by a carapace of 
Aristozoe perlonga, Barrande. This species belongs to Barrande’s Stage 
F £2; A. perlonga also belongs to Stage F f 2. 


(7.) CERATIOCARIS TARDA, Barrande. 


1868. Ceratiocaris tardus, Barr. Bigsby, ‘ Thes. Sil.’ p. 199. 
1872. = Fe W ‘Syst. S. B.’ vol. i. Suppl. p. 455, pl. 18, figs. 26-29. 


Fragments of a style orstylet (?) Outer face rounded and smooth ; 
inside channelled on each side of the smoothed and raised middle, with a 
row of large and small pits (= spines), symmetrically arranged in each 
channel (fig. 27). This species belongs to Stage G g 1. 


(8.) CERATIOCARIS PRIMULA, Barrande. 


1868. Ceratiocaris primulus, imperfectus, et elegans, Barr. Bigsby, ‘ Thes. Sil.’ p. 199. 
1872. z 9 Barr. ‘Syst. 8. B. vol. i. Suppl. p. 453, pl. 18, figs. 14-19. 


Two styles or stylets(?) only of this interesting form. They are 
spiniform, curved, and lozenge-shaped in section—that is, having four 
sloping sides or faces; the front and back edges are sharper than the 
side edges. The surface is faintly and irregularly ridged, and is pitted 
all over with the marks of former minute tubercles or spines (figs. 17 
and 19). This belongs to Stage Dd 5. 


M. Barrande has described and figured several specimens of the den- 
tate jaws (or teeth) like those of Ceratiocaris and Dithyrocuris, at p. 443, 
pl. 18, figs. 2-5; pl. 21, figs. 41-44; and pl. 31, fig. 21. 

It is remarkable that no Ceratiocaris is represented by the carapace 
among M. Barrande’s very numerous specimens. Some of the more 


1 See further on, p. 359, for O. Novak’s remarks on this form in relation to 
Bactropus and Avistozoe. 


358 REPORT—1885. 


unusual forms of telsons, such as 0. tarda and C. primula, may belong to- 
Nothozoe or some of the associated genera. M. O. Novak refers indi- 


viduals of C. debilis to Aristozoe regina (see further cn). Some also of 


the toothed mandibles may belong to such genera, as shown by Mr. C. E. 
Beecher. 


31. M. Barranpe’s Artstozor, Orozon, CaLLizon, AND NoTHozor. 


In 1863 (‘ Sixteenth Report State Cabinet N. Y.’ p. 74) Dr. James. 
Hall referred a certain Devonian Ceratiocarid, with some doubt, to: 
Aristozoe, thus intimating a relationship for this genus different to that 
which Barrande thought of. Hall’s species, however, has been since 
placed in the genus Hehinocaris by Prof. R. P. Whitfield, who, though 
he did not regard Aristozoe as a Ceratiocaridal Phyllopod, but, with 
Barrande, as an Ostracod, collocated his Aristozoe Canadensis with some 
species of Hchinocaris for comparison, in the plate (separate) illustrating 
his paper in the ‘ Americ. Journ. Sci.’ ser. 3, vol. xix. January 1880. 
With these facts before us, as supporting our own views on the subject, we 


inserted the Aristozoe, Orozoe, and Callizoe of Barrande in our Synopsis of 


the Genera of Fossil Phyllopods at p. 217 of ‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ for 1883 ; 
and we now add his Nothozoe as being probably near to Ceratiocaris. 

M. Barrande illustrated several species of these genera in his ‘ Systeme 
Silur. Bohéme,’ vol. i. Suppl. 1872. Some he had already mentioned 
by name in Dr. Bigsby’s ‘ Thesaur. Siluricus,’ 1868, p. 199. The genera 
were established in 1872. 

1. Aristozve amica, 1868, p. 476, pl. 24, figs. 32-39. 

if bisulcata, 1868, p. 477, pl. 23, figs. 9-14. 

- inclyta, 1872, p. 478, pl. 24, figs. 40, 41. 
lepida, 1872, p. 479, pl. 24, fig. 42; pl. 27, fig. 7; pl. 32, figs. 14, 15. 
memoranda, 1868, p. 480, pl. 24, figs. 43-51; pl. 27, fig. 6; pl. 32, 

figs. 16, 17. 

sy orphana, 1868, p. 481, pl. 23, figs. 6-8. 

5 perlonga, 1868, p. 482, pl. 23, figs. 26-39. 

Pe regina, 1868, p. 483, pl. 22, figs. 14-23; pl. 27, fig. 5. 

3 (2) Jonesi, 1872, p. 478, pl. 25, figs. 9-13. 

2. Orozoe mira, 1868, p. 537, pl. 24, figs. 23-26; pl. 31, figs. 7-9. 

3. Callizoe Bohemica, 1868, p. 503, pl. 22, figs. 1-13. 

4. Nothozoe pollens, 1868, p. 536, pl. 23, figs. 15-21; pl. 27, figs. 1-4. 

1. Avistozoe has strong convex valves, straight dorsally, variously 
and often boldly curved downwards and backwards ventrally, with strong 
ventral rim, Various and usually strong cephalothoracic nodes, com- 
prising tubercles which, marking places of attachment of internal organs, 
especially those of the buccal region, are usually present. The valves 
gape ; in A. Jonesi (which has one feeble node) very widely at both ends. 
This, probably, is generically distinct. Valves of different species, and 
of different ages, vary from 10 to 80 mm. in length. The ornament in 
some is a minute reticulation (fig. 2, pl. 23); in others it is delicately 
linear (fig. 76, pl. 27). 

A. perlonga has persistently a small neat tubercle on the middle of 
the rim bordering the posterior edge of the valve. The tubercle of the 
muscle-spot (?) is very strong in this form, and the valves are relatively 
long and narrow. With one specimen of A. perlonga in the British Museum 
(‘ 42586 ’) a fragment of a thin caudal spine of some Ceratiocarid is closely 
imbedded. M. O. Novak has found reason to treat of A. regina as 
a Ceratiocarid with abdominal segments and caudal spines. (See 
further on.) 


ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALZOZOIC ROCKS. 359 


2. Orozoe has the cephalothoracic nodes very strong, and a great blunt 
spine projecting from the upper part of the posterior moiety of the valve. 

3. Callizoe is very distinct from the foregoing. Itis delicately shaped, 
long-half-egg-shaped, with straight back, and sometimes a slight in- 
flection of the antero-ventral margin, near which the cephalothoracic 
nodes are placed, instead of dorsally as in Aristozoe and Orozoe. The 
ventral rim distinct and regular; the ornament of the valves delicate, 
longitudinal, inosculating, raised lines, with an intermediate minute 
punctation (fig. 7). 

4, Barrande’s Nothozoe is illustrated by seven figures of specimens, 
mostly ovate or oval, with plain surface; somewhat like Ceratiocaris, 
especially fig. 1, pl. 27. The ventral rim, however, is apparently too 
strong for that genus in figs. 1 and 2. The specimens measure 28 x 16, 

40 x 25, 50 x 30, and 65 x 40 mm. 


32. ARISTOZOE REGINA, Barrande, and its abdominal appendages. 


M. Ottomar Novak, the keeper of the Barrande Collection at Prague, 
has lately made some valuable observations on some of the specimens - 
collected by M. Barrande and referred by him to Aristozoe, Bactropus, 
and Ceratiocaris debilis. (‘ Remarques sur le genre Aristozoe, Barrande.’ 
‘ Sitzungsb. k. béhm. Gesellsch. Wissensch.’ 1885.) 

M. O. Novak has with great acumen discovered that such a telson as is 
described for Ceratiocaris debilis by Barrande will accurately fit, in all 
respects, the distal end of one of the fossil abdominal segments, figured 
and named Bactrepus longipes by Barrande (‘ Sil. Syst. Bohéme,’ vol. i. 
Suppl. 1872, p. 581, pl. 21, figs. 1-22). Further, he has found that large 
numbers of individuals of the Bactropus, the Ceratiocarid telson, and 
Aristozoe regina, Barr., are associated in the same white limestone of the 
‘f 2’ band over a wide area in Bohemia. Hence he has reason to regard 
the carapace, the abdominal segment, and the telson as all belonging to 
one animal. This seems, indeed, to be very likely ; but at the same time 
there are probably more than one species and genus indicated by the 
telsons referred to C0. debilis. One, at least (pl. 18, fig. 24), if correctly 
determined, has a longitudinal linear ornament, not agreeing with that 
of Bactropus longipes, which is transverse (pl. 21, fig. 22; and Novak, 
op. cit. pl. 1, figs. 21-23). M. Barrande found also a characteristic 
Ceratiocarid ‘ rostrum’ with his C. debilis (pl. 26, fig. 18). M. Novak 
indicates that the structure of the basal joint of the telson would 
accommodate the hingement of two lateral stylets, so that Aristozoe 
would have had the trifid caudal appendage usual in the Phyllocarida. 
It yet remains to be shown how many were the abdominal segments of 
which the curious, cylindrical, tubular Buctropus was one, and what pro- 
portion this long ultimate segment bore to the others. M. Novak refers 
to it as ‘a part of the post-abdomen (several segments? coalesced)’ ; 
farther research will probably help in its elucidation. 


33. ECHINOCARIS AND ITs ALLIES. 


In the ‘ Geological Magazine,’ dec. 3, vol. i. 1884, pp. 393-396, we 
published some ‘ Notes on Phyllopodiform Crustaceans referable to the 
Genus Ecutnovaris from the Paleozoic Rocks.’ In this we mentioned in 
detail the evidence supplied by the labours of Dr. James Hall and Prof. 


360 REPORT—1885. 


R. P. Whitfield for the genus Echinocaris and its species, and reproduced 
illustrative figures from their memoirs, namely :— 
‘Sixteenth Annual Report State Cab. N. Y.’ 1863. 
Ceratiocaris armatus, J. Hall, p. 72, pl. 1, figs. 1-8. Hamilton Group, Ontario 
County, N. Y. 
f longicaudus, J. Hall, p. 73, pl. 1, figs. 4-7 (2). Genessee Slate, On- 
tario County, N. Y. 
Pf ? punctatus, J. Hall, p. 74, pl. 1, fig. 8. Hamilton Group, Cayuga 
Lake, N. Y. 
‘Palzont. New York,’ vol. v. part 2; ‘Illustrations of Devonian Fossils,’ &c. 1876. 
Ceratiocaris armatus, J. Hall, pl. 23, figs. 4, 5. 
‘5 punctatus, J. Hall, pl. 23, fig. 7. 
Both of these are referred to one species in the Explanation of the Plate. 
‘Americ. Journ. Sci.’ ser. 3, vol. xix. Jan. 1880. 
Echinocaris sublevis, Whitfield, p. 36, figs. 4-6. 
x pustulosa, Whitfield, p. 38, fig. 7. 
a multinodosa, Whitfield, p. 38, fig. 8. 
In separate plate. All from the Erie Shales (Portage and Chemung, at Leroy, 
Lake County, Ohio). 
Echinocaris punctata, Hall. Whitf. p. 37. Carapace. = LE. punctata, accord- 
#8 armata, Hall. Whitf. p. 37. Abdomen and ing to Prof. Whit- 
telson. field. 

These two we put together as H. armata, ‘ Geol. Mag.’ 1884, p. 398; 
and we hazarded the opinion that figs. 4, 5, and 6 of pl. 1 (1863) may 
have belonged to this species, and that certainly fig. 7 was specifically (if 
not generically) distinct. 

Mr. C. E. Beecher, of Albany, has added considerably of late to our 
knowledge of Hchinocaris and its allies (‘Second Geol. Surv. Pennsyl- 
vania: Report of Progress, P.P.P.’ 1884). Giving a careful account of 
the generic characters of this form, and of the specific features of 
Ei. punctata (Hall), p. 6, pl. 1, figs. 183-16, he adds 2. socialis, n. sp., 
p- 10, pl. 1, figs. 1-12; and then describes Elymocaris siliqua, nov. gen. 
et sp., p. 13, pl. 2, figs. 1, 2; Tropidocaris, gen. nov., p.15; Tr. bicarinata, 
n. sp., p. 16, pl. 2, figs. 3-5 ; Tr. interrupta, n. sp., p. 18, pl. 2, fig. 6; 
and 7'r. alternata, n. sp., p. 19, pl. 2, figs. 7, 8. Except E. alternata, 
which is from the Waverley Group, the new species are from the Chemung 
Group, Warren, Pennsylvania. The trifid caudal appendage seems to have 
had the lateral spines (stylets) of nearly the same length as the central spine 
(telson or style). He describes also and figures some denticulated mandi- 
bles from the Hamilton Group, New York, at p. 9, and pl. 2, figs. 9-11. 

We further added a critical note on the Equisetides Wrightiana, Daw- 
son, from the Portage Group, New York State, ‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe.’ 
vol. xxxvii. 1881, p. 301, pl. 12, fig. 10, and pl. 13, fig. 20. We 
ventured to think we had good proof of this being really a portion of the 
abdomen (two segments) of a very large Hehinocaris—H. Wrightiana 
(Dawson). Like the other Hehinocarides, it was found in the Devonian 
strata of North America. This interesting relic represents perhaps the 
largest Ceratiocarid known, each segment being about 2 inches long, 
2 inches high, and 1 inch thick. 

With L. armata (punctata) Mr. Beecher finds associated many denticu- 
lated mandibles, similar to those found with Ceratiocaris in Scotland. 
Some he refers to that species; others he thinks belonged to an unknown 
species. Fig. 16 illustrates a pair of mandibles in place, ‘nearly one- 
third the length of the valves’! The carapace of this species measures 
about 30 x 20 mm. (largest 55 x 37 mm.) ; there are six external segments, 
prickly on the back, smooth underneath, 85 mm. ; telson, 23 mm. 


tm Sa 


9 


ON THE FOSSIL PHYLLOPODA OF THE PALEOZOIC ROCKS. 361 


/ 

E. socialis is a very small form, belonging to the same group as Whit- 
field’s species from New York State. It measures 18 x10 mm. ; abdo- 
men, 6 mm.; telson, 6 mm. 

Elymocaris has its valves plainer and more oblong than those of 
Bichinocaris. The long straight dorsal edge and elliptically curved 
ventral (deeper behind than in front) give a semi-ovate outline. The 
posterior is truncate, with a hollow curve just below the postero-dorsal 
angle. Ocular tubercle distinct, but the other cephalothoracic nodes are 
less developed than in Hehinocaris, and occupy the angular anterior third 
of the valve. The abdomen preserved in fig. 1, pl. 2, shows a penultimate 
and an ultimate segment (the latter apparently split longitudinally), and 
a trifid appendage of a stout short telson and two stylets almost as broad 
and quite as long, ‘crenuiated along their inner margins for the attach- 
ment of fimbria,’ as in Dithyrocaris Neptunt, Hall, and D. tricornis, Scouler. 
This set of stout small caudal spines and segments will doubtless prove 
very useful in comparing other but less distinct fossil appendages. 

Carapace-valve, 23 x10 mm. ; two segments, 10 mm.; telson, 9 mm. 

Tropidocaris has semielliptical valves (25 x12 mm. and 37 x14 mm.), 
very similar in outline to those of Hlymocaris, but ornamented with 2—7 
longitudinal, interrupted, raised, parallel ridges (somewhat analogous to 
those on some varieties of Kirkbya permiana and K. euglypha, but more 
especially to those on some of the species of Dithyrocaris). Delicate 
curved striz also on some valves. Optic and other nodes present. 
Abdominal segments small, cylindrical, tapering, not well known. 


34. The Corrocaris of F. B. Meek is a Carboniferous fossil of much 
interest, though of doubtful character in some respects. 


1868. Ceratiocaris? sinuatus, Meek and Worthen. ‘Amer. Journ. Sci.’ vol. xlvi. 


p. 22. 
1873. Ceratiocaris ? sinuatus, M.and W. ‘Geol. Surv. Illinois’ (Geol. and Palzont.), 
p. 540, fig. 5, woodcut. 


Somewhat rhombic-subovate; posterior end truncate and deeply 
sinuous; dorsal margin a depressed arch. From the Coal-measures, 
Grundy County, Illinois. 

1872. Colpocaris (?sub-genus of Ceratiocaris) Bradleyi and elytroides, Meek. 

‘Proceed. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philada.’ vol. xxiv. pp. 332-34. 

1875. Ceratiocaris (Colpocaris) Bradleyi, Meek. ‘ Report Geol. Surv. Ohio,’ vol. ii. 
(Geol. and Palzont.), Part II. ‘ Paleontology,’ p. 318, pl. 18, figs. 6a—6e. 

1875. Ceratiocaris (Colpocaris) elytroides, Meek. Op. cit. p. 319, pl. 18, figs. 5a, 5d. 


These are acute-oval, but one end has a relatively large semicircular 
notch cut into it. The first of these two differs but little, except in the 
relative depth and slight obliquity of semicircular notch in what is 
described as the posterior margin. The surface is minutely reticulate 
(fig. 6c). A large and a small individual are figured; 70x32 mm., and 
24x10 mm. Fig. 6d indicates a set of three caudal spines, and 6e, 
another set not so perfect. These were found associated with the cara- 
pace-valves. Figs. 5a, 5b, is a small species (28 x13 mm.) of a generally 
similar outline; and fig. 5c shows its longitudinal linear ornament. 
These are from the Carboniferous beds of Ohio, U.S. As yet we have no 
knowledge as to the exact relationship of Colpocaris. See also Prof. 
Whitfield’s remarks, ‘ Americ. Journ. Sci.’ vol. xix. 1880, p. 36. 


The other Phyllopodous genera mentioned in our lists, such as Dithyro- 
caris, Hstheria, &c., will be treated of at another opportunity. 


362 REPORT—1885. 


Fifth Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. R. ETHERIDGE, 
Mr. THomas Gray, and Professor JoHN MILNE (Secretary), 
appointed for the purpose of investigating the Earthquake 
Phenomena of Japan. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) 


On account of an excursion which I have the intention of making during 
the coming summer to Australia and New Zealand I am compelled to 
draw up this report a month earlier than usual. As the only time when 
the work of attending to observations and experiments repays itself is 
during the winter months, I may safely say that my intention of shorten- 
ing the time usually devoted to earthquake observations is not likely to 
involve any serious loss. 

If we refer to the records of the last year—that is to say, from the end 
of April 1884. to the end of April 1885—it will be seen that the opportunities 
for making observations have been unusually good. The number of 
earthquakes felt during corresponding periods in two previous years and 
this last year was respectively twenty-six, thirty-nine, and eighty. 

Not only have the earthquakes been numerous, but some of them 
have been pretty stiff, as is testified by the fact that on several occasions 
chimneys fell and walls were cracked. 

The work done during the last year is briefly as follows. 


Seismic Experiments. 


From time to time I have had the honour of reporting to the British 
Association on seismic experiments. These experiments were commenced 
in conjunction with Mr. T. Gray in 1880. The movements which were 
then recorded were produced by allowing a heavy ball, 1,710 Ibs. in 
weight, to fall from various heights up to thirty-five feet. Subsequently 
many experiments were made by exploding charges of dynamite and 
gunpowder placed in bore-holes. The observations which were made 
upon the resultant vibrations of the ground were very numerous. As 
examples of them may be mentioned—the determination of the nature of 
earth vibrations as deduced from diagrams, the velocity of propagation of 
different kinds of vibrations, the relative motion of neighbouring points 
of ground, experiments on the production of earth currents, experiments 
on projection and overturning, &c. 

During the last year, whilst working up the long series of records 
which accumulated, several laboratory experiments were made to inves- 
tigate the methods to be employed when analysing the diagrams of earth 
motion. 

The first of these experiments consisted in projecting a small ball 
from the top of a tall flat vertically-placed spring, and at the same time 
causing the spring to draw a diagram of its motion. From the distance 
the ball was thrown its initial velocity could be calculated. From the 
diagram, either by calculation on the assumption of simple harmonic 
motion or by direct measurement, the maximum velocity of movement 
could be obtained. 

These three quantities practically agreed. The most important result 
obtained by these experiments was that they indicated an important 
element to be calculated in earthquake or dynamite diagrams, and, further 


ON THE EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 363: 


that in these diagrams the first sudden movement, which invariably has 
the appearance of a quarter-oscillation, ought apparently to be considered 
as a semi-oscillation. 

The second set of experiments consisted in determining the quantity 
to be calculated from an earthquake diagram which would give a measure 
of the overturning or shattering power of a disturbance. 

For this purpose a light strip of wood was caused by means of a strong 
spiral spring and a heavy weight to move horizontally back and forth 
with the period of the spring. On this strip small columns of wood were 
stood on end, and it was determined how far the spring had to be deflected 
and then suddenly released to cause overturning. 

Knowing the period of the spring and its amplitude, the — 
velocity v, the meantime acceleration - ,and the maximum acceleration . 
might be calculated. An acceleration, f, sufficient to cause overturning 
could also be calculated from the dimensions of the column. The result 
of various experiments showed that for small deflections f was nearly 


; NG 
equal to . , but for larger deflections the value for f lies between = 


2 
and». From this it seems that the overturning power of an earthquake 


can only be approximately determined from the dimensions of a body 
which has been overthrown. The quantity f is not the quantity v, or 
‘maximum velocity of an earth particle,’ so largely employed by Mallet 
and other earthquake investigators. Such a quantity, which may be 
determined for bodies of definite dimensions on the assumption that they 
are overturned by a sudden blow, so far as my experiments have gone, 
does not tell us anything about the nature of earthquake motion. 

An account of these and other experiments which I have from time to 
time been engaged upon will shortly be published as a part of Vol. VIII. 
in the ‘ Transactions of the Seismological Society.’ The more important 
results of all these experiments are as follows. 

In reading these conclusions it must be remembered that they only 
refer to experiments performed in certain kinds of ground. 


I. Effect of Ground on Vibration. 


1. Hills have but little effect in stopping vibrations. 

2. Excavations exert considerable influence in stopping vibrations. 

3. In soft damp ground it is easy to produce vibrations of large 
amplitude and considerable duration. 

4, In loose dry ground an explosion of dynamite yields a disturbance 
of large amplitude but of short duration. 

5. In soft rock it is difficult to produce a disturbance the amplitude 
of which is sufficiently great to be recorded on an ordinary seismograph. 


II. General Character of Motion. 


1. The pointer of a seismograph with a single index first moves in a 
normal direction, after which it is suddenly deflected, and the resulting 
diagram yields a figure partially dependent on the relative phases of the 
normal and transverse motion. These phases are in turn dependent upon 
the distance of the seismograph from the origin. 


364 REPORT—1885. 


2. A bracket seismograph indicating normal motion at a given station 
commences its indications before a similar seismograph arranged to write 
transverse motion. 

3. If the diagrams yielded by two such seismographs be compounded, 
they yield figures containing loops and other irregularities not unlike the 
figures yielded by the seismograph with the single index. 7 

4. Near to an origin, the first movement will be in a straight line 
outwards from the origin; subsequently the motion may be elliptical, 
like a figure 8, and irregular. The general direction of motion is, however, 
normal. 

5. Two points of ground only a few feet apart may not synchronise in 
their motions. 

6. Earthquake motion is probably not a simpJe harmonic motion. 


III. Normal Motion. 


1. Near to an origin the first motion is outwards. At a distance 
from an origin the first motion may be inwards. 

‘As to whether it will be inwards or outwards is probably partly de- 
pendent on the intensity of the initial disturbance, and on the distance of 
the observing station from the origin. 

2. At stations near the origin the motion inwards is greater than the 
motion outwards. At a distance the inwardsand outwards motion are 
practically equal. 

3. At a station near the origin, the second or third wave is usually 
the largest, after which the motion dies down very rapidly in its am- 
plitude, the motion inwards decreasing more rapidly than the motion 
outwards. 

4. Roughly speaking, the amplitude of normal motion is inversely as 
the distance from the origin. 

5. At a station near an origin the period of the waves is at first short. 
It becomes longer as the disturbance dies out. 

6. The semi-oscillations inwards are described more rapidly than those 
outwards. 

7. As a disturbance radiates the period increases. Finally it becomes 
equal to the period of the transverse motion. From this it may be inferred 
that the greater the initial disturbance the greater the frequency of waves. 

8. Certain of the inward motions of ‘shock’ have the appearance of 
having been described in less than no time. 

9. Tables have been calculated to show the maximum velocity of 
normal motion. 

10. Diagrams have been drawn to show the intensity of normal 
motion. 

11. The first outwards motion, which on diagrams has the appearance 
of a quarter-wave, must be regarded as a semi- oscillation. 

12. The waves on the diagrams taken at different stations do not 
correspond. 

13. Ata station near the origin, a notch in the crest of a wave of 
shock gradually increases as the disturbance spreads, so that at a second 
station the wave with a notch has split up into two waves. 

14. Near the origin the normal motion has a definite commencement. : 
At a distance the motion commences irregularly, the maximum motion 
being reached gradually. 


€ 
. 


ON THE EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 365 


IV. Transverse Motion. 


1. Near to an origin the transverse motion commences definitely but 
_ irregularly. 

2. Like the normal motion, the first two or three movements are 
decided, and their amplitude slightly exceeds that of those which follow. 

3. The amplitude of transverse motion as the disturbance radiates 
decreases at a slower rate than that of the normal motion. 

4. As a disturbance dies out at any particular station the period 
decreases. 

5. As a disturbance radiates the period increases. This is equivalent 
to an increase in period as the intensity of the initial disturbance 
increases. 

6. As we recede from an origin the commencement of the transverse 
motion becomes more indefinite. 

7. It will be observed that the laws governing the transverse motion 
are practically identical with those which govern the normal motion, the 
only difference being that in the case of normal motion they are more 
clearly pronounced. 


V. Relation of Normal to Transverse Motion. 


1. Near to an origin the amplitude of normal motion is much greater 
than that of the transverse motion. 

2. As the disturbance radiates, the amplitude of the transverse motion 
decreases at a slower rate than that of the normal motion, so that at a 
certain distance they may be equal to each other. 

3. Near to an origin the period of the transverse motion may be double 
that of the normal motion ; but as the disturbance dies out at any given 
station, or as it radiates, the periods of these two sets of vibrations 
approach each other. 


VI. Maximum Velocity and Intensity of Movement. 


1. An earth particle usually reaches its maximum velocity during the 
first inward movement. A high velocity is, however, sometimes attained 
inthe first outward semi-oscillation. 

2. The intensity of an earthquake is best measured by its destructive 
power in overturning, shattering, or projecting various bodies. 

3. The value v?=$gV a?+b? x (=5- used by Mallet and 
other seismologists to express the velocity of shock as determined from 
the dimensions of a body which has been overturned, is a quantity not 
obtainable from an earthquake diagram. It represents the effect of a 
sudden impulse. ; 

4, In an earthquake a body is overturned or shattered by an accelera- 
tion, f, which quantity is calculable for a body of definite dimensions. 

The quantity f as obtained from an earthquake diagram lies be- 


tween ; and, where vy is the maximum velocity, ¢ is the quarter- 
a 


period, and a is the amplitude. 


366 REPORT—1885. 


5. The initial velocity given in the formula v?= = (for horizontal 


projection), used by Mallet as identical with v? in 3, is not an identical 
‘quantity. ; 

The velocity calculated from the range af projection when projection 
occurs is identical with the maximum velocity as measured directly or 
calculated from a diagram. 


2 
6. In discussing the intensity of movement I have used the values Wet 


a 
7. The intensity of an earthquake at first decreases rapidly as the 
disturbance radiates ; subsequently it decreases more slowly. 
8. A curve of intensities deduced from observations at a sufficient 
number of stations would furnish the means of approximately calculating 
an absolute value for the intensity of an earthquake. 


VIL. Vertical Motion. 


1. In soft ground vertical motion appears to be a free surface wave 
which outraces the horizontal component of motion. 

2. Vertical motion commences with small rapid vibrations, and ends 
with vibrations which are long and slow. 

3. High velocities of transit may be obtained by the observation of 
this component of motion. It is possibly an explanation of the preliminary 
tremors of an earthquake and the sound phenomenon. 

4. The amplitude and period of vertical waves as observed at the 
same or different stations have been measured. 


VIII. Velocity. 


1. The velocity of transit decreases as a disturbance radiates. 

2. Near toan origin the velocity of transit varies with the intensity of 
the initial disturbance. 

3. In different kinds of ground, with different intensities of initial 
disturbance, and with different systems of observation, I determined 
velocities lying between 630 and about 200 feet per second. Mallet 
determined a velocity in sand of 824 feet, and in granite of 1,664 feet, per 
second. General Abbot has observed velocities of 8,800 feet per second. 
All of these determinations I regard as being practically correct, the 
great difference between them being due partly to the nature of the rock, 
the intensity of the initial disturbance, and the kind of wave which was 
observed. 

4. In my experiments the vertical free surface wave had the quickest 
rate of transit, the normal being next, and the transverse motion being 
the slowest. 

5. The rate at which the normal motion outraces the transverse 
motion is not constant. 

6. As the amplitude and period of the normal motion approach in 
value to those of the transverse motion, so do the velocities of transit of 
these motions approach each other. : 

7. By cross-bending and torsion of cylinders of rocks the velocity — 
with which normal and transverse vibrations would be propagated in — 
such rocks has been determined. These determinations show that the 


H ON THE EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 367 
ratio of the speed of these two kinds of motion is not constant. The 
softer and less elastic rocks are, the nearer do these velocities approach 
each other. That the ratio of the speed of normal and transverse motions 

- is not constant is shown from a table of these velocities calculated for 
different rocks from their moduli of elasticity. 


IX. Miscellaneous. 


1. At the time of an earth disturbance, currents are produced in 
telegraph lines. : : ' ‘ 

2. The exceedingly rapid decrease in the intensity of a disturbance in 

the immediate neighbourhood of the epicentrum has been illustrated by 
a diagram. ; : 

3. For the duration of a disturbance due to a given impulse in 

_ different kinds of ground, reference must be made to the detailed descrip- — 

tions of the first four sets of experiments. 


X. The Simultaneous Observation of Earthquakes at several Stations in 
Electrical Connection. 


In my last report to the Association I gave the results of observations 
carried on at three stations, which were indicated by the numerals I., II., 
and III. These three stations I now call A, B, and C, and have added on 

_ to them other stations in the same area called D, E, F, G, H, and J. 
G refers to the records taken by an instrument placed inside a house 
specially constructed to mitigate the effects of earthquake motion. H is 
@ station ina pit 10 feet deep. To these records I shall make special 
reference. J is a station where there are now two instruments. It is 
between the house and the pit, about 20 or 30 feet from each. F is a 
station on the edge of flat marshy ground, at the foot of a slope running 
nearly north and south. At a level of about 10 feet above this are the 
stations C and D on hard ground. The relative position of these stations 
will be understood from the following sketch (fig. 1). A line from A to 


MOAT 


B bears § 15° 30’ W. The dotted line shows a gentle slope dividing the 
soft ground from the hard ground. The softest ground is in the middle 
of the triangle B, E, F, where it is quite marshy. The following five 
tables embody the principal results which have been obtained. For 
stations G, H, and J the number of observations are too few to give average 
results. I is the starting station. 


368 REPORT—1885. 


Number of Waves in Ten Seconds. 


1884-85 A B C D E F G H J 
March 25 . ; 22 18 
yj el! 30 32 23 
April 6 30 25 32 
May 6 32 26 35 
ay pill | 30 27 35 
Sy ll 37 33 21 
le) 22 26 
» 30 28 21 
hho 31 28 
Junell . 32 26 26 
October 24. 36 30 
November 16 34 32 38 
FA 21 36 35 38 
> 27 36 28 38 
5 29 36 18 * 
December 7 34 iF 
i, . | 24 24 
a 16 30 28 40 
4 23 26 
# 30 32 42 | 30 or 
16 
January 2. ; 26 26 |40o0r| 40 
12 
February 1 .| 28 20 
* 4 .| 30 30 24 
= 12 . | 80 28 14 34 725 
5s 27 5) BY! 32 36 
» 28 50 
March 12 30 26 18 48 
ay 8 2a 5 eet 30 14 12 26 
Average . ~| 30 28 29 34 | 23 0r| 37 60 12 26 
28 


Period of Largest Wave in Seconds. 


1884-85 A B C D E F G H J 
March 25 . ‘ ‘73 *85 
or eB i 10) 24 ao 
April 6 : 5 ibe ate “61 “36 
May 6 “47 ‘70 36 
a 35 AT 26 
41 49, 23 36 20 
LD, “40 50 
ay ol) *B6 40 
9 OL : p 35 30 
Junell . , 36 36 36 
October 24. ‘ 32 “41 
November 16. “AT “47 23 
és Dilip: Ti 45 “30 
- By ms 45 36 20 
ss 298 |. 36 “56 40 
December 7 . 24 24 
9 40 40 


” 


* At D too irregular to estimate. t At D too small to estimate. t Ripples. 


ON THE EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 369 


Period of Largest Wave in Seconds—continued. 


1884-85 A B C D E F G H J 
December16 . “45 D4 “37 

” 23 . “40 

” a0}. 32 ‘18 75 
January 2 . 7 ‘70 18 ‘90 ‘18 


November 16. "25 “30 05 
Ay 21}. ‘10 "25 | °05 | 
of 2a its “15 "25 | °05 
a 29) |. “20 “60 | -06 
December 7 . 10 “20 ‘05 
as gy. ‘07 05 
E 16. *80 | 1:20 "25 
‘ 7b ae 10 
‘i SU ie “45 20 | 1:90 
January 2 . : "25 | "05 | 2°50] 05 
February 1. 05 ‘07 10} :01 05 
os a. 05 10 05 | +02 
A 12 1:20 “80 2:20 70 50 
” 27 10 12 05 04 
” oT ae 05 
March 12 . : 10 “30 “60 ‘10 
a 2m Sieekcod | AO 1:90 f 035 | 1:2 
Average . : “37 “40 07 |. °09 ‘95 | :19 ‘17 |} 035) 1:2 


1885. : j BB 


370 REPORT—1885. 


Maximum Velocity in Millimetres per Second. 


1884-85 A B C D E F G H J 4 
— ¢ 
March 25 a) 3:7 
pe hei 21] 36] -9 
April 6 50 8:0 | ney 
May 6 53 90) 17 
Pen 60 | 12:0 | 24 
» 19 18 | 26] 12 
; 19 15 | 25 
» 30 ay 15 
il 8 2:0 
Junell . * 2-7 4:5 1:80 
October 24. 1:3 15 
November 16 3°5 4:0 1:30 
: 21 22) 35 1:00 
* 27 2:0 4-4 1:50 
Fh 29 3-4 7:0 ‘78 
December 7 5:0 1:20 F 
3 9 1:0 “70 
oP OG 11:0 | 140 420 ; 
ae 15 { 
5 BOP ee 9:0 700 | 16:0 
January 2. F 2:2 1:70 | 17:0 ey, 
February 1 . “7, 6 1:2 
zs 4 15 2:0 
_ 12 19:0 13 ES) LO: a2 
+ 27 2°6 2-7 1-2 
rf 28 2:0 
March 12 . 3-4 6:0 58 2 
20 18:0 | 16:0 8-0 
Average . : 44 53 | 16 | 1:40 97 57 if 25 13 
Maximum Acceleration in Millimetres per Second.—Intensity. 
March 25 . 27 
5. antl 44 921 16 
April 6 83 80 | 28 
May 6 70 81} 28 
er 120] 160| 57 
> 29 46 45 | 38 
le 22 ah 
» 30 16 22 
Seenl 13 40 
Junell . 48 81 32 
October 24. 27 22 
November 16 49 53 34 
a 21 48 49 20 
Se oT | tn 45 
55 2907, 57 81 12 
December 7 , 125 28 
a oF 14 9 
93 165 i vol a7 70 
é Bt BN 22 
5 30 .| 180 24572] 135 
January 2 . : 19 58 116 58 
February 1 A 10 5 14 ? 
3 1 arn 45 40 
5s 12 .| 300] 210 170 | 145] 128 
is Diles ea 67 60 28 
a 28 80 
March 12 . Pa) eLLS ole 20 56 40 
eres e | 2495) ag? 34 Le 140 
Average . : 75 75 33 | 55 79 101 84 17 140 


— 


ON THE EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. Sin 


The analysis of the diagrams from which the above tables have been 
calculated has not yet been completed. Some of the more important 
results to which they point are as follows :— 

1. All stations have invariably given different records for the same 
earthquake. The principal differences relate to direction, period, ampli- 
tude, maximum velocity, and maximum acceleration. 

2. On the hard ground, as at C and D, the amount of motion is very 
much less than at the remaining stations, like A, B, F,and E. Com- 
paring together the average maximum velocities and maximum accelera- 
tions at C and E, we see that they have respectively been as 1 to 5 and 
1 to 2:4. A practical conclusion to be drawn from this is that a house 
at C might stand whilst a similar house at E might be shattered. 

3. Similar waves only appear in the diagrams at different stations 
where an earthquake is strong. 

4. As a disturbance passes from station to station the time interval 
between two similar waves suffers a change. This leads to uncertainty 
in determining the velocity with which a disturbance travels. 

Other results to be derived from these observations will be given at 
a future period. In the tables of the report upon stations A, B, and C, 
published in 1884, several misprints occurred. These are now cor- 
rected, 


Experiments on a Building to resist Earthquake Motion, 


In the report of last year I described a house which rested at its 
foundations upon cast-iron balls. These balls were 10-inch shells. The 
records obtained from an instrument placed inside this house showed 
that, although it was subjected to considerable movement at the time of 
an earthquake, all sudden motion had been destroyed. Although the 
balls did very much to mitigate earthquake motion, wind and other 
causes produced movements of a far more serious nature than the earth- 
quake. ‘To give greater steadiness to the house, 8-inch balls were tried, 
and then 1-inch balls, Finally the house was rested at each of its piers 
upon a handful of cast-iron shot, each {inch in diameter. By this 
means the building has been rendered astatic, and, in consequence of the 


' great increase in rolling friction, sufficiently stable to resist all effects 


like those of wind. The shot rest between flat iron plates. That the 
house had peculiar foundations would not be noticed unless specially 
pointed out. The motion experienced in the house is indicated in 
column G of the preceding tables. The best idea of this motion is seen 
by reference to the accompanying diagram, taken on February 12, 1885. 
From this diagram it will be seen that in the house only two small 
shocks, A and B, were recorded, whilst at all the other stations, not only 
were there many shocks equivalent to A and B, but there were many 
which were greater. From these experiments it seems evident that it is 
possible to build light one-storied structures of wood or iron in which, 
relatively to other houses, but little movement will be felt. 


Observations in a Pit 10 feet deep. 


The instrument placed in this pit is similar to all the other instru- 
ments, and is installed in a similar position. Column H in the preceding 
tables refers to the observations which have been made. Comparing the 

BB2 


ies REPORT— 1885. 


maximum amplitudes, maximum velocities, and maximum accelerations 
obtained in the pit with those obtained at about thirty feet distance at 
station J, they are for one particular earthquake respectively in the ratios 
of 1 ; 43,1: 52, and 1 : 82 (see diagram for March 20, 1885).!_ In most 
earthquakes the extent of motion has been too small to admit of measure- 
ment, and that there had been any movement could only be detected by 
holding the plate on which the record was written up to the light and 
glancing along it lengthways. This investigation tends to confirm the 
view which I have previously put forward, that an earthquake at a short 
distance from its epicentrum is practically a surface disturbance, prin- 
cipally consisting of horizontal movements. The vertical motion is small, 
and is best seen in the preliminary tremors either of an actual earthquake 
or of a dynamite explosion. From a practical point of view these results 
must be of the greatest importance to those who have to erect heavy 
structures in earthquake districts. Ata future time I hope to continue 
these experiments by comparing together the motion—Ist, of a foundation 
unattached to the sides of the excavation where it is built; 2nd, of a 
similar foundation connected to the sides by brushwood and covered with 
a layer of earth ; 3rd, of a similar foundation put in the ground in the 
ordinary method ; 4th, of a piece of ground isolated with trenches ; and 
5th, of the ordinary ground. 


Buildings in Earthquake Countries. 


As during the last few years so much destruction both to life and 
property has taken place in various parts of Europe, it seems that an 
epitome of the results of observations and experiments carried on in 
Japan relative to construction in seismic districts might not only be 
interesting, but possibly it might also be of practical value. When 
erecting a building it appears that we ought first to reduce as far as 
possible the quantity of motion which ordinary buildings receive; and, 
second, to construct a building that it will resist that portion of the 
momentum which we are unable to keep out. To reduce the momentum 
which usually reaches a building the following may be done :— 

1. Institute a seismic survey of the district or area in which it is 
intended to build, and select a site where experiment shows that the 
motion is relatively small. 

2. For heavy buildings adopt deep foundations (perhaps with lateral 
freedom), or at least let the building be founded on the hardest and most 
solid ground. It is perhaps because the tops of the hills in Tokio are 
harder than the plains that they have relatively the least motion. To 
what extent a building may be isolated by trenches or natural valleys is 
not yet known, but it must be remembered that a building only partially 
isolated may be exceedingly dangerous from the fact that motion entering 
in the unprotected side will make the excavations (cuttings, valleys, &c.) 
upon the opposite side into free surfaces which will swing forward 
through a range greater than they would have swung had the excavations 
not existed. 

3. For light buildings, especially if erected on soft ground, where the 
range of motion is always great, if the structure rests on layers of fine 


cast-iron shot, it cannot possibly receive the same momentum as a build. ° 


? Tam not yet prepared to state whether these ratios will hold for all earthquakes. 


ON THE EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 373 


ing attached to the moving ground. The extent to which the acquisition 
of momentum may be avoided by the adoption of one or all of these 
methods may be judged of by reference to the three previous sections of 
this report. To resist the effects of momentum which cannot be cut off a 
building, and therefore tends to shatter it, the following rules appear to 
be among the most important :— 

1. Bear in mind the fact that it is chiefly stresses and strains which 
are applied horizontally to a building which have to be encountered. 
Ordinary masonry arches are continually cracked by earthquakes, inas- 
much as they are only designed to resist the stresses due to gravity. 
Tron or wooden lintels, or at least tie-rods, may be used to strengthen or 
replace such arches. Arches which meet these abutments at an angle 
are more liable to be cracked than those which meet them with a curve. 
A vertical line of openings like doors or windows in a building constitute 
a vertical line of weakness to horizontally-applied forces. 

2. Avoid coupling together two portions of a building which have 
different vibrational periods, or which from their position are not likely 
to synchronise in their motion. If such parts of a building must of 
necessity be joined, let them be so joined that the connecting link will 
force them to vibrate as a whole, and yet resist fracture. 

Brick chimneys in contact with the framing of a wooden roof are apt 
to be shorn off at the point where they pass through the roof. Light 
archways connecting heavy piers will be cracked at the crown. To ob- 
yiate destruction due to these causes a system of construction similar to 
that to be seen in several of the buildings of San Francisco, Tokio, and 
Yokohama may be adopted. This essentially consists of tieing the build- 
ing together at each floor with iron and steel tie-rods crossing each other 
from back to front and from side to side. In connection with this subject 
I may mention that experiments have shown that in strong earthquakes 
the abutments of heavy archways approach and recede from each 
other, cracks in buildings open and shut, other cracks grow longer, and 
finally that two points of ground not ten feet apart do not synchronise 
in their motion. These facts show that the assumption of a difference 
in vibrational phase in parts of a building shaken by an earthquake is 
not simply an assumption made to explain certain often-repeated obser- 
vations. 

3. Keep the centre of inertia of a building or its parts as low as pos- 
sible. Heavy tops to chimneys, heavy copings, and balustrades on walls 
and towers, heavy roofs and the like are all sources of danger to the por- 
tion of the structure by which they are supported. When the lower part 
of a building is moved, the upper part by its inertia tending to remain 
behind often results in serious fractures. All the chimneys in Tokio 
‘and Yokohama which have fallen in consequence of their ornamental 
heads have been replaced by shorter and thicker chimneys without the 
usual coping. The roof of a portion of the Engineering College rests 
loosely on its walls, and has therefore a certain freedom. In Manila many 
heavy roofs have been replaced by roofs of sheet iron. Walls may be 
lightened in their upper parts by the use of hollow bricks. Such ver- 
tical motion as may exist is also partly obviated by light superstructures. 
Vertically-placed iron tie-rods give additional security. 

If these and other rules which are the result of experiment and ob- 
servation could be adopted in earthquake countries, it is certain that the 
loss of life and property might be greatly diminished. Before building 


374 REPORT— 1885. 


to withstand the effects of earthquake motion it is necessary that the 
constructor should clearly understand the nature of earthquake motion. 
If an earthquake is regarded as a sudden blow, and we adopt rules and 
formule founded on this supposition such as are to be found in many of 
the older treatises on this subject, it seems certain that the success of our 
undertakings must inevitably be attended with uncertainty. 


Earth Tremors and Earth Pulsations. 


From time to time reference has been made in reports to this As- 
sociation to the various methods employed to record earth tremors and 
earth pulsations. Many of the observations made with delicate spirit 
levels have now been plotted. The most complete set were those made: 
at the Meteorological Observatory under the direction of Mr. Arai Ikuno- 
suke. The observations were made every three hours both night and day. 
Although a special column was built for the instalment of these levels, 
and they were protected so far as possible from changes in temperatures, 
the bubbles of these instruments wandered to and fro in a manner difficult 
to explain. M. d’Abbadie, writing to me on this subject, remarks that 
two levels may be placed parallel and yet the bubbles may move in 
opposite directions. 

Notwithstanding the untrustworthiness of level observations, they 
nevertheless have given results of interest. These are as follows :— 

1. The fact that the bubbles from time to time move back and forth 
without apparent reason. Considerable changes have sometimes been 
observed before an earthquake. 

2. The greatest movement of the bubble of a level takes place during 
the colder part of the year, which is the season of earthquakes, and also: 
the season when the barometric gradient between Siberia and the Pacific 
is the steepest. 

3. The bubble of a level continues to move long after the sensible 
motion of an earthquake has ceased, enabling us to study the slow move- 
ments which bring an earthquake to a close. 

4. When the barometer is very low, as, for instance, during a typhoon, 
the bubble of a level may be distinctly seen to pulsate back and forth 
through a range of about *5 mm. 

In addition to the fact that levels are so sensitive to changes of tem- 
perature, they have, in common with all other instruments with which I 
am acquainted, the objections that their changes between the times of 
observation are unknown. For a long time I experimented to obtain an 
instrament which would give an automatic record of earth tremors and 
earth pulsations. After many failures I think that I have at last 
succeeded in obtaining such an instrument. It is simple, cheap, and ex- 
ceedingly easy to manipulate. M. d’Abbadie tells me that it has many 
points in common with an instrument employed by M. Boquet de la Grye. 
It is briefly as follows. From a circular cast-iron bed plate resting on 
three levelling screws, there rises a tripod of angle iron about 5 feet high. 
From the top of this hangs a pendulum, consisting of a thin iron wire 
and a heavy bob. At the base of this bob, w, there is a small projection 
C (see fig. 2). As the bob and the projection were turned in a lathe, the 
extremity of c, which is flat, the centre of figure of the bob and the point 
where the supporting wire is attached are in one vertical line. Below this 
bob there is an indicating pointer, a, b, ¢, d, the full length of which is 


¥ 


= 


ON THE EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 375 


not shown. aand dare needle points. The lower point d rests on a flat 
spring, 8, which can be raised or lowered by the screw T connected with 
a solid stand £. By raising b the point a is brought into contact with 
the end ofc. ff is a lead disc nearly sufficient to balance the portion of 
the pointer below b. 

The result of this arrangement is that if @ is moved relatively to }, 
this movement is magnified at the end of the pointer p. The sensitiveness 
of the instrument may be judged of from the fact that the pressure of my 
finger on the side of a stone column 2 feet square and 5 feet high is 
shown by a deflection of 4 or 5 millimetres at the end of the pointer. 
On the relief of pressure the pointer returns to its central position. To 


Fig. 2. 


Ww 
LLL LL LLL dl, 


obtain records, at intervals of every five minutes the current from an 
induction coil is sent down the pointer p, from which it passes as a 
spark through two strips of paper moving at right angles over the 
surface of a brass plate. One strip of paper moves north and south, and 
the other east and west. In this way a magnified representation of the 
position of the pendulum, drawn as a series of holes, is obtained. The 
magnification is about seventy times. Every hour a long contact makes a 
large hole. 

As a check to the observations two slightly different instruments are 
worked simultaneously by the same current, these instruments being on 
different columns in rooms about 60 or 80 feet apart. 

Thus far the results have not been analysed, but the following facts 
are clear :— 

1. Sometimes for days both instruments give a continuous series of 
holes in a straight line. 

2. Sometimes the holes are so multiplied by the trembling of the 
pointer that a broad line of holes is obtained. These tremors last from 
2 to 10 hours. 

3. Sometimes the pointer has slowly moved from side to side, giving 
a clearly defined set of holes marking two or three waves. The ampli- 
tudes of their waves, as shown on the diagram, are from 1 to 4 or 5 mm, 


376 REPORT—1885. 


Their period varies from 15 to 60 minutes. In these records, which 
may possibly mean tips of the soil, the two instruments only occasionally 
agree. 

a, Earthquakes are clearly shown by the pointer swinging about and 
making a series of holes up to the edges of the bands of paper. The 
relation, if there be any, between these various movements I have not 
yet determined. As the instrument is simple and inexpensive and 
satisfactory in its working, I am anxious that it should be brought to the 
notice of all who are interested in these observations. In connection 
with these observations I may mention that in September of last year, in 
conjunction with Mr. W. Wilson, C.E., and Mr. Mano, of the Imperial 
College of Engineering, I carried one of these instruments to the summit 
of Fujiyama, which is about 12,365 feet in height. Whilst on the top 
we were unable to undress, wash, or eat anything but the plainest of 
food. These and other discomforts, amongst which were the difficulties 
of breathing, prevented our remaining on the mountain for more than 
five days. 

During this time we obtained observations during the day and night 
extending over a period of three days. These observations were made by 
observing the position of the end of the pointer as it moved across a scale 
of millimetres. The instrument was installed on the top of a very large 
block of lava, deeply buried in ashes, in the corner of a stone hut in which 
we slept. It was covered with a wooden case. Outside of this there was 
a tent made of oiled paper. The instrument was, therefore, well protected 
against currents of air. Before commencing readings the weight was 
suspended for about fifteen hours by the same wire on which it had hung 
for many weeks when in Tokio. To test the effects of moisture in the 
instrument, at the end of the observations I poured a large quantity of 
water all round the block of lava forming the support. This produced 
no visible change in the reading of the instrument. 

The scale from which the readings were made, and which was im- 
mediately below the end of the pointer, was a piece of metal on which 
there were a series of concentric circles at intervals of a millimetre. A 
series of straight lines crossing the centre of these circles gave the points 
of the compass. Had the scale been a series of lines at right angles to 
each other, the readings would have been more.definite. The results of 
interest connected with these observations are :— 

1. That the movements on the top of the mountain were much greater 
than those which I usually observe in Tokio. 

2. The tremors, or slight swing-like movements of the instrument, did 
not necessarily accompany the wind. 

3. That during the heavy south and south-east gales the direction of 
displacement of the pointer was towards the south-east, which is the same 
result as would be obtained if the bed plate of the instrument were raised 
on the south-east side, or if the mountain had tipped over to the north- 
west. 

My colleague, Mr, T. Alexander, treating Fuji as a conical solid made 
of brick, with a wind load of 50 Ibs. on the square foot, found the slope 
and deflection of a point. 100 feet below the apex of the cone. This 
calculated slope was two or three times greater than the greatest 
deflection which I measured. 

As it is difficult to imagine that a mountain could suffer deflection by 
a wind pressure, I will not insist upon the fact that deflection actually 


7 


ON THE EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. Sy ib 


occurred. It is certainly curious that the results of calculation and ob- 


servation should point in the same direction. 


If the observed movements of the pendulum were due to a tip of the 
mountain, they might equally well have been observed as its base. 
The actual observations are given in the following tables :— 


Hour 


11.45 
12.30 


3.0 
4.0 


6.0 
7.30 


9.0 
10.0 


4.30 


8.0 
9.30 


10.30 
12.0 


4.45 


7.0 
9.0 


3.0 


August 12 |10.0 A.M. 


1.0" PM 


} August 13 | 0.45 a.m. 


August 14] 0.15 a.m. 


z =| 
| 5 & S 
eel 2 in | be 
as ° z a Bs 
ge) a 5 og 
e| a] a | ge 
ra) 
50°) 19°02] 0°50 | N.W. 
50 | 19°02} 0°50 | N.W. 
51 | 18°97] 1:00 | NN.W 
51 0:00 
53 | 18-97] 1:00 S.E. 
50 | 18°95] 3:00] S.E. 
48 | 18:95] 4:00 | S.E. 
46 | 18:95] 4:20] S.E. 
46 | 18:90| 3:00] S.E. 
46 | 18:95] 3°00] S.E. 
46 | 18:95] 2°00} S.E. 
42 | 18:92| 1:50} SS.E. 
45 | 18-92] 2-50 8.E. 
45°) 18:92| 1-50 
45 | 18:90] 1:50 
45 | 18-90] 1:50 
46 | 18°87] 1:00 
47 | 18°87} 1:50 
48 | 18°87| 2-00 
50 | 18-91} 1:50 
46 | 18:95] 2°25 
46 | 18°95] 2°50 
44 | 18:96] 2-00 


Remarks 


Almost still 

Slow swing from 0 to 1 on 
N. §. line 

Still 

Now and then a slight motion. 
Temp. in sun 92° F. 

Slight swing in N.E. and N. 
quadrant from 0 to ‘5 

Slight movement. Strong 
wind W. to 8. 


Slight movement. Outside 
temp. 6° C. = 42° F. 

Slight movement. Strong S. 
wind 

Very slight motion. Strong 
8S. gale 

Slight motion. Strong 8. 
gale 

Slight motion. Swings from 
1 to 2:5 8.E. to §. Strong 
gale 

Swings 2 to 3 N. and S&. 
South wind. Gale abating 

Swing 1 to 2 in the EH. and 
N.E. quadrant. Mist and 
rain. §. wind 


Slight swing in HE. and N.E. 
quadrant. Still strong 8. 
wind and rain 

Slight swing in E. and N.E. 
quadrant. Strong §.E. wind 
and rain 

Slight swing now and then, 
*5. Strong §.E. wind and 
rain 

Swings 15 to 2-5. Barometer 
pulsating ‘01 in. Wind 
abating, rain continues 

Slight swing 1 to 2 E. and 
W. Nowind. Mist 

Swing 2 to 2°5 on E. line. 
Slight W. wind. No rain 

Swing 2 to 3 on HE. and §.E. 
quadrant. Fine night. 
Moon up 

Swing on division 2 N.E. and 
8.W. In 8.E. quadrant 


378 REPORT—1885. 


Q | ggralingyah| aug 
1884. Sch ineincns watt Te 
Hour Sta] & ae Ss Remarks 
Day asl 2 | 8 | 33 
2 a) Ay he 
2 A 
August 14 | 6.0 43 | 18°96) 2°50 | Swing on S.E. line, °5 
(cont.) 7.30 45 | 19:00} 3:50 | Swing on E. and §.H. quad- 
| rant between 3 and 4, 8.E. 
; and N.W. 
11.30 46 | 18:99] 4:50 | Swing on E. and §.E. quad- 
| rant, now and then swings 
to 5. Position of pointer 
E.S.E. 
1.0 Pp.M.} 48 | 18°97] 5:50 Swing motion in E.S.E. quad- 
rant 
2.10 46 | 19:00} 6:00 Slight E.W. motion in E.§.E. 
quadrant 
3.0 48 | 18:99] 6-00 | 5 ” ’ 
4.0 47 | 19°01] 6:25 | Slight E.W. motion in E.S8.E. 
quadrant. Slight W. wind 
5.0 47 | 18:98] 6:25 | a 5, bs 
6.0 46 | 18°98] 6:25 Slight N.E. 8.W. motion in 
| E.S.E. quadrant 
7.0 46 | 18°95) 6:00 Slight N.E. 8.W. motion in 
E.S.E. quadrant. Wind 
dropping 
8.0 46 | 19:00} 6-00 Slight motion E.S.E. quad- 
rant. W. wind rising 
9.30 45 | 19:00] 5:00 Slight motion E.8.E. quad- 
rant. Wind dropping 
11.30 44 | 18°95] 5:00 Swing 4:5 to 55 in E.S.E. 
quadrant. W. wind strong 
August 15 | 1.0 A.m.} 42 | 18°90] 5°25 Swing 6 to 55. Strong W. 
wind and fog 
3.45 42 | 18:93] 4:50 Swing 4 to 5. Strong W. 
wind and fog 
7.0 44 | 18°90] 4:00 Nearly still. Strong S.W. 
wind and fog 
8.0 44 | 18°94] 4:00 Slight movement. Wind 
dropped. Heavy fog 
9.0 44 | 18°94] 4-00 In E.S.E. quadrant still. S. 
wind gentle 


After this last observation a quantity of water was poured round the 
foundation, and during the next hour several observations were made, 
but no change in reading could be detected. 

All the thermometer readings are about 1°5° too high, and the baro- 
meter readings ‘068 too high. Although none of the temperature read- 
ings indicate freezing, water in the doorway of the hut was several times. 
thinly covered with ice. Under the boards on which we slept there was 
a thick bed of ice, and in the adjoining crater, about 600 feet deep, there 
were large beds of snow. 


ON THE EARTHQUAKE PHENOMENA OF JAPAN. 379 


Earth Temperatures. 


In January a bore-hole was sunk in the grounds of the Imperial 
College of Engineering, about 100 feet in depth. The section, was 
approximately as follows :— 


Earthy materials and sand 78-0 shaku 
Very hard gravel . Dr as 
Fine gravel 20 5 
Sand Gas 
Gravel . i 5 5 OSes, 
Taff (a soft clay-like rock) £50.55 
Total» . . » 1040 ” 


The feet given are Japanese shaku (shaku = feet). On February 17, a 
series of thermo-electric junctions were lowered down the hole, one near 
the bottom, one at approximately 75 feet, another at approximately 50: 
feet, and a fourth at 21 feet. The bore-hole was then filled up by slowly 
pouring in from day to day a mixture of clay, sand, and water. The 
junctions consisted of thick iron and copper wires dipping into a glass. 
tube filled with mercury. All the copper elements had distinct cables 
leading to the surface. The iron elements at the different stations were 
joined to a single iron wire leading from the bottom to the top of the 
hole. The glass tubes were protected by brass tubes. All these junc- 
tions, together with a fifth junction buried just below the surface of the 
ground, can be compared with a similar junction in a water-bath in the 
Physical Laboratory. The whole of these arrangements are under the 
charge of Professor Fujioka, who at some future time will probably give 
some detailed account of his observations. The first records were made 
on March 26 and ran along steadily until April 16, when, for causes 
which are unknown, there was suddenly an increase in current, to balance 
which the water-bath had to be raised to a temperature about double 
that which had been required a few hours previously. 
The first portion of the observations are as follows :— 


T. 25 T. 50 T. 75 T. 100 

March26 . .| 240P.m./ 15°0C.| 16°4C. | 17°80. | 18°-000. 
4.0 ,, | 15°0 16°-2 18°-2 18°-10 
ear) so) 10.0 Sane | 15°-2 16°-2 18°-0 17°-80 
2.0 Pm. | 152 161 17°8 17°-10 
RIS: resi ade 8.80 AMs.|,15%-2 16°-1 17°'8 17°-20 
Met: wor . |. :80y %. 1 15°d 16°-1 17°-6 17°-00 
oot, . ..| 10:30 ,, 14°4 = 17°-0 16°-95 
weer 2 10:30" ,, 14°6 15°8 17°4 17°-40 
3.0 pm. | 15°-0 16°-0 17°-4 17°-80 
Rete, AM. bo 10.02 aten| 149-0 15°-2 17°-0 17°-80 
Be week esis dl “%, 14°°8 15°8 17°-4 16°-80 


BeeLD, . 5. < : 10:05 ss 14°-9 — nié=ta! 15°80 


380 REPORT—1885. 


Eleventh Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor E., HULL, — 
Dr. H. W. CrosskEy, Captain DouGLas GALTON, Professors J. — 
Prestwich and G. A. Lesour, and Messrs. JAMES GLAISHER, 
EK. B. MartTen, G. H. Morton, JAMES ParRKER, W. PENGELLY, | 
JAMES PuanT, I. Roperts, Fox-Srranaways, T. 8. STOOKE, — 
G. J. Symons, W. Toptey, TyLpren-Wricut, E. WETHERED, 
W. Wuiraker, and C. E. DE RANcE (Secretary), appointed for 
the purpose of investigating the Circulation of Underground 
Waters in the Permeable Formations of England and Wales, 
and the Quantity and Character of the Water supplied to 
various Towns and Districts from these Formations. Drawn 
wp by C. KE, De Rance. 


Your Committee have not been able to include in the present report — 
information which would be of considerable value in drawing up a final 
report on the result of their twelve years’ labour. They therefore con- 
sider they will best carry out the instructions which you gave them in 
1874 by continuing their investigations for another year. That this should 
be done is the more important from the fact that the present dry season, 
following the dry summer and autumn of last year, has, by drying up 
surface springs, and by the diminution of streams, exhibited the importance 
of the deeper-seated underground stores, but at the same time, has shown 
that, in estimating the quantities of water to be derived from such sources, 
it is of the highest importance to obtain data as to the yield of deep wells 
and borings in years of drought, and to obtain accurate knowledge of 
the extent of the depression of the level of underground waters. Your 
Committee had hoped that observations made in the United States or in 
Canada on the filtering powers of sandstones, the influence of barometric 
pressure and other changes on the height of underground waters, and on 
the influence of earthquakes, might have been obtained, but they regret 
that no such communications have been received. 

Mr. C. E. Peek, F.R.Met.Soc., of Rousdon Observatory, three miles 
west of Lyme Regis, has offered to carry out observations on his well, 
which is 200 feet in depth and 500 feet above the sea, as regards tem- 
perature and changes of level due to alteration of atmospheric pressure or 
astronomical causes. Mr. I. Roberts, F.G.S., of Maghull, has continued 
his observations in this direction, but prefers to communicate them as an 
independent paper to the Royal Society of London. Mr. Roberts’s ex- 
periments on the action of sandstone in extracting the salts of saline 
solutions, published as an appendix to the Underground Water Report 
presented at Dublin in 1878, have been attacked by Mr. William Ripley 
Nichols, Memb. Boston (U.S.) Soc. of C.E.,! who considers ‘that the 
salt solution placed on top of the block forced before it the water already 
contained in the pores of the stone, and mixed with it but little... . If 
the stone had been perfectly dry there would have been no effect observed, — 
unless, as is the case with most sandstones, the rock actually contained — 
some salt to start with, in which case the first portion of the liquid that | 
came through would contain a trifle more salt than the subsequent — 
, 


1 Journal of the Association of Engineering Societies, 1884, vol. iii. p. 144. 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 381 


portions.’ In reply, Mr. Roberts writes, ‘I would immediately have set 
to work to verify the results which I had obtained seven years ago; 
but after studying Mr. Ripley’s methods of research, and his inferences, 
I do not find that he has proceeded on lines that are even approximately 
reliable as tests of my results.’ He asks, ‘Is it proof, or reasonable in- 
ference, that, because Ohio stone, which contains salt in its pores, does not 
filter salt from water, neither, therefore, does Triassic sandstone, which 
does not contain salt, from Everton [Lancashire], filter any ?’ 

It is therefore necessary for Mr. Ripley, to establish his position, to 
repeat his experiments with sandstones which either contain no salt or 
from which it has been totally removed. He gives no record of such an 
experiment in his paper, and Mr. Roberts’s experiments remain unassailed. 

Mr. Roberts draws attention to the hygroscopic properties of the New 
Red Sandstone, or its power of rapidly absorbing moisture from the 
atmosphere and giving it off again on any increase of temperature. Four 
years ago he selected a cube of Bunter sandstone, and depriving it of 
moisture, weighed it, and found the weight 14,553 grains. This weight 
he adopted as zero. On exposing the stone freely to the air it rapidly 
and steadily absorbs moisture, varying from hour to hour with the 
changes in the humidity. In June, 1883, its weight of moisture varied 
between 38 and 74 grains, in December of that year it varied between 
73 and 107 grains. 


Details of Wells and Borings, Berkshire. 


Swindon Local Board Well. Mr. R. W. Mylne, C.E., F.R.S., Engineer ; 
Mr. R. Spellor, Blackfriars, London, Contractor. Works consist of a 6-feet 
shaft of 110 feet depth, with boring to 500 feet below the top of the shaft ; 
at the bottom of the shaft is a chamber of 14 feet, from which is driven 
an adit level to the side of the hill, tapping the water met with at the 
bottom of the shaft. 


Details and Specimens collected by C. BE. De Rance. 


From surface Thickness 
feet feet 
107. Chalk . : : : : : ‘ : , 4 PLOs 
110. Sand (upper greensand) : - : é : 3 3 
248. Grey clay (gault) . 3 A : 3 E ; sfh3s 
250. Grit (lower greensand ?) : ; . : . F 2? 
322. f Grey clays, harder 310 feet from surface - 72 feet) 250 
500. | Shelly clays (boring discontinued) so whZS) 55. fi 

500 


Comparing these thicknesses with those given in the Horizontal 
Section of the Geological Survey traversing this area, it is probable that. 
the 250 feet of clay below the grit all belong to the Kimmeridge clay. 


Geological Survey Swindon Section 
feet feet 
Upper greensané ¢ : - 60 : ; 5 3 
Gault F : : : . 140 d . - 138 
Lower greensand . ‘ . 40 Z ) 7 2? 
Kimmeridge clay . = - 280 : : . 250 
Coral rag . : ; ; . 40 


Oxford clay . 3 , - 500 


382 


Boring on the London and North-Western Railway, Foryd, near Rhyl, 
Collected by C. E. De Rance, per Mr, A. Strahan, F.G.S., from Mr. Leigh 


Howell, of Bagillt. 


REPORT—1885. 


Denbighshire, N. Wales. 


ft. in. 
1. Clay } 2 0 
2. Sand 19:40 
3. Gravel . = 4 0 
areMad and clay ‘| Post-glacial deposits cake 
5. Tare | 58 ft. 4in oy 6 
6. Blue clay = ’ a 4 
ie eland . : i 6 
8. Blue clay ° : THO 
9. Gravel . 5 ae S26 ‘ 
10. Red clay eh 9 8 
11. Red sand 2 | 1-0 
12. Dark sand 6 0 
13. Red sand ' Glacial deposits | 1 0 
14. Sand and gravel 39 ft. 8 in. 7 6 
15. Red clay 8 6 
16. Sand. 4 0 
17. Clay and cravel J ire 22. 10 
18. Red sandstone 93 0 
19. Shale : 6 
20. Red sandstone WO 
21. Red shale 2 0 
22. Red sandstone * 33 10 
23, Red shale « 3.0 
24, Red sandstone : 10 10 
25. Red shale 5 5 . Met Red Sandstone 6 
26. Rock é A : i 499 ft. 2*-0 
27. Red shale : < : F 6 
28. Red sandstone é 5 6 
29. White sandstone, with black s shade. Lb. 2 
30. Red sandstone is 89 8 
31. Red shale A 8 
32. Red sandstone * 246 0 
33. White and red rock 7 10 
34. Red marl é 8 0 
35. White rock 2 0 
36. Red shale Coal Measures 45 1 
37. Red shaly rock 149 ft. 5 in. 83 8 
38. White hard rock a 3.6 
39, Red shalerock . 2 
746 5 


Lincolnshire Wells and Borings. 
Grimsby Waterworks Co. Wells. 
Collected by O. E. De Rance from Messrs. Mather and Platt. 


rom surface 


ft. 


Thickness 
in, ft. 10s 
0 1. Very soft clay, full of eee matter . 5 21 0 
6 2. Gravel and sand 5 - oe 
6 3.Clay . 5 ; a 5 0 
6 4. Rough gravel and small flints 5 : . : a2 .0 
6 5. Fine soft clay and small flints . ‘ ‘ , er a) 
0 6. Rough gravel ihe 
0 7. Fine gravel lb Oo 
0 8. Chalk, very hard. Water then rose to 4 feet Beret 15 0 


the surface in large volume . 


Boring west of Grimsby. 


eo 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 383 


Boring east of Grimsby, near Cleethorpes. 


From surface Thickness 
in. ft. in. 
84 0 Stiff bluish clay, with flakes of chalk . , : 1 .8t 10 
99 0 Sandand gravel . - e : : : F 245, 0 
224 0 Chalk, with flints in beds 5 : A - : . 125 0 
224 0 


In the Cleethorpes boring the top of the chalk was very rotten, and 
had to be tubed out down to 120 feet from the surface, or 21 feet from 
the top of the chalk. The yield from this boring is only about 180,000 to 
192,000 gallons per day ; but it is evident that the water is not tubed out 
from the upper part of the chalk, or not entirely so, from the fact that, 
when this quantity is pumped, the water-level being 24 feet from the 
surface, the neighbouring wells and bore-holes, none of which do more 
than penetrate the top bed of the chalk, all lose their supply of water. 

At Grimsby Docks there is a well in the chalk 300 feet deep; the 
water is clear and palatable. Analysed by the Rivers Pollution Com- 
mission, was found to have a hardness of 22:1, of which 7°6 was per- 
manent ; chlorine was 5:00, in parts per 100,000, 


From Mr. John Bennett, Goole, per H. Franklin Parsons, M.D., F.G.S. 
Section of Trial Boring at Reedness, five miles east of Goole, made by the late 
Mr, Egremont in 1835, 


22. Red bind with thin white beds, and hard lists of 
blue stone , ; : A r - = 
23. Blue bind. A - - 3 - : : 
. Red bind, with thin hard lists of blue stone and 
gypsum. ‘ { ; Z k . : a 
25. Red stone. ° - F A ° . : 
26. Red bind, with hard lists of stone and gypsum 


e 
w 
Oo bow 
bo 
ag 


ji! 
or 
ey 
_ 


i 
i 


27. Blue stone A . e “ : . ’ . 
28. Red bind, with thin beds of gypsum : : 
29. Blue bind , - . ° : ’ . : 
- Red bind, with thin beds of gypsum : : 
31. Blue stone, and white parting . A 
32. Red stone, with blue lists * = S s 
33. Blue bind, with thin beds of gypsum A > 


— 
rT 


From surface Thickness 
ft. in. ft. in. 
1 6 1. Dark soil . : 6 
1 9 2. Yellow sandy warp . : - : : 0 3 
9 3 3. Dark blue warp " 5 ; : - . 7 6 

15 3 4. Fine blue clay . Soe 6 0 

21 3 5. Bluesandy warp. F : : - P 6 0 

30 3. 6. Light grey sand, with water , ; ; 9 0 

42 0 7. Black moor earth, with some rotten wood ys ges 

45 3 8. Strong blueclay . : - - 3.3 

46 0 9. Grey sand, with water : ‘) 0'..9 

56 3 10. Black gravel and quicksand 10 3 

57 8 11. Red sand . ; : : Drift 5 

63 0 12. Grey sand and gravel 4 

66 4 13. Redsand . ; - : : t 

69 8 14. Graveland sharpsand . A A ° Bs 

72 10 15. Red marl, metal with grey spec ° . 2 

80 11 16. Red sandstone, with gypsum, and thin lists J 

90 1 17. Strong blue stone, with thin white beds . 2 

108 4 18. Dark red bind, with thin beds of gypsum 18 3 

110 0 19. Strong bluestone . - - - : 8 

120 3 20. Red bind, with beds of blue stone 10 3 

125 1 21. Blue stone 10 
133 7 

6 

0 

7 

8 

0 

4 

1 

9 

8 

2 

8 

6 


toe : 
NWOOCOMRENKRADNAN WH DW POH DOMWWwWoOH 


je) 

© 
ZNAaArOrROM 

wo 

i=) 


384 REPORT—1885. 


From surface Thickness 
ft. in. ft, cin. 


247 2 34. Red stone 5 6 
251 2 35. Blue stone 5 5 : : 5 : 4 0 ¢ 
257 8 36. Red bind, with hard list and white partings 6 6 
263 2 37. Red sandstone, with thin white partings . 5 ae ae 
269 8 38. Blue stone, thin beds, and blue bind partings . eRe x 
286 2 39. Blue bind, with thin beds of blue stone . 66 4 
297 2 40. Red bind, with thin beds of gypsum 5 2 «il ,0 
305 5 41. Blue bind, with soft beds of gypsum 2 : hee we 
337 10 42. Dark soft red bind . = ; A 4 pday eis) 
341 10 43. Blue stone . é H 3 = : 5 » 4 0 
511 4 44. Red sandstone . ; c F F : : . 169 6 
513 4 45. Red bind . ‘ é 3 ; , 4 “ sie al 
529 10 46. Red sandstone . : ‘ 5 2 3 a o> 16; 36 
533 4 47. Red bind, withlists of blue stone . . - +2 3. 6 
766 10 48. Red sandstone . { : : t i < . 233 6 
770 0 49. Red bind with bright shining specks f 2 WaT 
772 10 50. Dark red bind . : : , : P F 2 10 
784 4 651. Red sandstone . . ; - 2 2 . “peild 6 
785 4 62. Dark red bind . : 9 : ‘ : % Sree Ae) 
804 10 53. Red sandstone . : ; 5 4 A - . 19’ 6 
807 1 54. Red bind . ‘ : } ; : ‘ é ee ts 
881 4 55. Red stone. : : F 4 - : 3 « The 3 
882 4 56. Red bind . ° : : 3 - - 5 peg) 
906 10 57. Red stone : : q i , 3 : . 24 6 
910 8 58. Soft red bind . : ‘ : ; ; 5 . 310 
930 10 59. Red sandstone . : A ; A - ¢ wm20nm 2 
931 10 60. Dark red bind . 5 : . é 5 c - i O 
955 10 61. Red sandstone . : : : : 3 3 » 24.0 
957 1 62. Dark red bind . : : $ ‘ i a‘ .- a 3S 
995 4 63. Red sandstone . F : 4 . ‘ . 38 8 
998 4 64. Light red sandstone . : - : ; F . 2 O 
1029 0 65. Red sandstone 3 ser : : - . 30 8 
, ; 1029 0O 
In abstract, the section will stand as follows :— 

ft. in. 
Beds 1to14. Drift. B . P , ‘ s ‘ . 69 8 
Beds 15 to 43. Keuper marls with hard bands and gypsum . 272 2 
Bed 44. Red sandstone ‘ : i : 4 2 - 169 6 
Beds 45 to 47, Red sandstone with 54 feet of red ‘binds’ . » 22 0 
Bed 48. Red sandstone , . 5 4 s , . 233 6 
Beds 49 to 62. Red sandstone, with 16 feet 4 inchesof red‘ binds’ 190 3 
Beds 638 to 65. Red sandstone . ; A ‘ 71 11 

1029 0 


Ont of 687 feet 2 inches of beds beneath the Keuper marls, only — 
21 feet 10 inches consists of red binds, the rest being 665 feet 4 inches 
of red sandstone of similar physical character from top to bottom. They 
have been referred by Dr. Parsons to the Bunter. 

In considering their age and character, it may be useful to compare 
this section with the borings for salt in the Middlesbrough district, 
especially that at Saltholm Farm, on the Durham side of the Tees 
(‘Sixth Report Underground Water’). I there. suggest that ‘the lime- 
stones, thick salt beds, and gypsum are probably referable to the Permian ; 
the intervening beds of red sandstone, 832 feet, are probably referable to | 
the waterstones and lower mottled Bunter, the Upper Mottled and Pebble — 
Beds having thinned ont.’ From more extended investigation, I think it 
more probable that the pebbly character of the middle portion of the — 
Bunter has died away northwards, and that the Middlesbrough section 
represents Waterstones, pebbleless Middle Bunter and Lower Bunter. 


WORM yey 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 385 
| In the Lincolnshire area some sections collected by Dr. Parsons 
throw light on this inquiry. He describes the beds below the Keuper 

marls, in the surface sections as ‘ a loose red sand, or friable semi-coherent 
red sandstone, often micaceous, with more coherent clayey bands, and 
with occasional partings, or pockets of red, green, or yellow ochrey 
mar].’! 


Trial Boring for Water, Booth Ferry Road, Goole, made by Goole and 
Hook Parochial Sanitary Committee in 1876. From Mr. Tudor, Surveyor, 
Goole, per Dr. Parsons. 


From surface Thickness 
| ct. in, ft. in. 
17 0 Warp, peat,andclay . : : F 5 : Pea alee a8) 
25 0 Rough gravel . . * ’ ; : : : cig S a0 
28 0 Warp clay, witha large pebble . 4 , ; + » 3) al 
34 0 Redsand : ‘ : j F f , F i, OPO 
58 O Hard, coarse, light red sand . j ; ’ i eu 24,0 
68 0 Red marl ; : : F , 4 ‘ . ; 0 O 
: 79 O Hard sand : , F : : , ; d jd Wed 1 
’ 82 0 Red marl - 4 : ; ; F : d ye 
$ 108 0 Hardsand . ; ; ’ ; : ! : = 26.0 
109 0 Red marl : : ; . F : : 2 » Oo 
170 O Hard sand : 3 2 : P : F : 4 6L 40 
173 O Red marl F 3 p : ® . 3 : ya Di 
i 176 0 Hard coarse sandstone, with small pebbles . : y 2 0 
¥ 260 0 Red sandstone and marl mixed j ‘ 3 j . 84 0 
1 282 0 Red sand ET Te ee eee ae 
Se >) Siired marl. PO oe 2 8 
E 306 3 Marlandred sand . : i : ; : - oy 22 
| 366 0 Redsandy marl . i ‘ : : ; ; =~ 59 9 
366 O 


_ In abstract, this section gives drift probably 28 feet, red sand 338 
eet, of which 19 feet were marl, if the red sandy marl last penetrated be 
ihe which added gives an entire thickness of marl of just 80 feet. 
‘The occurrence of the small pebbles at 176 feet and the thick marl are 
worthy of note in this section, and differ from those adjacent; they are 
probably referable to the Waterstones. 


o. B. De Rance, from Dr. Helliwell, per Dr. Parsons. Well deepened in 
1876. Helliwell’s Brewery, Rawcliffe. 


From surface Thickness 

ft. in. ft. in. 

18 0 1. (Old well . - , : : j j : HelShO 

45 0 2.|Yellowsand . f x F : z : BP ai eet) 

47 0 3.¢ Blue clay , F ; : : 4 : Mey Bann) 

47 6 4.]| Peat r E : ; c : - eam oak Von ly 

59 6 5.\Clay with gravel . 3 : ; : : oe DO 

200 0 6. Red sand, with thin marl bed at 139 feet : . 140 6 

i 200 0 


Artesian well at Rawcliffe Halls, 1877. Details from Mr. Tudor, Surveyor, 
Goole, per Dr. Parsons. 


From surface Thickness 
ft, in. fie. AN. 
16 0 1. Silty stiffred warp . , c - ; : 5720 0) 
130 0 2. Redsandand marl . : F ; 2 . 114 0 
250 0 3. Coarse, loose red sandstone and marl P ; . 120 0 
250 O 


“ ; ha Geol. and Poly. Soc. of West Riding of Yorkshire, 1877, p. 216. 
- Cc 


386 REPORT—1885. 


Well near Rawcliffe Station. Per Dr. Parsons, 1876. 


From surface ; 
Tis pu. ftop ID 
38 0 1. Black sand : : : : - : secpan 
8 0 2. Brown coarse sand . 3 ; : : : etait 5 al 
16 0 3. Mottled brown clay 8 0 
4. Red sand : 


These soft ‘red sands’ and ‘loose sandstones’ would appear to be 
referable to the Keuper waterstone, or are the representatives of the 
Cheshire Frodsham beds, which have been observed eastwards by Mr. 
Aveline, F'.G.S., and myself as far as Ashbourne in Derbyshire. 


Trial Boring for Water at New Bridge, near Snatth, in ancient course of — 
the River Don, made in 1876 by the Goole Local Board. From Mr, — 
Tudor, Surveyor, Goole. 


From surface Thickness 
ft, in. ft. in. 
46 0 Brown warp, peat, and loam . ~ . 46 0 
51 O Gravel, with magnesian limestone fragments . : 4D 
56 0 Coarse reddish brown sand sini as rock?) . ope, yD 1 
57 © Light green marl . F : ; : op gl 
80 0 Red marly sandstone A . ; : - ; 5p Teo 50) 
87 0 Coarse red sandstone , : 5 . ; : a AO 

130 O Red marly sand A 5 ; : . 4 43 0 
133 0 Redsand, with green marl . : : : ; ie ce 0 
170 0 Redmarly sand. : ; : : , ‘ < of 0 
173 O Blue marl : 4 z ; . : . : sow 
175 O Red marl : : 5 : : ; : ; seege (0 
263 0 Red marly sand ; : ; : ; ; : - os 0 
265 0 Variegated marl . : : : : . P et 
309 O Red marly sand . : : : : : ; . 44 0 
329 0 Coarse red sand ; i ; : : 4 ; weep) 
377 O Red marly sand - > ; ; : : : . 48 0 
379 O Variegated marl . : : : . ; . nite sO 
403 0 Red marly sand : é ; ; : : : beuet  O 
404 0 Variegated marl . : : : ; ; : pel U 
500 O Redmarly sand . ‘ : ; : ‘ : . 96 0 

500 0 


This section gives, in abstract, drifts probably 51 feet, and 449 feet of 
red sandstone, red sand, and coarse red sand, with 11 feet of intercalated 
marls, the whole of which may be regarded as one series, and compare 
well with the Goole section, and may be referred to the Keuper water- 
stones, and might for their important thickness be called the Goole beds. 

It may be well to reproduce the section of the Selby Waterworks, 
obtained from Mr. Wetherill by Professor Green, F.G.S. 

Surface level 20} feet above Ordnance datum; the water out of a 
6-inch bore-hole rises to 16 feet above Ordnance datum. 


From surface Thickness 
ftaDs ft. n. 
5 0 1. Alluvialsoil . 4 . 2 5 5 8 - 4 
29 0 2. Clay ; 24 0 
30 0 3. Sand charged with water that one man could pump 1 0 
54 0 ‘4. Clay : = 2430 
15 Om) .b: ‘oh ped. Strong spring of water | at base : - 2b 0 
6. Red sandstone : ; . - Paw lshe 14) 
93 0 7. Marl, resembling ‘fullers’ “earth’ A . : ; aoe 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 387 

From surface ; Thickness 
£f..\in. ft. in, 
8. Red sandstone . 3 : : - f : pl Ue 
103 3 9. Grey sandstone’ - : ‘ : ” : ce mull atoll 
10. Red sandstone . : . : s : y NGL. 9 
11. Red hard sandstone : 4 J ‘ ‘ . 118 6 
12. Very hard rock . ‘ : ; : 4 F yO, 16 
13. Red sandstone , ; : ‘ F F ey tri ea’) 
14. Very hard rock . - é 2 - : : Btn: cpatd, 
330 8 15. Hard rock ‘ ‘ : , : , ; ° 23°@ 
330 8 


_ Here there was 75 feet of drift, all the remainder being more or less 
Shard red sandstone, without the intercalated marl beds observable in the 
Goole section, which are presumably above those penetrated at Selby, 
which may be referred to the Pebble Beds. 


Boring at Donington, on west side of River Bain. Communicated by Mr. 
Edward Bogg, to the Geol. Soc., London, ‘ Trans. Geol. Soc.’ 1816 


in 


=I 


DOFMOFRDOOCWOANNIAOIWH WORD WE 


. Clay soil 

- Dark coloured clay ‘ 

Soft grey shale, with fossils 

. Blue argillaceous stone 

. Dark coloured clay 

. Soft grey shale. 

. Laminated clay, slightly indented 

. Soft grey shale, slightly inflammable . 

. Ditto, darker coloured . 4 

. Indurated clay, with white fossils 

. Ditto, but harder and blacker 

. Dark coloured bituminous inflammable shale 

. Dark blue ironstone 

. Laminated indurated clay, with fossils 

. Ditto, harder fossil impressions in pyrites . 

. Dark blue clay (iron) stone ; 

. Hard indurated laminated clay, with pytites 

. Laminated bituminous shale, with fossils . 

. Dark blue ironstone . 

. Laminated bituminous shale, like 18. 

. Dark blue ironstone . 

. Laminated bituminous shale, like 18 and 20 

. Dark indurated clay, with fossils 

. Laminated bituminous shale, like 18, 20, and 22 
. Dark clay, like 23 4 
. Laminated bituminous shale, like 24, ke. 

. Dark clay, indurated aa like 25 

Grit —: 

. Brown laminated ‘shale 

. Clay (iron) stone . 

. Hard laminated bituminous shale 

. Clay (iron) stone - 
. Hard laminated bituminous inflammable shale : 
- Inflammable compact shale. 

. Hard laminated shale, very inflammable 

. Dark blue compact shale, with bituminous bands 
. Very inflammable shale : 

. Hard, dark, blue, ar shale . 

. Clay (iron) stone . 

. Ditto, but not so hard . 

. Hard, dark, compact shale, like 38 


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388. REPORT— 1885. 


The whole of the above boring appears to be in the Kimmeridge clay. 

Mr. Dickenson, F.G.S., in H.M. Inspector of Mines Report for 1881, 
describes a boring, 1,140 ‘feet deep, put down west of Horncastle, at a 
point situated on the Kimmeridge clay, near the base of the Cretaceous 
rocks, which was carried to a depth of 1,140 feet, and is stated to have 
reached the Triassic sandstones, in which a brine spring was discovered. 
In this case the Kimmeridge clay, Lower Oolites, Lias, Rhzetic, and Keuper 
marls must have been penetrated. 

At Stamford a futile boring for coal was put down by the late 
Marquis of Exeter to a depth of 500 feet, which, commencing at a 
similar geological horizon to the two last described borings, failed to 
reach the base of the Lias at that depth. 

A boring at Boston Market Place has already been described in the 
Report for 1878; some further details communicated to the Royal 
Society may be found in the ‘Phil. Trans.’ vol. lxxvii. The well was 
sunk in 1747 to a depth of 186 feet, and deepened in 1783 to its present. 
depth of 478 feet. 


Details of Cores brought up by Diamond Boring Company at Scarle, nine 
miles S.W. of Lincoln, near boundary of parishes of Scarle and Swinderby, 
and about 100 yards from the Lincoln and Nottingham Railway. By 
Professor Hull, F.R.S. 


Feet from surface, Feet thickness, 
about about 
10 0 Alluvial or drift deposits . : C be here 10 9 
75 (0 Blue lias limestone, clay and gypsum . - Lower Lias oo 0 

180 0 Green silicious grits ; . « Rhetic 0 

Red and grey marls, with ereyish fine f Keuper J 
if ii { sandstone and fibrous gypsum . : { marls PP 
J Fine grained greyish sandstone, with water t 
790 0 
\ feeder of 11 Balls. per minute, at 834 feet. 76 0 

906 0 Ditto , ; . | Lower 116 0 

912 0 Greyish shale Keuper 6 0 

918 0 Coarse grey grit sand- 6 0 

919 0 Greyish shale stones or L WO 

Hard white freestone, with a 50 ‘gallons of | Water- 
950 0 water per minute feeder, at 9°50 feet, stones, | 31 0 
: rising to 52 feet above the surface, ac- | 244 feet 
cording to Mr. Dalton, F.G.S. 

958 0 Hardgrey shale . hfe J 8 0 
1005 O Soft sandstone 3 : : Pebble 47 0 
1096 O Reddish sandstone , ; Beds of | 159 0 
1164 0 Band of blue shale ; the LENO 
1238 0 Reddish brown coarse sandstone F Bunter, | 174 0: 
1278 0 Conglomerate of quartzite pebbles 320 feet 40 50 

Lower 
1357 O Reddish brown sandstone, with red marl {sei TO 
1500 0 Reddish brown sandstone, very soft ae ae 143 0 
222 feet 
1618 0 Red marls (Upper Permian) . ; “A renian ae 0 

1623 0 Blue shale and stony shale : 0 
1638 0 Light yellowish magnesian limestone . . | Permian 16 0 
1645 O Stony shale : F s mag- 7 «0 
1662 0 Light yellowish magnesian limestone . : nesian LY. 50 
1688 0 Blue and red marls, with gypsum . ; E lime- 26 0 
1800 0 Red marl and magnesian limestone. é stone 112 0 
1816 0 Yellowish magnesian limestone, with series, 

Schizodus : : “ : ; . | 266 feet 16 0 
1884 0 Ditto, with selmite : - : J { 68 0 


‘ 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 389 


xe Feet from surface, Feet thickness, 
_- about about 
( Lower 
) Permian 
1900 0 Red sandstone P ? p : fp ; | See 16 0 
stone 
Earthy limestones, shales, with Anthra- [ Carboni- 
2030 0 cosia, coarse grit, breccia, and marls_. ferous 4 aS0 0 
2030 0 
Tabulating these figures gives the following totals :— 
ft. in. 
Brith av. ‘ ; : 10 0 
Lias : ; : : 65 0 
Rhetic . : ; : 66 0 ft. ins 
Keuper marls : , 573 0 y - 736 OV o- 
Bi iat otomet : : ; 244 0 ; y 142 0 ¢ 878 
Bunter . : F ‘ 542 0 
Permian . : ; 400 0 
Carboniferous ~ : 130 0 
2030 0 


Mr. Dalton, F.G.S., late of the Geological Survey of England and 
Wales, has given some different thicknesses as the result of his examina- 
tion of the cores which he has had the opportunity of inspecting, his 
alternative figures are given in the second column above. He refers to 


_ this boring as the Collingham boring, and regards the locality as a centre 


_ of subsidence in Triassic times, and considers the beds there to be of 
abnormal thickness. 
Yorkshire Coal Measures.—The following information as to the thick- 
ness of the intercalated sandstones, in the Yorkshire Coal-measures, and 
their water-bearing capacity, which is of considerable value both as to 
quantity and quality, have been obtained from Professor Green, M.A., 
?.G.S., of the Leeds University. 
The ‘Oakenshaw’ or ‘ Clifton’ rock is generally a massive false- 
_ bedded sandstone, much divided by joints; it is close in grain and gritty 
intexture; it furnishes an excellent and durable building stone. In some 
_ districts it is separated into two beds; in this case the upper bed is 
called the ‘Shertcliffe Bed Seatstones.’ In the Clifton district the two 
beds, with intervening shales, together form the ‘ Clifton rock.’ 
The ‘Thornhill rock,’ the most important middle coal-measure sand- 
stone in the northern part of the field, is the chief source of building-stone 


. 


_ in the district ; it is generally close grained and thin bedded, but is some- 
times coarse; in places it is much traversed by vertical joints. It 
urs below the Haigh Moor coal, and also bears the names of the Dews- 

bury Bank, Morley, Middleton, Robin Hood, and Oulton rock ; below it 

is the Joan coal. 

‘Parkgate rock,’ ‘ Croppergate,’ or ‘ Birstall rock’ occurs above the 

Parkgate coal. At Scholes Colliery it is 80 feet thick; at the Nunnery 
sinking 90 feet; at the old Pits Moor OCollieries it is nearly 170 feet, 
where it is thickest ; itis thickly bedded, rather coarse, and much jointed, 
and yields abundance of water, necessitating heavy pumping to work the 

coal when there is no intervening bind above the seam, as is sometimes 

‘the case. It is largely quarried at the village of Bradgate, and hence 

William Smith called it the ‘ Bradgate rock.’ 

_ The ‘Woolley Edge rock’ is believed to have been deposited in an 

area bounded by a line running west between Pontefract and Castleford, 


390 REPORT—1885. 


by Normanton, a little beyond Wakefield ; then south by Woolley Edge, 
and passing west of Barnsley, ranging S8.H., to Hemingfield. To the 
S.W. it is coarse; at Wakefield finer. 

The ‘ Woolley Edge rock’ at Hemingfield, at Lundhill Colliery, con- 
sisted of 82 feet 6 inches of sandstone, 23 feet 5 inches of shale, and 
24 feet 4 inches of sandstone, overlying the Wathwood coal. At Wombwell 
Main it was 120 feet 2 inches, and 12 feet 5 inches of shale intervened 
between it and the Wathwood coal. North of Dillington it contains 
pebbles as large as a hazel nut. Hast of Wakefield, at Whitwell Main 
Colliery, it lies above the Wakefield coal; 38 feet of it is described as 
‘bleeding rock,’ exuding much acrid water, that blisters the hands of 
the sinkers. 

The ‘ Oaks rock ’ is so called at Barnsley ; at Trenton and the district 
S.E. of Sheffield it is called the ‘Trenton rock.’ It can be traced on its 
outcrop as far as Heath; east of Wakefield it appears to thin away 
along a line running roughly north-west and south-east through Nor- 
manton. It usually carries a large quantity of water—when it is split up 
with shales the quantity is less; it is largely quarried for building-stone 
and making grindstones, the most important quarry being near Barnsley. 
When this rock attains its full thickness it is estimated to be 100 feet, 
and its base to be 850 feet above the Barnsley coal. At Wath Main 
Colliery the total thickness of rock was 55 yards; it yielded an enormous 
quantity of water, one feeder alone yielding 3,000 gallons per minute 
after the tubing was in the shaft, but before it was fully ‘wedged’ the 
yield for months was 18,000 gallons per minute. 

The ‘ Pontefract rock’ is water-bearing. 


Drought of 1884. 


Mr. G. J. Symons, F.R.S., finding that the small rainfall of the year 
had had considerable effect upon the level of water in wells, &c., in- 
vited his staff of 2,600 unpaid observers to report any facts within their 
own knowledge bearing on this question. The following notes are the 
result of his inquiries :— 


South-Eastern Counties. 


Reigate.—Shallow wells wholly failed ; springs and watercourses had 
not begun to run at the close of the year. 

Tenterden, Summerhill.—River Rother was nearly dry; wells and 
ponds were nearly all dried up. 

Tunbridge Wells.—Springs and wells very low, many dried up. 

Maidstone, Lower Tovil.—The Loose stream dry. River Medway 
very low, and water very clear. 

Sheldwick Vicarage.—Springs very low to end of year; water in 
well 170 feet deep—4 feet below average. 

Sevenoaks.—Springs low in autumn; average flow not restored at — 
end cf the year. 

Wrotham.— Two wells in chalk, 100 feet deep, were dry in autumn, — 
and continued so at the end of the year. 

Ospringe, Lorenden.—Strong spring from chalk hills, flowing 4 inches — 
deep in a 4-feet channel, entirely stopped. 

Chichester, Westgate—Surface wells dry; deep chalk wells low. 

Midhurst. Cocking.—September to November, water lower than 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 391 


before in memory of oldest inhabitant. Miller on stream from South 
Downs could only work one hour in twenty-four in November. 

‘ Horsham.—Shallow wells dry north of the town, on the anticlinal 
axis of the weald, at 245 feet above Ordnance datum. The supply at the 
_ waterworks was not affected: surface of well 177 feet above Ordnance 
datum ; depth of well 75 feet, bore hole, 45 feet ; total 120 feet, or 57 feet 
above Ordnance datum. The railway station well, within 90 feet of 
Ordnance datum, was not affected. 

Falmer.—Wells dry in November ; rose slightly in December. Springs. 
very low at end of the year. 

Lewes, Iford.—Wells, springs, and streams very low. 

Warbleton Rectory.—Wells mostly dry in autumn. 

Newick.—Many wells failed for first time. 

Uckfield.—Driest year since 1858; heavy rain of September relieved 
drought, but the underground springs did not commence flowing until 
the continuous rains of December. 

East Grinstead.—Many wells dry for first time. 

Sandown, Isle of Wight.—Carisbroke Castle well, 240 feet, with an 
average of 70 feet of water in it, was dried up, it is reported, for the first 
time since 140 years. 

Emsworth, Redlands.—Wells, springs, and streams ran dry; never 
dry before in ‘ memory of man.’ 

_ Alresford, Ovington.—High Downs wells failed. 
East Worldham.—Wells 83 feet deep failed for first time; one 84 
feet deep yielded a little water that could be pumped in a few minutes. 
Spring below the hill held out. 
Micheldever, Northbrook.—The level of water in the chalk fell in 
autumn to a lower point than has been noted since 1870, and, though 
rising slightly in consequence of the December rainfall, was much below 
the midwinter average at the close of the year. 
Andover, Red Rice.—Many wells dry. Mill and millstream lower 
than they have been for thirty years. 
Rotherwick, Tylney Hall.—Wells dry ; springs very low. 
Blackwater, Hurstleigh.—Wells and streams very low. 
Heckfield, Park Corner.—Driest of thirteen years. Wells failed on 
_ November 28, but began to fill November 30. 
Newbury, Greenham.—Well for three months 10 feet below its 
_ average level, but was restored to normal level by end of year. 
Hungerford, Dunford Park.—Springs never seen so low. 
__ Lambourne.—The stream of the Lambourne river ceased running on 
October 13, and on the 19th the bed of the river (chalk) was dry. In 
_ December several wells dried up, and so continued to end of year. 
Li Long Wittenham.—Driest year since 1874. Well 40 feet deep in 
greensand, 4 feet 6 inches lower than in 1883, and lower than it had 
been since 1871. Observations have been taken regularly since 1868. 
Mi ells in the gravel ran dry. 

South-Midland Counties. 
_ Watford, Wansford House.—Driest year since 1874. Deep chalk 
wells but little affected. 
_ Royston.—Driest year since 1864; springs very low. 
_ Thame, Aston Rowant.—Wells dry in September. Springs lower at 
end of year than for ten years previously. 


392 REPORT—1885. 


Oxford.—Wells dry for first time in living memory. 

Stanton St. John.—Springs very low at end of year. 

Banbury.—Shallow wells and surface springs dry. 

Oundle.—Shallow wells dry. New well carried to 70 feet without 
meeting with water. 

Bedford.—Percolation (by Dalton gauge) through 2 feet 6 inches of 
soil of medium water-holding power, 5°93 inches. 

Tempsford Hall.—Rivers and well ail very low. 

Cambridge, Fulbourn Asylum.—Water in well sank 4 inches, but 
supply plentiful. 


Eastern Counties. 


Leyton Observatory.—Ponds in Epping Forest dry for first time in 
twenty years. 

Chelmsford.—Smallest rainfall since 1868. Many wells failed. 

Dunmow.— Wells failed for first time. 

Ipswich.—Underground water low, but no wells failed as in 1868. 
Rainfall one fourth less than the average. 

Bury St. Edmunds.—Deep chalk well, the water was 6 feet below 
the average level. 


South-Western Counties. 


Maiden Bradley—In October and November, well water very short ; 
some ran dry. 

Trowbridge, Steeple Ashton.— Wells reduced in level at end of year; 
some exhausted. 

Pewsey.—Some wells exhausted ; all reduced. : 

Bishop’s Cannings.—Well at Shepherd’s Shore, which supplies — 
Devizes, is 123 feet deep, with a 12-inch bore-hole, 25 feet lower ; the 
water level at the beginning of the year was 63 feet from the surface, 
and fell to 96 feet at the end of the year. In 1880 the well was lowered 
13 feet, and the bore-hole made, but the water had then never been so 
low as in 1884. 

Mildenhall.—Driest autumn since 1856. Springs at Christmas lower ~ 
than ever known, and still getting weaker, though the ponds were well — 
supplied by rain of December. 

Broad Hinton.—Wells on the Downs dry at the end of November. 

Weymouth, Langton Herring.—Many wells exhausted for the first 
time. 

Wimborne Minster, Chalbury.— Rainfall 4:14 inches below the average — 
of twenty years. 

Kingsbridge.—Springs failed for first time in memory of man; in — 
many instances had not risen at end of year. 

Kingsteignton.—Least rainfall of ten years. Wells deficient for five 
months. 

Collumpton.—Well of 30 feet depth dry for first time. 

St. Austell, Trevarna.—Wells dry for first time. Stream in adit 
driven into a high hill, that taps a spring 210 feet below the surface to 
supply Tregorrick, became almost dry. 

Maker Vicarage (Devonport).—Wells and springs as low as in 1871; 
remained so until November 20, when a rise set in, and normal height 
was reached on November 28, before the heavy rain fell, which was — 
not until December 2. 


ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 393 


Bodmin.—Springs lower than for eighty years in November; they 
recovered about December 8. 

Liskeard.—Rainfall 15°25 inches below average of twenty years. 
Springs failed throughout the district, but recovered in December. 

Stratton, Week St. Mary.—Many wells dried up for first time, dry 
from middle of March to end of November. 

Bude.—Springs never so low up to end of November. 

Ilminster, White Lackington.—Two perennial springs failed. 

Bridgwater, Ashford.—Streams supplying the water-supply were 
very low, but yielded more than the daily consumption of 200,000 
gallons per day, the ordinary summer flow being four million gallons 
per twenty-four hours. 

Kewstoke.—Many wells were dry until December rains. 


West-Midland Counties. 


Chipping Sudbury, Frampton Cotterell—Wells were dry up to end 
of November. 

Stroud, Brimscombe Vicarage.—Wells and springs dry for first time 
for years. 

Gloucester, Barnwood.—Wells in gravel very low. 

Hampen.—The springs that had already failed did so in October, and 
did not recover until the end of November. 

Cheltenham, Battledown.—Hill streams dry for a long period, and 
wells supplied from sandbed in village were also dry. Cheltenham 
reservoirs dry. 

St. Devereux, Whitfield.—Springs very low. 

Ledbury, Putley Court.—60-feet wells very reduced in October and 
November; the 40-feet wells almost dry. 

Hereford, Burghill.—Springs very low. 

Pembridge, Marston.—Wells dry November and December. 

Ludlow, Ashford.—Many wells dry in November; River Teme low 
from March to end of year. 

Great Malvern, Madresfield.—Wells 16 to 25 feet deep, through marl 
subsoil, began to fail in October, and supply was limited to December. 
River Teme lower than for forty years. 

Radway.—Driest year since 1870. Springs very low. Many wells 
no water until after Christmas. 


North-Midland Counties. 


Belvoir Castle——Remarkable disappearance of subsoil water. 

Oakham, Greetham.—Springs failed for a month. 

Spalding, Pode Hole.—Fen drainage engines were standing still at 
end of year, and the water in Deeping Fen was allowed to rise to almost 
summer level to afford a supply for cattle, or in case of fire. 

Sleaford, Bloxholm.—Wells 100 feet deep dry for weeks, as were 
springs and streams. 

_ Horncastle.—Springs were dry that have not been so since 1826, from 
middle of August to middle of December. 

Lincoln, Doddington.— Springs very low. 

Alford, Sutton-by-the-Sea.—Streams fed by chalk very low, but 
wells did not fail. 


394 REPORT—1885. 


Louth.—Springs very low; the Blow wells and other overflowing 
springs at Tetney were very low. 

Ulceby, Limber Grange.—A well of 150 feet maintained its supply, 
but shallow wells dried in August. 

Appleby.—Springs and wells low last three months of year. 

Nottingham, Strelley Hall—Driest year since 1874. A well in 
coal-measures, 45 feet deep, stood as follows :—At beginning of May, 36 
feet of water in it; in middle of November, 15 feet of water in it, it 
being then somewhat higher than a short time before. 

Newark, Hast Stoke.—Deep wells maintained their supplies, shallow 
wells failed. River Trent very low, May to September. 


North-Western Counties. 


Lymm.—Several wells dry ; a perennial spring ceased running. 
Maghull.—At Melling Quarry in pebble beds of Bunter, the surface 
of the underground waters was, on November 23, 1884, 42°5 inches lower 
than in 1883, 44 inches lower than in 1882, and 31°5 inches below the 
level of 1881; other conditions being the same. 
Arkholm, Storr’s Hall—Dry August and September caused defi- 
ciency in wells, and small streams not to run. 


Yorkshire. j 

Stainborotigh, Wentworth Castle-—Rainfall 10°17 below average of 
eight years. Springs very low. 

Doncaster, Burghwallis Rectory.—Underground water lower than 
for seventy years. Well still falling at end of year. 

Leeds, Oliver Hill, Horsforth. Water supply from company failed, 
only supplied two hours a day to December 21. Water was pumped 
from water running out of Bramhope Tunnel, N.E. Railway. 

Otterburn in Craven.—Traffic stopped on Leeds and Liverpool Can 
for want of water; five inches of rain in July was all absorbed 
ground, and added nothing to tributaries of Aire. . 

Hull, Derringham. —Seven months’ drought; water supply deficient 
to end of year. 

Wold, Newton.—In 1884, for third time since 1875, the Gypsey 
spring did not rise. f 

Masham, Burton House.—Springs failed to end of year. 

Scarborough, —Chalk springs supplying the town were but littl 
affected, but surface streams very low. 


Northern Counties. 


Shotley Bridge, Shotley Park.—Rain of July did not penet=ala 
springs failed until end of year. 

North Shields, Clementhorpe.—Springs low to end of year. 

Rothbury.—Springs at Whitton Town dry for three days at begi 
ning of November; never known to fail before. . 

Cockermouth.— Wells failed in April, June, and November. 


Wales and Monmouth. 


Llanfrechfa Grange.—Springs very low. 
Tredunnock.--Wells dry September to November. a 


y, 
i ON THE CIRCULATION OF UNDERGROUND WATERS. 395. 
Tredegar.—Water short for town supply, and iron and steel works, 
June till October. 

_ Aberayron.—Many springs failed. 
Llanidloes, Broomcliff—Many springs dry. 
Llandwrog, Glynllivon Park.—Springs dried up till late in autumn. 
Llanfairfechan.—Springs disappeared until December, but a 40-feet 
well held out. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. H. BAvERMAN, Mr. F. W. 

Rupier, and Dr. H. J. Jounston-Lavis, for the Investigation 
of the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius. Drawn up by H. J. 
_ Jounston-Lavis, W.D., F.G.S. (Secretary). 


‘Tue Reporter has to state that his work has been greatly hindered by the 
unfortunate outbreak of cholera in Naples, and the stringent local quaran- 
tine measures as a result thereof ; these causes, combined with the super- 
stitions fears of the people at seeing any stranger, prevented work on 
‘Vesnyius being carried out during the autumn of 1884, Nevertheless, 
daily observations were made of the variations in the activity of the 
_yolcano, of which a careful record has been kept. 
_ Allimportaxt changes of the crater-plain, and in the cone of eruption, 
aye been photographed; copies of these photographs are exhibited at 
meeting. Descriptions of the small eruption of May 2 of 1883 have 
already been given in ‘ Nature,’ and the results of a microscopical exami- 
nation of the sides of the remarkable hollow dyke then formed will soon 
be published. The Naples section of the Italian Alpine Club have gene- 
rously undertaken to publish a journal of Vesuvius, which will contain 
reproductions of the photographs exhibited. 
_ The third sheet of the geological map of Vesuvius and Monte Somma 
(seale 1 : 10,000) has been completed by the Reporter, and is exhibited at 
the meeting. It required thirty-three field days, not including pre- 
liminary knowledge obtained by many excursions during the previous 
much Lhe difficulties in the execution of this map have not been so 


’ 


auch due to the complexity of geological structure as to the amount of 
detail necessary. This will be evident when the map is examined, for it 
will be seen that the gradual progress in the formation of a covering of 
soil to the lava-streams and the development of vegetation is indicated in 
no less than six different stages, thus rendering the map of agronomic 
valne. Much care and patience was necessary in tracing out the course 
of ancient laya-streams now covered by a thick layer of loam. As a large 
part of the area is covered by habitations and by small gardens enclosed 
by high walls, each of which was separately visited, much time was spent 
in the work. 

_ The relationship of the varying activity of a volcano in a Strombolian 
state to barometric pressure, the lunar tides, and rainfall, cannot but be 
regarded as important in solving some questions of vulcanology. Instru- 
mental means of measuring such present so many practical difficulties 
that a scale of activity has been drawn up, which requires only a few 
minutes to learn, can be practised by any one with good eyesight and mo- 
derate intelligence who is within visual range of the volcano, and, above 
all, requires no further outlay than pen, ink, and paper. The objections 

be mentioned after describing the process. 


396 REPORT—1885. 


lst degree.—A faint red glimmer, above the main vent, interrupted by 
complete darkness. 

2nd degree.—The glimmer is continuous, but the ejection reaches — 
hardly above the central crater rim at the most. ] 

3rd degree.—Glimmer continuous and well marked; the ejections are 
‘distinctly discernible as they rise and then fall on the slopes of the cone — 
of eruption and roll down its slopes. 

4th deyree.—The ejections reach a considerable height, are brilliant, 
and light up the top of the great cone. 

5th degree.—Verging on an actual paroxysmal eruption, the ejections 
are shot up very high, being only very slightly or not at all influenced in 
their course by a strong wind. Hach explosion follows with much rapidity, 
and corresponds with the ‘boati’ heard all around the west, south, and 
south-east slopes of the mountain. 4 

The objections to this method of registering the variations in the 
activity of a volcano are— 

(a) Cloud-cap, which may for days cut off the view. 

(b) After a great eruption, resulting in a deep crater, the changes of 
activity would be invisible from the neighbourhood of the mountain. 

(c) It is only applicable after dark, so that usually only one observa- 
tion a day can be made. ; 

(d) Should lava be flowing from a lateral outlet, as is often the case, 
the level of the fluid in the chimney would vary as the outflow took place 
with greater or less rapidity, dependent on its blocking the passage more — 
or less. 

The Reporter thinks it desirable to introduce a description of this 
method into the report, so that it may be made use of in the case of other 
suitable volcanoes. 


7 
4 


| 


Report of the Conmittee, consisting of Mr. W. T. BLAaNForD and 
Mr. J. S. GARDNER (Secretary), on the Fossil Plants of the Ter- 
tiary and Secondary Beds of the United Kingdom. Drawn wp 


by Mr. J. S. GarDner, F.G.S., F.L.S. 
[PLATES I., II., & III.] 


Ir may not be out of place to preface our First Report on the Britisk 
Tertiary Flora with a brief summary of what is known regarding it at 
the present moment. Such a statement may be the more acceptable, as 
the subject is one, to promote the study of which the Association has 
made several grants in past years. 
The following list will be found to comprise all the principal works 
on the British Tertiary Flora down to the year 1880 :— 
1833-5, Lindley & Hutton’s ‘Fossil Flora’ contains descriptions of 
two Eocene Cycadaceous cones from the Thanet beds, and othe 
Eocene plants are mentioned (pl. 125, p. 117, pl. 226, p. 189). I 

1866 Mr. Carruthers redescribed these, referring them to Pinus 

(‘ Geological Magazine,’ vol. iii. pls. 20, 21, p. 534). 

1840. Bowerbank’s (incomplete) ‘History of the Fossil Fruits and 
Seeds of the London Clay’ appeared, and remains to this day the 

most important work on our Eocene plants. ; 


: i 


ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE TERTIARY AND SECONDARY BEDS. 397 


1851. The Duke of Argyll and Professor EH. Forbes described the- 
fossil leaves from Ardtun Head: nine were thought determinable. 
(‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe.’ vol. vii. p. 103, pls. 2, 3, 4). 
1854. Prestwich & Hooker figured several plants from Reading and 
Counter Hill (‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ vol. x. pp. 88, 163, pl. 4). 
1856. De la Harpe described the entire British Hocene Flora, as then 
known (‘ Bull. de la Société Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles,’ 
1856). This was translated and illustrated in 1862 in the 
‘Survey Memoir on the Isle of Wight’ (pp. 109, &e., pls. 5, 6, 7). . 
About 300 specimens from various collections were brought 
together, and of species there were 43 determined from Alum Bay, 
9 from Reading, 9 from Corfe Castle, 22 from Bournemouth, and 
9 from the Upper Hocenes. In all 83 species, exclusive of those 
from Sheppey: but 23 occur in more than one locality, and the 
total number is thereby reduced to about 60. 

1862. Heer & Pengelly’s ‘ignite of Bovey Tracy’ (‘ Phil. Trans,’ 
1862, part IT.) was published 1863, when 50 species were described. 
In the same year Heer described the Hempstead Flora, 10 species 
in all (‘Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.’ vol. xviii. p. 369). - 

These comprise all the works of any importance, but a complete list 
of references is given in the ‘Introduction to the Paleontographical 
Society’s Memoir on the British Eocene Flora for the year 1879.’ Mr. 
Baily has, in addition, made several reports to this Association on the: 
Antrim plants, and I have myself written from time to time on the same 
subjects. Baron von Ettingshausen has also published two lists purport- 
ing to be complete enumerations of the species from Sheppey and from 
Alum Bay. For reasons which will be apparent, I cannot help regretting 
that these lists were compiled and published; but, nevertheless, I intend 
as far as possible to retain the names given, though they were unaccom- 
panied by descriptions. Setting these two lists apart for the present, we 
find the following as the number of species that had been more or less. 
described :— 


From the Thanet beds . . : : ; ’ é 2 : B 
_y» the Reading beds . : ; F : : : 4 . 9 
»  Sheppey ‘ “ : ; : t : : : - 108 

» Alum Bay, &c. : : , : ; é : - ED 

» Bournemouth (deducting those not peculiar) : 3 beeil 
Bovey Tracy ? 2 ‘ : : F ‘ : ‘ -. 50 
Upper Eocenes : ‘ F : ; ; ‘ : : eyes 
Mull : . : : ; : : ; ; : d : 9 
Antrim, about. j : ‘ ; : c ; : : Pind a: 
Total F ; é - 262 


making a grand total of 262 species, not a tenth part of which, I 
anticipate, will survive a rigorous examination. This was the state of 
our knowledge of the subject when, in 1878, I was asked to assist in the 
preparation of a monograph on the Eocene flora, in conjunction with 
Baron von Ettingshausen, who was to be responsible for the Palsonto- 
logical work, while I assisted in translating and otherwise. 

Our co-operation did not survive the first volume, for I speedily 
found that my views as to what were satisfactory data, not only on 


which to found new species, but to identify old ones, were at variance 
with the Baron’s. 


398 REPORT— 1885. 

T ventured, however, to take the liberty of revising the species in the 
first volume before closing it, and then intimated to my friend Professor 
Wiltshire that, if desired, I would endeavour to continue the work alone 
or, alternatively, relinquish it. 

Tam very glad it was not decided to relinquish it, although a heavy 
burden fell on my shoulders, and one which I felt the greatest possible 
diffidence and hesitation in undertaking. Since then the study of only 
one group of plants—the Gymnosperms—has been the serious business of 
the past three years; for not only have I had to study, but in the 
majority of cases to find the specimens as well. A comparison of the 
Conifer known to occur in our Tertiaries before the publication of my 
Monograph and since will indicate the extent of progress that T trust — 
will be made if I am able to continue the work. 


British Eocene Coniferce described by various Authors. 


Cupressinites globosus, Bow. 
elongatus ,, 
recurvatus ,, 


curtus, Bow. 
Comptoni, Bow. 
Crassus “4 
thujoides,, 


corrugatus, Bow. 


os sulcatus a 
= semiplotus  ,, 
ae tesselatus aa 


Oupressites taxiformis, Ung. 
Sequoia Couttsie, Heer. 

Sequoia Hardtii, _,, 

Taxites Campbelli, Forbes. 
Cupressites elegans, De la Harpe. 


Pinites macrocephalus, Lind]. & Hutton. 


Pinites ovata, id. 

P. Bowerbankii, Bow. 

P. Dizoni, Bow. 

Pinus Plutonis, Baily. 
Cupressites MacHenrii, Baily. 
Sequoia Du Noyeri, Baily. 


List of British Eocene Conifere appearing in the Paleontographical Society's 
Monograph. 


Callitris curta, Bow. 
*Oallitris Ettingshauseni, New. 
*Tibocedrus adpressa, New. 

Cupressus taxiformis, Ung. 
*Tuxodium Huropeuwm, Brong. 
*Taxodium eocenum, New. 

Athrotazis Couttsie, Heer. 


subfusiformis, Bow. 


subangulatus, Bow. 


Status in Paleontogr. Soe. Monograph. 


Not believed to be Coniferous. 
United as Callitris curta. - 


Not believed to be Coniferous. 


Cupressus taxiformis. 
Athrotaxis Couttsie. 
Sequoia Tournalit. 
Taxus Campbelli. 
Podocarpus elegans. 
Pinus macrocephala. 
P. ovata. 

P. Bowerbankit. 

P. Dixon. 

P. Plutonis. 
Cupressus Pritchardi. 
Cryptomeria Sternbergii. 


* Athrotawis subulata, New. 
* Sequoia Tournalit, Brong. 
Sequoia Shrubsolet, New. . 
Ginkgo(?)eocenica, Ett. & Gard. 
Ginkgo adiantoides, Ung. : 
Podocarpus eoceenica, Unger. 
Podocarpus elegans, De la Harpe 


ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE TERTIARY AND SECONDARY BEDS. 399 


| 
4 


‘Podocarpus argillce-Londinensis, Pinus Bowerbankii, Bow. 
New. Pinus Plutonis, Baily. 
Podocarpus Campbelli, Nuw. *Pinus Bailyi, New. 
Podocarpus (/) incerta, ,, *Tsuga Heerti, ,, 
Araucaria Goepperti, Sternb. Cupressus Pritchardii, Goepp. 
Pinus macrocephala, Lindl. & OCryptomeria Sternbergii, ,, 
Hutton. *Taxus Swanston, New. 
Pinus ovata, id. Taxus Campbelli, Forbes. 
Pinus Prestwichii, New. Doliostrobus Sternbergii, Marion. 


Pinus Dizoni, Bow. 


In this list there are twenty-eight species, fourteen of which are 
entirely new to science, those marked * being only known through my 
own collecting. Four other most important Conifer were previously 
unrecognised in Britain, these being Cryptomeria Sternbergii, Araucaria 
Gepperti, Doliostrobus Sternbergii, and Taxodium Europewm, Many of 
the remainder have been defined with greater precision, especially the 
Irish species of Pinus and the English and Irish species of Cupressus, of 
both of which fruits are for the first time discovered. The true nature 


of other well-known Conifere is also recognised, such as that of the 
supposed Sequoia Couttsiw, ascertained to be an Athrotazis, and the Alum 


Bay Oupressites, found to be a Podocarpus. Finally, a number of useless 


‘Species are suppressed. 


__ Ettingshausen, in the list of Sheppey fossils already referred to, 


admits the following :— 


Callitris curta, Bow. Cupressinites globosus, Bow. 
0. Comptoni, - Cupressinites elongatus, ,, 
Solenostrobus subangulatus, Bow. | CO. recurvatus, Bow. 

8. corrugatus, Bow. CO. subfusiformis, Bow. 

8. sulcatus, Sequoia Bowerbankii, E. & G. 
S. semiplotus, ,, Pinus Sheppeyensis, » 
Hybothya crassa, Bow. Salishburia eoccenica b 


The only species which I am able to admit are the first and the last 
on the list, but Tadd a new Callitris, Podocarpus, Athrotazis, and Sequoia. 
Similarly in the list of the Alum Bay Flora the following occur :-— 


 Glyptostrobus Ewropeus, Brong. Sequoia Langsdorfii, Brong. 
- Oallitris curta, Bow. Sequoia Coutisie, Heer. 
Oupressinites globosus, Bow. Podocarpus eoccenica, Ung. 


Tam thoroughly acquainted with the specimens on which the above 
are based, and I do not think they afford satisfactory grounds for supposing 
these Conifere to occur at Alum Bay. The beds there are singularly 
poor in Conifer, and all the known specimens of true Conifers from 
them belong to a single polymorphic species, which the attached fruit 
shows to be Podocarpus elegans. 

_ I trust that the results attending the expenditure of the grant we have 
been favoured with may be considered satisfactory, and these I now 
proceed to detail. 

_ _Bracklesham Flora.—T wo visits have been made to Selsey. The beds, 
it is well known, are marine, but a few terrestrial fruits are from time 
to time procured from them. I have been particularly anxious before 


400 : REPORT—1885. 


completing my work this autumn on Conifere for the Paleontographical — 
Society to procure fresh specimens of the Pine Cones for which the 
Bracklesham beds are celebrated. Only the higher beds of the series 
near to Selsey were well exposed on both visits, whilst the cones are found 
lower down in the series towards the middle of the bay. A local collector 
has, however, promised to procure specimens when next the proper beds 
are uncovered. 

I was able to make a large collection of fossil shells while looking for 
plants, which, being from the highest beds, are less known, and: are 
interesting as illustrating the passage from the Bracklesham to the Barton 
Fauna, which is more gradual, I think, than is supposed. The surface of 
one of these beds is dotted over with fossil Posidonias, a marine mono- 
cotyledonous plant identical with the species now inhabiting the Mediter- 
ranean. It had not been previously recorded as a British fossil, though 
another species is abundant in the contemporary beds of the Calcaire 
grossier of the Paris basin. 

In our species the rhizomes radiate from a centre, whilst in the French — 
and other European fossil species they are long and branching. They — 
are found among beautiful Tellina shells, preserving, to a large extent, 
their banded colours. The only other fossil plant to record here is a 
Nipadites, which, unlike those of the Bournemouth beds, is large, — 
flattened, and oval. ! 

Reading Beds.—A considerable portion of the grant has been expended h 
in working these beds with, I am pleased to report, the happiest results. 
The flora is found in the Katesgrove pit, on the banks of the Kennet, 
immediately beneath the mottled clay. The matrix is a fine porcelainous ~ 
fuller’s earth interstratified with sand, and the beds seem very local. 
The limit of the pit being reached it is not probable that any part of the | 
beds will be exposed for long. re 

T have illustrated a beautiful specimen, one of several, of Anemia ; 
subcretacea, Sap., from these beds. This Fern is highly characteristic of 
the lower Eocenes in France, but had only previously been found in the 
middle Bagshot beds of Bournemouth in this country. I have also 
illustrated another Fern (?) from these beds, of which I have only as 
yet found a small fragment. The figures are therefore taken from 
specimens found many years ago by Professor Prestwich. Other 
valuable additions to the Reading Flora are some splendid specimens of a — 
Conifer, which I can see no ground for distinguishing from Taxodium 
heterophyllum of China. As these finds will be included in the Paleeonto- — 
graphical volume for the present year, I need only say regarding them 
that Tavodiwm has been hitherto regarded as an almost exclusively 
Miocene plant. Another interesting specimen from Reading is a pine 
leaf of two needles, about the size and substance of those of P. maritima, 
the first pine foliage, I believe, ever found in the English Eocene. One 
leaf bed is almost wholly made up of leaves of Platanus, and a bed above 
is fairly sprinkled with fruits of the same. Fruits are very abundant, 
and include four kinds of leguminous pods, and there are many flowers. 
The variety among the leaves is relatively smaller, but all are well marked, 
and I expect to identify them easily by help of the fruits and flowers. 
Asa result of this work the Reading Flora no longer appears so com- 
pletely distinct from that of Bournemouth. 

Woolwich Beds:—I regard these as thoroughly distinct in age from 
those of Reading. I have not found, in the course of two visits paid» 


- 


4 
‘ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE’ TERTIARY AND SECONDARY BEDS. 401 


for the purpose, any bed worth collecting from, though I think such 
must exist at Lewisham. [ figure the crozier and venation of a very 
tharacteristic Lygodiwm from a bed of almost fcetid clay crowded with 
mains of rush, with which this Fern seems mingled in some profusion. 
Iso figure a better specimen picked up at Croydon, and part of a new 
Pieris from the same. Professor Prestwich has the same Lygodium from 
unter Hill, and also, I think, from another locality near Woolwich; so 
that it appears to be characteristic of the Woolwich beds. 
_ Studland Beds.—With Mr. Keeping’s help and other assistance we 
were able to reach a leaf bed in the Lower Bagshot at Studland, and to 
obtain a great number of specimens, nearly all of which are quite new 
to me. They are mostly dicotyledonous leaves and fruits, which will 
equire time to determine. There are no Conifers among them, and I 
wm only able to add one Fern—a Lygodiwm, very near to that of Bourne- 
mouth—to the Chrysodiwm Lanzceanum procured abundantly by me ten 
fears ago in a different bed at the same locality. 
_ Hordwell Beds—Nothing much has been added to the collection made 
y myself and Mr. Keeping last year, when the perfectly preserved 
decimens of Athrotaxis Couttsie were found, our visit this year having 
gen at too dry a season. I have, however, to add Salvinia to the flora, 
ot previously found fossil in England, and exclusively confined to the 
ocene in Austria and Switzerland. 
Barton Beds.—Dry weather made our search for plants unsuccessful 
re, except for the discovery of a new species of Pine from Highcliff, 
ite unlike those hitherto found at Bracklesham. As the Stour and 
on no longer pass along the base of Highcliff, and the sea has receded 
re, the beds are rapidly assuming an angle of repose, and becoming 
sply buried under débris, so that some of them are no longer visible 
ept by making excavations. Being accompanied by Mr. Keeping, 
10 knows the ground thoroughly, we delayed a few days to take 
mplete sections and measurements of all the beds, which we hope to 
jointly with complete lists of the fossils peculiar to each. Though 
arton series is one of the most interesting of our Eocene forma- 
the detailed bedding has not been worked out like that of the 
esham series below and the Headon series above, and the greatest 
ceptions seem to prevail as to the number of species of fossils that 
contains. 
Bournemouth Beds.—Fine series of leaves were obtained this year by 
. Keeping and myself, the most noteworthy of which are some speci- 
of Godoya, which exceed any I had previously seen. I have 
strated a new and very distinct species of Adiantum, a fragment of 
ab may be Gymnogramma, and a tufted group of Polypodium leaves, 
ch seem to be different from either of the species previously recorded. 
Lhe London Clay.—Mr. Shrubsole has kindly sent me some of the 
the fruits that have been found. I have spent much time in 
ours to electrotype these, but I cannot say that, so far, the results 
een quite satisfactory. It seems likely, however, that the solution 
to preserve them in an accessible manner will be found in this 
m. The experiments I have made would take long to recount, 
though I have found it easy to preserve them out of liquid in a 
umitormly dry atmosphere, no preparation yet discovered will save them 
exposed for a few months to damp air. I have not made any complete 
a them yet, but they promise to afford results of the highest value. 
. DD 


‘ 
‘ 


402 REPORT—1885. 


Among a few recognised is the very unmistakable seed of Verschagfeltia, a 


genus of Palms from Seychelles, quite new to fossil floras. 

Gurnet Bay Beds.—By the kindness of Mr. A’Court Smith, who has 
been at great pains to despatch to me from time to time selections from 
his collection for examination, I have been able to study this flora at 
leisure during the spring. As a result, I ascertain that another Fern 
rivals Anemia subcretacea in range, Chrysodium Lanzeanwm, which ex- 
tends from the Lower Bagshot upwards into the Bembridge beds. The 
plants are as a rule dreadfully macerated and chopped up. Among 
them are small fragments of a Gileichenia, which, though not very 
beautiful, is a very important Fern, coming from the horizon, By far the 
most important discovery, however, is that of Doliostrobus, the first really 
extinct Conifer that I have met with in British Hocenes. It belonged to 
the tribe of Araucariece, and its identification has been thoroughly con- 
firmed by correspondence and the interchange of specimens with Dr. 
Marion, the well-known botanist of Marseilles. Its description will 
appear in the forthcoming volume of the Palzeontographical Society. 
A visit to Gurnet Bay will be necessary in order to complete my inves- 
tigations into this flora. 

It is certain that during the Hocene period, as the temperature 
increased from the base upward to the Middle Bagshot, when the 
maximum of heat seems to have prevailed, there was a tendency for the 
plant world to move northward. It is equally certain that in the later 
half of the Kocene as the temperature began to decrease the movement 
was in the opposite direction, and we find in the European Miocenes of 
Switzerland and Italy a number of plants that at an earlier period were 
growing inthe far north. In the Bembridge beds we should expect to 
find many plants of the Lower Hocenes reappearing that are absent in the 
Middle Hocenes. Two of the Reading plants reappear in the very limited 
flora of Hordwell, and two of the Antrim plants in that of Gurnet Bay 
and Hempstead. Trifling such facts appear, but they have their signifi- 
cance. No such forms occur among the thousands or tens of thousands 
of plant remains brought from Bournemouth; and we may feel quite 
certain that they were not comprised in our flora of that date. The 


moment the Hordwell Beds are searched, and among the first plants ob- — 


tained from them, are two Reading species. There are of course in a flora 
many plants, in addition to those thoroughly at home, which are near their 
limits of heat and limits of cold. Those that were capable of supporting 
much more heat might have maintained their ground throughout the 
whole Eocene period, whilst of the rest that migrated some would come 
back with each successive decrease of temperature, while others might 
never again find conditions suited to them. Mere superficial observa- 
tions are of no use in this study, and immense collections and minute 
comparisons must still be made if our knowledge of Hocene plants is ever 
to be commensurate with the importance of the subject. 


Explanation of Plates. 


PLATE I. 


Anemia subcretacea, Saporta.—Reading Beds, Reading.—This fern is essentially 
characteristic of the older EHocenes, and even pre-Hocene, rocks. A Fern 
hardly distinguishable from it appears in the Cretaceous rocks of Aix-la- 
Chapelle, and other localities in Europe and Greenland. It is found in the 
old Eocene of Sézanne, in the Paris basin, and in the west of France, and in 


a 


Plate i. 


j 55" Report Brit Assoc. 1SSA 


Lower Eocene Ferns. 


oode & (°fath London 


Shottisw 
Mlustrating the Report of the Committee on the Fossil Plants of the Tertiary and 


Secondary Beds of the United Kingdom. 


ee 


ay 


"y - 


Ps 


a 


Oe Se 


Pe T 
ND 

J it 

oe 

— 

; fy 


S 


Wy ss 
ee Yo, 


Lower Eocene Fans. 


554 Report Brit Assce 1885 


Stottiswoode & C°Lith London 


\Lllustrating the Report of the Committee on the Fossil Plants of the Tertiary and | 


Secondary Beds of the United Kingdom. 


Plate Ill. 


MN Report Brit Assoc. 1885 


\ fa 
BS 
he 


KG 

han’ 
SE 
S > 


ewe &Olzth London. , : 
trating the Keport ot the Committee on the Fossil Plants of the Tertiary and 


Secondary Beds of the United Kingdom. 


hug 


ON THE FOSSIL PLANTS OF THE TERTIARY AND SECONDARY BEDS. 403 


the lowest stage of the Lignitic of America. It is not uncommon in the 
‘ Bournemouth beds, both at Bournemouth and at Branksea Island, but had 
Us never previously been found fossil in any of our Lower EHocenes, so that its 
4 discovery at Reading is important. It seems not to have extended beyond the 
} Middle Eocenes, to have always been a relatively northern form, and to be 
now extinct. 
4 PLATE II. 


Fig. 1, Fragment of a feather-veined Fern from the Woolwich beds of Croydon. 
i The form is new to our HKocenes, but too fragmentary to be determined. It 
may be an Acrostichwm or Pteris. 

‘Fig, 2. Lygodiwm Prestwichii, Et. and Gard. sp—From the Woolwich beds, Croydon ; 
: figs. 3 and 4 from Woolwich. A small fragment of this was originally 
: figured by Professor Prestwich in the ‘ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc.,’ vol. x. p. 156, 
a pl. IIL. fig. 6. We thought it might be a Pteris, not having examined any 
original specimen, but did not make any definite determination, beyond the 
* opinion that ‘there is no particular reason to suppose it to be a Pteris; but 
a in the absence of contradictory generic characters we have thought it con- 
venient to consider it as belonging to that genus.’ (‘ Brit. Eocene Flora,’ 
vol. i. p. 53.) I have since examined Professor Prestwich’s specimens, and 
obtained others myself from Croydon and from Woolwich. The pinna was 
simple or cleft into two or more lobes. The veins are free, and diverge at a 
sharp angle from the midrib, are crowded, and fork once or twice. The 
margin is irregularly toothed, the teeth being the bases of fertile sezments of 
the frond, which look as if easily removable by rubbing or maceration. It is 
perfectly indistingnishable from Lygodiwm japonicum, Sw., an inhabitant of 
Japan and Hong Kong, Ceylon, Java, the Philippines, &c., of the section 
Eulygodium. It is quite distinct from the Bournemouth Z. Kaulfussii, and 
its determination is a great acquisition to our flora. It is undoubtedly the 
Pteris pseudopenneformis, Lesq., from the first stage of the American Lignitic, 
and may be identifiable with other European ‘species. 
_ Fig. 3 represents some venation enlarged. 
Figs. 5 to 12 represent specimens from Reading in Professor Prestwich’s collection. 
The hard striated stipes, and the cutting and venation of the leaf, are very 
fern-like, the latter suggesting segments of Aspleniwm Thunbergii; but the 
straggling growth is rare among Ferns, though possessed by some species of 
Acrostichum, Anemia, and others. I have met with nothing living resembling 
: it, and if a Fern, it is now completely extinct. 
Figs. 5a, 6a, 8a, 9, 10 are enlargements, and the rest natural size. 


‘he 


PLATE III, 


igs. 1 and 2. Small fragments of a Gleichenia from the insect beds of Gurnet Bay. 
The venation is very obscure, the mid-rib strong, the texture coriaceous. The 
specimens are interesting as marking the first appearance in the English 
Eocenes of a type of Fern that abounded in the Cretaceous beds of Europe and 
the Eocenes of Antrim and Greenland. 

la and 2a are enlarged. 

3 and 4 seem fragments of dicotyledonous leaves, shrivelled, and perhaps eaten 

{ by insects, but superficially resembling the Gleichenia. 

Pig. 5. Specimen of Chrysodiwm Lanzeanwn from Gurnet Bay. This Fern first appears 

in the Lower Bagshot of Studland, and maintains its ground through the 

whole of the Bournemouth series. It again appears in diminished size in the 

‘ Hordwell beds and the Bembridge beds, and is identical with a still living and 
widely distributed tropical Fern, C. awrewm. 

Fig. 6. Fragment of Fern from Gurnet Bay. The pinnules are very minute, and are 
like those of Gymnogramma flexwosa, Desv., as well as species of Lindsaya, 
Microlepia, kc. Itis too small for determination. All the above are lent by 
Mr. A’Court Smith. 

Fig. 7. Phymatodes polypodioides, Ett. and Gard., from Bournemouth. This appears an 

undoubted Polypodium belonging to the section Phymatodes. The fronds are far 

longer and more linear than those of P. polypodioides of Bournemouth, yet 

it seems hardly possible to separate it as a distinct species. The bases of 

attachment are, most unfortunately, absent in all, but their disposition almost 
DD2 


404 REPORT—1885. 


proves that they were fronds tufted on a rhizome and not lateral pinnz, as I 
had surmised from the isolated specimens previously known. Their re- 
semblance to the living P. geminatwm and other tropical American species is 
very striking. 

Fig. 7a is enlarged twice, and 7) four times. 

Fig. 8. Fragment of a Fern from Bournemouth, very like Gymnogramma aurea, the 
Golden Fern of our conservatories, but with larger pinnules. It might prove 
to be an Adiantum or Lindsaya, but the veins are relatively wide apart. 
Though in beautiful preservation the fragment is too small for determination. 

Fig. 8a is part of the same enlarged twice. 

Fig. 9. Fragment of Zygodiwm from the Lower Bagshot, Studland. Though like the 
Bournemouth Z. Kaulfussii the veins are much closer, and it seems inter- 
mediate in form between that and the Woolwich species. No Lygodium of 
this age was previously known. { 

Fig. 10. Adiantwm from Bournemouth. The rachis has somehow disappeared, leaving 
the pinne undisturbed in their relative positions. It is quite distinct from _ 
any fossil Adiantum previously known, and is identical with A. flabellulatum, 
Linn., of Ceylon, Japan, Hindostan, and the Malayan Peninsula and Islands. 
The unique impression is exceedingly fine, delicate, and colourless. The 
enlargement, fig. 10a, has, I fear, not quite included the margin, which is 
very slightly denticulate, and too much mid-rib is shown, for most of the 
veins actually diverge from the base, repeatedly forking, so that their relative 
distances are maintained to the margin. They are more crowded than in 
another Bournemouth maidenhair, A. apalophyllum. 

These Ferns add to the large number of plants already known that migrated from 
our latitudes after the Eocene, and are now found established in Western Asia 
and Central America. Though fragmentary, most of them are new, and, being 
omitted in our Monograph, deserve to be recorded. 


Report of the Committee, consistiny of Messrs. R. B. GRANTHAM, 
C. E. De Rance, J. B. RepMan, W. TopLey, W. WHITAKER, 
and J. W. Woopatu, Major-General Sir A. CLARKE, Sir J. N. 
Doue.ass, Captain Sir F. O. Evans, Admiral Sir E. OMMANNEY, 
Captain J. Parsons, Professor J. PREsTwicH, Captain W. J. L. 
WuartTon, Messrs. E. Easton, J. S. VALENTINE and L. F. 
Vernon Harcourt, appointed for the purpose of inquiring 
into the Rate of Erosion of the Sea-coasts of England and Wales, 
and the Influence of the Artificial Abstraction of Shingle or 
other Material in that Action (C. E. De Rance and W. Top.ey, 
Secretaries ; the Report edited by W. TopLey.) | 


[PLATE IV.] 


Tue importance of the subject referred to this Committee for investi 
gation is universally admitted, and the urgent need for inquiry is apparent 
to all who have any acquaintance with the changes which are in progress 
around our coasts, The subject is a large one, and can only be success 
fully attacked by many observers, working with a common purpose and 
upon some uniform plan. 

In order fully to appreciate the influence, direct or indirect, of human 
agency in modifying the coast-line, it is necessary to be well acquaintec 
with the natural conditions which prevail in the places referred to. The 
main features as regards most of the east and south-east coasts of England 


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RATE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 405 


are well known; but even here there are probably local peculiarities not 
recorded in published works. Of the west coasts much less is known. 
_It has therefore been thought desirable to ask for information upon many 
elementary points which, at first sight, do not appear necessary for the 
inquiry with which this Committee is intrusted. 
A shingle-beach is the natural protection of a coast; the erosion of 
a sea-cliff which has a bank of shingle in front of it is a very slow pro- 
cess. But if the shingle be removed the erosion goes on rapidly. This 
removal may take place in various ways. Changes in the natural distri- 
bution of the shingle may take place, the reasons for which are not 
always at present understood ; upon this point we hope to obtain much 
information, More often, however, the removal is directly due to arti- 
ficial causes. 
As a rule, the shingle travels along the shore in definite directions. 
If by any means the shingle is arrested at any one spot, the coast-line 
beyond that is left more or less bare of shingle. In the majority of cases 
“such arresting of shingle is caused by building out ‘groynes,’ or by the 
construction of piers and harbour-mouths, which act as large groynes. 
Ordinary groynes are built for the purpose of stopping the travelling of 
the shingle at certain places, with the object of preventing the loss of 
land by coast-erosion at those places. They are often built with a reck- 
less disregard of the consequences which must necessarily follow to the 
coast thus robbed of its natural supply of shingle. Sometimes, however, 
the groynes fail in the purpose for which they are intended—by collecting 
an insufficient amount of shingle, by collecting it inthe wrong places, or 
from other causes. These, again, are points upon which much valuable 
nformation may be obtained. 

Sometimes the decrease of shingle is due to a quantity being taken 
away from the beach for ballast, building, road-making, or other purposes. 
Solid rocks, or numerous large boulders, occurring between tide-marks, 
are also important protectors of the coast-line. In some cases these have 


been removed, and the waves have thus obtained a greater power over 
‘the land.! 


The Committee has during the past year received several Returns re- 
lating to the south and east coasts of England. Those relating to the coast 
south of the Thames are here printed, with the exception of one by Mr. 
K. McAlpin on Pembrokeshire.? As the amount of change on the rocky 
coast here described is small, and as the Return is accompanied by several 
pbhotographs—without which illustrations its value would be much de- 
sreased—the publication of this is deferred. 
__ The other Returns in hand are :—J. Bateman, Estuary of the Colne?; 
PB. S. Bruff, R. Deben to near R. Colne*; Maj. A. G: Clayton, Great 
Yarmouth’; W. Teasdell, Aldeburgh to Cromer?; A. C. Savin, Wey- 
‘bourne to Happisburgh*; Clement Reid, Weybourne and Palling*; C. 
a cnereys, Scarborough ‘; Lieut.-Colonel Melville, Northumber- 
and coast. 
', The thanks of the Committee are especially due to Major-General Sir 
A. Clarke, who has instructed the Officers of the Royal Engineers 


* The foregoing paragraphs, giving a general statement of the objects of this 
Committee, are reprinted from the preliminary Report of last year. 

* Supplied through Sir A. Clarke. $ Supplied through Mr. J. B. Redman. 

* Supplied through Mr. W. Topley. 


406 REPORT—1885. 

stationed around the coast to supply the Committee with such information 
as they may possess or may be able to obtain. Further returns are ex- 
pected from the same Department and from other official sources ; the 
Committee therefore think it best to defer any general Report until 
more complete information is obtained. 

The Report by Mr. J. B. Redman on the South-Hastern Coast so fully 
sets forth the work of the Committee, and the importance of the inquiry 
referred to it, that this is now printed. 

The Report by Mr. G. Dowker on the Coast of Hast Kent gives an 
account of the changes of the coast in this district, changes which are of 
especial historical importance and interest. 

Mr. Whitaker has drawn up a List of Works on the Coast-Changes — 
and Shore-Deposits of England and Wales, which will be of great 
service to the Committee and to those who may assist in the inquiry. 
In order to make this as complete as possible, it has been brought down 
to the date of publication. 

The various Reports—General and Local—are printed on the autho- 
rity of the respective authors. The Full Report of the Committee is 
deferred. 

The Committee would again ask for the assistance of any who, by long 
residence or by other means, have special knowledge of changes on any 
part of the English and Welsh coasts. Printed forms of questions can 
be obtained from the Secretaries or from any member of the Committee. 


Cory oF QUESTIONS. 


N.B.—Answers to these questions: will in most cases be rendered more precise 
and valuable by sketches illustrating the points referred to. 


8. Does the area covered by the tide 
consist of bare rock, shingle, sand, — 


1. What part of the English or Welsh 
Coast do you know well? 
or mud? 


What is the nature of that coast? 
| 9, If of shingle, state— 


a. If cliffy, of what are the cliffs | 
a. Its mean and greatest breadth. 


composed ? | ean and A 
b. What are the heights of the b. Its distribution with respect to 
tide-mark. 


cliff above H.W.M. ? : 
ahha Cha ha Be . The direction in which it travels. 
ee peer oh ies . The greatest size of the pebbles. 


2. 


ond 


3. What is the direction of the coast- . Whether the shingle forms one 
line ? continuous slope, or whether 

4. What is the prevailing wind? there is a ‘spring full’ and 
5. What wind is the most important— ‘neap full.’ If the latter, state” 
a. In raising high waves ? their heights above the respec- 

b. In piling up shingle? tive tide-marks. 

e. In the travelling of shingle? 10. Is the shingle accumulating or dimi- 

: : nishing, and at what rate? i 

Se ee ean currents? | y4. If diminishing, is this due partly or 
Sak sc a I i ea al entirely to artificial abstraction ? 


(1) Vertical in feet. 
yards between 
water. 

(a) At Spring tide; (b) at Neap 
tide ? 


(2) Width in 
high and low 


(See No. 13). 

12. If groynes are employed to arrest 
the travel of the shingle, state-— j 
a. Their direction with respect to 


the shore-line at that point. 


a 
‘b. Their length. 

e. Their distance apart. 

da. Their height— 

(1) When built. 

(2) To leeward above the 
shingle. 

(3) To windward above the 
shingle. 

e. The material of which they are 

built. 

f. The influence which they exert. 


3. If shingle, sand, or rock is being 
artificially removed, state— 

a. From what part of the foreshore 
(with respect to the tidal range) 
the material is mainly taken. 
b For what purpose. 

ce. By whom—Private individuals. 
Local authorities. Public com- 
panies. 

d. Whether half-tide reefs had, 
before such removal, acted as 
natural breakwaters. 


t. Is the coast being worn back by the 

sea? If so, state— 

a. At what special points or dis- 
tricts. 

b. The nature and height of the 

i cliffs at those places. 

_e. At what rate the erosion now 

| takes place. 

da. What data there may be for 

determining the rate from early 

maps or other documents. 

-e. Is such loss confined to areas 

4 bare of shingle? 


15. Is the bareness of shingle at any of 
these places due to artificial causes ? 
a. By abstraction of shingle. 
b. By the erection of groynes, and 
the arresting of shingle else- 
where. 


16. Apart from the increase of land by 
increase of shingle, isany land being 
gained from the sea? If so, state— 
a. From what cause, as embanking 

salt-marsh or tidal foreshore. 
b. The area so regained, and from 
what date. 


17. Are there ‘dunes’ of blown sand in 
your district? If so, state— 
a. The name by whieh they are 
locally known. 
b. Their mean and greatest height. 

. Their relation to river mouths 
and to areas of shingle. 

. If they are now increasing. 

. If they blow over the land; or 
are prevented from so doing by 
‘bent grass’ or other vegeta- 
tion, or by water channels. 


18. Mention any reports, papers, maps, 
or newspaper articles that have 
appeared upon this question bear- 
ing upon your district (copies will 
be thankfully received by the 
Secretaries). 

19. Remarks bearing on the subject that 
may not seem covered by the fore- 
going questions. 


ce) 


of 


GENERAL REPORTS. 


A.—The South-Eastern Coast of England. 
By J. B. REDMAN, F.G.S., M-Inst.C.E. 


July 21, 1884. 


at the erosion of our south-eastern coasts by the action of wind-waves has been 
ed and increased by artificial agency, by removal of material and by the treatment 
works of defence in a selfish spirit, unaccompanied by concerted action, resulting 
injury to adjoining frontages for the benefit of those operated on, can be copiously 
istrated by the records of our public departments, such as the Admiralty, Woods 
d Forests or Works, the Board of Trade, the War Office, and the Trinity Corpora- 
mn, as well as by those of nearly every harbour board, river conservancy, or local 
e and sewage authority. And this fact is pourtrayed in a special literature of 
; the Blue Books of the House of Commons, for the various tidal harbours’ 
orts, Inaugurated by the persistent agitation of the late Joseph Hume, M.P., as 

as those on harbours of refuge, lighthouses, and shipping, give incidentally 
merous isolated cases showing how much this really imperial question has been 
tlooked or confused by a division of authority ; and the struggles with lords of the 
nor, illustrated by a number of well-known cases, add additional exemplification. 
‘ The legal aspect of this question has been recently ably treated by a republica- 

tion of Hall’s ‘Hssay on the Rights of the Crown in the Sea-shore,’ by Richard 


408 REPORT—1885. 


Loveland Loveland, of the Inner Temple, in 1875; and this work shows well the 
imperial character of the inquiry deputed to the British Association Committee on — 
the Erosion of the Sea Coasts of England and Wales. 

We are told in this essay, on p. 2, that ‘this dominion or ownership over the 
British seas, vested by our law in the king, is not confined to the mere usufruct of — 
the water and the maritime jurisdiction, but it includes the very fundum or soil at 
the bottom of the sea.’ 

The effect resultant on the frequent piercing of our sea littoral by estuaries, creeks, — 
and rivers is graphically described on p. 3, indicative of the extent of territory — 
involved. ‘This dominion not only extends over the open seas, but also over all 
creeks, arms of the sea, havens, ports, and tide rivers, as far as the reach of the tide, © 
around the coasts of the kingdom. All waters, in short, which communicate with 
the sea, and are within the flux and reflux of its tides, are part and parcel of the sea 
itself, and subject, in all respects, to the like ownership.’ 

‘Grants of the sea-shore by the king’ are treated on at p. 14, and ‘As to the 
claims of lords of manors to the sea-shore’ at p. 17. x 

‘As to digging for sand, &c.,’ we have, at p. 92, the following apposite opinion :— 
‘With regard to the “constant and usual fetching of sea-sand, seaweed, and gravel, 
between the high-water and low-water mark, and licensing others so to do; and 
embanking against the sea, and enjoyment of what is so imned ”—these, it must be 
admitted, are all acts likely to be done by the owners of the soil, and they afford 
colour that he who does such acts is the owner; but these acts may be usurpations or 
intrusions on the king’s ownership, and prima facie are so.’ 

The sea-coast margin is at p. 108 divided into three categories, the treatise saying 
that, ‘as to alluvion and derelict land, land gained from the sea is of three kinds: 

“Ist. Per alluvionem, alluvion, or land washed up by the sea. 

‘2nd. Per relictionem, derelict land, or land left dry by the shrinkage or retirement 
of the sea.’ 

And at p. 109 we read: ‘The law on this part of the subject is laid down by 
Blackstone in these words :—* As to lands gained from the sea, either by allwvion, i.e., 
by washing up of sand or earth, so as in time to make terra firma; or by dereliction, | 
as when the sea shrinks back below the usual water-mark, in these cases the law is 
held to be that, if this gain be by little and little, by small and imperceptible degrees, 
it shall go to the owner of the land adjoining, for ‘de minimis non curat lex ;’ but if 
the alluvion or dereliction be sudden and considerable, the land shall go the king, as 
lord of the seas.”’ 

The land gained from the sea in the third category would be that from which the 
waters had been excluded by artificial works of embanking and drainage, generally 
applicable to salt marshes of silty deposit gradually risen to the height of neap-tide 
flow, but only covered by spring tides. 

It is curious to find Blackstone and his commentators talking of these salt-slob 
lands, which, by their gradual accretion, have risen above the influence of all but great 
tides, as dereliction caused by the shrinkage of the sea below its usual level, whereas 
the converse is the case, the surface gradually rising and shutting out the tide by its 
own proper operation. The fact that O. D. is mean level of the sea is sufficient — 
tration of Blackstone’s physical inaccuracy in this special instance. 

As regards the wholesale removal of shingle and boulders from marine spits and 
moles, it is only necessary to refer to such cases as the quarrying of cement stones 
from the foreshores on either side of Harwich, from the Beacon cliff to the south- 
ward, and from the Felixstow cliffs to the northward, only stopped by the persistent 
efforts made by Captain Hewett’s successor in the North Sea Survey, the late 
Admiral Washington, and others. For illustration of this pernicious practice and the 
deplorable results frequently entailed this case suffices. Again, on the northern 
side, the indiscriminate removal of shingle from the northern breakwater of Harwich 
harbour (Landguard Point) for ballastage by the lord of the manor has been the 
fruitful source of litigation. Similar results from similar practices at Spurn Point, at 
the mouth of the Humber, have been entailed. In effect, this natural shingle mole, 
defending the entrance to the most important harbour on our eastern coast, was 
nearly breached in consequence. 

Next to the removal for ballastage, the most fertile cause is removal of materia 
for road-making and for building purposes, and when in the neighbourhood of a large 
town os becomes, from the enormous quantity removed in the seer eat sufficient 


‘+ 
; RATE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 409 

... 
or such purposes. The quantity used must be enormous, and in effect the new por- 
of the town may almost, without figure of speech, be described as in a large 
sure built out of the sea. About 1836 Hastings was separated from St. 
mards by a small marshy bottom, with a rill of water running through it, called 
the ‘ Priory Marsh,’ and during’that year the sea was excluded by the erection of a 
yertical stone wall joining the esplanade terraces, and the two towns became what 
it is now, one big town. Since that wall was erected the shingle in front of it has, 
from various causes, become much attenuated, the groynes destroyed, and the sea 
has, it is said, in places got under the sea walls. So great has been the loss in the bay 
to the eastward, where is situate the old portion of the town, the fishermen’s quarter, 
that a general exodus of that industry to Rye, or elsewhere, has been threatened. 
A second groyne is being constructed from the base of the East Cliff (where 
similar work formerly existed) at a very great cost, in order to promote accumu- 
=o of shingle along the Hastings frontage, and to bring about again the old state 
0 ings. 
Se eetment made use of by many owners of property here, as elsewhere, to the 
effect that removal of shingle for building purposes must be inappreciable (as, how- 
eyer great the abstraction for such purposes, millions of tons renew the shore after 
a change of wind) is made in evident forgetfulness or ignorance of the fact that these 
abstractions from and renewals to the natural ‘fulls’ of beach, alternately reduce 
d increase what is a circulating medium of defence, moving in opposite directions 
p and-down channel, with a preponderating movement up channel, due to prevalence 
of south-west winds, and that such a constant drain on a natural defence, however 
recuperative, must tell in the long run. 
The removal of boulders from the foreshore seaward of the summit shingle neap 
and spring ‘fulls,’ either for road-making or for manufacturing purposes, not only 
loosens the foreshore, and renders it, thus disintegrated, less able to resist the stroke 
of the wave, but in many cases, such as the ‘Chenies’ rock off Sheerness, and the 
“Septaria’ blocks off Harwich, the material formed natural groynes and breakwaters, 
and their removal, in reference to shore conservancy, was most suicidal. 
__ Another fertile source of accelerated erosion of a special locality is the erection 
of a close pier for a harbour entrance, and of large and lofty groynes for accumu- 
lating shingle, looking only to the protection of an isolated frontage, and without 

erence to the attendant abstraction of material to the leeward of such works, from 
the absolute stoppage of the material on its way to the less favoured locality. The 
e is parallel to the last, as the oscillating medium is laid under heavier contribu- 
on od a favoured locality, and is gradually starved for the neglected neighbour to 
leeward. 
_ Folkestone may be cited as a principal delinquent of this class, due to the elonga- 
on of the close pier to the windward or westward of its harbour, which half a 
tury back was a trap for shingle; and a fisherman’s first task in the early morning, 
or to that, was to excavate a channel through the newly-arrived shingle to get his 
at through and out to sea. The resultant accumulation of shingle to windward 
forms the tongue of land on which stands the ‘ Pavilion,’ &c. 
_ Now, in ‘ East Wear’ Bay there is an almost entire absence of shingle, and the 
esultant falls of the chalk undercliff take place at so alarming a rate that the very 
tence of the South-Eastern Railway is jeopardised. That this action is not due 
he Admiralty pier at Dover is shown by the entire absence of shingle to wind- 
d of that work, but in its place a remarkable extension of the silty foreshore has 
ken place, gradually diminishing towards Folkestone. Eastward of Dover we have 

lar results from the same cause ; from the Castle jetty to St. Margaret’s the base 

‘ the lofty chalk cliff is now washed and abraded by the waves, and the lower débris 
shingle, forming an undercliff carriage-way into Dover some thirty years back, has 
vy entirely disappeared. 
We may be asked to suggest a remedy, but this, perhaps, is beyond the province of 
Memorandum ; but as regards the old stereotyped plan of building a solid pier out 
m the shore, for communication therewith from vessels, or for protection of the 
all of a tidal river, it has been suggested that there are numerous cases where a 
ang beach has to be crossed, that it would be better to commence the solid work 
gether seaward of the shingle ‘fulls,’ and connect it with open piling to the 
e, and so as to leave the littoral movement of beach uninterfered with. 
As respects groynes, there is hardly a watering-place on our southern coast where 
y have not become a burning verata questio of the day, and, at most of 
, illustrate the suggestion made more than thirty years back, that groynes cut 


/ 


410 REPORT—1885. 


up a shore into a multitude of bays, with a repletion of material on one side and 
deep water on the other, and would have had a better substitute in a sea-wall that 
allowed the shingle to pass freely backwards and forwards along its face. Such was 
the experience with the frontage of Romney Marsh, defended by Dymchurch sea- 
wall, 3; miles in length, where the old system of groynes, which cut up the frontage 
into an interminable number of bays, was abandoned about forty years back in 
favour of the present stone slope (‘ Proc. Inst. C.E.’ vol. vi., plan and sections). 

The system of groynes at Brighton, for some isolated points, appeared to have 
answered well when the supply arriving at that town of shingle from the westward 
was uninterfered with, but a change occurs when the system was continued to Hove, 
or West Brighton, in thickening quantities. The material arriving was a constantly 
diminishing one, from the fact that the Shoreham Gas Works, erected under an Act 
of Parliament on the ‘live’ beach between the harbour and the sea, were found to 
stand upon a somewhat unstable base, with a fickle sea defence, unless supplemented 
by artificial works. Groynes on an extended scale were erected, which treated West 
Brighton in the same ungenerous spirit entertained in former days for Rottingdean, 
for the sake of and advantage of Kemp Town. The encroachment of the sea to the 
leeward side of the groynes, on the esplanade lawns, has necessitated the erection 
of an esplanade wall. 


B.—The South-Eastern Coast of England. 
By Colonel E. C. Sim, R.E. (Retired). 
To the Commander Royal Engineers, Brighton. 


55 Lower Belgrave Street, London. Dec. 4, 1884. 


Sir,—With reference to War Office Memo. Oct. 23, 1884, and the Minute of the 
Commander Royal Engineers, 8.E. District, thereon, dated Oct. 25, 1884, and enclo- 
sure returned herewith, I have the honour to state that as I have been employed 
as C.R.E. at three stations in the Chatham and 8.E. Districts during the last 
five years, which stations have allmore or less been connected with foreshore ques- 
tions, in which I have taken great interest, as affecting War Department property and 
rights, I trust I may be allowed (although on the Retired List) to make a few remarks 
about ‘The rate of erosion of the sea coasts of England and Wales, and the influence 
of the artificial abstraction of shingle and other material in that action,’ as mentioned 
in the circular of the British Association for the Advancement of Science. 

With reference to the coast-line from Sheerness to Shellness Point in the Isle of 
Sheppey, with which I was well acquainted from 1879 to 1882, it would appear that 
the high land of Warden Point, which is nearly the only cliff in Sheppey, is gradually 
being undermined by the action of springs and the sea; the débris being more or — 
less conveyed by the tide towards Sheerness, and the limestone-nodules, or lumps from 
the débris, are collected afterwards by the fishermen and others on the beach, and sold 
for lime and cement. ‘The coast-line near Leysdown station is being denuded of 
shingle likewise, and a stone apron erected some years ago near the coastguard 
station has been washed up and practically destroyed in 1880. The movement of the 
shingle is from east to west along the estuary of the Thames; and if it were not 
caught by the Garrison Point Fort, which is protected by strong wooden groynes put 
down when the fort was erected, my opinion is that the whole of Sheerness would 
be submerged. The point acting as a breakwater and large groynes ‘backs up’ the 
shingle along the whole front of the fortifications, which are also protected by 
groynes, and so on to Sheerness Marine Town and Cheyney Rock, W. D. property; 
after which, in my time, the foreshore was so exposed by the absence of groynes and 
want of care and attention, that it seemed likely the whole of the adjoining lands 
would be submerged at high tides, the sea-wall or dyke also being ineffective. I am 
unable to give any exact description of the formation of the cliffs in Sheppey. I 
believe they are of London Clay (with nodules of impure limestone or septaria), and are 
from 60 to 80 feet in height. The foreshore of shingle in front of Sheerness and Mile 
Town extends for perhaps 80 yards at low water. While on this subject, I may as 
well mention that the southern or right bank of tle Medway at Sheerness, from the 
Royal Dockyard to Queenborough, had also to be protected against the inroads of the 
sea or river by groynes and dykes, or walls. The ‘wash’ near Queenborough Pier 


“RATE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 411 


very great, and we constantly had to employ gangs of men in refacing the front 
top of the river walls. On the north side or left bank of the Medway, at the 
of Grain, where the large fort was built for the protection of the entrance to the 
ver, &c., the sea or estuary made great inroads in the foreshore of clay or mud 
ch formed the foot of the glacis of the fort. The sea-walls and groynes built at 
point opposite the dockyard at Sheerness had to be constantly repaired and kept 
order, or the foreshore would have gone altogether. The action of the sea or 
uary in this case, as well as at Sheerness generally, was most effective when the 
ind was N.E. and the tides high; there was scarcely any shelter from the N.E., the 
ter was driven up with great force over the walls, and the shingle at the groynes 
s disturbed ; and at the great storm during the frost of January 1881, the sluices 
ich should have let the surface-water out were frozen, and the whole of the low- 
2 ground was flooded and afterwards frozen, which did a great deal of damage 
property, and caused much malaria afterwards. 

The direction of the groynes generally was N.E. towards the prevailing wind, and 
the accumulation of shingle to windward was often 6 or7 feet higher than the 
other side. There was scarcely any movement of shingle when the wind was westerly 
nd from the south, as the coast-line was well protected by the adjoining banks and 

als. With regard to the abstraction of shingle from the foreshore at Sheerness, 
0 doubt the proprietor of the foreshore at Marine Town used to sell the shingle to 
builders and others, but as the sea-wall at this place was considerably retired in 
position, I am not sure that much harm was done in my time. At Garrison Point, 
inside the line of fortifications, we allowed a small amount of shingle to be taken for 
building purposes, but only on the river-front. Beyond Cheyney Rock and towards 
Warden Point, a great deal of shingle was taken away by builders and others to make 
concrete. My own opinion is that, as a rule, none should be allowed to be taken 
from Sheerness, as the whole front is really artificially kept up, and the shingle is a 
very important factor in the matter. Where there is a great accumulation of shingle 
groynes it may be allowed, in exceptional cases, to remove shingle for W.D. 
purposes. 
_ With regard to the coast-line from Folkestone to Dungenessand Winchelsea, with 
Which I was acquainted in 1882 and 1883, I would state generally that the sea is 
king inroads near Folkestone towards Hast Wear Bay, caused no doubt by the 
cour of the sea thrown on the foreshore by the piers of the harbour; but the three 
towers on the cliff above are not affected thereby. The S.-E, Railway Company are 
tecting the frontof the town near the Pavilion Hotel and Pier, and towards 
ndgate many groynes have been constructed. Sandgate Castle has, I believe, been 
en over by the S.-E. Railway Company, and I imagine they will protect the 
eshore there. The sea-walls at Seabrook and Hythe were much damaged by a gale 
in 1882, from want of the proper number of groynes; these have, I believe, since 
been provided by the 8.-E. Railway Company. 

From Hythe to Dymchurch and Dungeness, as I understand, the Lords of Romney 
Marsh keep up the canal sluices, sea-walls, groynes, &c., and do it very well; doubt- 
less they prevent shingle from being taken. From Dungeness to Winchelsea the 
ame rule applies, and except where the foreshore of the towers and forts occasionally 
intervenes, I imagine the whole coast-line is protected by these Commissioners of 
Levels. The movement of shingle towards Dungeness Point from the westward is 
yery apparent ; it is caught up there, and the foreshore is gradually increasing. At 
me time the sea came up to Winchelsea, Lydd, and New Romney, although they 
now a considerable distance inland. I should say that the sea is encroaching a 
e between Dungeness and Rye, but Rye Harbour is becoming shallower. I 
not imagine shingle is allowed to be taken from the foreshore here, except under 
very careful supervision. 

_ From Winchelsea to Hastings I know but little ; except that near Hastings, at Rock- 
-Nore Cliffs, one very large stone groyne has been built, and one is in course of con- 
action near the Practice Battery, which effectually keep up the shingle and prevent it 
ng eastward and undermining the cliffs and damaging the Fisherman’s Town. The 
ole front of Hastings and St. Leonards is protected by sea walls and groynes kept 
by the local authorities, and I imagine shingle is only allowed to be taken in small 
tities for public building purposes. From Hastings to Bopeep and to Bexhill 
derable inroads have been made by the sea, and some of the old Martello-towers 
ve gone. The lord of the manor or local authority at Bexhill is building a sea- 
ll there to protect the front and form an esplanade ; but at the neighbouring fore- 
re west much of the ground has been recently washed away, and until Pevensey Bay 


OD 


412 REPORT—1885. 


is reached there is no local authority interested apparently in preserving it. The 
Commissioners of Pevensey Levels are supposed to protect the foreshore from 
Bexhill towards Eastbourne; a few groynes have been made by them and by the 
L.B. and §.C. Railway Company, but no great efforts are made to keep up the bank 
of shingle. The wash or scour from Eastbourne has, I fancy, affected this part a 
good deal. The whole front of Eastbourne, from the Circular Redoubt to near Beachy 
Head, is protected by groynes and sea-walls kept up by the town. I understand 
that the sea has during the gale now raging made another breach in the wall at 
the east end of Circular Redoubt, Eastbourne. Last year a breach was made and 
temporarily repaired; but as the Commissioners of Pevensey Levels did nothing 
to repair their groynes and sea-defences, doubtless the sea has got in behind the 
W.D. sea wall and has flooded the adjacent land. The local authorities of East- 
bourne intended to have taken over this portion, and to have extended their sea- 
wall along the whole front of the War Department property. 

From Beachy Head to Seaford, Iam not aware of the state of the coast-line; the 
high cliffs of chalk, &c., are, I understand, being undermined in places; but I do not 
think there is much shingle at their foot. From Seaford Head to Newhaven there is 
considerable beach kept up by groynes and sea wall. An esplanade has also been 
formed by the Commissioners. On the Newhaven side, under the fort, shingle is 
allowed to be taken by the Harbour Commissioners to make into concrete, but as the 
beach is protected by the pier and breakwater, no shingle can pass to the eastward, 
and no harm is done. 

From Newhaven to Rottingdean and Brighton, I fancy the cliffs are being 
gradually undermined by the action of the sea, There is a shingle beach at Rotting- 
dean which is used by bathers, but I fancy that the scour of the shingle caused by 
the sea defences of Brighton has denuded the foot of the cliffs between Rottingdean 
and Brighton of any shingle deposited there. The sea-defences of Brighton in the 
shape of groynes and sea-walls are of course kept up by the local authorities very 
carefully, as the importance and popularity of the place depend upon the sea-front. 
At Hove the recent works designed by Sir John Coode are approaching completion. 

From Brighton to Shoreham the ‘head’ or ‘ full’ of the beach of the peninsula 
formed by the Aldrington Basin, &c., is, I believe, well kept up. I do not think 
shingle is allowed to be removed thence. At Shoreham Harbour, to the west of the 
river Adur, the shingle is taken by the Commissioners from their property under 
the Redoubt and barged away to Brighton for making concrete at the new sea- 
defences. Apparently the shingle accumulates as fast as it is taken away. From 
Shoreham to Worthing, I cannot say that I know much. I believe the ‘head’ or 
‘full’ of the beach is kept up, and I have never heard of any breaches made by the 
sea there. At Worthing the local authorities keep up the sea-walls and groynes to 
form an efficient esplanade and roadway. I do not think that shingle is removed. At 
Littlehampton the sea-front is protected by groynes and sea-wall, but the foreshore 
is principally of sand. The shingle lies to the westward of the river Arun, and thence 
sandhills and dunes form an efficient protection from the inroads of the sea. 

At Bognor the local authorities are gradually improving the sea-front with groynes 
and sea-walls, but I fancy the sea makes many inroads into the foreshore adjacent ; 
shingle should certainly not be removed from this place. 

. I have the honour to be, Sir, 
Your most obedient Servant, 
(Signed) E. C. Sr, Colonel. 


REMARKS ON GROYNES FOR SEA DEFENCES. 


1. Groynes are indispensable—Ist. To check the movements of shingle. 2nd. To 
assist in forming a ‘head’ or ‘full’ of beach. 38rd. To cover the ‘tie’ or foot 
of sea-walls with shingle, and prevent them being undermined. 

. They should be directed towards the prevailing dangerous wind. 

If the coast suffers from both quarters—i.e. S.E. and S8.W. winds—land-ties on 

each side are necessary. 

Short groynes—say 80 feet long—are better for protecting walls, in my opinion. 

. Long groynes are better for forming ‘ head’ or ‘full’ of beach. 

- Iconsider that an 80-feet groyne will protect a part of about 100 feet. If there 
is much scour they should be closer. ; 


oar wr 


great object is to get the beach just to fall over the top and accumulate on 
the leeward side as well as the windward. 

The Hastings, Eastbourne, and Brighton groynes are good ones; although some at 
, Eastbourne are, in my opinion, too high. 

If the piles or uprights are long enough, sheeting can always be added afterwards 
if necessary. 
a (Signed) E. C. Siu, Colonel R.E., Retired List. 
a December 4, 1884. 


0—The Erosion of the Sea-Coast between Langney (or Langley) 
Point and Beachy Head, Sussex. 


By F. W. BourDILLoN, M.A., Eastbourne. 


The erosion of this part of the coast has been treated of by Mr. J. B. Redman, in 
he ‘Proc. Inst. C. E.,’ vol. xi. p. 162, also by the Rev. H. E. Maddock, in a paper 
read before the Eastbourne Natural History Society in 1875, and published in their 

oceedings. But the ‘ Survey of the Coast of Sussex,’ made in 1587, and edited of 


Beache 


/ Beahe pointe 


years by the late M. A. Lower, shows that some of the conclusions arrived at in 
papers, touching this part of the coast, may require corrections,’ especially as 
ds the Langney shingle beds. This survey (the original of which,” on vellum, and 
n excellent state of preservation, is in the hands of Mr. Wynne E. Baxter, of Lewes) 
vs a large tract, marked ‘Beache,’ where the present shingle beds extend, and 


[2 The conclusions here referred to are confirmed by this Report. Mr. Maddock’s paper, 
Pe, $86.1 that in the ‘ Proc. Inst. C. E.,’ as regards this part of the coast.—J. B. R., 
wary . 

2 Another copy is in the British Museum. 


414 REPORT—1885. 


even marks ‘Langney Pointe,’ which, not being marked on Dean Nowell’s map, Mr. 
Maddock assumes not to have been in existence at that date. 

It will be best to divide this piece of coast-line into three, as there is a consider- 
able difference in these subdivisions. Going from east to west we have— 

(1) The Langney shingle beds, where the shore is composed entirely of shingle in 
fulls or ridges. 

(2) The low cliffs from the sea houses (‘Splash Point’) to the Wish Tower, com- 
posed principally of Upper Green Sandstone, but now obscured by the sea-wall and 
esplanade. 

(3) The chalk cliffs,in most places much higher than the last mentioned, from 
the Wish Tower to Beachy Head. 

In division (1) there is conclusive evidence of waste in recent times, though it is 
difficult to get any accurate information as to its extent and the rate of erosion. It 
is, however, quite evident that when the one-inch Ordnance Survey map was first 
published, in 1813, the Martello Towers numbered 69, 70, 71, 72 were some distance 
above high-water mark; they are now all destroyed, and only the ruins of two of 
them laid bare at low water, about half-way between high and low tide. 

In division (2), the part between the Sea Houses and the Wish Tower, the evidence 
of waste is most conclusive. Ina paper in the ‘ Phil. Trans.’ for 1717, Dr. Tabor, of 
Lewes, minutely describes the position of the Roman pavement which had been 
recently found at Eastbourne. This was at that time ‘ distant from high-water mark 
a furlong. In former times it might have been somewhat more, because from this 
point to the westward the sea is always gaining from the land.’ The position of this 
pavement is approximately known. It was not more than a few yards from ‘Splash ’ 
Point,’ the spot where stood the old house called the ‘Round House,’ which, being 
partly undermined by the sea, was pulled down in 1841. We have therefore the fact _ 
that between 1717 and 1841 nearly a furlong of land was destroyed by the encroach- 
ments of the sea in this particular spot. 

Further evidence of this is supplied in the following quotation from ‘ Homély 
Herbert’s Guide to Eastbourne,’ 1857 :— 

‘Immediately beneath where this house [the Round House] stood cattle were wont 
to feed in a delightful meadow. . . . It is supposed that within the last ten years 
no fewer than three acres of land have been washed away from hereabouts.’ 

Further to the westward the sea has also encroached much, as an ex-coastguards- 
man, who has been in Eastbourne for fifty-eight years, told me of a house which 
formerly stood east of the Wish Tower, the site of which is now covered with shingle, 
below high-water mark of highest tides. In front of this house he remembered a 
‘fair-sized garden,’ and he had spoken with a man who remembered playing cricket 
in a field between this garden and the sea. The bluff on which the Wish Tower 
stands appears to have offered more resistance to the encroachments of the sea, as in 
the Ordnance Survey of 1813 it does not appear as such a prominent projection as it 
now is. 

In the third division, from the Wish Tower westwards to Beachy Head, the chalk 
cliffs are higher, and there is less evidence of waste. Where the sea-wall now ex- 
tends (as far as the disused chalk quarry at Holywell) there used, five or six years 
ago, to be sheer cliffs, their base touched by the highest tides, but they do not appear 
to have been wasting at all fast; while between Holywell and Beachy Head the cliff 
face is mostly crumbled and overgrown with vegetation, in some places right down 
to the shingle, showing that there, at all events, little appreciable erosion has taken 
place for some years. 

At Beachy Head itself, the great height of the cliffs rising to 532 feet, and the 
immense mass which the sea has in consequence to wear down, prevents anything like 
rapid erosion, and, moreover, the base of these cliffs is, except for 200 or 300 yards at 
the actual point, composed of the hard Lower Chalk (without flints), which offers great 
resistance to the sea. It appears, indeed, that the upper part of the cliffs, under the 
influence of rain, frost, and salt spray, wastes more quickly than the lower from the 
attacks of the waves, as the latter usually protrudes, allowing the formation of the 
grassy slopes and green ledges which are the conspicuous beauty of Beachy Head. 
The occasional falls of the upper cliff slip over the lower strata, and form a talus of 
chalk ruin, sometimes jutting far enough into the sea to allow the shingle to collect 
to westward. This protects the cliff still more from the sea. Such a fall occurred 
about the year 1848, a little westward of the highest cliffs, and its effect in stopping 
the shingle was so great that the Commissioners of Pevensey Level took steps to hasten 
its destruction by blowing up the largest blocks of chalk with gunpowder. There 


RATE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 415 


were formerly at Beachy Head three pinnacles of chalk projecting from the cliff top, 
known as the ‘Three Charleses.’ These are mentioned as early as 1717 (in Dr. 
or’s paper before quoted), and though the last remaining fell into ruins in 1852, 
e bases of two of them still remain, showing how little of the cliff has perished 
in 150 years. : 

As to erosion before 1717, it seems impossible to obtain any accurate information, 
Sir Wm. Burrell (in the Burrell MSS. in the British Museum) mentions a survey of 
this neighbourhood, made by Sir Edward Burton in 1630, which he had consulted. 
_ But the agents of the present owner of Compton Place (the Duke of Devonshire) can 
give me no information about it, and it appears to be lost. This survey might have 


It is noteworthy that Dr. Tabor says that even at the beginning of the last century 
_ the sea was ‘ always gaining on the land’ at Eastbourne. 

In Roman work at Pevensey Castle (i.e., as early as the third or fourth century 
A.D.) unmistakable pieces of seashore rocks are built in belonging to the Upper Green 
nd, or the Cretaceous stone immediately overlying it ; some are rounded by water, 
d bear calcareous worm-casts, and some are perforated by lithodomi. This shows 
that as long ago as this date, the sea was washing the beds of the Upper Green 
Sand. It is, however, difficult to calculate the direction of these beds under the 
sea. There is no reef now existing hereabouts at any distance from the shore, the 
furthest being a reef of small rocks about a quarter of a mile from high-water mark, 
which is exposed at low tides. If this point were capable of being ascertained with 
any exactness it would afford a satisfactory chronological index. 

_ With regard to the erosion of the whole of this part of the coast, from Beachy 
Head eastward to Langney Point, the consideration of most importance is the 
Langney shingle beds. For if we judge by the rate of waste of these beds since 
1813, it is plain that they must once have extended some way eastward of their pre- 
sent limits. Additional evidence of this is found— 

_=(a) In the Elizabethan survey, 1587, in which ‘The Beache’ is marked as con- 


(®) Camden speaks of ‘the promontory called the Beach, from its gravelly beach,’ 
as if the shingle reached actually to the headland in those days (Camden’s ‘ Britannia,’ 
. Gough, i. 189). 

__(¢) In1728 the Commissioners appointed to survey the coast of Great Britain say : 
‘The high ridge of beach runs on to a point of land beyond Bourn west, and there 
ends; which point, for that very reason, is called Beach Head, or Beachy Head’ 
(quoted in ‘Sussex Arch. Collections,’ xi.). 

_ The shelter afforded by Beachy Head, and the reef which runs out from it like a 
natural breakwater, if not the original cause of the formation of these shingle beds, 
May well have helped in their formation. 

The sea-front at Eastbourne is now protected by a sea-wall and a system of 
wooden groynes, the spaces between which are soon filled by shingle washing from 
the west. 

For some years past, in front of the Wish Tower, it has been the practice to allow 
rocks of the Upper Green Sandstone to be removed, and whole reefs, about half-way 
between high and low tide, have been thus removed. The authorities say that the 
removal of these rocks has greatly facilitated the washing up of the shingle into the 
oynes. But itis noticeable that where a large reef has been removed in the last 


D.—The Coast of East Kent. 
By GrorGE DowKEeR, F.G,S., Stourmouth, Wingham, Kent. 


____ The district to which this Report refers is comprised within a line from Dover to 

Whitstable to the west, and the parts of Kent east of that line. 

The shore line from Dover to Walmer on the south is composed of Chalk cliffs, 
ontaining flints, and ranging in height from two hundred feet to fifty; from 
Walmer to Deal, of clay, about twenty feet; from Deal to Pegwell Bay, of low 

ma ies as towards the shore by the sand-hills, averaging about fifteen feet, and 
_ @ sea-beach. 


az 


416 REPORT—1885. 


At Pegwell Bay are low cliffs of marly ‘Thanet Beds,’ which are succeeded by 
nearly flintless Chalk cliffs (in the bay), except the junction-bed with the Tertiaries 
which contains numerous nodular and tabular flints. There are also large tabular 
Sandstone blocks, which occur in the Tertiary bed, and which are termed ‘ moorlogs’ 
in the Ordnance maps. It is at this point that the present mouth of the Stour dis- 
charges its waters into the sea. 

The remaining eastern coast-line from Pegwell to the North Foreland consists of 
Chalk headlands, about fifty feet in height, containing, for the most part, tabular and 
nodular flints. 

The sea opposite the before-mentioned coast-line is called the ‘Downs,’ and at 
some distance from the shore are the dreaded Goodwin Sands, and numerous shoals 
that divide the tidal currents. The prevailing, or most rapid, current runs from south 
to north along this line of coast. 

The northern shore-line from Whitstable to a little beyond Herne Bay is com- 
posed of London Clay cliffs, which vary from forty to seventy feet in height. From 
Beltinge (east of Herne Bay) to Reculvers the lower part of the cliff is composed of 
sand, with occasional Sandstone blocks, the latter more numerous towards Reculvers. 
From this point eastward, as far as Cliffend, at Birchington, the shore is a marsh 
below high-water line, protected by artificial embankments. 

From Birchington to Foreness, near the North Foreland, the cliffs are of Chalk, 
nearly devoid of flint, ranging from thirty to fifty feet in height. 

The sea opposite this northern shore consists of the mouth of the River Thames, 
which has numerous shoals, the largest and most remarkable of which is known as 
the ‘ Margate Sand,’ being of a like character with the Goodwin Sands, to the south 
of the Isle of Thanet. The tidalcurrent runs east and west ; strongest from the east. 


Sea-Beaches. 


On the southern shore of this district are sea-beaches, for the most part under- 
neath the cliffs, and piled up along shore, so as to form a natural barrier to the 
waves. These beaches have been travelling, and are still travelling, from the south 
towards the north. Artificial barriers across these beaches, at right angles to the 
shore, arrest this action, but the tendency of the sea-current is always to sweep 
round such obstructions, and the impinging force in such cases carries away the 
beach which had accumulated to leeward. 

At Dover the construction of the Admiralty Pier has caused the beach to accumu- 
late to the south-west, and, by the sweeping round of the tide, to remove the beach to 
the north of the town. A great change is perceptible in this respect since I have known 
the coast. 

At St. Margaret’s Bay the beach has diminished, and between here and Kingsdown 
a large quantity has been swept away during the last few years. Towards Walmer 
there has been a large accumulation, which is now rather stationary. 

To the north of Deal and towards Sandown Castle the shore is being rapidly cut 
back. The beach alone here forms a natural barrier, and protects the low land 
behind it. Any cause tending to weaken or destroy this would cause the sea to 
inundate the Lydden Valley, some hundreds of acres in extent. The sand-hills beyond 
form a like natural protection. 

In times past, the accumulations of sand blown on shore by the south-westerly 
winds have caused gain of land from the sea. At the same time, the prevailing 
currents have thrown back the mouth of the Stour more and more to the north, 
which has further gained from the sea a tract of land now protected by the sand 
hills. 

At Pegwell Bay the sea has gained greatly on the land, washing away the cliff at 
a rapid rate, as my sketches taken here in 1849, 1868, and 1884 show. 

From Ramsgate Harbour to the North Foreland, the shore below the cliff is 
covered with sand at high water mark, and there is little or no beach. Some falls of 
cliff have taken place, but the shore has not been materially cut back since I have 
known it. 

From Walmer to the North Foreland there are very few groynes, and beach has been 
largely abstracted at different times artificially. Though some of the local authorities 
have prohibited this removal, it still goes on at places. Such removal must be pre- 
judicial in exhausting the supply of material moved by the sea. ' 

The northern shore of this area has comparatively little beach, and its removal 
should be strongly opposed. From the Foreness Point to the extreme end of the 


TE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 417 


halk cliff west of Margate, the fall of cliff has been very insignificant, and no flints, 

or very few, can be derived from this source. 

_ Between this point and the Reculvers the marsh is protected by numerous groynes, 

Kept up at great cost by the Commissioners of Sewers, which have been instrumental 
in keeping back the sea. 

_ The London Clay cliffs along the remaining portion of this northern shore have 
ered great denudation and destruction by the waves. There are some beaches 

low the cliff, derived, in part, from the gravel beds on the top of them. 

‘The sea currents do not run so strong along this as on the southern shore of 

_ the area. 

Coast- Changes. 


; There are evidences, both physical and historical, that relate to very great changes 
within this district. The Isle of Thanet, as its name implies, was once separated from 
mainland by an arm of the sea, which has greatly been recovered from the ocean 
within the historical period. 

Thaye not been able to discover any evidence of changes in elevation or depres- 
sion within this area since the Roman occupation of England. 

The estuary of the Wantsum, the river that separated the Isle of Thanet from the 
nland, has been recovered from the sea, partly by human agencies, and in great 
e by the silting up of the river, caused by the sea-currents diverting its mouth 
4 northerly direction, by the travelling of sea-beaches, and by accumulation of 
lown sand. 
‘The Roman Rutupean ports and castra of Richborough and Reculvers were 
undoubtedly accessible to the Roman fleets. 

‘Maps relating to the district, from the time of Queen Elizabeth, all show that the 
uanges now taking place along the coast-line have all been acting in one direction, 
viz. a shifting of the strength of the tidal current from the south towards the north. 
etween Sandwich and the Isle of Thanet an old sea-beach is situated, on one 

ity of which was erected the ancient town of Stonar ; the material of which 
‘composed shows it was derived from material brought from the north. The 


it sea-beaches from Dover to the North Foreland, on the other hand, are derived 
material carried from the south. 


In process of formation during the period dating from the first century. But, 
it would seem that it was not covered by the waves during the Roman occupa- 


f Tam not mistaken, a similar alteration in the great tidal wave that sweeps 
And the removal of ancient 
iers must have played an important part in these operations. 

g afull Report upon this district, of which this must serve as a 


have consulted the Reports made from time to time to the Admiralty Naval 
ment; Reports from the Board of Trade in reference to the beach at Deal; 
dman’s Hssays on the Alluvial Formations and Local Changes on the South 
of England ; an Historical Report on Ramsgate Harbour by John Smeaton, 
+71; various Reports on the south-eastern district prepared for your Committee ; 
l available archxological works relating to the subject, a list of which will 
npany the full Report. 
A tracing of the one-inch Ordnance Map accompanies this Report. 


it 


1. Sidmouth. 


By PETER ORLANDO HUTCHINSON, Old Chancel, Sidmouth, Devon. 


alee and neighbourhood best, having resided mostly there since January 
5, 

e cliffs reveal a fine section of the Trias, extending from Axmouth on the east 
(with a small interruption at Beer Head) to near Babbacombe on the west, a 


q ; 
eo of 19 miles, a. The Red Marl at Sidmouth; but as the strata rise 
£ : EE 


418 


3. From Beer Head to Sidmouth nearly east and west; farther west it curves round 


4. In January and February either north wind and frost, or south and west with 


REPORT—1885. 


towards Dartmoor, the cliffs towards Exmouth, Dawlish, &c., are composed of 
the Lower beds of Sand rock and coarse conglomerate. b. The height of 
High Peak, the second hill west of Sidmouth, by the Ordnance Survey, is 
marked as 513-9 feet high, reduced to mean tide, LiverpooL Peak Hill, next 
on the west from Sidmouth, is 439, and Salcombe Hill, east, 497 by the 
barometer. Though flat on the top, the high land rises inland, or northward, 
towards Blackdown, at the rate of about 50 feet in a mile. 


to the south-west and south towards Torbay. 


storms and rain. March, April, and part of May much cold north-east wind. 
June often showery, with westerly winds. July, August, and September, if 
not disturbed by thunder, steady north-west wind and fine weather. October 
equinoctial gales from south and west, with rain. November has generally a 
ten days’ spell of frost. December often milder. 


5. The south-west wind brings the highest waves, which come up Channel from the 


Atlantic. The south-west wind piles up shingle at Sidmouth, and the north- 
east winds clear it away. The shingle on this part of the coast seems to 
travel east or west according to the direction of the wind. 


6. The tidal currents are intricate and varying, and change as the tide is rising or 


falling. The fishermen are not always clear on the subject. I am disposed to 
think that when the tide is rising, and the current running eastward in mid- 
channel, it strikes against Portland and turns back by a great eddy and runs 
past Sidmouth in the opposite direction. When the tide falls the currents are 
reversed, and every headland has its eddy. 


Fic. 2.—Eddy between Start Point and Portland—the tide rising. 


7. (1) Ihave no trustworthy information on this point, and the local fishermen and 


8. For miles on each side of Sidmouth it consists of chert and flint shingle, fed from 


10. Curiously enough, the shingle seems to accumulate and to diminish by cycles— 


sailors differ in their statements. It could easily be ascertained in calm 
weather. For the present I may observe that 12 to 14 feet is likely to be near 
the truth. The highest and lowest spring tides occur at the equinoxes. 
(2) This depends on the steepness or slope of the beach, which is steeper near 
high-water mark than low. On an average about 35 yards at Sidmouth. 


the clay and flint bed capping the tops of the hills over the Greensand. At 
low water a flat sand is uncovered in some places. A low reef of rocks runs into 
the sea immediately on the west of Sidmouth, and is called the ‘ Chit Rocks.’ 
They begin to uncover at half-tide down. No mud, but fine sand, called ‘ mud- 
sand.’ 

From the cliffs, or from the esplanade wall of Sidmouth (about 1,841 feet long), 
down to the beginning of the sand, the average width of the shingle is 35 
yards. tb. They cover the whole beach everywhere, the pebbles being from 
the size of peas to the size of the fist. e. The shingle travels east with a west 
wind, and west with an east wind. d. According to the size of the flints, 
some may be as large as a child’s head. e. The shingle forms a curved slope 
(Figs. 3 and 4), but at high-water mark the waves throw it up into a ridge 
more or less high. 


perhaps irregular, for I have no record of these changes. I remember a great 
accumulation of shingle, I think about 1847, and six or eight years after a 
considerable diminution, Again, about 1860, or soon after, it was heaped up 
so high as to be above the esplanade wall. It decreased till 1873, and by 


by January in that year it had become so cleared out, that from Belmont to the 
Chit Rocks, at the western end, the red rock was bare, and an extent of clay 
and river sand was exposed opposite Fort Cottage. Since then it has been 
returning. 

41. This remarkable diminution had never been seen before, and caused great sur- 
prise. It was due to natural causes. The River Sid once had an outlet to 
the sea where Fort Cottage stands, as a bank behind the cottage shows, and 
which I have traced through the town inland. When the shingle was all 
cleared away, the surprise was increased by the appearance of a number of 
stumps of trees dotted about the beach between high and low water, and 
when the tide was in they were from 4 to 5 feet under water The stumps 
were worn short off, but they were evidently in situ, for on digging round 
some of them, which I did with others, the roots were found to radiate in the 
clay. They were of alder. I have several specimens. Also in the clay, probably 
washed down the river, five or six Mammoth teeth were found, most of which 
I secured. Three or four of the best I have given to the Exeter Museum, 


RATE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 419 


High Water Spring Tide 


HighWaterNeap Tide 


Oh L 


ava 


Figs. 3 and 4.—Diagrammatic Sections through a Shingle-Beach. 


42. In 1830 a number of groynes were made all along the beach in front of the town 
of Sidmouth, as an experiment, to see whether they would accumulate and re- 
tain the shingle. I saw many of the piles driven and much of the work done. 
a. They were carried out at right angles to the shore line, or line of the 
Parade, or Esplanade, as commonly styled. The Esplanade then was merely a 
walk on a bank of earth. The Esplanade wall, which is about 1,841 feet long, 
was not built till 1837. b. The length of the groynes, from their starting- 
point at the Esplanade, was about 30 yards, that is nearly to the commence- 
ment of the sand at low water. e. Judging only from recollection, I should 
say they were about 200 feet apart. d. Their height when built was about 
5 feet at the inner end, and 3 or 4 feet at the farthest end. On the leeward 
side no shingle accumulated, but it became heaped up on the windward side. 
When the wind changed, say from west to east, the shingle was heaped up on 
the east, or new windward side, and cleared away from the west, or previous 
windward side, but new lee side; and when the wind was end on it was 
cleared away on both sides altogether. e. They were made of elm timber, to 
the best of my recollection. The piles were about 7 or 8 inches square, and 
perhaps 4 feet apart, and they were planked on both sides with stout elm 
boards some 2 inches thick. f. They disappointed the builders. They ac- 
cumulated small portions of shingle in places, but wholly failed to retain it. 
When the gales of wind were strongest, and the waves were the highest and 
most violent in their attacks, and when the protection of a bank of shingle 
was wanted for the esplanade, and, indeed, for the sea-front of the town, 
then it got either washed away or got drawn back into deep water. After a 
few years’ wear and tear the groynes began to show signs of dilapidation, 

EE2 


420 REPORT—1885. 


but as they were evidently useless for the purpose intended, they were left to — 
their fate, and in a few years more they were either destroyed by the waves 
or utilised by the fishermen for firewood. They having failed, the esplanade 
wall was built in 1837. 


400 600 B00 YARDS 
EMILE 


As 

Wis 

Sub ANE 
Forest \N 


\ 


\\ 
Foundation: 


Fic. 5.—Plan of part of Sidmouth, showing the old river bank. 


13. It has always been the custom at Sidmouth for the inhabitants to take sand 
and gravel from the beach. About 1870, speaking at a guess, the Board of — 
Trade set up a new claim to the foreshore, and forbade such removal, but there — 
was such a rebellion in the town that they dropped it. a. The material is 
taken from anywhere between high and low water mark, according as coarse _ 
or fine material is wanted. »b. Gravel is used for gravel walks and roads, and — 
many persons earn a living by fetching it when other business is slack. Sand _ 
of the coarser kind is used by the masons and others for mortar, cement, and _ 
various other purposes ; but when this was forbidden, building was stopped, 
which not only affected the masons, but it concerned the carpenters, plumbers, 
painters, glaziers, &c., and hence the rebellion. e. All persons are free now 
to take any material they want from the foreshore, though the Board of Trade 
claims waifs and strays and certain large fish: but though this claim is new, 
it is not resisted. It was once enjoyed by the lords of the manor, for I have — 
a lease granted by Henry VIII., in which it is mentioned ; but the lords of | 
the manor have neglected it. The small amount of material taken from the 
beach can have no effect whatever. The reef of rocks at the west end of the 
beach (the Chit Rocks) is too low to act as a natural breakwater, except at 
low tide. 

14. a. and b. This is an interesting question and comprehends a great deal. I have 
been watching the wearing away of the cliffs from boyhood, and see great 
changes. The greatest loss isin the soft red marl from Axmouth to Sidmouth, 
and next in the sand-rock farther west to Exmouth, though hard patches of 
conglomerate occur in places. There is no regularity in erosion, for the softe 


_ RATE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 421 


parts go fastest ; and the waves attack the bases of the cliffs, and this brings 

down the upper portions. ec. The rate of erosion in South Devon must be 

various. Perhaps I may say an inch a year for the last fifty years, which I 

remember ; there are soft places in the cliffs that have gone twice or three 

times as much, and harder parts not half as much. 4d. I know of no old maps 
of sufficiently large scale or sufficient accuracy to determine changes of coast. 

Donn’s (or Don’s) map occurs to me, but it would be useless. e. The loss goes 

on everywhere, irrespective of shingle. 

45. The questions under this head are virtually answered under 12 and 13, as far 
asIamable. I will, however, here mention a circumstance which was told 
to me, at which I was rather surprised. When the esplanade wall was built 
in 1837, one of the coping stones towards the west end was trimmed after 
it was in position, and the chips fell several feet down, the shingle then being 
low. Thesouth-west gales of wind during the winter after carried the shingle 
up to the top of the wall to the coping (6), but instead of burying the chips, 
my informant declared that they must have been lifted or forced up, for they 
were lying undisturbed on the top of shingle (6), and close to the coping stone. 
On inquiring how he could account for so strange a circumstance, he said he 
supposed that the pounding and beating of the heavy waves must have forced 
the shingle up bodily, and thus lifted the chips. I may add that I had not the 
opportunity of seeing the chips there myself. 

16. No land is being gained from the sea along the coast of South-east Devon, but 
the contrary. The silting-up of shallows within the mouths of rivers, and the 
forming of mud banks, and eventually meadows, can scarcely come under this 
head. This latter process has given meadows within the mouths of the Sid 
at Sidmouth, the Otter at Budleigh Salterton, and the Axe at Axmouth. 
Silting-up is going on in the Exe, the Teign, &c., and eastward in Poole 

; harbour, &c. 

27. As the beach in South-east Devon, from Lyme to Exmouth, is composed of 
_ pebbles, and as high cliffs rise immediately from the beach nearly all the way, 
there is no blown sand there. There is, however, an expanse of sand a mile 
and a half wide at the mouth of the River Exe, occupying the width of the 
estuary, open to the sea and open at the back up the estuary. The seabeach 
is almost entirely of sand, and this expanse, called ‘the Warren,’ is composed 
of blown sand and estuarine accumulation, and all along the sea front there 
isa long ridge of sand dunes, between 20 and 30 feet high in some places, 
The waves in winter sometimes make breaches in this ridge, and the Mayor 
and Town Council of Exeter, who have rights here, have consulted engineers, 
i fearing that the anchorage inside would be thrown open to the sea. But I 
. think there is no danger. The features of the Warren may alter, and the sand 
' will shift, but the reparations by blowing are always going on, so that I do not 
i apprehend total or permanent destruction. Indications have been discovered 
of late years which go to show that the Exe once had an outlet under Mount 
Pleasant. Out of reach of the sea the sand is overgrown with bent grass, 
rushes, &c. And here is found the Zrichonema bulbicodium (or T. columne), a 
small plant with a bulb about the size of a pea, belonging to France and the 
Mediterranean, supposed to have been thrown up by the sea. The Exmouth 

Warren is the only known habitat in Britain. 
28. Many excellent papers on the Geology of South Devon have been written, though 
4 not exclusively devoted to the coast. There is not room to give full titles 
\ here. Besides the larger books, the following papers have come under my 
! notice: —H. B. Woodward, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 1876, p. 230; Geol. Mag. 

: 1877, p. 447, &e. W. A. E. Ussher, Geol. Mag. 1875, p. 163 ; Quart. Journ. Geol. 

a Soc. 1876, p. 367; Ibid. 1877, pp. 49, 449; Trans. Devonsh. Assoc. vol. x. 

" p. 203 (On the Mouth of the River Exe); Ibid. vol. xi. p. 422; Ibid. vol. xii. 

a p- 251; Aubrey Strahan, Esq., also of the Geological Survey, has a good 

. knowledge of Sidmouth. Rev. W. Downes, of Kentisbear, Quart. Journ. Geol. 

. Soc. 1882, p. 75, and many papers in Trans. Devonsh. Assoc. on the Blackdown 

f Hills and Mid-Devon Geology. G. W. Ormerod, Teignmouth, Quart. Journ. 
Geol. Soc. 1867, p. 418; Ibid. 1869, p. 273; Ibid. 1875, p. 345 (Estuary of the 
Exe), kc. H. J. Johnstone Lavis, Ibid. 1876, p. 273, on Labyrinthodon. A. T. 
Metcalfe, Ibid. 1884, p. 257, being more about the Labyrinthodon. P. O. Hut- 
chinson, Trans. Devonsh. Assoc. vol. xi. p.383 (Fossil Plants in the Red Marl) ; 
Ibid. vol. vi. p. 232 (Submerged Forest). 


422 REPORT—1885. 


19. There is one point on which I wish to make a remark, and that is, the univer- 
sally prevailing opinion among the seafaring people on the south coast, that 
the sea is gaining on the land. This belief prevails at least from Portland to 
the Scilly Isles. Such a change can take place in two ways: one is, that the 
cliffs are receding before the waves, and the other is, that the land is going 
down. I have said above, at No. 14, that the land is being worn away by the 
sea; and I may add that for twenty years past I have had a growing convic- 
tion that the land is going down. Not only does the sea appear higher and 
fuller than it used to do at high water, and points of land harder to go round 
at all times of the tide than when I was a boy, which signs, however, are not 
conclusive, but I have alluded to the submerged forest, and I may also allude 
to ‘the foundations,’ as some massive stone walls are called, supposed once to 
have been a habitable building, and within my memory generally uncovered, 
but not now. They are under the shingle, 30 feet outside the esplanade, and 
opposite Marlborough Place and Portland House. Like the stumps of trees, 
they are several feet under water at high tide. As to the rate of subsidence, 
I have thought that 10 inches in 100 years would be enough. In 800 years, 
or since the Norman Conquest, that would be 10 x 8 inches = 80 inches 
= 6 feet 8 inches. If the foundations and the trees were 6 feet 8 inches 
higher at the Conquest they would have been above the water, and the coast- 
line some distance farther out. 


2. Lyme Regis and Charmouth. 
By RicHARD B. GRANTHAM, F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E., 22 Whitehall Place, London. 


1. I have had occasion to examine the part of the coast of Dorsetshire lying between 
the town of Lyme Regis and the valley of the Char, near Charmouth. 

2. Commencing from the west, along the cliff from Lyme Regis, the cliff consists 
of the Lower Lias Clay and Limestone, at first about 40 feet high, and at the 
highest part it rises to about 300 feet, and consists of blue Lias clay, capped 
with chert gravel, which is above the Lias, and overlies the Greensand. The 
cliff then descends to the River Char, and from the river eastwards the same 
formation appears on the cliffs, but they do not here exceed 50 to 70 feet in 
height. The land rises inland from the cliffs, but not very much. The shore 
as far as low water consists of thin beds of Lias rock, dipping slightly towards 
the east and seawards, and is the base of the cliffs. Water percolates from 
under the chert bed and Greensand, and finds its way down to the Lias beds, 
and appears on the face of the cliffs, and causes them to slip in large masses 
by degrees into the sea. This refers to the cliff where it is 300 feet and 
upwards in height. 

3. The direction of the coast-line, after leaving the town of Lyme Regis, forms a bay 
bearing eastwards, and then curves back inland and continues east by south. 

4. The prevailing wind is from the south-west, and is probably the cause of heavy 
seas. 

5. There is no shingle. ; 

6. They run up Channel towards the east and back to the west. The set of the tides ‘ 
between Beer Head and Portland Bill for eight miles east of the former is very 
various, and up to the latter is also extremely complicated and most difficult — 
to describe. (See the ‘Admiralty Tide-tables,’ page 109.) , 

7. (1) The tides rise between Lyme Regis and Bridport 11} to 11}. The neap tides. 
rise in the same distance from "Sh to 73. (2) The width varies from 200 to 
230 yards at the mouth of the Char. 

8. It consists of bare rock, as before described. 

12. There are no groynes or shingle. 

14. I could get no information as to the erosion or its position, and there are no 
local points to judge from. 

16. Generally, along this coast there are no means of judging of any increase of land. 


RATE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 423 


: a 3. Axmouth to Eype. 


By Horace B. WoopwArb, F.G.S., Geological Survey of England, 
28 Jermyn Street, s.w. 


i. Devonshire and Dorsetshire. Axmouth to Eype, west of Bridport. 

2. The eastern cliffs, of which the highest point is Golden Gap (620 feet), are com- 
posed of Lias Clay and shale, capped by sand. Between Charmouth and 
Pinney the base of the cliffs is stone with clay above ; the summit here is 
Black Ven (450 feet), where there is again a capping of sand. Between 
Pinney and Axmouth the sea-cliffs, of Red Marl, range up to about 60 feet ; 
they are backed by high cliffs and underclifts. 

3. Axmouth to Charmouth, N.E. and S.W.; about E. 22° N. Charmouth to Eype, 

N.W. and 8.E.; about W. 15° S. 

_ &. South-west. 

5. Lyme Regis—severe storm in 1824, after strong westerly winds; then gale arose 
from §.8.E. ; wind veering to S. and §.W., drove the heaped-up waters directly 
on coast. Seatown,very changeable beach. Shingle mostly heaped up in fine 
weather ; more sand after a north wind; a south wind pulls back the shingle. 
South-west wind, heaviest sea. South-east wind, highest tides. Lyme Regis, 
west of Cobb—south-west wind fills up beach; south wind draws off beach. 

6. Flood tide from west, up Channel. Various local currents. Tide runs a good 

a deal stronger up stream than down. 

7. (1) 25 feet (maximum); 12 feet (Charmouth); 14 feet (Lyme). (2) 25 to 30 

; yards (Seatown) ; 300 yards (Charmouth), platforms of rock. 

&. At high tide, sea dashes up against cliffs, east and west of Lyme Regis. Mostly 

? fine shingle and sand, with patches of coarser shingle. East of Charmouth, a 
good deal of sand for a short distance, then all shingle to Golden Cap. 
Ledges of rock at low tide just west of Golden Cap. Black Ven, sand and 
ledges of stone and clay. Lyme Regis to Axmouth, here and there bays with 
shingle, otherwise tumbled material—large blocks of Lias and Greensand- 
chert, Chalk, &c., ledges of rock ; nearer Axmouth, shingle with patches of sand 
at low tide, on platform of Red Marl. 

9. a. and b. Beach of shingle, about 30 yards wide, at Seatown, above ordinary 

high-tide mark. Beach of shingle, about 22 yards wide, west of Golden Cap, 

> above ordinary high-tide mark. e. Generally from east to west, being heaped 

a up on west sides of slips. Some twenty or thirty years ago, after a great land- 

d slip at Golden Cap, the travelling of shingle was stopped for some time, and 

“ the sea dashed up against the Lias cliffs to the east, where usually there is a 

: shingle beach that protects them. d. Seatown, mixed shingle, 2 to 5 or 

3 6 inches, intermingled with fine shingle ; 8 x 4 inches, many 3 x 1} inches and 

a less ; chiefly flint and chert, some quartzites ; a few slabs or flat pebbles of Lias; 

: hardly ever any fine sand at Seatown. West of Golden Cap, 6 x 4 inches, 

a many 23 x 2inches, &c.; shingle rather smaller towards Charmouth—westnrard. 

7 e. Highest ridge at Seatown about 30 feet above low tide; lower ridge, 10 or 

¥ 12 yards distant, 25 feet above low tide; spring tides do not usually come 

: above this. West of Golden Cap, November 1884, highest ridge about 23 feet 

ii above low tide, extends 10 yards from cliff; second ridge about 15 feet above 

a low tide, 12 yards from higher ridge, and about 30 yards from foreshore. East 
of Seatown the beach is almost entirely shingle as far as Down Cliff; it is 

_ 20 feet high in places. 

10. erates or diminishes according to wind and tides. 

i. oO. 

22. A few in Lyme itself, to protect buildings inside bay formed by Cobb. e. Stone. 

_____ £. To check the force of the breakers. 

23. a. Stone taken from cliffs and ledges, east and west of Lyme. b. Lime, and 
chiefly for cement. About 10,000 tons sent to Hull for docks in one year. 
Amount varies according to demand. e. Yes. d. Yes; especially at base of 
Church Cliffs, east of Lyme. The church itself is now in considerable danger, 
the churchyard being at edge of cliffs. Shingle carted away at times from 
beach at Seatown for road-metal, but not from Charmouth. 


REPORT—1885., 


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- RATE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 425 


14. Clifis, on the whole, are destroyed chiefly by slips, and the sea clears aways the 


débris. More especially just east and west of Lyme Regis—the lower Lias 
limestones, aided largely by the artificial removal of stone. Thorncombe 
Beacon : base of cliffs protected by large tumbled blocks of stone ; hence aslight 
headland is formed. Thorncombe Beacon was formerly much higher, accord- 
ing to men living in the district. Golden Cap protected by huge blocks of 
stone which have fallen from cliffs, also by ledges; hence it forms a slight 
point or headland. Golden Cap, in the opinion of fishermen, has been lowered 
30 or 40 feet during the past 30 or 40 years. The lowering of Golden Cap has 
been caused partly by reason of the hill-slope inclining inwards, and perhaps 
partly by streams carrying away sandy material at the junction of Greensand 
and Lias. West of Charmouth, a field of 5 acres about 150 years ago, now 
lg acres. East of Charmouth, man aged about 75 (died about 10 years ago) 
knew when ‘they went out milking where the beach now is.’ Field reduced 
from 10 acres to 4 acres; not gone much since. This field was evidently based 
on portions of an old slip, as, when removed, portions of old trees and shrubs 
were laid bare again. Oak-wood out of river-bed, ebonised and black as ink, 
sold for turning at the time. Seatown: road and four or five houses have gone 
on west side of river during last twenty years, owing to slips. One cottage 
gone by coast just east of river at Seatown, and man named Foss, innkeeper, 
wt. 84, says he dug portions of piles out of river, but the oldest inhabitant he 
remembers never heard of there being a harbour there, although the piles 
seemed to prove that such had been the case. Limekiln and road at Stone- 
barrow (about 50 yards) put back twice, and gone in last 60 years, and field of 
11 acres (60 years ago) now 4 acres. The sea formerly (i.¢., 50 or 60 years 
ago) used to wash up against the cliffs of Stonebarrow; now it only reaches 
them at extraordinary tides. Hence cliffs are not worn away so fast as 
formerly, If the cliffs were drained, there might be fewer slips, and hence 
the land would be protected. Lyme Regis, Church Cliffs: Lower Lias clay 
on limestone lost 90 feet in 30 years (1803-1833) (G. Roberts), partly by 
gradual mouldering and crumbling, without any great ‘slide’ or landslip, and 
partly owing to the removal of stone from base of cliffs and shore; even the 
very ledges of the shore were stripped off, and this is the case now (H. B. W.). 
Roberts mentions that ‘Table Rock’ and the ‘Horse Pond’ are no more— 
ledges and hollows familiar to him in the early part of this century. He 
estimated the loss of the cliffs at 3 feet per annum in the soft strata, and 1 foot 
per annum in the harder rocks. There is still a soft ledge called Table Ledge 
under Black Ven (H. B. W.). Black Ven is subject to great slips. Roberts 
Says (1834) three fields have gone during the past 100 years; 90 years pre- 
viously there was a lane from Lyme Regis to Charmouth, which has almost 
entirely disappeared. West of Lyme Regis, extensive landslips—Whitlands, 
a 1765 and 1840; Bindon (or Bendon) and Dowlands, Christmas 1839. 

: 0. 
7. No. 


18 Roberts, G.: ‘The History and Antiquities of Lyme Regis and Charmouth.’ 


Hd. 1, 1824; ed. 2, 1834. 


29. I was informed by fishermen at Charmouth that a platform of rocks extended 


from Portland to Start Point, and this extended to about 10 miles distance 
from Charmouth ; beyond, the sea-bottom was mostly sand. On this platform 
there were accumulations of shingle (coarse and fine). On this subject, see 
Prestwich’s paper on the Chesil Bank (‘ Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng.,’ vol. xl. p. 61). 
I was also informed that at Seatown there was a fearful ground-sea on Friday, 
April 24, 1868, and that it raised the bank of sand and shingle 5 feet, and it 
so remained. The night before, there was an earthquake at St. Heliers. 


By Horace B. WOODWARD. 


4, Bridport Harbour, &c. 
4. Dorsetshire. Bridport Harbour or West Bay, Eype to Burton Bradstock. 


2. Varied. Between Bridport Harbour and Burton Bradstock the cliffs are chiefly 


Sands with indurated bands ; to the west of Bridport Harbour and to the east 
of Burton Bradstock the cliffs are chiefly Clay and shale. Cliffs vary from 40 
to 190 feet in height. 


426 REPORT—1885. 


3. North-west and south-east. W. 30° N., and E. 30° S. 

4. South-west. 

5. a. South to south-west. b. South and south-east on east side of harbour; south- 
west on west side. e. South-west. 

6. Flood-tide from west up Channel. There is an eddy-tide from the east on shore 
for two or three hours during flood-tide, and an eddy-tide on shore from the 
west during ebb-tide, two or three hours. 

7. (1.) a. About 13 feet. b. From 3 to 5 feet. North-east winds reduce the height 
of the tide. 

8. Fine shingle, with here and there patches of sand at low tide. From Bridport 
Harbour to Eype, the area is subject to frequent changes, being sometimes for 
the most part sand, at others for the most part fine shingle ; this I have noticed 
during the month of August 1884. Below Hast Cliff, benches of bluish sandy 
limestone are exposed when the beach is uncovered; the top ledge would be 
about 16 feet above low-level spring-tide. Ledges or reefs of the same rock 
(indurated bands in the Inferior Oolite Sands) are generally exposed at low 
tide just to the west of Bridport Harbour. 

9. a. About 20 yards at Eype. e. South-east. d. 41 to 4 inch diameter, near Bredy 
river mouth ; occasional large blocks of stone, locally derived. 

10 and 11. Not to any appreciable extent. 

12. No. 

13. Fine shingle, removed from beach. b. Chiefly for ballast for vessels. Used 
also for ballast on new railway to Bridport Harbour, for platforms of stations, 
also for footpaths. (Sand is also procured occasionally for mortar, and pebbles 
are obtained occasionally for concrete, but only to a very limited extent.) 
e. Tract to east of River Brit belongs to General Pitt-Rivers, that to west 
belongs to the Earl of Ilchester. They are Lords of the Manors, and the 
ground is let out on lease to private individuals, who cart away the shingle, &c. 
The Harbour Commissioners have also certain rights to dig shingle. I am told 
by the Harbour-master, Mr. Martin Joseph Briggs, that 10,000 tons, which 
might be taken away in six months, would be replaced perhaps in one tide. 
He considers that no damage is done to the coast by the artificial removal of 
shingle. 

14. c. Hast cliff, about 1 foot a year; sands and calcareous sandstone (Inferior 
Oolite Sands). West cliff, about 1 to 3 feet a year; chiefly clays and marls. 

17. e. Blow over gardens and accumulate under walls at back of shingle. 


5. Weymouth. 


By BERNARD HENRY WoopWARD, 80 Petherton Road, 
Highbury New Park, London, N. 


1. Weymouth, north of town. 

2. Shingle beach, bordering Alluvium, from about 3 furlongs north-east of St. 
John’s Church, Weymouth, to the south of Jordan Hill. Oxford Clay cliffs at 
either end of shingle bank. 

3. North-east and south-west. 

4. South-west. 

5. a, b, and e. South and south-east. 

8. Chiefly shingle. Peaty alluvium exposed by mouth of stream south of Jordan 
Hill. 

9. Tendency to travel south-eastward and inland; the road that borders the shingle 
beach having been ‘ put back* 60 feet during the last thirty years. 

10. Diminishing. 

11. Not allowed to be taken away now, although formerly the shingle was carted 
away. 

12. Blocks of Portland rock are placed along shore to protect coast. Groynes were 
washed away in March 1883. 

14. Oxford Clay cliffs below Jordan Hill are subject to most waste after a long dry — 
season, when great cracks or fissures are made in the clay. Then autumnal 
rains, or winter rains and frost, act with great destructive power. 


RATE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 427 


The shingle beach has probably dammed up an old tidal estuary, now the Allu- 
vium of Lodmoor. And, further south, the chief part of Melcombe Regis, 

_ Weymouth, is built on marine sand and shingle which has contracted the 
mouth of the River Wey, and left a kind of broad, known as Radipole Lake or 
the Backwater. The water in this is now artificially retained at low tide by a 

 weir.—[H. B. W.] 

» See R. Damon: ‘Geology of Weymouth, &c.’ Ed. 2, 1884. 


6. Christchurch to Poole. 
By the Rev. G. H. Wexst, Ascham School, Bournemouth. 


4. Hants and Dorset—Christchurch to Poole. 

@. Sandy. a. Sand and Clay cliffs. b.(1)?90 feet. (2) 70 to 802. (3) About 15, 
}. North-west to south-east. 
_ &. South-west and west-south-west. 
S. a. South-east is the only wind which can bring rollers in, as Studland Point 
shelters from the south-west. b. East wind. The shore is always shingly 
after east winds, which seem to check the ‘ travel’ of the beach. e. Westerly 
winds, which coincide with the prevailing currents and flow of the tides. 
6. There is a strong indraught (marked on Admiralty charts) along shore from Old 
Harry to Poole, but the main set of the tide is from Old Harry straight to 
Double Dykes (Hengistbury Head). There is also a strong current all along 
shore eastwards, especially at the second flow, which runs in a sort of fleet, 
cut off from the open sea by asandbank. This is attributed, probably correctly, 
to the ebb from Poole Harbour, which, instead of running straight out to sea, 
flows out along shore through two openings called the ‘ Looes.’ The general 
tun of the tides here is—flow for about seven hours, then ebb for an hour, 
fall about nine inches; flow again for one hour and a half up to, or at neap 
tides higher than, at first. At spring tides the proper first flow and ebb 
are the highest, and the second flow is hardly perceptible. This second flow 
is generally attributed to the ebb from the Solent, but I do not believe this 
cause is sufficient. Besides, the tides appear to be very irregular all the way 
to Weymouth, and on the opposite side in the Baie de la Seine, high water 
lasts three hours (at Havre). Does not the old tidal-wave, which has been 
round Scotland, come back through the Straits of Dover and meet the up- 
Channel wave, being heaped up in the Baie de la Seine by the Cotentin, and 
___ reflected across Channel on to this coast ? 
. (1) At spring tides the range is considerable. (2) Perhaps one hundred yards at 
_ spring tides, not above three or four at neap. 
Sand generally, overlying Blue Clay, which in places comes to the surface between 

high water and low water. } 

b. The shingle varies extremely in amount. Generally it lies in small detached 
heaps, but during east winds sometimes forms a small neap full. It is not 
real shingle, but gravel which has come from the cliffs. e. It distinctly travels 
east. d. Chiefly small angular (Plateau) gravel, but there is a certain number 
of large grey pebbles, well rounded, which also come out of the cliffs. [Out 
_____ of pebble-beds, or layers, in parts of the Bagshot beds—W. W.]! 
20. Till 1867 the shore from this side of Double Dykes to the Head consisted of two 
large shingle fulls; in that year (owing to the removal of the ironstone in the 
_ Head, which formed a natural groyne reaching out to the Beerpan rocks) the 
shingle began to travel round the Head and form the sand-spit at Christchurch. 
» There are no groynes, except under High Cliff Castle, beyond Christchurch. There 
_ there are three or four, made about five or six years ago by Lady Waterford to 
check the wear at what was then the mouth of the river. Their object was 
_ rather to turn the river out than to protect the coast from the sea. 
- From 1847 to 1865 the ironstone was removed out of the Head, and from between 
high and low water, which formerly formed a half-tide reef. {Not done now. 
—W.W.]_b. Fora small private company, who exported it to Staffordshire. 
Private individuals (Mr. Holloway of Christchurch). 


1 The notes signed ‘ W. W.’ are by Mr. W. Whitaker. 


428 REPORT—1885. 


14. a. Allalong, but particularly at High Cliff Castle, Double Dykes, and Flag Head. 
(1) High Cliff—Cliffs high, and rotten from landsprings. Waste very rapid, 
but checked now. Bute House, built 1760 (? about a quarter of a mile out at 
sea), was in 1830 so near edge it was pulled down, and present house built 
some considerable distance inland, now about 200 yards fromedge. Half of the 
kitchen garden gone in 1875; in 1865 it was intact, and there was a path between 
it and sea. As this is the garden of the o/d house, if an estate map could be 
seen showing the old house, one would get a fair idea of the rate of waste, 
which was due only to the sea till 1867. (2) Double Dykes.—A little monu- 
ment has been moved inland three times in about thirty years. N.B.—This is | 
the point where the waste is most rapid this side of Christchurch, and where 
the main current hits the shore. (3) In 1850 there was a coastguard station 
at Flag Head and a field in front. The whole of this is now in the sea, and 
the ‘ Head’ projects less than the rest of the cliff. 


THE SEA 


Fic. 7,—Sketch of Groynes, near Christchurch. 


15. See 10. a. No shingle is removed. b. There are no groynes but those at High 
Cliff. 

16. None. 

17. Yes, but they are small and only on the edge of the cliffs. Bent grass grows on 
them, but the fir woods are the chief check to their progress inland. [Refers 
probably to the blown sand along top of Bournemouth cliffs (see Geol. Map). 
—W. W.] ; 

18. Papers by Redman and Coode, in the ‘ Proceedings of Inst. Civil Engineers.’ 


7. Sandown Bay. 
By Lieut.-Colonel GARNIER, R.E., Parkhurst, Isle of Wight. a 


1. The flat portion of Sandown Bay, between the cliffs at Shanklin and those at 
Yaverland. 

2. a. Clay; blue slipper, covered with sand and shingle. Shanklin Cliffs, hard sand. 
Yaverland Cliffs, sand and blue slipper. (1) 120 feet. (2) 100 feet. 
(3) 0 feet ; between Sandown and Yaverland. 

3. North-east and south-west. 

&. South-west. 

5. a. South-west and south-east. b. North, because water is smooth in shore, and 
no undertow, which removes shingle as fast as it is deposited by rising tides. — 
ce. South-west. 

6. Tide flows from south-west; ebbs in same direction. 4 


RATE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 429 


7. (1) a. 10 feet. b. 8 feet. (2) a. 70 yards. b. 50 yards. 

3. Clay; blue slipper with sand and shingle over. 

. Shingle. a. 20 yards mean; 50 yards greatest. wb. Up to high-water mark. 

ce. North-east. d. 5 inches by 3h inches. e. Continuous slope, except where 

affected by groynes, &c. With north wind there is a bank about 4 feet high 
formed at high-water mark, spring or neap tides. 

20. Accumulating under Yaverland. A sea-wall was built thirty years ago from 
Sandown eastward, to prevent the sea washing away the coast road running 
along the flat portion of the coast, about half a mile in length. Before that 

there was an accumulation of shingle at the east end of Sandown which has 

4 since been swept more eastward. 

“421. It is stolen now and then from the above low portion of the coast. 

42. a. Perpendicular to shore-line. b. From 60 to 250 feet. e. From 100 to 200 
q feet. d. (1) From 3 to 8 feet. (2) From 2 feet to 0, being sometimes 
covered with sand or shingle. e. Hitherto of wood; but last year (1883) two 
concrete groynes were built by Royal Engineers. f. The long groynes accumu- 
late a greater mass of shingle, because they arrest the travelling of the shingle; 
the shorter groynes accumulate it chiefly at foot of sea wall. To preserve the 
latter from being exposed, and the blue slipper on which it is built from being 
washed away, numerous short groynes are necessary; but long groynes at 
intervals are required to arrest a large quantity of shingle. 

13. Of late years all removal of shingle has been forbidden between tide-marks. 

4. a. At Yaverland and Redcliff, about 100 feet in places in last thirty years, but a 
sea-wall has now been built at foot of cliff, opposite Yaverland. b. 100 feet to 
150 feet ; clay and sand mixed. e. No change observable for some years, 
probably because of the shingle now accumulating at foot of cliff. 4. Origin- 
ally the land between Brading Harbour and Sandown was covered by the sea. 
e. Probably (vide e). 

45. The groynes east of Sandown to protect sea-wall do not appear to have prevented 

the accumulation of shingle at Yaverland. 

6. No. 

t7. Yes, at St. Helens. a. Called ‘Douvre.’ b. 8 feet and 10 feet. ec. At the 

mouth of the stream called the Yar, which runs into Brading Harbour. d. No. 

e. No. They are local drifts from the sands near Brading. 


‘8. Brading Harbour, &c. 
By RIcHARD B. GRANTHAM, F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E, 


L. Iknow the coast commencing at the north point of Culver Cliff, and proceeding 
to Foreland. From the eroded beds of the Chalk, the coast is covered with 
stones lying on the red and green Clay of the Bembridge Clay. The coast has 
been very much eroded all round, to the Yar and Bembridge Point, where there 
is Sand and gravel, and a ledge of rock at Nodes Point, on the other side of 
the Yar. I and my son are consulting engineers to the Brading Harbour 
Company; we have executed the reclamation and harbour works on the Yar. 
2. There are no tide-marks or means of noting the erosion, and there are no cliffs 
for this distance. At the entrance of the River Yar there are the remains of 
an old church, from which northwards the cliffs begin to rise gradually to 
about 100 feet. They consist of pale-greenish and yellowish Marls and Clays, 
hardening into Sandstones (with Melania excavata), dipping from the east- 
ward, and rocks appearing on the shore ; the whole in the Bembridge series. 
Along a great part of these cliffs the proprietor built a wall at the foot to 
protect them from slipping, but the water in them forced out the strata, 
and parts of the wall have fallen, and have not been repaired as occasion 
required. But the wall has generally stopped the erosion, and would have 
___ done so entirely if timely attention had been paid to it. 

E » The direction of the coast-line from the Culver, above described, is north-east to 
Foreland ; thence to the Yar, north-west ; from the Yar to the Priory Estate 
due north, and thence to Nettlestone Point, north by west, to Sea View. 


430 REPORT—1885. 


4. 


5. 


6. 


7. 


8. 
9. 


South-west, and consequently the cliff is protected from that wind; but the 
tide runs and erodes the cliff at its base for some distance. The edge of the 
land is low, and shore strewn with rocks washed out of the soil. The sea 
rises nearly up to the level of sand up to Sea View. 

The above wind causes the highest waves and erodes the shore, which on the 
south of the island is much exposed to the heavy seas of the British Channel, 
There is little or no shingle on this coast, except in patches. 

Is round the south point of the island, along the coast to Chine Head, and along 
the coast past the Culver Cliff and Foreland, and thence into Spithead, and 
thence up and down Portsmouth Harbour, and into and out of the Solent. 

(1) a. 14 feet at Bembridge Point ; b. 10 feet 6 inches. (2) There is no general 
width, as the shore for the most part is rocky or covered with rocks. Ina few 
places there are sand and gravel beaches. 

Bare rock, shingle, sand, and mud. 

a. As previously stated, there is very little shingle, and only in patches. The 
breadth of these varies very much, they being principally scattered stones. 
e. The beach is extremely irregular in its surface. 


10. There appears no accumulation or diminution, owing to the absence of shingle. 


The chief erosion is by stones being washed out, The rock appears in patches, 


12. There are no groynes in this distance, except at Bembridge Quay, where one 


was erected about two years ago. Sand has accumulated on the seaside — 
alongside the landing-place, and is prevented from filling the bed of the dock, 
or place for vessels to lie, 150 feet in length. e. It is built of stone, which 
was dredged out of the river Yar, in the harbour, to deepen the channel. f. It 
stops the sand from getting into the berth of the steamer at the landing-place, 
and is raising the beach with shingle, opposite the Royal Spithead Hotel. 


13. None that I could hear of. d. Reefs have certainly protected—both half and 


full reefs. 


14. c. There were no means of remarking the rate of erosion. d. I did not hear of 


any maps which would show the amount of erosion in this case. 


16. The only increase I know of is the reclamation of Brading Harbour, consisting — 


of 600 acres, by embanking it from the sea and forming quays for shipping. 
The embankment forms a roadway from St. Helens to Bembridge, and was 

constructed to reclaim the land for agricultural occupation. Quays were | 
erected on both sides of the harbour below the seven sluices by which the 

water is discharged from the River Yar at low water. The ships bring coals i 
for the southern and eastern sides of the island, in connection with the Isle of — 
Wight Railway. 


17. There are no dunes, and there is no blown sand on the coast. The only sand- 


1. 


2. Steep broken slopes, almost amounting to cliffs, intersected where streams run ~ 


3. N.N.W. by N. to 8.8.E. by S. 


hills are those on the north of the mouth of the River Yar ; in front of them is 
a sand-beach, with gravel interspersed over it. The sandhills extend from the | 
Yar for about half a mile northwards to the Old Church. The hills vary from 
10 feet to 20 feet in height, and are covered with marram grass. There are 
sand-banks on both sides of the mouth of Brading Harbour and River Yar, 
and there is no shingle ; the sand is not blown, but remains always the same — 
height, and does not seem to extend. i 


9. Bembridge, &c. 
By Lieutenant Norris, R.E., Portsmouth. 


Sea View, Isle of Wight, southwards to Bembridge and St. Helens, Isle of Wight. 
Much information was obtained from the chief boatswain of the Coastguard 
at Sea View. 


into the sea. a. Principally blue Marl—locally known as the ‘blue slipper’ 
—with beds of Limestone several feet in thickness, sloping about 5°. These 
strata are bent to a wavy section between the layers of blue Clay in places. 
Layers of red Sand and white Sand crop out occasionally. b. At Nettlestone 
Point, round Sea View: (1) 20 feet, (2) 7 feet, (3) 4 feet. From Horestone 
to Church Ruins: (1) 105 feet, (2) 50 feet, (3) 5 feet. 


RATE OF BROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 431 


. 5.W. nine out of twelve months (off shore), 
5. a. S.S HE. to E.S.E. b. N.W. with aspring tide and swell deposits shingle in 
small quantities round Nettlestone Point, and round the fort at St. Helens. 
e. 5.W. clears the shingle from Nettlestone Point, and replaces it with sand. 
6. In shore at Nettlestone Point, tide runs 5} hours W. on flood at 33 knots; 64 
t hours E. on ebb at 2} knots. Off shore at Spithead, tide runs 5 hours W., 
7 hours E. 
7. (1) a. 18 feet. b. 11 feet. (2) At Nettlestone Point about 100 yards. Thence 
to Sea View Pier, about 150 yards. To end of sandbank outside Horestone Point 
rocks, about 250 yards. Horestone to Node’s Point, about 200 yards. Node’s 
Point to the Dovers, 300 yards to 500 yards. All at spring tides; half these 
§ distances at neap tides. 
®. It consists of sand,-limestone, or marl covered slightly with sand, gravel, or 
shingle, according to wind and tide; but between Sea View Pier and Hore- 
stone Point there are always 100 yards of clear sand. Opposite the Priory, and 
’ extending south of Node’s Point, limestone beds appear on the level of the 
2 beach. 
9. a. There is never any large quantity, except round St. Helens Fort. b. Accu- 
f mulates near high-water mark, but varies with every tide. e. N.W. to S.E. 
q d. Would pass through a 3-inch mesh. e. On Sand or mud shingle lies evenly 
+ and thinly ; on rocky beach—Limestone beds—it fills the fissures. 
20. Neither. In travelling 8.E.,a N.W. wind with a high spring tide to E. causes 


* an eddy round Nettlestone Point, depositing shingle. It also is interrupted 
i by St. Helens Fort. In 8.E. gales, the backwash of the waves clears the coast 
3 of shingle. 

11. Not diminishing (see 13.) 


_ 12. Groynes are employed between Nettlestone Point and Sea View Pier, to protect 

* the sand-beach from shingle, and to protect the sea-wall. Also north of Node’s 

a Point, 50 yards apart, rubble masonry at right angles to sea-wall, 5 feet thick 

. te at base, 5 feet high, and semicircular at top. a. Right angles. b. About 30 

: yards. e¢. About 30 yards. d. Present height, 3 to 4 feet above beach; present 

a depth, wood about 5 to 7 feet, concrete 3 to 4 feet; apparent height varies 

im with deposit left at each tide. e. A single row of halved 12-inch piles 

a (4-round) with a longitudinal plank spiked on, or a straight wall of concrete 

ve 18 inches to 2 feet thick. f. Protect the sea-wall. 

23. At Nettlestone Point only. a. Base of sea-wall at high-water mark. b. Build- 

n ing and roads. e. Private individuals. d. No; but the accumulated shingle 

- at high-water mark protected the base of the sea-wall, now exposed. 

24. a. From the Priory to Old. Church ruins, principally round Node’s Point. 
& b. 50 to 105 feet at the top of inner slip. e. Average 7 feet in 12 months 
8 at present, but going locally about 20 feet at a time in a single slip, the con- 
g tents of which, in 8.E. gales, are carried off by the sea. The rate is increased 
0 by heavy rains and wet winters, as the slip is in the first place independent of 
4 the sea, which only removes the débris, which by its weight and the pressure 
Rit of retained water forces out the sea-wall at its base. e. Yes, it is independent 

5 of the presence of shingle. 

“45. No. The course of the shingle lies outside the groynes, setting S.S.E. from 

¥ Nettlestone Point. 

6. None north of Brading Harbour, in which a company is reclaiming a large area 
by dredging and embankments. 

17. Between Church Ruins and Ferry House on north side of entrance to Bembridge 

. Harbour. a. At the Dovers (pronounced Duvvers). b. Mean 5 feet, some 15 feet, 
above high-water mark, ordinary spring tide. e. Occupying the north side of 
it the entrance to Brading Harbour, opposite Bembridge, and the spit called St. 
ws Helens Sandbank. Brading Harbour forms the mouth of the River Yar. 

w d. No. e. Yes; but as the ground is used for golf links, short grass has 

made a surface on the inside of the outer line of dunes, which prevents the 

Bes heaps themselves from travelling. They form an embankment at high-water 

9 mark. 

29. The serious loss of rich land at the top of the cliff is due primarily to the action 
of the Clay, or the ‘ blue slipper’ (as is best seen at the undercliff of the Isle of 
Wight). This accumulates the rainfall, which presses against the sea-wall 
at the foot of the slopes. There is not more than one 3-inch weephole to 
8 yards of wall, which is quite insufficient to relieve the pressure. The wall 


432 REPORT— 1885. 


is 7 feet high, 5 feet wide at beach, and 3 feet at top. Dovetail about 10 feet 
deep and of like section. North of Node’s Point about 200 yards of this has 
been forced away, and is now being rebuilt as before in coursed rubble, stones 
being of no great size. The dovetail buttresses are too few, and placed near 
Node’s Point, round which the wall has a semicircular trace, and has stood 
better than where it is straight, facing east. After rain, the fissures in the 
clay let the water through, and widen in the process, the mass supporting 
a breadth of 10 to 20 feet of the top surface gives way, carrying down trees, 
&c., and slips on to the second terrace of the slope, which in turn slips forward 
against the wall already supporting the water-pressure. This gives way gene- 
rally at the beach level, just above the foundations. A S.E. gale then disinte- 
grates the broken wall, and carries off the lowest portion of the slipped débris. 


10. Pagham. 
By RICHARD B. GRANTHAM, F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E. 


1. Pagham. Iwas engaged in 1875-77 by the office of Woods and Forests to report 
upon the effect upon the property of the Crown of the reclamation of the 
harbour from the sea by a Company, who had erected a bank and sluices for 
the purpose. The following information refers to the shingle-beach outside 
the harbour, on the sea-front. 

2. The coast is generally low flat land, but at one part a large body of shingle has 
been for several years cast up by the south-west wind, and tides set round 
the point of Selsea Bill, where there is still water, causing a deposit of shingle. 
The shingle which has been brought there, is about half a mile wide and 
three miles long at low water. The harbour consists of 750 acres. 

3. The direction of the coast-line is north-west up to Selsea Bill Point. Thence 
for 3 miles it runs north by east to the end of the shingle; in coming from 
the west the current passes Wittering and Harnly, and moves the shingle in a 
south-easterly direction. 

4. South-west. 

5. The south-west, which, as before stated, piles up the shingle, and moves it on 
along the coast towards Bognor. 

6. After tides pass Selsea Bill, the current sets along the coast eastwards, and in the 
Channel the set is from west to east. 

7. (1) Springs range up to 16} feet, and neaps to 12} feet. (2) About 880 yards. 

8. Shingle opposite Pagham Harbour. 

9. ¢. Opposite Pagham Harbour, east of north. d. They vary from 2 inches to 
6 inches and 8 inches in diameter. e. The slope of the shingle is mostly 
uniform, but altered by heavy seas and strong currents. There are no tide- 
marks. 

10. The top line of the shingle bank is neither raised nor diminished except in great 
storms, when the sea front is affected one way or another by storms or strong 
currents. 

12. There are no groynes in any part of the coast within the limits of this report. 

13. There is no material taken from the foreshore that I could discover or hear of. 

14. The shingle bank entirely prevents any of the coast from being worn away by 
the sea for the whole length to which this report refers, d. I could find 
none, and it was not in the memory of any person when the bank did not exist. 

16. Under this head it will be well to describe the harbour and works by which the 
land has been reclaimed. Upon my first visit, as stated in the beginning of 
this paper, to this harbour in 1875, for the Office of Woods and Forests, some 
large wooden sluices had been erected at the end of the stream on the land, from 
which the water, when the tide was out, was discharged into the channel of 
the former course, which I reported upon unfavourably on the next occasion, 
in 1877; and subsequently a new plan was adopted: a tunnel was made under 
the shingle bank to low water on the sea front, in which sluices were placed, 
and they have kept the land reclaimed safer. The water now passes directly 
seawards, at right angles with the coast. 


RATE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 433 


. I did not meet with any papers or maps except those of the Office of Woods and 
Forests, which were returned with an Act of Parliament. There was an 
arbitration held, which also condemned the wooden sluices which I referred 

pt to, and the tunnel and sluices were adopted. 

19. This is but a small case, but is extremely important to those locally concerned ; 

and shows also the cause of so large an accumulation in that part of the coast. 

I know of no other like it. 


x 
® 
Ps 


1l. Worthing to Lancing. 


By RicHARD B. GRANTHAM, F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E., Inspector under the 
Land Commissioners. 


1. Part of the south coast, between Worthing and Shops Dam, Lancing. 

2. The coast consists of a wide shingle beach. 

3. The coast-line curves inwards towards the north-east between the points above 

referred to. 

4. The prevailing wind is from the south-west. 

5. South-west. 

_ 6. The mean set of the tides is H. by N. along the line of coast, but in Mid Channel 

4 it is east and west. 

7. The range of the tides is :—Springs, 14 feet ; neaps, 10 feet. 

9. a. The mean breadth is 40 feet. ec. Eastwards. d. The maximum size of the 

____ pebbles is about 6 inches diameter. e. The front of the beach consists of 

two slopes. That from low water upwards is nearly flat, and towards the 
&£ upper or crown rises steep from 2 to 1 and 3 to 1. 
20. The shingle is accumulating, as will be described when referring to groynes. 
41. It is not diminishing in height or breadth. 
22. Groynes were commenced in 1873, and have to the present time been the means 
___ of arresting and accumulating shingle. They differ from the ordinary groynes, 
being of great length from the top of the shingle beach to beyond low water, 
probably 200 feet in length, and were placed 500 feet apart, forming an angle 
varying from 80 deg. to 63 deg., with the coast-line. They are fifteen in 
number, and are built of fir piles and planking, and supported by land ties. 
Tn places where the shore-line was not quite straight with the main line the 
beach was hollowed out, and intermediate groynes were placed which stopped 

____ the beach; these were of less length and height than the main groynes. 

23. It is not removed artificially, as it is private property, from any part of the front 
line of the beach, but probably is taken for repair of roads at the back of the 

5 bank. d. There were no half-tide reefs formed anywhere in the distance 
____above referred to as natural breakwaters. 

14. The coast-line is not worn back by the sea, as the beach, as now protected by 
groynes, completely prevents such action, except just east of Worthing, 
where there was a shingle bank, and groynes were erected in a bend of the 
land, but the bank was swept away and the piles of the groynes were taken 
up, and near that spot the public road was cut through, and the sea flooded 
the land inside. The road led from Worthing to Lancing about three years 
since, but has not been reinstated. The piling and groynes at Worthing town 
are in a very bad state, and the shore requires quite a different kind of pro- 
tection. 

15. ecrely caused by the power of the sea near Worthing, by the abstraction of 
shingle. 


” 
Aaa 


12. Lancing to Shoreham. 
By RICHARD B. GRANTHAM, F.G.S., M.Inst.0.E. 


4. Thave become acquainted with the coast from near the Coastguard Station, which 
is on the beach opposite Shoreham, in Sussex, by being employed by the Land 
Commissioners to report on the erection of sea-groynes from there to Shops 
Dam, near Lancing, on the beach westwards, of which there are fifteen. 


1885. FF 


434 REPORT—1885. 


2. From the place described above to Lancing, as well as some distance westwards — 
(for about 33 miles in all), the coast is formed of a shingle-beach of great 
width, but there are no cliffs. 

3. It is north of east, curving towards the north as it approaches Brighton. 

4. South-west. = 

5. From the west. It moves the beach eastwards, and has piled it up about 4 to_ 
5 feet, and made it broader by accumulating it on thesea side. This refers to 
two-thirds of its length between the points stated above from the coastguard — 
station to Shops Dam; and at the back of this length, an excavation was 
made by the proprietor of the adjoining land, from which a high bank was 
raised some years ago, adjoining the high road, to prevent the sea from over-_ 
flowing ; and a few years since he had these groynes erected, and I was 
appointed to inspect their construction. The front of Worthing has been — 
thickly groyned. 4 

7. (1) a. 14 feet 2inches. b. 10 feet 1inch. (2) About 90 yards. : 

8. Of shingle. “4 

9. c. From west to east. d. Six inches diameter. e. The shingle forms a con-— 
tinuous slope from the low-water line to the top of the bank, but it is irregular, 
owing to the tide raising a bank along the face of the slopes, and washing out 
the shingle, causing flat places. 

10. Since the groynes were constructed the shingle has accumulated. The sea has 
not flowed over the bank of shingle since the groynes were erected. The 
sixteen piles of groynes have cost nothing since they were erected in 1877-78. 

11. The top of the bank has risen, and the shingle has increased in thickness on the’ 
sea-front. 

12. b. About 275 feet, extending from low to high water. ec. d. At their uppel 
ends they are 500 feet apart, and are parallel to each other. At A on plan, 
three intermediate groynes were put in between groynes 8, 9, and 10, each 
160 feet in length, and the shingle has completely covered them where the 
beach before was laid bare at that particular part. The groynes were built 
in 1877-78. They are built generally at an angle of 70° to 75° to the shore, 
or high-water line pointing south-east. e. Memel timber square piles driven 
into the beach, planked on the weather or west side, and stayed into the beach 

by land ties, fastened by piles atthe ends. f. They are the means of stopping 
the beach and causing it to accumulate on the west side, raising it from 4 feet 
to 7 feet on the east side of the groynes, and thereby preventing the sea from 
eroding the coast. 

13. No. 

14. b. There are no cliffs except between Worthing and Lancing, where the land is 
higher than the public road. At one point near Worthing the road was washed 
away and some of the land at the back of it some years since. At the town 
of Worthing, the sea-front is protected by groynes which are very numerous, 
and sufficiently support the road ; but this is beyond the district I personally 
know. 

16. No; there is not any. 

17. No; there are no ‘dunes.’ 

18. I have inquired for such papers, but there are none. The only paper that has 
any account of these groynes and sea-shore is the ‘Brighton Gazette’ of 
February 26, 1885. 


13. Littlehampton to Brighton. 
By W. E. C. Noursz, F.R.C.8., Bouverie House, Mount Radford, Exeter. 


1. The coast of Sussex from Littlehampton to Brighton, since 1832. 

2. The land is bounded by a shingle-beach the whole distance. 

5. Winds from the south-west, or thereabouts, have constantly made the waves pile 
up or remove shingle. Piling wp has mostly been caused by moderate gales. 
Removal or erosion by storms. Besides which, the constant action of these 
winds on the waves has occasioned a constant travelling of shingle from west 
to east. 

6. The sum of the ebb and flow is a set to the eastward, in which direction i 
always drift. 


RATE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 435 


, (2) Spring—at Worthing and Littlehampton said to be a mile, and appears quite 
that distance. Neap—at Worthing and Littlehampton, not a quarter the 
distance. 
Sand, with occasional patches of small chalk rocks. The sand, off the east end of 
Worthing, rests on Blue Clay, found at a depth of less than 2 feet from the 
surface. 
9. As already stated (2 and 8) the shingle is confined to the beach. The beach 
> varies in form from time to time. After violent south-west storms it appears 
stripped away in many places, where not retained by groynes. After moderate 
gales it is piled up, not only by the sides of groynes, but also in longitudinal 
ridges at or near the top of the beach or half-way down, the shape, length, 
and duration of the ridges being constantly varied. At some seasons tons of 
seaweed cover the beach after a gale. Of the high shingle-beach existing in 
Queen Elizabeth’s time, with a backwater to the landward of it, the only 
portion which remains is about Lower Lancing, and perhaps a little about 
Hove. ; 
10. The shingle, which, as stated, is confined to the beach, has for some years past 
; appeared to me slowly diminishing, but I do not know at what rate. 
21. To artificial abstraction mainly, but not perhaps wholly. 
22. Groynes are employed at various points, mostly at right angles to the shore. 
Groynes on this coast are of three sizes, according to their usual dimensions: 
small, which may be left out of the account; middling, of moderate height 
and length; and large, of greater height and length. Also, in some places, 
three or four are crowded together, elsewhere they are wider apart; again, 
considerable lengths of shore have no groynes at all. e. Most of them wood, 
one or two concrete. f. In all the years I have known the coast, the most 
erosion, the greatest encroachments of the sea, have been where shingle was 
deficient—that is, where there were no groynes, or insufficient ones. Erosions 
of limited size have also been generally observed to the eastward of large 
groynes, also to the eastward of spots where three or four groynes were 
crowded together ; such erosions being noticed as hollows in the shore and 
more or less considerable notches in the land, while shingle was largely piled 
_ up on the west sides of the groynes. Erosions have always been noticed to be 
; at a mimimum, or altogether arrested, where groynes of moderate height and 
length (according to their usual sizes), and in good repair, stood at (say) 30 
to 100 yards apart, or at such distances as to maintain an equal distribution 
of shingle along the whole shore line, without piling it up at any particular 


23. a. b. Shingle is taken from the beach about high-water mark. Sand is 
taken from various parts of the flat covered by the tide. The taking of 
these things has been usual as far back as I knew that coast, before 1830. 
Shingle has constantly been used to repair the roads within a mile or two of 
the shore ; fine shingle has been taken for garden walks; large boulders to 
build with. Most of the walls within two miles of the sea have been built 
with boulders from the beach. Sand is mostly taken for building purposes. 
The sands at low water between Littlehampton and Lower Lancing used 
(1832 to 1842) to be noted for their extent, evenness, and firmness, so that 
they were favourite places for riding and driving. Races were then annually 
held on the sands both at Worthing and Littlehampton. Of late years (1850 
to 1870) they have appeared to me not so dry and even as they used to be. 
At Brighton the sands are clearly at a lower level thanformerly. The rounded 
chalk rock sticking up out of the sand eastward of the Chain Pier, near the 
first pair of towers from the land, in 1834 only showed a small portion of its 
rounded top. It is now visible 18 or 20 inches lower down, showing that the 
level of the sands is now so much lower than it was in 1834. d. Not to my 

knowledge. 
24. The whole coast from Littlehampton to Lower Lancing has been in a constant 
_ state of erosion ever since 1832, some parts more than others. The worst 
part is at Kingston, near Rustington. Here the shore has been continually 
washed away for many years; at what rate Ido not know. I have seen but 
'] little shingle here, and the sea washes up against the low clay margin of the 
¢ _ flat land. I have always heard it reported that a large part of Kingston parish 
% has been washed away, and that foundation-stones of the parish church can 
still be seen at extreme low-water mark. Dixon (‘ Geology of Sussex,’ p. 34) 

FF2 


436 REPORT— 1885. 


refers to the waste of land by the sea opposite the parishes of Rustington and 
Preston, mentions remains of trees on the shore, and speaks of Ruston Park, 
with large trees, standing [in 17041] on what is now the sea. He also (p. 35) 
mentions a tradition that [in 17041] the land at Tarring extended much 
further seaward. At Worthing like traditions prevail. I was told in 1832 
that old men remembered the land being out as far as the grass-banks. 
Opposite College House School, Worthing, the sea in 1832 was washing away 
the beach, and laying bare the foundation of the playground wall. A moderate- 
sized groyne was put down, which made beach accumulate, and the encroach- 
ment stopped. I saw four similar groynes put down that same year opposite 
Mr. Elwes’s large house; these also produced an even shingle beach which 
stopped encroachment. But just east of College House playground was an 
extra large groyne, with a great pile of shingle west of it and a large hollow 
eastward. Close to this was a coastguard house. About fourteen years after, 
I found that this house and the ground it stood on were entirely gone. Dixon 
(p. 37) says 70 feet of land were destroyed here in twelve months. Many 
years ago I saw the remains of the coast road, half washed away, that ran 
from Worthing past Heene towards Goring. The coast road from Worthing to 
Lower Lancing was then perfect and in regular use. I believe it is now 
dilapidated by the sea. The sea-front of Worthing, being cared for and pro- 
tected, has never been changed within my recollection. Dixon (p. 37) says 
‘the sea formerly gained much on the shore.’ At Littlehampton, the Baths, a 
building which stood on the beach in 1835, has been entirely destroyed. 


14. Newhaven and Seaford. 
By A. E. CAREY, Resident Engineer, Newhaven Harbour Works, Sussex. 


1. More especially the coast from Old Nore, Newhaven, Sussex, to Seaford Head. 

2. The coast consists of two Chalk headlands, respectively 180 and 250 feet above 
sea-level, with an alluvial valley between, forming roughly the segment of 
circle to sketch. One mile from the eastern headland a low range of chalk 
hills about 60 feet high comes down to the sea front. 

a. W. to 8.S.W. 

5. a. W.S.W. b. S.toS.S.E. ec. N.W.to W.N.W. 

6. The flood tide in the Channel striking Seaford Head causes a false or counter tide 
in Seaford Bay. 

7. (1) a. 20feet. b.16 feet 6 inches. (2) a. About an average of 200feet. b. About 
an average of 120 feet. 

8. Shingle and sand, covering a partly artificial bank of clay and mud. 

9. a. Depth varies so greatly that it is difficult to state with any accuracy. The 
greatest depth would be about 10 feet, mean depth perhaps 3 feet. b. Bank 
above mean high water varies little. Remainder of bank constantly varying. 
ce. W. to E. d. Say 5 or 6 inches one way. e. Except above mean high 
water, the shingle forms generally a tolerably uniform continuous slope. After 
a succession of southerly winds, fulls are sometimes formed, but these are 
very variable. 

10. The shingle is slowly diminishing, none now coming from the west side of the 
harbour. 

11. To a small extent only from artificial abstraction. 

12. a. About 8.S.W. b. To low-water mark. e. About 150 yards. d. (1) About 
8 feet out of ground. (2) About 4 feet, very variable. (3) About 1 foot, very 
variable. e. Timber piling planked. f. Their influence has been to arrest 
and maintain the existing banks of shingle. The whole of the system of 
groyning has been carried out by the Newhaven Harbour Co., who have recently 
constructed a sea wall about 20 feet in rear of the top of the foreshore bank, 
from the east pier to about 13 miles east of this. These combined works will 
render the foreshore secure, probably for many years. 

13. a. Above high-water line principally. wb. For the purposes of sea-walling, 
breakwater construction, &c. e. Under the Act of the Newhaven Harbour 
Co. d. No. 


1 These dates, 1704, are gained by calculation, not given by Dixon. 


RATE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 437 


44. Yes. a. Especially in recent years opposite Blatchington Battery, which has 
for this reason been abandoned. b. Chalk cliffs about 40 or 50 feet high. d. 
Numerous maps exist of this strip of coast-line. A highway road between 
Blatchington Battery and the sea was washed away about twelve years ago. 
e. No; at Blatchington Battery the shingle is plentiful, and moves freely. A 
small groyne would probably arrest erosion at this point. 

25. No; I think not. 

16. Frequent floods, sometimes covering some hundreds of acres of land, occurred 
previous to the works named being carried out. On the west side of the 


harbour about seven acres of foreshore have been enclosed by a wall and 
reclaimed. 


17. No dunes of sand exist here. 

18. Numerous reports and maps of the sea-front exist, but these being out of print 
are difficult to obtain. Up to the time of the erection of a large groyne west 
of Newhaven Harbour in 1847-48 the movement of shingle was unchecked, and 
the loss at the east end of the bay was replaced by shingle travelling from the 
west. This groyne appears to have permanently checked the movement of 
the shingle, and erosion has taken place principally at the centre of the are 
formed by Seaford Bay. The object of the present works is to retain what 
shingle remains, and to arrest its movement. A concrete sea-wall has been 
erected opposite the town of Seaford ; and if this wall and that of the Harbour 
Co. were united (the distance being about 1,400 yards) Seaford Bay would 
be safe for many years. West of Newhaven Breakwater large deposits of 
shingle are accumulating. 


15. Beachy Head to Hastings. 
By Colonel E. C. Sim, R.E., Royal Engineer Office, Brighton. 


1. From Beachy Head to Hastings. 

2. Mostly cliff, with the exception of Pevensey Bay, chalk, and sandstone. The 
greatest height is 512 feet—Beachy Head. 

3. South-east. 

4. South-west. 

5.a.5.5.W. b. SSW. c. S.S.W. 

6. To the eastward. 

7. (1) a. 21 feet 9 inches. b. 15 feet. (2) a. 150 yards on an average. b. 120 
yards on an average. 

$8. Shingle and sand. 

9. a. 20 yards to 50 yards generally, but in Pevensey Bay the shingle is nearly a 


mile wide. ec. South-east. d. 6 inches by 3 inches. e. Continuous slope. 
10. Diminishing slowly. 


21. Partly artificial. 

22. a. South-west. b. From 80 feet to 250 feet. e. 100 yards at Eastbourne. 
d. (1) 12 feet to15 feet. (2) 12 feet. (3) Full. They vary in length and 
distance apart at different places along the coast. e. Oak and beech. f. Pre- 
vent the scour of the sea, and to a certain extent retain the shingle. 

23. a. Half-tide. b. Building and concrete work. e. Local builders. Corpora- 
tion of Eastbourne, and Local Board at Bexhill. Newhaven Harbour Co. 
d. Slightly, near Beachy Head. 

14. a. Generally. b. Sandstone and chalk. Height varies. ¢. It varies, but during 

| ___ the last twelve months about 10 feet at Bulverhythe, near Hastings. d. There 
are some old maps. e. No. 

215. This cannot be stated positively. a. Probably tosome small extent. b. Groynes 
appear to save one part of the foreshore to a certain extent at the expense of 
another. The breakwater at Newhaven Harbour appears to prevent the 
accumulation of shingle between it and Beachy Head. 

26. No. The inroads of the sea are checked at Hastings, Bexhill, Eastbourne, New- 


haven, Brighton, Worthing, &c., by sea walls, which there is a general tendency 
to extend. 
17. No. 


19. Two Memoranda by Colonel E. C. Sim, R.E., are forwarded herewith. [Printed 
on pp. 410, 412.] 


438 REPORT—1885. 


16. St. Leonards and Hastings. 
By RIcHARD B. GRANTHAM, F.G.S., M.Inst.C.E. 


1. St. Leonards and Hastings, Sussex. I have examined the coast from the east end 
of Hastings to the west boundary of St. Leonards, as shown on the accom- 
panying map on the Ordnance scale of 6 inches to a mile. 

2. Commencing at Ecclesbourne Glen, the cliffs of the Wealden formation on both 
sides of the glen attain a great height, and from the east side continue west- 
wards to the town of Hastings, generally about 200 feet high. The shore is 
covered by the rocks which have from time to time slipped from the cliff, and 
form beach varying from 20 to 70 feet wide. The erosion is caused by water 
behind the cracks and clefts in the face of the rocks forcing out the stone 
during frost, this being the chief cause. The height of the cliffs is from 80 to 
200 feet above Ordnance datum. There is a large groyne of stone at the 
Sewage Works, at which the stone beach ceases and the shingle beach begins; 
500 yards from there the buildings commence, and a quay wall at the Stade, 
opposite Market House, continues for a little more than two miles westward. 
This wall retains the roads in front of the two towns for that distance, and 
against it the shingle-beach rests. (See the 6-inch Ordnance Map.) 

3. The direction of the coast-line is from west to east by north. 

4. South-west. 

5. a. South-west wind and south wind as the direct wind on to the coast of Hastings 
and St. Leonards. e. From the westward. 

6. From west to east, which is shown by the accumulation on the west side of the 
groynes. 

7.a. The range is 24 feet. wb. The range is 17} feet. 

8. Shingle with sand. 

9. a. At Ecclesbourne the shingle is about 150 feet wide at high water, and at the 
Sewage Works about 200 feet, and continues pretty uniformly that width owing 
to the line of the retaining wall. e. From the westward. d. About 5 or 6 
inches diameter. e. There is nota continuous slope, as it is in steps at the line 
where the last and strongest force of the tides left the shingle-bank. 

10. I did not hear that there was any permanent accumulating or diminishing of 
the shingle except at the groynes, where it accumulates on the west sides of 
them, and against the face of the retaining wall, where in places as well as at 
the groynes the height was as much as 10 feet of accumulation. 

11. I did not see or hear of any diminution at any part of this length, and I should 
suppose that as the Wealden rock forms the bed upon which the shingle 
rested, there would be neither diminution nor abstraction. For the whole of 
this distance nearly the rock appears, and slopes towards the sea and there 
meets the sand. 

12. The groynes are very numerous, and in late years many more seem to have been 
placed all along this length except at the western end. [I have placed on the 
6-inch Ordnance Map all the additional groynes, as will be seen by the lines in 
pink colour.] They have all been built of oak-timber piles and deal planks, and 
are tied into the beach by trees of oak. They arrest the shingle, which accu- 
mulates on the west sides; in some places at their upper ends the beach is as 
much as from 6 feet to 10 feet higher than on the east sides. They are gene- 
rally placed at right angles to the front wall, and in some cases are upwards 
of 200 feet long, but generally 120 to 150 feet long. The distances apart vary 
very much, but the tops of them are level with one another in nearly all cases. 
The influence that they have exerted is to protect the wall or any building 
against which they abut. 

13. I could not discover or learn from any person that any materials were removed 
artificially or otherwise, but I believe that a strict watch is kept in order to 
prevent any removal. d. I heard of none and saw none. 

14. No. b. The cliffs, except east of the town, do not wear away, as they are pro- 
tected by houses or walls. 

16. There has been no increase of land by the accumulation of shingle. 

17. There are no ‘dunes’ in this district. 

18. I tried to get maps, sketches, or pictures, but I could not find any of value for 
the purposes of this inquiry. 


t 


a 


RATE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 439° 


17. Dover. 
By E. R. N. Drucs, M.Inst.C.E., Engineer to the Government Pier, Dover. 


1. The part in the neighbourhood of Dover (South-East coast). 

2. Cliffs, a. Chalk. b. Shakespeare Cliff is, I believe, between 350 and 400 feet ; 
average is 200 feet. 

3. Hast and west. 

4. South-west. 

5. a. b. c. South-west. 

6. Up and down Channel, east and west. 

7. (1) a. Nineteen feet. b. Eight feet six inches. 

8. Shingle and sand generally, but there is a boundary jetty at the east end of the 
Dover Bay which stops the shingle. To the eastward of this jetty the chalk 
rock is bare. 

9. a. b. In Dover Bay the general width is 250 feet, about half of which is above 
and half below high-water mark. e. Its tendency to travel is with the pre- 
vailing wind, that governing the waves. d. About 2 inches maximum 
dimension with a tendency to decrease. 


20. Diminishing all along the coast from Dungeness to Deal, except at such inter- 


mediate points where artificial means have been taken to arrest its progress. 

11. Only partly. There is a loss by friction on travelling, but the supply from the 
westward no longer continues. : 

12. a. Generally at right angles or perpendicular to the shore-line. b. Various. 
There is no system, whether with reference to structure or height or length; 
some are 150 feet long. e. Sixty to seventy yards, where there are any. To 
the west of Dover the greater part has disappeared altogether. d. (2) The 
top line of the latest built, which are at the east end of the Bay, runs from five 
feet above high water to about two feet above low water. In Dover Bay the 
upper portion of the groynes at this date are buried in the shingle, and there 
is no variation in the levels of the shingle on the east and west sides. They 
seem to have been constructed with reference to their own security, and have 
no apparent effect on the shingle. e. The best are made of double railway 
irons with three or four-inch planking. f. Both to the west and east of Dover 
Harbour there are large boundary groynes of stone which retain to some 
extent the shingle within the extreme limits of the authority which has the 
control of them. There are, then, the various intermediate timber and railway 
iron groynes which more or less, according to their height and length, arrest 
the movement of the shingle. ‘ 

13. a. Above high water. e. Principally local authorities. d. There are no tidal 
reefs. 

24. Yes. a. Both to the east and west of Dover. At Shakespeare’s Cliff to the 
west, where the cliff is at the maximum height (between 350 and 400 feet). 
The cliffs are also falling to the eastward of Dover, where they are from 200 
to 250 feet in height. This is the result of their being undermined by the 
sea. ce. It is at no particular rate, but falls of cliff at the points above named 
have taken place at intervals for some years past from the cause above stated, 
and since they have lost the protection of the shingle at their base. d. I 
think none. e. Yes. 

15. It is due partly to the supply of shingle having been arrested at Folkestone, 
which is to windward of Dover. At the same time the supply to Folkestone 
has of late years greatly decreased in common with all the shore to the east of 
Dungeness Point. See Sir J. Coode, Report referred to in 18. 

16. No. 

17. No. 

18. Dover Pier.—Return to Order of the House of Commons, March 13, 1873, for 
copy of ‘Correspondence relative to the Causes of the Wasting of the Shore to 
the Eastward of the Government Pier at Dover.’ This contains Sir J. Coode’s 
Report on the subject, dated July 3, 1873. 

19. There is a large increase in the area of shingle to the westward of Dungeness. 
All the shore, speaking generally, to the eastward of Dungeness as far as Deal 
is now suffering from the supply being stopped. The groynes above referred 


440 REPORT—1885. 


to may prevent to some extent the waste which results from friction, but 
unless the authority in each district provides boundary jetties with inter- 
mediate groynes, to ‘ fix,’ as far as possible, the shingle, the whole of this part 
of the coast will,in my opinion, suffer from the want of the natural protection 
which the shingle has hitherto supplied. The cliffs are now being under- 
mined in places, and must eventually fall. 


18. Deal. 
By Major A. C. HEPPER, R.E., Royal Engineer Office, Dover. 


1. None, but I have made inquiries relative to War Department property at and near 
Deal, where the coast-line is, and has been, undergoing change. 

2. Shingly beach at Walmer, Deal, and Sandown Castles, and No. 2 Battery ; cliffs 
at Pegwell Bay Battery, Ramsgate, and Broadstairs. a. Chalk and flint. 
b. About 70 feet; 65 feet; 60 feet. 

3. North and south. 

#. South-west. 

5. a. North. b. South-west. ce. South-west. 

6. North-north-east and south-south-west. 

7. (1) a. From 18 to 20 feet, according to wind. b. From 12 to 15 feet, according 
to wind. (2) About 40 yards at Walmer, increasing to about 280 yards at 
No. 2 Battery. 

8. Shingle, sand, and patches of rock. 

9. a. Greatest about 450 feet; mean about 200 feet. b. Heaped up towards high- 
water mark; sand below half-tide. ce. North. d. Size of an egg, but occa- 
sionally much larger. e. No, itis heaped up and changes with every gale. 

10. At Walmer Castle accumulating; at Deal Castle variable, now accumulating; at 
Sandown Castle diminishing ; at No. 2 Battery accumulating. 


Increase. | Decrease. 


Place From To Feet Weat 

Walmer Castle. , ‘ 2 . 3 1741 1841 308 — 
.s nd e ; : A 4 sf 1841 1859 34 —— 

.. * " i 4 4 > 1859 1872 33 — 

aH rs F : : 5 , . 1872 1884 10 — 
Deal Castle . 5 ; A “ : 2 1741 1859 85 — 
39 aS - : 2 . N ‘ 1859 1872 — 40 

+ - A : $ : : 4 : 1872 1884 35 _ 
Sandown Castle . 3 , F 3 ‘ 1741 1859 —= 145 
= i J ‘ = : : ; 1859 1872 — 50 

“ a ; ; 4 = , 1872 1884 _ 5 
No. 2 Battery 4 4 . : ; F 1859 1884 140 — 


11. No. 

12. Groynes not employed. 

13. Not so removed. 

14. Yes, the cliffs are liable to landslips from action of sea at base. a. Pegwell 
Bay, Ramsgate, and Broadstairs. b. Chalk and flints: height about 65 feet. 
ce. Not known. At Broadstairs one landslip, causing a loss of 30 feet, has 
occurred since 1870. At Ramsgate a slip in 1875 set back edge of cliff about 
5 feet. d. Ordnance and other maps in Royal Engineers’ Office and Report of 
Committee on Coast Defences (confidential). e. No. 

15. No. 

16. No. 

17. Yes, between Deal and Pegwell Bay. a. Sandhills. b. Mean about 10 feet; 
greatest about 15 feet. e. They are situated in rear of shingly beach of Deal 
Roads, and bordering the mouth of the River Stour. d. No. e. Not blown, 
being old and covered with vegetation. 

18. See 14, d. 


; 


oste 


} 


RATE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 441 


19. Sheerness. 
By Colonel LE MESURIER, R.E., Sheerness. 


1. Sheerness, Isle of Sheppey. 

2. Foreshore, about half-tide, of London Clay. Formerly salt marsh, now protected 
by clay, sea-wall paved with Kentish rubble rag, grouted with Portland 
cement, shingle at foot of wall. a. Cliffs of clay and loam from Warden 
Point to Scrapsgate Minster b. (1) 150 feet; (2) 100 feet; (3) 15 feet. 

3. East and west. 

4. Hast and north-east. 

5. a. Hast. b. West and north-west. ec. East. 

6. From the north-east. 

7. (1) a. 17-6; b. 12°6. (2) Opposite Sheerness, about 1,320 yards. 

8. Mud and shingle. 

9. a. About 70 feet and 120 feet. b. Between high and half-tide marks. e¢. Hast 
to west. d. About 7” x 4” = 51bs. ec. One continued slope. 

20. In some places one tide might take it all away if not retained by groynes. In 
others it is accumulating ; owing to the groynes it is generally accumulating. 

11. Diminution is due partly to artificial abstraction, partly to want of groynes. 

12. a. Generally in a north-east direction. The west-direction groynes now run out 
at right angles to the sea-wall for about 50 feet, and thence towards the 
north-east. b. From 50 to 150 feet. The principal groynes are being 
lengthened to 200 feet; at salient portions of the coast the minimum distance 
is necessary, at re-entering portions the maximum is sufficient. e¢. From 50 
to 300 feet. d. 1 foot 10 inches above the surface, and 1 foot 10 inches 
below—i.e. of four 11-inch planks. As the shingle accumulates to windward, 
planks are fixed one at a time. If the groynes are put near enough there 
need not be a greater difference of level than 2 feet, except on extraordinary 
oceasions. Sometimes there is scarcely any difference. e. Oak-framed 
uprights, 11’ x 11”, sills bedded in concrete 8 feet apart, 3-inch fir planks 
bolted to these uprights. f. They catch and retain the shingle, forming an 
artificial beach or half-tide reefs, and thus protect the toe or foot of the sea- 
wall. 

13. a. Near mean high-water mark. »b. For concrete work and building require- 
ments, footpaths, &c., by local builders and the War Department and Admiralty 
contractors. e. The Lord of the Manor of Marine Town, sea frontage, and of 
the land adjoining the boundary of Sheerness and Minster, east of the 

4 Co-operative Coal Pier. d. In some parts of the coast such half-tide reefs 
exist, and do so act. In other parts they have been removed, but whether by 
the increased force of the tide, owing to the removal of the cliff to the east- 

} ward, or by artificial abstraction appears a question. 

14. Yes. a. The entire length of the island from Sheppey-Landsend, Warden Point, 
to Garrison Point Fort. wb. Cliffs of loam and clay about 100 feet high from 
Warden Point to near Scrapsgate Minster, thence to Garrison Point. Clay 
and mud foreshore with more or less beach or shingle. e. No record in Royal 

! Engineers’ office. The parish of Warden has lost upwards of 220 acres within 
220 years. d. It is understood that the Mayor or Corporation of Queenborough 
possesses a map of Sheppey dating from the reign of Elizabeth. e. Nearly so; 
the loss is greatest at the north-east part of the island, called Warden Point. 
Here the coast is quite bare of shingle. 

15. No. 

16. There is no increase whatever now. The area covered by shingle is becoming 
less every year. a. Nil. b. Much of the lowlands or marshes of Sheppey have 

; been regained from the sea within the past 300 years. 

17. No. 

48. The earliest map of the coast-line adjoining Sheerness that we have in the 
Royal Engineers’ office goes back only 150 years—it does not extend beyond 
a mile to the east of Garrison Point. 


442 REPORT—1885. 


20. Chatham and Sheerness. 
By J. CHISHOLM GOODEN, 33 Tavistock Square, London. 


1. Have known the estuary of the Medway, between Chatham and Sheerness, and 
reported on it to the hydrographer of the Admiralty, Sir F. Beaufort, who 
ordered its resurvey by Captain Bullock, R.N. This resurvey confirmed my 
conclusion that a frightful waste of land existed there by erosion. 

2. Alluvial soil. 

7. (1) Chatham Dock. In 1840, Captain Bullock, R.N. a. 17 feet 3 inches. 
b. 10 feet 6 inches. In 1868, resurvey by Commander Calver. a. 18 feet. 
b. 14 feet 6 inches. 

14. Medway estuary. Captain Bullock, R.N., reported to me May 28, 1880: 
a. Waste at Ockam Ness, 157 feet in fourteen years. Personally stated to me 
that the waste at Sharpness on the opposite bank of this river was 11 feet per 
annum during the same interval. Bishop’s Marsh, 5 or 6 feet on all sides, and 
therefore the double. Hoo Marshes and St. Mary’s Marsh, 3 or 4 feet. Upper 
Marshes, 2 or 3 feet. All this waste must have been intensified and increased 
greatly by the greater action of the waves derivable from greater water surface 
and the greater power of wind on the water. d. There are no data present to 
illustrate this; Admiralty appear to have stereotyped the configuration of 
the land here. There is an early map in the British Museum, circa Queen 
Elizabeth. There is Steele’s map of 1802. Some of the soundings there were 
repeated by people I questioned, before Captain Bullock’s second survey. es 
There was scarcely any hard ground in my time, exceptin Upnor Reach. Some 
was said to be in existence in Wollopstone ooze, but I failed to find it by ex- 
periment of a disagreeable character. The creeks and inlets show remarkable 
shoalings. 

15. Honestly think and say No, unless tidal oozes are land. 

18. There was a correspondence on Rochester Bridge and the River Medway in 
1812, and a blue book ensued from it, with observations by Rennie, C.E. The 
report of the City Corporation Commission, 1853, deals with evidence from 
Captain Bullock, R.N. I have written in the ‘Times,’ ‘Atheneum,’ and 
‘Household Words’ on this matter. 

19. My belief is, from the excessive waste of land, long continued, and _ necessarily 
increased, that the oozes must be rising; and there was evidence, after 
Captain Bullock’s second report, that at Bishop’s Spit the ooze had spread at 
the foot. My impression is that here, by natural action, we are slowly realising 
what the artificial works of the abbots of St. Augustine’s and the Great Church 
of Canterbury did towards the loss of Sandwich Haven. They ‘inned’ the 
oozes and converted them to useful purposes; we do not; but we have con- 
siderable national properties at Chatham and Sheerness. We have the most 
imperfect data as to oozes; the charts do not give the depths thereon. 


Chronological List of Works on the Coast-Changes and Shore-Deposits 
of England and Wales. 


By W. WHITAKER, B.A., F.G.S., Assoc.Inst.C.E. 


Having made many lists of geological works on various parts of England, 
from a topographical point of view, it occurred to me, some time ago, that 
there might be some advantage in having such lists arranged by subjects. 
The following is a first attempt in this line, and it may perhaps be of 
service to the Committee, and to those local observers working with it. 

It is confined to the subject-matter of the Committee’s inquiry, 
namely, changes within the historic period; and therefore, whilst it in- 
eludes the titles of papers that refer to these recent changes and to the 
beds which are formed along our shores, including the so-called Sub- 


RATE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 443 


merged Forests that generally occur beneath the beach where a stream 
flows into the sea, it does not include papers that merely give an account 
_ of cliff-sections or of raised beaches. 
; This list does not pretend to perfection, and notice of omissions will 

be thankfully received, so that any such may be included in a supplemen- 
_ tary list, in some future Report. Of course such sheets of the Geological 
: Survey Map as show sea-coast, give information on shore-deposits, but it 

hardly seems needful to mention each separately. 

I have to thank Mr. Topley for many of the 431 entries now made. 


1675. 


Anon. The Improvement of Cornwall by Sea Sand. (Notes character, 
_ &e., of sand.) Phil. Trans. vol. x. no. 118, p. 293. 


1701. 

Watus, Dr. J. A Letter Relating to that Isthmus, or Neck of Land, 
which is supposed to have joyned England and France in former Times, 
‘Where now is the Passage between Dover and Calais. Phil. Trans. 
vol. xxii. no. 275, p. 967. 


1717. 
_ Museravez, Dr. W. De Britannia quondam pene Insula Dissertatio. 
Phil. Trans. vol. xxx. no. 352, pp. 589 


1751. 
Desmarets, N. L’Ancienne Jonction de l’Angleterre 4 la France; ou 
_ Te Détroit de Calais, sa formation par la rupture de l’isthme, sa topographie 
et sa constitution géologique. [Invasions of Sea.] Reprinted in 1875. 
| mo. Paris. 


1754. 
Bortasz, Rev. W. An Account of the great Alterations which the 
Islands of Sylley have undergone since the Time of the Ancients, who 
' Inention them, as to their Number, Extent, and Position. Phil. Trans. 
vol. xiviii. p. 55. 
1756. 
Bortasr, Rev. W. Observations on the Ancient and Present State 
of the Islands of Scilly. 4to. Oxon. 1756. 


1758. 

Bortasz, Rev. W. An Account of some Trees discovered under- 
a! on the Shore at Mount’s-Bay, in Cornwall. Phil. Trans. vol. 1. 
p. . 
<i bryce 


j Jacos, E. Plantz Favershamienses. with an Appendix on the Fossils 
Mf Sheppey. (Waste of Cliffs, p. 130.) 8vo. Lond. 


; 1779. 
‘ ot, L. The History of Whitby, &c. (Waste of Coast.) to. 
a 

1786. 


__ lyon, Rev. J., and E. Kine. Letters giving an account of a Sub- 
sidence of the Ground near Folkstone, on the coast of Kent. Phil. Trans. 
vol. Ixxvi. p. 220. 


444 REPORT— 1885. 


1790. 


GrittincwateR,-H. An Historical Account of the Ancient Town of 
Lowestoft, in the County of Suffolk, etc. [Changes of the Coast, etc.] 
4to. Lond. 

Lockr, R. On the Improvement of Meadow Land. (Changes in the 
Mouth of the Parret, p. 205.) Letters, Papers, Bath [and W. Engl.] Soc. 
vol. v. p. 201. 

1791. 


Armstrone, M. J. An Essay on the Contour of the Coast of Norfolk ; 
But more particularly as it relates to the Marum-Banks and sea-breaches, _ 
So loudly and so justly complained of. Pp.18. 4to. Norwich. : 


1792. 


Brocrave, Sir B. Account of Sea-Breaches between Yarmouth and 
Happisburgh. 4to. Norwich. 


1796, 
Anon. [Submerged Forest at Thornbeck Pool, Lancashire.] Gentle- 
man’s Mag. vol. 66, pt. 2, pp. 549-551, pl. II. fig. 1. 
1799. 


CorrzA DE Serra, Dr. J. On a Submarine Forest on the East Coast 
of England (Lincolnshire). Phil. Trans. vol. lxxxix. no. 481, p. 145. 


1804. 
Gitrin, Rey. W. Observations on the Coasts of Hampshire, Sussex 
and Kent, relative chiefly to Picturesque Beauty . . . (Retirement of 


Sea; Work of Sea on Coasts, pp. 60-65.) 80. Lond. 
Parn, Rev. D. An Account of a simple and easy Means by which Rye 
Harbour was restored. Trans. Soc. Arts, vol. xxii. pp. 245-251. 


1811. 


Luc, J. A. De. Geological Travels. Translated from the French MS. 
Vol. i1. refers to waste of coast (Suffolk). 80. Lond. 


1814. 


C[{urrzts], E. J. Letter on a Submarine Forest in Pevensey Level. 
Gent. Mag. vol. lxxxiv. pt. 2, p. 128. 


1816. 

Eneterietp, Sir H. A Description of the Principal Picturesque 
Beauties, Antiquities, and Geological Phenomena of the Isle of Wight. 
With additional Observations on the Strata of the Island, and their Con- 
tinuation inthe adjacent Parts of Dorsetshire. By T. Wezsrer. (Chap. ii. 
Coast. Chines, pp. 83-86. Undercliff, pp. 129, &c.) 4to. Lond. 

Horner, L. Sketch of the Geology of the South-Western Part of 
Somersetshire. (Coast, pp. 340, 341, 379-384.) Trans. Geol. Soc. 
vol. iii. p. 338. 

StepHenson, R. [? Stevenson.] Observations upon the Alveus or 
General Bed of the German Ocean and British Channel [and on the 
Encroachments of the Sea on the Land]. Mem. Wernerian Soc. vol. ii. 
p- 464; Ann. Phil. vol. viii. p.173; and (in 1817) Phil. Mag. vol. xlix. 
p- 412, = 


1 
‘ 


RATE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 445 


1817. 
Fossett, L. A Journey round the Coast of Kent. 80. Lond. 


1818. 


Paris, Dr. J. A. On a recent Formation of Sandstone, occurring in 
_yarious Parts of the Northern Coasts of Cornwall. [Notes incursion of 
sand from sea.] Trans. R. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, vol. i. pp. 1-19. 


1819. 


Anpverson, Capt. J. Some observations on the peculiarity of the Tides 
between Fairlight and the North Foreland, with an explanation of the 
supposed meeting of the Tides near Dungeness. Phil. Trans. vol. cix. 
p. 217. 

1821. 


Stevenson, R. On the Bed of the German Ocean or North Sea. 
Mem. Wern. Soc., vol. iii. p. 44, and Hdin. Phil. Journ. vol. iii. p. 44 (1820). 


1822. 


Boase, H. Observations on the Submersion of part of the Mount’s 
Bay ; and on the Inundation of Marine Sand on the north coast of Corn- 
wall. Trans. R. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, vol. ii. p. 129. 

Mantett, Dr. G. A. The Fossils of the South Downs; or Illustra- 
tions of the Geology of Sussex. (Submerged Forest, p. 288. Effects of 
the Ocean, 292, &e.) 4ito. Lond. 

Youne, Rev. G., and J. Birp. A Geological Survey of the Yorkshire 
Coast. (Submerged Forest, &c. pp. 30, &c.) Hd. 2, in 1828. 4to. 
Whitby. 

1824. 


_ Rossrts,G. The History and Antiquities of Lyme Regis and Char- 
mouth. Kd. 2, in 1834. 
1825. 


Sepewick, Rev. Prof. A. On the Origin of Alluvial and Diluvial 
Formations. Ann. Phil. ser. 2, vol. ix. p. 241. 


1826. 


De ta Bucue, [Sir] H. T. Notice of Traces of a Submarine Forest 
at Charmouth, Dorset. Ann. Phil. ser. 2, vol. xi. p. 143. 

Ropperps, J. W. Geological and Historical Observations on the 
Hastern Vallies of Norfolk. 80. Lond. and Norwich. 


1827. 


_ Baruam, Dr. T. F. Some Arguments in support of the opinion that 
the Iktis of Diodorus Siculus is St. Michael’s Mount. [Notes buried 
forest.] Trans. R. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, vol. iii. pp. 86-112. 

Boasz, Dr. H.S. On the Sand-Banks of the Northern Shores of 
Mount’s Bay. Trans. R. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, vol. iii. p. 166. 

Carve, J. On the singular state of some Ancient Coins lately found 
in the Sands of Hayle; and, On the evidence deducible from them relative 
to the period of the earliest deposition of sand on the Northern Coast of 
Cornwall. Trans. R. Geol. Soc. Cornwall, vol. iii. p. 136. 


446 REPORT—1885. 


Hawx1ys, J. On the Changes which appear to have taken place in 
the primitive form of the Cornish Peninsula. Trans. R. Geol. Soc. Corn- 
wall, vol. iii. p. 1. 

Roszerps, J. W. Reply to Mr. R. C. Taylor’s Remarks on the Hypo- 
thesis of Mr. Robberds on the former Level of the German Ocean. Phil. 
Mag. ser. 2, vol. ii. pp. 192, 271. 

Taytor, R. C. On the Geology of East Norfolk ; with Remarks upon 
the Hypothesis of Mr. Robberds, respecting the Former Level of the 
German Ocean. Phil. Mag. ser. 2, vol. i. pp. 277, 346, 426. 

On the Natural Embankments formed against the German 
Ocean, on the Norfolk and Suffolk Coast, and the Silting up of some of 
its Estuaries. Phil. Mag. ser. 2, vol. ii. p. 295. 

On the Geological Features of the Eastern Coast of England, 
and Concluding Remarks on Mr. Robberds’s Hypothesis. Ibid. p. 327. 
These three reprinted together, with additions. 


1828. 

Srrvenson, R. Remarks upon the Wasting Effects of the Sea on the 
shore of Cheshire, between the rivers Mersey and Dee. Edin. New Phil. 
Journ. vol. iv. p. 386. 

1829. 


Moorz, Rev. T. The History of Devonshire. (Changes on the Coast, 
p- 36.) 4to. Lond. 

Puitures, Prof. J. Illustrations of the Geology of Yorkshire... . 
Pt. I. The Yorkshire Coast (chaps. viii—xi. Coast). Ed. 2,in 1835. Ed. 3, 
in 1875. Ato. 

1830. 


De 1a Becue, [Sir] H. T. Notes on the Formation of extensive Con- 
glomerate and Gravel Deposits. [ Refers to the Chesil Beach, Shoreham, 
and Axmouth.] Phil. Mag. ser. 2, vol. vii. p. 161. Reprinted in his 
‘Geological Notes.’ 

Hatt, R. C. An Essay on the Rights of the Crown and the Privi- 
leges of the Subject in the Sea Shores of the Realm. 80. Lond. Kd. 2, 
by R. L. Loveranp, in 1875. 

Lyett, [Sir] C. Principles of Geology, vol. i. 8vo. London. (Loss 
of land, sand-dunes, silting up of estuaries, pp. 266-284, 300, 301, 306— 
308; and silting up of sea, pp. 266-284, 306-308.) Many later editions. 


1831. 


De ta Becus, [Sir] H. T. A Geological Manual. (Action of Sea 
on Coast, pp. 70-83. Submarine Forests, 143, &c.) 12mo. Lond. Ed. 2, 
in 1832, Ed. 8, 8vo. in 1833. 


1832. 

Rocers, Rev. J. Notice of Wood and Peat found below high water- 
mark on the beach at Mainporth, inCornwall. Trans. R. Geol. Soc. Corn- 
wall, vol. iv. p. 481. 

Yares, J. A Notice of a Submarine Forest in Cardigan Bay. Proc. 
Geol. Soc. vol. i. no. 28, p. 407. 

1838. 

Awon. The Storm; with Reflections and Admonitions on its dis- 
astrous Effects upon the Norfolk Coast. 80. Norwich. ’ 


q RATE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 447 
A 
_ Mantent, Dr.G. A. The Geology of the South-east of England. 
(Submerged Forests, p. 18. Encroachments of Sea, p. 23.) 80. Lond. 
Much the same as the work of 1822. 

Parisu, [Sir] W. [Submerged Forest, St. Leonards.] Proc. Geol. 
Soe. vol. ii. no. 33, p. 3. 

Parry, J.D. An Historical and Descriptive Account of the Coast of 
Sussex. . . . (Waste of land described.) 80. Lond. 

Woopwarp, S. An Outline of the Geology of Norfolk. 4to. and 80. 
Norwich. 
1834. 


Patwer, H. R. Observations on the Motion of Shingle Beaches. 
[Folkestone and Dover.] Phil. Trans. vol. cxxiv. p. 567. 


4 1835. 
_ Watxer, W. Lecture on Geological Changes resulting from Meteoro- 
Togical Agency. [Dover Strait.] S. Devon Monthly Museum, vol. v. 


PP. 96, 136. 
£ 1836. 


 Rosz, C. B. A Sketch of the Geology of West Norfolk. Phil. Mag. 
ser. 3, vol, viii. p. 28. (Submarine Forest, p. 37.) 


1837. 

_ Anon. (A Naval Officer.) A Brief History of Dover and Ramsgate 
Harbours, with a Description of the coast between Dungeness and the 
Isle of Thanet. 80. Ramsgate. 

_ Louxmoor, Lieut. Description of the Groins erected on the Coast of 
Sussex, for preventing Encroachments of the Sea. Papers Corps R. Eng. 
yol.i. p.48. (? Ed. 2 in 1844.) 

_ Rex, Lt. Col. Description of the Concrete Sea Wall at Brighton, 


p. 43. 
_ Ricuarpson, W. Observations upon the Chronological Arrangement 
of Fossiliferous Deposits. . . . (Notes waste of Kentish Coast.) Mag. 
WWat. Hist. vol. x. p. 122. 

1838. 
_ Cars, Rev. W. B. On the peat bogs and submarine forests of 
‘Bourne Mouth, Hampshire, and in the neighbourhood of Poole, Dorset- 
shire. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. ii. no. 54, p. 599. 
_ Cvusirt, [Sir] W. Report on plans . . . for forming a Harbour at 
Hastings, with the Report and Plans (by Col. Witt1Ams) annexed. Fol. 
Hastings. 
__ Denna, Capt. On the Tidal Capacity of the Mersey Hstuary—the 
Proportion of Silt held in solution . . . the Excess of Deposit upon each 
‘Reflux, and the consequent Effect produced by the Matter thus detected 
‘in its transit, and measured at its lodgement, on the banks in Liverpool 
Bay. Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1837, Sections, p. 85. 
__ Extior, [Admiral], G., and [Admiral Sir] E. W. Parry. Report and 
Memoria on the State of Folkestone Harbour. Parliamentary Papers, 
vol. xlv.5 pp. [Notes accumulation of shingle. ] 
-__ Ham, J. On the Mud deposited by the Tidal Waters of the Severn, 
Usk, and Avon, and other phenomena connected with the Waters of these 
Rivers. Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1837, Sections, p. 76. 


448 REPORT—1885. 


Rerp, Lt.-Col. Further Observations on the moving of the Shingle 
of Beach along the Coast. Papers Oorps R. Eng. vol. ii. p. 128. 
Rooks, J. Geology as a Science applied to the Reclamation of Land 
from the Sea, the Construction of Harbours... 80. Lond. Hd. 2, in 1840. 
Wittrams, Col. [P Lt.-Col. J. H.]. Observations on Mr. Cubitt’s 
Report [above]. Fol. Hastings. 
1839. 


De ta Becue, [Sir] H. T. Report on the Geology of Cornwall, 


Devon, and West Somerset. Geological Survey. 80. Lond. 
Morcuison, [Sir] R. I. The Silurian System. . . . (Blown Sands, 
Submerged Forests, &c. [of Welsh Coast], pp. 562-564). 4to. Lond. 
Wiuams, Lt.-Col. J. H. Memoir relative to the course of the Shingle 
on the Coasts of Sussex and Kent, and the Laws by which it is governed. 
Civ. Eng. Architect's Journ. vol. ii. p. 126. 


1840. 
Conypearb, Rev. W. D. Extraordinary Landslip and Great Convul- 
sion of the Coast of Culverhole Point, near Axmouth. Hdin. New Phil. 
Journ. vol. xxix. p. 160. 


Hurcurson, P.O. A Guide to the Landslips near Axmouth. 12mo. 


Sidmouth. 

Poutson, G. The History and Antiquities of the Seigniory of Hol- 
derness. 2 vols. Hull (? 1840 and 1841). 

Rickman, W. Earth Falls at the Undercliff in the Isle of Wight. 
Proc, Inst. C.E. vol. i. p. 35. 

Roserts, G. An Account of the Mighty Landslip at Dowlands and 
Bindon, near Lyme Regis, December 25th, 1839. 80. Lyme. (5 editions.) 

West, W.J. A Letter containing an account of a convulsion and 
landslip which took place on Dec. 23, 1839, in the neighbourhood of 
Culverhole Point, near Lyme Regis. Proc. Sci. Soc. Lond. vol. ii. p. 42. 

Yares, J. B. On the rapid changes which take place at the Entrance 
of the river Mersey, and the means adopted for establishing an easy 
access to Vessels resorting thereto. Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1839, Sections, 

ae 
E Youne, J. Notice relating to the recent Landslip on the Devonshire 
Coast. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 2, vol. iv. p. 138. 

Report of the Commissioners appointed to Survey the Harbours of 
the South-Eastern Coast. Parliamentary Papers, vol. xxviii. 

Ten Plates, comprising a Plan, Sections, and Views representing the 
changes produced on the Coast of East Devon, between Axmouth and 
Lyme Regis, by the Subsidence of the Land and Elevation of the Bottom 
of the Sea, on the 26th Dec., 1839, and 3rd of February, 1840; from 
Drawings by W. Dawson, the Rev. W. D. Conyprarg, and Mrs. Buox- 
LAND ; with a Geological Memoir and Sections descriptive of these and 
similar Phenomena. By the Rev. W. D. Conyszarr. The whole revised 


by Prof. BuckLAND. 
1841. 


Azxanper, Capt. H. On the Annual Destruction of Land at Easton — 


Bavent Cliff, near Southwold. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. iti. no. 79, p. 445. 
Buckianp, Rev. Prof. W. [Account of recent Sinking of Land, and 
Elevation of Bottom of Sea at Axmouth, Devon.] Proc. Ashmolean Soc. 


Oxon. vol. i. no. xvii. p. 3. 


if 


+. 


- 
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r 
_ RATE OF EROSION OF THE SEA-COASTS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 449 
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. GG 


a 
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fl 
‘ 
4 


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of reclaimed marsh.] Ibid. p. 100. 

Rep, C. The Geology of Holderness, and the adjoining parts of 

Yorkshire and Lincolnshire. (Coast Changes, loss of land, &e.)  Geo- 
logical Survey Memoir. 8vo. Lond. 
 Spurrert, F. C.J. Early Sites and Embankments on the Margins 

of the Thames Kstuary. Archeol. Journ. vol. xliii. p. 269. 

_ ‘Stranan, A. [with Notes by R. H. Trpeman]. The Geology of the 
adjoining Rhyl, Abergele, and Colwyn. (Coast Changes, pp. 
40-44). Geological Survey Memoir. 80. Lond. 

_ Vernon-Harcourt, L. F. Harbours and Docks: their Physical Fea- 
tures, History, Construction, Equipment, and Management. 80. Oxford. 

(Vol. i. chap. iii., Coast Changes ; vol. ii. Plates.) 

‘Warraxer, W.,and W.H. Datron. The Geology of the Country around 

ally Hadleigh, and Felixstow. (Coast Deposits.) Geol. Survey 

emoir. 80. Lond. 


1 1886. 


~ Haron, H. Rights of Foreshore. Trans. Inst. Surveyors, vol. xviii. 
pt. vi. p. 179. (Discussion, p. 198.) See also Professional Notes Inst. 
urveyors, vol. i. p. 26. 
_ Ormerop, G. W. Old Sea-Beaches at Teignmouth, Devon. Quart. 
| Jowrn. Geol. Soc. vol. xlii. pp. 98-100. 
__ Prestwicn, Prof. J. Geology Chemical, Physical, and Stratigra- 
‘phical. (Refers to Coast Changes, pp. 98-102.) Vol. i. 80. Oxford. 
 Wairaker, W., and G. Dowxer. Excursion to... . Reculvers, 
Pegwell Bay, and Richborough. Proc. Geol. Assoc. vol. ix. no. 4, p. 168. 
_ Woopwarp, H. B. Excursion to... . Burton Bradstock, Bridport 
arbour, and Eype (pp. 204-206). Proc. Geol. Assoc. vol. ix. no. 4, 
p- 200. 
7 ? date. 
_Momrorp, Rev. G. Geology . . . . of Hunstanton, in ‘ Hunstanton 
and its Neighbourhood.’ 80. Lynn and Lond. Ed. 4 in 1874. Ed. 6 in 
1879. Ed. 7 in 1881. 


1885. 
| 


466 REPORT—1885. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Ray LANKESTER, 
Mr. P. L. ScuaTerR, Professor M. Foster, Mr. A. SEDGWICK, Pro- 
fessor A. M. Marsua.., Professor A.C. HADDON, Professor MOsELEY, 
and Mr. Percy SLAvEN (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of 
arranging for the ocewpation of a Table at the Zoological Station 
at Naples. 


In the Report read last year at Montreal, it was announced that a 
scheme was on foot for the building of a large physiological laboratory 
in connection with the Zoological Station at Naples, and for the purchase 
of a new sea-going steamer, to be equipped asa floating laboratory. Your 
Committee are now able to report that both these projects are steadily 
advancing towards attainment. For the physiological laboratory the 
Municipality of Naples has made a grant of 400 square métres of ground, 
and the Italian Parliament has voted the sum of 50,000 lire towards the 
cost of building. Work is already commenced, and the plans show that 
the new laboratory will form an extension of the present handsome 
station, and will be carried out in the same style of architecture. 

In addition to this assistance from the Italian Government, a Union 
of the maritime provinces of South Italy is about to be formed for the 
purpose of contributing towards the cost of the new laboratory, and of 
maintaining two tables there for the use of natives of the provinces 
concerned. 


The exceptional advantages that a physiological laboratory connected — 


with the Zoological Station will afford to investigators are too obvious to 
need recapitulation here; and Professor Dohrn will receive the congratu- 
lations of all biologists upon the patience with which his scheme, after 
years of anxious development, has been matured, and upon the success 
with which it has now been rewarded. 

The new steamship, which it is hoped will shortly be in the possession 
of the station, will form a further and no less important addition to the 
capabilities of the establishment. The undertaking is in the hands of an 
influential committee in Germany, organised for the purpose of collecting 
subscriptions, and by whom the vessel will be presented to the station. 
It is intended that the steamer should be of 300 to 400 tons burden, with 
engines of 150 to 200 horse-power, and be fitted up in all respects as a 
floating laboratory. With such a vessel it will be perfectly practicable 
to remain weeks or months in any desired locality, and distance from 
home will be no obstacle, as the naturalists will live and work on board. 

Biologists will call to mind numberless difficult problems that it will 
be possible by this means to investigate with every prospect of successful 
solution, which hitherto have remained unapproachable. The imaginary 
sketch of what might readily be accomplished by means of the floating 
laboratory, given by Professor Dohrn in a recently published report on 
the progress and prospects of the Zoological Station, reads almost like a 


naturalist’s dream—a scientist’s castle in the air—instead of the calm — 


résumé of what will be reasonably possible in the near future so soon as 
the station is in possession of this veritable castle on the sea. 

Concurrent with these greater strides of the Zoological Station, 
improvements in the general management, in methods of work, and in 
instruments of research are constantly being made, the details of which 


| 
“ 


: 


, 


J 


= 


ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 467 


would be too numerous to mention in this place. The general efficiency 
of the establishment is so well known that it will suffice to say that the 
whole organisation of the station is in a state of active and prosperous 
vitality. The best evidence of this is furnished by the accompanying 


lists: (1) of the naturalists who have occupied tables during the past 


year, and (2) of the publications resulting from work carried out at the 
station. 

The General Collections——Additions have been again received from 
Captain Chierchia, who has, since the last Report, sent two collections of 
specimens from the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Other collections have 
likewise been received from Lieutenant Cercone, Lieutenant Orsini, and 
Lieutenant Colombo, from the Atlantic, the Red Sea, and the Medi- 


_ terranean respectively. 


Some of the material previously obtained by Captain Chierchia has 
already been utilised by Count Béla Haller in a paper on the Molluscan 
kidney, recently published ; and the same author is at present preparing 
@ monograph on the Patelle. In like manner, the Pteropoda have been 
inyestigated by Dr. Boas of Copenhagen, whose. monograph upon the 
subject is now in the press. 

The Publications of the Station.—The scientific importance and artistic 
beauty of these works are now so well known that comment would be 
superfluous. 

1. Of the ‘Fauna und Flora des Golfes von Neapel,’ the following 
‘Monograph has been published since the last Report :—XI. A. Lang, 
‘Polyclade’ (2te Halfte: the complete work 688 pp., 39 plates). 

__ The following works are in the press :—K. Brandt, ‘ Coloniebildende 
Radiolarien.’ J. Fraipont, ‘ Polygordius.’ 

_ Monographs by G. von Koch on ‘ Gorgoniide,’ and by P. Falkenberg 
on ‘ Rhodomelez,’ will also shortly appear, the plates being now in the 


press. 
_ 2. Of the ‘Mittheilungen aus der zoologischen Station zu Neapel,’ 
vol. vy. (580 pp., 32 plates), is complete, and contains numerous papers 
written in English ; of vol. vi., parts i. and ii. are published. 
___ 3. The ‘Zoologischer Jahresbericht’ for 1883 (1,324 pp.) is pub- 
dished. The general arrangement and treatment of subjects are the 
Same as mentioned in the previous Report. Sections 1 and 2 are edited 
_by Drs. Paul Mayer and W. Giesbrecht, and sections 3 and 4 by Dr. Paul 
Mayer. The ‘ Bericht’ for 1884 is in the press. 
4 4, Of the Guide to the Aquarium, printed in German, English, Italian, 
‘and French, a second German edition has just been published, and a 
second Italian one will shortly be required. A supplement has also been 
‘printed in each of the four languages, in which the actual contents of 
every tank are enumerated, and references are given to the pages of the 
‘Guide and the accompanying illustrations. By this means the finding of 
any special animal, as well as the intelligent perusal of the Guide by the 
general public, is greatly facilitated. 
_ Hextracts from the General Report of the Zoological Station—The usual 
lists and details, courteously furnished by the officers of the station, will 
be found at the end of this Report, and bear testimony to the constantly 
increasing activity of the station. 

Lhe British Association Table.—Since the last Report, the table has 
been occupied by Mr. Wm. E. Hoyle, who, although limited in time, was 
enabled to prosecute researches on the embryology of the Cephalopoda, 

HH2 


468 REPORT—1885. 


and to collect material from which important results may be expected. 
The report forwarded by Mr. Hoyle is appended. 

An application for permission to use the table during the coming year 
has already been received, and others are expected. In view of these 
anticipations, and of the exceptional advantages afforded by the British 
Association table in the Zoological Station at Naples, your Committee 
most confidently recommend the renewal of the grant (100/.) for the 
ensuing year. 


I. Report on the Occupation of the Table, by Mr. William E. Hoyle. 


I reached Naples on April 6, 1885, and left on the 28th of the same 
month. In so short a time it was obviously impossible to make anything 
of the nature of a complete investigation in a subject of such magnitude 
and difficulty as the embryology of the Cephalopoda; it seemed, there- 
fore, that the opportunities afforded me could best be utilised by collecting 
material for subsequent examination. 

Of this I had an abundant and immediate supply, thanks to the kindly 
forethought of your Secretary, who had given notice to the authorities of 
the station of the nature of the work I had undertaken, so that they had 
a quantity of ova ready for my use. 

The greater part of my time was spent in extracting embryos from 
the egg and preserving them in various fluids, and a fairly complete 
series of developmental stages of Loligo and a good many embryos of Sepia 
were thus obtained. When the young Cephalopods have reached a stage 
at which the rudiments of the arms are clearly visible, it is moderately 
easy, after a little practice, to extricate them by making an incision into 
the egg-membrane with a fine scalpel; but previously to this period they 
so nearly occupy the whole interior of the egg that it is almost impossible 
to obtain them uninjured. 

A quantity of such eggs I preserved whole by a method suggested to 
me by Dr. Jatta, who is at work upon a monograph of the Cephalopoda 
of the Bay of Naples. 

The strings of eggs are placed whole in weak solution of chromic 
acid (about 0°25 per cent.) for a few hours, and then in distilled water 
for twenty-four hours, after which they are preserved in alcohol. The 
embryos can then be extracted much more readily than when fresh. 

Some time was devoted to examining and drawing the embryos in the 
fresh condition, and in watching the process of segmentation in Loligo and 
Sepia. I observed the presence of the ‘ Richtungsblischen’ in the former, 
which, so far as I am aware, has only been noted in a Russian memoir 
on the development of Sepiola by Ussow. 

A number of blastoderms in process of segmentation were preserved 
according to a method proposed by Ussow, for the knowledge of which 
I am indebted to Dr. Edward Meyer, who kindly translated it for me 
from the original. 

The egg, without removal of the membranes, is placed in 2 per cent. 
solution of chromic acid for two minutes, and then in distilled water, to 
which a little acetic acid (one drop to a watchglassful) has been added, 
for two minutes longer. If an incision be now made into the egg-mem- 
brane the yolk flows away and the blastoderm remains; if any yolk still 
cling to it, it may be removed by pouring away the water and adding 
more. 


ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 


469 


_ The blastoderms thus prepared show, when appropriately stained, fine 
_ karyokinetic figures, of which I hope shortly to publish an account. 


f. 


_ to prepare some account of the results obtained from them. 
In conclusion, I have to express my thanks to the Committee for 
granting me the use of their table, as well as to the authorities of the 
Zoological Station for their kindness and courtesy to me during my work. 


The reduction of the collected embryos to serial sections and their 
examination will of course occupy some time, but I hope in a few months 


I, A List of Naturalists who have worked at the Station, from the end of 
June 1884 to the end of June 1885. 


Num- State or University Duration of Occupancy 
ber on Nafuralist’s Name whose Table : 

List was made use of Arrival Departure 
Dr. G. Jatta Italy July 1,1884 | Dec. 31,1884 
Dr, M. Giuliani. § of Tegerane: TBs 
Prof. F. Gasco . * AUP | OCs 20 sn ays 
Prof. C. Emery . ” » 12, ” ” 26, ” 
Dr. C. Crety fy spe Foe S22) ha (Ser 
Dr. W. J. Vigelius Holland . Sept.,.8, , | Dec. 20,, . 
Dr. F. Raffaele . Italy Oct-18," 55 — 

Mr. M. Jaquet . Switzerland Nov. 13, ,, | Mar. 11, 1885 
Dr. A. D. Onody Hungary . » 21, 4, | Feb. 4,0 ;, 
Dr. F. Albert. Prussia Seal 01: Bt be Sei ined nee 
Dr. W. Repiachoft Russia Dec. 21; .,, | June25,. ,, 
Dr. G. Jatta. . | Italy Jan. 1,188 = 
Ufficiale A. Colombo | Italian Navy sy, 21, 5, | May 11,1885 
Dr. Ch. Dolley . Philadelphia Woy’ 4,6 | SUE LAS 3, 
Dr. Paulicki Strassburg HemuAgoiet | Marin 7, 2 
Prof. Benecke . Prussia ee etOy dbase TMVANELD fa cosy 
Dr. Cl. Hartlaub Hamburg Se LOS sg) \OUNE LAOS, ge 
Dr. E. Ziegler . Baden Presta esr | PADEUL DS - 5, 
Stud. von Oefele Bavaria March1,  ,, be rime 
Dr. E. Rohde Prussia i Sy). 0 May 25, as 
Dr. A. Koenig . Own table rp Sees —_ 

Sig. E. Stassano Italy TMs. 2.35 — 

Dr. Thallwitz Baden Searles o> | May..3; L88b 
Prof. Todaro Italy pray! sow fj aprily 40" 
Prof. Merkel . . | Prussia oe 3 i 
Stud. T. Wenckebach | Holland . LG, 5 — 

Dr. R, Altmann Saxony . 5 », 20,' ,, | Aprill5, 1885 
Mr. Wm. E. Hoyle British Association . | April 6, _,, ae (oer. 
Prof. Carnoy Belgium . Ss ae WNne 2a) 8, 
Dr. Gilson : ” : : » 8 5 » 2d, 5 
Dr. J. Walther . Academy, Berlin Pree bags at Dae ay 
Dr. W. Patten . Zoological Station .| ,, 14, ,, = 

Dr. Schirlitz . | Prussia -| 5 17, 4 | June 20, 1885 
Comand. de Simone . | Italian Navy Te eLGs: aya | lay Le ey 
Prof. Della Valle Italy June 22, ,, — 


III. A List of Papers which have been published in the 


year 1884 by the 


Naturalists who have occupied Tables at the Zoological Station. 


Dr. J. Frenzel . 


Dr. E. Wilson . 
Dr. F. Blockmann 


Ueber die Mitteldarmdriise der Crustaceen. 


Zool. Station Neapel,’ Bd. V., 1884. 


The Mesenterial Filaments of the Alcyonaria. 


Zool. Station Neapel,’ Bd. V., 1884. : 
Die im Golfe von Neapel vorkommenden Aplysien. ‘ Mit- 
theil. Zool. Station Neapel,’ Bd. V., 1884. 


‘ Mittheil. 


‘ Mittheil, 


470 


Prof. G. Fritsch . . 


Sig. E. Stassano 
Prof. R. Kossmann . 


Prof. A. Della Valle . 


Dr. C. Keller 
Prof. H. Grenacher . 


Prof. C. E. Eberth 

MM. EK. van Beneden 
et Ch. Julin 

Dr. L. Oerley . 

Prof. A. G. Bourne 


Prof. A. M. Marshall 
Dr. M. von Brunn 


Prof. C. Emery 


” 


Dr. A. Garbini. 
Dr. von Sehlen 


Dr". Weyl ..« 
Dr. B. Uljanin . 


Dr. J. Fraipont 
” 
Mr. 8. Harmer. 


Dr. B. Sharp 
Dr. P. Schiemenz . 


Prof.G. Entz . . 
Dr. J. W. Spengel 
Dr. J. Beard 3 
Dr. G. Klebs 


Dr. G. Berthold 


neurone — 885. 


Beitrage zur Embryologie vom Torpedo: Bericht tiber die 
Fortsetzung der Untersuchungen an elektrischen Fischen. 
‘ Archiv fiir Anatomie u. Physiologie,’ Physiol. Abtheilung, 
Jahrgang 1884. 

L’action du Curare dans la série animale. 
de la Société de Biologie de Paris,’ 1884. 

La Generazione spontanea ecc. ‘Giornale Internazionale 
delle Scienze Mediche,’ Anno VI., 1884. 

Neueres tiber Cryptonisciden. ‘Sitzungsberichte Kén. Preuss. 
Akad. d. Wissensch.’ Bd. 22, 1884. 

Sul Ringiovanimento delle Colonie di Diazona violacea. 
‘Rendic. della R. Accademia delle Scienze ecc. di Napoli,’ 
1884. 

Mittheilungen iiber Medusen. 
t. i. 1844. 

Abhandlungen zur vergleichenden Anatomie des Auges. I. 
Die Retina der Cephalopoden. ‘ Abhandlungen Naturf. 
Ges. Halle,’ Bd. 16, 1883. 

Die Befruchtung des thierischen Hies. 
Medicin,’ Bd. 2, 1884. 

La segmentation chez les Ascidiens dans ses rapports avec 
Vorganisation de la larve. ‘Bull. Acad. Belg.’ 1884. 

Ueber die Athmung der Serpulaceen, etc. ‘Naturhist. Hefte, 
Budapest,’ Vol. viii. 1884. 

Contributions to the Anatomy of the Hirudinea. 
Journ. Microscop. Science,’ 1884. 

On the Nervous System of Antedon rosaceus. bid. 

Weitere Funde von zweierlei Samenkérperformen in demselben 
Thiere. ‘Zool. Anzeiger,’ 1884. 

Les taches brillantes de la Peau chez les Poissons du Genre 
Scopelus. ‘ Archives Italiennes,’ t. v. 1884. 

Intorno alle macchie splendenti della pelle nei pesci del 
genere Scopelus. ‘ Mittheil. Zool. Station Neapel,’ Bd. V., 
1884. 

‘ Manuale per la Tecnica moderna del Microscopioecce.’ Verona, 
1884. 

Studien tiber Malaria. 
1884. 

Physiologische und chemische Studien am Torpedo. ‘ Archiv 
f. Anatomie und Physiologie,’ Physiol. Abtheilung, 1883-4 
‘Zeitschrift fiir physiol. Chemie,’ 1883. 

Die Arten der Gattung Doliolum im Golfe von Neapel. 
Monographie X. der ‘ Fauna u. Flora des Golfes von Neapel,’” 
herausgegeben von der Zool. Station, Leipzig, 1884. 

Recherches sur le systéme nerveux central et périphérique des 
Archiannélides. ‘Archives de Biologie,’ t. v. 1884. 

Le rein céphalique du Polygordius. ‘Bull. Acad. Roy. de 
Belgique,’ 3 Sér. t. viii. 1884. 

On a Method for the Silver Staining of Marine Objects. 
‘Mittheil. Zool. Station Neapel,’ Bd. V., 1884. 

On the Vesical Organs in Lamellibranchiata. Jbid. i 

Ueber die Wasseraufnahme bei Lamellibranchiaten und 
Gastropoden. bid. 

Ueber Infusorien des Golfes von Neapel. 

Zur Anatomie des Balanoglossus. Tbid. 

On the Life-History and Development of the Genus Myzo- 
stoma. Ibid. 

Hin kleiner Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Peridineen. 
nische Zeitung,’ 1884. 

Die Cryptonemiaceen. Monographie XII. der ‘Fauna uw. 
Flora des Golfes von Neapel,’ herausgegeben von der 
Zoolog. Station, 1884. 


‘Comptes Rendus 


‘Recueil Zoologique Suisse,’ 


‘Fortschritte der 


‘Quart. 


‘Fortschritte der Medicin,’ Bd. 2, 


Lbid. 


© Bota- 


ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 


471 


ey A List of Naturalists to whom Specimens have been sent, from July 1, 
1884, to the end of June 1885. 


1884. July 


Naturalien-Cabinet, Stuttgart . 


Mr. A. Heath, London 


Nat. Hist. Museum, Groningen. 


Dr. Rawitz, Berlin - 
Dr. Hundeshagen, Leipzig 
Prof. H. N. Moseley, Oxford 
Dr. v. Brunn, Leipzig 

Herr H. Putze, Hamburg . 
Prof. Gierke, Breslau 

Prof. Kupfer, Munich 

Prof. Kollmann, Bale 

Dr. Griitter, St. Gallen 
Donough School, Baltimore 
Williams Coll., Mass. 

Mr. G. E. Mason, London 
Dr. Jickeli, Hermannstadt 
Anat. Institut, Freiburg . 
Dr. B. Hatscheck, Linz . 
Dr. John Beard, Manchester 
Herr A. Wenke, Jaromierz 
Mr. Charles Jeffreys, Tenby 
Prof. Friant, Nancy 

Mr. Puls, Ghent - F 
Prof. Hoffmann, Leyden 
Prof. N. Kowalewsky, Kasan 
Mr. J. B. Jeaffreson, London 
Herr H. Putze, Hamburg . 
Prof. A. G. Bourne, London 
Mr. Weldon, Cambridge . 


Collection is 
Physalia : 
Corallium rubrum . 
Mollusea 

Aplysina 

Corallium, Sipunculus 
Tortoise-shell . 
Argonauta : 
Carcharias, Tethys. . 
Embryos of Torpedo 
Embryos of BeEDSAO 
Collection 
Collection 
Collection 

Rana esculenta 
Antedon rosacea 
Mustelus, Scyllium . 
Amphioxus 
Embryos of Torpedo 
Ccelent., Vermes 
Mollusca ‘ 
Corallium " ‘ 
Corallium 
Collection 

Torpedo . 5 
Echinodermata 
Cassiopeia 
Corallium 

Corallium 


H.E. the Ambass. von Keudell, Rome Collection 


Prof. Grenacher, Halle 

Prof. Richiardi, Pisa 

Dr. Singer, Regensburg 

Mr. Marie, Paris i 

Dr. J. Blaue, Halle . 

Dr. Goronowitsch, Heidelberg . 
Istituto Tecnico, Arezzo . 
Prof. Ehlers, Gottingen 

Dr. Reinhold, Odessa 

Zool. Inst., University, Berlin . 
Dr. Meffert, Breslau 

Dr. A. Batelli, Florence . 
National Museum, Budapest 
Herr Wettstein, Kiissnacht 
Mr. T. Bolton, Birmingham 
Prof. Claus, Vienna . 

Dr. Honegger, Ziirich 


Prof. Mitsukuri, Tokio, Japan . 


Prof. C. Emery, Bologna . 
Morphol. Labor., Camnbare 
Mr. Puls, Ghent 

Dr. Simroth, Leipzig 

Dr. Moésch, Ziirich 

Prof. A. G. Bourne, London 
Mr. Davidson, Brighton : 
Dr. Mendelsohn, Posen 
Mr. A. Pennington, Bolton 
Prof. Stepanoff, Charkoff . 
Zool. Institut, Wiirzburg . 
Dr. J. W. Spengel, Bremen 


Corallium, Aluphigane 
Collection ( 
Corallium 

Collection ‘ ‘ 
Collection 7 é 
Algve : 
Corallium, 
Collection 
Algze 
Collection 
Corallium 
Fins of Motella 
Corallium 

Scorpio 

Collection 

Peneus, Stenopus, ke. ‘ 
Scyllium, Se hal &e. 
Collection : 
Corallium 
Holothuria, Hepiag & ke. 
Collection 

Corallium 

Corallium 

Amphioxus 

Brachiopoda 

Various 

Collection 

Corallium, &c. 

Embryos of Sharks . 
Various . = - 4 


Tethya j 


Lire ec. 
595:20 
24:90 


472 


1884, Dec. 


REPORT—1 885. 


Dr. A. Vayssiére, Marseilles 
Prof. Burbach, Gotha 

Mr. E. Marie, Paris . 

Prof. F. Mercanti, Arezzo. 
Conte Peracca, Turin : 
Mr. R. Damon, Weymouth 
Dr. C. Crety, Rome . 

Dr. Vigelius, Hague. 

Mr. Vallentin, Leytonstone 
Dr. Escherich, Munich 
Prof. Kossmann, Heidelberg 


Prof. Wagner, St. Petersburg . 


Mr. Chas. Jeffreys, Tenby 
Rev. A. M. Norman, Durham 


Anat. u. Embr. Inst., Budapest 


Prof. A. G. Bourne, London 
Zool. Inst., Wiirzburg 

Dr. Krukenberg, Jena. 
Dr. J. Mac-Leod, Ghent 
Gymnasium, Bartenstein. 
Dr. John Beard, Manchester 


Mr, F. Cunningham, Edinburgh 


Prof. O. Burbach, Gotha . 
Mr. A. Eloffe, Paris . 

Dr. Hoek, Leyden 

Prof. Giglioli, Florence 


Prof. D’A.W. Thompson, Dundee 


Prof. L. v. Graff, Graz. 
Dr. A. Andres, Milan 


Prof. E. R. Lankester, ade 


Miss Petrovski, Geneva 6 
Mr. O. Hann, Dresden . 
Dr. Spangenberg, Munich 
Dr. Honegger, Ziirich~ . 
Mr. J. R. Bradford, London 
Prof. Leenhardt, Montauban 
Prof. Grenacher, Halle 
Societa Tecnica, Florence 
Herr G. Krause, Glogau . 
Scuola d’ Agricoltura, Portici 
Mr. L. Dreyfus, Wiesbaden 
Mr. E. Marie, Paris . . 
Prof. H. Blanc, Lausanne 
Morphol. Labor., Cambridge 
Mr. W. P. Sladen, Ewell . 
Dr. A. Batelli, Perugia 


Museum of Nat. History, Aarau 


Prof. P. Pavesi, Pavesi 
Prof. R. Leuckart, Leipzig 


Prof. E. R. Lankester, London . 


Dr. Th. Barrois, Lille i 
Mr. A. Meinecke, Milwaukee 
Prof. v. Marenzeller, Vienna 
Dr. L. Eger, Vienna. 

Dr. Mendelsohn, Posen 
Prof. Vogt, Geneva . 

Zool. Inst., Wiirzburg 

Prof. Fano, Genoa . . 
Dr. Krukenberg, Jena. 
Mr, Sanz de Diego, Madrid 
Zoolog. Sammlung, Ziirich 
Prof. Grassi, Catania 

Dr. Bolau, Hamburg 


Lire c. 
Bulla striata ; E 2.80 
Mollusca. , " 75: 
Sepia : 3 6 7:90 
Various ; 27°70 
Lacerta muralis 15°50 
Collection 300°25 
Various 6°65 
Collection 204°80 
Various 38°50 
Collection 70: 
Sacculina, A “ 14:05 
Doliolum. : ; r 4: 
Mollusca . 40°30 
Collection 377°50 
Pelagia, Salpa . ; 18:05 
Amphioxus ° ° 10°80 
Natica Josephinia 4°95 
Scyllium, &c. . - 13°50 
Various , 5 5 39°80 
Various . 99°35 
Embryos of Torpedo, &e, 14°85 
Balanoglossus 11°50 
Collection ; 181°40 
Collection : 197°40 
Scalpellum . . 4:25 
Luvarus . 60): 
Collection 51:45 
Collection - . 296° 
Actinia . : . <u 30 
Various : 6:10 
Various . 11°50 
Actinia 10°50 
Collection : 262°65 
Brains of Dogfish 10°65 
Annelida 24:95 
Various 55°10 
Pecten 12°80 
Collection - 62°40 
Various 22°70 
Collection 109°35 
Collection . 189:20 
Torpedo, Corallium . : 90°20 
Various (hit 
Ascidia, Amphioxus 11479 
Various . : a, 18:25 
Collection . 118°65 
Collection F . 375°5b 
Siphonophora . 116° 
Siphonophora . 90°65 
Siphonophora . 92°85 
Various 15°25 
Collection 160°65 
Collection 320°80 
Collection 19865 
Various . 40°40 
Corallium - 23°10 
Natica Josephinia : 3°65 
Amphioxus 3°05 
Loligo : 4:10 
Collection . 1403°25 
Collection 135-40 
Various 77-75 


Living animals 


Prof. Ussoff, Kasan . 5 
Anat. u. Embr. Inst., Budapest. 
Zool. Inst., University, Berlin . 
Prof. Ehlers, Gottingen 

Dr. Th. Weyl, Berlin 

Mr. Vallentin, Leytonstone 
Prof. D’A.W. Thompson, Dundee 
Societa Tecnica, Florence 
Prof. C. Chun, Kénigsberg 

Dr. L. Kalvoda, Dettingen 5 
Mr. G. L. Gulland, Edinburgh . 
Dr. Aug. Miiller, Frankfort o/M. 
Dr. A. Batelli, Perugia 

Prof. Frizzi, Perugia. 

Prof. Grenacher, Halle . 
Prof. F. Merkel, Konigsberg 
Prof. Bogdanoff, Moscow . 

Dr. Altmann, Leipzig 

Prof. Fano, Genoa 

Mr. 8. Brogi, Siena . 

Zool. Inst., Wiirzburg 

Mr. E. Marie, Paris . 

Zool. Inst., Strassburg 

Dr. Rohde, Breslau . 

Dr. Orley, Budapest. 

Mr. Pedro Antiga, Barcelona 
Prof. Bergh, Copenhagen . 
Conte Peracca, Turin ‘ 
Zool. Inst., Wiirzburg 

Zool. Inst., Munich . 


ON THE ZOOLOGICAL STATION AT NAPLES. 


Torpedo, Carcharias, &c. . 


Hexanchus 
Collection 
Siphonophora . 
Torpedo . 

Salpa 

Collection 
Collection 
Collection 
Collection 
Lophogaster 
Collection 

Ascidia 

Collection 

Eyes of Carinaria, &e. 
Torpedo . : : 
Siphonophora, &c. . 
Eges of Scyllium 
Amphioxus 
Collection 
Phascolosoma . 
Rhizostoma, &c. 
Collection ; 
Corallium, Agalma . 
Crustacea 

Various 

Marsenia. 

Lacerta 

Various ; 
Dentalium, Ciona 


Sog. per VEducaz. popolare, Naples Collection . 


Prof. Pfeffer, Tiibingen 
Herr L. Gerwig, Heidelberg 
Dr. Bolau, Hamburg 3 
Prof. Liitken, Copenhagen 
Mr. E. Marie, Paris . 

Mr. Holeczck, Kruszelnica 
Dr. John Beard, Manchester 
Prof. Frizzi, Perugia 

Dr. Krukenberg, Jena 

Dr. Schirlitz, Danzig 

Mz. R. Damon, Weymouth 
Prof. Colasanti, Rome 

Prof. Richiardi, Pisa 

Dr. J. W. Spengel, Bremen 
Dr. J. Walther, Munich 


Algee 

Various R 
Living animals 
Collection , 
Physalia, Torpedo . 
Various . 

Embryos of Dogfish 
Various 

Cartilage of Mustelus 
Collection 
Collection 
Rhizostoma 
Collection 
Collection 
Argonauta, Beroe 


from the end of June 1884 to the end of June 1885. 


22 


pele 


18 
17 
5 
5 
27 
27 
4 


Prof. Palmen, Helsingfors 

Dr. Vigelius, Hague . 
Gymnasium, Hague . r ; 
Anat.u. Embr.Inst., Budapest. 
Prof. Leenhardt, Montauban 
Dr. Mendelsohn, Posen . d 
Mr. George Brook, Edinburgh . 
Zool. Inst., Univ., Strassburg . 
Prof. Bogdanoff, Moscow . 


34 preparations 
17 


” 


14 ) 
3 ” 
24 as 
6 ” 
43 £ 
8 » 
14 = 


17014:25 


. A List of Naturalists to whom Microscopic Preparations have been sent, 


474 REPORT—1885. ‘ 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor McKEnorick, 
Professor STRUTHERS, Professor YounG, Professor McInrosu, 
Professor ALLEYNE NICHOLSON, Professor CossaR Ewart, and Mr. 
JoHN Murray (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of pro- 
moting the establishment of a Marine Biological Station at 
Granton, Scotland. ° 


Tue Committee report that the sum of 1001. placed at their disposal has been 
expended in the maintenance and additional equipment of the Scottish 
Marine Station at Granton. The following report on the development 
and present condition of the station has been sent in to the secretary by 
Mr. J. T. Cunningham, the superintendent : 


At the time of the last meeting of the British Association the labora- 
tories and aquaria of the station were all contained in the floating esta- 
blishment called the ‘Ark.’ Last autumn more spacious premises were 
acquired. These are situated on the shore not far above high-water 
mark, and only a few hundred yards to the east of the submerged quarry 
in which the ark was moored. The property when acquired consisted 
of a number of rough brick sheds surrounding a central yard, and had 
been used as a factory; it covers an oblong area about 147 feet ina 
direction parallel to the shore, by 78 feet in breadth. On the north side 
of the area now stands the building containing the laboratory and 
aquarium, the former occupying the upper storey, the latter the ground 
floor. The laboratory is divided into two parts by a partition, the western 
room serving principally asa museum. The building was constructed 
and the laboratory fitted in the autumn of last year. In the spring of the 
present year the system of aquaria was fitted up, the work having been 
commenced at the beginning of May and finished on June 17. The 
aquarium tanks are seven in number, and are constructed of wood. A row 
of five runs along the north side of the aquarium room; these are 
shallow, their dimensions being 8 feet by 6 feet by 1 foot 3 inches. They 
are arranged in a stair-like series, each being about 8 inghes lower than 
its neighbour on the east side, and the water flows fromthe overflow-pipe 
of one to the other throughout the series. On the sotith side of the room 
are two deep tanks, each measuring 6 feet by 5 fe 
the front partially formed of plate-glass. 

The water to supply the aquarium tanks comes from a large reservoir, 
also of wood, fixed at a higher level than the roof of the aquarium room, 
in the shed to the east of the latter. The water overflowing from the 
aquarium tanks is delivered by means of indiarubber hose into a number 
of pits sunk into the ground; these are lined with cement, and roofed 
over in order to exclude dust and rain. They are situated at the west 
end of the central yard. 

The circulation of sea water is maintained by a horizontal double- 
action pump, which is fitted up in a small building at the south-east 
corner of the premises. A suction pipe two inches in diameter connects 
the pump with the quarry, and opposite the pits before referred to the 
pipe is fitted with a stop-cock and hose coupling, so that the communica- 


by 3 feet,and having © 


ESTABLISHMENT OF A MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT GRANTON. 475 


tion with the quarry may be shut off, and water pumped out of the low- 
level reservoir formed by the pits. The delivery pipe from the pump 
branches after some distance, one branch going to the high-level, the 
other to the low-level reservoir. The latter is used when it is required 
to pump water direct from the quarry to the low-level reservoir. The 
water is delivered into the deep aquarium tanks by four fine-glass jets. 
The highest shallow tank is supplied from an ordinary stop-cock, but 
_ there is also a pipe running along the wall at the back of the shallow 
_ tanks, fitted with a number of jets from which small vessels for isolation 
and experiment may be supplied. 
‘ The steam yacht Medusa, of fourteen tons burthen, which was built 
for the Station at its institution in April last, and is specially fitted for 
dredging and sounding, still forms the principal sea-going equipment. 
_ Dnuring the present year the services of a small lugger-rigged fishing 
_ boat have also been available. Investigations have been carried on at 
the Station in the three departments of Zoology, Botany, and Physics. 
Up till the end of last June inquiries into the fauna and flora of the 
Firth of Forth were carried on regularly, by means of dredging and tow- 
netting and shore-collecting. During the six months following June 
1884, Mr. J. R. Henderson, M.B., devoted the greater part of his time 
and attention to the speciegraphical and faunological work of the Sta- 
tion, and made a specially complete examination of the Crustacea; he 
obtained and identified fifty species hitherto unrecorded as occurring in 
the Firth of Forth. A paper on these species was published by him in 
the ‘Proc. Roy. Phys. Soc. Edin.,’ 1884-5. Dredging and collecting 
were continued in the Firth of Forth up till the end of June, and the re- 
sults are recorded in the note-books of the Station. Mr. Cunningham’s 
time has been much occupied in working at the embryology of teleostean 
fishes, and in attempts to elucidate the reproduction of Myxine ; his work 
in faunology has been chiefly confined to the Chetopoda. The em- 
bryology of some pelagic eggs and that of the herring, together with the 
_ habit of the herring in the neighbourhood of the Firth of Forth, were 
investigated last year. In the first half of the present year a study was 
made of the development of the cod, haddock, whiting, and gurnard. 
Since then Myxine has principally received attention. 
At the end of June last a summer branch of the Station was esta- 
_ blished at Millport. The Ark and the yacht were taken thither from 
_ Granton, through the Forth and Clyde Canal. The Ark was at first 
moored in Millport Bay, and afterwards drawn up on shore, and during 
the months of July and August dredging was carried on in the Medusa 
by Mr. Murray and Mr. J. R. Henderson, and zoological studies were 
pursued in the Ark by these and several other naturalists. Mr. Hender- 
son was engaged during the whole time in the examination of the 
Crustacea, Echinodermata, and Polyzoa of the Clyde estuary. Mr. David 
Robertson, of Glasgow, availed himself of the resources and arrangements 
provided to pursue his studies of Ostracoda and other minute forms. 
He is preparing a complete systematic account of the Amphipoda of the 
Clyde for the Glasgow Natural History Society. The Rev. A. M. 
Norman spent a fortnight in zoological work at Millport, and Mr. Dendy, 
of Owens College, Manchester, worked for atime at the physiology of 
Comatula. At the beginning of September the yacht was brought back 
to Granton, where she arrived on the 2nd. The Ark has been left at 


476 REPORT—1885. 


Millport in charge of Mr. David Robertson, who intends to place in it as 
complete a collection as he can make of the animals living in the Clyde 
estuary. The little laboratory will always be open to naturalists who 
wish to pursue any marine work at Millport. 

As soon as the aquarium was in working order some investigations 
were begun as a preliminary inquiry into the questions concerning oysters 
in the Firth of Forth. The ultimate object of this work is to institute, if 
possible, a practicable system of oyster culture by which the beds of the 
Firth may be replenished. A number of oysters have been obtained from 
the neighbourhood of Inchkeith, and among these several were ascer- 
tained to contain spat in the mantle cavity. Unfortunately the supply of ° 
spatting oysters was small, practical experience in the work was wanting at 
the beginning of the experiments, and the time which could be devoted to 
the matter was limited. No oysters have been obtained which contained 
mature spat—that is to say, spat ready to escape from the parent and 
enter upon the free swimming condition. Consequently the crucial ex- 
periments of placing free larvee, under various conditions, in order to 
discover a method of obtaining fixed spat with some certainty, have not 
yet been made; probably no other opportunity will occur until next 
season. The inquiry into the conditions of oyster culture is somewhat 

expensive ; the oysters themselves cost money, and it is necessary con- 
_ tinually to invent and fit up aquaria with different arrangements, in order 
to test the effect of various conditions. One experiment which ought to 
be tried next season, and cannot be arranged without considerable expense, 
is that of keeping some brood oysters and larve at a somewhat high 
temperature, viz., 68° F., which the water in the Firth of Forth scarcely 
ever reaches. The inquiries carried on in Holland have shown that that 
temperature is most favourable to the fertility of the parent oyster and 
the health of the spat. Another experiment which ought to be made is 
that of enclosing oysters in a marine pond connected with the sea, and 
endeavouring to collect the spat. The station ought also to have exclu- 
sive control over some area of sea bottom suitable for the growth of 
oysters, in order to try and produce a new and populous oyster bed. 

The work of the Station in the Zoological department is only at its 
beginning. The examination of the data which have been collected with 
regard to the occurrence of the various species in different parts of the 
Firth has not yet been made, owing to the pressure of other work. Some 
progress will be made in this during next winter. Mr. Sloan is devoting 
much energy to the study of the Coelenterates, which have been little 
worked in Britain for some years. The examination of the Cheetopods 
has been already carried out with some completeness. In the new 
aquarium excellent opportunities are afforded for the study of development. 
A number of glass vessels have been so arranged that a current of water is 
continually passing through them, and yet even very small eggs and 
larvz cannot escape. This plan has been found the only one reliable for 
keeping small creatures alive for a long time. However carefully an 
aerating apparatus is arranged, it is extremely difficult, if not impossible, 
to prevent the contamination of an isolated quantity of water by the 
bodies of the specimens that die. 

Since the opening of the Station a considerable number of persons 
have availed themselves of its resources to pursue studies and researches 
in zoology. In August of the present year Mr. C. F. Marshall, of the 


+ 
ESTABLISHMENT OF A MARINE BIOLOGICAL STATION AT GRANTON. 477 


physiological laboratory of Owens College, Manchester, carried out at 
the Station a series of experiments on the function of the nerve trunks in 
the lobster, and also studied the histology of muscular tissue in different 
classes of animals. 

During the greater part of August Miss Maconnish, of London, studied 
in the laboratory. The following is a list of those who have visited the 
station for the purpose of study and research since its opening :—In 
1884, Prof. W. A. Heardman, Univ. Coll., Liverpool, April; Mr. J. R. 
Davis, Univ. Coll., Aberystwyth, July ; Miss Maconnish, London, Aug. 
and Dec. In 1885, Mr. John Boyd, Manchester, April, few days; Mr. 
D. M. Stewart, Edinburgh, May 28 to July 28; Dr. Burn Murdoch, 
Edinburgh, May to July; Dr. J. A. Thomson, M.A., Edinburgh, July 1 
_ to July 28; Dr. Kelso, Edinburgh, July 3 to July 20; Miss Maconnish, 
London, July 27 to Aug. 25; Mr. J. L. Smith, M.A., Edinburgh, July 30 
to Aug.8; Mr. A. D. Sloan, Edinburgh, Aug. 8 to present time; Mr. 

C. F. Marshall, B.Se., Owens Coll., Aug. 17 to Aug. 30. 
The following is a list of the papers which have been published by the 
Zoological department of the Station :— 

Critical Note on the Latest Theory in Vertebrate Morphology, ‘ Proc. 

“Roy. Soc. Edin.,’ vol. xii. 1884. 
___ Additions to the Fauna of the Firth of Forth, ‘Proc. Roy. Phys. 
Soe. Edin.,’ 1884-85. 
Nature of Kupffer’s Vesicle (Herring Ovum), ‘ Proc. Roy. Soc.,’ 1884; 
‘also in ‘Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci.,’ Jan. 1885. 
Relations of Yolk to Gastrula in Teleostean Ova (Cod, Haddock, 
Whiting, Gurnard), ‘Quart. Journ. Mic. Sci.,’ 1885; and ‘ Proc. Roy. 
Soe. Edin.,’ 1885. 
___ In Botany the flora of the Firth was systematically investigated by 
‘Mr. Rattray up till the beginning of June of this year. A collection of 
_ the Algze in the area has been made and systematically arranged. The 
results of the work were published in several papers on the marine flora 
of the Firth of Forth, communicated by Mr. Rattray to the Botanical 
Society and the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 
The following is a list of the papers referred to :— 
___ On the Geographical Distribution of Alge in the Firth of Forth, 
“Trans. Bot. Soc. Edin.,’ 1884-85. 
On the Aloe of Granton Quarry, ibid. 
The May Island, its Algoid Flora, &c., ibid. 
On some New Cases of Epiphytism among Alge, ibid. 
Observations on the Oil Bodies of the Jungermanniez, ibid. 
Note on Ectocarpus, ‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin.,’ Feb. 1885. 
Preliminary Note on the Evolution of Oxygen by Alge, ‘Trans. Bot: 
Soc.,’ 1884-85. 
The last mentioned paper contained an account of a series of experiments 
eonducted by Mr. Rattray, with a view of discovering and comparing the 
Yate of the production of oxygen by seaweeds of different colours and 
different species. The oxygen was estimated’ by means of absorption of 
the carbonic acid and the oxygen, in a graduated tube over mercury. 
The gas evolved by the Algz was collected in large glass tubes full of 
water, containing the Algx, and exposed to light. 

In the department of Physics and Chemistry the work carried on by 
Mr. Mill has consisted in the systematic investigation of the temperature 
and salinity of the water of the Firth of Forth at different seasons and 


478 REPORT— 1885. 


different places. A new mechanical arrangement for inverting the 
Negretti & Zambra self-registering thermometer was invented soon after 
the work was begun; the original arrangement was found to be unsuit- 
able for work on board a small steamer in shallow water where the 
currents were rapid. In the new frame the inversion is effected by the 
fall of a messenger along the line upon a horizontal lever. The mechanism 
was explained by Mr. Mill, in a paper communicated to the Royal Society 
of Edinburgh in July 1884. For taking samples of water at different 
depths, a modification of Mr. Buchanan’s slip-water bottle is used. The 
alteration consists in the fact that the slip cylinder, instead of being allowed 
to run down the line from the hand of the observer, is suspended just above 
the frame by a spring lock, and is released by the fall of a messenger sent 
down from the deck of the ship. 

In the summer of 1884 an inquiry was made, by means of a number of 
series of observations at short intervals, into the tidal variation of tempera- 
ture in the Granton Quarry. The result was communicated to the Royal 
Society of Edinburgh. The temperature and salinity variations in the Firth 
were investigated by means of trips on the Medusa up and down and 
across the Firth. The results of the work are published in a paper 
entitled ‘ On the Salinity of the Firth of Forth,’ ‘ Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin.,’ 
vol. xiii. On various occasions when the yacht has visited the Clyde 
observations have been made on the temperature and salinity of that 
estuary. Some observations have also been made into the physical con- — 
ditions of the Tay and the Tweed. During the present summer, the 
months of July and August have been spent by Mr. Mill in similar work 
at the mouth of the River Spey. <A réswmé of the work which he has 
so far accomplished in investigating the physical conditions of Scottish 
estuaries is to be read by Mr. Mill before the present meeting of the 
Association. 

In July of the present year a very thorough investigation was made 
at the Station, by Mr. H. N. Dickson, of the properties of a number of 
new thermometer screens invented by Mr. John Aitken, of Darroch. The 
aim of the inventor was to devise some form of apparatus which should 
eliminate the causes of error present in the ordinary Stevenson screen, 
now in general use for meteorological observation. Mr. Dickson gave 
an account of his researches to the Scottish Meteorological Society, and 
also to the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Some of the instruments have 
been taken to the Ben Nevis Observatory, where their investigation is 
being continued under different conditions. 

The Marine Station is one of the regular observing stations of the 
Scottish Meteorological Society ; the ordinary observations on the air 
and the temperature at the surface and bottom of the quarry are recorded — 
twice daily, and the records forwarded to the society’s secretary. 


J. T. CUNNINGHAM, 


The Committee beg to recommend the renewal of the grant (100/.) 
for the ensuing year. 


_ ON THE AID GIVEN TO FISHERIES, ETC., IN NORTH AMERICA, 479 


a 

Report of the Committee, consistiny of Sir Lyon PLayratr, Professor 

_ Mosetey, Admiral Sir E. Ommanney, Mr. P. L. Scuater, and Mr. 

_ A, SEDGWICK (Secretary), appointed to prepare a Report on the 
Aid given by the Dominion Government and the Government of 
the United States to the encouragement of Fisheries, and to the 
_ wtnvestigation of the various forms of Marine Life on the coasts 

and rivers of North America. 


Ty Canada there is a Department of Fisheries, presided over by the Minister 

‘of Marine and Fisheries, to whom a Deputy Minister of Fisheries makes 

an annual report. 

_ ‘The duties of the Department of Fisheries consist principally in the 

administration of all laws relating to the subject of the sea, coast, or 

inland fisheries ; the management, regulation, and protection thereof ; and 

all matters and things rélating thereto, or assigned by the Governor in 

_ Council to the said department.’ ! 

___ The total expenditure of this department for the year ending June 
884 was $116,531, distributed as follows:—General service, $69,011 ; 

‘fish breeding, $27,585; maintenance of fisheries, protection steamer La 

Canadienne, $19,935. 

__ There are twelve fish-hatcheries in the Dominion, on which the expen- 

diture by the department was in 1884, as stated above, $27,585. Over 

8 million fry—chiefly of salmon, trout and white-fish—were turned out 

from these establishments in 1884. 

_ The United States Fish Commission was instituted in 1871. Its 


‘0 


80 to what cause the same is due; also, whether any and what protection, 
prohibitive or precautionary measures in the premises, and to report on 
the same to Congress.’ 
_ To enable it to attain these objects, an appropriation was made to the 
Commissioner. 
_ Inevery year since 1871 appropriations have been made by Congress 
to the Fish Commissioner, to enable him to carry out his recommenda- 
fions; and the sums voted have increased year by year, until, in 1884, 
the sum of $245,380 was appropriated. 
__ The following table shows the annual appropriations to the Fish 
mmissioner since 1871 :—1871-72, $9,000; 1872-73, $30,000; 1873- 
$38,500 ; 1874-75, $23,500; 1875-76, $71,000; 1876-77, $36,045 ; 
1877-8, $75,700; 1878-79, $71,000; 1879-1880, $157,000 (includes 
$27,500 for steamer Fish-Hawk) ; 1880-81, $121,500 ; 1881-82, $328,710 
» (includes $12,709 for Fish-Hawk and $145,000 for Albatross) ; 
82-83, $233,319 60c. (includes $45,000 for Albatross); 1883-84. 
$242,500 (includes $10,000 for Albatross); 1884-85, $245,380. Total 
‘Since 1871, $1,683,155 5c. 


i 
___ | Annual Report of the Department of Fisheries of the Dominion of Canada for 
the year 1884, 


480 REPORT—1885. 


Special appropriations for the International Fishery Exhibition in 
Berlin, $20,000 ; ditto in London, $50,000. 

Additional assistance given by Congress and not included in the 
above sums :— 

1. Extensive fish-ponds for breeding by the construction of piers in 
the sea at Wood Holl, Mass., the headquarters of the Commissioners (in 
course of construction in 1884); estimated cost, $80,000. Of this sum 
$50,000 has already been voted as part of the Harbour Improvement 
Appropriation. 

2. The pay of the officers and men of the United States navy: who 
work the Fish Commission steamers Albatross and Fish-Hawk, the former 
being chiefly equipped for ocean, and the latter for coast work. In addi- 
tion, the navy has general instructions to give such aid as they may be 
able to the Commission when their ships are in available. waters. 

3. Printing of the annual report of the Commissioner and of the 
Bulletin ! of the United States Fish Commission. 


Fish Commission of the various States of the Union. 


In addition to the assistance given by the Federal Government ‘ to the 
encouragement of fisheries, and to the investigation of the various forms 
of marine life on the coast and rivers of North America,’ thirty-one 
States had in 1882 their own Fish Commissions, subsidised in each case 
by annual appropriations from the State Government. 

The total sum appropriated in this manner in the year 1882 was 
$120,948, and the total amount appropriated since the institution of the 
State Fish Commissions was, in 1882, $1,101,096. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Professor Hux.ey, Mr. 
ScLtaTER, Mr. Howarp Saunpers, Mr. THiIsELTON DYER, and Pro- 
fessor MosELEy (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of pro- 
moting the establishment of Marine Biological Stations on the 
coast of the United Kingdom. 


TxuE Committee beg leave to report that they have received the sum granted 
(1501.) from the Treasurer of the Association, and have paid it to the 
funds of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom, as 
the most direct means of promoting the speedy establishment of a marine 
laboratory in a most favourable situation on the British coast—namely, 
Plymouth. An excellent site for a laboratory has been granted to the 
Marine Biological Association by Government, at Plymouth. A sum of 
8,0001. has been raised by subscriptions and donations, the Government - 
has promised to aid the working of the laboratory by an annual subsidy, 
and there is every prospect of success. It is probable that the building 
of the laboratory will commence in November. 

1 «Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of 
America in Congress assembled, that the public printer be and he hereby is instructed 
to print and stereotype, from time to time, any matter furnished him by the United . 
States Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries relative to new observation, discoveries, 
and applications connected with fish culture and the fisheries, to be capable of being 
distributed in parts, and the whole to form an annual volume or bulletin not exceed- 
ing 500 pages. The extra edition of said work shall consist of 5,000 copies, of which 
2,500 shall be for the use of the House of Representatives, 1,000 for the use of the 
Senate, and 1,500 for the use of the Commissioner of Fish and Fisheries.’ 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 481 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. H. C. Sorsy and Mr. 
_ G. R. VINE, appointed for the purpose of reporting on recent 
_ Polyzoa. Drawn wp by Mr. G. R. VINE. 


Report on Recent Marine Polyzoa ; Cheilostomata and Cyclostomata only. 


Part I. Inrropucrion. 


Iy the present Report I have been compelled to adopt a classification 
somewhat different from that which I followed in my Fifth Report on 
Fossil Polyzoa (1884). Since the first publication of the Report, Mr. 
orge Busk’s long-expected Challenger monograph (Cheilostomata) has 
peared, and as his scheme of classification differs from that of Mr. 
Hincks, both in the ‘ British Marine Polyzoa,’ and also in the ‘ Contribu- 
ions towards a General History of the Marine Polyzoa,’ I have thought 
t best to allow each author to speak for himself, rather than to try to 
harmonise or alter the text, except by the scheme adopted farther on. 
In his Introduction to the Challenger Report, Mr. Busk remarks, ‘ that 
Ithough many of the family groups may in some measure be regarded as 
essing natural alliances,’ others can only be considered as artificial, 
specially in the sub-division C, or Escuartna .. . . and as such they 
aust perhaps remain until we are better acquainted with the true signi- 
ficance of the minute parts or organs upon which the distinctive characters 
re in many cases founded . . . . Nevertheless, in order to place myself 
w as possible in accord with modern views, I have, in the heterogeneous 
lily EscHaripz more especially, adopted partially the nomenclature 
ed by Mr. Hincks and Professor Smitt; but in doing this I have 
d it impossible to avoid a certain amount of the confusion necessarily 
idental to an attempt to graft a new system upon an old one based on 
| different set of characters.’ 
It will be remembered that in the arrangement of his families and 
mera in the ‘ British Marine Polyzoa,’ and in his subsequent papers in the 
innals and Magazine of Natural History,’ Mr. Hincks sets a very high 
value on zocecial characters. Mr. Busk also, in the Challenger Report, 
ciates to a large extent this method in dealing with special groups ; 
same time he says we are not ‘in a position fully to appreciate the 
ive value of the zvwcial as compared with the zoarial characters . . . 
individuality of the zoarium as a continuous whole or entity having 
been too much overlooked in the almost exclusive consideration of its 
mponent parts or segments.’ 
In the following ‘ Scheme of Classification ’ all the family names and 
visions are the same as those used by Mr. Busk, with the exception of 
nily VII. Notamiide, which was founded by Mr. Hincks for the place- 
ment of a very peculiar polyzoon. There are also parts of the families 
Forinids and Myriozoide stil unaccounted for in the arrangement adopted. 
ese I treat of separately, out of deference to Mr. Hincks and others who 
e followed his arrangement, formulated for his work on British Marine 


II 


482 REPORT—1885. 


Before passing on to the Classificatory List, it will be better, I think, 
to give a brief digest of the terms used by Mr. Hincks and by Mr. Busk, 
in the prefaces to ‘their systematic arrangements both in the British Marine 
Polyzoa and in the Challenger Report. For obvious reasons I do not 


specially commit myself to remarks on the systematic arrangements of — 


authors previous to the issue of these two works. In my former reports 
on Fossil Polyzoa I have pointed out the varied lines of investigation 
followed by other authors in their methodical classifications, but these are 
most noticeable in the arrangements of Reuss and Manzoni on the fossil 


species, and by Professor Smitt in his various works on Recent Polyzoa, — 


full digests of which were given in my fifth report. 


TERMINOLOGY, according to the Rev. Thomas Hincks and Mr. George Busk. 

Zowmcrum. wee Cell. Oystid. Nitsche: Brutkapsel, Reichert). The 
chamber of the polypide. 

Zoartum.-—(=polyzoarium auctt.). The composite structure formed 
by repeated gemmation. 

Owcitum.—(=ovicell auctt.)—The special receptacle attached to the 
zocecium, in which the ova complete their development into the 
larva.— Cheilostomata. 

Gonacium.—A modified zocecium set apart for reproductive functions. 
Cyclostomata. 

Gonocyst.—The inflation of the surface of the zoarium, in which the 
embryos are developed. 


Mr. Hincks (Introduction, p. iii, note), speaks of the ovicell as a ‘mar- 
supium,’ and he restricts the use of the term Owciwm for Cheilostomatous 


Polyzoa. The modified reproductive cell of Crisia and the superficial in- — 
flation of the zoarium of many of the Cyclostomata, being different struc-— 


tures, should be distinguished by separate names. 
Mr. Busk, in his Challenger Monograph (pp. xvi to xviii), employs 
certain terms in a particular sense. 


I. Zoartum dimorphous : that is, erect or free: decurrent and encrust- 
ing, and more or less closely attached. 


II, Zomcra, surface— 


1. Smooth. 6. Pitted. 

2. Polished. 7. Punctulate, minutely porous. 
3. Granular, 8. Punctate, with larger perfora- 
4, Verrucose. tions. 

5. Rugose. 9. Reticulate. 

Orifice, 

1. Orbicular. 5. Coarctate. 

2. Elliptical. 6. Trifoliate. 

3. Semi-orbicular. 7. Clithridate, 

4. Crescentic. 

The lower border may be— 

1, Entire, sinuous or straight. 4. Dentate. 

2. Mucronate. 5. Bi-dentate. 

3. Emarginate. 6. Incised. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 483 


The peristome may be— 

1. Thin or thick. either rigid or articulated. 
2. Elevated, produced, or bevel. 4, Unarmed. 

3. Armed with oral spines, 


The other divisions of this part of Mr. Busk’s work refer to :— 
III. Special pores on the front of the zocecia. 

IV. The Ocecia. 

V. Special organs: a. Avicularia, 

§ as to function. | §§ as to position. 


b. Vibracula: a. simple, 6. compound. 
VI. Chitinous elements. 


Opesia, Dr. Jullien. Certain of the Membranipore having a thick 
calcareous expansion were covered when living by a membrane, in which 
was the opercular opening. This is the ‘opesia’ or opesial opening of 
Dr. Jullien. 

Aperture—restricted for the proper opening. 


General Plan of Structure. 


_ *In every polyzoon,’ says Mr. Hincks, ‘we distinguish two fynda- 
mental elements, the zocecium and the polypide. These are the primary 


MS, membranous sac ; ¢, tentacular crown; 0, mouth; es, esophagus ; 
Ss, stomach ; a, anus; int, intestines; g, ganglion; 7, funiculus ; 
ov, Ovary ; Sp, spermary. (After Hincks). 
: zooids in every colony. When the larva fixes itself, after its brief term 
_ Of free life, it is metamorphosed into asingle sac or cell, enclosing a mass 
112 


484 REPORT—1885, 


of formative material and certain rudimentary elements, out of which a 
polypide is developed. These two constitute together the primary term 
(Hks.) [germ ?],! of a colony; and by repeated buddings, according to 
the pattern of the species, the composite zoarium is built up. The colony 
is formed by the indefinite repetition of the primitive zooids and their 
modifications.’—Brit. Mar. Poly. p. iv. 


T. Zoacrum. 


In dealing with the zocecium in the various aspects which it presents 
to the student in its dried condition it may be well to mention one or two 
particulars before passing on to special details. In studying the Fossil, 
in connection with the Recent Polyzoa, great caution is necessary in 
making observations on abnormal forms. In the living state we have 
more than one character to guide us in our deliberations ; but in the dried 
state, or in the fossil, very often large portions of the outer crust are so 
calcified that sometimes only the mouth of the cell is visible; possibly 
ocecia or avicularia, hence the necessity of some such plan of classification 
as that afforded by Mr. Hincks, based on persistent characters. Mr. 
Waters, in following Mr. Hincks, when studying the Australian fossil 
Bryozoa, had occasionally the merest fragment of a colony to deal with; 
and had it not been for certain facts on which he could rely with safety, © 
his task must have been almost a hopeless one. These remarks, however, 
apply more particularly to Cheilostomatous groups, such as the MremBRANI- 
poripz and the Escuarm2 of Busk, together with some allied genera 
which will be specially referred to. 

In many cases the primary cells in colonies of the MemMBRANIPORIDE 
are peculiarly shaped. For the most part they are somewhat rounded, 
with a large terminal aperture closed in by a membrane and usually sur- 
rounded by a number of spines. Van Beneden described such a form by 
a distinct generic term, that of Tata, and in connection with the study 
of fossil Colonial growths the Tata stages of the zoarium are very in- 
teresting. Mr. Waters met with some peculiarities in the Australian 
Bryozoa, and I have met with a few examples in the Cretaceous—EKocene 
—Miocene, Crag and Post-pliocene Membranipora of Mr. Hincks. This 
group, however, is broken up by Mr. Busk in his Challenger Report, and 
particulars of the genera, and the characters upon which these are founded, 
are given in the body of the present report. 

In the zocecia of Megapora there is a depressed area surrounded by & 
raised margin, and partially closed in by a calcareous lamina. The aper- 
ture is trifoliate, the upper portion surrounded by spines, similar in some 
respects to Oribrilina radiata and Microporella ciliata. The depressed 
area with the raised margin separates the genus from the other genera in 
this respect, but there are some points of resemblance between Megapora 
ringens, and the Membranipora Flemingii of authors, and the species Mr. 
Hincks thinks ought to be included in the genus Megapora. This latter 
species has also a trifoliate orifice, but the spines of the fully developed 
cell are very different—so also are several other features—of the matured 
and immature cell. 

In the Challenger Report Mr. Busk makes the Membranipora Flemingu 


1 ¢Term’ is used by Hincks, but this may be a misprint for the bracketed word 
[germ ?]. : : 


p 
Hi < 


{ 
of Hincks, and others, the type of his genus Amphiblestrwm Gray, and he 
_ places in the group six species, four of which are described and figured 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 485 


in the report, the other two referred to and redescribed. The trifoliate 
character of the orifice is not found in the whole of Mr. Busk’s species ; 
some orifices are obovate, but all have a partially internal calcareous 
lamina. So that in dealing with the two groups—Megapora and Amphi- 
blestrum—we shall have to deal with other characters besides that of the 
trifoliate orifice. In all probability the one or the other peculiarities of 
the group date back to the Upper Chalk, but in a very modified form as 
regards species. 

In the Microporipz the front wall of the zocecia is wholly calcareous, 
but the margins are elevated and there is a slight tendency to trifolation 
in M. complanata, but there are no marginal spines. In his papers on 
Australian Bryozoa Mr. Waters places two or three forms in this genus, 
and he alludes to one form as M. hippocrepus, Goldf. None of the species, 
however, are to be compared with the semitrifoliate orifice of M. com- 
planata, Norman=Membranipora Smitti, Manzoni. We thus carry back 
the partially trifoliate orifice to the Italian Pliocene, but we also find it, 
together with other characters, in Membranipora trifolium in the Crag. 

In Steganoporella there is in the orifices of some of the cells a slight 
tendency to trifoliation; but there are other marked characters which 
separate the species from Micropora, although the external aspect of forms 
of the two genera are similar. Only one species is described by Mr. 
Hincks, 8. Smittii, but in describing S. magnilabris, Busk, Chal. Rep., Mr. 
Busk re-defines and limits the genus and species. ‘The chief character 
on which the genus Steganoporella, Hincks,... . is based is the 
bithalamic condition of the zocecium. Some way below the upper ex- 
tremity of the cell a diaphragm shuts off the lower portion of the cavity, 
and forms a distinct chamber for the polypide. A tubular passage extends 
upwards from this chamber, and opens . . . . into the upper chamber, 
which is always large, and in certain cells of very ample dimensions .. . . 
The opening of this chamber is closed by a very large operculum... . 
which also protects the entrance to the tubular passage through which 
the polypide issues.’ (Hincks’ ‘ Annals,’ Feb. 1882, p. 83.) ‘ Smitt places 
Steganoporella amongst the Microporide . . . . but Iam now inclined to 
agree with Dr. J. Jullien so far as to regard the dithalamic condition of 
the zocecium, which distinguishes it, as entitling it to rank in a separate 
family group’—Fam. Steganoporellide, Hincks. (Annals, May, 1884, 
p. 358.) Ihave preferred to give, on this point especially, both the first- 
formed and matured expressions of the author. 

Another very important group which seems to be far more natural 
that the last is the Myrizoma, Smithand Hincks. It contains the genera 
Schizoporella, and Mastigophora, of Hincks, and its distinguishing feature 
is the sinus on the lower margin of the orifice. The sinus is also found 
in species of Hippothoa which Mr. Hincks places in the family, but not- 
withstanding this Mr. Busk (Chal. Rep.) removes it and places it with 
his stoloniferous group, particulars of which are given in the body of the 
present report. But as in other groups, so in this, dependence in the 
divisions must not be placed upon one character alone; other characters 
must be considered as well as this, and the systemist would do well to 
look all around his species before deciding to which group it belongs. 
The sinus of Schizoporella spinifera is very much like the sinus of Smittia 
marmorea ; so also is the orifice, excepting the spines in the former species. 


486 REPORT—1885. 


But the remarkable development of other characters in Smuittia, Schizo- 
porella, and Mastigophora Hyndmanni increases the interest in the study 
of the zocecium having a sinuated lip. The group, however, has had 
a wonderful history, for it reaches back to the Cretaceous epoch, and 
many and diverse are the fossil forms of the older authors which are 
now regarded as synonyms of well-defined recent species. Taking only 
one, Schizoporella wnicornis, Johnson, no fewer that nine species—or even 
more if we include the varieties, some of which are fossil forms—are placed 
as synonyms. In his papers on the Australian Bryozoa, Mr. Waters 
describes a number of species belonging to the genus Schizoporella, and 
Mr. Busk adds additional particulars in his Challenger Report. — 

Species belonging to the MicrororeLLipm of Hincks demand a closer 
and more critical study than they have yet received. Not so much on 
account of the orifice—which is more or less semicircular with margin 
entire, but on account of the semilunate, or circular, pore on the front 
wall. There is connected with this pore a physiological mystery, and 
there seems to be as yet no possibility of its solution. One species that 
I have just described in the Jesson collection (Cambridge Greensand) ! 
seems to be related to the group, but we have forms in the Carboniferous 
rock which apparently belongs to this, or some allied group not repre- 
sented in the Mesozoic rocks. These, however, we place at present with 
the Cyclostomata. | 

In the closer study of species which possess this pore below the orifice 
Mr. Busk has felt himself compelled to establish two families—the 
Oncuoporipz and Apronex—for two different groups in which this pecu- 
liar feature is present. In remarking on Onchoporide (Chal. Rep. p. 
102), Mr. Busk says: ‘ Considering, as Mr. Hincks remarks truly, that 
we do not know the physiological import of the lunate pore, and that the 
form of the mouth (in Microporella) is common to a vast number of 
species, I am not at present inclined to agree with him in regarding these 
two characters, even in combination, as alone suflicient to justify the 
association of such otherwise very dissimilar forms as Onchopora Sinelairit 
and Onchoporella bombycina, Busk, &c., with the Lepralian Microporellide.’ 
And again, in his elaborate introductory remarks on the family Adeones 
(Chal. Rep. p. 178): ‘The presence of a median pore or its equivalent, 
which though not formed in the same way in all the Adeonewx, doubtless 
subserves the same function in all, and in every case appears to me to 
differ widely in nature from the lunate pore in Onchopora, Microporella, &e., 
as well as from the tubular pores of Tessarodoma, Tubucellaria, &e.’ 
had prepared several original remarks on these pores which I had made 
in a study of the Microporella, Onchopora, and Adeonea in my cabinet ; 
but I thought that the authority of Mr. Hincks, Mr. Waters, and also of 
Mr. Busk on the same subject would appear with much better grace in 
this introductory part. Nevertheless I should strongly direct the 
attention of students to this subject, especially upon species from new 
localities. 

In his remarks on a specimen of Microporella fwegensis, Busk (Bur- 
mese coast), Mr. Hincks says that ‘the sub-oral pore presents some 
peculiarities. It is placed zmmediately below the rim of the orifice in 
front, and is only found in the adult cell. In the marginal zocecia the 
orifice is sub-orbicular and the peristome not elevated; but in a more 


1 Abstracts in Proceedings of the Geo. Soc. of London, No. 470, p. 74. 


i 


q 
q 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 487 


advanced stage the peristome rises considerably round the back and sides 


_of the orifice, but not in front, the result being that a sinus is formed 
here. Ina still more advanced stage the margin of the side wall of the 
_peristome is extended across the upper part of this sinus, forming a 


narrow rim, and converting the open fissure into a circular pore, which 
communicates directly with the interior of the tubular peristome.’— 
Annals, May 1884, p. 360. 

The zocecia of the CRIBRILINIDZ appear to me to afford a good basis 
for a natural group, though the area of the cell varies very much in the 
different species. The zocecial features, however, are very peculiar, and 
the forms that are grouped together in the family are beautiful in the 
extreme. In many—both fossil and recent—the whole front of the cell 
below the orifice is either fissured, or marked by rows of punctures 
without fissures. Both the Cribriline and the Membraniporella are 
widely distributed in the present seas; but only the first of these genera 
are found, so far as is known to me up to date, fossil, and very full par- 
ticulars of the species are given in my Fifth Report on Fossil Polyzoa. 

Much might be said about the zocecia having the mucronate character 
in the lower lip of the orifice of Mucronella (Hincks), only that I have 
referred to several remarkable features in the species found in the 


_Ohallenger dredgings. 


For his own justification in the plan of classification adopted by Mr. 
Hineks in his ‘ British Marine Polyzoa,’ the author says, in his prelimi- 
nary essay’ on the subject: ‘The essential structure of the individual 
cell must certainly be accounted the most important point, both in itself 
and as a clue to relationship. . . . Unless we are content with the old 
(and certainly very simple) method of lumping all erect forms together, 
without any reference whatever to the cell, we have only a choice be- 
tween these two courses: to found genera for the variations of growth, 
as well as for the more important modifications of the cell in each family ; 
or to make the zowcium the basis of the genus, and treat the ordinary 
variations of habit sub-sectionally. I was at one time inclined to the 
former method ;? but further experience of the practical work of classify- 
ing the Polyzoa has brought me to a much greater extent into sympathy 
with Professor Smitt’s views.’ Much, however, remains to be done be- 


fore our groups will be wholly satisfactory, as will be seen when the 


student takes up the study of the different families, genera, and species 
enumerated in the present report. 

There are in the zoccium several structural characters, such as 

communication-pores—avicularia—avicularian chambers, c&c. These 
ought to be specially studied, and seeing what admirable work has been 
done in this direction by Mr. Waters and Mr. Busk, I can only say that, 
with all our knowledge, much remains to be done. 
_ Avery special study has been given to the zocecium of Catenicella 
by Mr. Waters (Quart. Journ. Geo. Soc. vol. xxxix. pp. 423-429) some 
particulars of which are given in the text of the present report, but for 
fuller details, attention is directed to the paper itself, especially so as in 
the same paper Mr. Waters (p. 425) gives some account—all too briefly, 
though—of his views on the function of the avicularia. He also refers 
to the classification of the Membraniporx proposed by Dr. Jules Jullien. 


' Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 5, vol. ii. 1879, p. 160. 
2 Ibid. Dec. 1877, p. 523. 


488 REPORT—1885. 


As to the zocecia of the Cyclostomata it is not necessary to make any 
lengthy remarks here. In treating of this division of my subject, I 
have given very full particulars in my fourth and fifth reports, and I 
must refer the student to these for special details, and in that division of 
my subject in the present report—Cyclostomatous Polyzoa—I have given 
additional particulars. These for the presert must suffice, until I have 
completed certain investigations into the structural peculiarities of the 
zocecia in Paleozoic Polyzoa. There are, however, certain peculiarities 
connected with the study of the Ctenostomatons cell and its stoloniferous 
processes that may merit some consideration at least. But these details 
have been so ably worked out by Mr. Hincks in his ‘ History of British 
Marine Polyzoa,’ especially in the description of species, that I refer the 
student without the least hesitation to the work itself, especially so as I 
am not able to touch upon the Ctenostomata in this report. 


II. Zoarium. 


T cannot blame Mr. Hincks for his adoption of zocecial, in preference 
to zoarial, characters, as a basis of generic distinction. Still at the same 
time, as Mr. Busk asserts in the passage already quoted from the Challen- 
ger Report, ‘ it would be wise to take, at times, into consideration some of 
the zoarial features, modes of growth, and peculiarities of development 
in the zoarium, not as a basis of classification, but as a means of arriving © 


at some conclusion that would help us to understand the close, or remote, _ 


relationship of the Paleozoic with Recent Polyzoa.’ This study, how- 
ever, must be carried out with Cyclostomatous rather than with Cheilo- 
stomatous groups, for I know of no form of polyzoa in the older rocks that — 
would afford us true links of relationship with the latter recent group, or 
even with the modified zoarial Cheilostomatous structures of the Mesozoic 
age. Well-developed Cheilostomata are abundant in the Cretaceous 
rocks, both of this and other countries, and the peculiarities of growth 
may have been, at times, too much relied upon by authors. On this point 
T cannot help quoting a passage from the first of the series of papers on 
Australian Bryozoa by Mr. Waters. 

‘Probably no naturalist at all thoroughly acquainted with the Bryozoa 
will again attempt to sustain such genera as the old Lepralia and Eschara; 
but it may be well to examine carefully the growth of the Bryozoa before 
we entirely reject the form of the colony as of classificatory value ; for in 
many cases it may be shown in this way from which part of a zocecium the 
following zocecium grows. The mode of growth of Lepralia and Eschara 
indicate no structural difference, for the young zocecia in both grew out 
from the same part of the parent cells, and Hschara was only formed of 
Lepralia cells, back to back, often very slightly attached. . . . The form 
of the aperture must be the first consideration; but especially among 
fossils we must carefully notice how they grow.’ (Quart. Jour. Geo. Soc., 
vol. xxxvii. p. 311). 


III. Tue Poryprpe. 


Of the Polypide it seems to be almost folly to speak in a report like 
the present one, as I have had to deal more particularly with the homes 
of the animal, rather than with the animal itself. Still at the same time 
I cannot allow the report to pass from my hands without making some 
reference to the polypide, for no very clear idea of the beauty of the zocecia 


. ON RECENT POLYZOA. 489 
can be obtained without we make a partial study as to how the cell is 
built up by the polypide. For the purpose of this study I know of no 
better training than the mastery of the details furnished by Barrois on 
Embryology, both of Cheilostomatous and Cyclostomatous Polyzoa, and 
after this the study of mounted or living specimens of Carbasea for the 
_ Cheilostomata, Zoobotryon pellucidus, Ehrenb., for the Ctenostomatous, and 
- Orisia or Hornera (Retihornera, Busk) foliacea, Macgil., for the Cyclostoma- 
tousgroups. In the first and second the endosarc and growth and develop- 
ment of the cells may be conveniently studied, and according to the character 
of the specimens, the growth and development of the polypide, and in the 
latter group the periodical growth of the cell and of the intercellular 
tubes, as noted by Busk (‘Crag Polyzoa’) and by Mr. Waters (‘Australian 
Bryozoa: Cyclostomata,’ Quart. Jour. Geo. Soc., vol. xl. p. 675 &c.) 


Classification of Marine Polyzoa. . Busk and H1ncxs (part). 


Sus-orpEr. CHEILOSTOMATA, Busk. 
Division I. STOLONATA, Carus. 
7% Family I. teide. 
Genus 1. Attea. 


Family II. Eucratiide. 


Genus 2. Encratea. Genus 4. Pasythea. 
», 3. Hippothoa. » 9. Brettia.! 


‘Family III. Chlidoniade. 
Genus 6. Chlidonia. 
Division II. RADICELLATA. 
Group A. CELLULARINA. 


Family IV. Catenariade. 


‘ Genus 7. Catenicella. Genus 8. Catenaria. 


: Family V. Cellulariide. 
Genus 9. Cellularia. Genus 13. Canda. 


‘ », 10. Menipea. » 14. Nellia. 
» il. Emma. » 15. Caberea. 


»,5 12. Serupocellaria. 


Family VI. Bicellariide. 


Genus 16. Bicellaria. Genus 19. Ichthyaria. 
» 17. Bugula. » 20. Beania. 
», 18. Kinetoskias. 


* See Busk, Challenger Report, p. xxii. See also genus 26, and p. 46, ibid. 


~ i >i ee-ce 


. 
ie 


490 REPORT—1885. 


Family VII. Notamiide (Hincks, not Busi). : 
Genus 21. Notamia. 


Family VIII. Gemellariade, 


Genus 22. Gemellaria. Genus 25. Scruparia. 
» 23. Didymia. » 26. Brettia.! 
5, 24. Dimetopia. » 27. Huxleya. 


Family [X. Farciminariade. 


Genus 28. Farciminaria. 


Group B. FLUustTRINA. 


Family X. Flustride, 


Genus 29. Flustra. Genus 31. Diachoris. 
» 30. Carbasea. 


Family XI. Membraniporide., 


Genus 32. Membranipora. Genus 35. Foveolaria. 
,, 30. Amphiblestrum. », 96. Pyripora. 
» 94. Biflustra. 5) 937 (2). Megapora? (Hincks) 


Family XII. Microporide. 


Genus 38. Micropora, Genus 41. Caleschara. 
» 09. Vincularia. », 42. Diplopora. 
» 40. Steganoporella. », 43. Setosella. 


Family XIIl. Electrinide. 
Genus 44. Electra. 
Group C. EscHARINA. 


Family XIV. Bifaxariade. 
Genus 45. Bifaxaria. Genus 46. Calymmophora. 


Family XV. Salicornariade. 
Genus 47. Salicornaria. Genus 48. Melicerita. 


Family XVI. Tubucellariade. 
(= Porinide, Hincks). 


Genus 49. Tubucellaria. Genus 50. Siphonicytara. 
(?) Family XVIa.2 = Porinide, Hincks. 
Genus 51 (?). Lagenipora. Genus 52 (?). Celleporella. 
(?) Family XVIb.2 Myriozoide, Hincks. + 
Genus 53 (?) Rhynchopora, H. Genus 54 (?) Schizotheca, H. 


1 See note, genus 5, ante. 
2 Not accounted for in the classification of Mr. Busk. 3 Ibid. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 491 


Family XVII. Onchoporide. 


Genus 55. Onchopora. Genus 56. Onchoporella. 
Family XVIII. Reteporide. 
Genus 57. Retepora. Genus 59. Turritigera. 


», 08. Reteporella. 
Family XIX. Cribrilinide. 


Genus 60. Cribrilina. Genus 61. Membraniporella. 
Family XX. Microporellide. 
Genus 62. Flustramorpha. Genus 63. Microporella. 
[Family XXa. Not accounted for by Mr. Busk. 
Genus (?) Diporula, Hincks. Genus (?) Monoporella, Hincks. ] 
Family XXI. Escharide. 
Genus 64. Eschara. Genus 73. Gephyrophora. 
» 65. Lepralia. 5, ¢4. Myrizoum. 
», 66. Chorizopora. » 7d. Haswellia. 
» 67. Porella. » 76. Tessaradoma. 
_ » 68. Escharoides. », ~@¢. Gemellipora. 
me, 69. Smittia. 5, %8(?). Umbonula,' Hincks. 
_ , 70. Micronella. » @8(?). Phylactella,! Hincks (pt). 
_y 71. Aspidostoma. », @9(?). Palmicellaria,! Hincks. 


» 2. Schizoporella. 


Family XXII. Adeonez. 


Genus 80. Adeona. Genus 82. Reptadeonella. 
» 81. Adeonella. 


Family XXIII. Celleporide. 
Genus 83. Cellepora, Fabricius. 


a Family XXIV. Selenariade. 
Genus 84. Cupularia. Genus 85. Lunularia. 


It appears to me very improbable that Mr. Hincks will prefer the 
¢lassification of Mr. Busk for that of his own. In his published papers, 
Since the issue of the ‘Challenger’ Report, Mr. Hincks takes his own 
course, and it would be impertinent on my part to interfere with his 
arrangement. The pumbered consecutive families and genera are those 
of the ‘British Marine Polyzoa’; the interpolated families and genera 
(unnumbered) are the additions Mr. Hincks has been compelled to adopt . 
im his study of the many foreign groups placed in his hands by collectors 
and others. 


¥ Sus-orper. CHEILOSTOMATA, Bush. 
Family I. Ateide, Hincks. 
Genus I. Altea, Lamourouw (1). 
? Only partly accounted for in the classification of Mr. Busk 


492 REPORT—1885, 


Family II. Eucratiide, Hincks. 


Genus 2. Eucratea, Lamz. Genus 5. Huxleya, Dyster (27). 
» 93. Gemellana, Savig. » 6. Brettia, Dyster (5 & 26). 
» 4 Seruparia, Hincks. 


Genus. Rhabdozoum, Hincks. 


Family III. Cellulariide, Hincks. 
Genus 7. Cellularia, Pallas (9). Genus 9. Scrupocellaria, Van Ben. (12). 
» 8. Menipea, Lamz. (10). » 10. Caberea, Lama. (15). 
Family IV. Bicellariide, Hincks. 


Genus 11. Bicellaria, Blainv. (16). Genus 13. Beania, Johnst, (20). 
» 12. Bagula, Oken (17). 


Genus. Stiparia, Hinchs. Genus. Stolonella, Hincks. 
Family V. Notamiide, Hinceks. 
Genus 14. Notamia, Fleming (P); 


Family VI. Cellariide, Hincks. 
Genus 15. Cellaria (pt.) Lamz. (47). 
Genus. Farcimia, Pourtales, 
Family VII. Flustride, Hincks. 
Genus 16. Flustra, Linn. (29). 


Family VIII. Membraniporide. 
Genus 17. Membranipora, Blainv. (82), 
» 18. Megapora, Hincks (37 P). 
Genus. Euthyris, Hincks. Genus. Siphonella, Hincks. 
Family TX. Microporide, Hincks. . 
Genus 19. Micropora, Gray (38). Genus 21. Setosella, Hincks (43). — 
» 20. Steganoporella, Smitt (40). 
Family. Steganoporellide, Hincks. 
Genus. Steganoporella, Smitt. Genus. Smittipora, J. Jullian. 


Family X. Cribrilinide, Hincks. 
Genus 22. Cribrilina, Gray (60). 
» 23. Membraniporella, Smitt (pt.) (61). 
Family XI. Microporellide, Hincks. 
Genus 24, Microporella Hincks (63). Genus. 26. Chorizopora, Hincks 
» 205. Diporula, Hincks (?). (66) 


Family. Monoporellide, Hincks. 


Genus. Monoporella, Hincks. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 493 


?Family. Cyclicoporide, Hincks. 


Genus. Cyclicopora, Hincks. 


Family XII. Porinide, Hincks. 


. Porina, D’Orb. (?). Genus 29. Lagenipora, Hincks (51 ?). 
. Anarthropora Smiti », 30. Celleporella, Gray (52 ?). 
(pt.) (?). 


Family XIII. Myriozoide, Hincks. 


Genus 31. Schizoporella, Hincks Genus 33, Rhynchopora, Hincks (53 ?). 
(72). » 934. Schizotheca, Hincks (54 ?). 
», 32. Mastigophora,Hnks.(?). ,, 35. Hippothoa, Lama. (8). 


Family XIV. Escharide, Hincks. 


Genus 36. Lepralia (pt.) Johnst. Genus 40. Smittia, Hincks (69). 
65). » 41. Phylactella, Hincks (78?). 
», 3¢. Umbonula, Hincks(78?) ,, 42. Mucronella, Hincks (70). 
» 938. Porella, Gray (67) », 43. Palmicellaria, Alder (79?). 
», 39. Escharoides, Smitt(69). ,, 44. Retepora, Imper. (57). 
Genus. Aspidostoma, Hincks (71). 


Family XV. Celleporide, Hincks. 
- Genus 45. Cellepora, Fabric. (83). 


Family. Selenariade, Busk. 
Genus. Cupularia, Lamz. (84). Genus. Lunulites, Lame. (85). - 


The numbers on the right hand side of the above list refer to the 
‘arrangement in the body of the present Report. 


Alphabetical List of Families, Genera, and Species (not synonyms) 
referred to in the present Report. 
A. 


Adeona, Lamouroux (Genus 80). Adeonella, Busk (Genus 81). 


arborescens, Kirchenpauer. 
albida, Kirchen. 


appendiculata (MS.), Busk. 


cellulosa, Macgil. 
foliacea, Lama. 
Gattye, Busk. 

grisea, Lame. 
intermedia, Kirchen. 
lancifera (MS.), Busk. 


lycopodioides (MS.), Busk. 


macrothyris, Kirchen. 
microthyris (MS.), Busk. 
vulga (MS.), Busk. 
Wilsoni, Macgil. 


Adeones, Busk (Family XXILI.). 


arcuata (MS.), Busk. 
atlantica, Busk. 
crassa (MS.), Busk. 
dispar, Macgil. 
distoma, Bush. 

var. imperforata, Busk. 
dolichostoma (MS.), Bush. 
falciformis (MS.), Busk. 
feugensis, Busk. 
fissa, Hincks. 
Heleri (MS.), Busk. 
intricaria, Busk. 
lichenoides, Milne Edw. 
megapora (MS.), Busk. 
mucronata, Macgil. 


494 


REPORT—1885. 


Adeonella 


natalensis (MS.), Busk. 
Pallasii, Heller. 
pectinata, Bush. 
platalea, Busk. 
polymorpha, Busk. 
regularis, Busk. 
subsulcata, Smtt. 
sulcata, Milne-Hdw. 
tuberculata, Busk. 


Aitea, Lama. (Genus 1). 


Americana, D’ Orbigny. 
anguina, Linn. 
argillacea, Snvitt. 
dilatata, Busk. 


Beania, Johnston (Genus 20). 


admiranda, Packard. 
australis, Bush. 
decumbens, Macgil. 
mirabilis, Johnst. 
Swainsoni, Hutton. 
Wilsoni, Macgil. 


Bicellaria, Blainville (Genus 16). 


Alderi, Busk, 
bella, Busk. 
ciliata, Linn. 


glabra, Hincks (see Stiparia). 


gracilis, Busk. 

grandis, Busk. 
macilenta, Bush. 
moluccensis, Busk. 
navicularis, Busk. 
pectogemma, Goldstein. 
tuba, Busk. 


Bicellaride, Busk (pars Hincks), 
(Family VI.). 
Bifaxaria, Busk (Genus 45). 


abyssicola, Bush. 
corrugata, Busk. 
denticulata, Busk. 
levis, Bush. 

minuta, Busk. 
papillata, Busk. 
reticulata, Busk. 
submucronata, Busk. 


Bifaxaride, Busk (Family XIV.). 


Caberea, Lama. (Genus 15). 


Boryi, Awd. 
crassimarginata, Busk. 


Altea 


ligulata, Busk. 
recta, Hincks. 
truncata, Landsborough. 


Aiteide, Busk § Hincks (Family I.). 
Amphiblestrum, Gray (Genus 33). 


capense, Dusk. 
cervicorne, Bush. 
cristatum, Busk. 
imbricatum, Busk. 
papillatum, Busk. 


umbonulum, Busk. 


Aspidostoma, Hincks (Genus 71). 


crassum, Hincks. 
giganteum, Busk. 


Biflustra, D’ Orbigny (Genus 34). 


Savartii, Aud. 


Brettia, Dyster (Genus 5). 


australis, Busk. 

cornigera, Busk. 

pellucida, Dyster. 
tubeeformis, Hincks, Norman. 


Bugula, Oken (Genus 17). 


avicularia, Linn. 
bicornis, Busk. 
calathus, Norman. 
flabellata, J. V. Thompson. 
fruticosa, Packard. 
gracilis, Busk. 

var. uncinata, Hincks. 
leontodon, Busk. 
longissima, Busk. 
margaritifera, Busk. 
mirabilis, Busk. 
Murrayana, Johnst. 
meritina, Lama. 
plumosa, Pallas. 
purpurotincta, Norman. 
reticulata, Busk. 

var. unicornis, Busk. 
robusta, Macgil. 
scrinosa, Busk. 
turbinata, Alder. 
uniserialis, Hincks. 
versicolor, Busk. 


Caberea 


Darwinii, Busk. 
Ellisu, Fleming. 


Jaberea 
grandis, Hincks. 
Hookeri, Busk. 
lata, Busk. 
Lyallii, Busk. 
minima, Busk. 
rostrata, Bush. 
rudis, Busk. 
Caleschara, Macgil. (Genus 41). 
denticulata, Macgil. 
var. a. tenuis, Busk. 
», [. foliacea, Hincks. 
» y- erustacea, Hincks. 
— Calymmophora, Bush (Genus 46). 
7 lucida, Busi. 
 Canda, Lamzx. (Genus 18). 
= arachnoides, Lame. 
s retiformis, Smitt. 
__ simplex, Busk. 
 Carbasea, Gray (Genus 30). 
a Gribriformis, Busk. 
__ dissimilis, Busk. 
elegans, Busk. 
Mosleyi, Busk. 
ovoidea, Busk. 
pedunculata, Busk. 
piciformis, Busk. 
atenaria, Savigny (Genus 8). 
attenuata, Busk. 
bicornis, Bush. 
diaphana, Busk. 
— Lafontii, Aud. 
Catenariade, Busk (Family IV.). 
Catenicella, Blainville (Genus 7). 
alata, Wyv. Thomson. 
__ amphora, Busk. 
aurita, Busk. 
Buskii, Wyv. Thoms. 
-carinata, Busk. 
castanea, Wyv. Thoms. 
concinna, Macgil. 
cornuta, Busk. 
cribraria, Busk. 
erystallina, Wyv. Thoms. 
Dawsoni, Wyv. Thoms. 
elegans, Busk. 
formosa, Busk. 
fusea, Macgil. 
geminata, Wyv. Thoms. 
gibbosa, Busk. 
gracilenta, Macgil. 
Harveyi, Wyv. Thoms. 
hastata, Bush. 


‘Tt 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 495 


Catenicella 

intermedia, Macgil. 
lorica, Busk. 
margaritacea, Bush. 
perforata, Busk. 
plagiostoma, Bush. 
pulchella, Mapelston. 
ringens, Bush. 
rufa, Macgil. 
succulata, Bush. 
taurina, Busk. 
umbonata ? Busk (and var.). 
utriculus, Macgil. 
ventricosa, Busk. 

var. maculata, Busk. 
Wilsoni, Macgil. 

Cellepora, Fabric. (Genus 83). 

albirostris, Smitt. 
ansata, Bush. 
armata, Hinciks. 
aspera, Busk. 
avicularis, Hincks. 
bicornis, Bush. 
bidenticulata, Bush. 

var. subequalis, Busk. 
bilabiata, Bush. 
bilaminata, Hincks. 
caniculata, Bush. 
columnaris, Busk. 
conica, Busk. 
cylindriformis, Busk. 
Costazii, Aud. 

var. a, tubulosa, Hincis. 
dichotoma, Hincks. 

var. attenuata, Alder. 
discoidea, Busk. 
Eatonensis, Bush. 
granum, Hincks. 
hastigera, Busk. 
Honolulensis, Bush. 
imbellis, Busk. 
Jacksoniensis, Busk. 
levis (?), Haswell. 
mamillata, Busk. 

var. Atlantica, Busk. 
ovalis, Busk. 
polymorpha, Bush. 
pumicosa, Linn. 
pustulata, Busk. 
rudis, Busk. 
ramulosa, Linn. 
Samboangensis, Busk. 
signata, Busk. 


496 


Cellepora 
Simonensis, Busi. 
solida, Busk. 
tridenticulata, Busk. 
tuberculata, Busi. 
tubigera, Busk. 
tubulosa, Hincks. 
vagans, Busk. 
Celleporella,- Hincks (Genus 52 ?). 
lepralioides, Norman. 
gmea, Norman. 
Celleporidee, Busk §- Hincks (Family 
XXIII). 
Cellularia, Pallas (Genus 9). 
biloba, Bush. 
cirrata, Busk. 
crateriformis, Busk. 
cuspidata, Busk. 
elongata, Busk, 
Peachii, Busk. 
quadrata, Busk. 
Cellulariade, Busk (Family V.). 
Chlidonia, Savigny (Genus 6). 
Cordiera, Aud. 
Chlidoniade, Busk 
itn 
Chorizopora, Hincks (Genus 66). 
Brongniartii, Aud. 
Honolulensis, Busi. 
hyalina. 
var. Bougainville, Bush. 
Cribrilina, Gray (Genus 60). 
annulata, Fabric. 
cribrosa, Heller. 
ferox, Macgil. 
figularis, Johnst. 
var. a. fissa. 
floridiana, Smitt. 
furcata, Hincks. 
Gattyx, Busk. 
var. a. 
hippocrepis, Hincks. 
Jaubertii, Aud. 
labiosa, Busk. 
var. a. fragilis, Busk. 
latimarginata, Busk. 
monoceros, Busk. 
philomela, Busk. 
var. a. adnata, Busk. 
punctata, Hassall. 
var, a. Hincks. 
monoceros (?), Macgitl. 


(Family 


REPORT—1885. 


Cribrilina 
radiata, Moll. 
var, a. Hincks. 
» B. Hincks. 
» y- tenuirostris, His. 
speciosa, Hincks. 
tubulifera, Hincks. 
Cribrilinidee (Family XTX.). 
Crisia, Lama. (Cyclostomata, Ge- 
nus I.). 
acropora, Busk. 
attenuata, Heller. 
biceliata, Macgil. 
Californica, D’ Orb. 
conferta, Busk. 
cornuta, Linn. 
var. geniculata, Busk. 
denticulata, Lame. 
eburnia, Linn. 
var. a. aculeata, Hassall. 
» B. producta, Smitt. 
eburneo-denticulata, Smitt. 
Edwardsiana, D’ Orb. 
elongata, Milne- Edw. 
var. angustata, Waters. 
fistulosa, Heller | distinct 
fistulosa, Busk forms (?). 
Holdsworthii, Bush. 
margaritacea, Bush. 
Martinicensis, D’Orb. 
Patagonica, D’Orb. 
producta, Smitt. 
punctata, D’ Orb. 
recurva, Heller. 
setosa, Macgil. 
sertutaroides, D’ Orb. 
Sinclarensis, Busk. 
sinensis, D’ Orb. 
tenuis, Macgil. 
Criside, Busk (pars), Hincks (Cy- 
clostomata, Family [.). 
Cupularia, Lamz. (Genus 84). 
Canariensis, Bush. 
Guinensis, Busk. 
Johnsoni, Busk. 
Lowei, Busk. 
monotrema, Busk. 
Owenii, Gray. 
pyriformis, Busk. 
stellata, Bush. 
Cyclicopora, Hincks. 
longipora, Macgil. 


jachoris, Busk (Genus 31). 
bilaminata, Hincks. 
Buskiana, Hutton. 
costata, Busi. 
erotali, Busk. 
elongata, Hincks. 
hirtissima, Heller. 
’ form. robusta, Hincks. 
_inermis, Busk. 
intermedia, Hincks. 
Magellanica, Busk. 
var. a. distans, Busk, 
patellaria, Moll. 
quadricornuta, Hincks. 
spinigera, Macgil. 
lastopora (pt.), Lame. 
mata, Genus 6). 
_congesta, D’ Orb. 
meandrina, S. Wood. (Mesen- 
teripora). 


(Cyclosto- 


actra, Lame. (Genus 44). 

bellula, Hincks. 

cylindrica, Bush. 

? distorta, Hincks. 

pilosa, Linn. 

var. a. dentata, Hincks. 
6. var. laxa, Smitt. 

» Y- (Pallas, sp. 

Hincks.) 

icantha, Lamz. 

verticellata, Lamz. 

trinide, Busk (Family XIII.). 

ma, Gray (Genus 11). 

erystallina, Gray. 


enus 5). 

australis, Bush. 
clavata, Busk. 
claveeformis, Busk. 
delicatula, Busk. 
Gallica, D’Orb. 
Indica, D’ Orb. 
intricaria, Busi. 
orchadensis, D’ Orb. 
parasitica, Busi. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 


497 


D. 


Diastopora 

obelia, Johnst. 

patina, Lamk. 

Sarniensis, Norman. 

suborbicularis, Hincks. 
Didymia, Busi: (Genus 23). 

simplex, Busk. ~ 
Dimetopia, Bush (Genus 24). 

cornuta, Busi: 

spicata, Busi. 
Diplopora, Macgil. (Genus 42). 

cincta (Huttons, M. cincta). 
Diporula, Hincks. 

verrucosa, Peach. 
Domopora, D’Orb. (Cyclostomata, 

Genus 10). 

lucernaria, Sars. 

stellata, Goldfuss. 

truncata, Jameson. 


Entalophora 
proboscidxs, Forbes. 
Eschara, Pallas (Genus 64). 
elegantula, D’Orb. 
glabra, Hincks. 
gracilis, Lamk. 
perpusilla, Busi. 
Escharide, Busk (pt. 
(Family XXTI.). 
Escharoides, Siitt (Genus 68). 
occlusa, Bushy. 
quincuncialis, Norman. 
rosacea, Pusk. 
verruculata, Smite. 


Hincks), 


alophora, Lam«x. (Cyclostomata, | Enucratea, Lam. (Genus 2). 


chelata, Linn. 
Var. a, repens, Hincks. 
» >, gracilis, Hincks. 
ambigua, D’Orb. 
Eucrateade, Busk (pt. Hincks), 
(Family IT.). 
Euthyris, Hincks (Family Mem- 
braniporide). 
obtecta, Hincks, pp. 62 and 63. 


498 


Farcimia, Pourtalés (Genus 47 ?). 
appendiculata, Hinclis. 
cereus, Pouwrtaleés. 

Farciminaria, Busk (Genus 28). 
aculeata, Busk. 
atlantica, Busk. 

? Binderi, Harvey. 

brasiliensis, Bush. 

cribraria, Bush. 

delicatissima, Bush. 

gracilis, Busk. 

hexagona, Busi. 

magna, Dusk. 

Var. a, armata, Busk. 

pacifica, Busk. 

uncinata, Hincks. 
Farciminariade, Busk (Fam. IX.). 
Fasciculipora, D’Orb. (Cyclosto- 

mata, Genus 11). 

bellis, Macgil. 

digitata, Busk. 

fruticosa, Macgil. 

ramosa, D’Orb. 

Flustra, Linn. (Genus 29). 
Barleii, Bush. 
biseriata, Busi. 
carbasea, Hii. & Sol. 
crassa, Busk. 
denticulata, Bush. 


Gemellaria, Savig. 
loricata, Linn. 
Willisii, Dawson. 

Gemellariade, Busk (Family VIIT.). 

Gemellipora, Smitt (Genus 77). 


(Genus 22). 


F 


13% 


Haswellia, Busk (Genus 75). 
auriculata, Busk. 
australiensis, Haswell. 

Hippothoa, Lame. (Genus 3). 
distans, Macgil. 
divaricata, Lamz. 

Var. a, conferta, Hincks. 

” 

»  y, Patagonica, Busk. 
expansa, Dawson 


flagellum? Manzoni=? 4H. 


distans, Macgil. 


6, carinata, Norman. 


G 


REPORT—1885. 


Flustra 
dentigera, Hincks. 
foliacea, Linn. 
membranaceo-truncata, Smitt. 
membraniporides, Busk. 
papyracea, Hil. & Sol. 
reticulum, Hincks. 
securifrons, Pallas. 
Var. a, papyracea, Dalyell. 
Flustride, Busk (pt. Hincks), 
(Family X.). 
Flustramorpha, Gray (Genus 62). 
flabellaris, Bush. 
hastigera, Bush. 
marginata, Gray. 
Patagoniva (MS8.), Busk. 
Foveolaria, Busk (Genus 35). 
elliptica, Busi. 
falcifera, Busk. 
orbicularis, Busk. 
tubigera, Bush. 
Frondipora, Imperato 
mata, Genus 12). 
marsigli, Blainv. (?) 
palmata, Busk. 
reticulata, Blainv. 
verrucosa, Lamz. 
Frondiporide,  Smitt 
mata, Family V.). 


gia Sg a se 


(Cyclosto- 


(Cyclosto- 


Gemellipora 
cribritheca, Busk. 
glabra, Smitt. 
Gephyrophora, Busk (Genus 73). 
polymorpha, Busk. 


Hornera, Lamz., Cyclostomata (Ge- 
nus 7) 
ceespitosa, Bush. 
foliacea, Macgil. 
frondiculata, Lamz. 
lichenoides, Linn. 
pectinata, Bush. 
robusta, Macgil. 
tubulosa, Busk. 
violacea, Sars. 
Horneride, Smitt (Cyclostomata, 
Family III.). 


ON 


- Haxleya, Dyster (Genus 27). 

| fragilis, Dyster. 
‘Heteropora Blainville 

mata, Genus 13). 


(Cyclosto- 


, 
a 


Achthyaria, Dusk (Genus 19). 
oculata, Busk. 

Idmonea, Lame. 

Genns 4). 

Atlantica, Forbes. 
Australis, Ma-qil. 
Californica, D’ Orb. 
Canariensis, D’ Orb. 
contorta, Busi: 
dilatata, D’ Orb. 
fenestrata, Busi: 
frondosa, Meneghina. 
gracillima, Busk. 
gracilis, Meneghina. 
irregularis, Meneyhina. 


(Cyclostomata, 


Kinetoskias, Koren, and Danielson 
(Genus 18). 
arborescens, Kor. & Dan. 
eyathus, Wyv. Thom. 


RECENT POLYZOA. 


499 


Heteropora 
cervicornis, D’ Orb. 
neozelanica, Busk. 
pelliculata, Waters. 


Idmonea 
Marionensis, Busk. 
Meneghinii, Heller. 
Milneana, D’Orb. 
notomala, Bush. 
parasitica, Bush. 
radians, Laink. 
rustica, D’Orb. 
serpens, Linn. 

Var. a, radiata, Hincks. 
serpula, Heller. 
triforis, Heller. 
tuberosa, D’Orb. 
tubulipora, Menegh. 


Le 


Kinetoskias, &e. 
pocillum, Busk. 
Smittii, Kor. & Dan. 


L 


Lagenipora Hincks (Family Porel- | Lepralia 


lidee, Genus 51 ?). 
socialis, Hincks. 
spinulosa, Hincks. 
tuberculata, Macyil. 
Lepralia, Johnston (Genus 65). 
adpressa, Busi. 
auceps, Macgil. (1). 
Anudouini, Smitt. 
bifrons, Hincks. 
bilabiata, Hincks 
botryoides. Macgil (16). 
caniculata, Macgil (8). 
canthariformis, Busk. 
celleporoides, Busk. 
cheilodon, Macgil. (7). 
_ clayiculata, Hincks. 
'  cleidostoma, Smitt. 

Var. orbicularis, Hincks. 
depressa, Bush. 
dorsiporosa, Bush. 
edax, Bush. 

Hllerii, Macgil. (11). 


elegans, Macgil. (4). 
excavata, Macgil. (12). 
ferox, Macgil. (17). 
feugensis, Bush. 
foliacea, Hl. & Sol. 
Var. a, fascialis, Hincks. 
» , bidentata, Milne-EHdw. 
foraminigera, Hincks. 
gigas, Hincks. 
hippopus, Smite. 
incisa, Bush. 
inornata, Smitt. 
Japonica, Bushs. 
Kirchenpaueri, Heller. 
Kirchenpaueri, var. teres, 
Hincks. 
larvalis, Macgil. (9). 
lata ? Busk. 
lonchza, Busk. 
lunata, Macgil. (5). 
Maplestonia, Macgil. (2). 
margaritifera, Quoy & Gaym. 
KK 2 


500 


Lepralia 
marsupium, Maegil. 
megasoma, Macgil. (14). 
nitescens, Hincks. 
Pallasiana, Moll. 
papillifera, Macgil. (10). 
pellucida, Macgil. (18). 
pertusa, Hsper. 
polita, Norman. 
Poissonii, Ard. 
radiatula, Hincks. 
rectilineata, Hincks. 
reticulato-punctata, Hincks. 
robusta, Hincks. 
rostrigera, Smitt. 
schizostoma, Macgil (15). 
seligera, Smitt. 
striatula, Hincks. 
subimmersa, Macgil. 
trifolium, Macgil. (6). 
tuberosa, Busk. 
turrita, Smitt. 
vestuta, Hincks. 
vittata, Macgil. (3). 
vitrea, Macgil. (13). 

Lichenopora, Defrane. 

mata, Genus 8). 

annularis, Heller. 
algoensis, Bush. 
californica, D’ Orb. 


Mastigophora, Hinel:s (Genera 54* 


and 62?), pp. 83 and 101. 
Dutertrei, Aud. 
Hyndmani, Johnston. 


Var. ensiformis, Miss Jelly. 


» porosa, Pourtales. 
Megapora, Hinchs (Genus 37 ?). 
ringens, Busk. 


Melicerita, Milne-Hdw. (Genus 48). 


? achates, D’Orb. 
atlantica, Busk. 
augustiloba, Busk. 
Charlesworthu, M.-Hdw. 
dubia, Busk. 


Membranipora, Busk, pt. I., Busk 


(Genus 32, Chal. species). 
albida, Hincks. 
crassimarginata, Hincks. 

var. erecta, Busk. 

» encrustans, Busk. 


” 


7 


(Cyclosto- | 


M. 


REPORT—1885. 


Lichenopora 
complanata, Menegh. 
convexa, D’Orb. 
cristata, Bush. 
echinata, Macgil. 
hispida, Fleming. 
Var. a, meandrina, Peach. 
2B, (Hincks), ‘ Brit. 
Mar. Pol.’ 
Holdsworthii, Busk. 
Mediterranea, Blainv. 
mellevillensis, D’ Orb. 
Novee-Hollandez, D’ Orb. 
Novya-Zelanica, Busk. 
pristis, Macqgil. 
radiata, Awd. 
regularis, D’Orb. 
reticulata, Maegil. 
simplex, Busk. 
verrucaria, Fabric. 
Lichenoporide, Hincks (Cyclosto- 
mata, Family IV). 
Lunularia, Lame., Busk (Chal. Rep- 
Genus 85). 
cancellata, Busk. 
capulus, Busk. 
gibbosa, Busk. 
incisa, Hincks. 


Philippinensis, Bush. 


9 


Membranipora 
galeata, Busk. 
Var. a, furcata, Busk. 
» /, multifida, Busk. 
» Y, erecta, Bush. 
spinosa, D’Orb. 
Membranipora, Hincks, part II. 
(Genus 32), pp. 56-62. 
acifera, Macgil. 
form multispinata, Hincks. 
acuta, Hincis. 
albida, Hincks. 
amplectens, Hincks. 
angulosa, Reuss. 
antiqua, Busk. 
armifera, Hincks. 
aurita, Hincks. 
bellula, Hincks. 
Var. a, bicornis, Hincks. 
» P, multicornis, Hincks. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 501 


Membranipora 


bicolor, Hincks. 
calpensis, Hincks. 
Carteri, Hincks. 
catenularia, Jameson (Pyri- 
pora), Busk. 
cervicornis, Bush. 
circumclathrata, Hincks. 
corbula, Hincks. 
coronata, Hincis. 
cornigera, Busk. 
corniculifera, Hincks. 
crassimarginata, Hincks. 
craticula, Alder. 
curvirostris, Hincks. 
cymbeeformis, Hincks. 
delicatula, Busi. 
denticulata, Macgil. (Celes- 
chara, Busi). 
discreta, Hincks. 
distorta, Hincks. 
Dumerilli, Aud. 
echinus, Hincks. 
exilis, Hincks. 
favus, Hincks. 
Flemingii, Busk. 
flustroidis, Hincis. 
granulifera, Hincks. 
Haswellii, Hincks. 
hexagona, Busk. 
hians, Hincks. 
horida, Hincks. 
embellis, Hincks. 
inarmata, Hincks. 
inornata, Hincks. 
Lacroixii, Aud. 
levata, Hincks. 
lineata, Linn. 
mamillaris, Lame. 
manuscula, Hinciis. 
marginella, Hincks. 
membranacea, Linn. 

» form serrata, Hincks. 
minax, Busk. 
monostachys, Bush. 

Var. a, fossaria, Hincks. 
nigrans, Hincks. 
nitens, Hincks. 
nodulifera, Hincks. 
nodulosa, Hincks. 
pallida, Hincks. 
patula, Hincks. 
pedunculata, Manzoni. 


Membranipora 
perfragilis, Hincks. 
permunita, Hincks. 
plana, Hincks. 
pilosa, Linn. 
Var. a, dentata, Hincks, 
» , laxa, Smite. 
» y; foliacea, Hinciis. 
», form multispinata, 
Hincks, 
polita, Hincks. 
protecta, Hincks. 
punctigera, Hincks. 
pura, Hincks. 
pyrula, Hincks. 
radicifera, Hincks. 
roborata, Hincks. 
Rosselii, Aud. 
rubida, Hincks. 
sceletos, Busk. 
setigera, Hinciis. 
solidula, Alder. 
Sophie, Busk. 
a form matura, ITincks. 
spinifera, Jolnstov. 
spinosa, Quoy & Gayin. 
tenella, Hincks. 
tenuirostris, Hincis. 
terrifica, Hincks. 
trichophora, Hincks. 
trifolium, S. Wood. 
. var. quadrata, Hincls. 
» minor, Hincks. 
unicornis, Fleming. 
valdemunita, Hincks. 
variegata, Hinchs. 
velata, Hincks. 
villosa, Hinclis. 
vitrea, Hincks. 
Membraniporella, Smitt (pt.), 
(Genus 61). 
melolontha, Bush. 
nitida, Johnston. 
Menipea, Lamz. (Genus 10). 
aculeata, D’Orb. 
arctica, Busi. 
benemunita, Busk. 
Buskii, Wyv. Thomson. 
clausa, Busi. 
cirrata, Laine. 
compacta, Hincks. 
Var. triplex, Hincks. 
cyathus, Wyv. Thoms. 


502 REPORT—1885. 


Menipea 
flabellum, Lama. 
flagellifera, Bush. 
gracilis, Bush. 
Jeffreysii, Norman. 
marginata, Hincks. 
Marionensis, Busi. 
pateriformis, Busi. 
Smittii, Norman. 
ternata, Hillis & Sol. 
triseriata, Busi. 
Micropora, Gray (Busk & Hineks, 
pt.), (Genus 38). 
complanata, Norman. 
coriacea, Hsper. & Var. 
elongata, Hinchs. 
Jervoisii, Hincks. 
uncifera, Busk. 
Microporide, Busk & Hincks (Fam. 
ITI). 
Microporella, Hinchs (Genus 63). 
bicristata, Bush. 
californica, Busk. 
ceramia, Macgil. 
ciliata, Pallas. 
Var. a, personata, Hincks. 
» , vibraculifera, His. 
, form umbonata, His. 
coronata, Awil. ; 
decorata, Reuss. 
diadema, Macgil. 
Var. angustipora. 
fissa, Hincls. 
fuegensis, Bush. 
impressa, Awd. 
Var. bimucronata. 
impressa, var. /3, cornuta. 
om? glabra. : 
» 6, pyriformis, 
Busk, 
Malusii, Awd. 
Var. a, thyreophora, Hincks. 
» 6, vitrea, Hincks. 
form disjuncta, Hincks. 
marsupiata, Busk 
(?) mucronata, Maegil. 
personata, Bush. 
serrulata, Smitt. 
stellata, Verril. 
subsulcata, Simitt. 
violacea, Johnston. 
Var. a, (Hincks). 
», P; plagiopora, Hincks. 


Microporellidee (Family XX.). 
Monoporellide, Hinchs (Fam. XX. > 
Hincks). 
Monoporella, Hincks. 
albicans, Hincks. 
brunea, Hincks. 
lepida, Hincks. 
nodulifera, Hincls. 
Mucronella, Hincks (Genus 70). 
abyssicola, Norman. 
bicuspis, Hincks. 
bisinuata, Busi. 
canalifera, Busi. 
castanea, Bush. 
coccinea, Abild. 
coccinea, var. mamillata. 
contorta, Bush. 
delicatula, Busi. 
diaphana, Macyil. 

Var. armata, Hinclis. 
laqueata, Norman. : 
magnifica, Bush. 
microstoma, Norman. 
mucronata, Hinclis. 
pavonella, Alder. 

Peachii, Johnston. 

Var. a, labiosa, Bush. 

, |, octodentata, Bush... 
porosa, Hincks. 
prelucida, Hincks. 
prelonga, Hincks. 
prestans, Hincl's. 
pyriformis, Bush. 
quadrata, Bush. 
rostrigera, Busi. 
rotundata, Hincks. 
simplex, Hincks. 
simplicissima, Bush. 
spinosissima, Hincks. 

Var. major, Hues. 
teres, Hinchis. 
tricuspis, Hinclis. 

? tubulosa, Hinchs. 
variolosa, Johnston. 
ventricosa, Hassall. 

Var. multispinata, Busk. _ 

,, connectans, Sidley. 
vultur, Hincks. 

Myriozoum, Donati (Genus 74). 
coarctatum, Sars. 
Honolulense, Busk. 
immersum, Bush. 
Marionense, Busk. 


» 


ON 


Myriozoum 
simplex, Busk. 
subgracile, D’Orb. 


Nellia, Busk (Genus 14). 
oculata, Busk. 
simplex, Dusk. 


Onchopora, Busk (Genus 55). 
Sinclairii, Busk. 

Onchoporella, Busk (Genus 56). 
bombicina, Busk. 


Palmicellaria, Alder (Genus 79 ?). 
cribraria (?) Johnst. 
elegans, Alder. 
lorea, Alder. 
Skenei, Hl. & Sol. 
Var. a, bicornis. 
5 , foliacea. 
Pasythea, Lama. (Genus 4). 
tulipifera, Sol., Lamw. 
eburnea, Sinitt. 
Petralia, Macgil. (Sub-genus of 
Reteporidee, Busi:, 59). 
undata, Macgil. 
Phylactella, Hincks (Genus 78). 
collaris, Norman. 
exima, Hincks. 
grandis (?), Hincks. 
labrosa, Busk. 
lucida, Hincks. 


Porella, Gray (Genus 67). 


RECENT POLYZOA, 


N 


503. 


Myriozoum 
truncatum, Donati. 
Myriozoide, His. (see Fam, XVID.) 


Notamia, lemming (Genus 21). 
bursaria, Linn. 
Notamiide, Hincks (Family V1I.). 


O 


Onchoporella 
diaphana, Busk. 
| Onchoporide, Busk (Fam. XVII.). ~ 


P 


Porella 
argentea, Hincks. 
compressa, Sowerby. 
concinna, Busk. 
Var. a, belli, Dawson. 
», }, gracilis, Hincks. 
levis, Fleming. 
Var. subcompressa, Busk. 
major, Hinclis. 
maleolus, Hincks. 
marsupium, Mucgil. 
form porifera, Hincks. 
minuta, Norman. 
nitidissima, Hincks. 
rostrata, Hincks. 
struma, Norman. 
Porinide, Hincks (Genus 16a). 
Pyripora, D’Orb. (Genus 36). 
catenularia, Jameson (Busk). 


R. 


Reptadeonella, Busk (Genus 82). 

innominata, Reuss (probably, 
Busk). 

_ yiolacea, Johnston. 

Retepora, Impera. (Genus 57). 
aculirostra, Macgil. 
altisuleata, Ridley. 
apiculata, Bush. 
atlantica, Busk. 
avicularis, Macgil. 
aurantica, Macgil. 
Beaniana, King. 
biavicularia, Sivitt. 


Retepora 
cavernosa, Bush. 
cellulosa, Auctt. 
columnifera, Busi. 
contortuplicata, Busk. 
Couchii, Hincks, 
crassa, Bush. 
delicatula, Busk. 
denticulata, Busi 
Edwardsii 
fissa, Macgil 
formosa, Macgn 
gigantea, Busk. 


504 


Retepora 
granulata, Macgil. 
hirsuta, Busi. 
Imperati, Busk. 
Jacksoniensis, Busk. 
lata, Bush. 
laxa, Hincis. 
lunata, Macgil. 
Magellensis, Bush. 
margaritacea, Busk. 
marsupiata, Smitt. 
microthyris (M8.), Busk. 
monilifera, Macgil. 
mucronata, Busi. 
munita, Macgil. 
Philippinensis, Bush. 
pheenicia, Bush. 
plana, Hincks. 
porcellana, Macqil. 
pretenuis, Hincks. 
producta, Busk. 
serrata, Macgil. 
simplex, Bush. 


Salicornaria, Ovwvier 
Hincks, Genus 47). 
aciculata (MS.) Busk. 
bicornis, Busk. 
clavata, Bush. 
crassa (MS.), Busk. 
divaricata, Busk. 
dubia, Busk. 
farciminoides, Cuvier. 
fistulosa, Linn. (Cellaria, His). 
gracilis, Bush. 
hexagonalis (MS.), Bush. 
hirsuta, Kirchenpauer. 
Johnsoni, Busk. 
magnifica, Bush. 
malvinensis, Busi. 
simplex, Busk (Cellaria rigida, 
Maegil.). 

sinuosa, Hassall. 
tenuirostris, Bush. 
variabilis, Busk. 

Schizoporella, Hincks (Genus 72). 
acuminata, Hincks. 
Alderi, Bush. 
aperta, Hincis. 
argentea, Hincks. 
armata, Hincks. 


(Cellaria, 


REPORT— 1885. 


Retepora 
sinuata, Macqil. 
tessellata, Hincks. 
Var. a, cespitosa, Busk. 
(, pubens, Busk. 
tubulata, Busk. 
umbonata, Macgil. 
versipalma, Blainv. (sp.) 
Victoriensis, Busk. 
Var. Japonica, Busk. 
Wallichiana, Busk & Hincks. 
Reteporella, Busk (Genus 58). 
flabellata, Busi. 
myriozoides, Busk. 
Reteporide, Smitt (Fam. XVIII). 
Rhabdozoum, Hincks (Eucrateide, 
Family II.). 
Rhabdozoum. 
Wilsoni, Hincks. 
Rhyncopora, Hincks (Family My- 


riozoide, Hincks), (Genus 53 ?). 


bispinosa, Jo/nst., p. 101. 
longirostris, Hinchs. 


Schizoporella 
auriculata, Hassall. 
Var. alba, Busk. 
», ochracea, Hincks. 
», cuspidata. 
biaperta, Michelin. 
Var. eschariformis, Waters. 
biserialis, Hincks. 
biturrita, Hincks. 
Cecillia, Audowin. 
circinata, Macgillivray. 
cinetipora, Hincks. 
crassilebris, Hincks. 
crassirostris, Hincks. 
eribrilifera, Hincis. 
cristata, Hincks. 
cruenta, Norman. 
Dawsoni(?), His. (S. torquata, 
DOrb., Hincks). 
discoidea, Bush. 
elegans, D’Orb. 
fissurella, Hincks. 
fureata, Busk. 
hyalina, Linn. 
Var. a, cornuta, Hincks. 
,, }, inerassata. 
> Y, tuberculata. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 505 


: 


‘ Schizoporella | Serupocellaria 


incrassata, Hincks. 
insculpta, Hincks. 
insignis, Hincks. 
Jacksoniensis, Busi. 
latisinuata, Hincks. 
linearis, Hassall. 
Var. a, hastata, Hinecks. 
» [, Mmamillata. 
» YY; nitida. 
» 6, erucifera, Norman. 
» € quincuncialis, Hks. 
longispinata, Busk. 
longirostrata, Hincks. 
lovata, Hincks. 
lucida, Hincks. 
maculosa, Hincks. 
marsupifera, Bush. 
nivea, Busk. 
pristina, Hincks. 
sanguinea, Norman. 
Var. a, (Red Sea). 
scintillans, Hincks. 
simplex, Johnston. 
sinuosa, Busk. 
Var. armata. 
spinifera, Johnston. 
subsinuata, Hincks. 
tenuis, Busk. 


ferox, Busk. 

inermis, Busk. 
Macandrei, Busk. 
maderensis, Busk. 
obtecta, Haswell. 
ornithorhyncus, Wyv. Thom. 
pilosa, Ad. 

reptans, Linn. 
seabra, Van Beneden. 
scrupea, Busk. 
scruposa, Hincks. 
securifera, Busk. 
varians, Hincks. 


Scruparia, Hincks (Genus 25). 


clavata, Hincks. 


Selenariade, Busk (Fam. XXIV.). 


Setosella, Hincks (Genus 43). 


vulnerata, Busk. 


Siphonicytara, Busk (Genus 50). 


serrulata, Busk. 


Siphonoporella (Membraniporide, 


Hincks, Fam. X1I.). 
nodosa, Hincks, p. 62. 


| Smittia, Hincks (Genus 69). 


torquata, D’Orb. (S. Dawsoni, | 


Hincks). 
triangula, Hincks. 
tumida, Hincks. 
tumulosa, Hincks. 
umbonata, Busk. 
unicornis, Johnston. 

form ansata. 
venusta, Norman. 
vulgaris, Moll. 


Schizotheca, Hincks (Genus 54 ?), 


p» 101. 
divisa, Norman. 
fissa, Busk. 
fissurella, Hincks. 


Scrupocellaria, Van Beneden (Genus 


12). 
brevisetis, Hincks. 
cervicornis, Busk. 
ciliata, Aud. 
cyclostoma, Busk. 
Delilei, Busk. 
diadema, Busk. 
elliptica, Reuss. 


affinis, Hincks. 
Bella, Busk. 
cheilostomata, Manzoni. 
galeata, Busk. 
graciosa, Busk. 
Jacobensis, Busk. 
Landsborovii, Johnst. 
Var.a, erystallina, Norman. 
» }, porifera, Smitt. 
»» Y, purpurea, Hincks. 
», ©, personata, Hincks. 
marmorea, Hincks. 
Marionensis, Bush. 
marsupialis, Busk. 
nitida, Verril. 
oratavensis, Busk. 
plicata, Smtt. 
reticulata, Macgil. 
Smittiana, Busk. 
spathulifera, Hincks. 
stigmatophora, Busk. 
tenuis, Busk. 
transversa, Busk. 
trispinosa, Johnst. 
Var. a, Jeffreysii, Norm. 
5 /, minuta, Hincks. 
»» Y, Spathulata, Smtt. 
form bimucronata, Hks. 


506 


Smittipora, J. Jullien (Genus 40 ?). 


abyssicola, Smitt. 


Steganoporella, Smitt (Genus 40). | 


magnilabris, Busk. 
Neo-Zelanica, Bush. 
Smittia, Hincks. 
Steganoporellide, Hines 
Family XIIa.). 
Stiparia, Hincks (see Genus 20a). 
annulata, Mapleston. 
glabra, Hincks. 


(see 


REPORT—1885. 


Stomatopora, Bronn (Cyclosto- 

mata, Genus 2). 
compacta, Norman. 
deflexa, Couch. 
diastoporides, Norman. 
dilatans, Johnst. 
expansa, Hincks. 
fasciculata, Hincks. 
fungia, Couch. 
eranulata, M.-Hdw. 
inerassata, Site. 


Stolonella, Hincks (see Genus incurvata, Hincks. 
20b). Johnston, Heller. 
clausa, Hincks. major, Johnst. 
iT 


Tennysonia, Busk (Cyclostomata, | Tubulipora 


Genus 9). 
stellata, Busk. 
Tessarodoma, Norman (Genus 76). 
boreale, Busk. 
Tubucellaria, D’Orb. (Genus 49). 
ceca (MS.), Bush. 
cereoides, Hil. & Sol. 
fusiformis, D’ Orb. 
hirsuta, Lame. 
opuntioides, Pallas. 
Tubucellaride, Busk (Fam. XVI.). 
Tubulipora, Lamk. (Cyclostomata, 
Genus 3). 
capitata, Hincks. 


U 


Dawsoni, Hincks. 
dichotoma, D’ Orb. 
fasciculifera, Hincks. 
flabellaris, Fabric. 
fimbria, Lamk. 
lobulata, Hassall. 
malacensis, D’ Orb. 
organizans, D’ Orb. 
perfragilis, Hincks. 
pyriformis, Busk. 
ventricosa, Busi. 
Turritigera, Busk (Genus 59). 
stellata, Bush. 


Umbonula, Hincks (Genus 78?). | Umbonula verrucosa, Hsper. 


Vincularia, Defrance (Genus 39). 
gothica, D’Orb. 


XY. 
| Vineularia gothica, D’ Orb. 


Var. granulata, Busk. 


For Lists of Synonyms, &c., from Hincks and Busk, see the end of the systematic 


arrangement, pp. 601-612. 


Part II. Sysremaric ARRANGEMENT: GENERA AND SPECIES. 


a. CHEILOSTOMATA, Busk. 


In this part of my labours I have compiled, from all available sources 
accessible to me, the name of every described species of marine polyzoa. 
It may be that some of the Australian species of Macgillivray and others” 
are omitted; if so, I shall regret it: but the excuse I offer is, Australian 
works generally were not at my disposal. 


—t 


a 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 507 


Sus-orper. CHEILOSTOMATA, Busi. 
Diviston I. STOLONATA, Carus. 
Family I. teide, Busk & Hincks. 

Genus. Altea, Lamz. 


Family II. Eucratiide, Busk (pt. Hincks). 
Genus. Eucratea, Lame. Genus. Pasythea, Lame. 
Hippothoa, Lame. - Brettia, Dyster. 


” 
Family III. Chlidoniade, Busk. 

Genus. Chlidonia, Savigny. 

(‘ Challenger ’ Report, p. 1.) 


Family I. teide 


= Aitews, Snutt, Hincks 
= ScrUPARIAD® (pars), Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
= Srotonata (pars), Carus. 


‘Zocecia tubular, with a subterminal membranous area; partly erect 
and free, partly decumbent and adherent; uniserial.’ — Challenger 
Report, p. 1. 

1 It may be well to note that the characters of this family as given 
_ above from Mr. Busk differ in some respects from those of Mr. Hincks 
(Brit. Mar. Pol.’ p. 1), but chiefly in the fact that Mr. Hincks includes 
in his diagnosis the following: ‘Tentacular sheath terminal above in a 
circle of sete, which are everted during the expansion of the polypide.’ 

It is thus seen that the Aiteide connect together two groups—the 
Cienostomata on the one hand, and the Cheilostomata on the other. Pro- 
fessor Smitt, Mr. Hincks, and Mr. A. W. Waters (‘ Bay of Naples Bry..,’ 
1879) have already remarked on the peculiar structural features of this 
group, which has been fully referred to in the Fifth Report on Fossil 
Polyzoa (‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.’, 1884). 

_ As in my previous Reports, I shall furnish the characters of the families, 
and the genera only of recent polyzoa, as given either by Mr. Hincks or 
Mr. Busk, but it will be impossible to furnish details of the species. 


Genus 1. Altea, Lamourous 


= AncuinariA, Lamk., Johnston, Busk, 1849 
, = Favcaria, Oken 
= Airna, Busk (‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’), Smitt, Hincks, Waters, &c. 


‘Zocecia calcareous, tubular, erect, with a membranous area on one 
side ; distributed along a more or less adherent, creeping fibre, dilated at 
tervals; orifice terminal. Ocecia, none.’— Brit. Mar. Polyzoa, p. 3. 

‘ Orifice semicircular, subterminal.’— Busk, ‘Challenger’ Report, p. 2. 


1. Aitea anguina, Linn., ‘ Brit. Mar. Poly.,’ ‘ Challenger’ Report. 
2. ,, recta, Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Poly.,’ p. 6. 

3. ,, truncata, Lansb., ‘ Brit. Mar. Poly.,’ p. 8. 

4. ,, dilatata, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.,’ pt. 1. 


508 REPORT—1885. 


5. Altea ligulata, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
6. ,, Americana, V’Orb., ‘ Voy. dans l’Amér. Mérid.,’ D’ Orb. 
7. 4, argillacea, Smitt. 


Mr. Hincks says (op. cit. p. 3): ‘Seven species of Aitea have been 
described, of which three occur on our own coast.’ In the ‘ Challenger’ 
Report only one species is recorded as present in the material furnished 
to Mr. Busk (4. anguina, Linn.), and this was found at five of the 
stations: i. 36, 30 fathoms; ii. 161, 35 fathoms; iii. 135a, 75, 110 
fathoms; iv. 304, 45 fathoms; v. 162, 38 to 85 fathoms. 


Family II. Eucrateade, Busk 


= Eucrate (pars), Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Poly.,’ p. 10 
= ScRUPARIADE (pars), ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 


‘Zocecium erect and free or decumbent, more or less ordinate. Zocecia 
uni- or bi-serial, or geminate, pyriform, with a subterminal oblique 
orifice, unarmed.’— Bush, ‘Challenger Report on Polyzoa,’ p. 2. 

In the classification of British Marine Polyzoa, Mr. Hincks places in 
his family the following genera—LHucratea, Gemellaria, Scruparia, Hualeya, 
Brettia, Dimetopia, and Clulwellia. As will be seen, only four genera are 
admitted by Mr. Busk, all of which are stolonate. 


Genus 2. Eucratea, Lamourouw. 


‘Zocecium usually with a creeping adherent base, erect branching. 
Zocecia calcareous, rising one from another singly. Aperture oblique, 
terminal or subterminal. Orifice semicircular, with a straight lower 
border. Branches springing from the front of a zocecium below the 
-aperture.’—Busk, ‘Challenger Report.’ (Mr. Hincks’s diagnosis is very 
similar to above.) 


1. Eucratea chelata, Linn, (Hincks, ‘British Marine Polyzoa,’ p. 14, 
pl. i. fig. 3; pl. i. figs. 4-8; pl. ii. figs. 9-11. 

2. Eucratea chelata, var. a. repens, Hincks, pl. i. fig. 3. 

3. 3 is » BP. gracilis, Hincks. 


Both Mr. Busk and Mr. Hincks limit, as above, the genus Hucratea, 
and only one species is described as British, but Mr. Waters (Bay of 
Naples Bry.) describes the following species, remarking that he ‘did not — 
find E. chelata at Naples, bet it is reported to have been found in the 
Mediterranean.’—Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 1879, p. 117. 

4. Eucratea ambigua, D’Orb. This species, which closely resembles 
FL. chelata, is a native of Sonth America. 

Nos. 1 and 3, Mr. Hincks says, are very abundant in Australia. The 
Species varies very much and ‘in an early stage of growth is often 
decumbent. A few cells are repent and adnate, and from these the 
erect shoots arise, and the zoarium then assumes its normal condition ’ 
(Hincks, p. 15). Eucratea chelata is the only species described by Mr. 
Busk in his ‘ Challenger’ Report, p. 3. 


Genus 3. Hippothoa, Lamowrous 
= CarENIcELLA (pars), Biainv. = Mout (pars), Smitt. ? TEREBRIPORA, 
D Orb. 


¥ 


, 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 509 


*Zocecia calcareous, decumbent, adherent, usually distant and con- 
nected by tubular prolongations. Branches given off from the sides of 
the zocecium. Orifice orbicular, sometimes produced and subtubular, 
_ with a sinus in the lower border.’—Challenger Report, p. 4. 

On account of this last character—the ‘sinus’ in the lower border— 
Mr. Hincks (* British Marine Polyzoa,’ p. 286) places Hippothoa in his 
family group Myrto0zoIp# in association with Schizoporella. Prof. Smitt 
‘disallows the genus and ranks its members with species which are 
supposed to possess similar zocecia, irrespective of the habit of growth’ 
(op. cit. p. 287). 

1. Hippothoa divaricata, Lame., Hincks, ‘British Marine Polyzoa,’ 
5 . 288. 
rsa thik divaricata, var. a, conferta, Hincks, p. 288. 
" ie 5 /, carinata, Norman, p. 289. 
# » Y, Patagonica, Busk. 
2. expansa, Dawson (Hincks, p. 291). 
3. y flagellum, Manzoni (Hincks, p. 293). 
4. a distans, Macgillivray (Hincks, ‘ Polyzoa,’ Queen Char- 
lotte Island Annals, June 1883. 


Only two species of Hippothoa are described by Mr. Busi in the ‘ Chal- 
lenger’ Report, H. divaricata and H. flagellum, Manzoni. The first at 
Station 135 in from 60 to 1,000 fathoms, and the other at Station 151, 
off Heard Island, in 75 fathoms. The H. ewpansa, Dawson, is a northern 
species, and the British species are cosmopolitan in their geographical 
distribution. 

Genus 4. Pasythea, Lamouroua 


= CeLaria (sp.), Solander. = Liriozoa, Lamk. = Eptcauuipium, Hincks. 


In the ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ Feb. 1881, p. 156, Mr. Hincks de- 
scribed as new under the generic and specific name of Hpicaulidium 
 pulchrum the Cellaria tulipifera of Solander. In his ‘ Challenger’ Report 
(pp. 8 and 5) Mr. Busk draws attention to this species when describing 
a new form previously referred to by Smitt in his ‘ Floridian Bryozoa.’ 
As Mr. Hincks’s genus is replaced by the older name, I have thought it 
best to retain his generic description intact, especially so as Mr. Busk’s 
diagnosis differs from that of Mr. Hincks. 

‘“Zoarum calcareous, composed of a creeping base and erect stems, 

_ made up of internodes linked together at their extremities by corneous 
joints, on which the zoccia are borne in companies. Zocecia erect, 

_ ¢lavate, with a small oblique subterminal orifice, several united together: 
longitudinally, so as to form a cluster; the clusters opposite free, except 
at the base, where they are attached by corneous joints to the internodes.’ 
—Hincks, op. cit. p. 157. 

In a corrigendum, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ Aug. 1881, p. 135, Mr. 
‘Hincks says that the above species was figured and described by Ellis. 
(edited by Solander) under the name of Cellaria tulipifera; Lamouroux 
referred it to his genus Pasythea; De Blainville and Lamarck gave its. 
generic rank—one as Tuliparia, Blainv., the other as Liriozoa, Lamk. 

1. Pasythea tulipifera, Solander, Lame. = Errcavnipiom PuLcHRUM, 

Hincks, 
2. Pasythea eburnea, Smitt (Florid. Bryoz., Busk) = GEMELLipora 
EBURNEA, Sinitt. 


510 REPORT—1885. 


The only locality that I have the species from is Brazil. The slide 
came into my possession with others from the same locality, marked 
‘Membranipora, sp.’, and it was only after Mr. Hincks’s description was 
published that I was able tonameit. Lamouroux’s description of the form 
and also the locality given by him are as follows :—! 

‘ Pasithea tulipifera. Articulations in the form of clubs; cells three 
in number, united on one pedicle’ (‘ Corallina’), p. 67, pl. ili. fig. 7, A. 

‘ American seas, principally on the Jamaica coast.’ The other species 
described by Lamouroux is a hydrozoon. 

The only other genus of the Hucratiide of Busk is the following. 
I have adopted the diagnosis of Hincks :— 


Genus 5. Brettia, Dyster. 


‘ Zoarium erect, corneous, branched, branches given of from the top 
of a cell a little to one side, and facing in the same direction as the cell. 
Zooecia uniserial, elongate, subtubular; aperture, terminal or sub- 
terminal, large, with the oral valve at the upper extremity ; marginarmed _ 
with spines. Ocecia unknown.’—Brit. Mar. Pol. pp. 27, 28. 


1. Brettia pellucida, Dyster. ‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.’ p. 28 pl. iv. figs. 6, 7. 
‘ Quart Jour. Micr. Soe.’ vi., 1858, p. 260 pl. xxi. figs. 3-5. 

2. Brettia tubeformis, Hincks. ‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.’ p. 28 pl. ii. fig. 2, 
pl. v. fig. 1 = B. pellucida, Norman, ‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.’, 1866, p. 
196, &c. 


The first of these species was found by Mrs. Brett at Tenby; a minute 
fragment of the second was dredged in The Minch by Mr. Norman. 
These are very rare forms, but anyone, after carefully examining the 
plates in Mr. Hincks’s work, can easily recognise the difference between 
the two species. 


3, Brettia australis, Busk. ‘Challenger Report,’ p. 7 pl. xxxiv. 
fig. 3. 

4. Brettia cornigera, Dusk. ‘ Challenger Report,’ p. 7, pl. xxxiv. 
fig. 6. 


As Mr. Busk by some oversight places the genus Brettia in two 
families in the ‘ Challenger Report,’ I have merely indicated its position 
further on by the number 26 ? so as to keep the synopsis and text intact, 
and preserve the suggestions even of the author. 

As to the numbered families and genera given in the Report, with the 
exception of Notamiide and one or two genera, which will be pointed 
out in the text, the whole of the present arrangement is that of Mr. 
Busk. As, however, Mr. Hincks has instituted several genera, and one 
or two families which are not accounted for, accepted, or referred to in 
the ‘ Challenger Report,’ I have thought it wise to include these in the 
several divisions, but wanwmbered. Mr. Hincks, therefore, is responsible 
for their position in certain families. His names will be found in his 
own synopsis—the second—in the introductory part of the present 
Report. 


1 The work of Lamouroux, referred to above, is his Corallina, translated by a 


lady. Hd. 1824. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 511 


Family Eucratiide, Hincks. 
Genus. Rhabdozoum, Hincks. 
(‘ Annais and Mag. Nat. Hist.’, vol. x. ser. 5, 1882.) 


‘Zoarium erect phytoid, composed of numerous celluliferous shoots, 
held together by a ramified stem, made up of bundles of radical fibres, 
given off from the inferior portion of the shoots; celluliferous shoots 
consisting of a cylindrical bi- or tri-furcate stem, which gives origin to 
the radical fibres, and also to erect chitinous rods, on the summit of 
_ which are borne two or three similar stems, more or less dichotomously 
_ divided. Zocecia pyriform, ranged in linear series round an imaginary 
axis, so as to form cylindrical stems; aperture moderately large, sub- 
terminal oblique. Avicularia not stipitate.’—Hincks. 
Rhabdozoum Wilsoni, Hincks, op. cit. p. 162 pl. viii. fig. 4. 
Locality : Port Phillip Head, Victoria, Mr. Bracebridge Wilson. 


Family III. Chlidoniade, Bush. 


‘Zocecium composed of upright, free, segmented stems, springing from 
a stolonate network. From the segments, after the first bifurcation, 
arise lateral branches consisting of chains of zocecia arising from the back 
near the summit. Zocecia bicamerate; unarmed.’—Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.” 


p. 8. 
Genus 6. Chlidonia, Savigny (1811) 


=Evorarna, Aud. (?) Vorricensa, Linn. & Esper. 
= CorHuRNICELLA, Wyv. Thomson. 


‘Free portion of the zocecium composed of segmented tubular stems 

_ with distant short branches, each springing from one of the internodes of 
_ the stem, and giving off numerous uniserial chains of zocecia, one rising 
_ from the back of another near the top, and all looking one way. Zocecia 
_ gibbons, pyriform, or attenuated downwards. Orifice prominent or gub- 
tubular, lower lip entire, straight. The cavity of the zocecium divided 
_ into two chambers, the hinder of which is much curved, and alone com- 
" municates with the orifice and lodges the polypide.’—Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep,’ 


Dm. 8. 


\ Chlidonia cordiera, Aud. (Bush, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxviii. fig. 11) 
=Evorarsa corpiera, Awd., ‘ Agypta,’ pl. xiii. fig. 3 
= Cutponta corprera, D’Orb., ‘ Pal. Fr.’ p. 40 
= COTHURNICELLA DHDALA, Wyv. Thomson, ‘ Nat. Hist. Rev.’ 
vol. v. p. 146. 


This species is very generally distributed. Mr. Busk gives it as 
‘Occurring at only one station—No. 186. Mr. A. W. Waters describes it 
in his ‘ Bay of Naples Bryozoa.’ Wyville Thomson’s Australian form is 
from Port Phillip. It is also met with at the Canaries, ‘and I have 
‘Specimens from the coast of Calvados, from Nice, Egypt (Sir Jos. Banks), 
and Tyre (Miss Gatty).’—Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 9. 


612 REPORT—1885. 


Division II. RADICELLATA. 
Group A. CELLULARINA. 
(Busk, ‘ Challenger Report,’ p. 9.) 


Family IV. Catenariade, Bush. 


1850-2 = CaTENARIADE (pars), D’Orb. 
1852. =CaATENICELLIDA, Busk. 

»  ==SCRUPARIADE (pars), Busk. 
= CELLULARIED (pars), Smitt. 


” 


‘Zocecium radicate, segmented, internodes, except at a bifurcation, 
formed of a single zocecium.’—Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 9. 


I. Catenicella, Blainville, 
II. Catenaria, Savigny. 


Genus 7. Catenicella, Blainville. 


‘Internodes usually unicellular, the zocecia arising one from the 
upper and back part of another, by a corneous tube, all facing the same 
way and forming dichotomously divided branches of an erect phytoid 
zocecium. The zocecium at each bifurcation geminate; each zocecium 
with two lateral, usually trilocular, processes (ale). Ocecia either sub- 
globose and terminal or immersed, and placed below the orifice of a 
zocecium in front.’—Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 10. 

Mr. Busk describes the eight Challenger species in the collection, and 
figures only a portion of them. The first four belong to the section 

a. Fenestrate, the other to the section § 3. Vittate. Since the publica- 
tion of the ‘ Brit. Mus. Catalogue’ (1852) many new species have been 
added to Mr. Busk’s original list, and described and partially figured by 
Australian students. In the following list I have given the whole of the 
species known to me, and Mr. Waters has been able to add to the recent 
species many new fossil forms from the Australian tertiary beds, details 
of which will be found in my fifth ‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep. on Fossil Polyzoa,’ 
1884, Montreal. 


1. Catenicella ventricosa, Busi, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
var. maculata, Busk (op. cit. pl. iii. figs. 4, 5). 


2. “; hastata, Busk (op. cit. pl. ii. figs. 3, 4). 

a - plagiostoma, Busk (op. cit. pl. v. figs. 1, 2). 

4. y cribraria, Busk (op. cit. pl. v. figs. 3, 4); ‘ Chal. Rep.’ 
p- 11, pl. 1. fig. 6. 

5, - sacculata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. 1. fig. 7. 

6. * elegans, Busk=(?) Hucratea Contei, Aud. 


= 0. Savignyi, Blaine. 
= (0. elegans, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ vol. i.; ‘ Chal. 
Rep.’ pl. i. figs. 2, 3, 5. 
“e bs umbonata, Busk, ‘Brit. Mus, Cat.’; (var.) ‘Chal. Rep.” 
pla. fg. 1. 


8. x pulchella, Mapleston (‘ Jour. Mic. Soc,’, Victoria; — 
‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. i. fig. 4). 
9. x lorica, Busk, ‘Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
10. = aurita, Busk ba a 
it: " amphora, Busk af > 


12: 55 margaritacea, Busk ,, . 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 513 


13. Catenicella forinosa, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
14, na perforata, Busk a a 


15. i ringens, Busk 3 - 

16. a cornuta Pe a 

17. ta gibbosa, Busk 7 ie 

18. * taurina, Busk x +5. (pl. aay 

oO! Ge carinata 5 oe 

20. a alata, Wyv. Thoms., ‘On New Gen. and Sp. of Polyzoa.’ 
21. = Harveyi, W. Thoms. - - ed 
22. a Dawsoni, W. Thoms. ps BE Ms 
23. * castanea, Wyv. Thoms.  ,, fe a 
24, iA cerystallina, W. Thoms. ,, 9 ¥ 
25. * Buskii, Wyv. Thoms. si 4 ne 
26. 3s geminata, W. Thoms. 

27. " rufa, Macgil. 

28. 3 concinna, Macgil. 

29. rs Wilsoni, Macgil., ‘On some New Sp. of Catenicella, &e.’ 
30. + gracilenta, Macgil. 

Ol: + intermedia, Macgil. 

82. Fe utriculus, Macgil. 

BA. . fusca, Macgil. 

34. 2 Hannafordii, Macgil. 

35. * insignis, Macgil. 

36. PA ponderosa, Macgil. 

37. 3 (Catenicellopsis) deliculata, Macgil. 


Mr. Hincks, in one of his papers—‘ Contributions towards a General 
History of Marine Polyzoa’—refers only to Catenicella, and says that 
though he has several species by him he would not describe or refer to 
them until the whole of the papers on the group were in his hands. 


Genus 8. Catenaria, Savigny. 


1811 = Carenaria (pars), Savigny, D’Orb., ‘ Paleont.’ 
EKvucratea (pars), Aud. (not Lamk., Blainv.) 
1852. Atysipium (pars), Busk, ‘Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 


_, Zoarium erect or free, dichotomously branched ; the Zocecium at each 
bifurcation single. Zocecia elongate, sub-tubular or trumpet shaped, with- - 
out a frontal aperture. Mouth orbicular or semi-orbicular. Avicularia 
present or absent.’—Challenger Report, p. 14. 


1. Catenaria Lafontii, Awd., Agypta, pl. xiii. fig. 2. A.W. Waters’s 
‘ Bay of Nap. Bryoz.’ (Typical species of genus, Busk.) 
= Alysidium Lafontii, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Oat.’ 
2. ” attenuata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. 11. fig. 1. 
3. 9 bicornis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. ii. fig. 2. 
4. ay diaphana, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. ii. fig. 3 
= Scruparia diaphana, Busk, ‘Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc.,’ 
vol. viii. p. 281, pl. xxxi. fig. 1. 
| 
| 


Family V. Cellulariade, Busk 


= CELLULARIADA, Busk, Crag Polyzoa; Hincks 
= CELLULARIADS, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
= CELLULARID (pars), Johnston 


ccc, CELLULARIcz (pars), Smitt. ii 


: 
j 


$14 REPORT— 1885. 


‘Zoarium articulated, phytoid, erect, dichotomous, bi-, tri-, or multi- 
serial. Zocecia rising from a broad base, alternate, all facing the same 
way; a large oval membranous aperture. Avicularia, when present, 
sessile, and either lateral or anterior. —Challenger Report, p. 15. 

Mr. Busk, in the above report, divides the family into the following 
seven genera :— 

. Cellularia, Pallas (pars) § a, aperta. 

§ 6, fornicata. 
. Menipea, Lamourouz, Sections a and /. 
Emma, Gray. 

. Serupocellaria, Van Beneden. 

Canda, Lamouroux. 

. Nellia, Busk. 

. Caberea, Lamourouz, Sections a and /. 


NI OTR ODD 


Mr. Hincks, however, in his ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ accepts the family 
CELLULARIIDA, but his description differs in some few particulars from 
that of Mr. Busk. 

‘Zocecia in two or more series closely united and ranged in the same 
plane ; avicularia and vibracula, or avicularia only, almost universally 
present, sessile. Zoarium erect, dichotomously branched.’—Hincks, 
‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.’ p. 30. 


Genera: Cellularia, Pallas. 
Menipea, Lamouroun. 
Scrupocellaria, Van Beneden. 
Caberea, Lamourouz. 


This important group has a very wide distribution. In his admirable 
introduction appended to the description of the family, Mr. Hincks 
(pp. 30-32) points out many peculiar modifications of the appendicular 
organs, and also of the radical fibres, ‘by means of which the tufted — 
zoaria are attached’ to foreign bodies. There is still much to be learnt 
respecting these same radical fibres ; and in speaking of the fibres, espe- 
cially of Scrupocellara reptens, some curious modifications are pointed out. 
Mr. George Busk, in his paper on ‘A Peculiar Form of Polyzoa closely 
allied to Bugula’ (‘Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc.’ vol. xxi. new ser.), wherein 
he speaks of the ‘radical and connecting tubes, like the avicularia 
and vibracula representing modified zooids.’ This fact seems to be 
generally admitted, but still many minute particulars are pointed out by 
Mr. Busk in several species; and the student would do well to refer to 
this special paper, and also to the introduction of Mr. Hincks, previously 
referred to. 

Genus 9. Cellularia, Pallas. 


‘Zoarum jointed. Zocecia in two or three series, many in each 
internode, contiguous; dorsal surface perforated. Avicularia and vi- 
bracula usually wanting; occasionally an avicularium on a few of the 
cells of an internode.’—Brit. Mar. Polyzoa, p. 33. 


1. Cellularia Peachi, Busk, ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 2nd series, pl. vil. 
figs. 1-4. ‘Brit. Mus. Cat.’ i. 20. ‘Brit. Mar. 
Polyz.’ vol. i. p. 34, pl. v. figs. 2-5. Geo- 
graphical range chiefly northern, British and 
American. 


. 
: 
: 


+ 


rs ON RECENT POLYZOA. 515 
t 


In the ‘ Challenger Report’ Mr. Busk describes five new species of 


-@ellularia, and remarks on the original specimen of CO. Peachii as being 


entirely devoid of the cusp,' which Mr. Hincks speaks of as being present 
in the ‘only British species ’—Cellularia Peachii—that is known to him, 
2. Cellularia cuspidata Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 

= C. monotrypa, Busk, ‘Voy. of Rattlesnake.’ 


3. m crateriformis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ (pl. iii. fig. 1). 

4, ss cirrata, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ (pl. ii. fig. 4). 

5. is quadrata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ (pl. v. fig. 5). 

6. os biloba, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ (pl. iu. fig. 2). 

a \ elongata, Busk (n. sp. ?), ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. iii. fig. 3. 
? ” ornata,? Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 


= Menipea flabellata (?). 


These species have a wide geographical range, and some of the speci- 
mens were dredged from great depths—2,650, 1,900, 1,425, and 900 
fathoms—while others were derived from comparatively shallow depths— 
98 and 75 fathoms. The allied Australian species, O. cuspidata and 
. ornata, ‘closely resemble,’ says Mr. Hincks, ‘C0. Peachii in general 
character ; but in OC. ornata we meet with avicularia, . . . which are 
most sparingly developed and of a peculiar type. C. Peachii is totally 
destitute of appendicular organs.’—Brit. Mar. Polyzoa, p. 33. 

Speaking of C. cirrata, Busk, Mr. Busk remarks ‘that the general 
structure of the species is very peculiar, and together with other cha- 
racters might perhaps justify its erection into a distinct genus.’ There 
‘was only one specimen in the ‘ Challenger’ collection, and this is both 
well described and well illustrated in the Report. 


Genus 10. Menipea, Lamouroue 


= Tricellaria (sp.) Fleming, Blainville, Gray 
= Cellarina (pars) Van Beneden 
= Cellularia (pars) Johnst., Smitt. 


‘Zocecia oblong, widest above, attenuated and often elongated down- 
wards; imperforate behind, with a sessile lateral avicularium (often 
wanting), and usually one or two avicularia on the front of the cell. 
No yibracula. Zoarium jointed.'— Brit. Mar. Polyzoa, p. 36. 

Mr. Busk divides the species of Menipea into two sections, § a. For- 
nicate and 3. Aperte. Ina note (‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 15) on Fornicate, Mr. 
Busk says, ‘A better term would have been “scutate,’’ but as Prof. 
Smitt has introduced the term “ fornix” for what I had originally named 


“ operculum,” now generally employed for the oral valve, I have adopted 
his term.’ 


1. Menipea ternata, Ell. & Sol. (Hincks, p. 38, pl. vi. figs. 1-4). 
" » British, chiefly northern. 
~ » Var. gracilis, Smitt, Arctic form, 
= Cellularia ternata (forma gracilis), Smtt. 
Cae gracilis, Busk, ‘Polyzoa N. Polar Exped.’ (No. 14.) 
In a note, p. 40, Mr. Hincks says, ‘I have received 


_' There is no cusp in the Shetland specimens given to me by Miss E. C. Jelly; 
originally from C. W. Peach’s dredgings, 1864. 


? See Menipea flabellum, Lamouroux. 
LL2 


516 


REPORT—1885. 


from Mr. Peach two or three minute fragments of a 
Menipea from Shetland, in which the form of the cells 
is that of the gracilis variety. They also show a larger 
number in the internode than is characteristic of the 
normal M. ternata.’ But on account of their imper- 
fect condition Mr. Hincks was unable to say whether 
they should be referred to the variety, or to one of the 
closely related forms, M. arctica, or to 


. Menipea Smittii, Norman 


3 
4 
eee 
6 
7 


= Cellularia ternata (forma duplex), Smitt. 
Jeffreysil, Norman (Hincks, pl. ix. figs. 1, 2), ‘Quart. 
Jour. Mic. Soc.’ 1868. 
compacta, Hincks, ‘Ann. Mag. N. Hist.’ Dec. ide 
Var. triplex, Hincks 
cyathus, Wyv. Thoms. 
arctica, Busk. 
Given as var. M. ternata, var. gracilis, Smitt. 


” ”? ” 


In the ‘Challenger Report’ nine species are described by Mr. Busk, 
five of which are new. 


§ a. Fornicate. 


8. Menipea benemunita Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. iv. fig. 4. 


9: ” 
10. ” 
pied ta 
12. pre 4 
ae 
TA) cis 
ibs ‘hk, 
L6et 9% 
Uhlig 
i 
ata 


aculeata, D’Orb., ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. iv. fig. 2 


= Tricellaria aculeata, D Orb. 
= Ternicellaria aculeata, D Orb. 
=P? Menipea feugensis, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
clausa, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. iv. fig. 5 
flabellum, Lamw., ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 21 
= Cellularia ornata, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
=? Menipea flabellum, Lamz. 
Cellaria flabellum, Hil. & Sol. 
flagellifera, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. iv. fig. 1. 
Marionensis, Dusk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. iv. fig. 3; pl. xiv. 
fig. 9. 
triseriata, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 21, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
cirrata, Lame., ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 22 
= Cellaria cirrata, Wl. & Sol. 
= Cellaria crispa, Pallas. 
Tubularia cirrata, Hsper., Seba. 
pateriformis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. iv. fig. 4. 
compacta, Hincks, form triplex, Hincks. 
Pol. Queen Charlotte Islands, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.” 
Dec. 1882. 
marginata, Hincks, Polyzoa of Victoria, Australia, ‘ Ann. 
Mag. Nat. Hist.’ p. 227, pl. ix. fig.5. Locality: Port 
Phillip Head. 
Buskii, Wyv. Thoms. 


Genus 11. Emma, Gray 


= Emma, Gray, Busk, ‘Voy. of Rattlesnake,’ ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ p. 27; 


T. W. Hutton. 


Menipea (sp.) Wyville Thomson ; Hincks. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 517 


’ 
_ ‘Zocecia in conjoined pairs or triplets in each internode (not opposite), 
much expanded above and contracted below. Upper part of front 
occupied by a wide sub-triangular bordered area, partially filled in by a 
: ular lamina, and with a sub-orbicular membranous aperture. A 


~ Iateral sessile avicularium placed below the level of the aperture.’— Busk, 


*Chal. Rep.’ p. 22. 

In his ‘ British Marine Polyzoa’ Mr. Hincks disallows the genus 
mma, and he places the name among the synomyms of the genus 
Menipea. Notwithstanding this, Mr. Busk restores the only species in 
the ‘ Challenger ’ material to its old place, as— 


Emma crystallina, Gray, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 23 
= KE. crystallina, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 


Genus 12. Scrupocellaria, Van Beneden 


= Canda, sp., Busk = Bicellaria, sp., Blainv. 
Cellularia, Waters, ‘Bay of Nap. Bry.’ 


‘Zoarium jointed. Zocecia numerous in each internode, rhomboid ; 
aperture with or without an operculum; a sessile avicularium placed 
laterally at the upper and outer angle, and a vibraculum in a bend or 
‘sinus on the lower part of the dorsal surface ; frequently an avicularium 
on the front of the cell.’—Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.’ p. 43. 

_ As species of Scrupocellaria range backward in time from the present 
“seas to the Miocene of Austria~Hungarian deposits, it is not surprising 
that many synonyms must necessarily fall under a few of the well- 
marked specific forms. Mr. Hincks has been exceptionally careful in 
his diagnosis of the five British forms, as the student will be pleased to 
“find when working up the forms which are widely and generally dis- 
_ tributed round our coast. Mr. Waters extends the area of three British 
Species in his ‘ Bry. Bay of Naples.’ 


o 

ay a. Without an operculum. 

4 1. Serupocellaria scruposa, Hincks, pl. vii. figs. 8-10. 

bg 2. +3 elliptica, Reuss, Hincks, pl. vi. figs. 5, 6 

q = 8. inermis, Norman, 

zz (8. With an operculum. 

a 

i 3. . scabra, Van Ben., Hincks, pl. vi. figs. 7-11. 
4. i scrupea, Busk, Hincks, p. vu. figs. 11-14. 
mm. os § reptans, Linn., Hincks, pl. yii. figs. 1-7. 

“* 

v 


These are the whole of the British species given by Mr. Hincks. Mr. 
A. W. Waters, in his ‘Bay of Naples Bryozoa,’ gives as Oellularia 
48. reptans, S. scruposa, and S. scrupea. 

bs In his ‘ Challenger Report,’ Mr. Busk describes five species :— 


___ 5. Scrupocellaria Macandrei, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xi. fig. 4 
= §. Macandrei, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 


i. he ciliata, Aud., ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xi. fig. 5 
= S. diadema, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
8. se ornithorhyncus, Wyv. Thoms. ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. vi. 
fio. 6 


= ?S. clypeata, Haswell, 


518 REPORT— 1885. 


9. Scrupocellaria pilosa, Aud., ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xi. fig. 7 
= Crisia pilosa, Savig., ‘Egypt.’ 
10. 3 securifera, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xi. fig. 2. 


Mr. Hincks, in his various contributions, adds to the number of 
species which he describes or figures in the papers referred to. 


11. Scrupocellaria varians, Hincks, Polyzoa of Queen Char. Is., ‘ Ann. 
Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ Dec. 1882, pl. xix., figs. 1-10. 


12. =; brevisetis, Hincks, op. cit. No figure. Bears. 
some resemblance to S. scrupea. 

13. “3 obtecta, Haswell, Hincks, Contributions, &c. ‘ Ann. 
Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ March 1883, p. 193, pl. vi- 
fig. 1. 

14. ” cervicornis, Busk (op. cit. p.193. No. fig.). 

15. 9 diadema, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.,’ Hincks, ‘Ann. 


Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ May 1884. Polyzoa of India. 


In his ‘British Mus. Catalogue’ Mr. Busk gives the following 
additional species :— 


16. Scrupocellaria cyclostoma, Busk. 


; 3 ferox, Busk. 
18. - Delilei, Busk. 
a: “4 Maderensis, Busk. 
20. :. inermis, Busk. 


The radical fibres of the different species of Scrwpocellaria are a very 
interesting study, but more on account of their position and character 
than as means of distinguishing the difference between species by means 
of them alone. In S. scrwposa they are slender and smooth, and given off 
at the lower part of the zoarium. In S. scabra they are long and slender, 
and scattered over the whole of the zoarium. In 8. reptans the radical 
fibres are either simple and given off as anastomosing fibrils forming a 
netted disc, or toothed. Two forms are present in the different species. 
In one they are simply tubes, in another they are, as Mr. Hincks says, 
‘veritable grapnels.’ In this form ‘the fibre is covered for about two- 
thirds of its length with sharp, recurved, hook-like processes, and is con- 
verted into an admirable prehensile organ, which, when plunged into the 
soft sarcode of the sponge or other yielding substance, holds the polyzoon, 
like an anchor, to its place.’ Ellis noticed these hook-like processes, and _ 
Couch, in his ‘ Cornish Fauna,’ also noticed and recorded several pecu- 
harities in the modes of attachment to other polyzoa. These hooked 
fibres are not, however, found on recent species only. In some of the 
Carboniferous Fenestella, hooked spines, though considerably more robust 
than any which now exist, are prominent features in the zoarium, and in 
all probability their purposes were the same in the economy of the 
species. Mr, Busk and Mr. Hincks’s comments are well worth special 
study by the student. 


Genus 13. Canda, Lamouroux 


= Canda, Lamz., Blainv. (pars), D’Orb., and Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
Scrupocellaria (pars), Hincks. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 519 


_ ‘Branches biserial, dichotomous, connected by transverse chitinous 

ubes, inserted at both ends into a vibracularium. No lateral avicularia, 

and the anterior avicularia when present placed on a special median 

et, or on the summit of the owcia. A vibracularium lodged in a sinus 

hind ; flagellum short, flattened, not toothed. With or without a 
pedunculate fornix.’—Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 25. 


1. Canda arachnoides, Lamw., ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 25 

£ = Cellaria filifera, Lamk., vol. ii. p. 177. 

- 2 4, simplex, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 26, pl. xiv. fig. 8. 

- 3. ,,  retiformis, Smit, ‘Florid. Bry.’ (See following remarks.) 


The Canda arachnoides, Lamz., is abundant and fine in the Australian 

; but as the C. simplex is an Atlantic species, Mr. Busk’s remarks 
on the form are very appropriate. ‘In the ‘“‘ Challenger” collection this 
form is represented by only one or two minute fragments, in pretty good 
condition, but which would have been insufficient for its determination 
had I not been in possession of specimens of obviously the same form 
from the Gulf of Mexico. . . . It isa remarkable circumstance that a 
second species of Canda also occurs in the Gulf of Mexico, which has 
m described by Prof. Smitt (Florid. Bry., pt. I. p. 16, pl. v. figs. 
46), under the not very well chosen name of Caberea retiformis.’— 
k, * Chal. Rep.’ p. 26. 
_ Lamouroux’s figure of C. arachnoides is good, and his descrip- 
tion is well worth giving. ‘Frondescent, fan-shaped, and dichotomous 
polypidom. Branches united by small lateral and horizontal fibres. 
Cells alternate, united, placed on only one surface, and not projecting.’ 
Flex. Coral,’ p. 57, pl. ii. figs. 6, a bc d. 
Lovality: On the rocks of Tamor. 


Genus 14. Nellia, Busk 


_ = Salicornaria (pars.), Bk., ‘ Voyage of Rattlesnake,’ vol. i. p. 367 
_ =Nellia, Bk., ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ vol. i. p. 18.  Smutt. 


_ ‘Zoarium articulated, internodes short, quadrangular. Zocecia quadri- 
“serial, front flat or convex at bottom. The greater part of the front 
pied by a large aperture; border prominent, especially above, smooth 


Oc 


and thick. Orifice quite at the summit. Ocecia absent.’—Chal. Rep. p. 26. 


1. Nellia oculata, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 27 
= N. oculata, Bk., ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
=N. oculata, Smitt, ‘ Florid. Bry.’ 
= N. oculata, Macgil., ‘ Nat. Hist. Vict.’ 
2. ,, simplex, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. v. fig. 6; and ‘ Brit. Mus. 
Cat.’ p. 19. 


Genus 15. Caberea, Lame. 
= Selbia, Gray; Flabellaria, Gray; Canda, D’Orb. 


‘Zoarium not articulated. Zocecia not articulated, sub-quadrangular 
or ovate, with a very large aperture. Sessile avicularia on the side and 
front of the cells, the lateral avicularium minute. Vibracular cells very 
large, placed in two rows, stretching obliquely downwards across the 


520 REPORT—1885. 


back of the zocecia, which they almost cover, to the median line, notched 
above and traversed through a great portion of their length by a shallow 
groove. Setze usually toothed on one side.’—Hincks, ‘ Brit. M. Pol.’ p. 57. 


1, Caberea Ellisii, Flem. (Hincks, p. 59, pl. vii. figs. 6-8). Arctic 
species, ranging to the more northerly portions of our 
coast, and to Labrador and Maine. 

Boryi, Audowin (Hincks, p. 61, pl. viii. figs. 9-11). ‘Almost 
cosmopolitan.’ Egypt, Adriatic, New Zealand, Aus- 
tralia: S. Patagonia; Strait of Magellan, &c. 

3. 9 Hookeri, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ vol. i. p. 39. This Mr. 

Hincks places as synonymous with C. Ellisii, Flem., 
and the C. zelanica, Busk (‘ Voy. Rattlesnake,’ vol. i. 
p- 378), as the same as C. Boryi, Aud. 


bo 


re) 


In speaking of the vibracula, &c. of C. Boryi, Mr. Hincks says (p. 
58, op. cit.) : ‘In this species there not only are the individual append- 
ages highly developed, but the whole company of them attached to a 
colony are brought into combined and harmonious action. It must be 
left to future observation to determine the precise structural conditions 
on which these remarkable movements depend ; but they certainly seem 
to imply the ewistence! of a nervous system, distinct from that of the indi- 
vidual polypides, by which the vibracular zooides are controlled and brought 
into relation.’ 


4, Caberea grandis, Hincks, Contributions, &., ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. 
Hist.’ July 1881, pl. iii. figs. 4 a, b,c. Off Curtis Is. 
(Capt. Warren). 


Mr. Busk in his ‘ Challenger Report’ describes six species of Caberea, 
three of which are new. 
§ a. fornicatee. 


5, Caberea rostrata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxii. fig. 4. 
6. » erassemarginata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xi. fig, 1. 
7. »  Darwinii, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxii. fig. 6 
= C. patagonica, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
= C. zelanica, Busk, ‘ Voy. of Rattlesnake.’ 
»  rudis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 30, and ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
minima, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxii. fig. 5. 


£ 0 


§ B. aperte. 


10. »» lata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 30, pl. xi. fig. 3 

= ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ ; ‘ Voy. of Rattlesnake.’ 
11. »  Lyallii, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 29 

= Selbia zelanica, Gray. 


This name is substituted by Mr. Busk for Gray's New Zealand species 
(Selbia Zelanica), after having fully satisfied himself that the species is 
quite distinct from ‘ Caberea boryi, under which appellation, both 1 and 
other authors have confounded two or three quite distinct species.’.—Busk, 
‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 29. 


1 Ttalics mine. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 521 


Family VI. Bicellaride. 


In the family group bearing the above name Mr. Busk (‘ Crag 
Polyzoa,’ p. 15) placed three genera—Bicellaria, Halophila, and Bugula. 
fr. Hincks, in the ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ retains the family name which 
includes the following genera :— 


’ : Genus Bicellaria, Blainville ; Genus Beania, Johnston ; 
3 »  Bugula, Oken; 


+ 
4 remarking that the first and last of the three are linked together by the 

genus Bugula and the genus Diachoris. . . . D. Spinigera, Macgil, .. . 
_ inayoung state . . . is hardly distinguishable from a Beania, pp. 65, 66. 
; In his paper (Contributions towards a General History of the Marine 
- Polyzoa, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’, February 1881, p. 157), Mr. Hincks 
includes in the family, Diachoris, Busk. 

_ Inthe ‘Challenger Report,’ Mr. Busk adheres to his original family 
_ name, but he adds to the number of the genera by including Kinetoskias, 

‘Koren and Dan., and Ichthyaria, Busk. 

_ ‘Zocecia, rather loosely united in two or more series, or disjunct ; 
bconic, or boat shaped, the aperture usually occupying a large proportion 
pf the front.—Avicularia, when present, capitate; pedunculate, and 

joimted. Zoarium not articulated ; erect and phytoid, or composed of a 

‘number of cells connected by tubular processes.’—Hincks, p. 64. 

In the ‘ Challenger Report,’ Mr. Busk describes the character of the 
family somewhat different from the above :— 

_ Zocecia turbinate or sub-turbinate, biserial, the two series more or less 
‘disjunct. Aperture large, directed obliquely upwards. Avicularia, when 
Present, usually pedunculate and capitate or trumpet shaped; rarely 
Sessile, not articulated, and placed either on the anterior or posterior 
aspects. P. 32. 
Genus 16. Bicellaria, Blainville. 


‘Zoarium erect, phytoid. Zocecia turbinate or in the form of a cornu- 
copia, loosely united, more or less free above ; aperture looking more or 
less upward, directed obliquely inwards below; inferior portion of the 

cells sub-tubular, usually much produced. Avicularia, when present, 
jointed and capitate. No vibracula.’—Hincks, p. 66. 


1. Bicellaria ciliata, Linn. Hincks, p. 68, pl. viii. figs. 1-5. 
British form, but it has a rather restricted geographical 
range, including North America (Kirchenpauer), and a 
, variety in South Africa (Hincks). 
. Alderi Busk, Hincks, p. 70, pl. ix. figs. 3-7 
= B. unispinosa, Sars. 
Both the Brit. localities and also the geographical range 


i of this species are restricted. 

- a gracilis, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
4, a grandis, ,, «bid. 
5. a tuba, »  tbid. p. 42, pl. xxxi. 


Australian forms. In B. tuba there is a fixed avicularium borne at the 

top of a tall spinous process ; consequently, as Mr. Hincks remarks, this 

ecies forms an exception to the latter part of the diagnosis of the genus 
8iven above. ‘ Avicularia,’ &c. 


522 


REPORT—1885. 


In the ‘ Challenger Report,’ Mr. Busk describes seven species, five of 
which are new. 


1. Bicellaria navicularis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. vii. fig. 2. 


2. ” 
3. 99 
4, ” 
5. 5 
6. as 
7. ” 


pectogemma, Goldstein, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. vii. fig. 1. 
Goldst. Pro. Roy. Soc. Vict. 1881. 

infundibulata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. vi. fig. 2. 

bella, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. vi. fig. 4. 

moluccensis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. vi. fig. 4. 

glabra, Hincks, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. vi. fig. 1 

=Stirparia glabra, Hincks, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 
ser. v. vol. xi. p. 195. 

macilenta, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxii. fig. 1. 


In certain remarks (‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 36) Mr. Busk justifies his adop- 
tion of these specific names, to the whole of which I direct the attention 
of the student, as without the plates and diagnoses it would be useless"to 
quote extracts. 


Genus 17. Bugula, Oken. 


This genus has a number of synonyms, for which see Hincks, ‘ Brit. 
Mar. Polyzoa’; but one peculiar form, not given by Mr. Hincks, is the 
subject of a rather elaborate paper by Mr. Busk which will be referred to 


further on. 


1. Bugula avicularia, Linn. ; Hincks, p. 75, pl. x. figs. 1-4 


ere gape 


= Ornithopora, id. D’Orb.; Pal.; Fr. 

turbinata, Alder ; Hincks, p. 715, pl. x. figs. 5-8. 

flabellata, J. V. Thompson ; Hincks, p. 80, pl. xi. figs. 1-3 

= Ornithoporina avicularia, D’Orb. 

calathus, Norman; Hincks, p. 82, pl. xi. figs. 4-6. 

plumosa, Pallas ; Hincks, p. 84, pl. xii. figs. 1-5. 

gracilis, Busk, ‘ Quart. Jour. Mic. Soe.’ vi. p. 125. 

Var. uncinata, Hincks, p. 86, pl. xv. figs. 1-4; pl. xii. figs. 
Bohs 

purpurotincta, Norman; Hincks, p. 89, pl. xii. figs. 8-12. 

Murrayana, Johnst. ; Hincks, p. 92, pl. xiv. figs. 2-9. 


These are the whole of the British forms given by Mr. Hincks, some 
of which have a very wide range around our coast; and the geographical 
range is also very varied. In Mr. Waters’s ‘Bry. Bay of Naples’ ‘he 
records as Mediterranean forms— 


1. Bugula avicularia, Pallas = B. turbinata, Hincks. 


3. 
BA Rois 
2 
8.» 


= B. flabellata, J. V. Thompson. 
fastigiata=B. plumosa, Pallas. In 8. O. Ridley’s paper 
on the Polyzoa of the ‘ Alert’ Expedition (‘ Ann. Mag. 
Nat. Hist.’ 1881), the author quotes— 

B. Murrayana, var. fruticosa, Packard, as one of the forms 
of the Arctic circle. Mr. Busk (Polyzoa of the North 
Polar Expedition, ‘Linn. Soc. Jour. Zoology,’ vol. xv.) 
gives the two forms as distinct. 

Murrayana, Johnst. (sp.) (op. cit. p. 233) 

= Flabellaria spiralis, Gray 

= Avicella multispina, Van Ben. 


DN LEE a 


-~") 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 523 


9, Bugula fruticosa, Packard (sp.) (op. cit. p. 233) 
= B. Murrayana, var. fruticosa, Hincks 
= Menipea fruticosa, Packard. 

But in a note (p. 233 op. cit.) Mr. Busk says: ‘ Since 
the above was in type Iam more inclined to agree with 
those who regard B. fruticosa as a variety of B. Murray- 
ana.’ 

10. »,  uniserialis, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ May 1884, p. 367, pl. xiii. 
fig. 8. oc.: Victoria, Australia. 


At a meeting of the Scientific Society of Christiana, March 1867, 
D. C. Daniellsen gave an account of two new forms of Polyzoa, which he 
called Kinetoskias. In his notes on a form (‘ Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc.’ 
yol. xxi. new series) Mr. Busk has made several references to a form 
closely allied to Bugula (Kinetoskias, Kor. & Dan.). Many interesting 
particulars are given by Mr. Busk in this paper, which the student will 
do well to refer to. In this Report I will give the results arrived at by 
the author. 

1867. Bugula umbella, Smitt. 
1873. Naresia cyathus, Sir C. W. Thomson. 
Bugula Smittii, Sars. 


Speaking of the genus Naresia, Sir C. W. Thomson, several speci- 
mens of which are in the Challenger collection—one procured from a 
depth of 2,650 fathoms—Mr. Busk says: ‘ The different forms constitute 
certainly three—and, as I am inclined to think, four—distinct and well- 
characterised species; but they all agree in certain very peculiar charac- 
ters, which would seem to be almost, if not quite, sufficient to render the 
group composed of them of generic value, or at any rate to rank asa 
distinct sub-genus of Bugula. To this genus or sub-genus the appellation 
bestowed upon it by Koren and Daniellsen obviously has priority over 
Naresia.’ 


1. Bugula (Kinetoskias) Smittii, Dan. 
= Kinetoskias Smittii, Kor. & Dan. 
= Bugula Smittii, Sars. 
2. » (Kinetoskias) aborescens, Dan. 
= K. arborescens, Kor. & Dan. 
= Bugula umbella, Smitt. 
3. »,  (Kinetoskias) cyathus, Sir C. W. Thomson 
= Naresia cyathus, Sir C. W. Thomson 
=K. Smittii, Kor. & Dan. 
4. »  (Kinetoskias) pocillum, Busk, ‘ Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc.’ 


(op. cit.) 


In addition to descriptions of all these species Mr. Busk draws atten- 
tion to the peculiar cell structure, and also gives an elaborate account of 
the radical tubes or fibres of the same. 

In the ‘Challenger Report’ Mr. Busk modifies the definition of 
Bugula so as to admit the new forms described by him in it. 

Zocecia bi- or multi-serial, closely contiguous and united, arising in 
continuous series each from the back of the subjacent one. Aperture 
partial or entire. Avicularia, when present, always on the anterior 
aspect of the zocecia.— Busk, p. 37. 


524 REPORT—1885. 


§ a. Species in which the branches of one part of zoarium are bi- 
serial, and in another tri- and quadri-serial. 

§ 8. Species in which the zocecia are much attenuated downwards. 
Avicularia supported on long flexible pedicels. 

§ y. Species in which the zoccia are usually oblong, and little or 
not at all attenuated downwards. Avicularia shortly pedunculate. 
Examples: Bugula (Bicellaria), flabellata, turbinata, avicularia, plumosa. 

§ 0. Species in which the zocecia are wholly unarmed. Examples: 
Bugula (Halophila), Johnstonie, Gray. 


§ a. Abyssal forms (?). 


1. Bugula versicolor, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. iii. fig. 4. 
450 to 350 fathoms. 
rf leontodon, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. x. fig. 5. 
1,525 fathoms. 
Bs tat sinuosa, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. x. fig. 2. 
80 to 150 fathoms. 
4s 55 mirabilis, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. x. fig. 1. 
2,400 fathoms. 
§ p. 


a es reticulata, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. viii. fig. 3. 
1,600, 600, 2,160, and 1,325 fathoms. 
oe OH Var. a, unicornis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. ix. fig. 2. 
2,500, 1,850, 2,175 fathoms. 
BPG, bicornis, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. ix. fig. 1. 
1,950 fathoms. 
$y. 


a; margaritifera, Bush, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. viii. fig. 4. 
1,900 to 2,200 fathoms. 

Bey gs neritina, Linn. (sp.) ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 42. 

ae ee longissima, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. xxxi. fig. 7. 


bo 


Having utilised a previous paper by Mr. Busk on Kinetoskias, it only 
remains for me to give the arrangement of the species in the ‘ Challenger 
Report.’ 

Kinetoskias Smittii, Kor. & Dan., ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 43. Only 
referred to in Report. 


ip 5 eyathus, Wyv. Thomson, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. viii. fig. 1 
= Naresia, id. Wyv. Thomson. 
2. , pocillum, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. viii. fig. 2. 


Additional remarks on this genus will be given further on when 
speaking of a new genus and species instituted by Mr. Hincks. 


Genus 19. Ichthyaria, Busk. 


‘Zoarium continuous, branched; branches irregularly dichotomous or 
forked, biserial, zocecia facing in one direction; the two series very 
loosely connected. Zocecia ventricose, rounded, fork entirely calcified.’ 
Challenger Report, p. 46. 

Ichthyaria oculata, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xiii. fig. 7. 


These are the whole of the genera admitted by Mr. Busk in his 


i ON RECENT POLYZOA. 525 
Challenger Report.’ Mr. Hincks, however, believing that Beania 
longs to the Bicellaria, rather than to any other group, I place it here 
out of deference to the author. It is not referred to by Mr. Busk, con- 
sequently it does not appear in his synopsis. I have therefore numbered 
it (20 ?). 


4 Genus (20 ?). Beania, Johnston. 

‘Zoarium sub-corneous or calcareous, erect or decumbent. Zocecia 
sessile, erect, scattered, united one to the other by a slender tube, 
originating from the dorsal surface or from the side near the base ; 
aperture occupying the entire front, the margin furnished with hollow 
"spinous processes arching over the opening; mouth terminal. Ocecia 

and avicularia wanting. —Hincks, p. 95. 


1. Beania mirabilis, Johnston; Hincks, p. 96, figs. 8-10, pl.iv. This 
is the only British species of the genus, and Hincks 
gives several localities besides the following distribution 
of this form :— 

Scandinavia; Adriatic ; Roscoff. 
a australis, Busk, ‘Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
Patagonia. 
Swainsoni, Hutton. (See Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.’ p. 96.) 
An erect phytoid form, New Zealand. 
= admiranda, Packard (Hincks, op. cit. p. 96). 
Labrador. 


As members of the Bicellariadze, Mr. Hincks has instituted the two 
following genera for species found in his Australian collection. It is only 
fair both to Mr. Busk and to Mr. Hincks to say that in the ‘ Challenger ’ 
collection Mr. Busk has already figured (pl. vi. fig. 1) the Stirparia 
glabra of Hincks as Bicellaria stylites; but as Mr. Hincks’s name was 
published before the isssue of the Report the name is changed to that of 
B. glabra, Hincks (‘ Chal. Rep.’) ; and in a note Mr. Busk adds, ‘ Since 
the above was in type Mr. Hincks has described apparently the same 
form under the name of Stirparia glabra, and gives a full account of the 
peculiar structure on the zoarium and its stem from better material than 

- those at my command.’ I think that Mr. Busk will see that the pecu- 
liarities of this remarkable form demand its separation from Bicellaria 
proper, but not from the family in which Mr. Hincks has placed it. 


Genus Stirparia, Goldstein. 


‘Zoarium, consisting of erect segmented stems, chitinous or calcareous, 
and of celluliferous branches, which originate in more or kss fabellate 
tufts close to the summit of the segments. Zocecia of the normal Bicel- 
larian type, turbinate, somewhat free above; aperture looking more or 
less upward, turned obliquely inwards, inferior portion of the cells 
sub-tubular. Avicularia articulated.’—Hincks, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 
vol, xi., ser. 5, p. 195, 1883. 


1. Stirparia annulata, Maplestone, ‘Jour. Micr. Soc. Victoria,’ 1870 
(type). 
# glabra, Hincks, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ vol. xi. 1883, p- 
196, pl. vi. fig. 2 
= Bicellaria glabra, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ 


2. 


526 REPORT—1885. 


Genus Stolonella, Hincks. 


Loc.: Geraldton, Western Australia (Miss Gore). 

The generic description of Mr. Goldstein is revised so that the kindred 
species, S. glabra, may be included. 

The following is another peculiar Australian species, for which the 

eneric name is instituted by the author, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ vol. xi. 
p. 197, 1883. 

Zoarium consisting of a creeping stolon, and zocecia distributed upon 
it. Stolon chitinons, free in itself, but attached at intervals by adhesive 
branching discs, which originate from short stolonic offsets, jointed, 
more or less branched. Zocecia erect, scattered, always developed close 
to a joint, attached to the stolon by the pointed lower extremity of the 
dorsal surface, sub-calcareous, boat-shaped, aperture occupying the whole 
front, closed in by flattened spinous ribs united together ; orifice terminal. 


Stolonella clausa, Hincks (op. cit. p. 198, pl. vii. fig. 6). 


Loc.: Creeping over Fucus, Geraldton, West Australia (Miss Gore). 

Mr. Hincks remarks (p. 197, op. cit.) ‘that the true stoloniferous 
character of this form seems to call for its separation from Beania as 
represented by our British B. mirabilis.’ 


Family VII. Notamiide 
= Gemellariide, Busk (part). 


‘Zocecia in pairs, each pair arising by tubular prolongations from the 
pair next but one below it; at each bifurcation a new series of cells 
intercalated into the branches.’—Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.,’ p. 98. 

Mr. Hincks says, ‘the remarkable structure of the zoarium of 
Notamia bursaria entitles it to stand as the type of a separate family, .. . 
and the Australian genus Oalwellia resembles Notamia to some extent in 
the structure of the zoarium.’ 

In the ‘Trans. Microp. Soc. Lond.,’ vol. ii. 1849, Mr. Busk gave a 
somewhat exhaustive account of Notamia and its peculiar structural 
details. In the synopsis which prefaces the description of the Crag 
Polyzoa, Mr. Busk places Notamia as the first genus of his family Gemel- 
lariidz. Only one species described :— 


Genus 21. Notamia, Fleming. 


1. Notamia bursaria, Linn., Hincks, p. 100, pl. v. figs. 1-5 
= (?) Calwellia bicornis, W. Thomson. 


Family VIII. Gemellariide, Busk 
= Encratip® (pars), Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa.’ 


‘ Zoarium sub-membranaceous, flexible, continuous. Zocecia opposite, 
in pairs, unarmed.’—Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.,’ p. 46. 

Excepting the genus Natamia, which Mr. Hincks takes as the type 
of his family Noramup2z, the family GemELLarups#, Busk, includes the 
same genera as originally arranged under it in the ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.,’ to 
which others are added in the ‘ Challenger Report’; consequently as now 
arranged the whole appears to be a very natural group. 


Genus. Gemellaria, Savigny. 
»  Didymia, Busk. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 527 


Genus Dimetopia, Busk, ‘Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
»  Scruparia (pars), Hincks (not Smitt). 
» ? Brettia, Dyster. 
»  Huxleya, Dyster. 


But only species of two genera are described in the ‘ Challenger Report.’ 


Genus 22. Gemellaria, Savigny. 


‘Zoarium erect, phytoid. Zocecia joined back to back; the cells 
composing the pairs rising one from the top of the other, all the pairs 
facing the same way. Aperture large, on the front of the cell, slightly 


1. Gemellaria loricata, Linw., Sys. Ed. 10-815; Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. 
; Pol.,’ p. 18, pl. i. figs. 1-4. 

m2(?). Willisii, Dawson, coasts of Nova Scotia. This latter 
form differs from G. loricata ‘in its narrower and 
less inflated cells and longer apertures, and in its 
more dense habit of growth.’ I believe with Mr. 
Hincks that the species ‘ presents only the character 
of a variety,’ and he places it as a synonym of 
G. loricata. 


Genus 23. Didymia, Busk. 
Didymia, Busk, ‘ Voy. of Rattlesnake,’ ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 


_ *Zocecia joined side by side, all facing the same way. At a bifurcation 
each zocecium of the primary pair giving off a secondary pair. Frontal 
area almost entirely membranous. Ocecia on a third intermediate zocecium 
at a bifurcation.’— Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 47. 

Didymia simplex, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 47. Id., ‘Brit. Mus. Cat.,’ 
Macgil., Wyville Thom. 


Genus 24. Dimetopia, Busk. 
‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.,’ ‘ Voy. of Rattlesnake,’ Macgil. 


‘Zocecia in pairs, apposed back to back ; infundibuliform, witha large 
orifice, each pair facing in a direction at right angles to that of the 
next; at a bifurcation each of the separate zocecia gives of a secondary 
 pair.’—Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ 

1. Dimetopia cornuta, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p, 47. 
2. . spicata, Busk. 


i 


Genus 25. Scruparia, Hincks. 
_- * Joarium erect. Branches given off from the back of a cell, and 
_ facing in the opposite direction. Zocecia sub-calcareous, rising one from 
_ the other, so as to form a single series, or placed back to back. Aperture 
small, unarmed, slightly oblique, terminal. Ovicelligerous cells small, 
and imperfectly developed, placed back to back with the ordinary cells. 
Ocecia terminal. No avicularia or vibracula.’—Brit. Mar. Pol. p. 21. 
Scruparia clavata, Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar, Pol.’ p. 24. 


‘Quart. Jour. Mic. Soe.’ pl. xvii. figs. 5-8. 


528 REPORT—1885. 


Geuus (26°). Brettia, Dyster. 


By some oversight Mr. Busk refers this genus to two different 
families. See genus 5 of the present Report. 


Genus 27. Huxleya, Dyster. 


‘Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc.’ vi. p. 260, 1858; Hincks, ‘Brit. Mar. 
Polyzoa,’ p. 26. 

‘Zoarium corneous or sub-calcareous, dichotomously branched, the 
branches given off from the top or side of a cell, and facing in the same 
direction. Zocecia uniserial; orifice small, sub-terminal, unarmed.’— 
Brit. Mar. Polyzoa, p. 26. 

Huxleya fragilis, Dyster, Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ pl. ii. fig. 1. 

Mr. Hincks has altered the generic character of Dyster. The original 
description represents the cells as biserial; hence in placing the genus 


in the Gemellaride it appears to be out of place. Mr. Hincks places 
Hualeya in his family Evcratip# in company with Brettia. 


Family IX. Farciminariade. 


Td., Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ and ‘ Challenger Report’ only. 

‘Zoarium sub-membranaceous or corneous, continuous, erect, ramose, 
radicate. Zocecia quadri- or multi-serial, disposed round an imaginary 
axis, and forming cyclindrical or prismatic branches.’—Challenger Rep., 

. 48. 

’ Only one genus is placed in this family by Mr. Busk in the ‘ Challenger 
Report,’ but in his remarks on Farciminaria he suggests the necessity of 
establishing two species formerly described as Farciminaria (‘ Quart. 
Jour. Mic. Soc.’ new ser., vol. i. p. 155) in a genus by themselves as 
Verrucularia,! V. Suhr, 

= Farciminaria, id., Busk. 

Port Phillip (Australia), Kirchenpauer. 


Regarded by V. Suhr as a fucus = Verrucularia dichotoma, V. Suhr, 
‘Flora,’ 1834, p. 725, tab. i. fig. 9. 

Verrucularia Binderi, Harvey (?), ‘Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc.’ vol. i. 
p. 156, pl. xxxv. figs. 2, 2a. 

In his original description of the above, Mr. Busk makes the following 
remarks (loc. cit. p. 156) :— 

‘Tt seems doubtful whether these two species should be referred to 
our genus Farciminaria, but we have thought it better, provisionally at 
any rate, to place them in it. Should it be thought advisable to separate 
them from F’. aculeata, there appears to be no reason against the adoption 
of V. Suhr’s name, Verrucularia, notwithstanding his having placed the 
genus among the Fuci.’ 


Genus 28. Farciminaria, Busk. 


Id., Busk, ‘Brit. Mus. Cat. Kirchenpauer (pars)? ‘ Challenger 
Report,’ p. 48. : 

Zoarium furcate or dichotomous; the angle of each bifurcation 

1 Verrucularia dichotoma ( V. Suhr), ‘ Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc.’ vol. i. p. 155, pl. xxxv. 
figs. 1, la. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 529 


ecupied by a hollow membranous expansion (modified zocecium ?). 
jowecia oblong, elongated, almost entirely membranous in front, which is 
epressed or flat, with an acute angular border. Avicularia, when 
resent, sessile or sub-immersed, placed at the bottom in front, Mouth 
lose to the summit, more or less protruded, the oral valve projecting. 
Jeecia cucullate, superior. 
_ Hight species are described in the ‘ Challenger Report,’ all of which 
re new, and as these peculiar forms are found generally in deep seas I 
ve given the depth in which each form was taken, the same as in some 
he species of the genus Bugula in a former part of the present 


1. Farciminaria atlantica, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxi. fig. 6. 450- 
390 fathoms. 
2. s cribraria, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. v. fig. 2. 1,900 


fathoms, 

% magna, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. v. fig. 1. 1,675 and 
2,650 fathoms. 

- Var. armata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl: xe. fie, 1. 
1,900 fathoms. 

sn Brasiliensis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxi. fig. 2. 400 
fathoms. 

4 Pacifica, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxi. fig. 4. 2,300 
fathoms. 

u gracilis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. v. fig. 3. 1,675 
fathoms, 32 to 400 fathoms. 

- delicatissima, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxi. fig. 5. 
1,900, 2,175, 2,400, 1,850, and 1,950 fathoms. 

% hexagona, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xiv. fig. 10, 
pl. xxxi. fig. 3. 140 to 310, 825, and 1,425 
fathoms. 


n these Farciminariw very peculiar characters are noted by the 
or, and the student of both the recent and fossil species of Polyzoa 
d do well to refer to them. 

if we except the two species already placed in the genus Verrucularia 
Suhr) the only species described in the ‘ Brit, Mus, Cat.’ by Mr. Busk 
he following, which will make nine species in all :— 


9. Farciminaria aculeata, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
Btr)at .,, uncinata, Hincks, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ Oct. 1884, 
p. 277, pl. viii. fig. 2. 


his is the Australian species originally described by Mr. Busk, but 
- atlantica, Busk, No. 1 of the above list, ‘strongly resembles’ F. 
ia. specially so ‘in the aculeate marginal spines being simple, 
| not furcate, as they mostly are in the Australian species, on the 
nness and comparatively smaller size of ocecium, and in the’ pre- 
ence on very many of the zowcia of a large avicularium.’ ! 


* 1 Busk, Chal. Rep. p. 49. 


530 REPORT—1885. 


Group /. FLustRINA. 


Family X. Flustride 


= Flustride, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’; Gray (pars) 

= Flustride (pars), D’Orb.; Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa.’ 
Smitt, ‘ Krit. Fortech. Scandinav. B.’ 

= Escharide (pars), Johnst., ‘ Brit. Zoophites.’ 


Mr Busk in the ‘Chalienger Report’ arranges the genera of this 
family differently from that of Mr. Hincks in his ‘British Marine 
Polyzoa.’ 


Genus Flustra, Linn. 
»  Carbasea, Gray. 
»,  Diachoris, Busk, ‘ Challenger Report.’ 


Mr. Hincks does not separate the species of Carbasea, but includes 
the whole in the genus Flustra, and Diachoris he places in a different 
family. 

The following is Mr. Hincks’s arrangement in his ‘ British Marine 
Polyzoa’ :— 

Family Flustride 


= Escharide (pt.), Johnston, ‘ Brit. Zoophites,’ D’Orb., ‘Pal. Fr.’ 
= Flustridex (pt.), Busk ; Flustride, Smitt. 


‘Zoarium corneous and flexible, expanded, foliaceous, erect. Zocecia 
contiguous, multiserial. Avicularia usually of a very simple type.’— 
Hincks, p. 113. 


Genus Flustra, Linneus 


(for F. papyracea) 
= Chartella, Gray; Carbasea, Gray; Semiflustra (sp.), D’Orbigny. 
‘Zoarium erect, frondose. Zocecia disposed in a single layer, or in 
two layers, united by the dorsal surfaces, more or less quadrangular or 
linguiform, with a raised margin, the aperture occupying the whole or 
a considerable portion of the front of the cell, and closed in by a mem- 
branous covering. Ocecia immersed.’—Hincks, p. 114. 


a. Zoarium in two layers. 


1. Flustra foliacea, Linneus, Hincks, p. 115, pl. xiv. and xvi. 
2 »  papyracea, H/l. & Sol., Hincks, p. 118, pl. xvi. fig. 2. 
3. ,,  securifrons, Pallas, Hincks, p. 120, pl. xvi. fig. 3. 
5 Var. papyracea, Dalyell. : 

4 »  Barleeii, Busk, ‘Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc.’ 1860, p. 123, pl. 
xxv. fig. 4; Hincks, p. 122, pl. v. figs. 6-8. : 

b. Zocecia in a single layer. ‘ 


5. Flustra Carbasea, Hil. & Sol., Hincks, p. 123, pls. xiv. and xvi. 
= Carbasea papyracea, Gray 
= Carbasea, paperea, Busk, Alder 
= Semiflustra carbusea, D’Orb. 


These are the only British species recorded, described, and figured 
by Mr. Hincks. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. SSL 


_. here is something very peculiar abont the zocecia of F. Barleeti. 
The cells are large and rectangular, with an unarmed margin, avicularia 
‘oblique. Ovicells in the dry specimens immersed. This is caused by 
the top wall of the zoccium, to which the ovicell is attached, being 
lower than the side walls which support the roofing. The localities 
of the species are Shetland, in aboat 50 fathoms; entrance to the 

Bémmelfjord, in 106 fathoms (Kirchenpauer). 
In his ‘ Contributions’ Mr. Hincks describes other species of Flustra. 


6. Flustra dentigera, Hincks, Australia, ‘Annals,’ Feb. 1882, pl. v. fig. 7. 
‘e reticulum, Hincks, - 

Flustra dissimilis, Busk, Bass’s Straits. 
8: »  solida, Stimpson. See Note on Hincks’s Pol. Barrent’s Sea, 
‘Annals,’ Oct. 1880, p, 282, pl. xv. figs. 2, 3. 


The following species is a peculiarly northern form, but Mr. Hincks 
gives it in his Report in the ‘ Poly. Queen Charlotte Is.’ 


” 


9. Flustra membranaceo-truncata, Smitt. 
Virago Sound, North Sea, and Arctic Seas common. 


In the ‘Challenger Report’ Mr. Busk describes four species of Flustra, 
three of which are new; seven species of Carbasea, two of which are 
mew ; and five species of Diachoris. 


§ A. Zocecia contiguous. 
§$ a. Utrinque porose, Linn. 


Genus 29. Flustra, Linn. 


‘Zocecia disposed in two inseparable layers (except when decurrent).’ 
—Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 53. 


1. Flustra crassa, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xvi. fig. 6. 
Remarkable, says Mr. Busk, for its thick, almost fleshy 
consistence. 
The species is only recorded from one station, 149a. 
Kerguelen Island, 28 fath. 
2. »  denticulata, Busk, ‘ Chal Rep.’ pl. xxxii. fig. 2 
= F. denticulata, var. inermis, Busk, ‘Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
3. »  biseriata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xvi. fig. 1. 
4. » membraniporides, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. xxxii. fig. 7. 


Genus 30. Carbasea, Gray. 


*Zocecia in a single layer. Front either completely or partially mem- 
‘ranous.’—Chal. Rep., p. 55. 


1. Carbasea ovoidea, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xvi. fig. 3, and ‘ Brit. 
y Mas. Cat.’ p. 52, &c. 
2. e dissimilis, Bk., ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 55 
' = C. dissimilis, Bk., ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ p. 51 
= Flustra carbasea, var. 3, Lamk. 
3. A elegans, Bk., ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xvi. fig. 5, and ‘ Brit. Mus. 
: Cat.’ p. 53. 
~ pedunculata, Bk., ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xvi. fig. 4. 
ie 5. »  Moseleyi, Bk., ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl, xxxiii. fig. 4. Specimen 
: showing the polypides. 
MM 2 


532 REPORT—1885. 


6. Carbasea piciformis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 57, and ‘ Brit. Mus. 
Cat.’ p. 50. 

fk Fe cribriformis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxiv. fig. 8, and 
‘Brit. Mus. Cat.’ p. 51 
= Retepora cornea, Bhk., ‘ Voy. of Rattlesnake,’ vol. i. 
p. 380. 


Genus 31. Diachoris, Busk. 


‘Zoarium flexuose, spreading, loosely adnate, or sub-erect and free.. 
Zoccia flustrine, completely distinct, each connected, with six or more, 
by tubular processes.’—COhal. Rep., p. 59 

= Diachoris, Bush, ‘ Voy. of Rattles.’; ‘Brit. Mus. Cat.’ ; Heller ;. 
Macgil. ; Hutton 
= Mollia (pars) Smitt. Eschara (pars) Moll. 
1. Diachoris Magellanica, Bh., ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 59 


= D. Mageilanica, Bk., ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
= D. Buskei, Heller, ‘ Adriatic.’ 


1 re Var. a, distans, Bh., ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xvi. fig. 2. 

2, 55 crotali, Bk., ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 59, and ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ ; 
‘ Voy. of Rattles.’; Macgil.; ‘Nat. Hist. Vic.’ Decad. 
V.peis2. 

3. 3 costata, Bh., ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxiv. fig. 4. 

4. 55 inermis, Bk., ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 60, and ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 

. 54, 
5. 7 hiteane, Heller, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 61 


=D. hirtissima, Heller, ‘ Adriatic,’ p. 94 
= Chaunosia, id., Bk., ‘Quart. Jour. Mic. Soe.’ vol. 
vil. pl. xxxvi. figs. 12-16. 


In addition to this very full record of the genus Diachoris from the 
‘Challenger Report’ of Mr. Busk, I think it only fair on my part to give 
as full a list as possible from all other sources, not only of the genus 
Diachoris, but of Flustra and Carbusea also. 

No true Diachoris has yet been recorded as occurring in British Seas, 
but Mr. Waters in his ‘Bay of Nap. Bry.’ (op. cit. p. 120, Feb. 1879) 
records three species from this locality. 


1. Diachoris patellaria, Moll., ‘Aun. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ Feb. 1879, pl. x. 
= Eschara, id., Moll. ; Mollia, id., Smett 
= Diachoris simplex, Heller, ‘ Bry. Adr.’ 


2. »” » Var. multijuncta, Waters 
= Eschara depressa, Moll. 
3. 3 Magellanica, Busk, ‘Mar. Pol.’ p. 54 
= D. Buskei, Heller. 
Mr. Hincks, ‘Contrib. to Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ Feb. ‘ 
i 1881, p. 157, describes a new form from New Zealand. — 


3 bilaminata, Hincks, pl. viii. figs. 7, 7a, and the zoarium — 
is composed of two layers of cells placed back to back; — 
the connecting tubes six in number, and very short. 

Mr. Waters says the definition of Diachoris would — 


‘In a note Mr. Busk says that the D. distans described by Mr. Hincks from 4 
South Africa is quite distinct from the above. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 533. 


require altering to admit his D. patellaria, var. multi- 
juncta,. .. and he says that Diachoris can only be 
looked upon asa provisional one ; an opinion with which 
Mr. Hincks ‘ quite agrees.’ But Mr. Hincks says in 
addition to this that ‘the affinity between Diachoris 
and Beania and Bugula is of the closest kind.’ ‘Ann. 
Mag. Nat. Hist.’ Feb. 1881, p. 157. The following are 
the described species :— 
5. Diachoris crotali, Busk, Bass’s Straits. 
Magellanica, Busk = D. Buskei, Heller, Straits of 
Magellan; New Zealand. 
inermis, Busk, same localities. 
costata, Busk, Kerguelen Island. 
spinigera, Macqil., Australia. 
hirtissima, Heller, Adriatic; Cape of Good Hope 
= Chaunosia, id., Busk. 
Buskiana, Hutton, New Zealand. 

In another of his ‘ Contributions’ Mr. Hincks de- 
scribes other species of this genus (‘Ann. Mag. Nat. 
Hist.’ Aug. 1881, pp. 1382-134). 

distans, Hincks, op. cit. p. 132, pl. v. figs. 4-6, South 

Africa. Resembles the D. spinigera, Macgil. 

a intermedia, Hincks, op. cit. p. 133, Tasmania. 

ub hirtissima, Heller. 
form. robusta, Hincks, op.-cit. p. 133, pl. v. figs. 9, 9a. 

The Chawnosia fragilis described by Mr. Ridley 

(Proc. Zool. Soc. 1881, p. 45), from the Straits of 
Magellan, ‘ approaches still more nearly to Beania; its 
polypide, however, is said to be furnished with a 
gizzard, and it may possibly be entitled to generic 
rank.’—Hincks, op. cit. p. 133. 


In another paper, ‘ Polyzoaof New Zealand and Australia,’ contri- 
butions ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ March 1885, Mr. Hincks gives a very 
full account of Diachoris, and describes two new species. 


Diachoris elongata, Hincks, pl. ix. fig. 1, Napier, New Zealand. 
x quadricornuta, Hincks, pl. ix. fig. 2, Australia. 


Very many of these Australian forms of Polyzoa, though described 
by Mr. Hincks, we owe to the laborious scrutiny of Miss E. C. Jelly, 
whose specimens Mr. Hincks so justly and so continuously acknowledges ; 
Some specimens we owe to Miss Gatty ; but for the enthusiastic dredgings 
of Mr. Bracebridge Wilson, the Port Phillip Head (Victoria) Polyzoa 
would have been a loss to science. 

Mr. Hincks! speaking of the genus Diachoris, as originally defined 
by Busk, says that it ‘must be regarded as a purely artificial division. 
But most of the forms which have been ranked under the name present 
well-marked characters . . . and are properly associated as a natural 
group. They have the cell of Bugula and are furnished with the capitate 
and articulated avicularium so characteristic of that genus. ... And 
probably the natural relationships would be best represented by ranking 
the true forms of Diachoris as a subsection of the genus Bugula.’ The 


» Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., March 1885, p. 246. 


534 REPORT—1885. 


disjunct cells is a character which would seem to have but little real 
significance, for Mr. Hincks says, ‘it seems as an occasional condition in 
species the cells of which are normally continuous, and we have an instance 
of this in the disjunct form of the well-known Microporella Malusii.’ 
Microporella Malusii, Awdouin, form disjuncta, Hincks, ‘Ann. Mag. 
Nat. Hist.’ vol. xv. 5th series, March 1885, p. 249. 


Family XI. Membraniporiide, Busk, 


‘Challenger Report,’ p. 61 

= Membraniporide (pars), ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.,’ Smitt and Hincks 

= Microporidey (sp.), Smitt and Hincks. 
For other synonyms, see Report. 

‘Zoarium membranous, membranaceo-calcareous, encrusting and 
adnate, or erect and free, foliaceous or lobed, then bilaminar or polygono- 
cylindrical. Zocecia depressed in front with a raised border, the area 
filled in by a chitinous membrane, beneath which may be an entire or 
partial calcified lamina.’—Chal. Rep. p. 61. 

As this very important group is differently arranged by Mr. Busk in 
the above Report than by Mr. Hincks in his ‘ British Marine Polyzoa,” 
and in his papers, ‘Contributions to a General History of the Marine 
Polyzoa,’ I must be pardoned if in this and the following parts of my 
Report I give as full a digest as possible of the views of the different 
authors ; especially so as Mr. Hincks—and others who adopted his classi- 
fication—had made considerable advances previous to the publication of 
the ‘ Challenger Report.’ 

The following genera are contained in the ‘ Challenger’ collection, 
which Mr. Busk arranges as below :— 


. Membranipora, Blainville. 2 sections, a and /3. 

Amphiblestrum, Gray. 

Biflustra, D’ Orbigny. 

. Foveolaria, Busk. New genera. 

. Pyripora, D’Orbigny. No species in the ‘ Challenger’ collection, 


Genus 32. Membranipora, Blainville 


= Membranipora (pars), Blainv., Johnst., Auc. 
= Annulipora, Conopeum, Cellepora, Amphiblestrum (sp.), Gray 
= Cellipora (pars), D’Orb., Hag. = Marginaria, Remer. 


‘Zoarium encrusting, adnate, calcareous or sub-calcareous; zocecia 
quincuncially or serially disposed in transverse rows or irregularly ; no 
internal calcareous lamina ; operculum incomplete.’—Op. cit. p. 62. 

In a note Mr. Busk says that the term incomplete is applied to an. 
operculum whose lower border is membranous and more or less ill 
defined. 

The genus Membranipora, like the old genus Lepralia, has become 
by the addition of many new species almost unmanageable. Hven so as 
restricted as above. Mr. Busk says the ‘ genus Membranipora includes 
so many species that it becomes advisable to subdivide it into sections. I 
am acquainted, either actually or by published descriptions, with between 
thirty and forty living species, to which no doubt copious additions remain 
to be made.’ 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 535 


} § a. Simplices (no marginal spines). 
1. Membranipora albida (?), Hincks, pl. xv. fig. 4. 
2M. albida, Hincks. (See following No. 33.) 
2. is crassimarginata, Hincks. (No. 30.) 
Var. a, erecta, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xiv. fig. 3. 
» /, incrustaris, Busk, ‘Chai. Rep.’ pl. xv., fig. 5. 
= ? Biflustra Lacroixii, Smitt, ‘Florid Bryozoa,’ 
pl. ii. p. iv. figs. 85-88. 


§ 6. Spinosee. 


3. Membranipora spinosa, D’Orb. ‘ Voy. en Amér. Mérid.’ pl. viii. fig. 1 
= M. ciliata, Macgil. ‘Nat. Hist. Vict.’ Decade III. 
; = M. spinosa, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 64. 
4. i galeata, Busk,‘ Chal. Rep.’ 64; and ‘Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
Var. a, furcata, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 64. 
» P, wmultifida, Busk, 45 :, 
» Y, erecta, Busk, i p. 65. 


Genus 33. Amphiblestrum, Gray. 
Type of Genus, Membranipora Flemingit. 
(See following list, No. 21 to 26.) 


‘A partial internal calcareous lamina. Aperture more or less trifoliate 
or obovate.’ —Chal. Rep. p. 65. 


1. Amphiblestrum imbricatum, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xv. fig. 3. 


2. + cristatum, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xv. fig. 1. 
3. of papillatum, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxiii. fig. 1. 
4. js cervicorne, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 66 
= Membranipora, id. ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ p. 60. 
5. r umbonatum, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 66 
= Membranipora, id. ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ p. 57. 
6. 43 capense, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxiii. fig. 3. 


This last species is very doubtfully placed with Amphiblestrum. 


Genus 34. Biflustra, D’ Orbigny 


= Biflustra, D’Orb.; Busk, ‘Crag Polyzoa,’ p. 71. Manzoni, 
Stolickza, Macgil. (sp.), Smitt (pars) 
= Flustrellaria (pars), D’ Orb. 


Zoarium dimorphous, encrusting or decurrent, and unilaminar, or 
foliaceous erect, and bilaminar, readily fissile in all directions. Zocecia 
in alternate series, longitudinal or transverse. Zocecia flustrine, quad- 
rangular or hexagonal (?), with a denticulate lamina at bottom. 


Biflustra Savartii, Awdouin, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xiv. fig. 2 
= Flustra, id. Aud., ‘ Mgypte’ pl. x. fig. 10 
= Membranipora, id. D’Orb., ‘ Paleon.’; Busk, ‘ Crag Polyzoa,’ 
: p- ol. 


= A corrugata, Blainv. 
= Biflustra Savartii, Smt, ‘ Florid. Bry.’ 


_ Mr. Busk says of this species that there may be some doubt whether 
this is really Flustra Savartii of Savigny and of the Crag. 


536 REPORT—1885. 
Genus 35. Foveolaria, Busk (‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 68). 


Zoarium erect, branched and cylindrical, or foliaceous and bilaminar. 
Front of zocecia with a thick granular border very deeply imbedded in a 
pit formed by the thickening of the general ectocyst. A sessile 
avicularium immediately below or in front of the lower border of the pit. 


1. Foveolaria elliptica, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxiii. fig. 5. 
2. bf orbicularis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxiii. fig. 4. 
3. a tubigera, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xiv. fig. 4. 

4., ‘ falcifera, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xv. fig. 6. 


Genus 36. Pyripora, D’ Orbigny. 
Type of genus, Hippothoa (Membranipora) catenularia, Jameson. 


Now that I have given a full list of the whole of the species, in the 
several divisions of the MrmpBraniporipa, Busk (‘Challenger Report’), 
I do not think that it will be considered at all out of place if I furnish, 
to the best of my ability, a full list of described forms, details of which 
will be found in the works of Mr. Busk (‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’), Mr. Waters 
(‘ Bay of Nap. Bryozoa’ and ‘ Papers on Australian Bryozoa’), Mr. Hincks 
(‘Brit. Mar. Polyzoa’), and Contributions, &c. ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 
Many of the species—thanks to the kindness of Miss E. C. Jelly—are in 
my cabinet; and even now, from what I know of undescribed species, 
many remain yet with manuscript names, which will ultimately find 
their proper place in our lists. For obvious reasons I include no species 
in the list which have not been fully described. 


Family. Membraniporide, Hincks. 


‘Zoarium calcareous or membrano-calcareous, incrusting. Zocecia 
forming an irregular continuous expansion, or in linear series, with raised 
margins, and more or less membranaceous in front.’ — Brit. Mar. 
Polyzoa, p. 126. 

Genus. Membranipora, Blainv. 


‘Zoarium incrusting. Zocecia quincuncial or irregularly disposed, 
occasionally in linear series ; margins raised ; front depressed, wholly or 
in part membranaceons.’— Brit. Mar. Polyzoa, p. 128. 

a. With a membranous front wall. 
British Species. 


1. Membranipora Lacroixii, Aud. (op. cit. p. 129, pl. xvii. figs. 5-8). 

2. . Monostachys, Busk (op. cit. pl. xvii. figs. 3, 4, 
pl. xvii. figs. 1-4). 

3 i Var. a, fossaria, Hincks. 

4. A catenularia, Jameson (p. 134, pl. xvii. figs. 1, la, 2). 

5. . pilosa, Linneus (op. cit. p. 137, pl. xxiii. figs. 1-4). 

6. 53 Var. a, dentata, Hincks. 

Oe Ae Var. 3, laxa, Smitt. 

he ¥ Var. y, (Pallas’s sp.) 

8. Hi membranacea, Linn. (op. cit. p. 140, pl. xviii. 
figs. 5-6). 

Oo. $s hexagona, Busk (op. cit. p. 143, pl. xviii. fig. 7). 

10. 5 lineata, Linn. (op. cit. p. 143, pl. xix. figs. 3-6). 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 537 


11. Membranipora craticula, Alder (p. 147, pl. xix. fig. 7). 
12. 5 spinifera, Johnston (p. 149, pl. xix. fig. 1, &.). 


1S. f flustroides, Hincks (p. 151, pl. xix. fig. 2). 

14. 3 discreta, Hincks (p. 152, pl. xix. figs. 8, 9). 

a5. 5 curvirostris, Hincks (p. 153, pl. xx. figs. 5, 6). 

16. 3 unicornis, Fleming (p. 154, pl. xx. fig. 4). 

7. 4 Dumerilii, Aud. (p. 156, pl. xx. fig. 3). 

18. “ solidula, Alder and Hincks (p. 158, pl. xx. 
figs. 7, 8). 

19. a, aurita, Hincks (p. 159, pl. xxi. figs. 5, 6). 

20. a imbellis, Hincks (p. 160, pl. xx. figs. 1, 2). 


b. With a calcareous lamina. 
21. Membranipora Flemingii, Busk (p. 162, pl. xxi. figs. 1-3). 


22. “ cornigera, Dusk (p. 164, pl. xxi. fig. 4; pl. xxi. 
fig. 3). 

23. Rosselii, Aud. (p. 166, pl. xxii. fig. 4). 

24, 5 trifoliam, S. Wood (p. 167, pl. xxii. figs. 5, 6). 

25. i minax, Busk (p. 169, pl. xxii. figs. 2 to 2c). 

26. + nodulosa, Hincks (p. 170, pl. xx. fig. 9). 


As the whole of the above species are described and figured in the 
* Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ I have not thought it necessary to load my text with 
the synonymy, range in space and time, and the localities, given so fully 
by Mr. Hincks. This will be givenin tabular form. Some of the species 
are very widely distributed round our coast, others are more restricted 
in their range; but as no one would attempt to describe the Polyzoa 
without consulting this book, I believe the mere name of the species 
will be a sufficient introduction to future students. From what I have 
seen of Mr. Shrubsole’s specimens, collected from Llandudno, I may say 

that in this locality the collector may gather a rich harvest of forms. 

_ At Hastings, Devon, and Cornwall, both from the shore débris and also 
from deep-sea dredgings, many species may be collected; but as some 

few of the localities are really classical hunting grounds, I shall consider 

it to be an advantage, rather than a disadvantage, to give separate lists 
—withont much special details—of these places. 

The following appear in Mr. A. W. Waters’s papers on the ‘ Bryozoa 
of the Bay of Naples,’ but I have only numbered those species which 
are really additions to the British list (‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ 

Feb. 1879, pp. 121, 122). 


Membranipora pilosa, Pall. 
membranacea, Linn. 


: + Rosselii, Awd. 
vs Flemingii, Busk, pl. xiii. fig. 2 (see No. 228). 
‘ - Var. gregaria, Heller, pl. xiii. fig. 5 
: =M. gregaria, Heller, ‘Die Bryoz. des 
Adriatic ’ 
= M. aperta, Manzoni, ‘ Castrocaro.’ 
27. a angulosa, Reuss., pl. xiii. fig. 3. 


For very full details of fossil species of Membranipora, which range 
from Recent to Eocene both in Europe and Australia, see the ‘ Fifth Brit. 
Assoc. Report on Fossil Polyzoa,’ 1884, Montreal (mzhi), Nos. 42 to 73. 


538 REPORT—1885. 


In a series of papers, ‘Contributions towards a General History of 
Marine Polyzoa,’ the Rey. Thomas Hincks has described and figured 
many new forms of Membranipora from several localities. Many of these 
species were collected by Miss E. C. Jelly and Miss Gatty, and submitted 
to Mr. Hincks for examination. I have only numbered the new forms— 
or new to present list. 

Mapzrra Sprcizs. 


28. Membranipora tenuirostris, Hincks, pl. ix. fig. 3 
= M. Flemingii, Waters, Bay of Nap. Pol. ‘Ann. 
Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ February 1879. 


PAS). a nodulifera, Hincks, pl. ix. fig. 2. 
30. “a crassimarginata, Hincks, pl. ix. fig. 1. 
31. granulifera, Hincks, pl. ix. fig. 4. 
(This species belongs to the M. Flemingti group.) 
32. * sceletos, Busk = Lepralia, zd. ‘Quart. Jour. Mic. 


Soe.’ 1858. ‘ Zoophytology,’ Busk, pl. xx. fig. 3. 


From the Contributions towards a General History of the Marine 
Polyzoa, Rev. T. Hincks, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ vol. vi. 1880, pp. 
69-91. In the same contribution, Part II., Mr. Hincks describes in full 
the following species under various divisions (p. 81, &c.) :— 


a. Species with a membranous front wall. 


33. Membranipora albida, Hincks, pl. x. fig. 5. Loc.: Singapore; on 
Tubipora musica, Allied to M. curvirostris, 


Hincks. 

34, 3 plana, Hincks, pl. xi. fig. 2. Loc. : Australia. 

35. 5 armifera, Hincks, pl. xi. fig. 5. Loc.: Gulf of 
St. Lawrence; on Flustra membranacea. Allied 
to M. sophizw, Busk. 

36. rr horrida, Hincks, pl. x. fig. 6. Loc. : California. 

37. i. Carteri, Hincks. Australia. Mr. Hincks speaks 


of this species as having a special interest, ‘as 
being the only known Membranipora which pos- 
sesses a fully developed bird’s head appendage 
identical in structure with that of the genera 
Bugula and Bicellaria.’ And in a note he adds 
that M. minaz, Sm. (= M. princeps, Hincks) 
is furnished with an avicularia which has the 
form of the bird’s head, but it is fixed. M. Oarteré 
has the appendage articulated. 

38. * pura, Hincks, pl. xi. fig. 3. Australia or New 
Zealand. 

39. - villosa, Hincks, pl. x. fig. 8. 

a’. Cell prolonged below the aperture. 

40. Membranipora distorta, Hincks, pl. x. fig. 7. Loc.: Ceylon. There 
is evidence of affinity between this interesting 
form and the common M. pilosa. 


b. With a calcareous lamina. 


41. Membranipora nitens, Hincks, pl. xi. fig. 4. Australia; on Polyzoa. 


‘ Certainly distinct,’ says Mr. Hincks, ‘from the 
South Atlantic M. tuberculata, Bosc.’ 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 539 


42. Membranipora delicatula, Busk, pl. xi. fig. 1.  Biflustra, ¢d.,. 
Crag Polyzoa. ? Biflustra deliculata, Smitt. 
‘Florid. Bry.’ (Not. M. deliculata, Bush.) 


43. a trifolium, S. Wood. Var. minor, Hincks, pl. xi. 
fig. 6. Loc.: Bahia ; on shell. 
4A. 5 antiqua, Busk, pl. xi. fig. 7. Busk, ‘Quart. Jour. 


Mic. Soc.’ vol. vi. p. 262, pl. xx. fig. 12. 
c. With a membranous front wall, the orifice surrounded by a border. 


Operculum with a distinct hinge. 


45. Membranipora mamillaris, Lamz., pl. x. fig. 9. Loc. : Australia. 
46. ‘2 transversa, Hincks, pl. xi. fig. 9. Seems to be 
nearly related to M. Woodsui, Macgil. 


a. With a membranous front wall." 


47. Membranipora coronata, Hincks, p. 147, pl. x. fig. 1. Loc.: Singa- 
pore ; on coral. 


48. - terrifica, Hincks, pl. viii. fig. 5. Loc.: Straits of 
Magellan; on Eschara flabellaris, Busk. 

49, 3 rubida, Hincks, pl. viii. fig. 6. Loc.: Australia; on 
stone. 

50. ty bicolor, Hincks, p. 148, pl. ix. fig. 1. Loc.: West 
Australia. 

d51. va bellula, Hincks, p. 149, pl. viii. figs. 4, 4a, 40. 

dla. EF re Var. a, bicornis. 

51d. 3 » £, maulticornis. Loc.: Normal and 


var. 3, Australia, Ceylon; var. a, Madagascar, 
St. Vincent, Cape Verd Islands. 


b. With a calcareous lamina. 


52. Membranipora patula, Hincks, p. 150, pl. ix. fig. 4. Loc. : Cali- 
fornia. 

53. i setigera, Hincks, pl. viii. fig. 3. Loc.: Australia, 
investing Serpula. M. setigera belongs to the 
same section of the genus as our own British 
species, M. Rosselii and M. trifolium. 

54, 5 spinosa, Quoy and Gaimard. 

= flustra, id., Quoy and Gaimard, ‘ Voy. de l’Astro- 
lobe.’ 

= M. ciliata, Macgil, Transac. 

= M. spinosa, Busk, ‘ Polyzoa of Kerguelen Island.’ 
D’Orb. describes a species of M. spinosa (‘ Voy. 
dans l’Amér.’) which bears a close resemblance 
to M. spinifera, Johnst. Loc.: Kerguelen Island ; 
Australia; Arabian Sea, between Bombay and 


Aden. 

50. 3 permunita, Hincks, p. 151, pl. x. fig. 2. Loc.: Off 
Curtis Island, Bass’s Straits. 

56. 2 denticulata, Macgil. pl. viii. fig. 2 


= Caleschara, 7d., ‘Prod. Zool. Vict.’ 
1 Continuation of Papers by Mr. Hincks, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Feb. 1881. 


540 REPORT— 1885. 


57. Membranipora cervicornis, Busk, pl. viii. fig. 1, pl. x. fig. 8. Mr. 
Hincks (pp. 153, 154) gives ‘several interesting 
particulars of this form. 


In Captain Warren’s collection of Polyzoa, in the possession of the 
Free Museum, Liverpool, Mr. Hincks gives additional particulars of new 
Membranipora (‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ July 1881). 


58. Membranipora pyrula, Hincks, pl. i. fig. 2, p. 3 
= M. lineata, Macgil., ‘Prod. Zool. Victoria.’ Loc. : 
Bass’s Straits. 


59. * inarmata, Hincks, pl. iv. fig. 4. 

53. : vitrea, Hincks, pl. 1. fig. 1. Loc. : Curtis Island. 

54, a punctigera, Hincks, pl.1.fig. . Loc.: Curtis Island; 
on Hetepora. 

50. oe radicifera, Hineks, pl. i. figs. 6, 6a. 

56. bs inornata, Hincks, pl. iv. fig. 5. loc.: Bass’s 
Straits. 

57. 4 roborata, Hincks, pl. ii. fig. 3. [This species seems 


to occupy a somewhat intermediate place between 
Flustra and Membranipora.] Loc.: Off Curtis 
Island. 


Tn another paper (‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ August 1881) Mr. Hincks 
describes the following species :— 


58. Membranipora amplectens, Hincks, pl. iii. fig. 7. Loc.: Australia. 
Species allied to M. pilosa, but differs from it in 
many points. 


59. 55 vetata, Hincks, pl. v. fig. 3. 
60. ‘s circumclathrata, Hincks (op. cit.), p. 131, pl. v. 
fig. 1. 
61. x variegata, Hincks (op. cit.), pl. v. fig. 2. LBoc.: 
Santa Cruz, California; Nos. 59-61. 
= pilosa, Linn. Form, multispinata, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ 


Feb. 1882, pl. v. fig. 6. 


In the ‘ Annals,’ November 1880, vol. vi. 5th series, five species are 
described :— 


Membranipora feng Hincks (op. cit.), p. 376, pl. xvi. fig. 7. 
: Florida ; on weed. 
5p Flomingii, Busk. 
Var. (op. cit.) p. 376, pl. xvi. fig. 8. A spine- 
less form of Busk’s species. 


he pedunculata, Manzoni, pl. xvii. figs. 2, 2a. Loe. : 
Ceylon ; on weed. 

a polita, Hincks (op. cit.), pl. xvii. fig. 1. Zoe: 
Glenelg., Australia. 

4 corbula, Hincks (op. cit.), p. 378, pl. xvii. fig. 6. 


Loc. : Australia. 


Polyzoa of India, coast of Burmah, Contributions, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ 
May 1884, p. 257. 
Membranipora favus, Hincks (op. cit.), pl. xiii. fig. 3. 
b> marginella, Hincks (op. cit.), pl. xiii. fig. 1. 


—_— 


j 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 541 


In his Report on the Polyzoa of Queen Charlotte Island, ‘ Geological 
and Natural Hist. Survey of Canada’ (= Papers in ‘ Annals,’ December 


1882, June 1883, January 1884, March 1884), Mr. Hincks gives very 


elaborate details of the following species :— 
Membranipora variegata, Hincks, Queen Charlotte Island; Cali- 


fornia. ‘Specimens occur in which there are 
two of the pedicellate avicularia at opposite 
sides of the cell instead of the normal one.’ 

acifera, Macgil. Form, multispinata, Hincks, 
‘ Annals,’ Dec. 1882, pl. xix. fig. 4. Loe.: 
Virago Sound, Victoria, Macgil. 

echinus, Hincks (op. cit.), pl. xix. fig. 5 (p. 8 of 
Report). oc.: Houston Stewart Chan.; Cum- 
shewa, 20 fathoms. 

exilis, Hincks (op. cit.), pl. xx. fig. 1. Loc.: 
Houston Stewart Chan. 

Sophie, Busk. Form, matura, Hincks (op. cit.), 
pl. xx. fig. 2. ‘Described as M. conferta 
(‘Annals’ for September 1882). I am now 
convinced that it is a form of M. sophie. 
Smitt notices intermediate varieties.’-—Hincks. 
Loc.: Houston Stewart Chan., Spitzbergen. 

nigrans, Hincks (op. cit.), pl. xix. figs. 2,2a. Loc. : 
Houston Stewart Chan.; Virago Sound. 

levata, Hincks (op. cit.), pl. xix. figs. 6, 6a. Loc. : 
Houston Stewart Chan.; Cumshewa. 

protecta, Hincks (op. cit.), pl. xix. fig. 3. Loc. : 
Virago Sound; Cumshewa. ‘Other species,’ 
says Mr. Hincks, ‘armed with more or less 
branching spines’ are— 

cornigera, Busk, Shetland. 

bellula, Hincks, Australia. 

cervicornis, Busk, Victoria. 

cervicornis, Haswell, Queensland. 

Haswell’s name cannot be retained, having been pre- 
viously employed by Busk. I venture to suggest 
the following as a substitute for it.— Hincks. 

Haswellii, Hincks. 

= M. cervicornis, Haswell. 

corniculifera, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ December 1882, 
pl. xx. figs. 4, 4a. Loc.: Cumshewa. 

minuscula, Hincks (op. cit.), pl. xx. figs. 3, 3a. 

membranacea, Linn. Form, serrata, Hincks. Loc. : 
Virago Sound. 

pallida, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ Appendix, March 1884. 
‘Annals’ and ‘Mag. Nat. History,’ vol. xv., 
Hincks, Contributions, &c. vol. xv., March 1885. 

valdemunita, Hincks (op. cit.), pl. vii. fig. 2. Loe. : 
Napier, New Zealand. 

hians, Hincks (op. cit.), pl. vii. fig. 5. Loc.: New 
Zealand. 

acuta, Hincks (op. cit.), pl. vii. fig. 6. Loc.: New 
Zealand. 


542 REPORT—1885. 


Membranipora perfragilis, Macgil. = Biflustra, id., ‘ Nat. Hist. of 
Victoria,’ Decade VI. p. 27. Figure of Avicu- 
laria, and description given by Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ 
October 1884, pl. vu. fig. 4. Joc.: Victoria, 
Australia. 2 


In the description of New Polyzoa collected by J. Y. Johnson, of — 
Madeira, in the years 1859 and 1860, as Mr. George Busk gave the first _ 
list of Membranipora in the ‘Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc.’ 1858, 1860, 1861, — 
it would be indiscreet on my part not to give it, together with the original 
references. 


Membranipora tuberculata, Bosc., pl. xviii. fig. 4, formerly confounded 
with M. membranacea (see ante, 41). 

trichophora, Busk, pl. xviii. fig. 2. 

antiqua, Busk, pl. xx. figs. 1, 2 (No. 44). 

Rosselii, Aud. (see No. 23). 

Lacroixii, Aud. (see No. 1). 

lineata, Linn. (see No. 10). 

“ calpensis. 


For details of Recent Scandinavian Membranipora and Synonyms, 
see ‘ Fifth Report on Fossil Polyzoa,’ Brit. Assoc. 1884, where I have 
given a full list of Smitt’s identifications. Part I. Historical Labours, 
p. 58 of Report. No. 19 to No. 28. 


Genus 37 (?). Megapora, Hincks. 
‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 1877; ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ p. 171. 


‘Zoarium encrusting. Zocecia, with a depressed area in front, sur- 
rounded by a raised margin, and partially closed in by a calcareous 
lamina; aperture trifoliate, the lower portion filled in by a horny plate 
on which the opercular valve works. —Brit. Mar. Pol. p. 171. 

Megapora ringens, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.’ p. 172, pl. xxii. fig. 1 

= Lepralia ringens, Busk, ‘Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc.’ 
1856, p. 308, pt. 308, pl. ix. figs. 3-5; Norman, — 
Shetland Polyzoa, ‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1868, p. 307. 

This is a deep-water form, and the localities and geographical dis- 

tribution very limited. lLoc.: Shetland, 80-170 fathoms ; Bergen. 


Membraniporide, Hincks. 
Genus Siphonoporella, Hincks. 

‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ Contributions, July 1880. 

‘Zocecia with raised margins, front depressed, in part membrana- 
ceous, a small caleareous tube with wide mouth placed at one side of 
the lamina, below the aperture, and opening into the cavity of the cell. 
Zoarium in only known species encrusting.’— Hincks. 

Siphonella nodosa, Hincks, op. cit. pl. xi. fig. 10. 

Genus Euthyris, Hincks. 


* Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ vol. x. 5th ser. 1882. 
? Tuarropora, Macgil. ‘Trans. Roy. Soc. Victoria,’ Dec. 1881. 


Zoarium corneous, erect and foliaceous. Zocecia with raised margins, 
aperture closed by a membranaceous (or membrano-calcareous) wall ; 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 543 


ifice surrounded by a chitinous border ; oral valves furnished with a 
stinct fringe. 
Euthyris obtecta, Hincks (op. cit. pl. vii. fig. 3). Loc. : Australia. 
4 Macgillivray recently constituted a genus under the name THATROPORA, 
— Macgil., for a parallel group amongst the Membraniporide, and Mr. 
 Hincks says, ‘ we must recognise here the characters of a generic group, 
_ inwhich Carbasea episcopalis, Busk, and C. bombycinna, Ellis & Solander, 
will rank, as well as the species E. obtecta, Hincks.’ As a set off against 
this it will be seen that Mr. Busk—‘ Challenger Report ’—places these 
Species in new divisions. 


iE Family XII. Microporide, Busk 


= ‘Challenger Report,’ p. 70 
= Microporide (pars), Smitt, Hincks 
= Membranipora (pars), Authors. 


‘The much depressed front of the zomcia beneath the chitinous 
epitheca, wholly occupied, except at the summit, by a strong calcareous 
lamina, usually perforated or fissured on the sides, and sometimes form- 

_ ing a transverse diaphragm, which divides the cavity of the zocecium 
into two chambers.’—Op. cit. p. 70. 
> 


Genus Micropora, Gray. 
F Vineularia, Defrance. 
Steganoporella, Smitt. 
Caleschara, Macgillivray. 
»  Diplopora, Macgillivray. 
»  setosella, Hincks. 


” 
”? 
” 


A 
2 
3. 
mr 4. 
5 
6 


Genus 38. Micropora, Gray 


____ = Membranipora (pars), ‘ Brit. Mus. Catalogue ’ 
= Lepralia (sp.), Norman; Steganoporella (sp.), Hincks 
_ = Reptescharellina (pars), D’Orb. 


a: ee: i dh Fic 
_*Zoarium incrusting. Zoccia with an internal calcareous lamina 


_ occupying the entire area, with a perforation at each upper angle below 
_ the orifice, which is apical, with a continuous calcareous peristome.’— 
_ Chal. Rep. p. 70. 
‘1. Micropora uncifera, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xv. fig. 7. 
2. coriacea, Hsper, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 71. 

These are the only two species of this genus in the 
‘Challenger ’ collection. 


” 


In his ‘ British Marine Polyzoa,’ Mr. Hincks describes two species 
only. 


3. 


Cs ee 


Micropora coriacea, Esper, op. cit. p. 174, pl. xxiii. figs. 5-7. 
complanata, Norman, op. cit. pl. xxiii. figs. 8, 9 
= Lepralia, id., ‘ Ann. Nat. Hist.’ 1864 (Norman) 
= Membranipora, Smitt, Manzoni. 


»” 


—— i - 


M. coriacea, var. Hincks, ‘Polyzoa Bass’s Straits.’ ‘ Avicularia 
are more freely developed than in British speci- 
mens. 


544 REPORT—1885. 


4, Micropora elongata, Hincks = Steganoporella, id., Hincks, Africa. 
Di “4 Jervoisii, Hincks=Steganoporella, id., Hincks, Australia, 
‘ Annals,’ Nov. 1880, pl. xvi. figs. 4, 5. 


Genus 39. Vincularia, Defrance. 
See ‘ Challenger Report,’ p. 71. 


‘Zoarium erect, continuous, branched or simple; radicate or fixed. 
Sub-cylindrical or polygonal. Zocecia disposed in alternate longitudinal 
series. Frontal area quadrangular, oblong, arched above, in the natural 
state filled in by a chitinous epitheca, in which is seated the oral orifice. 
Beneath the epitheca a calcareous lamina occupying the lower two thirds 
of the area, and terminating above in a free border, from which a median 
process arises, which joining above a process from each side of the zocecia 
on a level with the lower border of the orifice forms with those pro- 
cesses a transverse ridge, with an arch on each side of the median 
process. Opercula incomplete below, composed of a thickish membrane 
supported on the inner face by a strong chitinous bow having a project- 
ing process near each lower angle for the attachment of the occlusor 
muscles. Ocecia represented by a small chamber in the upper part of 
the cell, which opens above the oral orifice.'—Chal. Rep. p. 72. 

It is very evident that following the above clear definition of what 
Mr. Busk considers as the true probable limit of Vineularia, Defrance, 
many ill-defined fossil species must fall out of the list. Although only 
proposed provisionally, Vincularia, thus defined, have very many 
natural characters for its recommendation ; but still many points in the 
structure of some of the species have been discussed by Mr. A. W. Waters ; 
by Mr. Hincks, in ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 5th ser. vol. ix. 1882, p. 119; 
and now by Mr. Busk in the ‘Challenger Report.’ I have already 
discussed the fossil species in my last Brit. Assoc. Rep., Fam. VII. 
Cellariide, and all that I am prepared to do now is to catalogue the 
species described by authors in their various papers. But it seems to me 
that if we retain the genus Vinculariu, it ought to be mentioned by future 
authors as to whether they accept the genus as defined by Mr. Busk in 
the ‘Challenger Report,’ or record their species on the basis of the ill- 
defined generic characters of previous authors. 

In the ‘ Challenger Report’ Mr. Busk has given good woodcut illus- 
trations (pp. 72, 73) of the chitinous arch of two of the species described. — 


1. Vincularia gothica, D’Orb. ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxiii. fig. 1. 
Vincularia id., ‘ Paleeon. France,’ p. 68 
= rs Nove-Hollandiz, Haswell 
= va steganoporoides, Macgil., New Sp. Bry. 
2. 7 gothica, var. granulata, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 73. 
af * labiata, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 73. 


In the ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ Mr. Busk described two species— 


Vincularia ornata. 


7, Neo-Zelanica (see Steganoporella). 


Mr. Busk remarks of V. steganoporoides, Macgil. (No. 1), that it is 
regarded by Mr. Hincks (‘ Gen. Hist. Mar. Pol.,’ ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 
5th ser. vol. ix. p. 119) as a form of his Steganoporella Smittii (‘ Brit. 
Mar. Pol.’ p. 178), which, however, I should myself refer to the genus 


a 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 545 


ficropora. It is clearly quite distinct from Mr. Macgillivray’s species 
Jhal. Rep.’ p. 72, note 2). 


Genus 40. Steganoporella, Smitt. 
Florid. Bryozoa 


= Steganoporella, Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.’ ; Waters; Macgil. 
= Vincularia (sp.), D’Orb. 


‘Zoarium polymorphous ; erect and branched, or lobate or decumbent, 
d foliaceous and crustaceous. Zoccia oblong and arched above. 
Frontal area occupied by a delicate chitinous membrane, which is closel 
wdnate to the internal calcareous lamina for about the lower half of the 
; above free, and supporting the operculum, and having on each side 
iow the orifice a minute forked or irregularly branched vertical 
itinous rod. Opercula large, semicircular, usually of two kinds, the 
membranous portion supported by a branching chitinous framework. A 
strong internal calcareous lamina, which, about the middle of the length 
t the cell, bends backward to the posterior wall, forming a transverse 
laphragm, by which the cell is divided into two distinct chambers, 
mmunicating with a phrenic opening through which the polypide is 
otruded, supported on or passing over a large hollow process rising 
from the upper and anterior part of the transverse diaphragm.’—Chal. 
ep. p. 74. 


‘1. Steganoporella magnilabris, Bush, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. xxiii. fig. 2, and 
‘ woodcuts, p. 76 

= Membranipora, id., ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 

= Steganoporella elegans, Smitt, Flor. Bry. 

= magnilabris, Hincks; Waters; 


Maegil. 
= (?) Biflustra crassa, Haswell 
= Steganoporella Neo-Zelanica (sp.), Waters. 
7 Neo-Zelanica, Busk. Referred to ‘Chal. Rep.’ pp. 
74 and 76 
= Vincularia Neo-Zelanica, Busk, ‘Brit. Mus. 
Cat.’ 
hs Smittii, Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.’ p. 178. See 


note in this Report on Vineularia gothica (ante). 


Family Steganoporellide, Hincks. 
‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,” May 1884. 


Mr. Hincks, in one of his contributions (‘ Annals,’ May 1884, 5th ser. 
vol. xiii. p. 358), says Smitt places the genus Steganoporella ‘among the 
oporide, and I have given it the same position in my history of the 
Marine Polyzoa. But I am now inclined to agree with Dr. J. 
en! so far as to regard the dithalamic condition of the zocecium which 
nguishes it as entitling it to rank in a separate family group. It is 
ght, however, that the name of the group should be taken from 
"s genus Steganoporella, which is founded on the division of the 


1 «Note sur une nouvelle division des Bryozoaires Cheilostomiens.’ Bull. de la 
- Zool. de France, t. vi. 1881. . 


1885, NN 


546 REPORT-—1885. 


zocecium into an upper and lower chamber by the interposition of a 
calcareous lamina beneath the membranous front wall.’ But Mr. Hincks 
says that he is unable to follow Dr. Jullien in his proposed distribution 
of the Cheilostomata into two principal groups, characterised by the 
presence or absence of this double ectocyst. . . . There is room, however, 
for a fuller investigation of its history and meaning. 

After duly considering the question raised by Dr. Jullien, Mr. Hincks 
believes that there are at least two distinct generic types—there may be 
more—and these are represented by the species given below :— 


Genus. Steganoporella. 


Steganoporella magnilabris, Busk (see ante). 


Genus. Smittipora, J. Jullien. 
Smittipora abyssicola, Smutt. 


Tat one time referred the above species to Setosella (mihi), but the 
British species (S. vulnerata), for which this genus was founded, does not 
possess the dithalamic cell. 

Two species, formerly described as Stegunoporella, are now referred to 
Micropora. 
Genus 41. Caleschara Macgillivray. 
(See Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 76.) 


‘ Zoarium polymorphous ; erect, foliaceous, and contorted, or composed 
of ligulate branches and bilaminar, or decurrent and incrusting. Zocecial 
area pyriform ; the margin very thick and bevelled off to a considerable 
depth, so as to leave a very contracted elliptical aperture, at first mem- 
branous, but eventually occupied in the lower two-thirds by a calcareous 
lamina attached below to the bottom of the aperture, and above by a 
broad band on each side, and leaving on either side an elongated fissure. 
The upper third above the lamina represents the internal or secondary 
orifice. In the natural state the entire area is filled in by a rather thick 
epithecal membrane, in which alone is seated the semicircular or sub- 
crescentic operculum. Fertile cells distinguished by their greater width.’ 
—COhal. Rep. pp. 76 and 77. 


Caleschara denticulata (?) var. tenuis, Busk. 
‘Chal. Rep.’ p. xxi. fig. 9. 
See Hincks, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ Feb. 1881, p. 152, pl. viii. fig. 2. 


Genus 42. Diplopora, Macgillivray. 


‘Zoarium incrusting; cells occupied by a calcareous membrane in 
front, and divided into two parts, the posterior half being very much 
elevated ; a narrow transverse portion a little distance behind the month, 
and in front of the elevated part, deficient in calcareous matter and 
entirely membranous.’—Macgillivray, Proceed. Roy. Soc, Victoria. Diplo- 
pora cincta (Hutton’s sp.). Loc. : Queenscliffe ; Portland (Mapleston). 

This is the Membranipora cincta of Hutton, and is the same species 
that has been described as Membranipora transversa by Mr. Hincks. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 547 


Genus 43. Setosella, Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.’ p. 180 


= Membranipora (pt.), Busk 

= Cnupularia (part), Smitt, ‘ Florid. Bryoz.’ ii. 14 

= Setosella, Hincks, ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 1877 

= Setosella. Referred to only ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 70. 


‘Zoarium incrusting. Zocecia with raised margins; front depressed 
‘and wholly calcareous; aperture semicircular. Vibracular cells alter- 
nating with the zocecia throughout the colony, Vibraculum slender and 
setiform.’—Op. cit. p. 180. 


Setosella vulnerata, Busk (‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.’ p. 181, pl. xxi. fig. 7) 
= Membranipora id., Busk, ‘Quart. Jour. Mic. Soe.’ viii. pl. xxv. 
fig. 3, Norman. 
rs Shetland dredgings, ‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1867, 
p- 305 
= Setosella vulnerata, Hincks (‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 1877). 


Family XIII. Electrinide, Busk 


. = Electrinidx, D’Orb., 1851, ‘ Palzon. France,’ p. 329 
7 = Membraniporide (pars), Avwett. 
q 

_ ‘Zoarium erect or incrusting, more or less flexible or sub-testaceous. 
Zowcia turbinate or sub-turbinate. Wall punctured. A wide expanding 
aperture, the border toothed or furnished with chitinous or aculeate spines. 

ine or more chitinous spines, of larger size than the rest, articulated on 
the front of the zocecium below the aperture, or an articulated avicularian 
process in the same situation. Ocecia when present galeate.’—Chal. 
Rep. p. 78. 

¢ Genus 44. Electra, Lamourouz. 

Character: That of the family. 

_ This family seems to be founded upon two well-known types of 
-olyzoa : the not too well-known Electra verticillata (Lamx.), and the well 
‘known and widely distributed Electra (Membranipora) pilosa (Linn.). 

_ In his ‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.’ (p. 137) Mr. Hincks places the M. pilosa 
with the group having a membranous front wall, but he does not make 
any remarks upon the species as being probably taken as the type of any 
new family, although from the very full list of synonyms furnished by 
him a doubt as to its future location may have arisen in his mind. Three 
varieties are described in the ‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.’ which will be mentioned 
in their proper place. In the ‘Chal. Rep.’ only one new species is 
described, but Mr. Busk suggests that perhaps four or five described 
‘forms may be included in the genus, as here defined. 


4 1. Electra cylindrica, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.,’ pl. xxxiii. fig. 2,not EL. cylin- 
‘ drica, D’ Orb. 

m2. » Ppilosa, Linn. (see ‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.’ p. 137). 

p Var. a, dentata, Hincks (op. cit. p. 187). 

ms » [, laxa, Smitt (op. cit. p. 137). 

» Y; Pallas (op. cit. p. 138). 

»  verticillata, Lamz., ‘Flexible Coralines.’ 

»  triacantha, Lame. 

»  bellula, Hincks. 

» (?) distorta, Hincks. 


O gr ph o0 


NN2 


548 REPORT—1885. 


The original description of Lamouroux (‘ Flex. Coral.’) may be given 

here :— - 
‘ Electra. 
*« Wlex. Coral,”’ ed. 1824, translated, p. 53. 

‘ Polypidoms branching ; cells campanulated, ciliated on their border, 
and verticillated. . . . The electra is very common in the European seas ; 
when the polypi are alive their colour is a red violet of greater or less 
brilliancy ; but when exposed to air and light it becomes an earthy white.” 
—‘ Electra verticillata,’ Lamowrouz, op. cit. pl. 2, figs. a, b, 2. 


Group C. Escharina, Busk. ‘Challenger Rep.’ p. 79. 
Family XIV. Bifaxariade, Busk. 


‘ Zoarium rigid, continuous or articulated, biserial, variously branched. 
Zocecia alternate, closely connate back to back and facing in opposite 
directions.’—Ohal. Rep. p. 79. 

Genus. Bifaxaria, Busk. Genus. Calymmophora, Busk. 


Genus 45. Bifaxaria, Busk. 


‘Zoarium contincous or segmented, variously branched, rooted by — 
radicle tubes. Zooecia biserial, alternate, facing bifariously on the two — 
sides, very closely contiguous. Orifice elliptical from side to side, or 
semi-orbicular or sub-orbicular. Peristome sometimes sub-tubular, some- _ 
times deeply immersed. A small circular immersed avicularium on each — 
side of the orifice, sometimes wanting, or replaced by a short hollow 
spinous process. Ocecia, when present, deeply imbedded in the super- 
jacent zocecium. A raised ridge or keel on the middle of the front, the 
upper pointed termination of which constitutes a more or less prominent — 
mucro in front of the orifice. —Chal. Rep. pp. 79, 80. 


§ a. ARTICULATA. 


1. Bifaxaria submucronata, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xiii. fig. 1. 
2. > levis, Busk. ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xiii. fig. 2 
= Antipathis humilis, Agassiz and Pourtaleés. 


§ 3. INARTICULATA. yg 
3 - corrugata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xiii. fig. 3; and pl. xxiv. 
fig. 6. - 
4. 5 papillata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xiii. fig. 4; and pl. xxiv. 
fig. 4. ; 
. minuta, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xiii. fig 5, 
reticulata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xiii. figs. 6 and 8. 
#3 abyssicola, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxiv. tig. 5. 
bi denticulata, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxiv. fig. 3. 


G0 NT ox 


Genus 46, Calymmophora, Busk. 


‘Zoarium continuous, irregularly branched; biserial; the zocecia 
alternate, placed back to back facing in opposite directions, pyriform, 
squarely truncated at the top, with a hollow conical process at each angle, 
often supporting a small avicularium. Orifice large, orbicular, with a 
wide notch in front, terminal (looking directly upwards). Oral valve 
semicircular, curved transversely, with numerous perforations. Wall 


2 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 549 


_ exceedingly delicate, with a very slender median and two lateral ridges, 
and a row of very distant pores on each side, and a few of smaller size on 


the sides and below the orifice. Ocecia galeriform, completely immersed 
in front of the superjacent zocecium, and covered with the general epithecal 
membrane with which the entire growth is enveloped as in a loose veil.’ 
— Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pp. 82, 83. 


Calymmophora lucida, Busk, op. cit. pl. xxxii. fig. 3. 


The only species of the genus, and obtained from station 163a. Two- 
fold Bay, 150 fathoms. 


Family XV. Salicornariade, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ 


‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ (pars), ‘ Crag Polyzoa,’ (pars) 
= Cellariide, Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa.’ 


‘Zoarium erect, radicate or fixed; simple, branched or lobed; seg- 
mented or continuous; cylindrical, with the cells disposed round an 
imaginary axis, or compressed and bilaminar; surface areolated. Zocecia 
completely immersed, each corresponding to an area; front depressed, 
usually concave. Orifice crescentic, semicircular, or elliptical. Ocecia 
inconspicuous, opening at or near the summit of the area above the orifice. 
In the decalcified condition the interareolar septa exhibit a delicate chiti- 
nous, probably tubular, filament, apparently continuous throughout the 
segment ; and on each side of the oral orifice a slender curved chitinous 
rod or trabecula, which sometimes unite so as to form a complete or 
incomplete ring. Avicularia usually present, either vicarious or inter- 
calated.’—Chal. Rep. p. 84. 

As CreLtarnp”, Hincks, I gave a tolerably fair account of this family 
group in my fifth British Report on Fossil Polyzoa. In that Report I 

ealt, as a matter of course, with fossil species only, which appeared to 
me to be rather more abundant than recent forms. It may now, in justice 
to the respective authors, be as well to allude to the classification of Mr. 
Hincks before passing on to the ‘ Challenger Report.’ 

In 1879 (‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’) Mr. Waters gave only a single species 
in his ‘ Bay of Naples Bryozoa.’ The genus, says Mr. Hincks, ‘ possesses 
a very cosmopolitan representative in our own (. fistulosa,’ and although 
Cellaric are widely distributed, the foreign specimens differ but slightly 
from British forms, if a large number of cells are studied and compared. 
In the fifth Report I gave conclusions arrived at by Mr. Waters after a 
careful study of a large series of specimens collected from several localities. 
In dredgings in the Bay of Naples a vast quantity of fragmentary 
specimens of C. fistulosa, Linn., may be obtained, and the careful study 
of these in association with the British forms will afford a large amount 
of practical details of species when dealing with British and foreign 
species. The brief description of the family group, as given by Mr. 
Hincks, is markedly conspicuous when compared with the fuller descrip- 
tion of Mr. Busk. 

*Zoarium usually rhomboidal or hexangular, disposed in series round 
am imaginary axis, so as to form cylindrical shoots. Zoarium erect, 
calcareous, dichotomously branched.’—Hincks, p. 103. 

As, however, only three species are described as British, it may be well 
to give these first, and then refer the student to the ‘ British Marine 
Polyzoa,’ for very full details. 


550 REPORT— 1885. 


CrLtarmp#, Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa’; A. W. Waters, Bryozoa, 
Bay of Naples ; Papers on Australian Bryozoa (fifth Report ‘ Brit. Assoc.” 
1884 on Fossil Polyzoa), &c. 


Genus Cellaria, Lamouroua (part) 


= Salicornia, Schweigger; Salicornaria, Owvier; Salicornaria, Busk ; 
Farcimia, Fleming. 
Celaria fistulosa, Linn.. Hincks, ‘Brit. Mar. Pol.’ p. 106, pl. xiii. 
figs. 1-4. Hincks gives 14 recent and 10 fossil synonyms. 
3 sinuosa, Hassall, Hincks, p. 109, pl. xiii. figs. 5-8. 
5 Johnsoni, Busk, Hincks, p. 112, pl. xiii. figs. 9-12. 
The last species: Shetland; Madeira; Algiers. 


Tn the ‘ Challenger Report ’ the family contains the following genera :— 


1. Salicornaria, Cuvier. 
2. Melicerita, Milne-Hdwards. 


Genus 47. Salicornaria, Cuvier. 


‘Zoarium radicate, simple or branched, articulated or continuous ; 
cylindrical, with the cells disposed round an imaginary axis; with or 
without avicularia. When articulated the internodes are connected by 
short straight tubes, or with the intervention of a convoluted knot of 
slender tubules.’—Ohal. Rep. p. 86. | 

In the above Report Mr. Busk has devoted nearly five pages to the 
discussion of moot points of structure in the species of the genus irre- — 
spective of very full details of the new forms in the ‘ Challenger’ | 
material. The group is divided into three sections, which will be alluded 
to presently, and then he remarks that, ‘speaking generally, the species 
of Salicornaria . . . may be grouped into those in which the areolation 
is fundamentally rhomboidal, and those in which it is strictly hexagonal ” 
(op. cit. p. 87). After giving the ‘Challenger’ species I will give the 
list as furnished by Mr. Busk, in which the two sorts of areolation may — 
be studied. It may be well to note that the closer study of the chitinous — 
parts—given by Mr. Busk in the woodcuts—will afford ample and 
interesting details when dealing with the new or even the well-known ~ 
species of this remarkable group. I do not, however, think that the new 
light thrown upon the ‘ Challenger’ species will be lost or neglected in — 
future researches of students of our British and foreign marine polyzoa. 


§ Siverices, Busk. 


Species in which the zoarium is single or composed of a single seg- 
ment, &c. : 


1. Salicornaria clavata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xii. fig. 8, and woodeut, | 


= Cellaria fistulosa, Macgillivray, ‘Nat. Hist- 
Vict.’ Decade V. (not Lnnn.) 

= C. fistulosa, var. australis, Hincks, ‘Ann. Mag. 
Nat. Hist.’ 5th ser. vol. xiii. p. 368, 1884. 


§ 6. ArticuLaTZ (a, tubulate). : 
Species in which the internodes are connected by elastic or flexible 
joints, &c. 


2. Salicornaria simplex, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxiii. fig. 8, and — 
woodcnt, p. 88. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 551 


(6, nodate). 


3. Salicornaria variabilis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xii. figs. 3, 9, and 
woodcnt, p. 89. 
4, = divaricata, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 90, woodcut only. 
5. - bicornis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxiii. fig 9, and 
woodcut, p. 90 
=S§. tenuirostris, var. a, bicornis, ‘ Brit. Mus. 
Cat.’ pl. Ixiui. fig. 4 
= (?) Cellaria tenuirostris, Macgillivray. 
6. 7 dubia, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xii. fig. 2, and woodent, 
« OL. 
Mat yivicoate Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xii. figs. 1, 5, 7, 
and woodcuts, p. 91 
= §. Malvinensis, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
= Cellaria id., Waters, Bry. S.-W. Vict. ‘ Quart. 
Jour. Geol. Soc.’ August 1881. 
8. - tenuirostris, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 92, woodcut 
= Salicornaria id., ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
= Cellaria id., Smitt, ‘Florid. Bry.’ 
in gracilis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 93, woodcuts, p. 93 
= 5S. gracilis, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
= 5S. punctata, Busk, ‘Voy. of Rattles.’ 
= Cellaria gracilis, Macqillivray. 


— 


NI 


p=) 


? » attenuata, D’ Orb. 
? » tenella, Lamk. 
? »  Salicornarides, Savig., ‘Egypt.’ pl. vi. 


fig. 7 
§ y. InarricunatZ. 
10. Salicornaria magnifica, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep,’ pl. xii. figs. 4-6, wood- 
cut, p. 94. 


This is the whole of the Salicornaria amongst the ‘ Challenger’ 
material, but on p. 87 of ‘ Report’ Mr. Busk gives the list previously 
‘referred to. 


§ a. Areolation rhomboidal, articulation tubular. 
1. Salicornaria farciminodes, Cuvier. 


r o sinuosa, Haswell. 
au - simplex, Busk (No. 2 of ‘ Chal.’ list). 
a?) ,, crassa (n. sp.), Busk. 
5. 55 hirsuta, Kirchenpauer. 


§ 6. Areolation hexagonal, articulation nodular. 
6. Salicornaria variabilis, Busk (No. 3 of ‘ Chal.’ list). 
‘e 


s aciculata (n. sp.), Busk. 
8. a bicornis, Busk (No. 5 of ‘ Chal.’ list). 
oh ae dubia, Busk (No. 6 of ‘ Chal.’ list). 
10. 4 Malvinensis, Busk (No. 7 of ‘ Chal.’ list). 
et. ~ tenuirostris, Busk (No. 8 of ‘ Chal.’ list). 
12. ‘ Johnsoni, Busk. 
S.. Pe, 3 var. gracilis, Busk. 


14.(?) ,, hexagonalis (n. sp.), Busk. 


doz REPORT—1885. 


§ y. Inarticulate. 
15. Salicornaria magnifica, Busk (No. 10 of ‘ Chal.’ list). 


Genus 47.(?) Farcimia, Pourtalés. 


Smitt, ‘ Florid. Bryozoa.’ 
Hincks, ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ vol. x. 5th ser. 1883. 


Zocecia calcareous, erect, branching; stem and branches composed of — 
segments united by corneous joints. Zocecia arranged in series round an © 
imaginary axis, with elevated margins and a depressed area, which is 
more or less covered in with membrane. 

‘The genus instituted by Pourtalés,’ says Mr. Hincks (op. cit. p. 199), 
‘and adopted by Smitt (‘ Florid. Bryozoa,’ Part II. p. 2), includes forms 
with a Cellarian habit and a Membraniporidan cell.’ 


1. Farcimia cercus, Pourtalés. 

2. M appendiculata, Hincks (op. cit. ‘ Annals’), p. 199, pl. vii. — 
fig. 4. 

Locality: Port Phillip Head (J. B. Wilson). 


The striking feature of the new species are the avicularia. They are 
remarkable for their size, and in structure they seem to resemble the 
lateral appendage of Scrupocellaria. 


Genus 48. Melicerita, Milne-Edwards. 
Cellaria (sp.), Waters (see Busk for other synonyms). 


‘Zoarium compressed, bilaminar, rigid, lobate, ligulate, or foliaceous; 
articulated or continuous. Zocecia usually disposed in transverse rows, | 
Surface areolated. Area rhomboid or hexagonal. Orifice sub-central, 
semicircular, or oblong; border entire, with two articular teeth below 
and sometimes also above. Operculum corresponding in form to the 
orifice, supported by a chitinous ring, incomplete above.’—Chal. Rep. 
p. 95. 

Mr. Busk says up to the present time the only known species refer- 
able to Melicerita were two, or perhaps three, fossil forms, viz. :— 


1. Melicerita Charlesworthii, Milne-Edw. 
2. a angustiloba, Busk. 
BAP) ps achates, D’Orb. (Latereschara). 


In the ‘Challenger Report’ two other species are described as 
new :— 


4. Melicerita atlantica, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xiv. fig. 1, woodents, — 
p- 96. : 
5. 93 dubia, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxii. fig. 10. 


Family XVI. Tubucellaride, Busk 


= Cellaride (pars), D’Orb. ; Salicornariide (pars), Macgil. 
= Porinide (pars), Hincks. 


‘Zoarium erect ; radicate, composed of cylindrical internodes. Zocecia — 
disposed round an imaginary axis, convex, distinct, pyriform ; peristome 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 553 


roduced, tubular. Surface reticulato-punctate, or simply punctate with 
without a simple median pore on the front (often wanting). Avicularia 
d ocecia.’—Chal. Rep. 


1. Genus Tubucellaria, D’Orb. 
4 PTE Siphonicytara, Busk. 


In the family Porinide, as described by Mr. Hincks, ‘ Brit. Marine 
Polyzoa,’ four genera were included, viz. :— 


1. Genus Porina, D’ Orb. 

2. ,, Anarthropora (part), Smvitt. 
3. 4, Lagenipora, Hincks. 

4 »» Celleporella, Gray. 


Tn the classification of Mr. Busk only two of these four types are 
accounted for, and in justice to Mr. Hincks I have allowed species of 
these genera to precede the Tubucellariade, not as a part of Mr. Busk’s 
grouping, but because they are not otherwise accounted for. Miss E. C. 
Jelly informs me that Lagenipora is far more widely distributed in 
British seas than was supposed when the original description was drawn 
up; and in some of his foreign Cheilostomata Mr. Hincks describes a 
new species of the same genus. 


Family XII. Porinide, D’Orb. 
(Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ p. 226.) 


‘Zoarium incrusting, or erect and ramified. Zocecia with a raised 
tubular or sub-tubular orifice, and frequently a special pore in the front 
wall.’—Op. cit. p. 226. 
> WF) 
wz 

‘Colonies consisting of a number of cells immersed in a common 
calcareous crust. Zoccia decumbent, contiguous, lageniform ; oral 
extremity free, tubular, with a terminal orbicular orifice.'—Op. cit. 
p. 235. 
. 1. Lagenipora socialis, Hincks, ‘Brit. Mar. Pol.’ vol. i. p. 235 ; 
ig vol. ii. pl. xxxiv. figs. 7, 8. 

7 spinulosa, Hincks, ‘ Polyzoa of Queen Charlotte Island,’ 

‘ Annals,’ January and March 1884. 


Genus 51. (?) Lagenipora, Hincks. 


a + 


{+e 
t 


Bye Genns 52. (?) Celleporella, Gray. 


_ “Zocecia sub-erect, the anterior extremity tubular and free, with a 
‘terminal circular orifice. No special pores. Zoarium (in the British 
Species) incrusting.’— Brit. Mar. Pol. p. 413. 


% 1. Celleporella lepraloides, Norman, ‘Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc,’ (n. sp.) 
Vill. p. 222, pl. vii. figs. 4, 5, ‘Brit. Mar. Pol.’ p. 
B 414, woodcuts. 
2. as pygmea, Norman, Shet. Pol. ‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1868. 
‘Brit. Mar. Pol.’ p. 415. 


The other genera of Hincks’s Porinide will be accounted for 
‘urther on. 


554 REPORT—1885. 


Genus 49. Tubucellaria, D’Orb. and Macgil. 
Tubicellaria, Heller, Risso, Costa ; Onchopora (sp.), Busk. 


‘Zoarium composed of cylindrical, usually quadriserial, internodes,. 
articulated by flexible tubular peduncles, and arising either dichotomously 
from the extremity, or irregularly from the sides of the segment from 
which they spring. Zocecia pyriform, prolonged, and attenuated down- 
wards, ventricose above, and produced into a tubular peristome, bordered 
by a very thin septal ridge. A simple circular median pore (often ab- 
sent) in front, immediately below the tubular peristome. Surface reticu- 
late, scrobiculate, or simply and sparingly punctate.’— Chal. Rep., p. 99. 

The genus thus defined includes four known and well-marked forms, 
which, besides the sculpturing of the surface, possess the simple circular 
median pore. To these another species, provisionally named, is added by 
Mr. Busk, and this is sparsely punctured, and there is no trace of a 
median pore. The species are— 


1. Tubucellaria opuntioides, Pallas. 

i) cereoides, Hill. & Sol. 

45 hirsuta, Lamz. 

25 fusiformis, D’ Orb. 

is ceca, Busk (provisional). 


ors go bo 


Of these only 1 and 3 occur in the ‘ Challenger’ collection. 

1. Tubucellaria opuntioides, Pallas, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxiv. fig. 7; pl. — 
xxxvi. fig. 19 (pars). 

2. Tubucellaria hirsuta, Lame. ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 100, pl. xxxvi. fig. 18. 


Genus 50. Siphonicytara, Bush. 


‘Zoarium continuous, radicate, branched; branches alternate, sub-— 
cylindrical quadriserial, subsecund. Zocecia completely immersed below, 
flattened in front. Peristome tubular, extended. A circular median pore 
below the middle of the front. A large circular orifice (avicularian P)} 
near the top of most of the lateral zocecia behind.’—Chal. Rep., p. 101. 

Siphonicytara serrulata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xv. fig. 2. 


(For Genera 51? Lagenipora, Hincks; and 52? Celleporella, Gray, 
see ante, p. 553. For Genera 53? Rhyncopora, Hincks ; 54? Schizotheca, — 
Hincks ; and 54*, Mastigophora, Hincks, see p. 101.) 


Family XVII. Onchoporide, Busk. 


‘ Zoarium flexible, continuous, branched or lobate, ligulate or foliaceous, 
then unilaminar. Zocecia urceolate, ventricose. Orifice semicircular, with 
a straight entire lower lip. On the front, close below the orifice, a lunate 
fringed pore, and on each side an oblong or circular perforated disc, with 
a raised border.’—Ohal. Rep., p. 102. 

Mr. Busk justifies himself in separating this small group from the 
genus Microporella of Hincks, although a number of other forms possess 
a similar lunate pore combined with a similarly shaped orifice. It appears 
to me that Mr. Busk is perfectly right in the course he has taken ; but 
great credit, notwithstanding the separation, is due both to Mr. Hincks 
and to Mr. Waters on account of the calmly consistent manner in which 
species of the genus Microporella have been worked up.! 


1 Since the whole of this report was in the hands of the printer Mr. A. W. Waterss 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 555 


Genus Onchopora, Busk. 
»,  Onchoporella, Busk. 


Genus 55. Onchopora, Bush 
= Carbasea (pars), Busk 
= Malakosaria, Goldstein. 


‘Zoarium dichotomously branched, cylindrical, quadriserial.’—Chal. 
Rep., p. 103. 
Onchopora Sinclairii, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. x. fig. 4; ‘Quart. Jour. 
Mic. Soe.’ vol. v. p. 172 
= Malakosaria pholaramphos, Goldst., ‘Proc. Roy. Soc. 
Vict.’ June 1881, p. 5, pl. ii. fig. 1. 


Genus 56. Onchoporella, Busk 
= Carbasea (pars), Busk ; Scruparia (pars), Busk. 
‘Zoarium foliaceous, unilaminar, ligulate, or lobed.-—Chal. Rep., 


p. 103. 
1. Onchoporella bombicina, Busk, ‘Brit. Mus. Cat.’; ‘Chal. Rep.’ 
104 


= Flustra bombycinna, Linn., Bosc., Lamz. 
= Semiflustra bombycina, Lamk., D’Orb. 
? Lepralia diadema, Macgil. 
2, ey diaphana, Busk, ‘Quart. Jour. Mic. Soe.’ vol. viii- 
p- 28], pl. xxxi. fig. 1 
= Seruparia, id., Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 104 (note). 


Family XVIII. Reteporide, Smitt 
= Reteporide, Smitt, 1867 ; Hincks, 1879. 
Escharide (pars), D’Orb, 1851; Hincks, 1880; Smitt, 1872; ‘ Brit. 
Maus. Cat.’ 1852, Busk, ‘Crag Polyzoa,’ 1859 ; Macgillivray, &c. 
*Zoarium calcareous, erect, fixed; foliaceons and fenestrate, uni- 


laminar, or reticulately or freely ramose in one plane. Zocecia secund.” 
—Chal. Rep., p. 104. 


1, Genus Retepora, Imperato, 4 sections. 
2. ,,  Reteporella, Busk (sub-genus, Bush). 
3. ,, Turritigera, Busk. 


Genus 57. Retepora, Imperato 


= Retepora (pars), Lamz., Blainv. ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 


Eschara (pars), Smitt; Millepora (pars), Linn., Pallas., 
Ellis. 


_ ‘Zoarium reticulate, formed of flexuose, anastomosing branches, or 
fenestrate; erect, springing with a calcareous stem, rarely from an 
incrusting or spreading base. Zocecia disposed on one aspect only, 
usually deeply immersed, except on the sides of the branches or trabecule. 
_ paper (‘Cheilostomatous Bryozoa’ from Aldinga, &c. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. Aug. 
_ 1885) has come to hand. I find that he takes exception to, and freely criticises Mr. 
_ Busk’s arrangement in his prefatory remarks. I think it will be better to refer the 


Student to the paper itself, rather than point out all the moot-points raised by 
Mr. Waters. 


556 REPORT—1885. 


Primary orifice sub-orbicular or semicircular; border entire. Afterwards 
the peristome becomes much raised and multiform, usually fissured in the 
middle or one side in front, the fissure often becoming a sub-oral pore by 
the meeting of the upper angles. Very often a small avicularium on one 
of the angles, which is also frequently developed into a labial or pre-oral 
rostrum. Usually numerous adventitious avicularia on one or both 
aspects of the zoarium.’—Ohal. Rep., pp. 105, 106. 

I suppose that there are not among the whole of the recent Polyzoa 
two more difficult groups to master the details of than the Retepore and 
the Cellepore. I know too well that this is painfully true of the fossil 
species that have been placed in either of these respective groups. My 
early dissent from the supposed identity of the Paleozoic forms with 
recent species was very early expressed in my crude articles in ‘Science 
Gossip,’ and later on in the earlier of my ‘ British Association Reports’ 
(Carboniferous, 1880, and Silurian, 1881) ; andit must be remembered that 
at this time very little attention had been paid to the inner structure of 
either fossil or recent forms, so that even up to a very recent date 
Paleozoic species, which were fenestrated by the inosculation of branches, 
were indifferently placed among the Reteporide as then understood. — 
Within the last six or seven years a very great advance has been made in ~ 
the study of parts of the zoarium of fossil species of Polyzoa; and the 
remark is especially applicable to the study of parts of the zoarium in 
recent forms of several groups of Polyzoa. One of the comparatively 
recent additions to our knowledge of parts of the zoaria of species is that 
of the Rossenplatten (communicative pores of Hincks), through which the — 
endosarcal cords passed from cell to cell. This, though eminently avail- 
able for the classification of recent species, is not so available for the more — 
minute study of fossil species. Another more recent addition to our 
knowledge of the chitinous appendages of species was made by Mr. A. W. 
Waters in a communication to the Geological Section of the Manchester 
Literary and Philosophical Society, and ultimately published in their ‘ Pro- 
ceedings’ (vol. xviii. No. 2, Sess. 1878-9). The paper referred to was 
one on ‘ The Use of the Opercula in the Determination of the cheilosto- 
matous Bryozoa.’ Mr. Waters figures and describes thirty-seven species — 
of opercule, all magnified eighty-five times, and his specimens were 
selected from a much larger group of forms than those enumerated. This 
paper seems to have been entirely unknown to Mr. Busk until after the~ 
drawing up of the Descriptive Catalogue of the Species of Cellepora 
collected in the ‘Challenger’ Expedition (‘ Linn. Soc. Journ. Zoology,’ 
vol. xv. 18817). In a ‘supplementary note respecting the use to be 
made of the chitinous organs in the Cheilostomata, &c.’ (‘ Linn. Soe. 
Jour.’ vol. xv.), Mr. Busk speaks his regret, acknowledges the value of 
the paper by Mr. Waters, and then says (loc. cit. p. 357): ‘ But having 
since devoted much attention to this point, and examined the characters 
not only of the operculum, as suggested by Mr. Waters, but also, in 
addition, those of the other chitinous elements of the skeleton in between — 
sixty and seventy species of Cellepore, as well as in numerous species of 
Retepore and Salicornariade, both groups in which the determination of 
species is often attended with considerable difficulty and uncertainty, 1 
have become convinced that the characters derived from the chitinous 
organs will be found of the greatest possible utility, and at the same time 
capable of being employed with the utmost facility and precision.’ The 
new knowledge derived from the study of the chitinous parts of recent 

ia 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 557 


‘olyzoa is one of the charms of the ‘ Challenger Report’; and Mr. Busk, 
n his admirable drawings and woodcuts, gives ample material for the 
eginning of a new speciality in the study of fossil and recent Polyzoa. 
Previous to the publication of the ‘Challenger Report,’ however, Mr. 
P. H. Macgillivray published a paper in the ‘ Proceed. Roy. Soc. Victoria,’ 
Aug. 1883, on the chitinous parts of Polyzoa, and he remarks similarly of 
the value of the opercule as previously mentioned by Mr. A. W. Waters. 
Independent, however, cf these labours on the chitinous appendages, 


to the publication of the ‘ Brit. Marine Polyzoa’; and one of the most 
elaborate of these published papers is his Notes on the Genus Letepora 


‘(‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 5th ser. vol. i. 1878). In this paper is enume- 
pated all the recent species described up to that time. This list is as 


1. Retepora phoenicea, Busk=(?) R. indica, D’Orb. 
2. " monilifera, Macgil. 

i porcellana, Maegil!. 

Bs granulata, Macgil. 

- fissa, Macgil. 

»  versipalma, D’ Blainv. (? sp.) 

»»  larsupiata, Smitt = R. cellulosa, var. 

s reticulata, Powrtalés = (?) R. Beaniana, var. 

Ss Wallichiana, Busk & Hincks =R. elongata, Smitt. 
- Edwardsii = (?) R. cellulosa. 


as Beaniana, King. 
* cellulosa, authors. 
¥ Couchii, Hincks. 
a pretenuis, Hincks. 


= plana, Hincks. 

3 tessellata, Hincks. 

‘ , »  vrobusta, Hincks = (?) R. porcellana, Macyil. 
To which may be added, says Mr. Busk— 

_ 18. Retepora bi-avicularia, Smitt = R. Beaniana, var. 

19. »  altisulecata, Ridley. 

+ microthyris, Busk (MS.) 


a 21. :, umbonata, Macgil., var. of R. monilifera. 
22. 6 sinuata, Macgil. a @ 
S 23. 4 lunata, Macgil. (?) ,, 5 
be, 24. »  acutirostra, Macgil. (?) 7 
gy is munita, Hincks (?) ,, Ee 
27. » formosa, Macgil. 
28. » serrata, Macgil. 
29. ey aurantiaca, Macgil. 
«80. » axa, Hincks (? var. porcellana, Macgil.) 
Be ol. te avicularis, Macgil. 


To which must now be added the ‘ Challenger’ species, bringing up the 
described or catalogued number to about fifty or sixty species, 
§ a, Reticulate. 


g Be 82. Retepora apiculata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxv. fig. 6, woodcut, 
| = chitinous appendages, p. 108. 


558 REPORT—1885. 
33. Retepora producta, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxv. fig. 7, woodcut, 
. 108 


34. 2 denticulata, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxvi. fig. 1, woodent, 
p. 109. 


§ 2. Fenestrate. 


Zoaria foliaceous, fenestrate. 
35. Retepora Imperati, Busk (MS.), ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxvi. fig. 9 
= R. eschara marina, Imperato 
= R. cellulosa, a (pars), Auctt. 
= Millepora foraminosa, Hl. & Sol. 
=R. elongata, D’Orb. & Sinitt, var. 


Mr. Busk gives a very elaborate account of these 
species, which occupies about two and a half pages of 
the Report, together with woodcut (fig. 19) of the 
chitinous parts of R. imperati and QR. elongata, p. 111. 


36. 5 tessellata, Hincks, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxvii. fig. 8 (Hincks), 
‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 1878. 
37. 5 var. a, cespitosa, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxvii. fig. 6, 
woodcut, fig. 20, p. 113 
=(?) R. tessellatia, Hincks. 
38. 5 var. 3, pubens, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxviii. fig. 3, 
woodcut, fig. 21. 


§§. Owcium, with a vertical fissure in front. 


39. Retepora gigantea, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxvi. fig. 7, woodcut, 
fig. 22, p. 114. 

40. a lata, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxvii. fig. 1, woodcut, fig. 23, 
p. 115. 

Al. i crassa, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxvi. fig. 10; pl. xxvii. 
fiz. 3, woodcut, fig, 24, p. 115. 

42. x atlantica, Busk (P), ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxviii. fig. 1, 
woodcut, fig. 25, p. 116. : 

=(?) R. cellulosa var, marsupiata, Snvtt. 


§§. Owcium with a trifoliate stigma in front.' 


43. Retepora victoriensis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxvii. fig. 7, wood- 
cut, fig. 26, p. 117 
= (?) R. carinata, Macqil. 
4A, "4 Var. japonica, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 118, woodcut, fig. 27. 
45. % simplex, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxviii. fig. 4, woodcut, 
fig. 28, p. 118. 
46. 5 hirsuta, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxvi. fig. 4, woodent, 
fig. 29, p. 119 
= (?) R. monilifera, Macgil., Hincks. 
47, % mucronata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxvi. fig. 6. 
48. S contortuplicata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxvi. fig. 2-- 
woodcut, fig. 30, p. 120. 
49. 5 cavernosa, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxvi. fig. 8, woodcut, — 
p- 121, fig. 31. 

’ Respecting this peculiar stigma in front Mr. Busk (p. 117) adds in a note a few 
particulars about the original remarks of Macgillivray, made more than twenty years 
ago, but which seem to have attracted but little attention by authors. - 

ie 


> 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 559 


50. Retepora tubulata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep. pl. xxviii. fig. 2, woodcut, 


p. 122, fig. 32. 

51. * columnifera, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxvi. fig. 5, wood- 
cut, p. 122, fig. 33. 

52. ” Philippinensis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxvii. fig. 5. 

pe. i, Pheenicea, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 124, woodcut, and 


‘Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
§§ 4. Owcia inconspicuous or unknown. 


54, Retepora delicatula, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxvi. fig. 3, woodcut, 


fig. 35, p. 124. 

55. - margaritacea, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxvii. fig. 2, wood- 
cut, p. 125. 

56. s Jacksoniensis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxvii. fig. 4, 


woodcut, p. 125, 
57. »: Magellensis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxvi. fig. 20. 


Under the fenestrate section of the Reteporide Mr. Busk (‘ Challenger 
Report,’ p. 104, note) says that Macgillivray’s species, PrrraLia UNDATA, 
may be included in a sub-genus. I have a specimen of Macgillivray’s 
Species from Port Phillip Heads, but I have not Macgillivray’s descrip- 
tion. It isa very peculiar fenestrated form, with cells on one side only, 
and if it be included among the Rermporipa, it must be on account of 
its ‘ foliaceous and unilaminar character.’ The cells and also the ovicells 
have a very distinctive feature. 


Sub-genus 58. Reteporella, Busk. 


‘Characters those of Retepora, but the branches free in one plane.’ 
Chal. Rep. p. 126. 

This appears to me to be rather an important separation, because 
there are many fossil species of Retepora which are neither fenestrate nor 
reticulate, but which have all the characters of ordinary species. These 
may now be placed in this sub-genus, to the great advantage of the student 
of fossil forms. 


1. Reteporella flabellata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxv. fig. 5, woodcut, 
p. 126, fig. 38. 
2. = myriozoides, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxiv. fig. 2. 


Genus 59. Turritigera, Busk. 


*‘Zoarium ramose, arising from a calcareous expansion, incrusting 
foreign bodies, having the openings of the zocecia usually on one side 
only. Zocecia ventricose or flask-shaped, much produced and sub-tubular 
above, with several conical or columnar avicularian processes on the 
-peristome.’— Chal. Rep. p. 129. 


Turritigera stellata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxiv. fig. 1. 


“Mr. Busk very truly remarks that this ‘form appears to be more 
nearly allied to Retepora than to any other generic group, but the ver 
curious conformation of the oral portion and aperture, and its other 
peculiarities, seem to justify its being considered as generically distinct.’ 

One can hardly help speaking of the very admirable way in which 
Mr. Busk has dealt with this remarkable group. His descriptions and 


560 REPORT—1885. 


diagnoses occupy about twenty-six pages, two and a half of which 
number are devoted to the geographical and bathymetrical range of 
species. This part of the Report, however, will appear in its proper 
place further on. 

In justice to Mr. Hincks and to Mr. A. W. Waters, after the very full 
remarks on the species by Mr. Busk, it would appear to me very unwise 
to pass over the labours of these respected authors. 


Notes on the genus Retepora, with descriptions of new species. By 
the Rey. Thomas Hincks, ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ May 1878. 


Mr. Hincks begins this paper by giving a list of previously described 
species from different seas by different authors. From Australia five 


species ; from the South seas, one ; from India, one; from Florida, three; — 


from the Arctic and North seas, two; and from the British and Medi- 
terranean seas, two: after which he proceeds with a very full description 
of new or little known species. 
Genus Retepora, Lamarck. 
a, With an oral fissure. 


1. Retepora Couchii, Hincks (op. cit. p. 355, pl. xviii. figs. 1-6) | 
= Retepora Beaniana, Hincks, ‘ Dev. and Cornwall Cat.’ — 


ra - cellulosa, var. Beaniana, Manzoni. 
2. a pretenuis, Hincks (op. cit. p. 356, pl. xix. figs. 6, 8). 


2. Without an oral fissure. $ 


plana, Hincks (op. cit. p. 358, pl. xviii. figs. 7,8). 
tessellata, Hincks ( op. cit. p. 358, pl. xix. figs. 9-12). 
robusta, Hincks (op. cit. p. 359, pl. xviii. figs. 9-10). 


ee 


Mr. Hincks says that the following species have already been de- 
scribed,' but he ventures to give a fuller diagnosis :— 


6. Retepora monilifera, Macgil. (Hincks, op. cit. p. 360, pl. xix. figs 
1-5). 


(f Phoenicea, Busk, ‘Cat. Mar. Pol.’ 

8. 5 granulata, Macgil. (Hincks, op. cit. p. 363, pl. xix. figs 
13-15). 

9 cellulosa, Smitt (Hincks, op. cit. p. 364). 


Family XIX. Cribrilinide, Hincks. 


‘Brit. Mar. Pol.’ vol. i. p. 182; ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 130. 

Mr. Hincks’s description of this family group is as follows :— 

‘Zoarium adnate, forming an indefinite crust, or erect. Zocecia 
having the front wall more or less fissured, or traversed by radiating 
furrows.’ Mr. Busk, however, adds to his description other characters, 
and slightly modifies the remarks of Mr. Hincks :— 

‘Zoarium crustaceous, or adnate (lepralian), or erect and unilaminar 
(hemischaran). Zocecia, front’ with transverse or radiating fissures or 
rows of punctures without fissures. Mouth simple, sub-orbicular, some-— 
times mucronate or semicircular; with or without a median sub-oral 
pore.’—Chal. Rep. p. 130. _ 


1 Notes on the Cheilostomatous Polyzoa of Victoria and other parts of Australia 


(P. H. Macgillivray), ‘Trans. Phil. Inst. Victoria,’ vol. iv. 1860, p. 168, &e. ee 
a. 


a 


~~ er tlc AY Rd 


ON RECENT FOLYZOA. 561 


Genus 60. Cribrilina, Gray. 


Cribrilina, Gray, Hincks, Smitt, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ 
Lepralia (pars), Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ Johnsé. 
Reptescharella, D’ Orbigny, ‘ Pal. Franc. Tert. Cret.’ 
_ Escharipora, Smitt, 1867. 


_ ‘Front of cells fissured, or simply punctured in regular or transverse 
rows.’—Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ 
Tn the ‘British Marine Polyzoa’ Mr. Hincks describes the following 
es. Hxcept in some few instances I have not thought it wise to 
teproduce the whole of the synonyms given by authors, as a very full 
was appended to a previous list in the Fifth Report on Fossil 
zoa, ‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ and is furnished (from Busk and Hincks) in 
ntroductory part of the present Report. 


__ L. Cribrilina radiata Moll. (op. cit. pl. xxv. 1-9). 
Var. a, Antrim, deep water. 
Var. B, (op. cit. pl. xxv. fig. 4). 
Var. y, tenuirostris, Madeira. 
* punctata, Hassall (op. cit. pl. xxvi. figs, 1-4; pl. xxiv. 
fig. 3). 
Var. a, with a central umbo. 
a annulata, Fabric. (op. cit. pl. xxv. figs. 11, 12). 
- figularis, Johnst. (op. cit. pl. xxvi. figs, 5-7). 
Var. a, fissa. 
ie Gattye, Busk (op. cit. pl. xxv. fig. 10). 
Var. a, Hastings, Miss EB. C. Jelly. 


Many of these species have a wide geographical range both around 
our coast, some of them reaching far north. The varieties are very local, 
_ Only one genus—Cribrilina—is at present admitted by Mr. Busk in 
assified list, but in the classification of Mr. Hincks another genus, 
miporella, Smitt, forms part of Cribrilinide, Hincks. In the 
einition, however, of Mr. Busk, the hemischaran forms of Mr. Hincks 
included. 


the ‘Challenger Report’ the following species are described in 
everal sections by Mr. Busk. 


. 3 $a, Front fissured. §$1. Adnate (lepralian). 

1 Cribrilina radiata, Moli., ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 131. Found only in two 

_ . stations, 75 and 135 A. 

» latimarginata, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxii. fig. 10. One 
station only 320 on dead coral. In his remarks Mr: 
Busk says that Reuss describes and figures in his 
‘Paleon. Stud.,’ under the name of Celleporaria radi- 
ata, a form in so many respects closely resemblin g his C. 
latimarginata. In other respects there is a difference. 


§§ 2. Free, erect or decumbent (hemischaran). 
8. Cribrilina philomela, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xvii. fig. 6 
= (?) C. speciosa, Hincks, * Aun. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 1881 
= (?) Reptescharella inequalis, D’Orb. 
Var. a, adnata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxii. fig. 7. 
(?) C. figularis, var. Hincks. 


2. 


00 


562 REPORT —-1885. 


§ B. Front with punctures in more or less distinct transverse rows. 


4, Cribrilina labrosa, Busk. 

Var. a, fragilis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xix. fig. 4. 
5, e, monoceros, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xix. fig. 8 

= (?) Lepralia larvalis, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 


It might be a question, says Mr. Busk, whether the numerous forms 
that would come under § /3 should not be considered generically distinct 
from the fissured ones, p. 134. : 

Leaving this question to be settled by special workers on recent 
forms of Polyzoa, I will now give as full a list as possible of additions 
to the Cribrilinide by Mr. Hincks since the publication of the ‘ British 
Marine Polyzoa.’ -In his Contributions, ‘ Annals,’ July 1880. After 
describing the Madeira species, C. radiata, Moil., in J. Y. Johnson’s 
material, Mr. Hincks said that, besides the British species, he only knew 
three others that could be referred to the genus Gribrilina. 


. 
. 


Cribrilina cribrosa, Heller 

= Lepralia cribrosa, Heller. 
Jaubertii, Audowin 

= Flustra Jaubertii, Awd. 
Floridana, Svitt. 


” 


” 


In his paper on the Polyzoa from Bass’s Straits (Captain Warren’s 
collection, now in the Liverpool Free Museum) four species are described, 
two of which are new. (‘ Annals’ and ‘ Mag. Nat. Hist.’ July 1881). 


Cribrilina ferox, Macgillivray. 

“7 tubifera, Hincks (op. cit. pl. i. fig. 7). 

M speciosa, Hincks (op. cit. pl. i. fig. 8). 

3 (?) monoceros, Macgil. (op. cit. pl. ii. fig. 6). 

Mr. Hincks has placed under Macgillivray’s name the Bass’s Straits 
form, but only doubtfully. It is not Busk’s 0. monoceros, but it is 
allied to 0. punctata. 

In the papers on.the Polyzoa of Queen Charlotte Islands, two other 
species are described and illustrated :— : 


‘Cribrilina furcata, Hincks, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ Dec. 1882, pl. xx. 
fig. 5. 

hippocrepis, Hincks (op. cit. pl. xx. fig. 6, 6a). 

Loc.: Cumshewa; Houston Stewart Channel, abundant. 

radiata, form innominata. 

Form with vibraculoid sete not uncommon (op. cit.) 
Jan. 1883. 


tr) 


” 


Mr. Hincks says that some beautiful varieties of this variable species 
occur in the material from Queen Charlotte Islands, ‘and the form 
which bears vibraculoid sete is especially remarkable for richness of 
sculpture and delicacy of structure.’ 

See also the preliminary paper on the New Species in the Queen 
Charlotte Islands Collection, ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ Sept. 1882, pp. 248- 
256. No plates. : 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 563 


Genus 61. Membraniporella (pars), Siitt. 


See Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ p. 199. 
*Florid. Bryozoa,’ Smit, Part 11, p. 10. 


‘Zoarium incrusting, or rising into free, foliaceous expansions, with a 
single layer of cells (hemischaran) (?) Busk. Zocecia closed in front by 
“a number of flattened calcareous ribs more or less consolidated.’— Brit. 
Mar. Polyzoa, p. 199. 

oy 


1. Membraniporella nitida, Johnst., op. cit. pl. xxvii. figs. 1-8. 
. S melolontha, Busk, op. cit. pl. xxvii. figs. 9, 10. 


i Family XX. Microporellide. 


Microporellide (pars), Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Pol,’ p. 204. 
This family as established by Mr. Hincks (‘ Brit. Mar. Bol.) 
embraced three genera :— 


Genus Microporella, Hincks. 
» Diporula, Hincks. 
», Chorizopora, Hincks. 


__In the ‘Challenger Report’ (p. 134) Mr. Busk has modified the 
definition of Mr. Hincks for the purpose of ‘limiting it to such Es- 
aarine forms as have a true lunate pore. Consequently, as here under- 
od, it corresponds with Professor Smitt’s genus Porrelina (‘‘ Florid. 
Bryoz.” p. 27 ).’ The genus Chorizopora, Hincks, is relegated to the 
next family, Escharide, and Diporula, Hincks, is not accounted for in 
the ‘Challenger Report.’ 

_ ‘Mouth semicircular 6r coarctate, with an entire straight lower 
border; a lunate fimbriated median pore. Zoarium erect and bilaminar, 
‘or crustaceous and adnate.’—Chal. Rep. p. 134. 

iM 


§ a. Hrect, bilaminar. 


Genus Flustramorpha, Cray. 


oan Ad RE vy 


§ B. Crustaceous. 


Genus Microporella, Hincks. 


§ a. Hrect, bilaminar. 
Genus 62. Flustramorpha, Gray 
= Mastigophora (pars), Hincks. (See p. 101.) 


_ ‘Zoarium erect, radicate, bilaminar, composed of irregular lobes, 
bordered and loosely interconnected by chitinous tubes; mouth coare- 
tate ; a lateral pouch-like vibracularium.’—Chal. Rep. p. 135. 


1. Flustramorpha marginata, Krauss (sp.), ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xx. fig. 8, 
} ! woodcut, p. 155 
= Flustra marginata, Krauss 
= Flustramorpha marginata, Gray. 
2. ss hastigera, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxi. fig. 7 
woodcut, p. 136 
= (?) Porellina ciliata, Smitt. 


? 


002 


564 REPORT—1885. 


In the Report, p. 136, Mr. Busk indicates other species as belonging 
to this group, but these are not in the ‘ Challenger ’ collection. 


3. Flustramorpha flabellaris, Busk. 
4., is patagonica, Busk (MS. ?) 


Genus 63. Microporella, Hincks (Busk ?). 


‘Zoarium erect and bilaminar, or incrusting and adnate. Mouth 
semicircular, with a straight entire lower border, with or without oral 
spines. An aviculario-vibracular organ on one side of the front, with the 
mandible forked at the base, or unarmed.’—Chal. Rep. p. 137. 


1. Microporella personata, Busk, (sp.), ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 137, woodcut 
= Lepralia personata, Busk 
= Microporella ciliata, var., Hincks. 

2. 6 Malussi, Aud., ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 137. 

3: is ciliata, Pallas, (sp.), ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 138. 


These are the whole of the Microporella given by Mr. Busk in the 
‘Challenger Report.’ As Mr. Hincks has, however, added to the list 
considerably since the publication of the ‘ British Marine Polyzoa,’ I add 
the whole to the above without abridgment. As Mr. Busk’s estimate of 
some of his own species, formerly described in the ‘ British Museum 
Catalogue,’ differs from that of Mr. Hincks, it will be far better for the 
student of Marine Polyzoa to compare one author with the other before 
giving a decision either way. It is very certain that some at least of the 
species of Mr. Hincks will have to be turned over to other genera. 


Genus Microporella, Hincks. 


‘British Marine Polyzoa,’ vol. i. p. 204, which see for synonyms. 

‘Zoarium incrusting. Zocecia with a semicircular aperture, the lower 
margin entire, and a semi-lunate or circular pore below it.’— Op. cit. p. 204. 

‘ We do not know,’ says Mr. Hincks, ‘ the physiological import of the 
definitely shaped opening in the front wall of the cell, which belongs to 
this genus. But the character, which is constant, may fairly be accounted 
of considerable importance, and, taken in combination with the form of the 
aperture, is a good diagnostic mark.’ 


1. Microporella ciliata, Pullas, Hincks, op. cit. p. 206, pl. xxviii. — 


figs. 1-8. 
a Var. a, personata, p. 207 
= Lepralia personata, Busk. 
OP 55 Malusii, Aud., op. cit. p. 211, pl. xxviii. figs. 9-11; 


pl. xxix. fig. 12. 
Var. a, thyreophora, p. 212 
= Lepralia thyreophora, Busk. q 
74 impressa, Aud., Hincks, op. cit. p. 214, pl. xxvi- 
figs. 9-11; pl. xxix. figs. 10, 11. ‘ 
Var. a, bimucronata, Moll. 
Var. cornuta, Busk. 
Var. 3, glabra, Aud. 
» ¥> pyriformis, Busk. 
fs violacea, Johnst., op. cit. p. 216, pl. xxx. figs. 1+. 
Var. B, plagiopora, Busk. Crag form. 


Ru) 


pet 
«2 
_— * 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 565 


These are the British species given by Mr. Hincks. The whole have 
a wide geographical range—and their range in time is also great—but 
principally Tertiary. 

In his paper on the Madeira species, ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ July 1880, 
Mr. Hincks adds to the list— 


5. Microporella decorata, Reuss (near ally of M. violacea), and suggests 
that the foliowing species should be included in 
the list :— 


Lepralia californica, Busk. 
personata, Busk. 
bicristata, Bush. 
diadema, Maegil. 
ceramia, Macgil. 


6. Microporella ciliata, form vibraculifera, Hincks, Polyzoa Queen 
Charlotte Is. ‘ Annals,’ Jan. 1883, pl. xvii. fig. 2. 


‘f 7 form, umbonata, op. cit. pl. xvii. fig. 1. 
8. ss », californica, op. cit. pl. xvii. fig. 3 
=Lepralia id., Busk, Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc. 1850. p. 310 
a: 5 diadema, Macgil., Polyzoa Bass’s Straits. 
10. A fuegensis, Busk, ‘ Annals,’ May 1884 Tierra del Fuego. 
aT “e mucronata, Macgil., Pol. Bass’s Straits. Very abun- 


dant. This species belongs to the same section of 
the genus as our M. violacea 
= Hschara mucronata, Macgil. 
12, i fissa, Hincks, ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ Nov. 1880, 5th ser. 
vol. vi. p. 381, pl. xvii. fig. 4. Loc. : Indian Ocean. 


To the description of the above Mr. Hincks adds another brief list of 
Microporelia :— 
18. Microporella coronata, Audowin = Flustra id., Aud. 
Pala. a marsupiata, Busk = Lepralia id., Busk. 
15. 7 stellata, Verrill = Porellina id., Verrill. 
_ In his paper on the Polyzoa of New Zealand and Australia (‘ Annals,’ 
March 1885), Mr. Hincks gives the following :— 


Microporella Malusii, Aud. 


16 5s form disjuncta, Hincks, pl. vii. fig.4. New Zealand. 
y. 3 diadema, Macgil. 
n?. form angustipora, Hincks, pl. viii. fig. 3. 


And to the above the following in all probability may be added :— 
18. Microporella bicristata, Busk = Lepralia id. 


BD, a ceremia, Macgillivray = Lepralia id. 
20. = serrulata, Smitt = Porina id., Smitt. 
el. Fe sub-suleata, Smitt = Porina id., Simitt. 


Family Monoporellide, Hincks. 
Genus Monoporella, Hincks. 


‘Zocecia destitute of a membranous area or aperture, and of raised 
margins; orifice arched above, with the lower lip entire; no special pores.’ 
Hincks, ‘ Annals.’ 


566 REPORT—1885. ¢ 


Originally Mr. Hincks founded the genus Monoporella for species of 
the Microporellidian orifice, but destitute of the median pore, which is so: 
striking a character of the genus Microporella. Subsequently the author 
arranged the few known recent forms under the family name given 
above. Mr. Waters adopted the name—provisionally—for the fossil 
species which are given in the fifth Report on Fossil Polyzoa (mhz). 
As yet we have hardly material enough for a full study of the type. 
The genus is not given by Mr. Busk in his ‘ Challenger Report.’ 


1. Monoporella nodulifera, Hincks, Polyzoa from Bass’s Straits, 
‘ Liverpool Address,’ April 1881. 


2. i lepida, Hincks (op. cit. April 1881). 

Ds r albicans, Hincks, ‘Aun. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ Feb. 1882, : 
pl. v. figs. 5-5b. Lce.: Singapore or Philip- 
pines. 

4. Fr brunnea, Hincks, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ June 1883, 


pl. xviii. fig. 4. Loc.: Queen Charlotte Islands. 


Family Cyclicoporide, Hincks. 
‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ October 1884. 
Zocecia having the front wall wholly calcified and destitute of raised 
margins or depressed area, with a more or less orbicular orifice. 
Genus Cyclicopora, Hincks. 


‘ Zocecia with a perfectly simple orifice, more or less orbicular. Zoarium 
incrusting.’—Ibid. p. 279. 


Cyclicopora longipora, Macgil. (sp.) = Lepralia id. 
= OC, prelonga, Hineks, ‘ Annals,’ October 1884, p. 279, 
pl. ix. fig. 7. Loc.: Port Phillip Heads, J. B. Wilson. 


In the Escharide Mr. Busk includes no fewer than fourteen 
genera, and as the family partly supersedes the Myriozoide of Smitt and 
Hincks, the following genera are left out in the classification of Mr. Busk 
in the ‘Challenger Report.’ They will be reported upon when I have 
concluded the family arrangement as given in the ‘ Challenger ’ mono- 
graph. 

Genus Umbonula, Hincks. 
»  Palmicellaria, Alder. 
», Rhynchopora, Hincks. } 
3,  schizotheca, Hincks. ; 
»  Phylactella (part), Hincks. 2" 


Family XXI. Escharide. 


‘Challenger Report,’ Busk, p. 138. 


Escharide (pars), Johnston, D’Orb., Busk, Smitt, Hincks, &e. 
Myriozoide (pars), Siitt, Hincks. 


‘Zoarium calcareous, radicate or fixed; erect, uni- or bi-laminar, 
foliaceous or ramose, or crustaceous, loosely attached or adnate. Zocecia 
urceolate, front entirely calcified..—Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 188. 


5 


| 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 567 


1. Genus Eschara, Pallas. 

2. ,,  Lepralia, Johnston. 

3. ,,  Chorizopora, Hincks. 

»  Porella, Gray. 

Escharoides, Simitt. 

Smittia, Hincks. 

»  Mucronella, Hincks. 

»  Aspidostoma, Hincks. 
9. ,,  Schizoporella, Hincks. 

10. ,, Gephyrophora, Busk. 

ll. = ,,. Myriozoum, Donati. 

12. ,, #Haswellia, Busk. 

13. ,,  Tessaradoma, Norman. 

14. 4, Gemellipora, Smutt. 


§ 1. Lower lip of primary orifice entire. 
§§ a. Hrect, bilaminar. 
Genus 64. Hschara, Pallas. 


Cellaria (pars), Reuss ; Acropora (pars), Reuss; Lepralia (pars), 
Hincks, Snvitt. 


‘Zoarium erect (sometimes decurrent) ; foliaceous or ramose, com- 
pressed, bilaminar.’-—Chal. Rep. p. 141. 
1. Eschara elegantula, D’Orb., ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xx. fig. 6 
= KF. saccata, Busk, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 1856. 
2. » gracilis, Lamk., ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxi. fig. 6 
= Cellaria and Acropora coronata, Reuss 
= Eschara Buskii, Tenison Woods. 
No Eschara are described by Mr. Hincks in his 
‘ British Marine Polyzoa’ ; and, so far as I am aware, 
only one species has been added to the list in his various 
publications since the issue of that work. 
3. » glabra, Hincks, Polyzoa from Barrent’s Sea, ‘ Annals,’ 
Oct. 1880, p. 281, pl. xv. fig. 6. 
4, »  perpusilla, Busk, ‘Linn. Soc. Jour. Zool.’ vol. xv. 1880, 
pl. xiii. fig. 5. Loc.: Arctic Sea. 
Associated with this species in the collection of Mr. 
Busk as described in the above paper is Hschara 
elegantula, D’ Orb. 


§§ 6. Crustaceous, unilaminar. 
Genus 65. Lepralia, Johnston. 


Lepralia, Hincks, Smitt (pars), Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ ; Hemischara 
(pars), Busk. 


Zoarium unilaminar, erect or crustaceous, and loosely or wholly 
unattached, or adnate with the zocecia, incomplete behind. 


(a). Unilaminar, erect or crustaceous, free or loosely attached 
(hemischaran), ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 142. 
1. Lepralia celleporoides, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xvii. fig. 4. 
2 5 japonica, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xvii. fig. 5. 


568 REPORT—1885. i 


3. Lepralia tuberosa, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xvii. fig. 7. 
4. - dorsiporosa, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xviii. fig. 4. 
(b). Adnate (lepralian). 


5. $5 fuegensis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxii. fig. 9. 
6. margaritifera, (woy & Gaymard 
= Flustra id., Quoy & Gaymard 
= Lepralia id., Busk, ‘Brit. Mus. Cat.’ and ‘Chal, 
Rep.’ p. 145. 
“p = incisa, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 145, woodcut, fig. 42. 
8. a loncheea, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 146, woodcut, fig. 43. 
a 


5  marsupium, Macgillivray, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 147, woodcut 
= Porella id., Hincks . 
=(?) Porella minuta, Norman 
= Schizoporella marsupium, S. O. Ridley. 


The above are the whole of the species of Lepralia given by Mr. Busk 
in the ‘ Report.’ Mr. Hincks, however, in his ‘ British. Marine Polyzoa,’ 
and also in the ‘Contributions to a General History of the Marine 
Polyzoa,’ adds to the list of species considerably, and the following is a 
full compilation from the various sources up to date :— 

§. With a simple primary orifice only. 
10. Lepralia Pallasiana, Moil., ‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.’ p. 297, pl. xxxiii. figs. 
1-3; pl. xxiv. fig. 4. 
ine - cauthariformis, Busk, op. cit. pl. xxxiii. fig. 4; Busk, 
‘Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc.’ 1860. 
Loc.: Shetland, deep water. 
12. #4 foliacea, Ell. & Sol., Hincks, p. 300, pl. xlvii. figs. 1-4. 
Var. a, fascialis, Hincks. 
Var. B, bidentata, Milne-Edw., pl. xlvii. fig. 4. 

‘For the occurrence on our coast of the remarkable 
variety fascialis, which is common in the Mediterra- 
nean, we have only the authority of Pallas, who says 
that he had seen a specimen from the Isle of Wight.’ 

Two varieties of L. foliacea, Joliet has observed 
at Roscoff—one red and the other white. The Minch, 
Hebrides, is the most northern locality recorded. 

Var. a, South Devon. 

13. »  pertusa, Lsper., Hincks, p. 305, pl. xliii. figs. 4, 5. 

14. x adpressa, Busk, op. cit. p. 807, pl. xxxiii. figs. 5-7. 

15. »»  Hippopus, Smitt, op. cit. pl. xxxiii. figs. 8, 9). Loe.: 

Northumberland coast. The only British locality. 
16. me edax, Busk, op. cit. p. 311, pl. xxiv. figs. 7, 7a. 
lide H polita, Norman, op. cit. p. 315, pl. xxxii. fig. 5. Loc.: 
Shetland ; The Minch. 
(The whole of the British Lepralia given by Mr. Hincks.) 

18. »  Kairchenpaueri, Heller. 

Var. a, teres, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ July 1880, pl. ix. 
figs. 7, 7a. Loc.: Madeira. 
19. an cleidostoma, Smitt, Australian var. Var. orbicularis, 
Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ Aug. 1881, p. 122. 

20. 35 Poissonii, Aud. (? = Escharella setigera, Smitt). Loc.: 
Common. Bass’s Straits; Florida. ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. 
Hist.’ August 1881, p. 122. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 569 


21. Lepralia nitescens, Hincks, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ June 1883, 
pl. xviii. fig. 6. 

22. . bilabiata, Hincks, op. cit. Jan. 1884, pl. iii. fig. 1. 

23. 5 claviculata,. Hincks, ibid., pl. ii. fig. 3. 

cleidostome (19) Smitt, ibid. March 1884. Loc.: The 

species and variety. Queen Charlotte Islands, 

24, - robusta, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ May 1884, pl. xii. fig. 4. 
Loc.: India; coast of Burmah. 

25. i foraminigera, Hincks, ‘Annals,’ March 1883, p. 200, 
pl. vi. fig. 1. . 


+26. =~, _~—rectilineata, Hincks, ibid. p. 201, pl. vii. fig. 5. Loe. : 
‘ New Zealand (Miss B. C. Jelly). 
: 27. A bifrons, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ May 1884, p. 281, pl. viii. 
fig. 3. Loc.: Port Phillip Heads, Victoria. 


28. - cincta, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ May 1885, pl. viii. fig. 6. 
| 29. subimmersa, Macgil., ibid. pl. viii. fig. 1. Loc.: New 
Zealand (28) ; Port Phillip Heads, Victoria (29). 
30. af striatula, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ August 1882, pl. viii. fig. 2. 
Loc. : Gauzibar. 


The following are also referable to the genus :— 


 WRyYs 5 turrita, Smitt. 
ie oo. Fy rostrigera, Smitt = Escharella id., ‘ Florid. Bryozoa.’ 
34. » Audoninii, Smitt= is - f 
35. x setigera, Smitt = Ps ‘, a 
36. - depressa, Busk. 
3f. g gigas, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ March 1885, pl. ix. fig. 8. Loe. : 
; Trincomalee. 
WSs ue vestita, Hincks, ibid. pl. ix. fig. 9. Loc,: Tahiti, Fiji 
Islands. 
ay. »  vradiatula, Hincks. 
AG, - punctata, Hincks. 


fi 31. Lepralia inornata, Smitt. 
a 


__ Inarather full list of Macgillivray, Australian species! kindly com- 
piled for me by Miss E. C. Jelly, other Lepralia are catalogued. These 
I give, as well as other forms, on Macgillivray’s authority. Some of his 
“species have been adopted by Mr. Hincks and Mr. Busk: these do not 
appear in the list, but as they are fully referred to in the body of the 
present Report, the absent names will not cause any surprise. 


Genus 66. Chorizopora, Hincks 
= Mollia (sp.), Smitt; Hippothoa (pars), Smitt. 
Schizoporella (pars), Hincks. 


‘Zocecia often distinct, connected by hollow calcareous processes. 
_ Mouth semicircular or sub-orbicular, with a straight or sinuated lower 
border. Ocecial orifice crescentic. Wall of zowcia usually transversely 
_ wrinkled.’—Chal. Rep. p. 148. 
1. Chorizopora Brongniartii, Aud. (sp.), ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 148, for 
synonyms. 


? This list will be found among the Australian and Pacific lists on pp. 163-166. 


570 REPORT— -1885. 


2. Chorizopora hyalina. 
Var. Bougainvillei, Busk 
= Escharina Bougainville, D’Orb. 
= Lepralia hyalina, var. Bougainvilla, Busk, ‘Chal. 
Rep.’ pl. xxii. fig. 4; ‘ Kerguelen Polyzoa,’ Busk. 
3. 3 Honolulensis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxii. fig. 12. 


Only one species (No. 1, the type of the genus) is given by Mr. 
Hincks in his ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa.’ 


Genus 67. Porella, Gray 


= Porella, Hincks, Smitt (pars), Gray, ‘ Brit. Mus. Radiata,’ 
= Hschara (pars), Sars., Busk, Alder, Smitt 
= Hemischara and Lepralia, Norman & Busk. 


‘Zoarium erect, ramose, cylindrical, or sub-compressed, or crustaceous. 
and adnate. A median oral avicularium within the primary mouth, with 
a semi-orbicular or sub-triangular mandible.’—Chal. Rep. p. 149. 


1. Porella levis, Fleming (Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ p. 334). 
Var. subcompressa, Hincks, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xx. fig. 3. 


The only form described by Mr. Busk, who says ‘that the difference 
between this and the usual cylindrical form of the northern Porella levis 
is sufficient to mark it as a distinct variety.’ Loc.: Cape de Verde. 

Several British species of Porella are described by Mr. Hincks, and 
the list is added to in his descriptions of foreign Cheilostomata. ‘Through- 
out this very natural group,’ says Mr. Hincks (‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ p. 321), 
‘there is a striking uniformity, not only in the characters of the adult 
cell, but also in the course of its development; and the study of it has 
done more than most things to convince me that in this section of the 
Polyzoa we cannot safely regard the mere erect and branching habit as 
a generic criterion.’ In further remarks Mr. Hincks points out many 
peculiarities of structure in the several species to which he directs atten- 
tion, 

a. Zoarium incrusting. 


2. Porella concinna, Busk, ‘Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ p. 323, pl. xlvi. 
Var. a, Belli, Dawson (id., pl. xlvi. fig. 6). 
» 1, gracilis, Hincks (id., fig. 9). 
Loc.: var. a, Shetland and Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
on aes minuta, Norman, op. cit. p. 326, pl. xxix. figs. 1, 2; pl. 
xxxvl. figs. 6, 8 
= (?) Lepralia chilopora, Manzoni. 


B. Zoarium incrusting, or erect and unilamellate. 


4. Porella strama, Norman, op. cit. p. 329, pl. xxxix. figs. 3, 5 
= Hemeschara id., Norman. 
Loc.: Shetland (rare) ; Bergen. 


y. Zoarium erect ; branches compressed. 


5. Porella compressa, Sowerby, op. cit. p. 330, pl. xlv. figs. 4, 7, and 
woodcut, p. 322. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. iat 


é. Zoarium erect ; branches cylindrical. 


6. Porella levis, Fleming, op. cit. p. 334, pl. xlvii. figs. 10, 11. 
Range: from Shetland to Arctic Sea. 


The above are all British species. 


7. Porella nitidissima, Hincks, ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ July 1880, 
pl. x. fig. 2. Loc.: Madeira (Hincks). 
a rostrata, Hincks, op. cit. Nov. 1880, p. 382, pl. xvi. 
fig. 5; and ‘Annals,’ Feb. 1882, p. 89, pl. v. fig. 2. 
Loc. : Australia (Miss Jelly and Miss Gatty). 
9. ,,  marsupium, Macgil., op. cit. Aug. 1881, p. 123, pl. i. 
fig. 6. Loc.: Bass’s Straits. 
10. ,, + Form, porifera, Hincks (‘ Annals,’ Jan. 1884, pl. iv. fig. 4). 
Loc.: Victoria, Macgil. ; Bass’s Straits; Queen Charlotte 
Islands. 
ae Sr 5, major, Hincks (‘ Annals,’ Jan. 1884, pl. iv. fig. 5). 
12(?).,,  argentea, Hincks (‘ Annals,’ March 1884, pl. ix. fig. 1). 
Loc.: Queen Charlotte Islands. 
es: Sy, malleolus, Hincks (‘ Annals,’ May 1884, p. 361). Loc.: 
Coast of Burmah. 


Genus 68. LEscharoides, Smitt. 


‘Secondary orifice sinuated below, with an avicularium on one or 
both sides of the notch.’—Chal. Rep. p. 149. 


1. Escharoides occlusa, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxi. fig. 8. 
2. - verruculata, Smitt (sp.), ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 150 
= Cellepora id., Smitt, ‘ Florid. Bryozoa.’ 


Only two species are described by Mr. Hincks in his ‘ British Marine 
Polyzoa,’ 1880 :— 
4, Escharoides rosacea, Busk, op. cit. p. 336, pl. xlvii. figs. 5-9. 
Loc.: Orkney ; Shetland ; Norway ; Spitzbergen. 
5. re quincuncialis, Norman, op. cit. p. 339, pl. xv. fig. 7. 
Loc. : Deep water, in The Minch. 


Genus 69. Smittia, Hincks 


= Escharella, Smitt (not Escharella, Gray or D’Orb.), Smittia, Hincks, 
‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 1879. 

‘Zoarium erect, bi- or uni-laminar, or crustaceous, free or adnate. 
Primary orifice entire, with an internal median denticle. Secondary 
orifice canaliculate, usually inclosing a median avicularium.’—Chal. 
Rep., p. 150. 


(a). Bilaminar (escharan). 
1. Smittia tenuis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xx. fig. 1. 


(b). Unilaminar, erect or crustaceous (hemischaran). 
2. Smittia Smittiana, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xvii. fig. 2. 
3. p marsupialis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xviii. fig. 1. 
4, »,  transversa, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xviii. fig. 7. 
5 »  marionensis, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xviii. fig. 6 
= Lepralia id., Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
6 »  dacobensis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xix. fig. 7. 


572 REPORT—1885. 


(c). Adnate (lepralian). 


7, Smittia oratavensis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxii. fig. 1. 

(?) S. marmorea, Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ p. 3850. 
a stigmatophora, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxi. fig. 6. 
graciosa, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxii. fig. 13. 


(?) Porella concinna, var. 6, gracilis, Hincks. 


9? 


Several species are described in the ‘ British Marine Polyzoa’ and in 
the ‘ Contributions’ of Mr. Hincks. 


10. Smittia Landsborovii, Johnston, ‘Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ p. 341, 
pl. xlviii. figs. 6-9. Widely distributed. 

Var. a, crystallina, Norman (pl. xxxvi. fig. 2). 
Loc.: The Minch, Shetland; Antrim. 

Var. /3, porifera, Smitt (p. 344). Loc.: South 
Devon; Arctic Seas. 

Var. y, purpurea, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ Aug. 1881. 
Ic.: Bass’s Straits; Victoria, Australia. 

11. 5 reticulata, Macgil. ‘Brit. Mar. Pol.’ p. 346, pl. xlviii. 
figs. 1-5. Loc.: Various British localities; Bass’s 
Straits: Victoria, Australia. 

are affinis, Hincks, op. cit. p. 348, pl. xlix. figs. 10, 11. 
Loc.: Start Bay, South Devon. 

RBe- shox) cheilostomata, Manzoni, op. cit. p. 349, pl. xlii. figs. 7, 8 

=Lepralia id., Manzoni. Loc.: Guernsey ; South Devon ; 
Hastings. 

An” ayy marmorea, Hincks, op. cit. p. 350, pl. xxxvi. figs. 3-5. 
Loc.: Cornwall; Guernsey. 

cee a. Bella, Busk, op. cit. pl. xlii. figs. 9,10. Loc.: Shetland 

= Lepralia id. 

LGW trispinosa, Johnston, op. cit. p. 353, pl. xlix. figs. 1-8. 
Loc.: Several British, and widely distributed geogra- 
phically. 

Mr. Hincks describes several varieties in ‘ Annals,’ May 
1884, pp. 361, 362, pl. xu. figs. 7, 7a. 
Var. a, Jettreysi, Norman. Loc.: Dogger Bank 
(1. Hincks). 

Is ates galeata, Busk. Loc. : Madeira. 

Sean ae nitida, Verrill. (‘ Annals,’ Feb. 1881, p. 159, pl. ix. 
figs. 5, 5a). Loc.: North America (Verrill) ; Africa 
(Miss Jelly). 

De ts plicata, Smitt = Cellepora plicata, Smitt. 

US ae spathulifera, Hincks, ‘Annals,’ Jan. 1884, pl. iv. fig. 3. 
Loc.: Houston Stewart Channel (‘ Polyzoa of Queen 
Charlotte Islands ’). 

Var. munita, Hincks. 
» spathulata, Smitt. 
form bimucronata, Hincks. 


Genus 70. Mucronella, Hincks. 


‘Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ p. 360. 


‘Zoarium erect and bi- or uni-laminar, or crustaceous and un- 
attached, or adnate. Orifice mucronate in front.’—Ohal. Rep., p. 155. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 573. 


a. Bilaminar (escharan). 


1. Mucronella contorta, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xx. fig. 9 

= Eschara id., Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ p. 89, pl. eviii. 
figs. 1-3. 

2. - pyriformis, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xx. fig. 5. 


B. Unilaminar, erect or crustaceous, unattached (hemischaran). 


3. Mucronella quadrata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xviii. fig. 5; and 
pl. xvii. fig. 8. 

A. delicatula, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xviii. fig. 2. 

5. a rostrigera, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xix. fig. 2. 

6 bisinuata, Smtt, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl xix. fig. 5 

= Escharella id., ‘ Florid. Bryozoa,’ p. 59. 

iA Ss castanea, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xix. fig. 6. 

8 35 magnifica, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xviii. fig. 3. 


y. Adnate (lepralian). 


= 


Mucronella canalifera, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxii. fig. 2. 
? Phylactella (sp.) 
= Lepralia Mangueville, Busk, ‘Quart. Jour. Micr. 
Soc.’ vol. xiii. p. 284. This form differs from 
Lepralia (Phylactella) labrosa, and also from L. 
(Phylactella) collaris—in the one case in the absence 
of an internal denticle, and in the other in the 
presence of oral spines and the absence of punctu- 
ration on the ocecium. 
f tricuspis, Hincks, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxii. fig.3; and 
Hincks, ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 1881. 
% simplicissima, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxii, fig. 5. 
Probably an adnate variety of No. 2. 
4 ventricosa, Busk (Lepralia id., 1861, var. multispinata, 
Busk) 
=(?) Mucronella Peachii, var. octodentata, Hincks, 
‘Brit. Mar. Polyzoa.’ 


I think it best to give, in addition to the above, the Mucronelle as 
worked out by Mr. Hincks both in his ‘ British Marine Polyzoa’ and also. 
in his ‘ Contributions.’ 

The genus Mucronella ‘is equivalent in part to the Discopora of Smitt, 
but not of Fleming, who originated the name for a species belonging to a 
totally different section of the Polyzoa (the Cyclostomata), with which it 
is still connected in the slightly modified form Discoporella.’—Hincks,. 
‘Brit. Maz. Polyzoa,’ p. 360. 


a. Without avicularia. 


13. Mucronella Peachii, Johnst. (‘Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ p. 360, pl. 1. 
figs. 1-5; pl. li. figs. 1, 2). 

Var. a, labiosa, Busk, pl. li. fig. 1. Loc.: Belfast Bay ; 
Guernsey. 

wer 3, octodentata, Norman, pl. li. fig. 2. Loc. : Shet- 
and. 


574 REPORT—1885. 


14. Mucronella ventricosa, Hassall, op. cit. pl.1. figs. 6-8 
= Lepralia arrecta, Reuss, Miocene. 
Var. connectans, Ridley, ‘Polyzoa of Franz Josef’s 


Land.’ 

15. ; variolosa, Johnst. ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ p. 366, pl. li. 
figs. 3-7. 

16. 2 laqueata, Norman, op. cit. pl. li. fig. 8. Loc.: Shet- 
land; The Minch; Antrim; Bergen; Arctic Seas. 

ye is abyssicola, Norman, op. cit. pl. xxxviil. figs. 1, 2. 
Loc.: Shetland; Gulf of St. Lawrence. 

18. 55 macrostoma, Norman, op. cit. pl. xxxviii. figs. 3, 4. 


Toc.: Shetland Seas; On the Falmonth-Lisbon 
Cable, between N. lat. 47° 58’ and 47° 35’, and in 
W. long. 7° 6’. 


B. With a lateral avicularia. 


19. Mucronella coccinea, Abildgard, op. cit. pl. xxxiv. figs. 1-6. 
Var. a, mamillata, Hincks. Loc.: Coast of Antrim. 
20. 5 pavonella, Alder, op. cit. pl. xxxix. figs. 8-10. 
These are the whole of the British species ; some of 
them, such as Nos. 13, 14, 15, and 19, have a 
very wide range. 
2A oe simplex, Hincks, Polyzoa for Barrent’s Sea, ‘ Annals, 
Oct. 1880, p. 280, pl. xv. fig. 7. 
22. in (2?) tubulosa, Hincks, op. cit. Nov. 1880, p. 383, 
pl. xvii. fig. 7. Loc.: Australia. 
23. 3 porosa, Hincks, op. cit. Aug. 1881, p. 124, pl. i. fig. 5. 
Loc.: Off Curtis Island (Polyzoa Bass’s Straits) ; 
Singapore or the Philippines (Miss Jelly). 
24. a teres, Hincks, op. cit. pl. ii. fig. 5. Allied to the 
Brit., No. 14, ante. Loc.: Off Curtis Island. 
25. 5 spinosissima, Hincks, op. cit. pl. iii. fig. 3. Loc.: Off 
Curtis Island. 
Var. major, Hincks, ‘Polyzoa of Queen Charlotte 
Islands,’ op. cit. Jan. 1884, pl. iii. fig. 3. 
26. - tricuspis, Hincks, op. cit. Aug. 1881, p. 125, pl. iii. 
fig. 1. Loc.: Off Curtis Island. 
27. = vultur, Hincks, op. cit. Aug. 1882, pl. viii. fig. 2. 
Toc.: Australia. t 
28. - diaphana, Macail. / 
Var. armata, Hincks, op. cit. pl. viii. fig.3. Loc.: New — 


Zealand. . 
29. 53 prestans, Hincks, op. cit. pl. viii. fig. 1. Loe.: 
Australia. 
30. - rotundata, Hincks, op. cit. pl. viii. fig. 5. Loc. : Singa- 
pore or Philippines (Miss Jelly). 
31. = prelucida, Hincks, op. cit. Jan. 1884, pl. iv. fig. 1. 
32. a prelonga, Hincks, op. cit. pl.iv. fig. 2. Loe. : Houston — 
Stewart Channel. : 
33. - bicuspis, Hincks (?) am: 
34. rs mucronata, Hincks (?) 


Mr. Hincks gives very full details of the special features of th 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 575 


Mucronelle described in his various papers, especially so in describing the 
species in Captain Warren’s collection from Bass’s Straits, and Dr. Daw- 
son’s from the neighbourhood of Queen Charlotte Islands. 


Genus 71. Aspidostoma, Hincks. 


‘Zoarium dimorphous, uni- or bi-laminar; erect, solid, rising from a 
contracted calcareous base, or expanded and foliaceous. YZocecia with the 
front depressed in the centre and the sides tumid. Mouth quite at the 
_ summit of the depressed area, concealed under the tumid border, ou 
which above the mouth is a penthouse-like, usually bifid, projection. The 
_ mouth arched above, straight below, and protected in front by a broad 
shield-like plate or mucro which is continued downwards for some dis- 


1. Aspidostoma giganteum, Blainv., ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxiii. fig. 3 

=Kschara gigantea, Blainw., ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ p. 91 

= Aspidostoma crassum, Hincks, ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. 
Hist.’ Feb. 1881. 


2. 3 erassum, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ Feb. 1881, p. 160, pl. x. 
figs. 6, 6a. Loc.: Patagonia and the Falkland 
Islands. 


§ 2. Primary mouth notched or sinuated below. 
Genus 72. Schizoporella, Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa.’ 
‘Zoarium erect and bi- or uni-laminar, or crustaceous and unattached, 
oradnate. Lower lip with a median notch. Operculum pedunculate or 
contracted below.’—Chal. Rep. p. 162. 
: a. Bilaminar (escharan). 


1. Schizoporella furcata, Blainv., ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxi. fig. 5. 


B. Unilaminar (hemischaran). 


2. Schizoporella nivea, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xvii. fig. 1. 
3. a longispinata, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xvii. fig. 2. 
A, a auriculata (?), Hassall. 

Var. alba, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xix. fig. 1. 
5 - Jacksoniensis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xix. fig. 3. 
6 a tenuis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xx. fig. 10. 


y. Adnate (lepralian). 


. Schizoporella elegans, D’Orb. = (?) Escharina id., ‘ Voy. en Amér. 
Mérid.’ 
(?) Lepralia squamoidea, Reuss & Manzoni, ‘ Castro- 
caro.” 
= marsupifera, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxii. fig. 14. 
9. 5 Cecillii, Aud. (sp.), ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 166; and 
Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ p. 262. 
+3 circinata, Macgil. = Lepralia, id., Macgil., ‘Nat. Hist. 
Vict.’ and ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 166, woodcut. 
ile 4 triangula, Hincks, ‘Annals,’ 1881; ‘Chal. Rep.’ 
p. 167. 


In addition to the above list of forms described by Mr. Busk from the 


“Challenger ’ collection, no fewer than fifty-two species and varieties have 


st 


576 


REPORT—1885. 


been described by Mr. Hincks, in his ‘British Marine Polyzoa’ and in 
his Contributions in the ‘Annals and Mag. Nat. History,’ under the 
family name Myriozoide. 


a. Avicularia with a pointed mandible, generally lateral. 


12. Schizoporella unicornis, Johnst., ‘Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ p. 238, 


13. 
14. 


18. 


iE 


” 


pl. xxxv. figs. 1-5. 

Form ansata, Johnst. Loc.: form ansata: Green- 
land; Bergen. The form wnicornis widely distri- 
buted. 

spinifera, Johnst., op. cit. pl. xxxv. figs. 6-8. Loc. : 
Not so widely distributed as No. 12. 

Alderi, Busk, op. cit. pl. xxxvi. figs. 9,10. Loe. : 
Shetland; Hammerfest; Bergen; Southern 
Norway. 

vulgaris, Moll., op. cit. pl. xxxvii. fig. 7; pl. xv. 
figs. 5, 6. Loc.: Polperro, S.W. of; Antrim; 
Hastings; Birterbuy Bay; Naples; Madeira. 

simplex, Johnst., op. cit. pl. xxxv. figs. 9, 10. 
Loc.: Sana Island; Antrim; Belfast Bay ; South 
Devon (rare); Guernsey; Hastings; Northern 
Hebrides; Unst, Shetland; Peterhead and Wick. 

linearis, Hassall, op. cit. pl. xxxvili. figs. 5-10; 
pl. xxiv. fig. 1. 

Var. a, hastata, Hincks, pl. xxxiii. fig. 10. 
» [, mamillata, Hincks. 

» Y, nitida, Hincks. 

» ©, erucifera, Norman. 

Loc.: Several are given by Mr. Hincks, p. 251. 

sanguinea, Norman, op. cit. pl. xxxix. figs. 6, 7 

= Hemeschara, 7d., Norman. 

Toc.: Guernsey; Naples; Cornwall; Florida. 

cristata, Hincks, op. cit. pl. xl. fig. 6, 6a. Loe. : 
Hastings (Miss Jelly). 


b. With a rounded or spatulate avicularia, lateral or median. 


20. Schizoporella biaperta, Michelin, op. cit. pl. xl. figs. 7-9. 


21. 
(4.) 


rh) 


Form eschariformis, Waters 
=(?) Hippothoa divergens, Smitt. 
Loc. : var. divergens, Guernsey ; Hastings; Algiers ; 
Florida. Var. biaperta, Spitzbergen; Kara Sea; 
Florida. Var. eschariformis, Bruccoli (fossil). 
armata, Hincks, op. cit. pl. xl. figs. 7, 8. Loe.: 
Polperro, 8.W.; Algiers. 
auriculata, Hassall (see Busk’s list, No. 4) (Hincks, 
op. cit. pl. xxix. fig. 3-9). 
Var. a, ochracea, Hincks = Lepralia auriculata, 
var. Leontiniensis, Waters. 
Var. 2, cuspidata, Hincks. 
Loc.: Very widely distributed and common. 
umbonata, Busk, op. cit. pl. xxiv. fig. 2. Loc.: 


Shetland (Barlee). 


1 See No. 53, p. 98. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 577 


_ 23, Schizoporella discoidea, Busk, op. cit. pl. xxx. figs. 8, 9 

. = Alysidota conferta, Busk, ‘Rep. Brit. Assoc.’ 

Loc.: Shetland; Antrim; Hastings; Guernsey ; 
Madeira; Algiers; Birterbuy Bay. 


c. Usually without avicularia. 


24, Schizoporella sinuosa, Busk, op. cit. pl. xlii. figs. 1-6. 
Var. a, armata, pl. xlii. fig. 2. 
Loc.: Shetland; W. coast Scotland ; Spitzbergen, 
and other Arctic localities ; Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
(9.) 3 Cecilii, Aud., op. cit. pl. xliii. fig. 6. Loe.: 
Jersey; Guernsey; Algiers; (?) Adriatic; N aples; 
Cornwall; Australia (Miss Jelly). 
' 25. A cruenta, Norman, op. cit. pl. xxx. fig. 5. Loe.: 
‘ Shetland (rare); Peterhead (rare) ; Orkney ; 
Channel Islands; Nova Zembla; Greenland. 
26. s hyalina, Linn., op. cit. pl. xviii. figs. 8-10. 
Var. a, cornuta, pl. xlv. fig. 2 (Australia; Cali- 
fornia; New Zealand, &c.) 
» , incrassata. 
» ¥, tuberculata. 
Loc.: Widely distributed. Coasts of Great Britain 
and Ireland ; and, as regards geographical range, 
cosmopolitan. 


d. Avicularia on a distinct area above the cell. 


27. Schizoporella venusta, Norman, op. cit. pl. xxx. fig. 6 
; = Gemellipora glabra, forma, striatula, Smite. 
Loc.: Off Guernsey; Florida. 


The above are the whole of the British species given by Mr. Hincks. 


(11.) Schizoporella triangula, Hincks, Polyzoa Bass’s Straits, Liverpool 
a Address, Hincks, April 1881. 


28. é tumida, Hincks, Polyzoa Bass’s Straits, Ibid. 
29. 43 acuminata, Hincks, Polyzoa Bass’s Straits, Ibid. 
30. is insignis, Hincks, ‘Annals,’ Aug. 1881, p. 134, 


pl. v. fig. 10. ‘As bearing on the morpho- 
logical relations’ (of the special pore of the 
Microporellidz) ‘of this portion of structure, an 
observation by Mr. Ridley (‘“ Annals,” June 
1881, p. 448, &e.) is interesting. He has 
noticed a Myriozoidan stage in the develop- 
ment of a Porinidan cell, in which the pore 
had not yet become isolated, but was connected 
by a gap with the orifice.—Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ 
Aug. 1881, p. 185. Loc.: Africa. 


“A incrassata, Hincks (‘ Annals,’ Feb. 1882, p- 124, pl. 
v. figs.1, 1a). Loc.: Africa, on coral (Miss Jelly). 

FA levata, Hincks (ibid., pl. v. fig. 4). Loc.: Australia, 
on weed (Miss Jelly). 

* aperta, Hincks (ibid., pl. v. fig. 3). Loc.: Singa- 


pore (Miss Jelly). 
PP 


578 REPORT—1885. 


34, Schizoporella crassilabris, Hincks (‘ Annals,’ June 1883, pl. xviii. 
ey ly 


35. 5 crassirostris, Hincks (ibid. pl. xviii. fig. 3). 

36. 3 longirostrata, Hincks (ibid. pl. xvii. fig. 4). 

37. - insculpta, Hincks (ibid. pl. xvii. fig. 5, 5a). 

38. a tumulosa, Hincks (ibid. pl. xviii. fig. 2). 

39. 4 pristina, Hincks (ibid. pl. xvii. fig. 6). 

40. a maculosa, Hincks (ibid. No figure). 

Al, + torquata, D’Orb. (‘ Annals,’ March 1884, pl. ix. 
fig. 2). 


= 8. Dawsoni, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ June 1883. 
Loc,: From 34 to 41, ‘ Polyzoa of Queen Charlotte 


2 Islands.’ 

42, 53 cinctipora, Hincks (‘ Annals,’ March 1883, p. 200, 
pl. vil. fig. 3). Loc.: New Zealand (Miss Jelly). 

43. As biserialis, His, (‘ Annals,’ March 1885, pl. vii. fig. 3) 
= 8. arachnoides, Macgil. Loc.:. New Zealand. 

AA. 4 cribrillifera, Hincks. (ibid., pl. viii. fig. 5). Loe : 
Cook’s Straits, New Zealand. 

45. ” scintillans, Hincks (ibid., pl. ix. fig. 7). Loc.: New 
Zealand. 

46. * lucida, Hincks (ibid., pl. ix. fig. 5). Loe.: Aus- 
tralia, on weed. 

(10.) 35 eircinata, Macgil. (ibid., pl. vii. fig. 1).  Loc.: 
Napier, New Zealand; Victoria, Macgil. 

47, argentia, Hincks (zbid., pl. ix. fig. 6, and ‘ Annals,’ 
Feb. 1881, p. 158, pl. ix. fig. 66a). Loc.: Africa, 
on coral. 

(17.) # linearis, Hassall. 


Form, quincuncialis, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ Feb. 1881, 
p. 158, pl. ix. fig. 3. Loc.: Ceylon (Miss Jelly). 


48. = fissurella, Hincks. 

49. a4 latisinuata, Hincks. 

50. a subsinuata, Hincks.) ‘Annals,’ 1884, vol. xiv. pp. 280, 
dl. ¢ biturrita, Hincks. | 281. Port Phillip Heads. 
52. marsupium, Fidley, 1881 = S. Ridleyi, Macg. 

53. i Johnstoni, Quelch = S. simplex, Johnston (non 


D’Orb.), ‘ Annals,’ xiii. 1884, pp. 51 and 215-217. 


Genus 73. Gephyrophora, Busk. 


‘Zoarium dimorphous, either erect and irregularly branched, and 
cylindrical, with the zocicia disposed round an imaginary axis, or decur- 
rent, loosely incrusting, and unilaminar. Zocecia completely immersed, 
flat in front, parted by septal ridges. Surface beneath the epitheca 
finely reticulate. Primary orifice arcuate, with the lower border slightly 
sinuated, afterwards transversely oblong. A prominent avicularian pro- 
cess on each side of the orifice, the two eventually inarching and form- 
ing a bridge in front of it.’—Chal. Rep. p. 167. 

Gephyrophora polymorpha, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxi. 
: Genus 74. Myriozoum, Donati. 


‘Zoarium erect, branched, continuous ; branches cylindrical, obtuse, 
or oviform. Surface punctured or reticulate. Avicularia, when pre- 


eee ed 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 579 


sent, immersed, and usually placed near the orifice, either above, below, 
pr on one or both sides. Orifice notched or sinuate, or caniculate 
below.’ —Chal. Rep. p. 168. 

§ 1. Myriozoa typica. 

1. Myrizoum truncatum, Donati. 

As subgracile, D’ Orbigny. 

3 a) coarctatum, Sars. 


Referred to and placed as above in the ‘ Challenger Report’ (p. 169), 
but not otherwise described. 


§ 2. Myriozoa dubia. 


1. Myriozoum honolulense, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxv. fig. 2 
=. 2. e immersum, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxv fio. 4. 
a 3. es simplex, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxv. fig. 1. 
A, is Marionense, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxiii. fig. 6. 


Genus 75. Haswellia, Busk 
= Myriozoum (sp.), Haswell. 


_ Zoarium composed of short cylindrical branches, spreading in all 
rections dichotomously at very openangles. Zocecia disposed verticel- 
y, and more or less irregularly quincuncial, with a produced tubular 
ub-tubular and bifid, or simply thickened peristome, supporting on 
side a small avicularium with a pointed subtriangular mandible. 
nary mouth clithridiate, with an operculum of corresponding form. 


. Haswellia australiensis, Haswell, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxiv. fig. 9 

= Myriozoum australiense, ‘ Proc. Lin. Soc. N. 8. Wales,” 
1880. 

im auriculata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl xxiv. fig. 10. 


Genus 76. Tessarodoma, Norman 


= Pastulopora (pars), Sars; Quadricellaria, Sars ; Alder 


+ =Anarthropora, Smitt; Tessarodoma, Norman. 
c Porina (part), Hincks. 


Tessaradoma boreale, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. xxiv. fig. 8 
v = Pastulopora gracilis, Sars 

= Quadricellaria gracilis, Sars 

= Onchopora borealis, Busk 

= Anarthropora borealis, Smitt 

= Tessarodoma gracile, Norman 

= Tessarodoma boreale, Smitt 

= Porina borealis, Hincks. 


Genus 77. Gemellipora, Smite. 
Gemellipora (pars), Smitt, ‘ Florid. Bryozoa.’ 
*Zoarium erect and ramose, or crustaceous and adnate. Mouth 
ate, pyriform, with an articular notch on either side below. Oper- 


‘um of corresponding pyriform shape. A median immersed avicu- 
m, either above or below the mouth.’—Chal. Rep. p. 176. 


PP? 


580 REPORT—1885. 


a. Hrect and ramose (escharan). 


1. Gemellipora glabra, Smitt, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxv. fig. 8 
= G. glabra (forma typica), ‘ Florid. Bryoz.’ 


B. Adnate (lepralian). 
2. Gemellipora cribritheca, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxiil. fig. 5. 
The following four genera, established by Mr. Hincks for British 


species of Marine Polyzoa, are not accepted—or only partly accounted 
for—in the classification of Mr. Busk :— 


Genus 78. Umbonula, Hincks. 


‘Zocecia with a primary orifice, sub-orbicular or sub-quadrangular, 
lower margin slightly curved inwards, peristome not elevated, no second- 
ary orifice; a prominent umbo (? avicularian cell) immediately below 
the mouth, supporting an avicularium. Zoarium (in British species) in- 
crusting.’ —Brit. Mar. Poly. p. 316. 

Umbonula verrucosa, Hsper. (Umbonella, text, p. 316), pl. xxxix. 
fie.1, 2. Loc.: Several British ; Roscoff; Adriatic (rare) ; Greenland. 


Genus (78?). Phylactella, Hincks 
= Lepralia (Avett, part) = Alysidota (sp.), Busk. 
‘Zocecia with the primary orifice more or less semicircular, the lower 
margin usually dentate; peristome much elevated, not produced or chan- 


nelled in front. No avicularia. Zoarium (in British species) incrusting.” 
— Brit. Mar. Polyzoa, p. 356. 


1. Phylactella labrosa, Busk (Hincks, pl. xliii. fig. 12). Loe.: Antrim ; 
Shetland ; S. Devon ; Hastings ; Wick ; Cornwall. 


2. a collaris, Norman, op. cit. pl. xliii. fig. 3. Loc. : Hebrides, 
Shetland ; Guernsey ; Hastings ; Antrim. 

3h ¥, exima, Hincks, op. cit. pl. xlix. fig. 11. Loc. : Antrim ;. 
off the Deadman ; Shetland. 

4. Es lucida, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ July 1880, pl. x. fig. 4. Loc.: — 
Madeira. 


Genus 79(?). Palmicellaria, Alder. 


‘Zocecia with the primary orifice orbicular, or ranging from semi- — 
circular to semi-elliptical ; the peristome elevated around it, so as to form — 


asecondary orifice, and carried out in front into a projecting palmate or 
mucronate process, with an avicularium on its inneraspect. Zoarium (in 
the British species) erect and ramose, or (?) lamellate. —Brit. Mar. Polz. 
p. 378. 


1. Palmicellaria elegans, Alder, op. cit. pl. xxx. figs. 7-9. Loc : Zetland 
Seas ; Loch Fyne. 
Skenie Hil. and Sol., op. cit. pl. lii. figs. 1-4. 
Var. a, bicornis, Busk (Crag form). 
» f, foliacea. Loc.: Wick. 
» y tridens, Busk. Norway. 
3. A lorea, Alder (‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.’ pl. lii. figs. 5, 6). Loe. 
Shetland. 
4, es (?) cribraria, Johnston. (Provisionally placed.) Loc. = 
Berwick Bay, Johnston. 


9 
a ” 


| ON RECENT POLYZOA. 581 


Family Myriozoide, Hincks. 
Genus 53(?). Rhynchopora, Hincks. 


‘Zocecia with the primary orifice transversely elliptical, lower margin 
slightly sinuated; secondary orifice sub-orbicular, with a mucro on the 
lower margin and an uncinate process immediately above it within the 
mouth. Zoarium (in the British species) incrusting.’—Brit. Mar. Pol. 
p. 385. 


1. Rhynchopora bispinosa, Johnston, op. cit. p. xl. figs. 1-5. Loc. : Ber- 
wick Bay ; South Devon (abundant) : Cornwall ; 
Guernsey ; Shetland; Caithness (very rare) ; Ma- 
zatlan ; Adelaide. 

2. mn longirostris, Hincks, ‘Annals,’ May 1881. Captain 
Warren’s collection. 


Genus 54 (?). Schizotheca, Hincks. 
‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ p. 283. 
1. Schizotheca fissa, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.’ p. 284, pl. xli. figs. 1-38. 
2. 4 divisa Norman, op. cit. p. 385, pl. xli. figs. 4-6. 
3. RS fissurella, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ 1882, ‘ Polyzoa of Queen 
Charlotte Islands.’ 
Genus 54*, Mastigophora, Hincks. 
(See Genus 62 of Report, and ‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.’ Hincks, p. 278.) 


1. Mastigophora Dutertrei, Aud. ‘Brit. Mar. Pol.’ p. 279, pl. xxxvii. 
figs. 15/2. 

2. Hyndmani, Johnston, op. cit. p. 281, p. xxxvii. figs. 3-6. 

3. _ ” var. ensiformis (MS. ? Miss Jelly). 

A 


0 »» porosa, Pourtales. 


Family XXII. Adeonez, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 177. 


*Zoarium erect or (rarely) incrusting, affixed either by a more or less 
flexible or unjointed, radicate, chitino-calcareous peduncle, or immediately 
attached to some flexible body, either with or without a contracted base. 
Bilaminar except when incrusting ; foliaceous, expanded, and fenestrate, 
or branched, or lobate, or entire. Cells of two or usually three kinds, 
zocecial, ocecial, avicularian. No ocecia of the usual type. On the front 
a@ median pore, usually simple and circular, sometimes irregularly 
fimbriate, or represented by a depressed perforated areola. Usually one 
or more sessile avicularia on the front. In the ocecial cells the pore in 
most cases is sub-oral, or placed immediately below the mouth, and usually 
@ minute avicularium on each side. The wall of the zocecial cells is 
punctate or entire; that of the occial always punctate.’—Loc. cit. p. 177. 

This important family group is founded upon well marked structural 
peculiarities :-— 


1. The existence of three distinct forms of cells. 
2. The entire absence of ocecia of the usual type. 
3. The presence of a median pore or its equivalent. 
_4. In the presence of avicularian cells, which are wholly converted into 
“vicarious avicularia.’ 


582 REPORT—1885. 


Mr. Busk enumerates several other important characters, but one 
deserves special notice :— 

‘It consists in the circumstance that in the entire group the avicu- 
larian mandibles, both large and small, always exhibit a projecting point 
or articular process at each end of the base, into or close to which the 
erector muscles are attached. To which may be added that, so far as I 
have noticed, the occlusor muscle of the mandible is always single instead 
of consisting of two bands as usual.’—Busk, loc. cit. p. 178. 

The genus Adeona is the subject of a monograph by Dr. Kirchenpauer 
(‘Ueber die Bryozoa, Gattung Adeona,’ Hamburg, 1879), in which he © 
enumerates eight forms which are regarded by him as species. These are 
as follows :— 


1. Adeona foliacea or follifera, Lama. and Lamk. 
2 7 intermedia, Kirchenpauer. 

¥ macrothyris, Kirchenpauer. 

a arborescens, Kirchenpauer. 

4 grisea, Lamouroue. 

3; cellulosa, Macgillivray. 

=A albida, Kirchenpauer. 

Wilsoni, Macgillivray, which has been added since the — 
monograph was written. 


Soe 99 | 


Orsi 


Besides these published Mr. Busk says that he is acquainted from 
direct observation with five or six others ‘that I have uot been able to 
identify with any of the foregoing, and which will be included in a pro- 
jected memoir on the genus, which I hope to be able shortly to prepare.’ 


9. Adeona appendiculata (n. sp.) Australia. 
Wap it 4 Gattyse (n. sp.) South Africa. 


bP twas Jancifera (n. sp.) Australia. 

i. ay vulga (n. sp.) Australia. 

13. ,,.~— microthyris (n. sp.) Australia. - 

14. ,,.—-lyecopodioides (n. sp.) South Atlantic, Busk, ‘Chal. * 
Rep.’ p. 179. 


The first only appears in the ‘ Challenger’ collection. 


Genus 80. Adeona, Lamouroua. e 
Adeona, Lamz., Lamk., Kirchenpauer. 
Dictyopora, Macgillivray, ‘ Nat. Hist. Vict.’ Decade V. 
‘Zoarium erect, foliaceous, expanded, flabellate or lobate, fenestrate or 
entire, usually supported on a flexible or sub-flexible, chitino-calcareous, 
nearly jointed stem, composed of radicle tubes incrusted with calcareous 
matter and attached by spreading radical fibres. If without a stem 
generally attached to a flexible support.’—Chal. Rep. p. 181. 


Adeona appendiculata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxiii. fig. 6, woodcuts, 
47, 48, p. 182. 


Genus 81. Adeonella, Busk. 


‘Zoarium erect, very variously branched or lobate, attached by a 
contracted base, or pedicle, often containing radical fibres, and affixed 
usually on a more or less flexible support.-—Chal. Rep. p. 183. 

Only eight species of Adeonella occur in the ‘ Challenger ’ collection, 
but Mr. Busk has furnished a list of recent forms which he would be 


23. 
24, 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 583. 


clined to include in the sub-genus as described above. In all proba- 
ility there are many fossil forms that should be included in this group. 


i. 1. Adeonella tuberculata (n. sp.) = Eschara lichenoides, ‘ Brit. Mus. 


Cat.’ (Not Milne-Edw. ) 
feugensis, Busk. 
suleata, Milne-Edw. 
arcuata, Busk, MS. 
lichenoides, Milne-Edw. 
falciformis, Busk, MS. 
megapora, Busk, MS. 
dolichostoma (n. sp.), MS. 
natalensis (n. sp.), MS. 
crassa (n. sp.), MS. 
Pallasii, Heller. 
Helleri (n. sp. ?), MS. 
dispar, Macgillivray. 
mucronata, Macgillivray. 
fissa, Hincks. 
subsulcata, Smitt. 
polymorpha, Busk, pl. xxi. figs. la, 2a, 3, 3a, not figs, 
1 and 2, woodcut, p. 183. 
platalea, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxi. figs. 4, 4a, excluding 
the branched figure, woodcut, p. 184 
= Eschara platalea, Busk, ‘Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
= (?) Eschara hexagonalis, Haswell, 1881. 
intricaria, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxi. fig. 2, woodcuts, 
51 and 53, p. 185. 
atlantica, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xx. fig. 7, woodcut, 
54, p. 186. 
regularis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xx. fig. 2, and wood- 
cut, 55, p. 186. 
distoma (?) Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 187, woodcuts, 56, 57 
= (?) Eschara coscinophora, Reuss, Stolica & Manzoni 
= (?) Porellina coscinophora, D’Orb. 
Lepralia distoma, Busk, ‘ Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc.’ 
distoma, Busk. 
Var. imperforata, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xx. fig. 4. 
pectinata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 189, woodcut. 


Genus 82. Reptadeonella, Bush. 


‘Challenger Report.’ Referred to on pages 178 and 180, but not 
described. The genus will include— 


1. Reptadeonella violacea 


2. 


= Lepralia id. 
innominata (probably). 


And several fossil forms. 


Family XXIII. Celleporide.- 


Johnston, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ Hincis. 
Escharidee (pars), D’ Orbigny. 
Myriozoide (pars), Snvitt. 


584 REPORT—1885. 


‘ Zocecia urceolate, erect or sub-erect, irregularly heaped together, and 
often forming several superimposed layers.’—Chal. Rep. p. 190. 


Genus 83. Cellepora. 


Fabric., Linn, &c., ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ Johnst., Hincks. 
Celleporaria, Lamw., Reuss, D’ Orb. 


‘Zoarium multiform, lamellar and incrusting, partially adnate or 
free, or erect and attached by a thick base, massive and irregularly 
branched, solid or hollow, or in the shape of small parasitic pisciform or 
discoid growths. Zocecia in the older portions more or less erect or 
vertical, very irregularly disposed or heaped together. Orifice entire or 
sinuated in front, with or without internal denticles. A pre-oral rostral 
process (sometimes aborted), usually supporting an avicularium; very 
generally interspersed avicularia.’—Challenger Rep. p. 190. 

Mr. Busk might well speak of this as a ‘ multiform and perplexing 
genus,’ and I question very much that had it not been for the close study 
which he has given to the chitinous parts—of which he gives two 
plates—whether he would have been able to furnish such admirable 
details of species. Mr. Busk divides the genus into four sections :— 

§ 1. Operculum sub-orbicular or semicircular, with a nearly straight 
lower border; avicularian mandibles with a short median columella.’ 


§§ a. Lobate, branched, or massive. 
1. Cellepora hastigera, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxix. fig. Ij pl) xaxv 
fig. 8 


g. 8. 
2. » tuberculata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxviii. and pl. xxxv. 
fig. 7. 
3. MS albirostris, Smitt, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxx. fig. 7, pl. xxxv. 
fig. 3 
= Discopora id. (forma typica), ‘ Florid. Bryoz.’ 
(?)=Cellepora bispinata, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ p. 87. 


4., F aspera, Busk, ‘Chal Rep.’ pl. xxviii. fig. 6. 2 

5. 35 columnaris, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxix. fig. 11, pl. xxxv. 
fig. 16. 

6. 5 honolulensis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxix. fig. 5, and 
pl. xxxv. fig. 15. : 

7, : imbellis, Busk (?) *Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxix. fig. 7, and pl. 
xxxv. fig. 20. i 

8. - Jacksoniensis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxx. fig. 10, pl. 
xxxv. fig. 9. 

9; = polymorpha, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxx. fig. 11. 

§§ 6. Incrusting. 
10. a apiculata,? Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxix. fig. 2, pl. xxxv. 


fig. 12. 

ibe 58 samboangensis, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxx. fig. 7 and 
pogaxy.np. 10: 

12. “3 discoidea, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxx. fig. 8, pl. xxxv. 
fig. 1. 

1 ¢This character,’ says Mr. Busk, ‘seems to be confined to species belonging to 
the southern hemisphere, as it is not present in the Mediterranean Cellepora sar- 
donica and Cellepora digitata.’ 

2 Figure from a bad specimen; chitinous parts all right. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 585 


13. Cellepora tridenticulata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxix. fig. 3 and 
pl. xxxv. fig. 17. 
14, 5 vagans, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxix. fig. 10 and pl. xxxv. 


fig. 11. 
15. 4 mammillata, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ p. 87. 
Var. atlantica, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxv. figs. 4, 5, 


and 13. 
§ 2. Operculum pedunculate or produced downwards, usually with 
an articular notch on each side. No median columella in the 
mandibles. 


§§ a. Lobate, branched, or ramose. 


16. Cellepora rudis, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxviii. fig. 7 and pl. xxxvi. 
fig. 7. 

17. z slate Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxix. fig. 12. 

18. 4 pustulata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxviii. fig. 8. 

£9: a cylindriformis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxx. fig. 9, and 
pl. xxxvi. fig. 9. 

20. 45 Simonensis, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxix. fig. 9 ; pl. xxxvi. 
fig. 8, p. 200. 

21. dy Eatonensis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxix. figs. 4, 6, 8; and 
pl. xxxvi. figs. 3-5. 

22. * ovalis, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxviii. fig. 5 ; and pl. xxxv. 
fig. 6. 

§§ 6. Pisiform. 


23. - bicornis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxx. figs. 1 and 12 ; and 
pl. xxxvi. figs. 13, 15. 
24. s, bilabiata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxx. fig. 2. 
25. _ signata, Busk, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxx. fig. 3 ; and pl. xxxvi. 
fig. 14. 
26. $5 conica, Busk (?), ‘ Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxviii. fig. 10; and pl. 
xxxvi. fig. 1 
= (?) Cellepora avicularis, Smitt, ‘ Florid. Bryozoa.’ 
27. a ansata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxx. fig. 4; and pl. xxxvi. 
fig. 17. 
28. - canaliculata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxx. fig. 5; and 
pl. xxxvi. fig. 16. 
29. q bidenticulata, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxx. fig. 6; and 
pl. xxxvi. fig. 6. 
ae Var. subeequalis, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xxxvi. fig. 11, 
chitinous parts. 
30. y granum, Hincks, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 1861, ‘ Chal. 
Rep.’ p. 205, pl. xxxvi. fig. 10. 
03 tubulosa, Hincks (sp.), ‘Chal. Rep.’ p. 205 
= C. Costarii, var. tubulosa, Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.,’ 
‘Chal Rep.,’ woodcut, p. 205. 


Tn his ‘ British Marine Polyzoa’ and Contributions in the ‘ Annals,’ 
- Hincks describes other species whose names are not found in the 


above list. 


ry 


Cellepora pumicosa, Linn., ‘ Brit. Mar. Pol.’ p- 598, pl. liv. figs. 1-3. 
Widely distributed. 
me ramulosa, Linn. (op. cit. pl. lii. figs. 7-9). 


586 REPORT—1885. 


Cellepora dichotoma, Hincks (id. pl. lv. figs. 1-6). 
Var. a, attenuata, Alder (id. figs. 7-10). 
avicularis, Hincks (op. cit. pl. liv. figs. 4-6). 
x tubigera Busk (‘ Crag Pol.’) ; Hincks, pl. liv. figs. 7-9. 
armata, Hincks (op. cit. pl. liv. figs. 10-13). 
Costazii, Aud. (op. cit. pl. lv. figs. 11-14). 
Var. a, tubulosa, Hincks (see above, No. 31). 
albirostris, Smitt (see No. 3, above), Hincks’s ‘ Polyzoa of 
Bass’s Straits.’ 
Be levis, Haswell (Hincks’s ‘ Polyzoa of Bass’s Straits’). 


Family XXIV. Selenariade, Busk. 
‘Brit. Mus. Cat.’ pl. i. p. 97, 


‘Zoarium orbicular or irregular in outline, convex on one side, plane _ 
or concave on the other; in the mature state probably free, often witha 
foreign particle, central or eccentric, on the concave face. Zoceciaim- — 
mersed, flustrine.’—Chal. Rep. p. 206. 


1. Genus Cupularia, Lamourouz. 
2. Genus Lunularia, Lamourouz. 


EE — EE 


Genus 84. Cupularia, Lame. 


Cupularia, Lamwz., Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ p. 97. 
Lunulites (pars), Defrance and Auctt. 


1. Cupularia guineensis, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ p. 98; ‘Chal. Rep.’ 


pl. xiv. fig. 6. 
2. 5 monotrema, Busk, ‘Chal. Rep.’ pl. xiv. fig. 5. 
3. « Owenii, Gray, ‘ Chal. Rep.’ p. 207 


= Lunulites id., Gray 

= Cupularia id., Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 
= a denticulata, Conrad 

= Lunulites alveolatus (?), S. Wood. 


4. 4 Loweii, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 

5. Stellata, Busk sf ie 

6. RA pyriformis, Busk s = 

vs i canarienses, Busk es i ‘ 
8. = Johnsonii, Busk 5 "3 


Genus 85. Lunularia, Lamowroux 
= Lunulites, Lamz., 1821, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ 


‘ Zocecia disposed in series, radiating from the centre and bifurcating 
as they advance towards the border; the vibracularia lying in linear 
series, alternating with those of the zocecia. The chitinous vibraculum 
usually bifid or trifid at the extremity.’—Chal. Rep. p. 208. 


Lunularia capulus, Busk, ‘Brit. Mus. Cat.’ p. 100; ‘ Chal. Rep.’ 
p. 208, pl. xiv. fig. 7. 
incisa, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ Aug. 1881, p. 127, pl. iv. figs.1-3 _ 
= (?) Conescharellina, D Orb. 
gibbosa, Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Catalogue.’ 
cancellata, Bush 5 ‘5 
philippinensis, Busk _,, 55 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 587 


be rasr il 
Sub-order IT. Cyclostomata, Busk 
= Tubuliporina, Milne-Edw., Johnst., Hagenow, &c. 
_ = Auloporina, Myrioporina (part), Ehrnberg 
= Cenoporina (part), Bronn 
= Centrifuginea (part), D’ Orbigny 


Group 1. Radicellata, D’ Orbigny. 


Zoarium erect, articulated, attached by radival tubes. 


Family I. Crisiide, Busk. 


‘Crag Polyzoa,’ p. 92, 1859; Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa’ ; 
Busk, ‘ Cyclostomata, ‘ Brit. Mus, Cat.’ pl. iii. 


In Professor Smitt’s papers on the order Cyclostomata (‘ Scandinavian 
Bryozoa’), the family Crisiide is divided into two genera, Crisidia, Milne- 
Edwards, and Crisia, Lamouroux; and Mr. Busk follows this arrangement 
in the third part of his ‘ British Museam Catalogue’ (Cyclostomata, 
1875). Mr. Hincks in his ‘ British Marine Polyzoa,’ and in his subsequent 
ritings, disallows the genus Crisidia, Milne-EKdwards, and I think wisely 
80. In his Cyclostomatous part of the ‘ Bay of N aples Bryozoa,’ pre- 
5 as to the publication of Mr. Hincks’s work (‘ Annals,’ April 1879), 
A. W. Waters also adopted this arrangement. Mr. Hincks, however, 
des the group into two series, a and /. 


Genus 1. Crisia, Lamz. (part) 


=Crisia, Fleming, Blainville, Milne-Edwards (part), Johnston, 
D’Orbigny, Busk, Hincks, Waters. 
Palcaria (part), Oken. 


_ Zocecia in a single series or in two alternate series (Hincks). Ocecia 
irregularly placed (Busk). 


1. Crisia cornuta, Linneus = Sertularia id., Linn. Sys. 1316 
= Falcaria id., Oken, Gray 

= Crisia setacea, Couch = (?) Crisidea id., Sars 
= Unicellaria cornuta, Blainv. 


Hincks, p. 419, pl. lvi. figs. 1-4; Busk, p. 3, pl. i. figs. 1-10. 


Localities: Widely distributed round our coast. 

, Geographical Distribution: Mediterranean; Bay of Naples (rare) ; 
Scandinavia; Finland; Greenland; coasts of France; Houston- Stewart 
Vhannel ; Virago Sound (common), Hincks. 


_ 2. Crisia cornuta, var. 3, geniculata Busk. Without spines 
=C. geniculata, Milne-Edw., Johnst., Sars 
= C. cornuta (var.), Smitt (sine cornibus) 
= Filicrisia geniculata, D’Orb. 
Localities : Both shores of the British Channel. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Roscoff ; Mediterranean ; Bahusia ; 
Norway. 


588 


REPORT—1885. 


3. Crisia eburnea Linn.= Sertularia zd. Linn. 


0. 


AT 


= Crisia eburnea, authors generally. 
(?) C. Haneri, Reuss (fide Manzoni) 
= Crisia (group A), Vine, 5th ‘ Rep. Foss. Polyzoa,’ 1884. 

Localities : Generally distributed, British seas. 

Geogr. Distrib.: North and Arctic Seas; St. Lawrence ; 
Labrador ; St. George’s Banks ; California; Fiji 
Islands ; New Zealand ; Australia ; Virago Sound 
(Queen Charlotte Islands) ; Madeira ; Mediterranean. 

eburnea, var. a, aculeata, Hassall. 

British localities : Kingstown MHarbour ;_ Brighton 
(Hassall) ; Antrim; Ayrshire; Shetland (see Hincks, 
pp. 420-1 pl. lvi. figs. 5, 6, woodcut, fig. 21, p. 416. 
Busk, ‘ Cyclostomata,’ p. 4, pl. ii. figs. 1, 2, pl. v. figs. 
12:5): 

eburnea, var. (2, producta, Siitt. 

The position of this form is doubtful. Norman refers it 
to eburnea; Smitt places it between the two. Mr. 
A. W. Waters (‘ Bay of Nap. Bry.’) ranks it as a 
distinct species, and remarks: ‘ As there are connect- 
ing links between this and cornuta it might be called 
C. cornuta var. producta, or even C. geniculata, var. 
producta.’ In his description, however, Mr. Waters 
says the ‘ ovicell axillary.’ Mr. Hineks, ‘ Brit. Mar. 
Pol.’ places it as above. Mr. Busk (‘ Cyclostomata,’ 
p- 10) says, ‘ Probably only a variety of C. cornuta. 
(vide pl. 1. fig. 3); it does not appear to have any 
character in common with C. eburnea.’ 

Locality : Shetland, 100 to 170 fathoms. 

Geogr. Distrib: Naples littoral (rare) ; Scandinavia ; 
Nova Zembla, 5 to 10 fathoms. 

denticulata, Lamk.= Cellaria id. Lamk. 

= C. luxata, Flem., Blainv., Johnst., Couch 

= Crisia and Cellaria arctica, Sars 

= (?) Crisia attenuata, Heller (fide Hincks). 

Hincks, p. 422, pl. lvi. figs. 7-9. 

Busk, p. 4, pl. i. figs. 3, 4, pl. iii. figs. 1-6, pl. iv. figs. 
1-4. 

Waters (‘ Bay of Nap. Bry.’ ‘ Ann.,’ Ap. 1879), p. 269 pl. 
xxii. fig 2. 

Localities, Brit.: Very generally distributed. 

Geogr. Distrib.: Roscotf; Adriatic (Heller) ; Madeira; 
South Africa (Busk) ; Norway; Spitzbergen; Kara 
Sea; Grand Manan (Busk says?); Houston Stewart 
Channel (Hincks) ; Franz Joseph Land (S. O. Ridley). 

fistulosa, Heller (non Busi) Adriatic 

= (?) C. eburnea (pars Smitt), A. W. Waters. 

= C. Haueri, Reuss (A. W. Waters, ‘ Bry. Bay Nap.’) 

= (?) C. eburnea, Manzoni (see No. 3,‘ Bry. Bay Nap.,’ 

Waters, pl. xxii. fig. 8. ‘ Prof. Heller’s comparison 

with C. geniculata would be very inappropriate for the 

C. fistulosa of Busk, A. W. Waters. 

Loc. : Naples ; Adriatic? (Heller). 


a 


cr-er'<s- 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 589 


8. Crisia fistulosa, Busk (non Heller), ‘ Cyclostomata,’ pl. via. 

fies. 1, 2. 

Loc.: Lissa ; Lagorta; Adriatic? Busk, pl. via. figs. 

1, 2, p. 5 (¢ Cyclostomata ’). 

es *,, elongata M.-Edw. = C. attenuata, Heller (Waters) 
= Cellaria elongata, M.-Edw., D’Orb. 

Loc. : Adriatic (Hincks) ; Naples, 40 fathoms (Waters) ; 
Red Sea? (M.-Edw.); Algoa Bay.  Busk, pl. iv. 
figs. 5,6, p. 5. Waters, pl. xxiii. fig. 1, p. 269. 

10. ,, elongata, var. angustata, Waters, pl. xxiii.fig. 4. ‘ Bry. 
Bay Nap.,’ Ap. 1879, p. 269. 

There seems to be much difference of opinion respect- 
ing Crisia elongata and its varieties. My own speci- 
mens from South Africa differ from Mediterranean 
specimens even from the same depths as Mr. Waters’s 
deep and shallow water forms. Mr. Waters gives the 
following synonyms, which, at present, I cannot 
accede to: OC. fistulosa, Busk; (?) 0. Hdwardsii, 
Reuss; (?) C. Edwardsii, Manzoni. 

11. ,,  Edwardsiana, D’Orb., Busk, p. 5, pl. i. figs. 5-8. 

= (?) Bicrisia Edwardsiana, D’Orb., 1852 

= Crisidia Edwardsiana, D’Orb., 1839, ‘ Voy. dans. 
lPAmér.’ 

Geogr. Distrib.: Coasts of Patagonia, D’ Orb. ; Tierra 
del Fuego, Darwin; New Zealand, Dr. Sinclair; 
Australia, Maegil. 


Mr. Busk says: ‘ D’Orbigny’s figure represents the zocecia as much 
longer and more slender than his own specimens; but he has retained 
his name because he has but little doubt about the identity of his own 
and D’Orbigny’s species.’ 


12. Crisia eburneo-denticulata Smitt (MS.), Busk, pl. vi. 
= Crisia eburnea (var.) Smitt. 
Loc.: Spitzbergen, 70-96 fathoms. 
13. ,,  acropora, Busk, pl. v. figs.3,4, Id., ‘ Voy. of Rattles.,’ vol. i. 
p- dol. 
Loc.: Bass’s Straits, 47 fathoms. 
14. ,, margaritacea, Busk, pl. vi. 6, fig. 1 
= C. denticulata, Busk, ‘ Voy. of Rattles.’ 
Toc.: Australia, ‘ Voy. of Fly,’ Jukes. 
5 Sinclairensis, Busk, pl. iv. figs. 7-11. Loc.: Coast of Pata- 
gonia (Dr. Sinclair). 
oe. Holdsworthii, Busk, pl. vi.a, fig. 2. Loc.: Pearl-oyster 
Bank, Ceylon (Holdsworth). 
16. ,,  conferta, Busk, pl. vi. a, ig. 5. Loc.: Cape Verd Islands 
(H.M.S. Herald). 
17. ,,  tubulosa, Busk, pl. vi. a, figs. 3,4. Loc.: Cape Verd Islands 
(H.M.S. Herald). 


These are the whole of the species of Crisia illustrated by Mr. Hincks, 
Mr. Busk (‘ Cyclostomata’), and Mr. Waters (‘ Bay of Nap. Bry.’). Mr. 
Busk, however, gives a list of other recent forms noticed by authors 
(see ‘Cyclos.’ pp. 7 to 9). 


15. 


590 REPORT—1885, 


18. Orisia sertulariodes, D’Orb. = Probiscina 7d. Aud. Loc.: Red 
Sea(?). May be C. fistulosa, Heller. 

UO fs patagonica, D’Orb., ‘Voy. Amér. Mérid.’ Loc, : Patagonia. 

20. ,, sinensis, D’Orb., ‘Pal. Fr. =(?) C. elongata, M.-Hdw. 
Loc.: Hongting. 

Pears TAs martinicensis, D’Orb., ‘ Pal. France.’ Loc.: Martinique. 

22. ,, californica, D’Orb., ‘ Pal. France.’ Loc.: Lower California. 

De eo punctata, D’Orb. (?) = C. Sinclairensis (15). Loc. : Te 
de Venado, Mer Vermeille, California. 

24. ,, attenuata, Heller. Loc.: Adriatic (Lesina). 

25.  ,,  vrecurva, Heller. Loc.: Adriatic (Lesina). 

26.  ,,  setosa, Macgil. (‘Australian Pol.’ p. 16). Loc.: Aus- 


tralia. 

27. ,,  biciliata, Macgil. Having seen a specimen of tiis species 
I think it ought to be kept distinct from C. Edwardsiana, 
D Orb. 


28. ,,  producta, Smitt. Loc. (Smitt): Scandinavia (as C. 
eburnea, Norman) ; Shetland. 
29. ,, tennis, Macgillivray. Loc.: Australia. 


Group II. Incrustata, D’Orb. 


Zoarium calcareous, continuous, not divided by corneous joints, or 
furnished with radicle tubes; erect and attached by a contracted base, 
or recumbent and immediately adnate, either wholly or in part. 

This division is accepted by Mr. Busk in his catalogue of the Cyclo- 


stomata (‘ Brit. Mus.’ pt. iii.), and in nearly the same words, only the 


arrangement is different from that of Mr. Hincks. 


Family II. Tubuliporide. 


‘Zoarium entirely adherent, or more or less free and erect, multi-— 
form, often linear, or flabellate or lobate, sometimes cylindrical. Zocecia 
tubular, disposed in contiguous series or in single lines. Ocecium an 


inflation of the surface of the zoarium at certain points or a modified 
cell.’—Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ p. 424. 
1. Stomatopora, Bronn. 3. Idmonea, Lamouroue. 


2. Tubulipora, Lamarck. 4, Entalophora, Lame. 
5. Diastopora, Lama. (part). 


Genus 2. Stomatopora, Bronn. 


‘Brit. Mus. Cat.’ Busk, as Alecto, pp. 23, 24. 
‘Brit. Marine Polyzoa,’ Hincks, as Stomatopora, p. 424. 
"9 ‘Fifth Rep. Foss. Polyzoa,’ 1884, as Stomatopora, which see for de- 
scription and fossil species. 
1. Stomatopora granulata, M.-Hdw. 
= Alecto id., Johnston (pt.) 
= Stomatopora incrassata, D’ Orb. 
= (?) Alecto parasita, Heller. 


Localities.: Several British from Shetland to Corn- 


wall. 


Geogr. Distrib.: Roscoff (Joliet); Bergen, Hincks, 


pl. vii. figs. 1, 2; Busk, pl. xxxii. fig. 1. 


voaeen 


- 


> 


sists: ntl. a 


> 


a ae 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 591 


2. Stomatopora major, Johnston, Hincks, pl. lviii. and pl. Ixi. fig. 1 


3. ” 
4, ” 
5. ” 
6. ” 
7. ” 

8. $ 

2. 5 


= Alecto id., Busk, pl. xvii. figs. 3-5; pl. xvi. fig. 3 (?) 

ea (2) Tubulipora trahens, Couch 

= (?) 4 repens, S. V. Wood = Alecto, Busk, 
‘Crag Pol.’ Other synonyms given by Busk 
with (?). 

Localities : Several Brit. : Cornwall; Northumber- 
land; Antrim; Isle of Man; Shetland ; Guern- 
sey. 

pth Distrib.: Bergen; Roscoff (Hincks) ; Scan- 
dinavian and Arctic seas (Busk). 

dilatans, Johnst. (Hincks, pl. lvii. figs. 3, 3a) 

= Alecto id., Busk, pl. xxxii. fig. 2 

= (?) Diastopora repens (part), Smitt 

= Alecto id., Manzoni, ‘ Castrocaro ’ 

= §. dilatans, Vine, ‘fifth Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ 1884, 
for other particulars. 

Localities: Several northern British. 

Geogr. Distrib. : Roscoff; Scandinavian coast, great 
depths. 

Johnstoni, Heller (Hincks, pl. lix. fig. 1; pl. Lx. 
figs. 1, la) 
“== Criserpia id., Heller 
= (?) Alecto granulata, Johnst. 
Localities: Guernsey; coast of Antrim. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Mediterranean; Adriatic (Heller). 
expansa, Hincks, pl. Ixii. fig. 1 
= (?) Proboscina ramosa, D’ Orb. 
= Idmonea cenomana, D’ Orb. 
Locality: On dead shells, Isle of ee (Hincks). 
incurvata, Hincks, pl. Ixiv. ‘figs. 6-8. 

Localities: Coast of Antrim (abundant) ; Hebrides ; 

off Caithness; Guernsey. 
diastoporides, Norman (Hincks, pl. Ixiii. figs. 3, 4) 
=Alecto id., Norman, Shetland, ‘B. A. Rep.’ 1867. 

Localities: Shetland, 70-110 fathoms; Wick; off 
the Maiden lighthouses, Co. Antrim, 62-72 
fathoms. 

Geogr. Distrib.: Gulf of St. Lawrence; off Hare 
Island, Baffin’s Bay, 175 fathoms (‘ Valorous’ 
dredging). 

compacta, Norman (Hincks, pl. Ixiii. figs. 1, 2). 
Localities: Hebrides; The Minch; Shetland. 
(Sub-genus Proboscina, Smitt ) 

incrassata, Smitt (Hincks, pl. lix. figs. 2, 3) 

= Tubulipora, id., Sinitt 

= Alecto retiformis, Hincks, ‘Supplement Devon 
and Cornwall Polyzoa.’ 

= (?) Filisparsa incrasata, D’ Orb. 

Localities: Several Brit.: Salcombe Bay; Corn- 
wall; Guernsey; Shetland. 

Geogr. Distrib. : Bahusia, in great depths; Spitz- 
bergen; Nova Zembla ; Kara Sea. 


Or 
Ne) 
i) 


REPORT—1885. 


10. Stomatopora deflexa, Couch (Hincks, pl. vii. fig. 4) 
= Tubulipora id., Couch 
= Pustulipora id., Johnst., Hincks, (?) Heller. 
Localities: Polperro; Mevagissey Bay; Wick; 
Peterhead ; Shetland. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Roscoff (Joliet). 
1, 5 fungia, Couch (Hincks, pl. lvii. figs. 5, 6) 
=Tubulipora penicillata, Johnst., Landsb., Alder, 
Hincks (not Fabric.). 
Localities: From Eddystone Lighthouse to Dead- 
man Point; Polperro; Torbay ; Wick and 
Peterhead ; Banff. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Finmark, 50 fathoms; Greenland; 
Hamilton’s Inlet, Labrador. 
Mr. Busk, in his ‘Cyclostomata,’ p. 26, pl. xxxii. 
fig. 3, describes and figures this species as. 
Tubulipora faungia, Couch. 
12. > fasciculata, Hineks, p. 441, pl. lix. figs. 4, 5. 
Locality: Coast of Antrim. 


Genus 3. Tubulipora, Lamk. 


Johnston, Milne-Hdw., D’Orbigny, Busk. 
Ceriopora (pt.), Hagenow; Phalangella (sp.), Gray. 
Obelia (sp.), Lama. ; Reptotubigera, D’Orb. 
Tubulipora, Vine, ‘ Fifth Brit. Assoc. Rep.,’ which see for several fossil 
species. 


1. Tubulipora lobulata, Hassall (Hincks), pl. Ixi. figs. 4, 5 
=T. serpens (pars), Busk, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ pl. iii. 
Localities : British: Dublin Bay ; Isle of Man; Tor- 
bay ; Hastings. Scotland: Shetland. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Scandinavian Coasts. 
= flabellaris, Fabric., Hincks, pl. Ixiv. figs. 1-3 
==T. phalangea, Couch (Busk, ‘ Cat.’ pt. iti. pl. xxiii.) 
Localities: Cornwall; South Devon; Whitehead 
Co. Antrim; Shetland. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Bahusia; Bergen ; Spitzbergen ;. 
Greenland ; (?) South Labrador; Adriatic. 
ie fimbria, Lamk. (Hincks, pl. 1x. figs. 3, 3c) 
=T. flabellaris, Johnst. (Busk, ‘ Cat.’ pt. iii. pls. xxiv., 


bo 


> 


XXV.) 
Localities: Wick and Peterhead ; Northumberland ;. 
Shetland. 


Geogr. Distrib.: Greenland; Labrador; Gulf of St. 
Lawrence; Spitzbergen ; Nova Zembla. 
In his ‘Brit. Mus. Catalogue,’ pt. iii. Mr. Busk gives the following 
as Tubulipora :— 
4, Tubulipora ventricosa, Busk, pl. xxxii. fig, 4 
= T. incrassata, var. a, forma erecta, Smitt; Busk, 
‘Quart. Jour. Mic. Soe.’ vol. iii. p. 256. 
Geogr. Distrib.: W. Greenland (H.M.S. Sophia); 
Arctic and Norwegian seas ; Spitzbergen. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 593 


5. Tubulipora pyriformis, Busk, ‘ Cat.’ pt. iii. p. 27 (no plate). 
F Geogr. Distrib.: Tasmania. 


From other authors (Busk’s authority) :— 


6. Tubulipora organizans, D’Orb., ‘Voy. dans l’Amér. Mérid.’ p. 19, 
pl. ix. figs. 1-3. 
Geogr. Distrib. : Falkland Islands. 
2 dichotoma, D’Orb., id., p. 19, pl. ix. figs. 7, 31. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Falkland Islands (? Proboscina). 
%5 malacensis, D’Orb., ‘ Pal. France,’ p. 847. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Straits of Malacca. 
2 capitata, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ Aug. 1881. 
“ perfragilis, Hincks, ‘ Annals,’ March 1884. 
¥3 Dawsoni, Hincks, pl. ix. fig. 5. 
2 fasciculifera, Hincks, pl. ix. fig. 6. 


_ The above three species (10-12) are described by Mr. Hincks in his 
aper On the Polyzoa of Queen Charlotte Islands, ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 
March 1884. No. 10 not figured. 


Genus 4. Idmonea, Lamourouz. 


_ See Hincks and Busk for synonyms ; Vine, ‘Fifth Brit. Assoc, Report,’ 
for particulars of fossil species and special details. 


1. Idmonea atlantica, #. Forbes; Hincks, pl. lxv. figs. 1-4; Busk, 
‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ pt. iii. pl. ix. 
=I. radians, Van Beneden. 
Var. a, tenuis, Busk. 
Localities: British: Zetland seas; Outer Haaf ; 
Hebrides. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Naples; Hammerfest (Sars) ; 
Grotsund ; Norway ; Frederickshaab ; Baffin’s 
Bay (entrance) ; Nova Zembla; Kara Sea. 
Variety: North Atlantic ; Florida ; Madeira. 
_ 2. Idmonea serpens, Linn, ; Hincks, pl. 1xi. fig. 23; pl. Is. fig. 2 
= Tubulipora serpens, Busk, op. cit. p. 25, pl. xxii. 
Var. a, radiata, Hincks. 
Localities: Generally distributed. Var. a, Corn- 
wall. 
Geogr. Distrib.: S. W. France; Mediterranean 
(Lamz., Heller); Naples; Scandinayiam Coast, 
Bahusa to Finmark. 


‘The following are additional species compiled from Mr. Busk and 
her authorities, ‘Cyclostomata,’ ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ pt. iii. 


_ 3. Idmonea radians, Lamk., Bush, op. cit. pl. vii. figs. 14. 

- Geogr. Distrib.: Australian seas abundant; New Zea- 
’ land. 

) , Milneana, D’Orb., Busk., op. cit. 

= (?) I. transversa, Milwe-Edw. 

Geogr. Distrib.: Tles Malouines, D’Orb. ; coast Tierra 
del Fuego; Patagonia; Chonos Archipelago (Dar- 
win). 

QQ 


594 


REPORT—1885. 


5. Idmonea contorta, Busk, op. cit. p. 12, pl. viii. 


6. 


9. 
10. 


9? 


Geogr. Distrib.: Algoa Bay, South Africa. 

notomala, Busk, op. cit. pl. xii. a. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Rasel Amousth., Mediterranean 
(H.M.S. ‘ Porcupine ’). 

marionensis, Busk, op. cit. pl. xin. figs. 3, 4; pl. vii. 
figs. 7,8 (young state). 

(?) Crisina hoestetteriana, Stoliz, and ‘ Florid. Bryozoa,’ 


Smitt. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Marion Island; ? Gulf of Florida; 


Orakei Bay, Auckland, New Zealand. 
irregularis, Meneghini, op. cit. pl. xii. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Adriatic; Dalmatian coast; Mediter- 
ranean (H.M.S. ‘ Porcupine’). 
parasitica, Busk, op. cit. pl. x. figs. 2, 3. 
Geogr. Distrib. : South Australia. 
gracillima, Busk, op. cit. pl. vii. figs. 5, 6. 
Hab.: Atlantic Ocean, 286-322 fathoms (H.M.S. 
‘Porcupine ’). 


Other recent species noticed by authors (Busk) :— 
11. Idmonea frondosa, Meneghini. Adriatic Sea. 


12. 
13. 


23. 
24. 


forms. 


gracilis ‘3 
serpula, Heller 5 
Probably identical with No 11. 
Meneghinii, Heller. Adriatic Sea. 
triforis, Heller. a 
tubulipora, Meneghini. na 
dilatata, D’Orb. Ile de Ré. 
angustata, D’Orb. Newfoundland. 
rustica, D’ Orb. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Manilla; Hongkong; Macao ; Chasan 
Archipelago (D’Orb.). 
tuberosa, D’Orb. Isl. de Basilan 
= (?) I. marionensis, Busk. 
canariensis, D’Orb. Teneriffe 
= (?) I. gracillima, Busk. 
californica, D’ Orb. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Ile de Venado ; Mer Vermeille; Cali- 
fornia. 
fenestrata, Busk, ‘Crag Polyzoa.’ ? Spitzbergen, 50 
fathoms. 
australis, Macgil. Australia. 


Genus 5, Entalophora, Lamowroua 


= Pustulopora (part), Blainv., Milne-Edw., Busk 
= Entalophora, Vine. Fifth ‘ Brit. Assoc. Rep.’ for details and fossil 


1. Entalophora clavata, Busk, Hincks, pl. Ixv. figs. 5-8 


= Pustulopora id., Busk, ‘Crag Polyzoa’ 
= Pustulopora deflexa (part), Hincks. 
Loc.: Wolf Rock, near Penzance; Torbay ; coast 
of Antrim. 


The only British species according to Hincks. 


The following species under the name of 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 595 


Pustulopora, Blainv., are 


given by Busk (‘ Catalogue,’ pt. iii.) :— 
2. Entalophora delicatula, Busk, op. cit. p. 20 (no plate). 


3. 


Geogr. Distrib.: Australia; Cape Capricorn ; ? Ma- 
deira. 
I australis, Busk, op. cit. pl. xvii. a., left-hand figure. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Bass’s Straits, 45 fathoms. Ans. 
tralian seas. 


3 parasitica, Busk, op. cit. pl. xvii. figs. 1, 2. 
Geogr. Distrib. : Bass’s Straits; New Zealand. 

re proboscidea, H. Forbes, op. cit. pl. xvii. a., right-hand 
figure). 


Geogr. Distrib.: Shetland seas; Mediterranean ; 
Adriatic ; Teneriffe and Canaries ; Madeira. 


= claveeformis, Busk, op. cit. pl. xiv. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Algoa Bay, South Africa. 
‘ intricaria, Busk, op. cit. pl. x. figs. 1 (part) and 4. 


Geogr. Distrib.: South Australia. 


From other authors (Busk) :— 
8. Entalophora gallica, D’ Orb. 


Geogr. Distrib.: Coast of France; Ile de Ré; 
Calvados (shore) ; Newfoundland. 
~ indica, D’Orb. Strait of Malacca. 


RON ¢?)”,, orcadensis, Busk = Hornera violacea, Sars. 


Will be referred to again as Hornera. 


Genus 6. Diastopora, Lamz. 


For references to fossil forms and special details, see Remarks, &c., 
* Brit. Assoc. Rep. on Fossil Polyzoa,’ No. 5, 1884. 


Genus Diastopora (part), Lamz. 
= Patinella (sp.), Busk, Hincks 
= Discosparsa, D’ Orb. 
= Mesenteripora, Busk, for foliaceous bilaminate forms. 


1. Diastopora patina, Lamk. (Hincks, pl. xvi. figs. 1-6). Busk, ‘ Brit. 


Mus. Cat.’ pt. iii. pl. xxix. figs. 1, 2; pl. xxx. fig, 1 
= Patinella verrucaria, Gray 

= Discoparsa marginata, D’ Orb. 

= - patina, Heller 

= Diastopora patina, Smitt. 

Loc.: British, very common, and fairly distributed. 

Geogr. Distrib.: Roscoff; S.W. France ; Adriatic ; 
North and Arctic Seas; Bahusia; South Nor- 
way ; Finmark (Sars); South Labrador. 

a obelia, Johnst. (Hincks, pl. lxv. figs. 10, 10a); Busk, 
op. cit. pl. xxvi. Smitt; Heller. 
D. hyalina, var. a, obelia, Johnst., Smit. 
? Berenicea hyalina, Fleming. 

Localities: British, widely distributed. 

Geogr. Distrib. : Guernsey ; Jersey ; North Sea and 
Arctié Ocean; Norway; Spitzbergen; Adriatic; 
Naples. 

QQ2 


596 


REPORT—1885.. 


3. Diastopora sarniensis, Norman (Hincks, pl. Ixvi. figs. 7-9) 


e 


= 


or 


” 


> 


= D. hyalina (part), Smitt. 
Localities: Guernsey and Jersey ; Cornwall ;. 
Hastings. 

Geogr. Distrib.: ? Red Sea or Mediterranean. 

suborbicularis, Hincks, pl. Ixvi. figs. 11, lla 
=D. simplex, Busk, op. cit. pl. xxix. figs. 3, 4, and 

* Crag Polyzoa.’ 

Localities : South Devon ; Isle of Man, &e. 

Geogr. Distrib.: Naples; Bahusa; Finmark; Kara 

Sea; Greenland. 

The above four are the whole of the British species. 
given by Mr. Hincks. Mr. Busk gives‘another species— 
congesta, D’Orb., Busk, op. cit. pl. xxxi. fig. 5. 

Geogr. Distrib: Mediterranean ; African shore 

(H.M.S. ‘ Porcupine’). 


B. Foliaceous and bilaminate. 


(Mesenteripora) meandrina, Wood. 
The only locality, Greenland. 


Family III. Horneride, Smitt. 
Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ p. 467 


= Crisinide (pt.), D’Orb. ? = Idmoneide (pt.), Bush. 


pectinata. Bush, op. cit. p. 18. 


Genus 7. Hornera, Lamowrouw 
= Siphodictum, Lonsdale. 


. Hornera lichenoides, Linn., Hincks, pl. Ixvii. figs. 1-5 


= Id., Busk, op. cit. pl. xviii. figs. 5, 6 
= H. borealis, Busk, ‘ Crag Polyzoa.’ 
Localities: Shetland; Outer Haaf; Hebrides. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Waderéarne, Bahusia; Norway ; Nova 
Zembla; Kara Sea; Greenland; St. George’s Banks.. 


violacea, Sars (Hincks, pl. Ixvii. figs. 6-8; pl. lx. figs. 


2,3); Busk, op. cit. pl. xvii. figs. 1-4 
= Pustulopora orcadensis, Busk. 


Busk gives the following varieties — 


Var. a, proboscinna, pl. xviii. figs. 1-3. 
,, [, tubulosa, pl. xviii. figs. 2-4. 
Locality (for normal form): Shetland. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Arctic Sea; coast of Norway. 


Mr. Busk, also in his*‘ British Museum Catalogue,’ part 


iii., gives the following in addition to the above :— 


frondiculata, Lamw., op. cit. pl. xx. figs. 1, 2, 3, 6. 


Geogr. Distrib.: Mediterranean; Adriatic, abundant. 
cxspitosa, Busk, op. cit. pl. xv. 
reogr. Distrib.: Cape Capricorn; Tierra del Fuego. 


Geogr. Distrib.: Madeira. 


tubulosa, Busk, op. cit. p. 19. Only described, no refer-- 


ences or plate. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 597 


7. Hornera foliacea, Maegil., op. cit. pl. xiii. figs. 1, 2; pl. xix. 
= Retihorneri, id., Busk, op. cit. 
Geogr. Distrib.: South Australia. 
8. 5 robusta, Macgil. Australia. 


Since the early—and now classical—labours of Mr. Busk on this 
peculiar genus, much has been added to our knowledge respecting species 
of the genus, but rather by way of suggestion as to its classificatory 
position. In the ‘Crag Polyzoa,’ 1859, Hornera takes its place as the 
first genus in the Idmoneide of Busk. In his descriptions (p. 95) Mr. 
Busk speaks of both recent ramose and fenestrate species. 


Ramose 1. Hornera frondiculata, Lamz. 
2. 5 borealis (MS.), Busk. 
3. 1g tridactylites (MS.), Busk. 


” 


” 


The first a Mediterranean form; the second collected on the coast of 
Norway by Mr. McAndrew; and the third by Mr. Darwin on the shores 
of Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, and by Mr. Macgillivray in the 
Australian seas. 

Of the fenestrate kinds Mr. Busk at that time was acquainted with 
-two forms—‘ apparently distinct species, both of which I believe to be, 
and one certainly is, Australian. No account of this species, of which 
very perfect specimeus were brought by Mr. Gould from South Australia, 
has yet been published, although figures of it have been prepared. I 
propose to call it Hornera Gouldiana’ (Busk, ‘Crag Polyzoa, p. 95). 
The Hornera borealis of above is the H. lichenoides, Linn., of the Cyclo- 
stomata (‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ p. 17). 

In the ‘ British Marine Polyzoa’ Mr. Hincks established the family 
Horneridz for the reception of the two British species already given, 
remarking that that ‘ Hornera is connected with the Tubuliporide through 
Idmonea, to which it bears in many points a very close resemblance. It 
embraces two very characteristic groups, one of which may be repre- 
sented by H. lichenoides, in which the zocecia are covered in front by a 
calcareous crust, which takes the form of wavy longitudinal ridges,’ and H, 
violacea, in which the superficial crust is wanting (op. cit. pp. 469, 470). 

In remarking on the fossil species of Macgillivray’s Hornera folicea 
Mr. Waters (‘ Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc.’ p. 688, vol. xl.) draws attention to 
the ‘ transverse tubules’ of the species, but his remarks on his sections 
are too brief for special work. After examining some very fine speci- 
mens of the Australian Hornera both in the bulk and in section, I may 
be allowed to say that for other purposes than for the mere description 
or diagnosis of recent forms these Australian species may be con- 
-veniently studied, more especially so if only to dispel the idea of the 
supposed identity of species of Fenestella or Polypora with recent Hornera. 
The structure is most peculiar and interesting, whether we select for 
illustration the superficial features only or the tubular cells with their 
intervening tubules, as referred to by Mr. Waters. 


Family IV. Lichenoporide, Smitt. 
Hincks, ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa,’ p. 471 
= Discoporellide, Busk, op. cit. p. 30. 


Lichenoporide, Vine, ‘ Fifth Brit. Assoc. Rep. Foss. Polyzoa’ for special 
details and fossil species. 


598 REPORT—1885,. 


Genus 8. Lichenopora, Defrane. 


= Discoporella, Gray, Busk. 
For other synonyms, see Hincks and Busk. 


a. Colony sinvple. 


1. Lichenopora hispida, Flem. (Hincks, pl. Ixviii. figs. 1-8) 
= Discoporella, id., Busk, op. cit. pl. xxx. fig. 3. 
Var. a, Meandrina, Peach (Hincks, woodcut, 
p. 475). 
» [, Hincks. 

Localities: South Coast of Britain; Isle of 
Man; Hebrides; Shetland; St. Andrew’s ;. 
Northumberland; Guernsey. 

Var. a, Shetland, 170 fathoms. 

Geogr. Distrib.: Bahusia ; Norway ; Finmark ; 
Greenland ; South Labrador; France. 

radiata, Aud. (Hincks, pl. xviii. figs. 9, 10) 

= Discoporella radiata, Busk, op. cit. pl. xxxiv. 

fig. 3. 
"Deen Liniee: South Devon; Brixham ; Salcombe. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Mediterranean ; Adriatic ; 
Naples. 

verrucaria, Fabric. (Hincks, pl. Ixiv. figs. 4, 5) 

= Discoporella, Busk, op. cit. p. xxviii. figs. 2, 3 

= (?) Disparsa hispida, Heller 

= (?) Tubulipora hispida, Johnston 
Localities: Orkney (Barlee); Arran (Busk); co. 

Down (Hyndman). 

Geogr. Distrib. : Bahusia ; Norway ; Finmark ; Davis’ 
Straits, 100 fath.; Reykiavik ; Hamilton’s Inlet, 
Labrador; Assistance Bay, Greenland; Bay of 
Fundy; St. George’s Banks; Nova Zembla; 
Malotschkin-scharr; Kara Sea. 

A. is regularis, D’Orb. (Hincks, pl. Ixviii. fig. 11). 

= Actinopora id., D’Orb. 
Locality : Shetland. 


The above are the whole of the British species given by Mr. Hincks.. 
The following list is compiled from Mr. Busk’s ‘Cyclostomata,’ and from 
other authorities, all as Discoporella from Mr. Busk. 

5. Lichenopora algoensis, Busk, op. cit. pl. xxviii. figs. 1-4. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Algoa Bay, on Catenicella. 
6. A: ciliata, Busk, pl. xxx. fig. 6. 
Geogr. Distrib. : Cape of Good Hope, on Retepora ; 
New Zealand, on Hornera. 
fie nf Novee-Zelandie, Busk, pl. xxx. fig. 2. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Chonos Archipelago; Tierra del 
Fuego; Cape Horn; Chiloe ; Tasmania. 
8. E- californica, D’Orb., pl. xxx. fig. 5 
=Unicavea, id., D’Orb. 
Geogr. Distrib. : San Diego, California ; off Milva 
Maura, San Pedro, California. 


bo 


is) 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. : 599 


9. Lichenopora mediterranea, Blainv., Busk, pl. xxiv. fig. 4 
= Actinopora id., D’Orb., and Unicavea, id., D’Orb. 
Geogr. Distrib. : Mediterranean. 
10. Holdsworthii, Busk, pl. xxx. fig. 4. 
Geogr. Distrib. : Ceylon. 


Noticed by Busk, but no figures given. 


11. +, convexa, D’Orb.=Unicavea, id., D’ Orb. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Coast of Calvados. 
12. v Nove-Hollandiz, D’Orb,=Unicavea, id. 


Geogr. Distrib.: Bay of Chiens; Marius (? Seal 
Bay), New Holland. 
13. ” complanata, Meneghina 
= Discosparsa, id., Heller 
= (?) D. radiata, Audowin. 
Geogr. Distrib. : Adriatic. 


14. 5 annularis, Heller = (?) L. mediterranea. 
Geogr. Distrib. : Adriatic. 
15. 5 mellevillensis, D’ Orb. 


Geogr. Distrib.: Port Melleville (? Melville). 


As Radiopora Busk also gives the following :— 
16. Lichenopora simplex, Busk, pl. xxxiv. fig. 2. 
Geogr. Distrib. : Mazatlan. 


ie 5 cristata, Busk, pl. xxxiv. fig. 1. 
Geogr. Distrib.: John Adam’s Bank; South Atlantic. 


Macgillivray describes as follows new species of Discoporella from 
Port Phillip Heads :— 
18. Lichenopora reticulata, Macgil. Descriptions of new or little 
known Polyzoa, ‘Roy. Soc. of Victoria,’ Dec. 
1883, part vi. pl. i. fig. 1. 
i. ef pristis, Macgil., op. cit. pl. i. fig. 3. 
20. - echinata, Macgil., op. cit. pl. i. fig. 4. 


The position of the following is doubtful :— 
Tennysonia, Busk ; stellata, Busk (‘ Cyclostomata,’ pl. 
xxxi. fig. 6 


Genus 9. Domopora, D’ Orb. 
For synonyms, &c., see Hincks, ‘Brit. Mar. Polyzoa’; Busk, Cyclo- 
stomata, ‘ Brit. Mus. Cat.’ p. iu. 
1. Domopora stellata, Goldfuss ; Hincks, pl. lxui. figs. 10, 11 

= Domopora truncata, Busk, op. cit. pl. xxxi. figs. 1, 2, 

not Millepora truncata, Jameson. 

Mr. Hincks gives nine synonyms, Mr. Busk seven 
synonyms of this species, besides a number of refer- 
ences by both authors. 

Localities: Zetland, deep water; Outer Haaf, in 70 to 
170 fathoms. 

Geogr. Distrib.: Norway (Rasch); Norway from 
Bergen to Bejan, 40-60 fathoms (Sars). 


600 rerort— 1885. 


2. Domopora truncata, Jameson; Hincks, pl. Ixiii. figs. 5-9 
= Millepora, id., Jameson ; not D. truncata, Busk. 
Locality: Shetland. 


As Defrancia Busk adds the following :— 


3. Domopora lucernaria, Sars (Busk, pl. xxxiii. fig. 3). 

. Geogr. Distrib.: Coasts of Norway and Finmark ; Spitz- 
bergen ; Umenak, Greenland, 250 fathoms; Julian 
Hafen, 130 fathoms. 


Family V. Frondiporide, Smitt. 


(See Busk, ‘ Cyclostomata,’ p. 37.) 


This family is not noticed by Mr. Hincks in kis ‘British Marine 
Polyzoa,’ but Mr. Busk describes several species, in his ‘ Cyclostomata,’ 
under two genera :— 

1. Genus Fasciculipora, D’Orb. 
2. 4,  Frondipora, Imperato. 


Genus 10. Fasciculipora, D’ Orb. 


= Fangella, Hagenow ; Busk, ‘Crag Polyzoa,’ p. 118. 
1. Fasciculipora digitata, Busk, pl. xxxiii. fig. 1. 
Geogr. Distrib. : Cape Capricorn, Australia. 


2. = ramosa, D'Orb.; Busk, pl. xxxiii. fig. 2. 
(?) Frondipora ramosa, Hagenow. 
(?) Fangella prolifera, Hagenow. 
Geogr. Distrib.: South Patagonia, 48 fathoms 
(Darwin, D’ Orb.) 
3. 5 bellis, Macgil., Description of new or little known 
Polyzoa, ‘ Roy, Soc. Victoria,’ Dec. 1883, No. vi. 
Plane. 
A. . fruticosa, Macgil., op. cit. pl. i. fig. 6. Locality : 


Port Phillip Heads, Victoria. 


Genus 11. Frondipora, Imperato. 
1. Frondipora reticulata, Blainv. (pl. xxi.). 
(See Busk for eight synonyms.) 
Geogr. Distrib.: Mediterranean, very abundant. 
palmata, Busk, pl. xx. figs. 4, 5. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Australia. (?) 


Species noticed by other authors :— 


3. Frondipora verrucosa, Lamz.; Busk, p. 39 
= Krusensterna id., Lame. 
= Frondipora reticulata, var. B, Smitt. 
Geogr. Distrib.: Kamtschatka, Spitsbergen. 
A, = Marsigli, Blainv.; Busk, p. 39. 
(A very doubtful species.) 


bo 


Genus Heteropora, Blainv. 


“ Zoarium erect, cylindrical, undivided or branched; surface even, 
furnished with openings of two kinds—the larger representing the orifices 


ON 


RECENT POLYZOA. 601 


of the cells, and the smaller the ostioles or the interstitial canals or tubes.’ 


—Busk, ‘Crag Polyzoa,’ p. 120. 


1. Heteropora pelliculata, Waters, ‘Journ. Roy. Mic. Soc.,’ June 
1879, p. 391, pl. xv. figs. 1-4, 7. Locality: Gulf of 
Tartary ; Isle of Sanghalien ; Japan. 

2. + cervicornis, D’Orb. = Plethopora id. (op. cit. p. 392, pl. 


xv. figs. 9-11). 


Locality: Adelaide. 


Macgillivray describes the same species under a 
new generic term, Densipora, as D. corrugata, 
Maegil., ‘Roy. Soe. Vic.’ Locality : Queenscliffe ; 
Portland ; Warrnambool. 
3. Pe Neo-Zelanica, Busk, ‘Linn. Soc. Journal,’ 1879, vol. 
xiv. p. 726, pl. xv. fig. 14. Locality: New Zealand. 


See also Nicholson, ‘On the genus Monticulipora,’ Edinb. 1881, pp. 
63-78, in which will be found a rather full description of the structure of 
Recent Heteropora, for the purpose of making comparison with Fossil 


Species of the Monticuliporide. 
Heteropora Neo-Zelanica, Busk. 


Prof. Nicholson gives figures of Recent 


Inst of Synonyms, &c. compiled from Mr. Hincks’ ‘ British Marine 
Polyzoa’ (Index, 1880).—Cheilostomata. 


Names in the right-hand column adopted by Mr. Hincks’ ‘ British Marine Polyzoa’ 
and also in this Report. 


Acamarchis, Lami, 1816 
Geoffroyi, Aud. 
Aatea Americana, D’Orb. 

sica, Norman . : 
Aiteopsis elongata, Boeck 
Alysidota conferta, Busk 


Amphiblestrum, Gray 
Anarthropora, Smitt 
minuscula, Smitt 
Anguinaria, Lame. 
Annulipora, Gray . 
Avicella, sp. Van Ben. 


Avicularia, sp. 7. V. Thomps. 


Berenicea (pt.), Flem. 
Bicellaria unispinosa, Sars 
Bidiastopora (pt.), D’ Orb. 
Biflustra, D’Orb. . : 
Lacroixii, Aud. ; 
Bugula fastigiata, Alder 
Bugula nerituna, var. Gray 
Bugularia (sp.), Gray 
_ Callopora (sp.), Gray 
Canda (sp.), Busk . 


= Bugula, Oken, p. 73.) 
= Scrupocellaria reptans, p. 73. 
= A. anguina? Hineks, p. 3. 
= Al. recta, Hincks, p. 6. 
= Ai. truncata P Laidsb., p. 8. 
= Schizoporella discoidea, Busk, 
p- 265, 
= Membranipora, Hincks, p. 128. 
= Lepralia, sp. Busk, p. 232. 
= Anarthropora monodon, p. 233. 
= Aitea, Lame. & Hks., p. 2. 
= Membranipora, p. 128. 
= Bugula, Oken, p. 73. 
% sities 
= Membraniporella, p. 199. 
= B. Alderi, Busk, p. 70. 
= Porina (pars) Hincks, p. 227. 
= Membranipora, Hincks. 
= Membranipora, id., p. 130. 
= B. purpurotincta, p. 89. 
= Cellularia Peachii, Busk, p. 34. 
= Bugula, Oken, p. 73. 
= Membranipora, p. 128. 
= Scrupocellaria, pp. 43-57. 
= Caberea, Lamz. 


All the page references are to Mr. Hincks’ British Marine Polyzoa. 


602 REPORT—1885. 


Carbasea, Gray. . 
paprea, Busk 
papyracea, Gray 

Catenaria, D’Orb. . : 

Catenicella (pt.), Blainv. 

Cellaria, Lame. 
affinis, Reuss . 


farciminoides, Eil. & ar: 


marginata, Reuss 

salicornia, Lamz. 
Cellarie, Smitt . 3 
Cellarina (pt.), Van Ben. 

gracilis, Van Ben. 


Cellepora (pt.), Fabric. . 
attenuata, Alder 
bimucronata. Hass. 
ciliata, Dinn. . 
crenilabris, Reuss 

Cellepora Hassallii, Busk 
lamellosa, Esper. 
macry, W. Thomp. . 
ovoidea, Lamz. 
palmata, Fem. 
perlacea, W. Thomp. 
pleuropora, Reuss 
spinosa, Turton 
verrucosa, Linn. 
verrucaria, Hsper. 

Celleporaria, Lamz. 
surcularis, Packard 

Celleporella hyalina, Gray 

Cercaripora (sp.), Fischer 

Chartella, Gray 

Conopeum, Gray 


Cribrilina innominata, Smitt . 


Crisularia, Gray 
Cylindroporella, sp. 


Dermatopora (pt.), Ha genow 


Discopora (pt.), Smitt . 
emarginata, Snutt . 
coccinea (pt.), Smitt 

Emma, Gray . 

Eschara (pt.), Pallas 
bidentata, M.-Hdw.. 
cervicornis, Busk 
fascialis, Pal. . 
lunaris, Waters 
retiformis 
stellata, Peach 
teres, Busk 


Escharella, Smitt (now Gray) 


Jacotina, Smitt 


= Flustra, Linn., p. 144. 
»  carbasea, p. 123. 


= Kucratea, Hks., p. 11. 

= Hippothoa, Hks., p. 286. 
= Salicornaria, Busk, p. 107. 
= C. fistulosa, His., p. 107. 


= Cellariade, p. 103. 
= Menipea, p, 36. 
= Menipea ternata, Hil. & Sol., 
p. 38. 
= Cellepora, His., p. 398. 
= C. dichotoma, p. 403. 
= C. Costazii, Aud., p. 411. 
= Microporella, id., p. 206. 
- ciliata, p. 206. 
= C. Costazii, Aud., p. 411. 
= Lepralia foliacea, p. 300. 
= Microporella Malusii, p. 211. 
= Schizoporella hyalina, p. 271. 
= Palmicellaria Skenii, p. 379. 
= Lepralia pertusa, p. 305. 
= Microporella ciliata, p. 206. 
= Cellepora pamicosa, p. 399. 


” 99 9 


= Cellepora, p. 398. 

= Porella compressa, p. 331. 
= Schizoporella, id., p. 271. 
= Aitea truncata, p. 3. 

= Flustra, p. 114. 

= Membranipora, p. 128. 

= C. radiata, Moll., p. 186. 
= Bugula, p. 73. 

= Porina, p. 227. 

= Membranipora, p. 128. 

= Mucronella, p. 360. 

= Mucronella Peachii, p. 360.. 


= Menipea, Lamz., p. 36. 
= Flustra. 
= Lepralia foliacea, p. 300. 
= Porella compressa, p. 330. 
= Lepralia foliacea, p. 300. 
= Diporula verrucosa, p. 220. 
= Lepralia foliacea, p. 300. 
= Porella compressa, p. 331. 
levis, p. 334. 

= Smittia, Hincks, 

$3 trispinosa, p. 353. 


ON RECENT 


Escharella. 
Legentilla, Smitt 
porifera, Sanvitt . 
Escharina (pt.), M.-Edw., Graz ay 
Ge (pt.), D’ Orb. . 
cornuta, D’ Orb. 
Tsabelleana, D’ Orb. . 
perlacea, M.-Hdw. . 
rimulata, D’ Orb. 
variabilis, Leid. 
Escharipora, Smitt 
Eschariporide (pt.), Smitt 
Kscharoides nitida, M.-Edw. . 
Kucratea appendiculata, Lane. 
Falearia (3, Oken) 
cornuta, Oken 
Farcimia, Flem. 
Flabellaria, Gray 
Flustra angustiloba, ea 
capitata, Flem. 
carnosa, Jolmnst. 
chartacea, Turton 
distans, Hassall 
Genisii, Aud. 
ibernics, Figasle. 
papyrea, Smitt 
Peachii, Couch 
spongiosa, Johnst. . 
truncata, Linn. 
tuberculata, Jolist. 
Flustrellariadee, D’ Orb. 
Gemellaria loriculata, Pal. 
Willisii, Dawson 
Gemellipora glabra, Simitt 
Hemeschara (pt.), Norman 
Herentia, Gray ' 
Hippothoa (pt. of authors) 
cassiterides, Couch 
catenularia, Flem. . 
divergens, Smitt 
Elliote, Gray 
lanceolata, Gray 
longicauda, Fischer 
Patagonica, Busk 
porosa, Sinitt 
rugosa, Stimpson 
sica, Couch 
Lepralia alba, Hincks 
ansata, Johnst. 
aperta, Brock . 
appensa, Hass. 
arrecta, Reuss 
assinilis, Johnst. 


POLYZOA. 603. 


= Smittia, reticulata, p. 346. 
* Landsborovi, p. 342. 
= Microporella, p. 204. 
= Schizoporeila, p. 237. 
= Microporella Malusii, p. 211. 
= Schizoporella unicornis, p. 238. 
= Lepralia pertusa, p. 305. 
= Smittia reticulata, p. 346. 
= Schizoporella unicornis, p. 238. 
= Cribrilina, Gray, p. 184. 
= Cribrilinide, p. 182. 
= Membraniporella, id. p. 200. 
= Crisia cornuta. 
= Altea, Lamw., p. 3. 
= Crisia, id. p. 419. 
= Cellaria, p. 104. 
= Caberea, p. 57. 
= Bugula flabellata, p. 80. 


= Flustrella hispida, p. 506. 

= Flustra papyracea, p. 118. 

= Membranipora Lacroixii, p. 129. 
= Microporella ciliata, p. 206. 

= Lepralia Palasiana, p. 207. 

= F. carbasea, p. 129. 

= Membranipora Lacroixii, p. 129.. 
= Flustrella hispida, p. 506. 
= F. securifrons, p. 130, 

= Mem. Flemingit, p. 162. 
= Membraniporide, p. 126. 
= Gem. loricata, p. 18. 


= Schizoporella venusta, p. 276. 

= Porella, Gray, p. 320. 

= Mastigophora, p. 204. 

= EHnucratea chelata P 

= Id. (Hincks), p. 294. 

= Membranipora, id., p. 134. 

= Schizoporella biaperta, p. 255. 

= Membraniporacatenularia p.134.. 
Hip. divaricata, p. 288. 


— bel 9 te) 


Mastigophora Hyndmanii, p. 281.. 
= Memb. catenularia, p. 134. 
= Altea recta, p. 6. 
Schizoporella vulgaris, p. 244. 

= unicornis, p. 238. 

Porella concinna, p. 323. 
= Mucronella coccinea, p. 372. 
= m ventricosa, p. 363. 


= Chorizopora Brongniartii, p. 224.. 


I il Wt ll 


REPORT-—1885. 


Lepralia. 


aurita, Reuss 
Balleii, Johnst. 
Barleii, Busk 
Belli, Dawson 
bicornis; Busk 


biforis (Herentia), Gray 


calomorpha, Reuss . 
canthariformis, Busk 
capitata, Reuss 
chilopora, Manzoni . 
cognata, Reuss 
cribrilina, Manz. 
eribrosa, Boeck 
cylindrica, Hass. 
diversipora, Reuss . 
Endlicherii, Reuss . 
fulgarens, Manz. 
glabra, Reuss 
granifera, Johnst. 
hastata, Hincks 
immersa, Johnst. 
innominata, Reuss . 
insignis, Hass. 
intermedia, Reuss 
Jacotina, Gray 
Jeffreysii, Vorman . 
lata, Busk 


lobata, Busk (Crag | Pol. . 


lunata, Macgil. 
mamillata, S. Wood 
multiradrata, Reuss 
macrostoma, Norman 
ochracea, Hincks 
otophora, Reuss 
ovalis, Hassell 
pedilostoma, Hass. 
pediostoma, Johnst. 
peregrina, Manzoni 
personata, Busk 
perugiana, Heller 
plaigopora, Busk 
pretiosa, Reuss 
pteropora, Reuss 
pyriformis, Busk 
quadricornuta, Dawson 
raricosta, Reuss 
scripta, Reuss 
serrulata, Reuss 
squama, Dalyell 
Steindachneri, Heller 
tenella, Reuss 

tenera, Reuss 


. | = Mastigophora Dutertreii, p. 279. 


= Mueronella coccinea, p. 372. 
= Schizoporella Alderi, p. 243. 
= Porella concinna, p. 323. 

= Palmicellaria Skenei, p. 379. 
= Microporella Malusii, p. 211. 
= Cribril. radiata, Moll., p. 185. 
= Lepralia, id., p. 299. 


= Chorizopora Brongniartii, p. 224. 


= Porella minuta, p. 526. 
Schizoporella vulgaris, p. 244. 
Cribril. radiata, p. 186. 

»»  punctata, p. 190. 
Schizoporella hyalina, p. 271. 
Microporella violacea, p. 216. 
Cribril. radiata, p. 186. 
Mucronella coccinea, p. 572. 
Microporella ciliata, p. 206. 

5 impressa, p. 214. 
Schizoporella linearis, p. 247. 
Mucronella Peachii, p. 360. 
Cribril. radiata, p. 185. 
Microporella ciliata, p. 206. 
Schizoporella vulgaris, p. 245. 


Fink nk db dead doen a 


= Chorizopora Brongniartii, p. 224. 


= Smittia trispinosa, p. 353, 
Lepralea adpressa, p. 317. 
Retepora Beaniana, p. 591. 
= Microporella ciliata, p. 206. 
= Mucronella coccinea, p. 372. 
= Cribril. radiata, Moll., p. 185. 
= Mucronella, id. 


tl 


. | = Schizoporella auriculata, p. 260. 
| = Schizop. vulgaris, p. 244. 
| = Mucronella variolosa, p. 366. 


Lepralia Pallasiana, p. 297. 


Mucronella coccinea, p. 372. 
Microporella ciliata, p. 266. 
Schizop. Cecilii, Aud. p. 269. 


Hoi i tt 


| = Microporella violacea, p. 216. 


= Cribrilina radiata, p. 185. 

= Mucronella coccinea, p. 372. 
Microporella impressa, p. 214. 
Mucronella coccinea, p. 372. 
= = Cribrilina radiata, p. 186. 

= PRR ode ce 

= Mucronella es p- 366. 


Cribrilina Gattyce, p. 198. 
= Schizop. linearis, p. 247. 
= Mucronella variolosa, p. 366. 


Membranipora unicornis, p. 154. 


>. 


ON RECENT 
Lepralia. 
tenuis, Hassall 
tetragona, Reuss 
thyreophora, Busk . 
tridentata, Couch 
utriculus, Manzoni . 
Woodiana, Busk 
Loricula, Cuvier 
Loricaria, Lamarck 
Marginaria, Remer 
Membranipora. 
Andegavensis, Busk 
dentata, Gray 
nobilis, Reuss 
Peachii, Couch 
reticulum, Reuss 
sacculata, Norman . 
Smitti, Manzoni 
solida, Packard 
stellata, Thompson . 
vulnerata, Busk 
Menipia fruticosa, Packard 
Smitti, Norman 
Millepora, Linn. (pt.) . 
Millepora compressa, Sowerby 
tenialis, H1l. & Sol. 
Mollia, Smitt (pt.) . 
tuberculata, D’ Orb. 
Brongniartii, D’Orb. 
Nellia Johnsonii, Busk . 
Onchopora, Busk 


Ornithopora, D’ Orb. 
Ornithoporina, D’Orb. 
Porella cervicornis, Gray 
Porellina, Smitt . 
Pyripora ramosa, D’ Orb. 


Quadricellaria, Sars 
gracilis, Sars ; 
Reptelectrina pilosa, D’Orb. 
dentata, D’Orb. 
Reptescharella, DEOrb. ».. : 
Hermanni, Gabb. & Horn. 
Reptescharellina, D’ Orb. (pt.) 


rhomboidalis, D’ Orb. 
Reptcelleporaria, D’Orb. 
Reptoflustra telacea, D’Orb. . 
Reptoporellina subvulgaris, ip Orb. 
Reptoporina, D’Orb. (pt. ) 


” ” (pt.) = 
9% hexagona, D’ Orb. 


POLYZOA. 605 


= Chorizopora Bronegniartii, p. 224. 
= Schizoporella unicornis, p. 238. 
= Microporella Malusii, p. 211. 

= Mucronella coccinea, p. 372. 

= Microporella ciliata, p. 206. 

= Mastigophora Datertrei, p. 279. 
= Gemellaria Savig. p. 17. 


= = Membranipora, Dp: 128, 


= Steganoporella Smitti, p. 178. 

Membr. pilosa, Hincks, p. 137. 
» monostachis, p. 131. 
»  Lacroixii, p. 130. 


»  trifolium, p. 167. 
» complanata, p. 175. 
»  trifolium, p. 167. 
pilosa, p. 137. 
= Setosella, ad., p. 181. 


— clea Brongniartii, p. 224. 
= Cellaria Johnsonii, ’D. 112. 
= Porina, D’Orb & Hineks, p. 
297, 
= Bugula avicularis, Linn., p. 173. 
= Bugula, Oken, p. 173. 
= Porella compressa, p. 331. 
= Microporella, Hincks, p. 204. 
= Membranipora catenularia, 
p. 134. 

= Pov, D’Orb., p. 227. 

P Haseuli Eiiniahas Pp: 
= Membranipora, id. ip 137. 


229.. 


”? 


= Cribrilina, p- 184. 

= Cribril. annulata, p- 193. 

= Micropora (pt.), p. 173. 

= Steganoporella (pt.), p. 176. 

= Chorizopora Brongniartii, p. 224.. 

= for incrusting Cellepore. 

= Membran. membranacea, p 
== Microporella ciliata, p. 308. 

= Microporella, Hincks. 

= Schizoporella, Hincks. 

= Microporella Malusii, p. 211. 


. 140. 


606 


Retepora cellulosa, Johnst. & ak 
(pt.) é : 
‘Salicornia, Schweigger 
‘Salicornaria, Cuvier 
Salpingia Hassallii, Copin 
Scrupocellaria Delilii, Busk . 
Selbia, Gray . 
Semifnstnan (sp.) DOrb. 
‘Tata rugosa (pt.) Van Ben. 
Terebripora (pt.) D’ Orb. 
Tessaradoma (sp.) Norman 
‘Tricellaria ternata, FJem. ; 
Unicellaria, D. Blainv. (pt.) . 
‘Vinculariade, Busk 


REPORT—1 885. 


= Ret. Beaniaria, King, p. 391. 
= Cellaria, p. 104. 


= ANtea truncata, p. 8. 

= Scrup. scabra, p. 48. 

= Caberea, p. 57. 

= Flustra, Linn., p. 114. 
= Memb. lineata, p. 144. 
= ? Hippothoa, p. 286. 

= Porina, Hincks, p. 227. 
= Mempia 7d., p. 36. ' 
= Kucratea, Lame. 

= Cellariide, Hincks. 


Synonyms, Busk’s ‘ Challenger’ Report. 


Names in right-hand column adopted in present and in the ‘ Challenger’ Report. 


Achamarchis 
neritina, Lamz. 
Acropora. ; : 7 
coronata, Reuss 
Alysidinm, Busi: (part) . 
Amastigia . : 
Amphiblestrum, Gray 
Anarthropora, Sinitt 
borealis . 
Anguinaria anguina, Flem. 
spalulata, ‘Lamk. 
Annulipora, Gray . 
Antipathis humilis, “Agassiz & Pour- 
talés ; 
Aspidostoma crassum, Hincks 
Avicella, Van Ben. 
Berenicea, Johnst. (pars) 
Biflustra, D’ Orb. 
crassa, Haswell 


Lacroixii, Smitt . - | 


Bugula umbella, Smtt 
Smittia, Sars . 
Bugulina, Gray 
Caberea boryi, Aud. 
Patagonica, Busk 
Zelanica, Busk 
Carbasea 
bombycina, Busk ‘ 
Catenaria chelata, D’ Orb. 


= Bugula nentina, Lame. 


= ? Eschara elegantula, D’Orb. 
= Catenaria. 


= See Membraniporide, Busk. 


= Tessaradoma id. 

= Aitea id., Busk, C. R. 
= Ajtea anguina, C. R. 
= Membranipora. 


= Bifaxaria levis, Bush. 


= Aspidostoma giganteum, Busk. 
= Bugula, Oken. 


| = Smittia, Hincks. 
. | Still employed by Busk. 


= Steganoporella magnilabris, 
Busk. 


| . . . 
= Membranipora crassimarginata, 


Hincks 

= var. B, incrustans, Busk. 
= Kinetoskias aborescens, Dan. 
= Kinetoskias Smittia, Kor. & Dan. 
= Bugula, Oken. 
= Caberea Lyalli, Busk. 

ne Darwinii, Busk. 
Still employed by Busk. 
= Onchoporella id., Busk. 
= Eucratea id. 


ale 


ON RECENT 
Catenicella bicuspis, Gray 
Savignyi, Blainv. . ‘ rs | 
(ventricosa, var. maculata) 
Cellaria anguina, Solander 
attenuata, D’ Orb. 
barbata, D’ Orb. 
ceatenularia, Lamk. . ‘ 
cereoides (pars), Lami. . 
chelata . 
cirrata, Hl. & Sol. 
coronata, [euss 
crispa, Gmelin : 
flabellum, Hil. & Sol. 
filifera, Lamk. 
fistulosa, Maegil. 
55 var. australis, Hifioles 
gracilis, Macgil. 
hirsuta, Lamk. 
Malvinensis, Waters 
neritina, Sol. . 
salicornoides, Savig. 
tenuirostris, Macgil. 
tenuirostris, Smitt . 
Cellepora avicularis, Smitt 
bispinata, Busk 
ciliata, Linn. . 
Costazzi, var. tubulosa, Hincks 
malussi, “Aud. . 
mamillata, Bash 


verruculata, Smitt . 
Cellularia anguina, Pallas & Ellis « 

chelata, Ell. & Sol. 

neritina, Pallas 

opuntioides, Pallas . 

ornata, Busk . E 
Chaunosia hirtissima, Busk . 
Cothurnicella dedala, Wyv. Thoms. 
Cribrilina figularis, var. 


speciosa, Hincks 
Crisia chelata, Johnst., Hassall 
ciliata, Aud. ‘ 


ornithorhyncus, W. Thoms. 
pilosa, Sawvig. . 
Cupularia denticulata, Conrad 
Diachoris Buskei, Heller 
Dictyopora, Macgil. 
Diplopora, Macgil. 
Discopora albirostris, Simitt 
coriacea, Lamk. 
Epicaulidium pulchrum, Hincks 


5 


POLYZOA. 607 
Catenicella hastata, Busi:. 
elegans, Busk. 

3 ventricosa, Bush. 
Aitea anguina. 
= Salicornaria gracilis, Busk. 
= Tubucellaria hirsuta, Bush. 
= Catenicella ventricosa, Bush. 


9 


_ = Tubucellaria opuntioides, Busk. 


= Hucratea id. 
= Menipia zd., Lamk. 


. | = Hschara elegantula. 


= Menipia cirrata, Lame. 

= Menipia id., Busk. 

= Canda arachnoides, Lamk. 

= Salicornaria clavata, Busk. 
” ” ” 

5 id., Busk. 

= Tubucellaria id., Busk. 

= Salicornaria id., Busk. 

= Bugula id., Busk. 

= Salicornaria gracilis, Busk. 

bicornis, Busk. 

id., Busk. 


” 


” 


| = Cellepora conica, Busk. 


¥ albirostris, Smitt. 
= Microporella id., Bush. 
= Cellepora tubulosa, Busk. 
= Microporella id. 
== Cellepora id., var. Atlantica, 
Busk. 
= Escharoides id., Busk. 
= Altea id. 
= Eucratea id. 
= Bugula id. 
= Tubneellaria id. 
= Menipia flabellata, Bush. 


| = Diachoris id., Heller. 
| == Chlidonia cordieri. 


= C. philomela, Busk. 
Var. adnata, Busk. 
= C. philomela, Busk. 
= EKucratea id. 
= Scrupocellaria ciliata, Bush. 
diadema, Busk. 


td. 


” 
9 


= Cupularia Owenii, Busk. 
= D. Magellanica, Busk. 
= Adeona, Busk. 

Genus of Microporide. 
= Cellepora id. 
= Micropora id., ‘Chal. Rep.’ 
= Pasythea eburnea, Lamk. 


608 


Eschara Buskii, Ten. Wood 
ciliata, var. 3. Pal. . 
contorta, Busi: 
cosciniphora, Reuss . 
gigantea, Busk 
hexagoniles, Haswell 
lichenoides, Milne-Edw. . 
platalea, Busi : 
radiata, Moll. . 
saccata, Busk . 

Escharella bisinuata, Smitt . 

Escharina Bougainvillei, D’ Orb. 
cornuta, D’Orb. 
elegans, D’Urb. : 
elegans, (pars) Milne- Edw. 

Escharipora, Smitt 

Eucratea Contei, Aud. 
Cordieri, Awd. 

Lafontii, Aud. 
loricata . 

Falcaria anguina 

Farcimia, Fleming . 

Farciminaria aculeata, Rasen 

Flustra bombycina, Linn. 
Brongniartii, Aud. . 
carbasea, var. 3, Lamk. 
Cecilli, Aud. 
coriacea, [sper. 
denticulata, var. inermis, " Busk 
Genisii, Aud. ; 3 
margaritifera, Quoy & Gaym. ‘ 
Savartii, Aud. : : 
marginata, Kraus 

Genellipora eburnea, Smitt 
lata, Smitt 

Halophila, Busk 

Hemeschara, Busi: 


Herentia, Gray (pt.) 
biforis, Gray . 
Hippothoa catenularia 
Kinetoskias aborescens, Don. . 
Smittii, Kor. & Dou 
Lepralia ansata j 
assimilis, Johnst. 
bella, Bish 
biforis, Johnst. 
Brongniartii, Busk . 
capitata, Reuss 
Cecilli, Busk . : 
cheilostoma, Manzoni 
ciliata, Johnst. &e. . 
circinata, Macgil. . . 


REPORT—1885. 


= Eschara gracilis, Lamk. 
= Microporella id. 


| = Mucronella id. Bush. 
. | = Adeonella distoma, Busk. 


. | =E. giganteum, Busk. 


= Adeonella platelea, Bush. 


=| = ? Adeonella iniwicarialamante 
. | = Adeonella id., Busk. 
. | = Cribrilina id., Busk, Smitt. 


= Eschara elegantula, D’Orb. 
= Mucronella id. 
= Chorizopora hyalina, var. 
= Microporella Malussi. 
= Schizoporella id., Busk. 
= Microporella ciliata. 
= Cribrilina. 
= Catenicella elegans, Busk. 
= Chlidonia id. 
(Type) Catenaria, ‘ Chat.’ 
= Eucratea chelata. 
= Altea id., ‘ Chal.’ Rep. 
‘= Salicornaria, Busk. 
Near F. Atlantica, Busk. 
= Onchoporella id., Bush. 
= Chorizopora id. 
= Carbasea dissimilis, Busk. 
== Schizoporella id., Bush. 
= Micropora id. 
= Flustra denticulata, ‘ Chal.’ Rep. 
= Microporella ciliata. 
= Lepralia id., ‘ Chal.’ Rep. 
Biflustra 7d. 
= Flustramorpha 7d., Busk. 
= Pasythea id., ‘ Chal.’ Rep. 
= Lepralia (?) ‘Chal.’ Rep., p. 146 
= Bugula, Oken. 
= Lepralia, (pars), and Porella, 
Gray, (pt-) 
= Microporella, Hincks. 
Malussi, Bush. 
— Genus Pyripora, Busk. 
— Bugula umbella, Smitt. 
= Ke ‘cyathus, W. Thowks, 
= Schizoporella tenuis, Bush. 
= Chorizopora Brongniartii. 
Near Smittia stigmatophora, Busk-. 
= Microporella Malussi. 
= Chorizopora id. 
Brongniartii. 
= Schizoporella id., Busk. 
= Smittia stigmatophora, Bush. 
= Microporella id. 
= Schizoporella id. 


Rep. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 


Lepralia. 

collaris = 

diadema, Macgil. 

distoma, Busk. : : 
hyalina, var. Bougainville, Busk 
insignis, Hassall 5 ; 
labiosa, Busk . 

labrosa, Busk . 

larvalis, Busk . 

lunata, Macgil. 

magnevilla, Busk 


Malussi, Busk, Heller, Manz. 


Marionensis, Busk . 
minuta, Norman 


monoceros, Busk 
multispinata, Busk . 


Palasiana 
personata, Busk 
pertusa . 


radiata, Busk . 
squamoidea, Reuss . 
tenuis, Hassall 
unicornis : 
utriculus, Manzoni . 
Woodiania, Busk 
Lirioza, Lank. 
Lunulites, Lama. 
capulis, Busk . 
Owenii, Gray . : 
alveolatus, G. Wood 


Malakosaria pholaramphos, Goldst. 


Marginaria, Rom. (pt.) . 
Mastigophora, Hincks 
Meliceritina, Lhrenb. 
Membranipora catenulara 
ciliata, Macgil. 
cervicornis, Busk 
coriacea, Busk 
corrugata, Blainv. . 
Flemingii ; 
magnilabris, Busk . 
Savartii, D’ Orb. 
umbonata, Busk 
Menipea, feugensis, Busk 
Mollia Brongniartii, D’Orb, 
hyalina, var. divaricata, Sm. 
Myriozoide, Smitt, Hincks 
, 1885. 


609 


= Phylactella id., Hincks. 

= ? Onchoporella id., Busk. 

= Adeonella id., Busk. 

= Chorizopora hyalina. 

= Microporella ciliata, Busk. 

= Phylactella id., Hincks. 

= Phylactella id., Hincks. 

= Cribrilina monceros, Busk. 

= Microporella ciliata. 

= Mucronella (Phylactella) caneli- 
fera, Busk. 

= Microporella Malussi, Busk & 
Hinceks. 

= Smittia id., Busk. 

= To or near Lepralia marsupium, 
Macgil. & Busk. 


. | = Cribrilina id., Busk. 


= Mucronella ventricosa, var. mul- 
tispinata, Busk. 

= Lepralia, Busk, but limited. 

= Microporella id., Busk. 

= Limited to Lepralia, but having 
character similar to Phylactella, 
Hincks, ‘ Chal.’ Rep. p. 146. 

== Cribrilina id. 

= Schizoporella elegans, Busk. 

= Chorizopora Brongniartii. 

= Schizoporella, 

= Microporella ciliata. 

Near Lepralia incisa, Busk. 

= Pasythea, Lamk. 

= Lunalaria, Busk. 

= Lunularia id., Busk. 

= Cupularia id., Busk. 

= Cupularia Owenii, Busk. 

= Onchopora Sinclairii, Busk. 

= Membranipora, Blainv. 

= Flustramorpha (pars), Gray. 

= Melicerta, Milne-Edw. 

= Pyripora id., Busk. 

= M. spinosa, D’Orb. 

= Amphliblestrum id., Busk. 

= Micropora id., ‘ Chal.’ Rep. 

= Biflustra Savartii. 


iy Type of Amphiblestrum, Busi 


= Steganoporella id. 

= Biflustra id. 

= Amphiblestrum id. 

= M. aculeata, D’ Orb. 

= Chorizopora id. 

= Hippothoa. 

Escharide and Celleporide. 
RR 


610 


Myrizoum Australiensis, Haswell 

Naresia cyathus, W. Thoms. . 

Onchopora borealis, Busk. 
hirsuta, Busk . 

Phylactella collaris, Hincks 
labrosa, Hincks f 
Porella concinna, var. gracilis, Hks. 

marsupium, ’Hineks . 


minuta, Norman 
Porellina ciliata, Smitt . 


coscinophora, D’ Orb. 
Porina borealis, Hincks . 

ciliata, Smitt . 

Malusii, Smitt 
Pustulopora gracilis, Sars 
Pyripora, D’ Orb. 


Quadricellaria gracilis, Sars . 
Reptelectrina, D’Orb. . 
Reptescharella inequalis, D’ Orb. 
Reptescharellina, D’ Orb. 
Reptoporina, D’ Orb. (pt.) 
Malusii, D’ Orb. i 
Retepora carinata, Macgil. 
cellulos (pars) 
» var. Marsupiata, "Smit 
cornea, Busk. 
elongata, D’ Orb., Smit, 
monilifera, Macgil. . 
Salicornaria punctata, Busk. . 
tenuirostris, var. bicornis, Busk 
Schizoporella marsupium, 8S. 0. 
Ridley : 


var. 


Scruparia chelata, Oken : 
Scrupocellaria clypeata, Hassall 
diadema, Busk 
Selbia Zelanica, Gray . 
Semiflustra beep i D’ Orb. 
Sertularia anguina, Linn. 
chelata, Linn. 
cirrata, Gmelin 
crispa, Gmelin 
mollis, Della Chaig. 
neritina, Linn. 
opuntioides, Gmelin 
Smittia affinis, Hincks 
bella, Busk 


cheilostoma, Manzoni 


REPORT—1885. 


= Haswellia id. Busk. 

= Kinetoskias id. 

= Tessaradome boreale, Busk. 

= Tubucellaria zd., Busk. 

= Lepralia id., Busk. 

= Lepralia id., Busk. 

= Smittia graciosa, Busk. 

= Lepralia marsupium, Macgil. & 
Busk. 

| =P Lepralia marsupium, Macgil. & 

Busk. 


. | = ? Flustramorpha hastigera (pars) 


and Microporella ciliata. 
= Adeonella distoma, Busk. 
| = Tessaradoma boreale, Busk, 
= Microporella id. 


; | = Microporella id. 


= Tessaradoma boreale 

= 5th Genus of Membraniporide, 
Busk. 

= Tessaradoma boreale, Busk. 

= Electra, Lame. 

= Cribrilina philomela, Busk. 

== Micropora, Gray. 


i Microporella & pt. Schizoporella. 


| = Microporella 7d. 

= R. Victoriense, Busk. 
= R. Imperati, Busk. 

= R. Atlantica, Busk. 


. | = Carbusea cribriformis, Busk, 


= R. Imperati, Busk. 

= R. hirsuta, Busk. 

= Salicornaria gracilis, Busk. 
“5 bicornis, Busk. 


= Lepralia marsupium, Macgil. & 
Busk. 

= Eucratea id. 

=S. ornithorhyncus, W. Thomp. 

= 5S. ciliata, Aud. 

= Caberea rostrata, Busk. 

= Onchoporella id. 

= Attea id. 

= Eucratea id. 

= Menipea id. Lamz. 

»  cerrata, Lame. 

= Altea anguina. 

= Bugaula zd. 

= Tubucellaria id. 

= near S. transversa, Busk. 

= Lepralia id., near S. stigmato- 
phora, 

= near S. stigmatophora. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 611 


Smittia. | 
Landsborovii . 


= near 8. Jacobensis, Busk. 
marmorea, Hincks . ‘ = S. oratavensis, Busk. 
Steganoporella Neo- Zelanica, Waters | =8S.m magnilabris, Busk. 
elegans, Smitt. ‘ a 3 53 
Stiparia glabra, Hincks . . | = Bicellaria glabra, Busk. 
Ternicellaria aculeata, D’ Orb. : | = Menipia id. 
Tessaradoma boreale, Sinitt . , at, boreale, Busk. 


gracilis, Newnan, : ‘ ‘ 
Tricellaria aculeata, D’Orb. . “= Menipea id. 


” 


Tubucellaria barbata, D’Orb. . . | =T. hirsuta, Busk. 
cereoides, Lame. . | = T. opuntioides, Busk. 

Vincularia Novee- Hollandiz, Haswe 1 = V. Gothica, D’ Orb. 
steganoporoides, Macgil. se a! 55 

Biiicellaria chelata, jp . . | = Eucratea id. 


Inst of Synonyms from Rev. Thomas Hincks’ ‘ Brit. Mar. Polyzoa.’ 
—Cyclostomata. 


Names in right-hand column adopted by Mr. Hincks. 


Actinopora regularis, D’Orb. . | = Lichenopora id. 
Alecto parasita, Heller Stomatopora granulata. 
» granulata, Johnst. . Johnsoni, Heller. 


= repens, Manzoni = 5 dilatans. 

= retiformis, Hincks . = a incrassata. 
Aulopora (pt.), Goldfuss . | = Stomatopora. 
Auloporina (pt.), Hhrenb. . . | = Cyclostomata, Busk. 


Berenicea (pt.), Lamz. ; : Diastopora. 
Caveide (pt.), D’Orb. . . . | = Lichenoporide. 
Ceriopora, Hagenow . : . | = Tubulipora. 
Coronpora, Gray Domopora. 
Corymbopora fungiformis, Siitt »  Stellata. 
Crisia aculeata, Hassall . Crisia eburnea. 

5, arctica, Sars 5 : »  denticulata. 

», attenuata, Heller . : <b 

» geniculata, .-Hd. 

», Haueri, Reuss 

» luxata, Flem. 

» producta, Smitt 

setacea, Couch 

Crisidia cornuta 


” 9 
en Cormuta,. 


>»  eburnea. 
»,  denticulata, 
»  eburnea. 
>»  cornuta. 


Hd dd ed et yd 


3 ” 
Crisina, D’Orb., Smitt z Idmonea. 
Defrancia (pt.), "Reuss, Hagen., Sars, 
Manz. : - Domopora. 
Diastopora flabellum, Reuss Diastopora suborbicularis. 


2 hyalina (pt.), Simztt 4 sarniensis. 

5 plumila, Reuss. ; Tubulipora flabellaris. 

z: repens (pt.), Snvitt Stomatopora dilatans. 

+ simplex, Busk . . | = Diastopora suborbicularis. 
Discocavea aculeata, D’Orb. . . | = Lichenopora hispida. 


RR2 


612 REPORT— 1885. 


Discocavea verrucaria, D’ Orb. 
Discoporella flosculus, Hincks 
Discotubigera, D’ Orb. 
Falearia (pt.), Oken : 
Filissparsa incrassata, D’Orb. 
Heteroporella, Hincks 
Hornera borealis, Busk . 

, frondiculata, Surs 
Idmonea angustata, D’ Orb. 

55  coronopis, Def. 

»  dilatata, M.-Hd. , 

»  vadians, Van Ben. 

»,  transversa, M.-Hd. 
Millepora hhacea, Pull. 
Obelia tubulifera, Lame. 
Patinella verrucaria, Graz 
Proboscina latifolia, D’ Orb. 

4 ramosa, D’Orb. 
Pustulopora gracilis, Sars 


55 proboscidea, Johnst. 


- orchadensis, Busk 
Radiopora (pt.), D’Orb. 


Reptotubigera confiuens, D’Orb. 


Semimulticava (pt.), D’Orb. . 
Sophodictyum, Lonsd. : 
Stellipora, Hagenow ; 
Tubulipora foraminulata, Reuss 


a penicillata, Johnst. 
phalangea, Couch 
. repens, S. Wood . 
a serpens, Busk 


Hf verrnearia. M.-Hdw. 
Tubuliporina, J/.-Hdw., Johnst. 
Unicavea, D’Orb. : 


Lichenopora radiata. 


~ 
S 


Crisia. 

= Stomatopora id. 

= Lichenopora. 
Hornera lichenoides. 


ldaones atiteibrea! 
” 99 

»  Serpens. 

atlantica. 

»  Serpens 


3? 3 


” 29 
Diastopora patina. 
Tubulipora fimbria. 
Stomatopora expansa. 

= Porina borealis, Busk. 


Hide dt bed ne wed 


. = Palmicellaria elegans. 


= Hornera violacea. 


= Idmonea serpens. 


Domopora. 
Hornera. 


Stomatopora fungia. 
Tubulipora flabellaris. 
Stomatopora major. 
Tubulipora lobulata. 
< flabellaris. 
Cyclostomata, Busk. 
Lichenopora. 


Hii tl dete te ed 


GEOGRAPHICAL AND BATHYMETRICAL DISTRIBUTION 
OF MARINE POLYZOA. 


Part I. 


The Distribution of Cheilostomatous and Cyclestomatous Polyzoain the Arctic 
and Atlantic Seas. 


In the following lists I have compiled from various sources the range 

and distribution of species around a given centre, if I may be allowed to 

call it such. For this purpose I have taken the whole of the species and 
varieties described by Mr. Hincks in his ‘ British Marine Polyzoa,’ and 

have numbered them, 1 to 256, so that by this means an easy reference 

may be made to any particular form. The localities are indicated by 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 613 


means of columns and letters, of which the following is a full explana- 
tion :— 


Col. 1. Shetland, a; Orkney Isles, b}; Unst and Hebrides, c. 

. East Coast: Scotland, d; Northumberland, e; Durham and York- 
shire, f. 

. South-east Coast: Hastings, h; Brighton, 7. 

Devon, j; Cornwall, &; West Coast of Ireland, in’’. 

West Coast of England, /; EastCoast of Ireland, im; Antrim, m* ; 

Isle of Man, m’. 

. Guernsey, 7; Jersey, 0. (When every column is filled by an (*) a 
wide distribution is indicated.) 

. Fossil range: Brit. Glacial, 1; Crag, 2; Pliocene, 3*; Miocene, 
Reuss, 3; Eocene, 4. 


Or oo bo 


“NIU 


Explanation of the arrangement of the figures in the left-hand column. 


This British list is completely arranged in accordance with the classi- 
fication adopted by Mr. Hincks. It will be seen that the generic and 
specific arrangement is different from that adopted in the first part of the 
Report, and to keep up a complete uniformity the following explanation 
was necessary :— 


I. The family names in the British list are those used by Mr. Hincks. 
Il. So also are the generic; but against every generic name a number 
has been placed, and this will be found to correspond with the 
number and placement of the genus in the classification of Mr. 
Busk and also the classification adopted by me in the present 
Report. 
III. For obvious reasons I have only numbered in consecutive order 
the British list. The Cycnostomara is likewise numbered conse- 
cutively, but the columns are differently arranged. 


In the other lists the genera are numbered similarly to the British 

list on the left-hand side, but in the first right-hand column the space is 
reserved. If the species named is found in any British locality, the 
number in the British list is given; if not, the space is left bare. By 
this simple method, and without disturbing the text and arrangement of 
different authors, a uniformity of nomenclature throughout the whole of 
the Report is secured. The blank spaces will sufficiently indicate the 
species peculiar to any special area. 
__ The same plan is adopted in the list furnished from Mr. Busk’s 
‘Challenger’ Report of the bathymetrical distribution of species in the 
seven regions given by the author. In the last column of this list the 
geographical distribution is indicated by the use of the following letters, 
as given by Mr. Busk in the Report, pp. ili to xv of preface :— 

A. North Atlantic region; B. South Atlantic region; C.South Indian 
or Kerguelen region; D. Australian region; HZ. Philippine or Japanese 
region; F’, North Pacific region; G. South Pacific region. 


614 


REPORT—1885. ~ 


Complete List of British Marine Polyzoa: Hincks, Norman, Barlee, and 


Alder. 
1880. 


Described by the Rev. Thos. Hincks, ‘ British Marine Polyzoa,’ 


SUB-ORDER I. 
CHEILOSTOMATA 


Fam. Eteide 


1 | Atea, Lame. 
1 anguina, Zinn. 
le 8, recta, Hincks 
| e308 truncata, Landsb. 
Fam. Eucrateide 
2 | Eucratea, Lame. 
4 chelata, Zinn. 
5 a@yrepens . 
1 PeeG B gracilis 
22 | Gemellaria, Savigny 
‘i loricata, Zinn. 
25 | Scruparia, Hincks 
8 clavata, Hincks . 
27 | Huxleya, Dyster 
9 fragilis, Dyster! . 
26 | Brettia, Dyster 
10 pellucida, Dyster? 
ail tubzeformis, Hinchs 


Fam. Cellulariide, Bu: 
9 Cellularia, Pallas 


12 | Peachii, Bush ‘ 
10 | Menipea, Zama. 

13 ternata ; 
14 Jefireysii, Vorman 
12 | Serupocellaria, Van Ben. 
15 scruposa, Zinn. 

16 | elliptica, Reuss . 
17 scabra, Van Ben. 
18 | scrupea, Bush 

19 | —_reptans, Linn. 

15 | Caberea, Lamm. 

20 Ellisi, Flem. - 
21 Boryi, Aud. . 


Fam. Bicellariide 
16 | Bicellaria, Blainv. 


22 ciliata, Zinn. 

23 Alderi, Busk ' - 
17 | Bugula, Ohken 

24 avicularia, Linn. . 
25 turbinata, Alder . : 
26 flabellata, J. V. Thomp. 
27 calathus, Vorman 

28 | plumosa, Pallas . 

297} gracilis, Busk . ; 
30?) uncinata, Hincks > 
31 | purpurotincta, Wor. 


1 Tenby. 


es 3 3 4 5 
ia | 
| 
G=4), F hea ak | om 
a J | mm! 
J m! 
| 
1 
- ae ak * 563 11" ok 
m! 
A 
i | 
a ie * HANDS 
| fF mi" 
| 
| | 
| 
| | 
¢ y / 
i} | { 
| | | 
a \ af 
a | a,f 
ao | | 
| | 
* * | * * * 
a,e / | 
ae | 
sl } 
x * * | % 
| 
| 
a,b) m* 
fi 
a@ |d,e,f\| g * 
a, a’ } 
@,c\d,e| h \9,k } 
et | | x | 1, m’) 
* * *% * * || 
i 4) 
C19, Ae 
a ad—f 


* *=Two or more localities. 


ior) 


n 
wu 


n, O 


nu 


Ie} 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 615 


Complete List of British Marine Polyzoa—continued. 


1 2 3 4 | 5 6 @ 
Fam. Bicellariidee—cont. 
Bugula. 
32 Murrayana, Johnst. . ; b | d—f m 
33? a fruticosa, Packard i 
20 | Beania, Johnst. | 
34 mirabilis, Johnst. . ° . d= | g= ? m, n 
Fam. Notamiide | 
21 | Notamia. Flem. : 
35 bursaria, Linn. . 3 : lg, h,t] 7 
Fam. Cellariide 
47 | Cellaria, Zamz. 
36 fistulosa, Linn. . A lee? * * ce * 
37 sinuosa, Hassall . : 3 a e j,k | m Hwa 
38 Johnsoni, Busk . - é a | 
Fam. Flustride : 
29 | Flustra, Zinn. | | 
39 foliacea, Zinn. . : % * * ¥ * * 
40 papyracea, Hl, and Sol. . h,i | k=j| m | 
41 securifrons, Pallas 5 j a. \d,e,f m 
42 a papyracea, a : d,eé 
43 Barleei, Busk . a 
44 carbasea, Hil. and Sol. a. \d,e,f | m 
Fam. Membraniporide 
82 | Membranipora, Blainv. 
45 Lacroixii, Awd. . . : h kh, j 1, 2,3 
46 monostachys, Busk . : g, h 2,3 
47 Var.a (Yarmouth) . 
48 catenularia, Jameson . : * * * * * *% (12,3 
49 pilosa, Linn. : : aul) Fe * * * * * 
50 a dentata, Hincks 
51 B laxa, Sa7s and Smitt 
52 y + Lallas . 5 
53 membranacea, Linn. . | ae * * * * * 1,2 
54 hexagona, Busk . r c G mi! 
55 lineata, Zinn. é ; ‘ * * * % * * ano 
56 eraticula, Alder . 5 = a |d,e ee? m! 1 
57 spinifera, Johnst. . ; ‘ a d,e 4k |, om 
58 flustroides, Hincks . : j,k | m* | mn | 
59 discreta, Hincks . : : | @ n | 
60 curvirostris, Hincks % 
61 unicornis, Hlem. . é : d,e 1 
62 Dumerili, Awd. . Pil aaacen h |\j,k| m 1 
63 solidula, "Ald. and Hi necks ; h m m* | n 
64 aurita, Hincks . ; A e j,k | m* 
*65 imbellis, Hincks . . .| @ | j= | m* 
66 Flemingii, Bush . male * * * * is if 
67 cornigera, Busk . F || ee | 
68 Rosselii, Aud. . , ina, | a | m n 
69 trifolium, S. Wood : <i) @ 1 
70 a quadrata ‘ : : d= 
71 minax, Busk é S|) 
72 nodulosa, Hineks : : Ui eat 
37% Megapora, Hincks 
73 ringens, Busk . . sil Ae 


616 


38 
74 
752 
40 
76 
43 
77 


REPORT— 1885. 


Complete List of British Marine Polyzoa—continued. 


Fam, Microporide 


Micropora, Gray 

coriacea, Hsper. . . . 

complanata, Worm. 
Steganoporella, Smitt 

Smittii (see Hincks, p. 178) 
Setosella, Hinckhs 

vulnerata, Bush . 


Fam. Cribrilinide 


Cribrilina, Gray 
radiata, Moll. 
Var. a 
ie ‘ , 
» Yy tenuirostris . 
punctata, Hass. 

Var. a 2 
annulata, Fabric, i 
figularis, Johnst. : 
Gattyze, Busk . : : 

Var.a 

Membraniporella, Hinchs" 
nitida, Johnst. 
melolontha, Bush 


Fam. Microporellide 


Microporella, Hineks 
ciliata, Pallas 
Var. a personata, Busk 
Malusii, Awd. 
a thyreophora (Austr) 
B vitrea 
impressa, Aud. . - 
a bimucronata, Moll. = 
Var. cornuta, Busk . 
B glabra . 5 
 pyriformis, Bush . 
violacea, Johnst. . 
Var.a . 
ays plagiopora 
Diporula, Hineks 
verrucosa, Peach . . 
Chorizopora, Hineks 
Brongniartii, Awd. 


Fam. Poronide. 


Porina, D’ Orbigny 
borealis, Busk 
tubulosa, Vorman 

Anarthropora, Smitt 
monodon, Busk. . 


?| Lagenipora, Hinchs . 


socialis, Hincks . 
Celleporella ! 5 


1 


a 
a& 


2 


* 


o 


o 


h 


h 
h 


h 


1 See note and Nos. 214, 215. 


4 


hk 


k 
hk 


m* 


m 


h 


ML 


7 


n 


co | 


3* 


2 
1, 2, 3,4 


2 
3* 
2,3, 3a 


126 
127 
128 
129 
130 
131 
132 
133 
134 
135? 
136 
137? 
138 


139 
140 
141 
142 
547 

143 
144 

3 


145 
146 
147 
148? 
149 
150 


65 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 


Complete List of British Marine Polyzoa—continued. — 


Fam. Myriozoide, Smitt. 


t} Schizoporella, Hincks 


unicornis, Johnston 
Var. ansata, Reuss . 
spinifera, Johnston 
Alderi, Busk 
vulgaris, Moll 
simplex, Johnston 
linearis, Hassall . 
a hastata, Hincks 
Bmamillata . 
y nitida 
6 crucifera, JVor. 
sanguinea, Worman 
cristata, Hincks . 
biaperta, Michelin 
a eschariformis, Wat. 
B divergens, Smitt 
armata, Hincks 
auriculata, Hassall 
a ochracea 
8 cuspidata 
umbonata, Busk . 
discoidea, Busk . 
sinuosa, Bush 
aarmata . 
Cecilii, Awd. 
cruenta, JVor. 
hyalina, Linn. . 
a cornuta . 
B incrassata 
y tuberculata . 
venusta, Vorman. 
Mastigophora, Hineks 
Dutertrei, Aud. 
Var. a es 
» B . . 
Hyndmanni, Johnst. 
Schizotheca, Hincks . 
fissa, Bush 
divisa, Vorman 


Hippothoa, Zamx. . : 
divaricata, Lama. 

a conferta “ ‘ 

B carinata Seeds 


vy Patagonica, Busk . 
expansa, Dawson . 
flagellum, Manzoni. 


Fam. Escharide (pt.) Smitt. 


Lepralia, Johnst. (pt.) 
Pallasiana, Voll. . 
canthariformis, Busk . 
foliacea, Zilis and Sol. 

a fascialis ; 

B bidentata 
pertusa, Lsper. 
adpressa, Busk 

LZR ; 
hippopus, Smitt 


I 


& 


2. 
v 


h 
h 


h 


h 


h 


Ss. x 


ie 


kh 


% 


m* 


m* 


me | 


a 


wu 


n 


nv 


n 


| 
n, 0 | 


U7 


a 


nr 


3* 
3* 


IGE 


618 


_ 192 
193 


| 176 


| 186 
| 187 


160 

161 
78% 

162 


163 
164? 
165? 
166 
167 
168 
169 
68 
170 
171 
69 
172 
173 
174 
175 


177 
178 
179 
180 
181 


182 
183 
184 

70 


185 


188 
189 
190 
191 


194 
195 
79% 
196 
197 
198 
199 
200 
201 
53% 
202 
57 
203 
204 


REPORT—1885. 


Complete List of British Marine Polyzoa— continued. 


Fam. Escharide —cont. 


Lepralia. 
edax, Bush . 
polita, Vorman 
Umbonula, Hincks. 
verrucosa, sper. 
Porella, Gray 
concinna, Busk 
a bella, Dawson 
B gracilis 
minuta, Norman . 
struma, Vorman . 
compressa, Sowerby 
levis, Wleming 
Escharoides, Smitt 
rosacea, Busk 
quincuncialis, Jor. 
Smittia, Hincks 


Landsborovii, Johnst. 


a crystallina, Wor. 

B? porifera, Smitt 
reticulata, Macgii. 
affinis, Hineks 


cheilostoma, Manzoni . 


marmorea, Hincks 
bella, Busk . 
trispinosa, Johnst. 
a Jeffreysi, Vor. 
Phylactella, Hincks . 
labrosa, Busk 
collaris, Vorman . 
eximia, Hincks 


Mucronella, Hincks = Discopora, 


Smitt A 5 
Peachii, Johnst. . 
a labiosa, Busk 
B octodentata . 
ventricosa, Hassell 
variolosa, Johnst. 
laqueata, Vor". 
abyssicola, Vor. 
microstoma, /Vor. 
coccinea, Abildq. . 
a mamillata 
pavonella, Alder . 
Palmicellaria, Alder . 
elegans, Alder. 
Skenei, Hil. and Sol. 
a bicornis . 
B foliacea 
lorea, Alder . 
? eribraria, Johnst. 
Rhyncopora, Hincks . 
bispinosa, Johnst. 
Retepora, Zmperato . 
Beaniana, King 
Couchii, Hincks . 


i |e 
a 
* * 
* * 
= 
* 
* * 
¥* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
5 % * 
“ % 
* * 
>| ¥= 
* 
* 
: A * * 
* 
* * 
* ry 
«| ae 
a 
a 
* * 
hea 
a 
d 
a d, é 
a 
Qi 
a co 
a,b 


1 Berwick Bay. 


d,e 


3 


i 


h 


h 


h 
h 


4 


* OK OK OK 


> 


5 


m* | 


m 


PGi 


3* 


3* 


3* 


83 
205 
206 
207 
208 


| 209 


210 
211 
212 
213 


52? 
214 
215 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 


Complete List of British Marine Polyzoa—continued. 


619 


ts ob 


Fam. Celleporide 


Cellepora, Fabric. . F : 
pumicosa, Linn. . |e 
ramulosa, Linn. . : p % 
dichotoma, Hincks . : * 

aattenuata, Alder . : a 
avicularis, Hincks . , a 
tubigera, Bush 
armata, Hincks 
Costazii, Awd. 

a tubulosa 3 

The following should be with 
Porinide (see p. 413, Hincks, 
and should have followed 
on p. 226). 

Celleporella, Gray . : 
lepraloides, Vom. | 
pygmea, Vor. 


&8 


* OK 


~ 


| 


oo 
a 


bes | 


3* 


Complete List of British Cyclostomata (Hincks’s ‘ British and Marine 


Polyzoa’). 
he hae iead «=e 
ei pepe fs ee 
eo | Bee | 
2 (88 |ES8| ae 
1 2 3 | 4 5 
SUB-ORDER CYCLOSTOMATA | 
Group I. Radicellata, D’ Ord. 
Fam. I. Crisiide 
Genus Crisia (pt.), Zama. 
216 | Crisia cornuta, Linn. 3 * * ¥ * 
217 a geniculata Ss. | 
218 | eburnea, Linz. ? %% * * * 
219 | a aculeata, Hussall . w.s 
220 | B producta, Smitt * 
221 denticulata, Lamk. eH * * 
222 a 
Group II. Incrustata, D’Ord. 
Fam. II. Tubuliporide 
Stomatopora, Bronn. 
223 granulata, W.-Hdw. . | 8. B. 1 Rose: | oie’: 
223* major, Johnst. . : : . | 8. E. | Rose. * 
224 dilatans, Johnst. N. E. | Rose. * * 
225 Johnstoni, Heller . s. * | 
226 a robusta, Hincks 
1 Roscoff, Joliet. 
* British range, S. E. N. W., South, East, North, West. ** Distributed all round 


the coast. 


5 


REPORT— 1885. 


Complete List of British Cyclostomata—continued. 


2 | ww ua) 
o | o oe 
q Sg | eos 
|. a Bes 
E se ne 
= —-s x Ce -§ & ms 
= | 83 S23 
n aN =28 
a | 3 Vez 
L = 1D 
| 4 Svs | ai hill oe 
Fam. IT. Tubuliporide—cont. 
Stomatopora. | 
227 expansa? Hincks . . Ww. | 
228 incurvata, Hinchs Ww. | 
229 diastoporides, Vorman . 
230 compacta, Vorman | 
231 incrassata, Smitt . s. 
232 deflexa, Couch zt Rose. 
233 fungia, Couch 8. : 
234 fasciculata? Hincks w.? 
Tubulipora, Zamk. 
235 lobulata, Hassall . Ss. W.N | st 
236 flabellaris, Fabric. 8. 1 38 
237 fimbria, Lamk. | N. 
Idmonea, Zama. 
238 atlantica, Yurbes . * W.? 
239 a tenuis, Busk . 
240 serpens, Linn. * * * * 
241 a radiata, Hinchs 8. 
Entalophora, Zamz. 
242 clavata, Busk | 8. W. 
Diastopora (pt.), Lama. 
243 patina, Lamk. 3% * *# Hl. # 
244 obelia, Johnst. ; - 3H % * 
245 Sarniensis, Wurman . é | 8. #7 
246 suborbicularis, Hincks . 3. W. x W. 
Fam. Horneride 
| Hornera, Lame. 
247 lichenoides, Linn. ; * 3 
248 violacea, Sa7's ‘ 
Fam. Lichenoporide | 
| 
Lichenopora, Defrance ) 
249 hispida, Fleming . : - jS.N.W.) * | * 
250 a meandrina, Peach . | 
251 B 
252 radiata, Audouin . rst * 
253 verrucaria, Fabric. * 
254 regularis, D’Orb. . 
Domopora, D’ Orb. | 
255 stellata, Goldfuss . E ; | is 
256 truncata, Jameson 


Shetland, 
Orkney, &e. 


or 


KK Kk OK 


aK 


* 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 621 
Polyzoa (Bryozoa) of Scandinavia. F. A. Surv. 
a 
Belg us 
fa Seis | 8 
4H | fe |es| 2 
as — a Zo |42| 3 — | 
n fey 3S N 
a | 2s [3°] 2 | | 
A | 25 |g | a | 
gesibe a 3 
I. CHEILOSTOMATA | | 
1 | Atea, Lame. | 
anguina, Zinn. 1 * | 
a spathulata : 1 * | 
Brecta, Smitt . SS ee % | 
2  Eucratea, Zamz. 
 Cellularia (Menipea, Pt.) 
| ternata, Sol. . 13 * | | 
forma duplex, Smitt { a rains Bria 
reptans, Linn. 19 1,2 = Scrupocellaria (pt.) 
scruposa, Linn. 15 1,2 | 
22 | Gemellaria, Savigny 
loricata, Linn. F vf * * 
16 Bicellaria, Blain. 
ciliata, Linn. . : | 22 
17 | Bugula, Oken 
avicularia, Zinn. . 24 
a flabellata . 26 
eat 7 |; =B. purpurotincta, 
B fastigiata.  . 312 | * | { ‘Nor. 
Murrayana, Johnst. 32 * | * | 
29 | Flustra, Zinn. | 
membranacea, Linn. 532 | = Membranipora, id. ? 
securifrons, Pail. 41 % | | } 
papyrea, Pall. 41 | | 
foliacea, Linn. 39 * | 
47 | Cellaria, Zamz. 
fistulosa, Zinn. 36 | 
32 | Membranipora, Blainv. | 
lineata, Zinn. 55 * | | 
a craticula, Alder 56 
B sophie, Bush 
y americana, D’ Ord, 
arctica, D’ Orb. 
Flemingii, Busk . i fh tas x 
a trifolium, Wood 69 * | * 
pilosa, Zinn. . .| 49 *? | 
amonostachys . aul) 4G | 
B catenularia, Jam. 48 
y membranacea, Mull. | 53 | 
| Escharipora (= Cribrlina, pt. 
punctata, Hass. . 82 * 
| annulata, Fabric. 84 | 4% 
| Porina, D’ Orb. 
Malusii, Awd. . 92 
ciliata, "Pail. : 90 | 
Escharella (=Smittia, His. | 
Legentilii, Aud. 175 * 
Jacotini, Aud. 180 * 
linearis, Hass. ‘ 114? 
a biaperta . 121 


622 REPORT—1885. 


Polyzoa (Bryozoa) of Scandinavia—continued. 


oast 


1, Southern and 
Scandinavian 
( 


British List 
2, Middle Norway 
| Spitzbergen 


| 
| 
| 


I. CHEILOSTOMATA —cont. 


| 
8 | Mollia, D’ Orb (pt.Hippothoa) | 
hyalina, Linn. > . | 134 
a divaricata A . | 145 
74 | Myriozoum 
crustaceum, Smitt . 
subgracilis, D’ Orb. 
65 | Lepralia, Johnst. 
hippopus, Smitt 
64 Eschara 
cervicornis, Pall. . - | 168 
elegantula, D’Orb. . ‘ 
68 | Escharoides, J/.-Hdw. 


Sarsii, Smitt . z 
| Discopora 
coccinea, Abildg. . . | 193 
a ovalis, Hass. . 2 | 
Skenii, Sol. . ° at OF 


83 | Cellepora, Fabric. 
ramulosa, Linn. . ‘ | 
atuberosa, D’Orb. . | 
Celleporaria 
incrassata, Zam. . at 

57 | Retepora, Imper. 
cellulosa, Zinn. 


axotopachys . ° | | 


j 
} 
| | 
i 


Polyzoa (Cheilostomata) of Nova Zembla and the Mouth of the River Yenisi 
(Kara Sea). F. A. Smrrt, March 1878. 


| = | D > 
r= | = A —} 
one: — a | oh [es Gel 
Z Ze | a 
) s Seer Tenall wens 2 
= 6 | 28] s 5 
a) ge 32) i 
| 1 lh ees 3 4 

I. CHEILOSTOMATA, Busk . 

29 | Flustra | 
| membranaceo-truncata, Smitt a | severt le ae aan 
papyrea, Pal. . : - 5 - I glen xe | 

34 Biflustra 

abyssicola, Savs . - : a | 4 

32 | Membranipora 

lineata, Linn. F ‘ . Mitta! * 
a craticula Ald. - : ; 56 36° Shee * * 
8 unicornis, lem. - 3 , 6L | * |) 4 x 
y americana, D’Orb. . j ? |’ eee ih) tfseae % 
| 17 | Bugula, Oken 
; Murrayana, Bean . » ~ =P aol ae x 8 


* ** Indicate one or more loeatities. 


10* 


74* 


72x 


I. CHEILOSTOMATA—cont. 
Cellularia (= Menipia) 
ternata, HiIl. & Sol. . 
a gracilis, Van Ben. 
B duplex, Smitt . 
Cellularia (= Scrupocellaria) 
scabra, Van Ben. : 
a elongata, Smitt ° 
Peachii, Busk (= Cellularia) . 
Gemellaria 
loricata, Zinn. - F 
Cribrilina, Gray 
punctata, Hass. 
annulata, Fabric. . 
Porellina 
ciliata, Pall. . ; 
Hippothoa 
biaperta, Mich., Bush. 
hyalina, Linn. 
Leieschara ( = Myrizoum) 
-erustacea, Smitt 
subgracilis, D’Orb. 
Cellepora 
ramulosa, Linn. . 
a tuberosa, D’ Orb. 
inecrassata, Linn. 
Escharella (Smittia, pt.) 
pertusa, Busk (=E. porifera, Sm.). 
a majuscula, Sm. (= L. Lands- 
borovii, Ald. ‘ 
palmata, Sars 
Jacotin,Aud.( =E. Legentilii, Aud. ) 
Landsborovii, Johnst. . 


| Eschara, Pallas 


cervicornis, Pall. 

a verrucosa, Bush 

B cervicornis, Pall. 
elegantula, D’ Orb. 
levis, Flem. . 
Beaniana, King (Retepora) 

Discopora (Schizoporella, ) 

sincera, Sm. 
cruenta, Nor. . 
coccinea, Abldg. - 

a Aico ie Hass.( = =Mucronella, 


d.) 
labiata, Boeck 
appensa, Hass. - 
pavonella, Alder . 
scabra, Pabric. - 
plicata 
Skenei, Sol. 
Sarsii, Sm. 
cellulosa, Linn. 
elongata, Sm. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 


British 


121 
134 


206 


156 
172? 


172 
168 
168 
168 
169 
203 


133 
193 
188 


195 


196 


Nova Zembla 


* & 


Polyzoa ( Cheilostomata) of Nova Zembla, §c.—continued. 


Malotsehkin- 
schare 


to 


* 
* x 


HK 


KE 


* 


eK 


* OK OK OK 


* 


# | Beluscha Bay 


623 


Kara Sea 


rs 


* OK OK 


aK 


KK OK ok 


Kk Ok Ok 


624 


REPORT—1885. 


Professor Smitt in the following paper gives a list of localities num- 
bered from 1 to 12. 


CO CONT S Or OD DD 


Waideguba = Ajdde-Wuodna in peninsula Ribatschki. 
Bumanni (1. Bumands. 

Skarfberget. 

. Subowki. 

. Kola-fjovden (sinu Kola). 

. Semiostrowa. 

. Litza. 

. Kouglaja-juba. 

. Ladigino. 


10. Bolschoj-Kletnij. 
a 
12. Lumbowski. 


Swiatox-Nos. 


Polyzoa (Bryozoa) in the Arctic Ocean. Kola Peninsula. 


F. A. Sirt, Sept. 1878. 


| 
| 
British 


29 


32 


| 37 


10x 


Flustra 
membranaceo-truncata, Sm. ; 1 12 
securifrons, Pall. . : 5 ‘ 41 1 + 

Biflustra 
arctica, D’Orb. . ‘ : 12 

| Membranipora 

cymbyaformis, Hincks . ; F 1 if 12 

lineata, Zinn. é . aia 55 


catenularia, Jameson . 2 : 48 


pilosa, Linn. , . ; : 49 
| Mollia, D’ Orb. : : : : 
Flemingii, Busk . ; , 3 66 


Bugula, Oken 
Murrayana, Bean ; ‘ . 322\7 1,2 3) GPP FHS, LO ee 
quadridentata, Zoven . F F 4 7 
avicularia, Zinn. . : ' : 24 4 

Cellularia (Menipea) . 5 
ternata, Sol. . - 13 1 


scabra, Van Ben. . 5 3 5 17 1,3 
_ Gemellaria 
loricata, Zinn. . - A : ff 12 
Caberea | 
Ellisii, #lem. 5 ‘ E » | 20 ih 8} 5, 6 7,8 9 
| Cribrilina 
punctata, Hass. . : : -| 82 4 | 


I. CHEILOSTOMATA 1 2 3 4 


a craticula, Ald. - : 56 1,4 
B lineata, Ald. . : P ; 1,6 
y sophie, Busk . ‘ 1,3 (pee) 11 12 
5 unicornis, Ald. . ; ; 12 
e americana, D’ Orb. ‘ : 12 


7,9 11 12 
7,9 


a membranace, Mull. 


mem OD 


a trifolium, Wood . ‘ 2 69 9 


is 

a arctica, Bush : = eracilis, Sm.. NS} 4, 
(Scrupocellaria) 

4 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 625 


Polyzoa (Bryozoa) in the Arctic Ocean—continued. 


e 
a 
I. CHEILOSTOMATA—cont. “ : 4 
Cribrilina 
annulata, Yadric. . ‘ : : 84 i 
Porella 
ciliata, Pall. : F A : 90] 1,4 tee tlelO Pee: 
Anarthropora 
minuscula, Sm. . ; 
(=Lep. tubulosa, Nor.) f) 206: | LS sf % 
Hippothoa 
auriculata, Hass. . : 3 . | 125 12 
linearis, Hass. : * . | 104 12 
biaperta, Mich., Bush . rH é el eal il 9 12 
secundaria, Sm. ‘ ; 3 1B 4,7 9,10 
hyalina, Linn. ‘ : . | 184 1,4 7,9 11 12 
a divaricata, Lame. 1 7,9 10 
74x | Leischara (=Myriozoum) 
crustacea, Sm. . ' : : 9 10, 11 12 
coarctata, Sars. : : : 1 6,7 
83 | Cellepora 
ramulosa, Linn. . 2 ; . | 206 

a tuberosa, D’Orb. . ‘ Alaa 1,3 4,7 

incrassata, Zinn. . : ‘ : 1, 2,3 | 4, 5,6 (ote yakosalit 
Escharella 

pertusa, Hsper., Busk . . . | 156 1,3 4,6,7 | 8,10 

porifera, Sm. ht ee ee 1,4 6,7 | 9,11 

palmata, Sars. ‘ : 2 5 

Jacotina, Aud., Sm. : 

a Legentilia, Aud. . . 9 
Landsborovii, Johnst. . ; nfl il Sy Tl 4,7 9, 10 
mucronata, Sm. . , : ; 10 

Lepralia 
hippopus, Sm. . : : . | 159 | 1,3 9, 10 ll 
spathulifera, Sm... .  . 1,3 4,7 
64 | Eschara 
cervicornis, Pall. . , : . | 168 

a verrucosa, Thomp. . 3 1,3 4,6 7 11, 12 

B patens, Sm. . : P 5 1 6 7 12 

y constiformis, Sm. . 3 , 1, 2,3 4,5 6,7 9,11 

5 erecta, Sm. . : : j eo 4 7 11 
elegantula, D’ Orb. : : 7 
levis, lem. . 3 4 : ..| 169 

a concinna, Busk . ¢ 1,2 3,4 7,9 10 
Beaniana, King (= Retepora) . | 2038 5 

72% Discopora 
sincera, Sim. . ‘ é : : 7 
cruenta, Vorm. . : ‘ . | 133 4 
megastoma, Busk (ire) 10 
stenostoma, Sm. . : i : 4 
coccinea, Abild. . , ‘ . | 193 

a Peachii, Johnst. . a . | 181? 4 

B ventricosa, Hass. . . . | 188 | 1,3,4 | 6,7 9,10 

¥ ovalis, Hass. . - 3 : 4 10 
labiata, Boeck . ; ; : 5,7 
Skenei, Sol. . , ; ? . | 197 4 5 
pavonella, Alder . : : . | 195 1 5 
scabra, Fabric. . ‘ P i 1,4 6,7 |8,9,12 


1885. ss 


626 REPORT—1885. 
Polyzoa (Bryozoa) in the Arctic Ocean—continued. 
a 
= wi = 
ra) 
I, CHEILOSTOMATA—cont, i a : : 
Discopora 
plicata, Sm. . 
= (Cellepora bilaminata, Hhs. 2) 1, 8,4 1S; 258 aie ee 
Sarsii, Sm. 
(= Lep. radiatula, Hincks 2 6 ds Door tPOaetd 
contigua, Sm. 4, 245: |! MEG 9,10 
rosacea, Busk 170 4,6 7,9 
cellulosa, Zinn., Bush . is 33 4,5 6,7 9 
elongata, Sm. 1,3 6 
1881. 8S. W. Ridley on Polyzoa, Franz Josef Land. 
a a = 
o — Nn 
= e 2°) 35] es | ¢ 
a a ae a 
I. CHEILOSTOMATA 
Fam. II. Eucratiide 
22 Gemellaria loriculata, Pallas . 7 x + * 
Fam. III. Cellulariide 
10 Menipea arctica, Bush * 
12 | Scrupocellaria scabra, Van Ben. 17 * * 
Fam. IV. Bicellaride 
17 | Bugula Murrayana, Johnst. 32 
Var. fruticosa, Pack. 33? 
Fam. VII. Flustride 
30 Flustra carbasea, ZZ. and Sol. 44 * 
29 securifrons, Pallas 41 * 
Fam, VIII. Membraniporide 
82 | Membranipora sophie, Busk . * * 
craticula, Alder. 56 * * * 
Fam. Porinide 
Anarthropora monodon, Smitt 106 
74 Myriozoum subgracile, Smitt . * * * 
crustaceum, Smitt * % 
712 Schizoporella cruenta, Wor. 133 
Fam. XIV. Escharide 
Porella concinna, Busk 163 * 
=P. levis, Sm. > - 169 
70 Mucronella ventricosa, Hass. é 188 
Var. connectens, Ridley 
68 Escharoides Sarsii, Smitt * * ® 


Cry 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 627 


8. O. Rivtey. Franz Josef Land. 


n a 
a a= == = 
eB aS a” a 
a ‘ ea) 
II. CYCLOSTOMATA. 
Crisia denticulata, Zamk. . f 4 7 é 221 
Lichenopora verrucaria, Fabr. . ‘ : eig| (as * * * 


Heteropora pelliculata, Waters 


Polyzoa of the North Polar Expedition (Capt. H. W. Feilden). 
Georce Busx, F.R.S. 


= re 
"a = 
a ae = = 3 
a) es) = 
Cellularide, Busk 
10 | Menipea, Zamz. . - < 3 ; : 
gracilis, Busk . i - F . : : x 
12 | Scrupocellaria, Van Ben. ‘ : | 
scabra, Van Ben. . 5 - 2 : ia) eee ® 
Fam. Bicellariide, Busz: 
17 | Bugula, Oken : : : 5 ay 
Murrayana, Johust. . . : : : : 32 * 
a fruticosa, Packard : S : wer eosH * 
Fam. Flustride 
29 | Flustra, Zinn.? ‘ British M. Cat.’ * 
serrulata, Bush 3 * 
Fam. Membraniporide 
32 | Membranipora, Blainv.. 
unicornis, Alder 
Fam. Escharide, Busk 
74 |Myriozoum, Donati 7 : : : ? 
coarctatum, Savs . - ‘ : : a | * 
a subgracile, D’ Orb. 
64 | Eschara (Bush, op. cit.) 
elegantula, D’ Orb. 
perpusilla, Busk * * 
Sarsii, Smitt . * * 
Hemeschara, Busk | 
sincera, Smitt . : ‘ : < : 
a inermis, Busk . F A ‘ jd i * 


Landborovii, Johnst. . : Met P 172 
= Smittia, Hincks 3 : P 
Fam. Celleporide 


83 | Cellepora, Fabric. . ° 
cervicornis, Busk . 


Ed 


ss2 


Polyzoa of Barrent’s Sea. 


Genera only 
in Report 


63 


72 


78% 


70 


64 


83 


REPORT— 1885. 


Described by Mr. Hincxs for publication in 
Mr. D’Urpan’s Report on the Zoology of Barrent’s Sea (Polyzoa col- 
lected by W. J. A. Grant), ‘ Annals,’ October 1880, pp. 272-275. 


British 


I, CHEILOSTOMATA, Bush 


Gemellaria loricata, Zinn. 5 . if 
Cellularia Peachii, Busk . : 5 12 
13 


Menipia ternata, HZ. and Sol. . 


var. gracilis, Smitt 


Bugula Murrayana, Johnst. 


Flustra, Linn. 


membranaceo-truncata, Smitt 
Membranipora, Blainv. 


monostachys, Bush 
craticula, Alder . 
sophie, Bush 
arctica, Smitt 
Microporella, Hincks 
ciliata, Pallas 
Porina, D’ Orbigny 
tubulosa, Vorman 
Myriozoum, Donati . 
subgracile, D’ Orb. 


\Schizoporella, Hinchks 


sinuosa, Busk 
plana, Danson 


hyalina, Zinn. 
Phylactella? Hineks 
grandis, Hincks . 
Mucronella, Hincks . 
scutulata, Busk . 
simplex, Hincks . 
Eschara, Pallas 


solida, Stimpson 


glabra, Hinchks . 
Cellepora, Fabric. 
striatula, Hincks. 


II, CYCLOSTOMATA, Busk 


Crisia eburneo-denticulata, Smitt 
Diastopora obelia, Johnst. 


Hornera (sp.), Lame. 


Lichenopora verrucaria, Fabric. 


32 


105 


Barrent’s 
Sea 


x Ok OK OK 


% OK OK OK 


{ 


Menipea gracilis, 
Bush 


. | 
=Myriozoum crusta- | 


ceum, Smitt 


New sp. 


New sp. 


= Flustra, id. Stimp- 
son 

= E. palmata, Sars 

= Escharella palmata, 
Smitt 

New sp. 


New sp.? 


| 


| 


~ Arey 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 


Bryozoa. Scandinavia. 


SMIrr. 


629 


Pt. IL. 


II. CYCLOSTOMATA. 


Crisia, Zama:. 


cornuta, Linn. = Filicrisia, D’ Orb. 
8B cornuta=Crisidia, D’ Orb. 
eburnea, Zinn.=Crisia, D’ Orb. 


denticulata, Zam. 
Diastopora, Zam., M.-Hdw. 
repens= Alecto, Busk 
simplex, Bush 
hyalina . : 
a obelia, Johnst. 
B latomarginata, D’ Orb. 
patina, LZamk. - 
a radiata 
Mesenteripora, Blainv. 
meandrina, Wood . 
Idmonea (sub-genus) 
Tubulipora, Zamk. 
atlantica, Forbes 
a erecta, Sm. 
fenestrata, Busk 
serpens . és 
a erecta, Sm. . i 
Phalangella, Gray (sub- -gentus) 
palmata, Wood . ‘ 
fimbria, Zam. 
flabellaris, Faby. 
Proboscina, Aud. (sub-genus) 
incrassata, D Orb. : 
aerecta . 
8 serpens . - 
penecillata, Fubr. . 
Hornera, Lamz. 
lichenoides, Zinn. 
Discoporella, Gray 
verrucaria, Linn. . 
crassiuscula, Sm. . 
hispida, Flem. 
Frondipora, Blainv. 
reticulata, Zinn. . 
Corymbopora, Mich. 
fungiformis, Sm. 
Defrancia 
lucernaria, Sars 


British 


216 


238 


253 


Domopora, id., Report 


630 REPORT—1885., 


Cyclostomata of Nova Zembla and Mouth of the River Yeniset (Kara Sea) 


Smitt. 


II, CYCLOSTOMATA. 
Crisia 
eburnea, Linn. A 
a producta, Sm. . ; 
B eburneo-producta, Sm. 
vy denticulato-producta, Sm. 
5 denticulata, Zinn. 
Diastopora 
repens, Wood . 
simplex, Bush . 
hyalina, Fem. 
intricaria, Sm. . 
Tubulipora 
fimbria, Zam. . 
incrassata, D’ Orb. 
incrassata-fungia, Sm. 
fungia, Couch . 
atlantica, Yorbes 
Defrancia 
lucernaria, Sars 
Entalophora 
deflexa, Couch . 
Hornera 
violacea, Sars . 
a proboscina, Sy. 
lichenoides, Zinn. 
Lichenopora 
verrucaria, Linn. 


Bryozoa. Arctic Ocean. 


II, CYCLOSTOMATA. 


Crisia, Zamz. : ns 
eburnea, Zinn. 
a producta, Sm. 
B eburneo-producta 
y denticulata 
Diastopora 
repens, Wood 
simplex, Bush . 
diastoporides, Worm. 
hyalina, lem. 
intricaria, Sm. . 
Tubulipora 
palmata, Wood 


Pt. II. 
= | 
q | be 4 eee 
= N SS a 3 
a 3 Sey 5 
5 ic} ce) i 
A =| 
218 * * * * 
220 
x 
* * 
221 * 
224 * 
246 * 
245? x % * 
* 
237 * 
231 % % * 
* 
233 * 
238 * * * 
* 
* 
* 
247 * * 
253 * % * 
Kolo Peninsula. Smirt. Pt. IT. 
g 
‘2 
==) 
Ae he 3 4 
218 1 8 
219 1 
1 
221 4 
4 {f 
1 6, 7 9, 11 ule} 
229 1 
4,7 1,12 
5 
1,4 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 631 


Bryozoa. Arctic Ocean. Kolo Peninsula—continued. 


British 


II, CYCLOSTOMATA—cont. 


Tubulipora 
fimbria, Zam. . A : A . | 237 1,4? 7 
flabellaris, Fabric. . : : . | 236 5 oe 
incrassata, D’Orb. . ‘ ‘ ; 231 1,4 8,9 
serpens, Linn. : : - . | 240 7 
atlantica, Forbes . ‘ : . | 238 1,3 5, 6 7,8 

Defrancia 
lucernaria, Sars - : : , 4 

Coronopora 
truncata, Jameson . 5 4 f 256 4 

Hornera 
lichenoides, Zinn... 4 E 247 1,4 5 

Lichenopora 
verrucaria, Linn. . ; ; . | 253 1,3 4,7 11 12 
crassiuscula, Sm. . 3 : 2 : 9 


III. CTENOSTOMATA. 


Alicyonidium - ‘ : : 
gelatinosam, Zinn. . : : 5 5 
papillosam, Hass. . : : z 1,4 | 

Vesicularia 
uva, Linn. - E : - : ; 12 


A. North Atlantic Region. Between parallels 70° W. and 20° E. 
Bathymetrical Distribution, ‘ Challenger.’ 


: E ; i ; 
at sa| 2s |22|24| s4|s4|Es| 288 
3 & nas Fo|So|Be/82|eS|s8|/as| 238 
= CSIlRE/AR [eel] sese|/a az] ose 
om alae |/oe|ae|/*Si7Sla oss 
ids) a nN 1 ar 
28 | Farciminariadelicatissima| x * * 
gracilis 5 : ; * B. 
atlantica  . ; : * 
17 | Bugula reticulata 
var. unicornis . : * * 
mirabilis . : ; * 
leontodon . = . * 
versicolor . : : * 
neritina . c : ° * 
18 | Kinetoskias cyathus : * 
45 | Bifaxaria reticulata : * * 
minuta : 5 7 uy 
47 | Salicornaria magnifica * B.C 
76 | Tessaradoma boreale * * 
13 | Canda simplex * 
10 | Menipea clausa : * 
14 | Nellia simplex 4 : * 
12 | Scrupocellaria Macandrei * * 
9 | Cellularia biloba . * 
80 | Carbusea pedunculata . “% * 


26 | Brettia cornigera . . * 


632 REPORT—1885. 


A. North Atlantic Region—continued. 


5 Slot | of lea a = rag 
ae ge | 2a | 28 | 23 | 23 \s| bs) se 
2s =Pa 68 |28 |S8|Ss|Ss|8E|ZE| se 
3 ace | ta) "=| S| “|e See 
4| Pasytheaeburnea .. * B. 
3 | Hippothoa divaricata . * C. 
32 | Membranipora albida_. % D. 
galeata ; 3 | 
var. multifida * B. 
88 | Micropora coriacea . * 
81 | Adeonella distoma . * 
57 | Retepora Imperati . * * 
atlantica . , * 
60 | Cribrilliina radiata . * 
62 | Flustramorpha hastigera . * 
69 | Smittia oratavensis . * 
Jacobensis . ° : * 
70 | Mucronella canalifera * 
83 | Cellepora ansata * 
ovalis . > : * 
canaliculata § = * 
67 | Porella levis 
var. subcompressa * 
64 | Eschara elegantula * 
1 | Aetea anguina . * Cc. D.G. 
81 | Diachoris hirtissima * 
84 | Cupularia Owenii : * 
8 | Catenaria diaphana . : * 
49 | Tubucellaria opuntioides . * 


PART II. 


MEDITERRANEAN AND Sours Atiantic Recions. 


Polyzoa (Bryozoa) of the Bay of Naples and other Mediterranean Forms, 
A. W. Warers, Esq., F.G.S.; Dr. Manzoni; Prof. Cam. HELLER. 


CHELOSTOMATA 


Fam. Aeteide 


1 | Aetea, Zama. 
recta, Hincks . “ 2 *W 


Fam. Eucratiide 


2 | Eucratea, Lamz. 


chelata, Linn. . A + x? 
Lafontii, Aud. . s *xWi| * 
Cordieri, Aud. . x 2 x2.) x 


Fam. Cellulariide 
12 | Scrupocellaria, Van Ben. 


scruposa, Zinn. . - 15 | xWw] x * 
scrupea, Busk . : 18 |xw] * * 
reptans, Zinn. . 5 19 |xw] * ? 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 633 


Polyzoa (Bryozoa) of the Bay of Naples, §:c.—continued. 


Brit. 
B. Nap 
Adr. 
Aig. or 
Med 
Red § 
| 


Fam. Cellulariidee—cont. 
15 | Caberea, Zamz. 
Boryi, Aud. . -| 22 |*xwy x * 
Fam. Bicellariide 
17 | Bugula, Oken 


avicularia, Zinn. : 24 |*xWwt x 
flabellata, J. V.Thomp.| 26 | *w} * 

=? joy 
plumosa, Pail. . a|) 28 x? | x { rae ae eae 


20 | Beania, Johnst. 
mirabilis, Johnst. ! 34 | *W ]x= 
47 | Cellaria, Zama. (part) 


fistulosa, Zinn. . 5 36 *Wwi| * * 
Flustra, Linneus 
securifrons, Pall. 5 A eee! *Wi x * 
papyrea, Pall. . : *W | x 
81 | Diachoris, Busk 
atellaria, Moil., 
Pe Waiaes } TW oo 
multijuncta, Waters . *W | x? 
magellanica, Busk . *W | * 
Fam. Membraniporiide 
82 | Membranipora, Blainv. 
Lacroixii, Awd. . . 45 * 
catenularia, Jameson . 48 2 * 
pilosa, Linn. . ee, 2 * * 
membranacea, Linn. . 53 x*W| x | 
lineata, Linn. . P 55 * 
Dumerilii, Aud. -| 62 *? 
?Flemingii, Busk . 66 x ?M. tenuirostris, H. 
Rosselii, Aud. . : 2 * 
angulosa, Reuss. A *W 


gregaria? Heller, } 
Waters . . 


Fam. Microporide 


Steganoporella, Sm.! 
impressa, Moll. ag 


cropora, W.) 762 | *w | x 


Fam. Cribrilinide 


60 | Cribrilina, Gray 
radiata, Moll. . 2PiZs * * * 


figularis, Johnst. ¢ |) «85 * 
Gattyx, Busk . q 86 *Wil x ) 
cribrosa, Heller . Z *W | 


Fam. Microporellide 


63 | Microporella, Hincks 
ciliata, Pallas . i 90 * * 
Malusii, Aud. . 3 92 * * x 


1 Eschara impressa (Moll.) is a Steganoporella (Hincks, p. 215, note). 


634 REPORT—1885. 


Polyzoa (Bryozoa) of the Bay of Naples, §:c.—continued. 


3 = ahs sue 
= mots & 3 
Fam. Microporellide—cont. 
Microporelia 
impressa, Moll. . - 95 
var. a, Hincks, 
Moll., Waters . } 96 | *Ww 
violacea, Johnst. 5 |} 88) * * 
Diporula, Hincks 
verrucosa, Peach - | 102 * 
66 | Chorizopora, Hincks 
Brongniartii, Aud. . | 103 * * * 
Fam. Porinida(pt.), D’ Orb. 
Porina, D’ Orb. 
cereoides ( Wat., Bay 
of Nap. 5 } 7 
Fam. Myriozoide, Smitt 
72 | Schizoporella, Hincks 
unicornis, Johnst, . | 108 * * 
spinifera, Johnst. . | 110 | ¥= | 
vulgaris, Moll. . op eZ * | * | 
linearis, Hass. . . | 114 * * 
vy nitida, Hincks . | 117? 
sanguinea, Vorman . | 119 | xw 
auriculata, Hass. . | 112 | «w x 
var. 8 cuspidata . | 127 | *? 
Cecilii, Aud. . . | 1382 |) x 
62x | Mastigophora, Hincks 
Dutertrei, Aud. 5 nila * 
Hyndmanni, Johnst. . | 
var. porosa, Pourtalés x? 
54? | Schizotheca, Hincks 
fissa, Bush . . | 143 * 
3 | Hippothoa, Zama. 
divaricata, Zama. . | 145 * 
flagellum, Manzoni . | 150 * 
Fam. Escharide (pt.) 
Smitt 
65 | Lepralia, Johnst. (pt.) 
Pallasiana, Moll. - | 151 | xwl x * 
foliacea, Hilisand Sol. | 153 x % * 
var. a fasciales, | 
Waters i ig 
pertusa, Hsper. . - | 156 * 
adpressa, Bush . - | 157 * 
78? | Umbonula, Hincks 


verrucosa, Lsper. . | 162 += 
67 | Porella, Gray 
concinna, Busk . . | 163 += 
69 | Smittia, Hincks 
reticulata, Macgil. . | 175 * x 
trispinosa, Johnst. . | 180 * . 
70 | Mucronella, Hincks 


(= Discopora, Sm. pt.) 
Peachii, Johnst. « | 185 += 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 635 


Polyz0a (Bryozoa) of the Bay of Naples, §e.—continued. 


2 Z w | Sg [a 
= = ed : GI eh 3 — 
A la |* | ae le 
Fam. Escharide— cont. 
Mucronella 

ventricosa, Hass.  NGLBS * Manz 

variolosa, Johnst. . | 189 x= 

coccinea, Abildg. . | 193 * 

57 | Retepora, Imperato 
Couchii, Hincks . | 204 > « 
cellulosa . F : *xW 
Fam. Celleporide 

83 | Cellepora, abr. pt. 
pumicosa, Linn. . | 205 * * 
Costazii, Aud. . . | 212 * * 
verruculata - - *W 


Cyclostomata, Bay of Naples, A. W. Watrrs. Adriatic Sea. (See 


Bibliography.) 
2|24| 4 net 
a | 24] 3 
Crisia cornuta, Zinn. 3 : . | 216] x rare 
producta, Smitt . Z 3 . | 220) x rare 
fistulosa, Heller . * * 
elongata, I.-Hd. * * =C. attenuata, Heller 
var. angustata, Wat. ; : * 
denticulata, Zamz. . : . | 221 * * 
eburnea, Linn. . ; ; .| 218 | x * 
recurva, Heller . . * 
Idmonea atlantica, Forbes . .| 238] * ai 40 fath. Only 
one piece 
marionensis, Busk * 
irregularis, Menegh. * * 
Meneghinii, Heller * * 
triforis, Heller * * 
concava, Reuss . * 
frondosa, Heller * 
gracilis, Heller . * These are given by Heller 
serpula, Heller . : * (non Waters) 
tubulipora, Heller . : * 
Tubulipora serpens, Linn. , . | 240 | «x * = Obelia tubulifera, Heller 
— be i i 
phalangea, Cowh . «. «| 236| x % { 1 shes nappa a 
incrassata, D’Orb. . , . | 231 * =Stomatopora, Hincks 
; | ae = Discosparsa compla- 
Diastopora latomarginata, D’Orb. . * x { nate: Eells 
flabellum, Reuss . 3 . | 246] x 
Obelia, Johnst. . 5 : . | 244 * * 
? Stomatopora dilatans, 
Alecto repens, Wood * { ‘Hineks 
var. a, Waters. - ‘ * 
cl =Stomatopora granu- 
parasita, Heller. . . «| 223 * { lata, Hinoki 
Entalophora proboscide, Vorbes  . * * Pustulopora, id., Heller 
deflexa, Couch . . F . | 24227) x * Pr deflexa, Heller 


rugosa, D’Orb. . ‘ - . * 


636 REPORT—1885 


Cyclostomata, Bay of Naples—continued. 


a) 5 
s no] — 
2A) ee 


British 
Bay of 


Hornera frondiculata, Zama. . 


54 


Filisparsa tubulosa, Busk oe ¥ ce eee or: 


Discoporella radiata, Aud. . ./| 252] x { =D iene Paes, 
verrucaria, Fabr. , F P * 
hispida, Flem. . 5 : = ee 
mediterranea, Blainv. 3 : * 

Radiopora pustulosa, D’ Orb. # 

Reticulipora dorsalis, Waters . * 

Frondipora verrucosa, Lama. . * 

Myriozoum truncatum, Don. . © * 


Madeira Species of Polyzoa. Grorce Busk, Esq., F.L.8., and 
Rey. THomas Hincxs. 


Busk 
Hincks 
Medit 


Fam. Aetide, Hincks 

1 | Aetea, Zama. . A : 
recta, Hincks : Fs 2 * %* 
truncata, Landsb. 3 


Fam. Eucratiide 


2 | Eucratea, Lame. : . 
Lafontii, Aud. Z ; * * 


Fam. Cellularide 
12 | Scrupocellaria 


scabra, Van Ben. j i 17 | x =§8. Delilii, Bush 
Maderensis, Bush. * 
Macendrei, Busk . * 
diaphana, Busk * = Scruparia, id. Busk 
Fam. Bicellariide 
17 | Bugula, Oken . : 
avicularia, Linn. . . | 242 * * 
gracilis, Bush ; - 4 29'2) (ere 
ditrupa, Busk * 


Fam. Cellariide 
47 | Cellaria, Zamzx. . : : 
Johnsoni, Busk . 5 38 * 
Fam. Flustride 
29 | Flustra, Zinn. . F . 
ligulata, Busk F A * =Carbasea, id. Busk 
Fam. Membraniporide 


82 | Membranipora, Blainw. 
tuberculata, Bosc. 5 * 


60 


61 


63 


66 


72 


65 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 


637 


Madeira Species of Polyzoa—continued. 


Fam. Membraniporide—cont. 


Membranipora 
trichophora, Bust 
antiqua, Busk 
Lacroixii, Awd. . 
lineata, Zinn. ° 
calpensis, Busk . 
Rosselii, Awd. - 
sceletos, Busk 6 
Dumerilii, Awd. 
tenuirostris, Hincks 
nodulifera, Hincks 
crassimarginata, Hinecks 
granulifera, Hineks . 


Fam. Microporide 


Setosella, Hincks ‘ 
vulnerata, Busk . 


Fam. Cribrilinide 
Cribrilina, Gray. A 
radiata, Moll. - 


punctata, Hass. . 
Membraniporella 
nitida, Johnst. - 


Fam. Microporellide 


Microporella, Hincks . 
decorata, Reuss . 
Malusii, Awd. 

Chorizopora, Hincks 
Brongniartii, Aud. 


Fam. Myriozoide, Smitt 


Schizoporella, Hincks 
sanguinea, Vorman 
biaperta, Michelin 
auriculata, Hass. . 
armata, Hincks . > 
venusta, Vorman . 
discoidea, Busk . 
vulgaris, Moll. 
unicornis, Johnst. . 

Mastigophora, Hincks 
Dutertrei, Aud. . . 
Hyndmanni, Johnst. . 


Fam. Escharide 


Lepralia, Johnst. (pt.) 
Pallasiana, Moll. . 
Kirchenpaueri, Heller . 

Var. teres, Hincks 
adpressa, Busk . 
pertusa, sper. . 


Brit. 


77 


78 


88 


92 


157 
156 


4) 4|4 
2-| # | 3 ed 
gi Uo | 
* 
* 
* * 
* * 
x 
* * 
* * Lepralia, id. Busk 
? L. Pouellelii, Busk 
* * | =M. Flemingii, Waters 
* 
x 
* 
* 
‘ 7 ‘ { = Lepralia, id. Bush, & 
L. innominata, Johnst 
* 
* 
* Near M. violacea, Johnst. 
* * 
* 
* * 
* 
* * 
* 
x 
* Lepralia, id. Busk 
* * | =L. alba, Hincks, Busk 
* * 
¥ * | =L. Woodiana, Busk 
* x 
* * 
x 
* x 
* * 


638 REPORT—1885. 


Madeira Species of Polyzoa—continued. 


| 
| 
Brit. 


Fam. Escharidze—cont. 


67 | Porella, Gray 
nitidissima, Hincks 
concinna, Busk . . | 263 
69 | Smittia, Hincks 
marmorea, Hincks 2 (88 
Phylactella, Hincks : 
labrosa, Busk : . | 182 
lucida, Hincks 


Fam. Celleporide 


83 | Cellepora, Fabzv‘ic. . 
Costazii, Aud. 3 =. | 2i2 


ay +s 
3 ° s 
3 8 3 = 
[22] fen] = 
* 
* * | Lepralia, 7d. Busk 
* 
7 | 
* 
* * =C. Hassallii, Busk 


Floridan Bryozoa. T. A. 


See: 


| 


32 (pt.) | Membranipora, Blainv. 
lineata, Linn. (p.7) . | 55 
canariensis, Sm. (p. 10) 

61 (pt.) | Membraniporella (p. 11) . 
Agassizii, Sm. (p. 11). 
nitida, Johnst. (p. 10). | 88 

40 (pt.) | Steganoporella (p. 15) 
elegans, IL.-Hdw. 


Rozieri, Aud. (p. 16) . 
43 (pt.) | Cupularia(p.14) . 

umbellata, Defr.. “ 

domo, D’ Orb. (p. 15) . 

34 Biflustra, D’ Orb. (p. bat : 
Lacroixii - . | 45 
denticulata. 

Savartii, Awd. 


17 (pt.) | Bugula (p. 18). 
avicularia . ; Ay) 25 
60 Cribrilina (p. 22) . : 
radiata, Moll. . ai as 
innominata, Couch. .| 78 
63 Porellina (p. re 
ciliata . A - + 90 
63 Porina (p. 30) . 
violacea : : 4 | 199 
plagiopora . . | 101 
Tessaradoma (p. 32) : 
borealis : . | 104 
Anarthropora . : 
minuscula, Sm. . . | 106 


Mamillopora Ce. oy 
cupula 


Smirt, 1872-3. Pt. IL. 


=| 

oS 

2| 2 = 

S| | 

& | 

| 

* | *  |=Membranipora, id. Wks. 

* 

re | 

* * 

* | =Steganoporella magnila- 

| . brs, BA 

* = Setosella Hks. 

* 

* 

* * 

* | 

* * 

* x |=Bugula flabellata, W. J. 

Thomp. 

* * 

* * 

* * 

* * |=Microporella, id. His. 

* | var. B|= » ” 

* = Porina borealis, Hhs. 

* | *  |=Anarthropora monodon, 
3. 

«| ele | 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 639 


Floridan Polyzoa—coutinued. 


a 
ais] 3 
take als] « 
fe 
4 Gemellipora (p. =H 
eburnea . : * 
glabra. : 
= Var. striatula(p. 37) * * |=Schizoporellavenusta, Hks. 
Hippothoa (pp. 41- iim 
porosa . i . | 142] « * |=Mastigophora Hyndmani, 
Hincks 
Isabellina, D’ Orb. 
biaperta (p. 46) . . | 121] * * |=Schizoporella biaperta, H. 
divergens (p, 47) . [121] * * |= ‘ . 
69 (pt.) | Escharella (p. 54) 
sanguinea Worm. . | 119] * * 


pertusa, Hsper. (p. 55) | 156} * |= Lepralia, id. 
Audouinii, Sm. (p. 56) : 
Landsborovi (p. 60) . | 172] x * |=Smittia Landsborovii, Hzs. 
p. 342 
Jacotina (p. 59) . . | 180| * * |=Smittia trispinosa, His. 
p. 3538 


Lepralia (p. 61) 
inornata . F * 
edax, Bh. (p. 63) - | 160] * x |=Lepralia, id. Wks. p. 311 

57 Retepora (p. 67) - 


marsupiata, Sm. . . * 
reticulata, Pourtalés . * 
70 Discopora (p. 67) . 
albirostris, Sm. (p. 70) * 
83 Cellepora (p. 53) . 
avicularia . - . | 207] « * |=Cellepora dichotoma, ZH. 


p. 403 


The Polyzoa of the Straits of Magellan and Coast of Patagonia, 8c. (‘ Alert’ 
Expedition). Stuart O. Rivrey. 


a 
=I =| = 
2 aia ala|s & lees 
| P| |2 
a a | a a 
Fam. Cellularide 
13 | Canda =? Serupocellaria . 
Sp. Ridley, Victoria Bank * 
Fam. Bicellariide, Hincks 
Chaunosia fragilis, Ridley . Near Beania! ~ 
Fam. Membraniporide 
82 | Membranipora, Blainv. 
Lacroixii, Aud. . 45 * 
curvirostris, Hincks . 60 * 


1 See Hincks ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ Aug. 1881, p. 183. 


640 REPORT—1885. 


The Polyzoa of the Straits of Magellan, §c.—continued. 


British 

Magellan 

Brazilian 

Patagonian 
| 


Fam. Cribrilinide 


60 | Cribrilina, Gray : 
radiata, Moll. é Babe ths: / * 


Fam. Microporellids 


Gigantopora, Ridley . 
lycoides, Ridley . : * 8.0. Ridley believes that 
e Hippothoa fenestrata 
Fam. Porinide (Smitt) should be re- 
Porina, D’Ore: ferred to this genus 


galeata, Busk 


Kk 


Myriozoide, Smitt 


72 | Schizoporella, Hincks 

marsupium, Maegil. 

hyalina, Zinn. . 134 
B incrassata, Hincks . | 136? 
y tuberculata, Hineks | 137? 

spinifera, Johnst.? ey fe in) Tom Bay, S.W. Chili 

sp. Ridley . . Ditto 

labiosa, Bush 3 ‘ % 


= Lepralia, id. Macgil. 


KK KOK 


Fam. Escharide (pt.) Smitt 


65 | Lepralia, Hincks 
monoceros, Busk . 
appresa, Busk ( Ridley) 

var. vinosa, Ridley . Portland Bay, 8.W. Chili 

69 | Smittia, Hincks ‘ F ; 
Landsborovii, Johnst. .| 172 | x 
reticulata, Macgil. oy 175 
affinis, Hincks i Pal ad ide * 
trispinosa, Johnst. . | 180 * 

58?| Rhyncopora, Hincks . ; 
bispinosa, Johnst. . . | 202 * 

57 | Retepora, Imp. . = 
cellulosa, Oken? . 
altisulcata, Ridley : Tom Bay, S.W. Chili 


* 


* 


2k 


Fam, Celleporide 


83 | Cellepora, Yabrie. ; 
tubigere, Bush . sal LO * | Madre de Dios Island 
bilabiata, Busk 
manillata, Busk . : * 
turrita, Smitt 4 é * 
dichotoma, Hincks 


Pn 


bo 
(=) 
a 
* 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 641 
B. South Atlantic Region. From 70° W. to 20° #. 


2,200 to 
1,900 fath. 
600 fath. 
150 to 
70 fath. 
12 to5 
fath. 
Geogra- 
phical dis- 
tribution 


a 

BS 

Bathymetrical Distribution 5 8 
a 


Cellularia crateriformis . * * 
Kinetoskias cyathus ah * 
pocillum . : : ~ 
' Farciminaria magna Ph 138 
var. armata . 5 * | 
cribraria . ; : * 
gracilis - - : * 
brasiliensis : ‘ * 
Bicellaria navicularis : ¥ * 
glabra - 4 : # 
Bugula margaritifera. * 
reticulata . ‘ F * 
versicolor . 4 : * 
Salicornaria magnifica . * * A. C. 
variabilis . . : * 
tenuirostris 4 : * 
dubia . : A c * 
Malvinensis : - * |C.D.G. 
Caberea crassimarginata * 
Darwinii  . J : * * (o} 
minima A 4 ‘ * 
Membranipora galeata 
var. erecta . ; * 
var. multifida ; * 
crassimarginata . 
var. incrustens . * 
Ichyaria oculata . ‘ * * 
Foveolaria elliptica. oH * | D. 
falcifera . s ‘ * 
tubigera . : : * 
Vincularia labiata . é * 
Bifaxaria denticulata . < 
submucronata . 4 * 
corrugata . : : * 
Melicerita atlantica. : * 
dubia . ; , - = 
Retepora Magellensis . * 
tessellata . 3 A * 
var. pubens . : * 
var. czespitosa ; * 
late . F A = * 
Turritigera stellata . - * * 
Cribrilina latimarginata . * 
radiata : 5 . * 
monoceros . : 3 ¥ x |C.D.F. 


QL > 


15 


= Oe 


ee 
3 


labiosa : - 4 
var. fragiles . , * 
Smittia Smittiana . : * 
tenuis : = : j * 
stigmatophora . - * 
Myriozoum immersum . = 
simplex 
Aetea anguina : 
Hippothoa divaricata 
Catenicella elegans . 
sacculata . . 


> 1885. 7? 


* 


aOR 
* OK OK OK 
ob 


642 REPORT—1885. 


B. South Atlantio Region—continued. 


Geogra- 
phical dis- 
tribution 


° 
peicel-@ | 23|2 
. . . . [=] 
Bathymetrical Distribution | FOo|So] = |ST/S 
: osc |as S pei) fs 
DQ) we S rae (hos | 
ive) oO 


Genera in 
Report 


i 
~ 


Scrupocellaria pilosa * 
38 Micropora uncifera . * 
coriacea : * 
Microporella ciliata . ; * 
* 

* 


o> 
i) 


Malusii A ° 
Lepralia incisa ; 
margaritifera . 5 * 
marsupium . 7 5 * 
Chorizopora hyalina 
var. Bougainvillei . * 
Brongniartii ° * 
71 | Aspidostoma ciganteum - * 
72 | Schizoporella auriculata . 
var. alba < ; * 
tenuis : : : * 
nivea . 5 P : eal 
elegans . . : | % 
circincta . ; ¥ 
75 | Haswellia auriculata : 3 a 
81 Adeonellaatlantica. . * 
distoma : 
var. imperforata 3 * 
regularis . . : * 
83 | Cellepora tubulosa . . * 
aspera : : : * 
cylindriformis . ; * 
bicornis . : : * * 
imbellis . ; s * | i 
mamillata . : 1 
var. atlantica : * 
Etonensis . : : * 
Simonensis. : - 7 
conica C . ; * 
4 | Pasythea eburnea 
45 | Bifaxaria corrugata. 
submucronata 
70 | Mucronella castanea : 
contorta . : ; * 
tricuspis. . 2 : * * 
10 | Menipea marionensis. * 
benemunita ‘ i 
flagellifera . : 5 * 
flabellum . : 5 
triseriata : P| 
cirrata : ; at 
aculeata . : “Pit * 
80 | Carbasiaovoidea .. % 
elegans 
77 | Gemellipora glabra . 
cribritheca . : 2 
88 | Amphiblestrum  imbri- 
catum ; 


for} 
an 


a 
o 


* KK OK 


* 


* K KK 


* KOK 


capense. 
56 | Onchoporella bomby cina. 
84 | Cupularia monotrema 

14 Nellia occulata 


* KK K 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 643 


PART III. 
GEOGRAPHICAL RaNnGE oF AUSTRALIAN, Pacrric, AND InpIAN Potyzoa. 


The lists headed A to G compiled from Mr. Busk’s monograph (‘ Chal- 
lenger ’ Report on Polyzoa). 


Australian Polyzoa. P.H. Macaiuuivray, M.A., M.R.C.S. 


The following list of Macgillivray’s Australian species has been com- 
piled for me from various sources—some of which are inaccessible to 
me—by Miss E. C. Jelly. I have arranged the genera, as far as pos- 
sible, in accordance with the present catalogue. 


I. CHEILOSTOMATA, Busk. 


Fam. IV. Catenariade, Bush. 


Gen. 7. Catenicella, Blainville. 
gracilenta, Macgillivray. 


intermedia iy 

Wilsoni re Port Phillip Heads. 
utriculus - 

fusca = 

concinna 


pulchella, Maplestone, Jour. Micro. Soc. Vict. May, 1880 
= C. concinna, Macgil. ? = C. Wilsoni, Macgil. 
amphora, Busk, M‘Coy’s, Decade IX. and Brit. Mus. Cat. pt. I. 
Alisidota (=? Catenaria, Busk, Savigny). 
ciliata, Macgil. ? = C. Wilsoni, Macgil. 


Fam. V. Cellulariade. 
Menipea, Lame. 
cervicornis, Macgil. 
Scrupocellaria, Van Ben. 
obtecta, Haswell. Port Phillip Heads. 
Canda, Lame. 
tenuis, Macgil. 


Fam. VI. Bicellariade. 


Bugula, Oken. Beania 
robusta, Macgil. decumbens, Macgil. 
Beania, Johnston. Wilsoni, Macgil. 


Fam. VIII. Gemellariade. 


Family ( ? Macgil.) 

Urceolipora, Macgil. ? = Ichthyria sp. Busk. 
nana, Macgil. Port Phillip Heads. 
dentata, Macgil. 


Maplestonia, Macgil. (Family P) 
cirrata, Macgil. 
simplex, Macgil. 
Tez 


644 REPORT—1885. 


Fam. XI. Membraniporide. 


Membranipora, Blainville. Membranipora 
acifera, Macgil. porcellana, Macgil. 
flagellum, Macgil. Woodsii, Macgil. 
papulifera, Macgil. dispar, Macgil. 
albispina, Macgil. ciliata, Macgil. 
serrata, Macygil. Biflustra, D’Orb. 
armata, Macgil. perfragilis, Macgil. Port 
bimamillata, Macgil. Phillip Heads. 


Fam. XV, Saticornariade, PBusk. 


Salicornaria Cuvier (Cellaria) Macgil. 
rigida, Macgil. Port Phillip Heads. 
australis, Macgil. 


Fam. XVI. (a.) Porinide, Hincks. 


Lagenipora, Hincks. 
tuberculata, Macgil. 


Fam. XVI (b.) Myriozoide, Hincks. 


Rhynchopora, Hincks. 
profunda, Macgil. 

Porina, D’ Orb. 
magnirostris, Macgil. Port Phillip Heads. 
gracilis, Lamk. 3 Py 


Fam. XVIII. Reteporide, Busk. 


Retepora, Imperato. 
carinata, Macgil. 
monilifera, Macgil. 
var. sinuata, Macgil. = R. sinuata, Busk. 
form umbonata, Macgil. = R. umbonata, Busk. 
form munita, Macgil. = R. munita, Busk. 
var. lunata, Macgil. = R. lunata, Busk. 
,, acutirostris, Macgil. = R. acutirostris, Busk 
Petralia, Macgil. 
undata, Macgil. Port Phillip Heads. 


Fam. XIX. Cribrilinide. 
Cribrilina, Gray. 

setirostris, Macgil. 

monoceros, Macgil. Port Phillip Heads. 
Membraniporella, Smtt. 

distans, Macgil. 


Fam. XX. Microporellide. 
Microporella, Hincks. 
renipuncta Macgil. 
Malusii, Aud. 
var. personata, Macgil. 


~9a 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 645 


Microporella 
scandens, Macgil. 
diadema, Macgil. 
var. lunipunctata, Macgil. 
», longispina, Macgil. 
» lata, Macgil. 
»  caniculata, Macgil. 


Fam. XXI. Escharide 


Dictyopora, Macgil. Lepralia 
albida, Kirchenpauer megasoma, Macgillivray. 
(Adeona, id.) schizostoma rr 
var. avicularis, Macgil. botryoides a 
Wilsoni, Macgil. Port ferox % 
Phillip Heads. pellucida os 
Eschara, Pallas. ceramia nv 
obliqua, Maegil. Porella, Gray. 
dispar, Macgil. marsupium, Macgil. Port 
quadrata, Macgil. Phillip Heads. 
mucronata, Macgil. Smittia, Hincks. 
elegans, Macgil. oculata, Macgil. 
Lepralia (Johnston?) Macgil. reticulata, 
anceps _ Var. spathulata, Macgil. 
Maplestonii © * Mucronella, Hincks. 
vittata 5 munita, Macgil. 
elegans 3 levis, Macgil. 
lunata 3 seriatula, Macgil. 
trifolium * Schizoporella, Hincks. 
cheilidon ~ lata, Macgil. 
caniculata x insignis, Macgil. 
larvalis 5 punctigera, Macgil. 
papillifera = maguirostris, Macgil. 
Ellerii as Ridleyi, Macgil. 
excavata - arachnoides, Macgil. 
vitrea a cryptostoma, Macgil. 


Fam. XXIII. Celleporide. 


? Lekythopora, Macgil. Cellepora 
hystrix, Macgil. megasoma, Macgillivray. 
Cellepora, Fabr. rota aT 
munita, Macgillivray. costata ;. 
longirostris _,, variolosa - 
platalea a intermedia as 
Serratirostris ,, exigua 5 


CYCLOSTOMATA, Busk. 


Crisidx, Milne-Edw. Crisia 
Crisia, Lamk. tenuis, Macgil. 


646 


REPORT—1885. 


Tubuliporide. 


Tubulipora, Lamk. 
concinna, Macgil. 
pulchra, Macgil. 
connata, Macgil. 
clavata, Macgil. 
lucida, Macgil. 

Entalophora, Lame. 
regularis, Macgil. (Pus- 

tulopora). —- 

Idmonea, Lame. 
Milneana, D’Orb. 
australis, Macgil. 

Diastopora, Lame. 
lineata, Macgil. 
fasciculata, Macgil. 
bicolor, Macgil. 

Densipora, Macgil. 
corrugata, Macgil. 


Polyzoa from Port Phillip Heads, Victoria. 
Witson.! 


ENTOPROCTA 


Pedicellinopsis, Hinchs . 
fruticosa, Hinchs 


CTENOSTOMATA, Busk 


Flustrella, Gray 
hispida, Fwbrie. . 
form. cylindrica, Hincks 


dichotoma, V. Sahr. . 


CHEILOSTOMATA, Busk 


7 Catenicella, Blainv. 
amphora, Bush . 
concinna, Macgil. 
Wilsoni, Macgil. 

12 | Serupocellaria, Van Ben. 
obtecta, Haswell 

31 Diachoris, Busk 

crotali, Busk 


? See ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ August 1882 and 1884; and ‘Descrip. of New Polyzoa,” 
Macgil., Roy. Soc. Vict., 1880-1883. 


This list is far from being complete, but it is compiled from published species (M 
and Hincks), and from a list sent with a 


E. C. Jelly—some of the dredgings of Mr. 


Horneridee, Smitt. 
Hornera, Lame. 
robusta, Macgil. 
foliacea, Macgil. 
Lichenoporide, Simitt. 
pristis, Macgil. 
(= Discoporella). 
reticulata, Macgil. 
(= Discoporella). 
echinata, Macgil. 
(= Discoporella). 
? Favosipora, Macgil. 
rugosa, Macgil. 
Frondiporidx, Smite. 
Fasciculipora, D’Orb. 
gracilis, Macgil. 
bellis, Macgil. 
fruticosa, Macgil. 


* 


* { =Verrucularia, id. V. 
Sahr. 
? = Farciminaria, id. Busk 


* 


Dredged by J. BRACEBRIDGE: 


acgil 
series of specimens from Port Phillip Heads by Miss. 
. Bracebridge Wilson. 


. 


ON. RECENT POLYZOA. 647 


Polyzoa from Port Phillip Heads, Victoria—continued. 


CHEILOSTOMATA—cont. 


82 | Membranipora, Blainw. ° 4 
permunita, Hincks . - : 4 * 
pyrula, Hincks . 


* 


radicifera, Hincks * 
84 | Biflustra, D’ Orb. 
perfragilis, Macgil. . : - : + 
41 | Caleschara, Macgil. 
denticulata, Macgil. . ; - : * 
47 | Cellaria 
fistulosa = - < . * 
var. australis . : 7 : 3 * 
rigida, Macgil. * 
Porina 
magnirostris, Macgil. * 
grecilis, Zama. . * Escharina, Challenger 
: r See genus of Retepo- 
Petralia, Macgil. { a aa, Base 
undata, Macgil. - : ‘ ; % 
60 | Cribrilina, Gray 
monoceros, Macgil. . : ° : * 
65 | Lepralia, Johnst. 
striatula, Smitt . - : * § * 
67 | Porella, Gray 
marsupium, Macgil. . : . : * 
rostrata, Hincks 7 5 4 L %. 
CYCLICOPORIDE, Hincks 
Cyclicopora, Hincks =Lepralia, Macgil. 
. F =Cyclicopora prelonga, 
longipora, Macgil. sp. weobe Lass les { y ashe 8 
70 |Mucronella, Hincks 
tricuspis, Hincks ° - < 5 * 
72 | Schizoporella, Hincks Pe 
accuminata, Hincks . ' ; ; * 
conservata, Waters . 4 £ § * 
latisinuata, Hincks . ‘ : : * 
80 | Adeona, Lamz. 
sp. . 2 - 5 - ; * 
Dictyopora, Macgit. 
Wilsoni, Macgil. - A : 4 * 
albida, Kirchin . : } : . | *2 | Adeone 
var. avicularis, Macgil. . 3 ° x 
Lekythopora, Macgil. . : : : 
hystrix, Macgil. . ° . - : * 
CYCLOSTOMATA, Busk 
Lichenopora 
reticulata, Macgil. . - 5 < * Discoporella, id. 
pristis, Macgil. . 3 C 0 arene: £ ” 
echinata, Macgil. . P - : %. 3 59 
Hornera, Lamz. . | Retihornera, Busk 
foliacea, Macgil. 4 4 : : *. 
Fasciculipora : 
bellis, Macgil. . *. 
fruticosa, Macgil. . * 


648 


ee een 


24 


16 
$1 


47 


29 


32 


REPORT—1885. 


Polyzoa from Bass’s Straits. 


British 


Fam. Eucratiide 


Eucratea, Zamz. 
chelata, Zinn. . 

Dimetopia, Busk 
cornuta, Busk . 


Fam. Catenicellidss 


Catenicella, De Blainv. . 
ventricosa, Busk 
plagiostoma, Bush 

a setigera, Macgil. 
cornuta, Busk . 
Wilsoni? Macgil. 
unbonata, Busk 


sp. 
Calpidium, Busk . 
ornatum, Busk 


Fam. Cellulariide 


Cellularia, Pallas . 
cuspidata, Bush 
Scrupocellaria, Van Ben. 
ornithorhynchus? W. 7. . 
Cuberea, Zama. 
rudis, Busk 
grandis, Hincks 
Canda, Lama. : 
arachnoides, Lamz. . 


Fam. Bicellariidss 


Bicellaria, De Blainv. 
grandis, Busk . 
Diachoris, Busk 
crotali, Busk 
spinigera, Macgil. 
Fam. Cellelariida 
Cellaria, Lama. (pt.) 
fistulosa, Linn. 


a australis, Macgil. 
tenuirostris, Busk 


36 


Fam. Flustride 
Flustra, Zinn. 
dissimilis, Busk 
Fam. Membraniporida 


Membranipora, De Blainv. 
lineata, Zinn. . ° 
inarmuta, Hincks . 
cervicornis, Busk . 
Savartii, Awd. . - 
pyrula, Hincks . 

=lineata, Macgil.. 


Rev. T. Hincks. 


Bass’s Straits 
Arctic 
Mediter- 
ranean 


* * KK *K * 


* 


x KKK x 


Rare ? 
Rare ? 


Common 
Common 


Common 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 649 


Polyzoa from Bass’s Straits—continued. 


2 
=| l/le/| 8 
fa) @ < 3 5S 
fQ 
Fam. Membraniporide—cont. 
Membranipora 
vitrea, Hincks . 4 * 
radicifera, Hineks . : | * | 
permuta, Hincks 5 | x 
trifolium, Macgil. . } | 
= Lepralia, id. ss 
denticulata, Macgil. . 
=Caleschara, zd. } * 
punctigera, Hincks . * 
inornata, Hineks . : * 
* 


? roborata, Hincks 


Fam. Microporide 
Micropora, Gray 


coriacea, Hsper, var. ] 74 * 
Steganoporella, Smitt . : 
magnilabris, Busk . : * 


Fam. Cribrilinide 


Cribrilina, Gray . ‘ : 
radiata, Moll. . ‘5 3 73 
ferox, Macgil. . 
tubulifera, Zincks 
speciosa, Hincks 
? monoceros, Macgil. 

?=punctata . 


* KK KOK OK 


Fam. Microporellide, Hincks 


Microporella, Hincks . : 
ciliata, Pallas . 5 d 90 | x 
var. 


Malusii, Awd. . ; be ORE |) 5 
diadema, Macgil. . , * 
var. : ; 
mucronata, Macgil. 4 
= Eschara, 7d. } * 


Monoporella, Hincks . : 
nodulifera, Hincks . : | * 


lepida, Hincks . * | 
| 
Fam. Porinide 
Porina, D’ Orbigny . 
gracilis, Zamz. 5 ; * 
Fam. Myriozoide (pt.), Smitt 
Schizoporella, Hincks 
Cecilii, Aud. . - | 132] «x 
=Lep. crystallina, 
Macgit. - } * 
biaperta, Mich. : 121 | x 
= L. megasoma, Macgil. * 
circinata, Macgil. . 3 * 


650 REPORT—1885. 


Polyzoa from Bass’s Straits—continued. 


| 
| 
| 
} 


Bass’s Straits 
Arctic 
Mediter- 
ranean 


Fam. Myriozoide—cont, 
Schizoporella 
obliqua, Maegil. > } & 
= Eschara, id. 
triangula, Hincks . 4 * 
tumida, Hincks * 
acuminata, Hincks . * 
3 | Hippothoa, Lama. . : 
divaricata, Lamx. . . | 145 * 
distans, Maegil. 4 
=H. flagellum, May .| 150} x 


Fam. Escharide, Smitt (pt.) 
65 | Lepralia, Johnst. (pt.) 


cleidostoma, Smitt . * 
Var os - * 
Poissonii, Aud. * 
67 | Porella, Gray é d 
concinna, Busk é - | 163 * 
marsupium, Macgil. . * 
69 | Smittia, Hincks . F : 
Landsborovii, Johnst. 2 | ee * 
a purpurea, Hincks * 
trispinosa, Johnst. . «| 180 | * 
reticulata, Macgil. * 
var. : 3 * 
70 | Mucronella, Hincks 
spinosissima, Hinchs * 
teres, Hincks . - oA 
=allied to M. ventricosa } 
tricuspis, Hincks . ‘ * 


Rhynchopora, Hincks - 
longirostris, Hincks . : * 
bispinosa, Johnst. . -| 202) x 

57 | Retepora, Jmp. 


monilifera, Macgil. . $ * 
robusta, Hincks F f * 
granulata, Macgil. . ; * 


Fam. Celleporide 


83 | Cellepora, Fabr. 
albirostris, Smitt 
levis, Haswell . 


mammillata, Bk. 
granum, Bh. 


x OK KOK 


Fam. Selenariide, Bh. 


85 | Lunultes, Bz. * 
incisa, Hincks . - : * 


Fam. Cyclostomata 


Hornera, Lamowroux 
foliacea, Macgil. = 
Retihornera } 
Lichenopora, Defrance . 5 * 
hispida, #lem. . ° - | 249 | x 


ae 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 651 


D,— Australian Region. Lat. 42° 42’ South, long. 134° 10’ Hast. 


2 


Bathymetrical Distribution 


Genera in 
| Report 
2600, 1450- 
1425 fath 
825 to 520 
fath. 
150 fath 
| 28 to 18 fath. 
Admiralty Is. 
8 fath, 
| 


| 
| 
| 


83 | Cellepora solida 
hastigera 
pustulata 
columnaris . , 
bidenticulata ‘ 

var. subequalis 
tuberculata . 
apiculata . 
Jacksoniensis 
bilabiata 
discoidea 
tridenticulata 
guineensis . : 

47 | Salicornaria Malvinensis .| x B.C. G. 
divaricata 2 
bicornis r - 
clavata : 4 : * C. G. 
simplex : A ; 
gracilis : . , z Eig! 

57 | Retepora Margaritacea .| x 
columnifera C 
crassa . : 1 
delicatula . 
Pheenicea 
victoriensis . 
apiculata 
producta . : - 
Jacksoniensis (2 to 10 

fath.) . . 
hirsuta 4 
tubulata , 
simplex . 2 . : * 
9 | Cellularia cirrata . 2 * 
cuspidata . : 3 * 

28 | Farciminaria hexagona .| x 

26 | Brettia australis : B 

16 | Bicellaria bella 
moluccensis 
macilenta 

29 | Flustra biseriata 
denticulata . 
membraniporides 

30 | Carbasea dissimilis . " * * 
Moseleyi . > - * 
cribriformis : ; xo] * * 
elegans : : 
pisciformis . c * 

45 | Bifaxaria papillata . : * 

50 | Siphonicytara serrulata . * 

15 | Caberea rostrata : F x 
lata . : : 
rudis . : : 


* 
* 


* 
2. 


WK OK OK OK OK OK 


OK OK 


* OK 


5d 


eK OK KK 


* 


ES 
A 


* OK 


* OK OK OK OK OK 


* 
* 


* 
oe 


* * 
* 


652 REPORT—1885. 


D.—Australian Region—continued. 


I = 3 re 
= a= 3 3 a = & ev Viedg 
5 6| Bathymetrical Distribution |= |e] & | sS| 2] | & — 
Se SS ren |e bl ie eee é 2 
i) S| 8 =a | re) cs: 
a x s 
72 | Schizoporella marsupifera * | C. 
Jacksonensis ; * | 
triangula . : : x C. 
Cecilii 4 c ‘ x 
2 | Eucratea chelata * 
7 | Catenicella ventricosa x 
hastata * * 
plagiostoma * * | 
elegans é ‘ . x 
umbonata , B : * 
pulchella . 4 3 
cribraria . b : * 
23 | Didymia simplex . * 
24 | Dimetopia cornuta . * 
32 | Membranipora spinosa. * 
crassimarginata , 
var. erecta 5 5 * C. 
albida . : ; , * 
33 | Amphiblestrum umbona- 
tum . E ° . * 
Amphiblestrum cervicorne * 
46 | Calymmophora lucida . * 
49 | Tubucellaria hirsuta * 
69 | Smittia transversa * 
80 | Adeona appendiculata x 
81 | Adeonella intricaria. : * | 
MEchinatayt bey by sala. | fone 
14 | Nellia oculata . ; : * * | B. C. E. 
64 | Eschara gracilis ; ‘ * * : 
70 | Mucronella bisinuata t * 
PySLLOTIS! J ey, | x | 
simplicissima .  . x 
quadrata . g ° a Ue 
75 | Haswellia australiensis . * * 
1 | Aitea anguina . 5 c * A. C. G. 
31 | Diachoris crotali . ; * | 
Magellanica ae oe pas: 
35 | Foveolaria elliptica . : * B. 
41 | Caleschara denticulata . | ; 
var, tenuis , 3 * | 4 
60 | Cribrilina monoceros : * | B.C. F. ' 
G. hs 
65 | Lepraliatuberosa .  . * ; 
celleporoides : : * 
lonchea . 5 . * 
dorsiporosa . & : * 
11 | Emma crystallina . : * 
85 | Lunularia capulus . t 
12 | Scrupocellaria ciliata ie 
securifera . b ; * | 
6 | Chlidonia cordieri . : * 
68 | Escharoides occlusa . : * C. E. 
84 | Cupularia euineensis : 3 
| 


ee ee oe eee ale 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 653 


— C.—South Indian or Kerguelen Region. Lat. 62° 26’ South, long. 95° 44/ 


Hast. 
= vate || oc 
8 eS re z|"2/ 4 
=] = = | o |Es s ae 
= | Bathymetrical Distribution | 22/25) = | 3 |as| S$} 2] — 
a 19 |e = 2 a” ° =) 
m > ie nN oS oo + N 
Oo a i) oO t= Noe 19 
od 
16 | Bicellaria infundibulata .| x * 
pectogemma . | * * * 
17 | Bugula bicornis : | 
reticulata . : aut * 
sinuosa ; : : * 
longissima . 5 : * x 
47 | Salicornaria magnifica .| x A. B. 
clavata : ° : * * * D. G. 
Malvinensis ; : * * B.D. G. 
variabilis é es B. G. 
55 | Onchopora Sinclairii .| * * | x 
28 | Farciminaria magna ‘ * B. 
hexagona . : : * 
35 | Foveolaria orbicularis . * 
14 | Nellia oculata . * * | B. D. E 
15 | Caberea Darwinii * x * | * By i 
57 | Retepora gigantea . * | 
cavernosa - * ) 
58 | Reteporella myriozoides * | 
flabellata. : : 2 HI 
68 | Escharoides occlusa ; * D. £. 
verruculata . : : * 
69 | Smittia graciosa : ; * 
Marionensis é - x * 
Jacobensis . ° : * A. 
70 | Mucronella ventricosa 
var. multispinata . * * 
rostrigera * 
i tricuspis 3 * B 
_ | 74] Myriozoum Marionense . % * |** 
83 | Cellepora vagans . ; * 
mamillata , 
‘var, atlantica . 5 * B. 
bicornis : ‘ : * * * B. 
albirostris . ; ; * 
pustulata . - ; * IDF 
Eatonensis . : - * B. G. 
72 | Schizoporella elegans : * B. 
triangula . 5 4 * D. 
marsupifera “ 4 * D. 
32 | Membranipora galeata_. * 
var. furcata . : * % 
crassimarginata . 5 
: var. erecta “ 2 * Dz. 
30 | Carbasea ovoidea . 4 * * * B. G. 
39 | Vincularia gothica . : * 
var. gtanulata . . * 
44 | Electra cylindracea . : * 
3 | Hippothoa flagellum , * 
8 | Catenaria attenuata. : * 
9 | Cellularia quadrata . : * 
elongata ., 5 * 


654 


REPORT—1885. 


C.—South Indian or Kerguelen Region—continued. 


sr (Genera in Report 


i-r) 
i=) 


62 
10 


33 
66 


Bathymetrical Distribution 


Diachoris Magellanica 
var. distans . 5 
inermis : x 
Cribrilina philomela 
var. adnata 
monoceros . 


Flustramorpha marginata 
Menipea benemunita 
flagellifera . 
Marionensis : : 
Amphiblestrum cristatum 
Chorizopora hyalina 
var. Bougainvillei 


1975 to 1950 
fath 
1675 to 1600 
fath 


150 to 140 fath. 


See 
pa Bees eo 
mae | kas 
ms 6 = — 
328 S$ | = 
Ee = 
AP 
* 
¥ 
* 
* % 
* B: D¥- 
| G: 
Khel B. 
| B. G. 
* cole B. 
x 
* 
* B. 


Polyzoa from India, Coast of Burmah, Rey. T. Hincxs. 


12 


20 


32 


43 


63 


British 


Fam. Cellulariide 


Scrupocellaria. Van Ben. 
diadema, Busk 


Fam. Bicellariide 


Beania, Johnst. 
mirabilis, Johnst. 


Fam. Membraniporide 


Membranipora, Blainv. 
favus, Hincks . : 
marginella, His. 


34 


Fam. Steganoporellide, His. 


(May 1884.) 
Steganoporella, Smitt 

magnilabris, Busk 
Smittipora, J. Jullien 


(«Am. Nat. Hist.’ May 1884) 


abyssicola, Smitt 
=Setosella, Hks. 


Fam. Microporellide 
Microporella, Hincks 


violacea, Johnst. (see Bush) 


a plagiopora, Busk 
fuegensis, Busk 


} 


99 


India 


Atlantic 


| 


Queensland 


Scandinavia, Medit. 


Bass’s Straits 


Florida, Singapore 


Cor. Crag, Italian Pliocene 
Tierra del Fuego 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 655 


Polyzoa from India, Coast of Burmah—continued. 


o 
e/a|4 
ss = 3 3 2 se 
Fam. Myriozoide (pt. Smitt) 
72 | Schizoporella, Hincks 
biaperta, Mich. : | 121 |" * 
Fam. Escharide (pt. Smitt) 
65 | Lepralia, Johnst. 
robusta, Hincks C : * 
67 | Porella, Gray 
malleolus, Hks. : : * 
69.| Smittia, Hincks : F 
trispinosa, Johnst. . .| 180; x Norway, Arctic, Medit. 
var. 
Fam. Celleporide 
83 | Cellepora? sp. 
? brunnea, Hincks . é * 


E.—Philippine or Japanese Region. From 110° E. to 160° West 


and North. 
1 & 
Sa =~ Bey 2 Sa Sea 3 & 
Pee, pro “oOo = rei) San! i=) 
BN) SN) Sa) 3 |e] sa | as 
Pe. n QD n Oo |n RQ Rn 
—— arsteen tl aerial Uaeteenl Ueno tl Element Hee et —_ 
28 rc) FI an z os ee) g ° EA So Fl 
2 (2/52/58 |72|72| 2 
& & =| oe & & & 
28 | Farciminaria pacifica * 
45 | Bifaxaria levis : : * 
81 | Adeonella platalea . : * 
polymorpha : : * 
_57 | Retepora victoriensis  . 
var. japonica . : * 
producta . : 4 * |D. 
simplex . . ; 1 D: 
mucronata . i * 
philippinensis . : . * 
65 | Lepralia japonica . ; * 
feegeensis. 5 : * 
14 | Nellia oculata. : : * B. C.D 
33 | Amphiblestrum _ papil- 
latum . 4 n 
63 | Microporella personata . * 
34 | Bitlustra Savartii ; * 
68 | Escharoides occlusa . * 1|C.D. 
83 | Cellepora samboangensis * 


I I ee! 


656 REPORT—1 885. 


G.—South Pacifie Region. From 160° to 70° West. 


=| =| =] =| a 
Sa] So] Sn |] Su}]-Sa 
3 R 3 a S a 3 &|eh a 
= = NR mn 7) io) we 
SS ee eet eet ee 
2160 | 1940 | 1325) 45 9 
10 | Menipea pateriformis . ; oll oat | 
benemunita | x B. C. 
aculeata . 5 - E 5 | * B. 
16 | Bugula reticulata . 5 : stall oe B. C. 
18 | Kinetoskias pocillum . : oa, =a B. 
29 | Flustra biseriata . : : : * | D. 
8 | Catenaria bicornis ‘ : ‘ | 
30 | Carbasea ovoidea . * x |B.C. 
60 | Cribrilina monoceros * B.C. D. F. 
83 | Cellepora Hatonensis * B.C. 
signata . 5 * 
1 | Aetea anguina * A’) C.D; 
47 | Salicornaria clavata * C. D. 
variabilis * B. C, 
Malvinensis 5 A - * B. C.D: 
72 | Schizoporella longispinata . ‘ * 


F.—North Pacific Region. From 160 W. to West Coast of North America. 


74 | Myriozoum honolulensz 

83 | Cellepora honolulensis ; 
polymorpha . : - 5 
vagaDs. : : , 


cst 
a EG 
~nm | odd 
g8 |sae 
—— —— 
o n 
Ye) 3 g 
S £4 
oo sé 
45 | Bifaxaria abyssicola . . : * 
60 | Cribrilina monoceros : ; * B. C. D. G. 
17 | Bugula Johnstonize > * Not in the text, Too 
78* | Phylactella,sp.(?) . 7 : * fragmentary for com- 
12 | Scrupocellaria ornithorhynchus * plete identification. 
40 | Steganoporella magnilabris * 
57 | Retepora denticulata * 
contortuplicata . - * 
66 | Chorizopora honolulensis . * 
69 | Smittia marsupialis . é * 
70 | Mucronella delicatula * 
magnifica . : - s 
72 | Schizoporella furcata * 
tenuis . * 
* 
* 
* 
* 


Dem etige 


] 
ON RECENT POLYZOA. 657 


Pr. I.—Polyzoa of the Queen Charlotte Islands, Rev. THos. Hinoks, 


North Pacific. 
2 d 
Silimealed) S| 2 
2 |s8les/—2| 2) 3 
— 2 |Saeje/8)/2) — 
ra) gx as|é 3 <q 
& = 
Fam. Eteide 
Aitea, Lame. 
ligulata, Busk . : * * 
Fam. Eucratiide 
Gemellaria, Savig. 
loricata, Zinn. . : Uh * 
Fam. Cellularide 
Menipea, Zamz. 
ternata, #71. and Sol. . 13 * * 
compacta, Hinchks : * 
a triplex, Hincks . * 
Scrupocellaria, Van Ben. 
varians, Hincks . < * 
brevisetis, Hinchs A * 
Caberea, Zama. 
Elisii, Fleming . eae Oil) ase x 
Fam. Bicellariide 
Bugula, Ohen 
avicularia, Zinn. . 3 24 * * x 
Murrayana, Johnst. . 32 * * 
Fam. Cellariide 
Cellaria, Zamzx. | 
borealis, Busk . ; * * 
mandibulata, Hincks . * | | 
Fam. Membraniporide | 
(Group A. Flustride, Hks.) 
Flustra, Zinn. 
membranaceo-truncata, : 
MN. . . . . * * 
Membranipora, De Blainv. ) 
(Group B.) F | 
unicornis, Mem... .| 61| x | * 
Rossellii, Aud. . 3 68 * * ¥ 
tenuirostris, inchs * * * 
horrida, Hincks . * * 
patula, Hineks * * 
variegata, Hinchks * * 
acifera, Megil. . : %a 4 
a multispinata, Hhs. * 
echinus, Hincks . * 
exilis, Hinchs ., F * 


oD 


658 REPORT—1885. 


Pr. 1—Polyzoa of the Queen Charlotte Islands—continued. 


= 8 
| ° ea 3 ro] 
hoe a |eelcela| gl 2 
| —— s Aalaeol s a 33) 
¥ a |Calze|2| 3 | & oe 
ile jea|S (eis 
e = / 
Membraniporide—cont. 
Membranipora 
Sophie, Busk  . 5 * * 
a matura, Hincks . * = M. conferta, 
; ‘Annals,’ 
1882 
nigrans, Hincks . * 
levata, Hincks * | 
protecta, Hincks . * | See A. for 
| allied forms, 
p. 10 
corniculifera, Hincks . * 
minuscula, Hineks * / 
membranacea, Linn. . Bai}. 3 x 
a serrata, Hincks * 
velata, Hincks . : * 
pallida, Hineks .. * See Report, p. | 
39 
Fam. Microporide 
88 | Micropora coriacea, Zsp. / 
var. . 2 : “(an 2) | 


Fam. Cribrilinide 
60 | Cribrilina, Gray 


furcata, Hinehs . k * | 
| 
radiata, Moll. . : 78 * eas 


Fam. Microporellide 
68 | Microporella, Hincks 


hippocrepis, Hinecks . * 


ciliata, Pallas. ; 90 | x * 
a vibraculifera, hs. * * 
B umbonata, Hincks * 
Malusii 3 2 : 92 x | * 
Monoporella, Hincks 
brunnea, Hincks ll * 
Fam. Porinide | 
Lagenipora, Hincks 4 
spinulosa, Hincks * 
Fam. Myriozoide (pt.), | 
Smitt tl a 
| 72 | Schizoporella, Hincks 
. auriculata, Hassall. | 125 * 
a ochracea, Hincks.| 126 | x 
Cecilii, Aud. : © | 232 * | * 
hyalina, Zinn. . S apaliseee se 1 1 * * 
sanguinea, Worman .| 119} x | * 
biaperta, Wichelin | yl a ae * * 
sinnosa, Bush  . Rae 0 * 
crassilabris, inchs * | 
| crassirostris, Hincks * 
} longirostrata, Hineks . * 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 659 


Pr. L—Polyzoa of the Queen Charlotte Islands—continued. 


| 


2 q 
a) om | .& S 
" n cé = = oO 
eS (eziesta | 2 | er 
rua a |OS|'s ep] 3 2 a 
mo | a4l/bS/ 2 Ee Ris] 
3 |mal|O | 3 | 
é alg ih, 
| 
| 
Fam. Myriozoide—cont. 
Schizoporella 
insculpta, Hincks : he 3 
tumulosa, Hineks : fe 
pristina, Hincks . / ¥ 
maculosa, Hincks x 
Dawsoni, Hincks. : * 
cruenta, Vorman. .| 133) x 
torquata, D’Orb. and 
Lamx 5 - = * 
linearis, Hassall . SAP ALLAS I 9€ 
a@inarmata . ; * 
Schizotheca, Hincks ‘ 
fissurella, Hincks ; * = Schizopo- 
rella, ‘ An- 
nals,’ 1882 
Hippothoa, Zamz. 
expansa, Dawson .| 149 | x 
distans, Macgil. | *H.| * * 
Myriozoum, Donati | * 
coarctatum, Sars : | % = PP 2 
Fam. Escharide (pt.) 
Smitt 
Lepralia (pt.), Johnst. 
nitescens, Hinchs : 1k 
bilabiata, Hincks * 
claviculata, Hincks * 
cleidostoma, Smitt 
(var.) : * 
Porella, Gray 
concinna, Bush . ; | 163 * * 
marsupium, Macgil. * 
a porifera, Hincks . * 
major, Hincks * 
?argentia, Hincks * 
Smittia, Hincks 
trispinosa, Johnst. .| 180 | x Be | 
plicata, Smitt . : * oe | 
spathulifera, Hincks . * 
Mucronella, Hincks 
ventricosa, Hassall .| 188 * * * 
pavonella, Alder af{PE96) |, ce * 
prelucida, Hincks . * 
prelonga, Hincks * 
spinosissima, Hinchs . * 
a major, Hincks . * 
Retepora, Zmp. 
Wallichiana, Hincks . * 
Fam. Celleporide 
Cellepora, Fubr. * * 
incrassata, Lamk. * 
?sp. . ¢ : : * 


wus 


660 REPORT—1885. 


Pr. Il.—Polyzoa Queen Charlotte Islands, Hincxs. 


} Queen 
=. British | Charlotte 
Islands 
CYCLOSTOMATA 
Crisia cornuta, Zinn. . : : : “ : : 3 216 * 
eburnea, Zinn. . : ‘ ‘ : : ‘ ‘ 218 * 
denticulata, Zamk.  . : : : ; ; : 221 * 
Stomatopora major, Johkast. : : : : ; : 223 * 
diastoporides, Vor... : : : . : 229 * 
incrassata . : : : : : : P ; 231 * 
Tubulipora, lobulata, Hass. : ‘ ; : : 235 * 
perfragilis, Hincks * 
Dawsoni, inchs * 
fasciculifera, Hincks . : : 2 : ‘ ; * 
Diastopora patina, Lamk. . : , ; : 3 : 243 * 
Sarniensis, Vor. . ‘ ‘ : : : : ‘ 245 a 
suborbicularis, inchs . : : ‘ : : : 245 * 
Lichenopora hispida, F7em. ; : : , d : 249 a 
verrucaria, /wbr. 3 : ; , 5 ; ; 253 3 
ADDENDA. 


Cyclostomutous Bryozoa (Polyzoa) from Australia. A. W. WATERS, 
F.G.S., ‘ Quart. Jour. Geol, Soc.,’ Vol. XL. (November 1884). 


After the publication of my fifth British Association Report on Fossil 
Polyzoa, 1884, the above paper was published in the ‘ Journal of the 
‘Geological Society.’ I was able, however, to refer to the reading, &c. in 
a note when correcting the proof sheets of the Report ; but as I consider 
.the paper a very important one, I make no apology for giving the follow- 
ing rather full digest, together with remarks on some of the species. Mr. 
Waters describes thirty-four species of Cyclostomata from Australia, some 
of which are new, but as he reintroduces for our consideration some of 
the—now obsolete—names of D’Orbigny and others, it may be well to 
give the full list of synonyms, &c., furnished by the author. 

As a preface to the descriptive matter of this paper, Mr. Waters 
reviews the whole of the work on Fossil Cyclostomata—very briefly, how- 
ever—of previous authors; and as some of his remarks bear upon the 
classification of the Cyclostomata, the student of both Fossil and Recent 
forms should master the special details of some of the zocecial characters 
of the group, especially those parts which refer to the size of the tubes, 
the ovicells, and also of the pores of the interspaces—cancelli. These 
details may ultimately help us to understand, more fully than we at 
present understand, the apparently homologous characters in Paleozoic, 
and in some few Mesozoic, species of Polyzoa. 


1. Crisia unipora, D’Orb., op. cit. p. 683, pl. xxx. fig. 1 
= Idmonea unipora, D’Orb., ‘ Pal. Fr.’ 
= Crisina unipora, D’Orb., ‘ Prodr.’ p. 265 
= Crisina elegans, D’Orb., ‘ Pal. Fr.’ pl. (only) 613. 


I should be rather inclined to place this species in the genus Filisparsa, 
than in Orisia, bnt as Mr. Waters founds his opinion upon the classifi- 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 661 


catory position of the species upon the ‘ closure’ of the tube, it would be 
mere folly to shift it merely because the shape of the zoarium differs from 
the ordinary run of Crisia. 

Locality: Curdie’s Creek, Australia. 


2. Idmonea atlantica, Forbes, op. cit. p. 683 
= Idmonea radians, Van Ben. (non Lamk.) 
= Idmonea inconstans, Stol., ‘ Bry. Orak. Bay.’ 

Localities: Orakei Bay (Stol.) ; Curdie’s Creek ; Mount 
Gambier ; Bairnsdale. 
3. 4 Milneana, D’Orb., op. cit. p. 648. 
Id., ‘Voy. dans ? Amér. Mérid.’ vol. v. D’Orb. 
= Idmonea giebeli, Stol. (Orak. Bay) 
= Idmonea giebeliana, Stol. (Orak. Bay) 
= Idmonea notomale, Busk, ‘Cat. Mar. Pol.’ 
Localities: Orakei Bay; Mount Gambier; Curdie’s. 
Creek ; Bairnsdale. 

4A. os radians, Lamk., op. cit. p. 684 
= Retepora radians, Lamk., ‘ Anim. sans vert.,’ ii. p. 183 
= Idmonea radians, Stol., ‘Bry. d. Orak. Bay.’ 

Locality: Mount Gambier. 

5. - Hockstetteriana, Stol., op. cit. p. 684, pl. xxx. figs. 12, 13 

=Crisina, id., Stol., ‘ Foss. Bry. der Orak. Bay.’ 
Localities: Orakei Bay ; Curdie’s Creek. 

6. i bifrons, Waters, op. cit. p. 685, pl. xxx. figs. 10, 11 
=(?)Tubigera disticha, D’Orb., ‘ Pal. France’ 
=(?)Idmonea disticha, Hag. 

Locality: Aldinga. ; 
f. ie aldingensis, Waters, op. cit. Addendum, p. 696. 
Locality: Aldinga. 

‘The appearance is much the same as that of Clavitubigera convexa 
(D’Orb., ‘ Pal. Fr.’ pl. 746, figs. 12-15), with the exception that the dorsal 
surface is concave.’ —A. Waters. 

8. Entalophora verticillata, Goldf., op. cit. p. 658 

= Ceriopora verticillata, Goldf., ‘ Petrifac.’ 

= Spiropora antiqua, D’Orb., ‘ Pal. Fr.’ 

= Spiropora neocomiensis, D’Orb., ‘ Pal. Fr.’ p. 708, 
pl. 784, figs. 1, 2 

= Spiropora verticillata, Novak. 

= Spiropora calamus, Gabb & Horn. 

=(?)Mitoclema cinctosa, Ulrich, ‘Amer. Pal. Bry. 
Jour. Cincin. Soe.’ v. p. 159, pl. vi. figs. 7, 7a. 


Ulrich’s Mitoclema cinctosa is undoubtedly an Entalophora, but I am 
very doubtful about its being in any sense identical with any of the other 
forms cited above by Mr. Waters. The Trenton species are related to 
the Upper Silurian species of ‘Spiropora’ described by me in the ‘ Quart. 
Jour. Geol. Soc.’ p. 55, Feb. 1882; but when describing these forms, 
I was unable to identify any of the Paleozoic with Jurassic or Cretaceous 
forms. I have allowed Mr. Waters’s suggestion to stand as above, but have 
simply placed (f) before it. 

Other synonyms will be found in Novak and D’Orbigny. 

Locality: Mount Gambier. 


662 


REPORT—1885. 


9, Entalophora raripora, D’Orb., op. cit. p. 686 


= Pustulopora virgula, Hag. 
Entalophora icauensis, D’Orb 


= es attenuata, Stol. 
= ss anomale, Manzoni 
= Bs Haastiana, Stol. 


= Pustulopora proboscidea, Busk. 

In justifying the above synonymy Mr. A. W. 
Waters says: ‘I have prepared sections of recent 
specimens, and also some from the Chalk, Miocene, 
and Pliocene, without being able to find any 
difference. The aperture is about 0°16 mm. in 
diameter.’ 

Localities: Orak. Bay; Curdie’s Creek; Muddy 
Creek; Mt. Gambier; Aldinga. 


10. Entalophora neocomiensis, D’Orb., op. cit. p. 686, ‘Pal. Fr.’ 


p. 782, pl. 616, figs. 15-18. 

? Bidiastopora, id., D’Orb. ‘ Pal. Fr.’ p. 800, pl. 784, 
figs. 9-11 

= Cricopora pulchella, Reuss 

= Spiropora pulchella, Reuss 

= Pustulopora pulchella, Manzoni 

= Bidiastopora Toetoeana, Stol. 
Localities: Orakei Bay; Curdie’s Creek; Mt. 

Gambier; Muddy Creek. 


11. Filisparsa orakeinsis, Stol., op. cit. p. 687. 


12. 


13. 


14. 


Stoliczka, ‘Foss. Bry. der Orakei Bay,’ pl. xviii. 
figs. 1, 2. 
Localities: Orakei Bay; Curdie’s Creek; Mt. 
Gambier. 

Mr. Waters, I think, is quite justified in re- 
storing this genus for certain fossil species. Dr. 
Jullien (Dragages d. Trav. Bryozoaises, ‘ Bull. 
Soc. Zool. de France,’ tome vii. 1882, p. 500) ‘ pro- 
poses to make a new genus, Z'ervia, for Filisparsa, 
D’Orb.; but Ido not see what reason there can 
be for this change of name’ (A. W. W.). 


Hornera frondiculata, Lamz., op. cit. p. 687 


= Hornera porosa, Siol. 
Localities : Curdie’s Creek ; river Murray cliffs, Bairns- 
dale; Mt. Gambier. Living: Mediterranean. 
foliacea, Macgil., op. cit. p. 688, pl. xxx. fig. 18 
= Retihornera foliacea, Busk, ‘ Cat.’ pt. iii. 
Localities: Living: Portland Bay; Wilson’s Promon- 
tory; Tasmania. Fossil: Bairnsdale ; Mt. Gambier ; 
river Murray cliffs. 


. Stomatopora granulata, M.-Ed. Var. minor. 


Locality : Waurn Ponds. 


15. Diastopora suborbicularis, Hincks, op. cit. p. 689. 
16. 


9 


Locality : Waurn Ponds. 
patina, Lamk., op. cit. p. 689, 
Locality : Mt. Gambier. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 653 


17. Reticulipora, sp. (op. cit. p. 689). 


18. 


19 


20. 


IL 


22. 


23 


es 
Or 


26. 
QY. 


:28. 


29. 


30. 
él. 


32. 


” 


Locality : Mt. Gambier. 

transennata, Waters, op. cit. p. 689, pl. xxx. figs. 2. 
SAGs id. 
Locality : Aldinga. 


. Discotubigera clypeata, Lamz., op. cit. p. 690, pl. xxxi. figs. 15, 


” 


16, 19 
= Pelagia clypeata, Michelin 
= Apseudesia clypeata, Haime. 
Localities: Aldinga; Curdie’s Creek. 
iterata, Waters, p. 690, pl. xxxi. figs. 14, 17. 
Locality: Aldinga. 


. Pavotubigera flabellata, D’Orb., ‘ Pal. Fr.’ pl. 752, figs. 4-8 


= (?) Semitubigera lamellosa, D’Orb., ‘Pal. Fr.’ 
pl. 750, figs. 16-18. 
Locality : Aldinga. 

dimidiata, Reuss, op. cit. p. 691, pl. xxxi. fig. 25 

= Defrancia, id., Reuss. 

On this species Mr. Waters makes some ad- 
mirable remarks, to which the student should 
refer. 

Locality : Mt. Gambier. 


gambierensis, Waters, p. 692, pl. xxx. fig. 9. 


24. Defrancia exaltata, Waters, p. 692, pl. xxxi. fig. 23. Probably 


related to Defrancia diadema, Goldf., Hag., and 
D’ Orb. 
Locality : Mt. Gambier. 


. Supercytis (?) digitata, D’Orb., p. 692, pl. xxxi. figs. 22, 26, 27. 


” 


Closely related to Pelagia insignis, Michelin. 
Locality: Murray cliffs. 


Fasciculipora sp. (op. cit. p. 693). 


Locality: Curdie’s Creek ; Mt. Gambier. 
conjuncta, Waters, p. 693, pl. xxx. figs. 4, 5. 
(?) Fasciculipora ramosa, J. EZ. Tenison Woods. 
Localities: Mt. Brown Beds (Up. Eocene of 
Hector), New Zealand; river Murray cliffs. 


Lichenopora lispida, Flem., op. cit. p. 694. See Hincks, ‘Brit. 


Mar. Polyzoa,’ p. 473. 
Localities: Mt. Gambier; Bairnsdale; Muddy 
Creek, Murray River; Waurn Ponds. 
radiata, Aud., op. cit. p 694. 
Localities : Curdie’s Creek ; Muddy Creek ; Bairns- 
dale ; Mt. Gambier ; Napier, New Zealand. 
Aldingensis, Waters, op. cit. p. 695. 
Locality: Aldinga. - 
cochloidea, D’Orb., op. cit. p. 695. 
= Domopora cochloidea, D’Orb., ‘ Pal. Fr.’ 
= Defrancia cochloidea (?) Hagenow. 
Locality : Mt. Gambier. 
boletiformis, D’ Orb. (non Reuss) 
= Tecticavea, id., D' Orb., ‘ Pal. Fr.’ p.781, figs. 8-12. 
Locality : Aldinga. 


664 REPORT—1885. 


33. Lichenopora variabilis, D’Orb., op. cit. p. 696 
= Bimulticavea, id., D’Orb., ‘ Pal. Fr.’ 
Locality : Aldinga. 
34. Heteropora (sp.), op. cit. p. 696. 
Locality : Curdie’s Creek. 


Fossil Cheilostomatous Bryozoa from Aldinga and the river 
Murray cliffs, South Australia. A.W. Watsrs, F.G.S., ‘ Pro- 
ceedings of the Geol. Soc.’ No. 467, 1885, p. 57, and § Quart.. 
Journ. Geol. Soc.’ Aug. 1885. 


I had already placed in the hands of the printer a digest of the above, 
compiled from Mr. Waters’s paper on the Australian ‘ Cyclostomata,’ &c- 
and from the ‘ Abstracts,’ &c. of the Geological Society. Mr. Waters’s 
full paper, however, came into my hands while the proofs of the present 
report were being corrected, and I prefer to give the fuller digest rather 
than the brief abstract prepared. 


The paper is one of the most important issued by the author, and its 
value as a critical production cannot be lightly estimated. In the body 
of my report I have stated my views with regard to the details of Mr. 
Busk’s monograph on the ‘ Challenger’ dredgings, and Mr. Waters criti- 
cises rather freely the work in question. So far as structural features, 
in certain species, are concerned, either author is capable of taking care 
of the opinions expressed, and it is to be hoped that the moot-points raised 
both by Mr. Busk and by Mr. Waters will be duly considered by special- 
ists before venturing to give undue preference to any classification 
founded upon mere habit. With regard to the plan adopted in the 
present report I may be permitted to offer a few remarks, with the new 
evidence of Mr. Waters before me. 

After the issue of Mr. Busk’s monograph two courses were open to 
me—either to adopt his classification, and ignore that of Mr. Hincks, or 
to adopt that of Mr. Hincks and ignore that of Mr. Busk. In either case 
I should have had to rearrange the whole of the species differently placed 
to the plan which I might choose to adopt, thus taking upon myself a 
responsibility that I had no care to face. The course I have adopted is a 
medium one, and I do not think that by it I shall raise any undue oppo- 
sition to the plan of the report. My desire has been, in the compilation 
of these six reports, to lay before the students of Fossil and Recent 
Polyzoa as full a digest as possible of work done, altogether irrespective 
of the mode or plan of the different workers. This free-hand dealing 
with all manner of investigations has been misunderstood by some few 
critics, but I do not regret that my labours have been so differently 
regarded. From Mr. Busk, Mr. Hincks, and from Mr. Waters, I do not 
fear their adverse but friendly suggestions, for all three know too well 
the difficulties to be encountered in a work like the present one. 

The collection described furnishes 73 species, of which 46 are known 
living, and 8 are new. This brings up the number of described fossil 
Australian Polyzoa to 220, of which just about half have been found 


living. ‘The new species and varieties in this list are marked with an (*) 
after Mr. Waters’s name. 


pe ni eimai NI WON me 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 


Cellaria malvinensis, Busi. 
»  angustiloba, Busk. 
Membranipora circularis, D’Orb. 
: Savartii, Aud. 
temporaria, Waters.* 
Flemingii, Busk. 


i parvicella, T. Woods. 
sf Michaudiana, D’Orb. 
fs trifolinm, var. Waters. 
95 cylindriformis, Wat. 
6 radicifera, Hincks. 

. rhynchota, Busi. 


aperta, Busk. 
Micropora patula, Wat. 
perforata, Macgil. 
Monoporella crassatina, Wat. 
sexangularis, Goldf 
Steganoporella magnilabris, Busk. 
53 Rozieri, Aud. 
Var. indica, Hincks. 
Cribrilina terminata, Wat. 
‘ figularis, Johnst. 
‘3 radiata, Moll. 
Mucronella mucronata, Sinitt. 
ee nitida, Verrill. 
a coccinea. 
Var. mamillata, Busk. 
Var. resupinata, Manz. 
Microporella grisea, Lamz. 
. coscinopora. 
Var. armata, Waters. 
violacea, Johnst. 


Var. fissa, Waters. 


5 symmetrica, Waters. 

5 ferrea, Waters. 

e pocilliformis, Waters.* 

By (Lunulites) magna, Woods. 
95 magnirostris, Macgil. 


elevata, Woods. 
Porina coronata, Reuss. 
Lepralia Bur lingtoniensis, Wat. 


x edax, Busk. 

¢ depressa, var. 

7 rostrigera, Smvitt. 

5 escharella, Rémer. 
Fr subimmersa, Macgil. 


confinita, Waters. a 
Smittia Tatei, Woods. 
35 seriata, Reuss. 
», Landsborovii. 
F reticulata, Macgil. 


) M. Cl. = Murray Cliffs. 


665 


Ald. and M. Cl. 
Ald. 

Ald. and M. Cl. 
Ald. 

M. Cl. 


M. Cl. 
M. Cl. 
M. Cl. 
M. Cl. 
M. Cl. 
Ald, and M. Cl. 


Ald. 
Ald. and M. Cl. 


M. Cl. 


M. Cl. 

(ferrea.) 

Ald. 

Ald. 

M. Cl. 

Ald. and M. Cl. 
Ald. and M. Cl. 
Ald. and M. Cl. 
M. Cl. 


Ald. 

Ald. and M. Cl. 
M. Cl. 

M. Cl. 


* Ald. = Aldinga. 


666 REPORT—-1885. 
Smittia Milneana, Bush. 
Var. cozquata, Waters. M. Cl. 
Schizoporella simplex, var. Ald. 

3 vulgaris, Moll. Ald. 

- phymatopora, Reuss. M. Cl. 

a striatula, Smitt. M. Cl. 

e fenestrata, Wat. M..Cl. 

5 Cecilii, Aud. M. Cl. 

35 protensa, Waters.* Ald. 
Mastigophora Dutertrei, Avd. M. Cl. 
Rbynchopora bispinosa, Jolnst. M. Cl. 
Retepora marsupiata, Snvitt. 

Cellepora fossa, Haswell. Ald. and M. Cl. 
Var. marsupiata, Waters.* M. Cl. 

3 coronopus, Busk. Ald. 

4 avicularis, Hincks. M. Cl. 

5 costata, Mucgil. 

ij divisa, Waters.* 

ae mamillata, Bush. M. Cl. 

+ albirostris, Siztt. M. Cl. 

- pertusa, Smitt. Ald. 

Var. ligulata, Waters.**  M. Cl. 

a bi-radiata, Waters.* M. Cl. 

n tridenticulata, Busk. Ald. and M. Cl. 
Lekythopora hystrix, Macgil. M. Cl. 
Selenaria maculata, Busk. M. Cl. 
Cupularia canariensis, Bush. Ald. and M. Cl. 


Fossil Tertiary Polyzoa of the higher Zones, and Note on the 
Scarcity of Eocene Polyzoa. By ALFRED BELL, Esq. 


In my fifth Report on Fossil Polyzoa (1884) I presented a list of species 
from the Crag and also from the Paleolithic beds of Great Britain. 
This I did from all the sources that were available to me at the time. 
Since the publication of my Report in the volumes of the British Asso- 
ciation Mr. Alfred Bell, the well-known authority on these upper beds, 
has compiled for me a complete and corrected list of the distribution of 
the Polyzoa from every source available to him. 


Notes on the Higher Tertiary Zones. 


1. Coralline Crag. 

2. Lower Red Crag, or Fusus contrarius Zone.—I.e. the oldest part 
of the Red Crag (Walton-Naze) in which the Fauna is almost entirely 
free from the mammalia (cetacean and terrestrial), London Clay, and 
older rocks and fossils and other miscellaneous remains. 

3. Middle Red Crag, or F. antiquus Zone.—The district between the 
rivers Deben and Orwell; with the above remains a large proportion of 
extinct shells and few living mammalia. 

4. Upper Red Crag, including Norwich Crag, free from the above 
remains. Shells nearly all recent forms; Mammalia, Quaternary, or 
still living species. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 667 


5, Pre-glacial.—lI.e. Wexford, Chillesford, Weybourn Sands, Bure 
Valley, and all beds between the last and the succeeding Arctic or First 
Glacial period. 

6. Arctic.—Bridlington, Tangy Glen, Erie, Errol, Fife, and other beds 

in and underlying the Boulder Clay. 

> 7. Paleolithic—Garvel Park, Dalmuir, and most of the Scottish 
beds in the north; the Lancashire drifts, Selsey, Portrush, and the Cam- 
bridgeshire districts; Fauna indicating warmer conditions than now 
prevail. 

(Second or later glaciation, possibly, than some of the Scotch beds 
above. ) 

8. Neolithic. — Belfast and Estuarine Clays generally, not very 
fossiliferous. 


Fossil Tertiary Polyzoa. 


o |Z (3 [3 lz Zie2 
Ben] tp) me wel S|/812 | 4 
= S| SISSIES] | 2] S| 2 ao 
BO| EO | mVleO) s/ 4] 8) 8 
S43) SS le-pe ea a 
Cheilostomata, Busk 
Cellularia, Pallas (pars) 
Peachii, Busk * 
Menipea, Zamz. | 
ternata, Hil. and Sol. . * | 
Scrupocellaria, Van Ben.. 
scabra, Van Ben. * 
scruposa, Z. 3 ae * 
var. elongata, Sm7tt * 
reptans, Z. . : * | x Canda 
| Caberia, Zamw. 
Boryi, Awd. * 
Ellisii, Flem. 4 * 
grandis, Hincks . * 
rudis, Bush * 
Bugula, Oken 
turbinata, Ald. | * | B. avicularia, 
| Pail. 
Cellaria = Salicornaria, 
Busk 
farciminoides, Johnst. 
fistulosa, Z. . 3 ay Sy 3 WO 
sinuosa, Hass. . os * | * * 
Cuvieri, Zam. . ; | Tide Shone, 
| 1878, ‘ Proc. 
(2) Chester 
Soc. N. Sc.’ 
Melicerita, Milne-Ed. | | 
Charlesworthii, Edw. .| * | * | x 
Membranipora 
aperta, Busk 5 .| *« | x 
(bidens, Hag. . .| *) See Micropora 
catenularia, Jameson .| « Ve, ah] * Hippothoa c. 
craticulata, Ald. . : | * 
dubia, Busk ; ; | # 
Dumerilli, Aud. . .| * * Ly 
fissurata, Busk . Alle: 
Flemingii, Bush . ; * 
Lacroixii, Aud. . . | * * 


668 


Steganoporella, Smitt 


Membranipora 


lineata, Z. 


membranacea, ZL. 
monostachys, Busk 


oblonga, Busk 
oceani, D’ Orb. 
pilosa, Z. 


rhynchota, Bush. 


Savarti, Aud. 


trifolium, S. V. W. 
tuberculata, Bose. 
unicornis, Flem. . 


REPORT—1885. 


Fossil Tertiary Polyzoa—continued. 


holostoma, S. V. W. 


Smittii, Hincks 


Cribrilina, Gray 


annulata, Habr. . 
figularis, Peach . 
Morrisiana, Busk 
punctata, Hass. . 


puncturata, S. V. W.. 


radiata, Moll. 


Microporella, Hincks 


ciliata, Pall. 


hippocrepis, Goldf. 


impressa, Aud. . 


Malusii, Awd. 


violacea, Johnst. . 


Haimesiana, Busk 


infundibulata, Busk . 
megastoma, S. V. W. 


papillata, Busk 


Reussiana, Bush . 
Chorizopora, Hincks 

Brongniarti, Aud. 
Porina A 
tubulosa, Worm. . 
Schizoporella, Hincks 


ansata, Johnst. 
biaperta, Mich. 
cruenta, Worm. 
hyalina, Z. . 


Milneana, Busk . 
(plagiopora, Bush 


pyriformis, S. V. W. . 


sinuosa, Bush 


unicornis, Johnst. 


venusta, JVorm. 


Mastigophora, Hincks 
Dutertrei, Aud. . 
Hippothoa 
abstersa, S. V. W. 


oralline 
Crag 


* OK OK Be 


* 


* 


* 


3 |3 

FS up| 

nw | 2 

ORI 

EOls 

So - 

H |e 

* * 
* 

* * 

* * 

* * 
* 
x 

* 

* 

7% 

* 

* 

¥ * 
¥* 
* 

* 

* 


Crag 


Arctic 


Paleolithic 


* 


2K 


* 


| Neolithic 


= Lepralia, B. 


M. andega- 
vensis, Mich. 


Lepralia, pars. 


L. innominata, 


Couch 


M. _ bidens, 
Haq. 
L. pyriformis 


includes L. 
plagiopora, 
Bush 


Lep. B. 
Lep. B. 
Lep. 


See M. violacea 


Lep. Woodiana 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 669 


Fossil Tertiary Polyzoa—continued. 


Coralline 
Crag 
Lower Red 
Crag 
Middle Red 
Crag 
Pre-glacial 
Arctic 
Paleolithic 
Neolithic 


Hippothoa 
| dentata, S. V. W. 
divaricata, Lame. : 
Patagonica, Bush 
Lepralia, Johnst. 
divisa, Norm. ‘ * 
edax, Busk wo eter lh “ese 
infundibulata, Bush . * 
megastoma, S. V. W.. 
Pallasiana, Moll. 
papillata, Busk . 
Reussiana, Busk . P 
simplex, Johnst. . : * 
spinifera, Johnst. . * 
pertusa, Hsp. 
' Umbonula, Hincks 
i verrucosa, Hsp. . 5 * 
| Porella, Gray 
~ concinna, Busk . c * 


7K OK OK 
* 


7 2K OK OK 


struma, Worm. . : * 
Escharoides, Smitt 
Sarsii, Smitt : 3 * 
Smittia, Hincks 
Landsborovii, Johnst. . * 
| crystallina, Norm. * 
| Phylactella, Hincks. . | Alysidota 
") catena, S. V. W. 
} labrosa, Busk . 5 * 
 Mucronella, Hincks 
Bowerbankiana, Bus 
coccinea, Johnst. . 
lobata, Bush 
variolosa, Johnst. 
- ventricosa, Hass. 
: Peachii, Johnst. 
| Palmicellaria, Alder 
Skenei, Z. and S. 
os, Pallas 
cornuta, Busk * 
incisa, M.-Ed. . .| * 
monilifera, W-Hd. .| *« | * | * | * 
* 
* 


* 


L. mamillata 


2K OK OK OK OK OK 


L. bicornis 


* 


porosa, W.-Hd. e 
pertusa, W-Hd. . - 
patens, Smite . ; * 
Sedgwicki, M-Hd. .| * | * | * 
sinuosa, Busk  . A lice esl aes 
socialis, Busk . rial lee 3 


cd 
i=) 
=] 
77) 
ct 
Dae | 
& 
8 
° 


| Flustra 
dubia, Busk . silt oF 
avicularia, Mont. : x 


- Hemeschara (?) Eschara per- 
| imbellis, Busk . . | * * ; onal (A. Bo. 


670 REPORT—1885. 


Possil Tertiary Polyzoa—continued. 


Coralline 
Crag 
Lower Red 
Crag 
Middle Red 
Crag 
Upper Red 
Pre-glacial 
Arctic 
Paleolithic 
Neolithic 
| 


Lunularia, Zamz. 4 
conica, Def?. ‘ Pies cae se 


* 


Cupularia 
canariensis, Bush 
denticulata, Conr. BH ae * 
porosa, Bush. : eal, ae 

Retepora, Impera. | 
Beaniana, King Rat Peay He 
cellulosa, Z, : Hla Couchi, Hincks. 

* 
* 


notopachys, Bush 
simplex, Bush 
Cellepora, Fabr. 
cespitosa, Busk . * 
compressa, Bush . * 
coronopris, S.\V.W. .| x * 
x 
* 


dentata, Bush . 
parasitica, Mich. 

pumicosa, Z. 3 ; | * % * 
ramulosa, Z. A ee; * 
scruposa, Busk . ° .| x | * 
tubigera, Busk . Sale 3 


Cyclostomata, Bush. 

Crisia 
eburnea, Z. A 
denticulata, Lame, 3 qe * 

Alecto,! Zamz.. 3 4 
dilitans, Johnet. 3 
compacta . 
granulata, I.- Ea. 
major, Johnst. ; | 
repens, S. V. W. 5 Fee aby Re | 


2k 


x | x Tub. palmata. 


KK OK OK 


Tubulipora 
Mage ae Lamx. . Pi ee * 
flabellaris, Fabr. . Pal ee * 


patina, Z. : 
phalangea, Couch Ball 3 * 


%* OK OK OK 


Idmonea 
atlantica, # F. . . * 
delicatula, Bush . 
fenestrata, Bush . 
intricaria, Bush . 
punctata, D’ Orb. 
serpens, Z. : * 
verrucosa, M- Ea. F * 

| Entalophora . : 5 Pustuloporia. 

| deflexa, Couch P. clavata, Bush 

palmata, Busk : 

subverticellata, Busk .| x * 


KK OK OK 
* 
on 


aK 


1 Stomatopora is so like Stoomatopora, Stoastoma, that I have preferred Alecto.—BEtt. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 671 


Fossil Tertiary Polyzoa—continued. 


sls ilo [4 2 
BalH ol ul y 5 2| 3 2 
== SalSR(2 S| 5 lest Ss hes — 
89/29/85) 25/2) 4/4) 8 
Pate) Slee ay a | 4 
Diastopora 

; obelia, Johnst. . ‘ * 

‘ suborbicularis, Hincks | x * Simplex, Bush, 
ihe non D'Orb. 
| Patinella 
| proligera, Busk . | BF 
| Mesenteripora 
| meandrina,S. V. W..| * 
| Hornera 
canaliculata, Bush x | * 

frondiculata, Zam. x | * | * 
hippolyta, Defr. . eda] ae 
humilis, Bush * 
lunata, Bush r * 
pertusa, Busk . Bi | 
infundibulata, Busk .| x | * | * 
reteporacea, W.-Hdw..| * | x 
 rhipis, Busk 5 * | * 
striata, IL-Hd. seller elie elie 
|  rhomboidalis, Busk .| x * 
| Lichenopora Discoporella 
hispida, FVem. * * | * 
- flosculus, Hinchs | * 
- erassiuscula, Smitt * * Grignonensis, 
Busk 
1) ancia rl 
_ rugosa, Busk 5 oc lapte ol 3. ae 
| striatula, Busk . mae 
ngella 
|  infundibulata, Busk .| * 
| multifida, Busk . les CA es Only juv. of 
: Fascic. tubip. 
_ quadriceps, Busk Salen. |e | 
| Heteropora 
 clavata, Goldf. . Sly ghee 
 levigata, Bush * | * | 
- pustulosa, Busk . Fad CE SPI | Pe 
Teticulata, Busk. . .| * 
| Hetereporella 
| parasitica, Bush . Pale: 
| radiata, Busk’ . Soh) 38 * * 
Alveolaria 
semiovata, Bush . | * | x | x 
| Fascicularia 
aurantia, J/.-Hdw. S| Seo oe * 
_ tubipora, Busk . alliage dent’ * 


‘Miocene Polyzoa.’ 

f 

_ Miocene Polyzoa, so abundant in Continental beds, are, I believe, 
unknown in the British. 


a 
4 


672 REPORT—1885. 


‘Eocene Polyzoa.’ 
Note on the Scarcity of Eocene Polyzoa. 


Considering the richness of other sections of organic life in the Eocene, 
the great poverty of the Molluscoida (Brachzopoda and Polyzoa) is very 
remarkable, and this poverty does not arise from an oversight on the 
part of collectors, or for want of looking for. Some thousands of spe- 
cimens having passed through the hands of one or other of us, it is 
possible to speak with some amount of certainty upon this head. Of the 
few species listed, Memb. Lacroixii, Flustra crassa, and Lunulites urceo- 
latus are the commonest, but are by no means abundant; and the first 
two have a wide range in Hocene time. Neither do they occur in any 
quantity in the Continental Hocene fauna, as an examination of some 
thousands of shells from the Paris basin will expose an equal sparseness. 

The cause of this absence is difficult to explain, as far as the free 
growing Cyclostomata are concerned, unless that the soil, or food, or other 
conditions of life, was not favourable for their development. For the 
adnate Cheilostomata, the want of such shells or adherent surfaces proper 
for their habitat may be sufficient cause. 

Reasoning from the rich Crag fauna, it would appear that Polyzoa 
require certain genera of mollusca, and only certain species of these 
are selected, dead shells and shell banks among the bivalves especially 
being in demand, the Pecten opercularis and Geradi, Pectunculus, 
Cytherea rudis, Pholas, Solen, Tellinas crassa and obliqua, Fusus antiquus, 
Nassa and Oolumbella. Other genera are less so, and of these Fissurella, 
Capulus, Buccinanops (?), Purpura, Tetragona, Ostrea, and Cardium are the 
chief. Terebratule are good hunting grounds in the Coralline, but not in 
the Red Crag. With the exception of Solen, Pectunculus, and others, these 
genera are rare, or at least numerically so individually in the EKocenes, 
and of these it may be said that very few examples are known in a worn 
or ‘dead’ condition. Drifted shell banks are not common. Most of the 
species are in their native haunts, or where they have been removed, 
the genera, such as Cyprina, are not those selected for attachment. 

The conditions of life again are not favourable ; the Eocene of Eng- 
land consisting of either sharp sand or muddy clay; estuarine or fresh- 
water beds. 

Sharp sand is also unfavourable for preservation, as in the case of 
the Oldhaven sand at Bromley, where the Pectunculi are in millions, 
with the surfaces nearly all decorticated, and in the London clay. Casts 
of the shells are alone preserved (save a few portions of the test) in a 
pyritised condition. 

There is only one other reason I can suggest for their absence, 7.e. 
that the Molluscoida had reached their apogee in the cretaceous period, 
and only few genera and individuals represented this class of organism, 
till other times and conditions more favourable to their existence came 
in, in other words, that they were non-existent. 


Mr. Bell has certainly given very fair explanations of some of the 
causes which prevented the full development of a Polyzoan fauna, and I 
am glad to be able to give currency to his views. In my fifth British 
Association Report I remarked that we might owe the scarcity to want 
of research. This, however, seems not to be the case. The following 
is the only list that I can supply :— 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 673 


Eocene Polyzoa. 


> 
$|5 we ala 
8 ae low | S & 
pS aa P 1s 
pe BD Lm he a ES Pe a 
Biflustra 
eocenica, Busk . A ? | % 
Crisia (sp.) F : 2 | * 
| Cellepora 
petiolus, Zonsd. . - ; * 
Diachora | 
{ intermedia, Waters . : * 
| Distosaria 
Wetherellii, Busk . : * | 
Eschara | 
Brongniarti, Zonsd. . 4 Noa lan 
Flustra | 
crassa, Desm. . ; A leaheleae | 
, Idmonea 
| coronopus, De/r. ‘ ; * 
| Lepralia (sp.) . ; : ‘ | # 
| Lunulites 
urceolatus, Zam. : el * 
-Membranipora 
Lacroixii, Sav. an * x | Also from the New 
| | Forest beds 


? 


s 
‘ 


Note on Professor G. SEGuENzs’s List of Tertiary Polyzoa from 


Reggio (Calabria). Rev. Tuomas Hincxs, Annals, «Mag. Nat. 


ist.’ April 1884. (Le formazioni terziarie, &c.1879 and 1880.) 


1. Lepralia elegantissima, Seguenza, p. 83, pl. viii. fig. 11 
= Cribrilina radiata, Moll. form innominata, Couch. 
2. »  Yadiato-faveolata, Seg., p. 129, pl. xii. fig. 20 
= Microporella violacea, Johnst. 
3. Cumulipora porosa, Seg., p. 130, pl. xii. fig. 21 
= Smittia trispinosa, Johnst. 
4. Lepralia radiato-porosa, Seg., p. 129, pl. xii. fig. 19 
=or var. Schizoporella unicornis, Johnst., including 
L. ansata, Johnst. 
5 exima, Seg., p. 203, pl. xiv. fig. 23, Johnst. 
= Membraniporella nitida, Johnst. 
6. A calabra, Seg., p. 201, pl. xv. fig. 6 
= Microporella ciliata, Pall. 
7 »  mitrata, Seg., p, 203, pl. xv. fig. 8 
= Cribrilina radiata, Moll. 
=. »  coronata, Seg., p. 295, pl. xvii. fig. 6. 
A variety of Microporella Malusii, Aud. Ghiefly 
remarkable for the curiously furrowed surface of 
the ocecium. 
9. »  thiara, Seg., p. 370, pl. xvii. fig. 57 
= Cribrilina punctata. 


10. Salicornaria mammillata, Sey., p. 294, pl. xvii. fig. 5. 


Probably a species of Myriozoum. 
1885. be | 


674 REPORT—1885. 


Mr. Hincks remarks (p. 267, op. cit.) that ‘Professor Seguenza’s 
work is of such sterling character, and will deservedly haye so much 
weight with the student, that it seems peculiarly desirable to prevent 
these spurious species, if possible, from sheltering themselves under 


his authority.’ 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


Mr. JOSHUA ALDER. 


1857. A Catalogue of Zoophytes of Northumberland and Durham. ‘Trans. Tyne- 
side Nat. Field Club,’ supplement to the above, ibid. vol. v. 
Descriptions of New British Polyzoa, &c. ‘ Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc,’ (N. 8.), 


vol. iv. 
Professor J. G. ALLMAN, F.R.S. 


1856. Monograph on Brit. Freshwater Polyzoa, Roy. Soc. 
1869. On Rhabdopleura. ‘ Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc.,’ pp. 57-63, plate viii. 
On the relations of Rhabdoplewra. ‘ Linn. Soc. Jour. Zool.’ xiv. p. 395. 


GEORGE Busk, F.R.S., F.L.S. 


1847. On AHtea anguina. ‘Trans. Mic. Soc.’ 
, On Notamia bursaria. ‘Trans. Mic. Soc.’ 

1852. Catalogue of Marine Polyzoa in the Collection of the Brit. Mus. Parts I. 
and II. 

1858. ‘Zoophytology.’ Descriptions of New Polyzoa. 

1860. Ibid. Madeira species. 

1861. Ibid. ‘All. Quart. Jour. Mic. Society.’ 

1859. Monograph of the Crag Polyzoa. Palszeontographical Soc. 

1875. ‘ Brit. Mus. Catalogue.’ Cyclostomata. Part III. 

1879-80 (?). On recent species of Heteropora. ‘Linnean Soc. Jour, Zoology,’ 
vol. xiv. Read June 1879, plate xv. pp. 724-726. 


In this paper Mr. Busk describes and well illustrates a new species, 
which he names H1. Neo-Zelanica. 


1880. List of Polyzoa collected by Captain H. W. Fielden in the North Polar 
Expedition, with description of new species. ‘Linnzan Soc. Jour. 
Zoology,’ vol. xv. Read June 1880, pp. 231-241, plate xiii. Cheilosto- 
mata, Cyclostomata, and Ctenostomata. 

1881. Notes on a peculiar form of Polyzoa closely allied to Bugula (Kinetoshias, 
Kor. & Dan.).- Plates i. and ii., ‘Quart. Jour. Mic. Science,’ vol. xxi. 
new ser. January 1881. 


Much of the matter of this paper is included in the ‘Challenger 
Report on Polyzoa.’ 


1881. Descriptive Catalogue of the species of Cellepora collected in the Chal- 
lenger Expedition. Read May 1881. ‘Linnean Soc. Jour. Zoology,’ 
vol, xvi. pp. 341-356. 


Describes 27 species of Cellepora, the whole of which is incorporated 
in the ‘ Challenger Report.’ 


1881. Supplementary note respecting the Use to be made of the Chitinous Organs 
in the Cheilostomata in the diagnosis of species, and more particularly in 
the genus Cellepora. ‘ Linnwan Soc. Jour,’ vol. xv. pp. 357-362, plates 
XXvi., XXvil. 

1884. Report of the Scientific Results of the Voyage of the ‘Challenger,’ 
‘Zoology,’ vol. x. pt. xxx. ‘Report on the Polyzoa: the Cheilostomata,’ 
pp. i-xxiv. 1-216, plate xxxvi., and map of different stations in which 
Polyzoa were dredged. ‘Challenger’ Office, Edinburgh. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 675 


R. Q. CoucH. 
1844. ‘A Cornish Fauna,’ &c. 8vo, Truro. 
Sir J. G, DALYELL. 
1847. Remarkable Animals of Scotland. 
ALCIDE D’ORBIGNY. 


1839. ‘ Voyage dans l Amérique-Méridionale,’ v. 4th part, Zoophytes. 
1851. Recherches zoologiques sur la classe des Mollusques Bryozoaires. ‘ Ann. de 
Sc. Nat.,’ 3rd ser. tomes xvi., xvii. 


EHLERS. 
1876. Hypophorella expansa. Abhandl. kénigl. Gesellsch. d. Wissensch. Gottingen, 
XXi1. 
J. ELLIS. 


1755, Essay towards a Natural History of Corallines. 


OTHO FABRICIUS. 
1780. Fauna Groenlandica. 
P. FISCHER. 
1866. Sur les Bryozoaires perforants. Comptes rendus. No. 18, p. 985. 
1870. Bryozoaires des cétes du Sud-ouest dela France. ‘ Actes Soc. Linn.,’ Bor 
deaux, xxvii. 
J. E. GRAY. 


1848. Catalogue of Radiata in British Museum. 


A. H. HASSALL. 
1841. Catalogue of Irish Zoophytes. ‘Ann. Nat. Hist.’ vol. vii. 


HELLER. 
1867. Die Bryozoen d. Adriatsches Meeres. 


Rev. THOMAS HINCKS, B.A., F.R.S. 


1860-1862. New Polyzoa from Ireland, ‘ Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc.,’ vol. viii, 

New British Polyzoa, ibid. v. 

* , Catalogue of Zoophytes of Devon and Cornwall. ‘Ann. and Mag. 
Nat. Hist.’ 

1871. Supplement to the above. ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 

1861. Note on Ovicells of Cheilostomata, ‘Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc.,’ p. 278. 

1872. On Campylonema, a new genus of Polyzoa. ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ Species 
of this genus was afterwards established as the family Valkeriide, and 
the Campylonema is the Vadkeria (pt.), Fleming, of the ‘ British Marine 
Polyzoa,’ 1880, p. 551. 

1877. Polyzoa from Greenland and Labrador. ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ January. 

On British Polyzoa, Part I. ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,’ September. 

» On British Polyzoa, Part Il. Op. cit. December (Classification). 

1878. Notes on the genus RETEPORA, with descriptions of new Species. ‘Annals 

and Mag. Nat. History,’ 5th ser. vol. i. 2 plates, pp. 353-365. 


In this paper the author describes nine species of Retepora, five of 
which are new—R. Couchii, R. preetenuis, R. plana, R. tessellata, and 
R. robusta—and he gives very full details of the other four. Mr. Hincks 
also gives a brief account of the previously described species of authors. 
As usual, the new and some of the known species are illustrated ag well 
as described. 


” ” 


” 


1879. On the Classification of the British Polyzoa, ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 5th ser, 
vol. ii. pp. 153-164. 
This is a paper on ‘certain portions of the Classification adopted in 


the History of the British Marine Polyzoa.’ 
xXx2 


676 REPORT—1885. 


1880. ‘A History of the British Marine Polyzoa,’ 2 vols. Vol.i. text; vol. ii., 
plates. 


In this work Mr. Hincks describes and figures every known species 
of British Ctenostomata, Cheilostomata, and Cyclostomata. The work 
should be consulted by every student who desires to make known to 
science the species found in many of the still partially known British 
localities. 


1880. Note on a supposed Pterobranchiate Polyzoon from Canada. ‘ Ann. Mag. 
Nat. Hist.’ 5th ser. vol. vi. p. 239. 

1880. Contributions towards a General History of Marine Polyzoa, ‘ Ann. Mag. 
Nat. Hist.’ 5th ser, vol. v. pp. 69-91, plates ix., x., xi. 


In this paper Mr. Hincks describes, Part I. Madeira species which 
belonged to the cabinet of J. Y. Johnson, Esq., of Madeira. Some of the 
collection had been previously described by Mr. G. Busk. Mr. Hincks, 
however, makes many additions to Mr. Busk’s list. Part II. Foreign 
Membraniporide. 


1880. On New Hydroida and Polyzoa from Barrent’s Sea. ‘Ann. Mag, Nat. Hist.’ 
5th ser. vol. v. pp. 277-286, plate xv. 


A full list of the Polyzoa obtained by Mr. W. J. A. Grant in the 
Arctic Sea was given in the same volume of the ‘ Annals.’ Mr. Hincks’s 
paper contains a detailed description of the new forms which occur in the 
collection. Among the Ctenostomata one new genus— Barrentsia, Hincks 
—is described, and a new species—B. bulbosa, Hincks. 


1880. Foreign Membraniporide. ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ Noy., 5th ser. vol. vi. 
pp. 376-381, plates xvi. and xvii. 


Besides the Membranipora, Mr. Hincks describes Steganoporella and 
species referable to the genus. Pt. II. Foreign Cheilostomata, Miscella- 
neous. 


1881. Contributions towards a General History of Marine Polyzoa. I. Foreign 
Membraniporina; II. Foreign Cheilostomata. ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 
5th ser. vol. vii. plates viil., ix., x. pp. 147-161. 


In this paper Mr. Hincks established the family Hpicaulidiide and 
the genus Hpicaulidiwm for a species which was afterwards withdrawn ; 
and a new genus of the Hscharide—Aspidostoma, Hincks, 

1881. On a Collection of Polyzoa from Bass’s Straits, presented by Capt. W. H. 

Cawne-Warren to the Liverpool Free Museum. 

A paper read before the Lit. and Phil. Soc., Liverpool, April 18, 

1881, pp. 1-22. 


1881. Polyzoa of Bass’s Straits (Contributions), ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ July, 
vol. viii. plates i., ii., iii. 
The collection of Capt. Warren contained ninety-two species, twenty- 
two of which are European. 


1881, Contributions, &c. ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 5th ser, vol. viii. plates iv. and v. 
pp. 122-136. 

In this paper Mr. Hincks continues his descriptions of species from 
Bass’s Straits, and then afterwards his descriptions of Foreign Mem- 
braniporina (third series) and Foreign Cheilostomata. Several species of 
Diiachoris are described, and the genus and species of Epicaulidium are 
withdrawn. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 677 


1882. On certain remarkable modifications of the Avicularium in a species of 
Polyzoon, and on the relation of the Vibraculum to the Avicularium. 
‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 5th ser. vol. ix. pp. 20-25. Several woodcuts, no 
plate. 
» Contributions, &c. Foreign Cheilostomata (miscellaneous). ‘Ann Mag. 
Nat. Hist.’ 5th ser, vol. ix, plate v. pp. 79-90. 


Several new species are described from different localities, most of 
which are from the cabinet of Miss E. C. Jelly. 


1882. Contributions, &c. ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ August. 5th ser. vol. x. p. 160, 
plates vii. and viii. 


In this paper Mr. Hincks describes (family Eucratiide) a new genus, 
Rhabdozoum, for the reception of a species, R. Wilsoni, from Port Phillip 
Heads. In the family Membraniporide a new genus, Huthyris, and a new 
species, H. obtecta, from Australia. Besides these other species of Foreign 
Polyzoa are described. 


1882. Preliminary notice of new species of Polyzoa from Queen Charlotte Islands. 
In the paper 21 new species are described but not illustrated. ‘Ann, Mag. 
Nat. Hist.’ Sept., pp. 248-256. 

» Polyzoaof the Queen Charlotte Islands. Part I. December. ‘Ann Mag. Nat. 
Hist.’ plates xix. and xx. 5th ser. vol. x. 

1883. Contributions, ke. Foreign Cheilostomata from Australia and New Zea- 
land. Describes two new genera, Stiparia, Goldstein, and Stolonelia, 
Hincks. ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ p. 193, plates vi. and vii. March. 

» Polyzoaof Queen Charlotte Islands. PartII.June. ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist’ 
5th ser. vol. xi. plates xvii. and xviii. 

1884. Continuation of above. PartIII.January. ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 5th ser, 
vol. xiii. plates iii. and iv. 

» Completion of Report on Polyzoa of Queen Charlotte Islands. ‘Ann. Mag. 
Nat. Hist.’ 5th ser. vol. xiii. plate ix. Cyclostomata, Ctenostomata, and 
Addenda. 

» Report on the Polyzoa of the Queen Charlotte Islands. Ottawa: MacLean, 
&e. Published in connection with other works on tke Geological and 
Natural History Survey of Canada, pp. 1-44, and the whole of the 
plates. 


The above work is a reprint of the four papers and seven plates 
originally published in the ‘ Annals,’ December 1882, June 1883, January 
and March 1884. In the Report ninety-six species are recorded, thirty- 
six of which had not been previously described. 


1884. Note on Professor G. Seguenza’s List of Tertiary Polyzoa from Reggio 
(Calabria). ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ April, 5th ser. vol. xiii. pp. 265- 


Polyzoa from Victoria and Western Australia. ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 


267. 
» Contributions, &c. XII. Polyzoa from India (coast of Burmah). XIII. 
; 5th ser. vol. xiii. pp. 356-369, plates xiii. and xiv. 


' The paper contains descriptions of Cheilostomata and Ctenostomata. 


' 1884. Contributions, &e. XIII. Polyzoa of Victoria, continued. ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. 
Hist.’ October 1884, pp. 276-285, plate ix. 


In this paper Mr. Hincks describes a new family of Cheilostomata, 
Cycuicoporip™, and a new genus, Cyclipora, for the reception of the 
Species, C. PRHLONGA, Hincks. 


1885. Contributions, &c. Polyzoa from New Zealand and Australia. ‘Ann, Mag. 
Nat. Hist.’ March 1885, vol. xv. pp. 244-257, plates vii—ix. 


678 REPORT—1885. 


A, HYATT. 
1866. Observations on Polyzoa. Sub-order Phylactolemata. ‘Proc. Essex Inst.’ 
1868. iv. p. 197. 
G. JOHNSTON. 
1847. ‘History of British Zoophytes,’ 1st edit. 
1849. = = ss 2nd edit. 


KIRCHENPAUER. 
. East Greenland Polyzoa, in ‘ Die zweite deutsche Nordpolarfahrt.’ 


J. V. LAMOUROUX. 
1816. Nat, Hist. ‘Des polypiers coralligéries flexibles,’ &c. 


LANDSBOROUGH. 
1852, Popular History of British Zoophytes. 


P. H. MACGILLIVRAY. 


‘On some new Australian Polyzoa.’ By P. H. Macgillivray. Read before the 
Institute, August 3, 1859. 

‘ Notes on the Cheilostomatous Polyzoa of Victoria and other parts of Australia.’ 
By P. H. Macgillivray. Read before the Institute, October 26, 1859. 

‘On two New Genera of Polyzoa.’’ By Macgillivray. Read April 15, 1880. 

“On some New Species of Catenicella and Dictyopora; and on Urceolipora, a new 
genus of Polyzoa.’ Read November 18, 1880. 

‘Descriptions of New or Little-known Polyzoa,’ Part I. Read December 9, 1881. 

Ibid. PartII. July 13, 1882. 

Ibid. Part III. October 12, 1882. 

Ibid. Part IV. December 14, 1882. 

Ibid. Part V. August 9, 1883. 

Ibid. Part VI. December 13, 1883. 

Ibid. Part VII. (No date.) 

Ibid. Part VIII. November 20, 1884. 


F. M‘Coy. 


‘ Prodromus of the Zoology of Victoria.’ By F. M‘Coy. 

Decades IIl., IV., V., VI., VIL, VIII, IX., all contain papers on the Victorian 
Polyzoa; and Mr. Waters tells us that another is out, containing the Retepore, so I 
suppose that will be X., but I have not seen it yet. 


W. C. McInTosH. 
1877. Marine Fauna of St. Andrews. 


Dr. A. MANZONI. 
1871. Supplem. alla Fauna dei Bry, Medit. 


Rey. A. M. NoRMAN. 
1864. On Undescribed British Actinozoa, Hydrozoa, and Polyzoa. ‘Ann. Nat. 
Hist.’ January. 
» Notes on Rare British Polyzoa. ‘Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc.’ VIL. N.S. 
1866. Report on Hebridian Polyzoa. ‘Brit. Assoc.’ 
1868. Last Report on Shetland Dredgings. ‘Brit. Assoc.’ 


A. 8. PACKARD. 
1863. List of Animals dredged near Cariboa Island, South Labrador. ‘Canad. 
Nat. and Geol.’ viii. No. 6. 
PALLAS, 
1766, Elenchus Zoophytorum. 
PARFITT. 
1866. Fauna of Devon. Zoophytes. 


ON RECENT POLYZOA. 679 


G. O. SARS. 


1869. On some Remarkable Forms of Animal Life from the Great Depths off the 
Norwegian Coast. 
1874. Reprinted, ‘ Quart. Jour. Mic. Soc.’ January. 
F. A. SMITY. 
1863. Om Hafs-Bryozoeras Utvekkling Upsala. 
SOD. ~ 55 as nA och Fettkropper. 
1864. Kritisk Férteck ning 6fver Scandinaviens. 
1868. Hafs-Bryozoen. I. Cyclostomata. 
4 Il. Cyclostomata, continued, and Ctenostomata. 
Ill. Cheilostomata, and 
5 IV. “ continued. 
1867. Bryozoa marina in regionibus arcticis et borealibus viventia. 
1872. Floridian Bryozoa. Kongl. Svenska Velenskaps Handl. 


Waters, A. W., F.G.S. 


1878. On Bryozoa. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc., Microsc. and Nat. Hist. Sect., 
vol, xvii. pp. 125-138. 


In this paper Mr. Waters reviews as a popular outline of the class 
Polyzoa the zoological position of the various groups, detailing at 
some length his reasons for adopting the term Bryozoa instead of 
Polyzoa. 


1878. On the Use of the Opercula in the Determination of the Cheilostomatous 
Bryozoa. ‘Proc. Manchester Lit. and Phil. Soc.’ vol. xviii. 

1879. On the Bryozoa (Polyzoa) of the Bay of Naples. ‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 
5th ser., vol. iii. pp. 28-43, plates viii. and xi. Part I. reviews the litera- 
ture of the subject, and describes 32 species of Lepralia (old nomencla- 
ture) and one Eschara. 

1879. Bryozoa of the Bay of Naples. Part. II. Cheilostomata, continued. Op. cit. 
February, pp. 114-126, plates xii., xv. 


Describes twenty-eight species of various genera. 
1879. Bry. Bay. Nap, Pt.TII. Op. cit. pp. 192-202. 


Describes thirteen species of Cellepora, two of Retepora and Myro- 
zoum truncatum, Pallas. 


1879. Bry. Bay. Nap. Pt. IV. Cyclostomata and Ctenostomata. Op, cit. pp. 
267-281, plates xxiii., xxiv. 


Describes thirty-three species, in all 111 species of Bryozoa, as found 
in the Bay of Naples. In the whole of these papers Mr. Waters gives a 
very full synonymous list and references, both fossil and recent, and a 
very valuable list of localities in which the species are found. 


1880. On the terms Bryozoa and Polyzoa. ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ January, pp. 1-3. 
1879. On the occurrence of recent Heteropora. ‘ Jour. Mic. Soc,’ vol. ii. pp. 
390-393, pl. xv. Paper read May 1879. 


A very important paper giving details of structure of Heteropora, both 
recent and fossil. Describes as new H. pelliculata, Waters, and re- 
describes H. cervicornis, D’Orb. 


1880. Note on the genus Heteropora. ‘ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ vol. vi. p. 156. 
1884. Closure of the Cyclostomatous Bryozoa. ‘ Linnzan Soc. Jour. Zoology,’ 
vol. xvii. pp. 400-404, pl. 17. 


680 REPORT—1885. 


STUART O. RIDLEY. 


1881, Account of the zoological collections made during the survey of H.M.S- 
‘Alert’ in the Straits of Magellan and on the coast of Patagonia. 
Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London, January. In two 
parts: I. Polyzoa, pp. 44-61, pl. vi.; II. Coelenterata, pp. 101-107. 


In the Polyzoa part, Mr. 8. O. Ridley establishes a new genus— 
Gigantopora, Ridley—for the placement of a species described and figured 
G. dyricoides, Ridley ; and in his observations he says that Hippothoa 
fenestrata, Smitt, ‘ Flor. Bryoz.’ must also be ranked under the genus. 


1881. Polyzoa, Coelenterata, and Sponges of Franz Josef Land. ‘ Ann. Mag. 
Nat. Hist.’ June, pp. 442-457, pl. xxi. 


Several species of Cheilostomata and three of Cyclostomataare described, 
amongst the latter young colonies of what Mr. Ridley believes to be 
Heieropora pelliculata, Waters (?). ‘This genus,’ says the author, ‘ is 
already known from New Zealand, Australia, and the Japanese seas, and 
in the fossil state: its recent distribution is now extended to the Arctic 
seas,’ p. 453. 


1882, Notes on Zoophytes and Sponges obtained by Mr. F. Day off the east coast 
of Scotland. ‘ Linnzean Soc. Jour. Zoology,’ vol. xvii. pp. 105-108. 


Contains a brief note on Polyzoa. 


I am fully aware that there are several bibliographical papers omitted 
in the above list. Many of these, however, are particularly of a struc- 
tural character, and I was in hope that I should have been able to include 
these, with special remarks upon them, in some future Report. At pre- 
sent my labours are so far complete up to this point only. The structural 
peculiarities of several polyzoal groups, together with remarks on the 
Ctenostomata, must remain in abeyance, for the present at least. There 
are a few papers not recorded above that may be specially referred to. 
Dr. Jullien’s work on ‘Recent Species’ I was not able to procure or 
even get a sight of; and equally inaccessible were D’Orbigny’s ‘ De- 
scriptions of South American Polyzoa’; the writings of Krauss, Mene- 
ghini, W. Stimpson’s ‘ Invertebrata of Grand Manon,’ Verrill’s ‘ Recent 
Additions to Marine Invertebrata,’ or Risso’s ‘Fauna of the Mediter- 
ranean,’ &c. Mr. Quelch’s labours on the group, however, may be men- 
tioned, though his writings may be few in number. His remarks on 
Spiralaria, Busk—a peculiar polyzoon not as yet classified—and on 
certain species of Schizoporella (‘Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.’ 1884), merit 
attention ; so also references to Dr. Jullien’s labours in Mr. A. W. Waters’s 
papers on ‘Fossil Bryozoa’; and special reference should be made te 
the article on Polyzoa in the ‘ Encyclopedia Britannica,’ by Dr. Ray 
Lankester, F.R.S. Another paper by Mr. A. W. Waters, F.G.S., just 
to hand (November 1885), may be mertioned. This is one on the 
‘ Avicularian Mandibles,’ &c. and a very important one withal.—Jouwrn. 
Roy. Mic. Soc. Ser. 2, vol. v. pp. 774-779. 


ON THE EXPLORATION OF KILIMA-NJARO. 68L 
ig 


Third Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir J. Hooker, Dr. 
Ginter, Mr. Howarp SAunDERS, and Mr. ScLaTER (Secretary), 
appointed for the purpose of exploring Kilima-nyaro and the 
adjoining Mountains of Equatorial Africa. 

1. In their last report, presented at Montreal, the Committee stated 
the arrangements that they had made with Mr. H. H. Johnston for 
undertaking an expedition to Kilima-njaro, and gave extracts from Mr. 
Johnston’s letters showing the progress of his expedition up to May 1884. 

2. Mr. Johnston returned to this country in December last, and gave 
an account of his expedition to the Royal Geographical Society at their 
meeting on January 26, 1885,' which is published in their Journal. 

3. Mr. Johnston there tells us he was much hampered, as regards 
collecting, by the desertion of two natives whom he had taken out with 
him from Zanzibar as collectors. The consequence of this was that the 
collections, although containing many objects of great interest, are not so 
large as the Committee could have wished. 

4. The Committee requested Captain Shelley to prepare a report on 
the birds collected by Mr. Johnston, and Mr. F. D. Godman on the 
butterflies of his collection, after which the first sets in both these 
collections were handed over to the British Museum. 

5. All the other zoological collections were likewise handed over to 
_ the British Museum, with a request to the Director that reports might be 
prepared for publication on such portions of them as seemed to be of 
sufficient interest. 

6. The following reports on the zoological collections made by Mr. 
H. H. Johnston have already been published in the ‘ Proceedings’ of the 
Zoological Society for this year :— 

(1) General Observations on the Fauna of Kilima-njaro. By H. H. 
Johnston. P.Z.S., 1885, p. 214. 

(2) Report on the Mammals obtained and observed by Mr. H. H. 
Johnston on Mount Kilima-njaro. By Oldfield Thomas, F.Z.S. P.Z.S., 
, 1885, p. 219. 

(3) On the Collection of Birds made by Mr. H. H. Johnston in the 

_ Kilima-njaro District. By Captain G. EH. Shelley, F.Z.S.; with Field- 

_ notes by Mr. H. H. Johnston, F.R.G.S. P.Z.S., 1885, p. 222. 

; (4) On the Insects collected on Kilima-njaro by Mr. H. H. Johnston. 

By Charles O. Waterhouse. P.Z.S., 1885, p. 230. 

(5) Note on a Nematoid Worm (Gordius verrucosus) obtained by 
Mr. H. H. Johnston on Kilima-njaro. By F. Jeffrey Bell, M.A., F.Z.S. 
P.Z.S8., 1885, p. 236. 

(6) Description of a New Variety of River-Crab, of the genus 
Thelphusa, from Kilima-njaro. By E. J. Miers, F.L.S., F.Z.S. P.Z.S., 
1885, p. 237. 

(7) A List of the Lepidoptera collected by Mr. H. H. Johnston during 
his recent expedition to Kilima-njaro. By F. D. Godman, F.R.S., &e. 
P.Z.S., 1885, p. 537. 

7. The botanical collections were handed over to the Royal Herba- 
rium at Kew, where they have been arranged and named. A set of 
them has been sent to the British Museum. The report upon them is 
ready, and will be presented to the Linnzan Society for publication. 


? See Jown. Proc. Roy. Geogr. Soc., 1885, p. 137. 


682 REPORT—1885. 


8. Professor Bonney has kindly undertaken to report on the rock and 
mineral specimens collected by Mr. Johnston, and lhiy report is presented 
herewith, and will be read in the Geological Section. 

9. Mr. H. H. Johnston has in preparation a volume containing a 
narrative of his expedition and a summary of the results arrived at, 
which will shortly be ready for issue. 

10. The sum of 25]. granted to the Committee at the Montreal 
meeting has been returned to the Treasurer. 


- APPENDIX. 
Report on the Rocks collected-by H. H. Johnston, Esq., from the wpper part 


of the Kilima-rjaro masstf. By Professor T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., F.BRS., 


Pres. G.S. 


The collection consists of forty rock and six mineral specimens—most 
of them rather small pieces—which in several cases have evidently not 
been broken from rocks in situ, but have been lying about on the ground 
as loose fragments. 

(1) Stream Valley, Kilima-njaro, 13,000 feet (16 fragments).—These 
- are rolled pebbles or fragments, more or less waterworn, varying in 

diameter from about three-quarters of an inch to one and a-half inch. 
They consist of a black glassy rock, of a very dark grey subvitreous rock, 
or an extremely compact lava (all obviously not very different from glassy 
basalts), together with five specimens of more or less scoriaceous rock, 
the last named being more waterworn than the other. These are a dark 
compact rock, containing crystals (sometimes quite an inch long) of a 
glassy felspar in rather tabular crystals, which is probably identical with 
one to be presently described. Of the former group I aye selected three 
for microscopic examination as being fairly representative of the series. 

(a) Fragment (somewhat rounded) of black glass of slightly resinous 
lustre, with faint indications of a fluidal structure. Examined micro- 
scopically, it appears as a banded brown glass, varying in colour from a 
rather pale to a warm brown tint. Both, but especially the latter, are 
streaked with elongated trichites of dark brown to black colour, and the 
darkest band is beautifully ‘marbled’ by darker streaks and filamentous 
trichites. Scattered about are acicular microliths; some of the smaller 
and thinner are probably felspar, but certain of the larger show good 
hexagonal sections, and may be safely identified as apatite. Three or 
four rounded grains, associated twice with apatite and once with magne- 
tite (?) also occur. They are either olivine or augite—I think the latter ; 
neither cleavage nor external form is sufficiently definite to enable me to 
speak with certainty. I regard them as the remnants of crystals, of 
which the external angular portion has been melted away. ‘The rock 


may be classed with the angite-andesite glasses, and belongs to the more 
basic side of the group. 


Az 


(b) A similar rock, but with a rather duller lustre. Examined with ~ 


the microscope under a low power, it seems to be a rather opaque-looking 
darkened grey glass. With high powers, there appears to be a base of 
clear glass from which the magnetite has separated in minute granules 


and ‘dusty’ patches and a number of very minute belonitic crystals, — 
probably felspar, have formed. There are slight indications of fiuidal — 


structure. In the slide is a perfectly round grain of hornblende, a frag- 
ment or two of felspar, a few small crystals of apatite (?), and two bits 


, 
, 


Ja 


i 


Blt a a 


ON THE EXPLORATION OF KILIMA-NJARO. 683 


of scoria, evidently picked up by the molten rock. These resemble an 


andesite, being full of plagioclase microliths, and one of them contains 


two larger broken plagioclase crystals. 

(c) Isa very compact, almost black rock, without vitreous lustre. 
Examined with the microscope, it is seen to be very similar to the last, 
except that the separation of the minerals has proceeded a little further ; 
the opacite granules and felspar microliths being slightly larger. There 
are one or two crystals in the slide of larger size; felspar, broken looking, 


-magnetite and apatite. 


(2) Central Ridge, Kilima-njaro, 14,000 feet (7 specimens of rock, 
1 mineral).—Of the rock specimens (a) two are rather rounded; a very 
compact, dark grey, almost black rock. (b) Three flattish, rather 
scoriaceous fragments, two of them having a very marked platy structure, 
so that at first sight they might be taken for stratified. (c) Two are soft 
fragments of a dark brown compact rock (seemingly rather decomposed), 
containing crystals, more than half an inch in diameter, of a rather glassy 
felspar. 

(a) I have examined slices from each of these. One of these differs 
very little from that last described, 1 (c), except that there seems to be a 
general tendency to form minute spheroids (without a radial crystalline - 
structure), coated externally with a film of iron oxide. The other 
specimen belongs, no doubt, to a similar rock, as its glassy base is now 
crowded with elongated microliths of a plagioclastic felspar and granules 
of magnetite. The slide contains two crystals of brown hornblende, one 
or two crystals of nearly colourless augite, and a few minute patches, pro- 
bably of brown glass. (b) I have not examined these microscopically, as 
they appear to me only more scoriaceous forms of (a). (c) One of these 
has been examined. The ground mass has a general resemblance to that 
of the first specimen in (a), but appears rather more decomposed. In 
this occur a few grains of a nearly colourless mineral, some certainly augite, 
though olivine may also be present. The former appears once or twice 
to have been more or less replaced by magnetite, which mineral also 
occurs in independent crystals, and there is a little apatite. The large 
felspar crystals, two of which are partly included in the slide, are worn 
and rounded at the edges and have several inclusions of the ground mass. 
They present a general resemblance to sanidine. 

The separate crystal of a mineral has evidently been detached from a 
similar rock ; it is about four-thirds of an inch long and rather more than 
half an inch wide. It bears a general resemblance to sanidine, but the 
form is a very peculiar one for this mineral to assume. ‘The faces of 
co P are well developed, OP rather small, together with another face in 
the vertical zone; oo Roo small. Distrusting my own opinion, I referred | 
the crystal to my friend Mr. T. Davies, of the Mineral Department of the 
British Museum. He at once intimated that the form was very unusual, 
and, after consultation with the other officers of the department, wrote to 
me that the crystal was a variety of orthoclase. This, with some others 
mentioned below, will, I hope, be described more at length by Mr. Miers 
at the next meeting of the Mineralogical Society. 

Stones of Kimawenzi (3 specimens).—These specimens appear to be of 
a very similar rock, and are all more or less decomposed. They are 
practically identical with 2 (c), so I have not had a slide cut. They also 
contain good-sized crystals of the same peculiar felspar. 

Stone, base of peak, Kimawenzt, 14,700 feet—Slab about 64” x 44! x 4” 


684 REPORT—1885. 


of a compact, very dark grey rock, weathered externally to a paler 
colour. In it are scattered a fair number of crystals of black horn- 
blende (?) up to about +” in longest diameter. Except for a mere external 
film, the rock is in good condition. 

Under the microscope a clear glassy base is seen thickly crowded 
with microliths of plagioclase felspar, granules and small crystals of 
augite, and granules and grains of magnetite. Four of the larger 
crystals of hornblende are present in the slide; these have a worn, 
corroded look externally, and are black bordered; they are a rich olive- 
brown colour. There are also two crystals of light-coloured augite of 
about the same general size as the hornblende—one with fairly well 
defined angles, not black bordered; the other less perfect, with some 
appearance of a black border; also a smaller one which seems to include 
at one side a fragment of hornblende. The rock is an augite-andesite, 
containing some hornblende of anterior consolidation. 

Rocks from base of Kimawenzi, 15,000 feet (2 specimens ).—Of these rocks 
one is a dark, decomposed, compact rock like 2 (c) ; the other contains 
the same felspar, but is paler in colour. I have not had these cut for the 
microscope, 

Rocks from base of Kibo, 14,000 feet (8 specimens of rocks, 4: specimens of 
minerals.—The rocks are externally a good deal decomposed, and closely 
resemble those from the base of Kimawenzi and from the central 
ridge 2 (c). Ihave had a slice prepared from the one which seemed in 
best preservation. The base is a dark brown glass of rather decom- 
posed aspect, in which are scattered minute felspar microliths as already 
described. There are several small vesicles visible in the slide, together 
with minute circular spots of an isotropic mineral, probably yet smaller 
cavities filled up by some secondary producis. Parts of two of the 
peculiar felspar crystals already mentioned occur in the slide. Externally 
they have a rather rounded aspect, internally there are many inclosures 
of the base. They have a general resemblance to sanidine, but one 
shows rather distinctly a peculiar cross-hatched structure not unlike that 
of microcline. The mineral specimens are all pieces of separate crystals 
of this felspar, which have probably been about the same size as that 
described from the central ridge. They are, I am informed, like it, a 
variety of orthoclase, and some exhibit twinning, the composition face 
being the orthopinakoid. 

Three specimens without any label. Bad specimens of a rock very 
similar to the last described. 

As will be seen from the above notes, the collection of rocks from 
these interesting localities indicates (1) that the highest peaks of the 
Kilima-njaro massif consist of rather basic rocks; (2) that these rocks 
are all of them more or less vitreous, a glassy base having been dis- 
cerned in all that have been examined; (3) that these rocks fall into 
two groups; (a) dark, glassy, or scoriaceous rocks, never showing 
much more than a microporphyritic structure—varieties of augite- 
andesite, more or less glassy; (b) brownish to greyish rather slaggy 
rocks, containing the above-described large crystals of a glassy variety of 
orthoclase. The base is evidently not rich in silica, and does not, I 
suspect, materially differ from that of the other group, so that I should 
regard these as intermediate between the normal augite-andesites and the 
normal sanidine-trachytes, and name them provisionally orthoclase-bear- 
ing augite-andesites. Mr. Johnston’s collection is, I think, sufficiently ex- 


a 


ON THE EXPLORATION OF KILIMA-NJARO. 685 


f tensive and numerous to justify us in assuming that the upper part of 

_ the Kilima-njaro massif chiefly consists of one or the other of these two 
allied groups of rocks ; the only point of special interest in them being the 
abundant occurrence of this peculiar variety of orthoclase. 

A fragment of a crystal, found in ‘Stream Valley’ at about 8,000 feet 
on Kilima-njaro, ‘ much coveted by the ratives for ornaments, and said to 
be found only after heavy rains,’ is simply rock-crystal (quartz). This 
mineral appears to indicate the presence of more siliceous rocks than the 
above; not improbably of either granite, gneiss, or some kind of schist. 


P.S.—While the above description was in the press, another speci- 
men reached me, which had previously been mislaid. It is labelled 
‘Found in a stream valley on Kilima-njaro,’ and is a fragment, smoothed 
on all sides but one, of a black lava, in most parts very vesicular, the 
longest diameter being about 34 inches. It is evidently either a rather 
basic augite-andesite glass or a basalt glass; probably the former, like 
other specimens described above. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Mr. Joan Cordeaux (Secre- 
tary), Professor A. Newton, Mr. J. A. Harvie-Brown, Mr. 
WILLIAM EAGLE CLARKE, Mr. R. M. Barrinaton, and Mr. A. G. 
Morg, appointed for the purpose of obtaining (with the con- 
sent of the Master and Brethren of the Trinity House and 
the Commissioners of Northern and Irish Lights) observations 
on the Migration of Birds at Lighthouses and Lightvessels, and 
of reporting on the same. 


Tae General Report! of the Committee, of which this is an abstract, 
forms a thick pamphlet of 186 pages, and comprises observations taken 
at lighthouses and lightvessels, as well as at several land stations, on 
the coasts of Great Britain and Ireland, and the outlying islands; also 
from Heligoland, two stations in the Baltic, the Faroe Islands, and Iceland. 
Independent notes and observations have also been received from several 
ocean steamships in the Atlantic and Polar seas. 

Altogether 193 stations have been supplied with printed schedules for 
registering observations, and returns have been sent in from 118. The 
number of schedules returned from each station varies considerably, and 
is in some degree dependent on the interest taken in the subject by the 
observers, but chiefly perhaps on the position of the station being fayour- 

__ ably or otherwise situated for observation. 

The usual number of schedules returned from a station is one or two; 
in many cases this is greatly exceeded. The Pentland Skerries, Isle of 
May, and Inner Farn Island lighthouses, have sent in fourteen, twelve, 
and nine respectively. The total number of schedules returned is greatly 
in excess of previous years, and the labour of arranging, tabulating, and 
reporting thereon has been considerably increased. 

The Committee have this year added a new feature to their report in 
an outline map of the British Isles, showing the stations, marked in red. 
This map has been prepared by Messrs. McFarlane and Erskine, of Edin- 


* Report on the Migration of Birds in the Spring and Autumn of 1884. West, 
Newman, & Co., 54 Hatton Garden, London, E.C. 


686 REPORT—-1885. 


burgh. It will prove a useful and valuable addition to the report, and a 
great assistance to readers and observers. 

The report shows that on the east coast of England a great move- 
ment was carried on for six months in the autumn and winter of 1884-5 
The schedules returned indicate that no one place had special preference, 
and that the inflow of migrants was equally distributed over the entire 
coast line. 

The southerly movement of migrants was well established in July, and 
from this time to the end of the third week in January 1885 there was 
a steady flow, with slight intermissions, of birds either passing along the 
coast to the south or moving directly inland, the vast majority coming 
from the east across the North Sea, and moving westward or in westerly 
directions. Occasionally there have been heavy rushes or persistent bird 
waves, continuous for days and even weeks. 

The periods of migration occupied by different species vary greatly, 
from four weeks to as many months; no general rule can be laid down 
in this respect. 

There was an immense and continuous rush on to the coast from the 
middle of October (15th) to the end of the month, migrants arriving 
continuously night and day. This rush was continued at some of the 
stations with but slight intermissions to the middle of November. 

On the east coast of Scotland, whilst desultory movements continued 
during September and October, the heaviest rushes are recorded in the 
middle of November. 

The last fortnight in October is the average annual period of what may 
be called the ‘ great rush’ of immigrants on to the east coast of England. 

In previous reports attention has been drawn to the fact of a migration 
in opposite directions going on at the same time over the North’Sea. 
This is observed more particularly at south-eastern stations, on light- 
vessels moored at many miles distance from the nearest land, where, 
during the spring and autumn, the same species of birds, as crows, rooks, 
jackdaws, starlings, larks, sparrows, buntings, and finches, are recorded 
crossing the North Sea, moving from opposite quarters and passing both 
towards the British coast and towards the Continent. This apparently 
abnormal movement in opposite directions is again indicated in the 
autumn and spring of 1884-5. 

With very few exceptions, the vast majority of our British birds, such 
as are generally considered habitual residents—the young invariably, the 
old intermittingly—leave these islands in the autumn, their place being 
taken by others, not always necessarily of the same species, coming from 
more northern latitudes, or from districts of Eastern Europe, where, on 
the approach of winter, the conditions of locality and food-supply are 
found less favourable to existence. These immigrants on the approach of 
spring leave, moving back to the Continent on the same lines, but in the 
reverse direction to those traversed in the autumn; at the same time, 
also, our own birds return from the Continent to their nesting-quarters 
in these islands. 

The notes under the head of separate species indicate several move- 
ments of special interest. Blackbirds have crossed the North Sea in extra- 
ordinary numbers, commencing on September 12 and throughout October, 
and immense numbers in November ; on the 11th, 12th, and 13th the rush 
appears to have been continuons, night and day, over the whole coast 
line ; after this intermittent to the end of the third week in January 1885. 


ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 687 


Another very interesting feature is the occurrence of the Arctic blue- 
throat in considerable numbers between September 8 and 18; eighty 
to one hundred were observed in one locality on the Norfolk coast on 
the 12th. 

The migration of the gold-crested wren was very pronounced. The 
first are recorded on August 28, and after this at various stations up to 
_ November 22. 

Tt is rather remarkable that, with one exception (gold-crests seen 
inland in North-east Lincolnshire, on November 22, which may have 
arrived at an earlier date), the migration of this small species on the 
east and west coasts of England commenced at the same date, August 
28, and also ended on the same date, November 16. 

On the night of October 4, the time of the total eclipse of the moon, 
during the hours of greatest darkness, between 9 and 12 p.m., as observed 
by a member of the Committee,! gold-crests were striking the lantern of 
the Isle of May hghthouse. There is evidence also of other rushes of gold- 
crests at some of the Scotch stations during the hours of the eclipse. On 
the Irish coast the same night, at the South Maiden’s lighthouse twenty 
struck at 10 p.m., and at Rathlin Island lighthouse the same number 
were taken at midnight. 

Pied flycatchers arrived in large numbers from August 16 to Sep- 
tember 17. Across Heligoland also there was a great migration between 
the same dates. 

Reference is also made in the report to the great arrival of this 
species during the first week in May, 1885, observed at stations ranging 
from Yarmouth to the Pentland Skerries. At Flamborough the fly- 
catchers arrived with a N.E. wind, and were accompanied by male red- 
starts. In their next report the Committee hope to be able to give full 
details of this remarkable immigration. 

Immense numbers of ring-doves are shown to have crossed from the 
Continent between October 21 and the end of November. This immigra- 
tion appears to have covered the coast between Berwick and Yarmouth ; 
on our northern coast, for nine days, between November 20 and 28, the 
rush was continuous. Large numbers of stock doves also crossed during 
the same period. 

The main body of woodcocks generally arrive in two flights, known 
to east-coast sportsmen as the ‘first flight,’ and after this the ‘great 
flight.’ In the autumn of 1884 the immigration of this species was most 
prolonged, commencing on September 1, and continuing onward to 
January 20, 1885, or 142 days. Four distinct rushes or flights are indi- 
cated : October 5 and 6, another on the 10th to the 16th, a third, probably 
the ‘great flight,’ on the 28th; and again a very large flight between 
November 11 and 13—a flight which also extended very far north, to 
the Pentland Skerries. The dates of the chief flights across Heligoland 
will be found to correlate very closely with the arrivals on the east coast. 
Very few woodcocks are recorded from the west coast of England. The 
notes, however, taken from October 8 to 14, at the Nash Hast Lighthouse 
in the Bristol Channel, on this species are very interesting. The mean 
_ time of arrival may be fixed at 3.30 a.m. On the 8th a bird, after flying 

round the light, went off in a south-westerly direction. It is fair to presume 
that these woodcocks formed part of the great flight which we know 


1 Mr. J. A. Harvie-Brown. 


688 REPORT—1885. 


crossed Heligoland from the 12th to the 15th, and are also shown to have 
arrived on the east coast between October 10 and 16. Woodcocks 
migrate by night, and probably start on their journey in the dusk of 
evening. Supposing them to have left the coast of Denmark at 5 p.m., 
and travelling from north-east to south-west across Heligoland, so as to 
arrive at the Nash light at or about 3.30 a.m., the distance traversed would 
be 550 miles in 103 hours, or about 52 miles an hour, a rate of progress, 
from what we know of the flight of birds, probably nearly the correct 
one. A large majority of the various birds which strike the lanterns of 
west coast lighthouses do so between midnight and daybreak, which is 
suggestive of a continuous and uninterrupted flight across the North Sea 
and the breadth of England. 

An unusually extensive migration of gulls to the Scotch coasts was 
remarked in 1884, in connection with the vast swarms of sprats or 
‘ garvies ’ (Clupea sprattus), themselves following and feeding on countless 
myriads of minute marine creatures. This aggregation has been attri- 
buted, and perhaps with reason (though it is a point on which the Com- 
mittee has not sufficient information to decide), to the vast accumulation 
of ice west of Spitzbergen in the summer of 1884, and the consequent 
lowering of the temperature of the sea, which cause has impelled and 
driven southward the fish food along the course of the milder Gulf Stream 
to the uttermost limits of its possible extension, the firths and inlets of 
the east coast of Scotland. 

As a rule very few of our rarer immigrants are recorded from the 
east coast of Scotland. The king-eider was seen off the Isle of May on 
September 24, and the black redstart is recorded from the same station 
and Pentland Skerries. On the east coast of England, besides the blue- 
throats, already noticed, several rare and casual visitants have been 
recorded during the autumn: two examples of the barred warbler, one 
at Spurn Point and another on the Norfolk coast; the icterine warbler, 
also on the Norfolk coast; and an ortolan, likewise from the same 
locality. The Lapland bunting, in Lincolnshire and Norfolk; Tengmalm’s 
owl, in Holderness; and a rose-coloured starling, near Spurn. 

On the west coast of England the report embraces notes on some rare 
and interesting species, including the white wagtail, Pallas’s grey shrike, 
waxwing, Cassin’s snow-goose, garganey teal, red-necked phalarope, 
ruff, black tern; whilst the scarcity or entire absence of the tree 
sparrow, hooded crow, and brent goose, and the presence of the bernacle 
goose, are of interest to one accustomed to east-coast observations. The 
capture, too, of eight storm-petrels at the South Bishop, on October 14, 
is a noteworthy incident. The lanterns vary not a little in their death- 
dealing attractions, those of the Bardsey, South Bishop, Smalls, Nash (E), 
Godrevy, and Eddystone lighthouses being most seductive, occasionally 
vommanding no less than two hundred victims in a single night. 

From the Irish coasts it is reported that in 1884 the number of birds 
was equal to, and in a few instances above, the average. 

The great bulk of migrants arrive on the southern half of the east 
coast of Ireland, and on the easternmost of the southern counties—in 
other words, along the shore extending from Dublin to Waterford, 
and having its limits at Rockabill Lighthouse and Dungarvan Lighthouse. 

A marked migratory movement might be expected in the north- 
eastern counties between Scotland and Ireland, where the Irish Channel 
is narrowest ; but we do not find such to be the case. 


ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS. 689 


The usual course taken by birds seems to be either N.W. or S.E. 
The number of birds which only occur singly and do not seem to migrate 
in flocks is large. In such instances it is difficult to trace the line of 
_ migration. 

The occurrences now noted of the Greenland falcon properly belong 

to the same flight that has already been noticed in last year’s report. 
; As might be expected, the snow bunting is of more frequent occur- 
_ rence on the western and northern coasts. A few remained as late as the 
first week in May, and it was again seen early in September, dates which 
have not hitherto been recorded in Ireland. Geese were also more 
numerous on the north and west coasts. 

A remarkable migration of the rook was observed at the Tearaght 
‘and Skelligs, both stations being several miles off the coast of Kerry. It 
lasted for three weeks, from November 2 to 20, the direction of flight 
‘being from west to east. The light-keepers were puzzled to know whence 

the birds could have come, the nearest land to the west being America, in 

which this species is not found. 

Mr. Giatke’s Heligoland notes, from June 28 to the end of the year, 
__-comprise 118 species, including, as usual, several rare visitors to the 
ornithological observatory :—Icterine Warblers on Aug. 18; <Anthus 
_ richardi, Sept. 3 to Oct. 12: A. campestris, Sept.4; Carpodacus erythrinus, 
H Sept. 9; Anthus cervinus, a great many, from Sept. 15 to Oct. 12; Lanius 
: major, in most unusual numbers, from. Sept. 17 to Nov. 4; Alauda 


cristata, Sept. 30 and Oct. 1; Sawicola stapazina (?), Oct. 2; Turdus 
varius, Oct. 3, 12, and 23, one each day: Bmberiza pusilla, Oct. 5, two; 
 Turdus migratorius, one on Oct. 14; Fringilla rufescens, our English red- 
_ poll, one on Noy. 22. Besides these large numbers of continental species, 
__ which are classed amongst the rare and occasional visitants to the British 
Islands, and whose line of migration is normally far to eastward of these 
‘ ‘islands, as Hmberiza hortulana, Motacilla flava, M. alba, Cyanecula suecica, 
_ Anthus rupestris, Plectrophanes lapponicus, Otocorys alpestris, Nyctala 
tengmalmi, Ruticilla titys, Regulus ignicapillus, and Larus minutus. 
The great rush of birds crossed Heligoland during the last fortnight 
‘in October, and appears to have come directly across to our eastern 
‘shores. Mr. Giitke remarks, under date Oct. 24, S.E., clear, fine, early 
‘rather cold, C. corniz, C. frugilegus, and C. monedula, ‘monstrous 
numbers ;’’ corniz and monedula mixed in uninterrupted flights of ten and 
‘twelve minates each, continued with but short interruptions or gaps; 
_ width as far as the eye could reach in northerly and southerly directions ; 
-and thus from 9 a.m. till 1 p.m. Stwrnus, ‘a succession of clouds sweeping 
_ past overhead.’ 

The Committee have again to thank Professor Chr. Fr. Liitken, of 
Copenhagen, for a list of the birds killed against the lighthouse of Stevns, 
on the projecting part of Zealand, marking the limit between the Baltic 
and Oresund. 
___Inconclusion your Committee would take the opportunity of thanking 
the Master and Elder Brethren of the Trinity House, the Commissioners 
-of Northern Lights, and the Commissioners of Irish Lights for their 
“ready co-operation and assistance, through their intelligent officers and 
-men, in the inquiry. 

The Committee respectfully request their reappointment. 


ae 


690 REPORT—1885. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of General Sir J. H. Lerroy, 
Lieut.-Colonel GopwiN-AUsTEN, Mr. W. T. BLANnrorp, Mr. 
ScLaTER, Mr. CarruTHEers, Mr. THISELTON-DyeER, Professor 
StruTHERS, Mr. G. W. Bioxam, Mr. H. W. Bates (Secretary), 
Lord ALFRED CHURCHILL, Mr. F. GALTON, and Professor MOSsELEY, 
appointed for the purpose of furthering the Exploration of New 
Guinea, by making a grant to Mr. Forbes for the purposes of his 
expedition. 


THE Committee beg leave to report that the grant of 2001. voted by 
the Association towards the expenses of Mr. H. O. Forbes’ expedition was 
paid to Mr. Forbes on January 9 last, and that he sailed from England 
early in April. In a letter from Batavia, dated June 30, Mr. Forbes says 
that he arrived at that port on May 8, and that his time in the interval 
had been occupied in a journey to Amboyna and back, made for the 
purpose of securing the services of four hunters, whose abilities and 
fidelity had been tested on his former journeys in various islands of the 
Archipelago. The four hunters had been engaged, as also twenty native 
carriers, a number which it would be necessary to increase to twenty-five. 
He had arranged to leave Batavia in the steamer for Thursday Island, 
Torres Straits, about July 15, and hoped to reach that station on the 
20th of the same month. At Thursday Island he would be joined by his 
assistant, Mr. Thiele, and would then decide whether he would make the 
southern coast of New Guinea, near Port Moresby, his starting point into 
the interior, or Dyke-Acland Bay on the north-eastern coast. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of General Sir J. H. Lerroy, 
the Rev. Canon Carver, Mr. F. Gatron, Mr. P. L. Scuater, 
Professor MosreLry, Dr. E. B. TyLor, Professor Boyp Dawkins, 
Mr. G. W. BLoxam, and Mr. H. W. Bares (Secretary), appointed 
for the purpose of furthering the scientific examination of the 
country in the vicinity of Mount Roraima in Guiana, by making 
a grant to Mr. Everard F.im Thurn for the purposes of his 
expedition. 

THE Committee beg leave to report that the sum of 1001. granted by 
the Association has been paid to Mr. Everard im Thurn, whose report, 
together with the map of the neighbourhood of the mountain from the 
surveys of Mr. H. J. Perkins, a member of Mr. im Thurn’s expedition, 
was published in the number for August, 1885, of the ‘ Proceedings of 
the Royal Geographical Society,’ who had contributed 200]. towards the 
cost of the expedition. 


ON THE SURVEY OF PALESTINE. 691 


Report of the Committee, consisting of the Rey. Canon TRIsTRaAM, 
the Rev. F. Lawrence, and Mr. James GLalsHER (Secretary), 
appointed for the purpose of promoting the Survey of Palestine. 


_ Tue Survey of Eastern Palestine has been carried on during the last 


year privately by Herr G. Schumacher, C.E., assisted by Mr. Laurence 
Oliphant, who has also furnished the Committee with valuable notes of 
personal exploration in the district now called Junlan—the ancient 
Gaulanitis. The portion surveyed by Herr Schumacher consists of about 
200 square miles, and covers an area previously quite unknown. The 
map, which is now in the hands of the Committee, is accompanied by 
Yoluminous memoirs and a great number of sketches, drawings, and 
plans of ruins figured for the first time. These drawings are now in the 
hands of the engravers, and it is proposed to publish them, with the 
memoirs, in October. The map will be laid down on the sheet to which 
it belongs. It is hoped that Herr Schumacher may be able to continue 
working in this way for the Society, so that, though it may be found 
impossible to send, as before, a large and well equipped party of Royal 


_ Engineers to survey the country, we may yet be continuously working, 


always extending our map, and acquiring new knowledge of this little- 
visited district. As regards other portions of the Holy Land, the map 
of the Wady Arabah has been laid down in the Society’s sheets; the 
geological memoirs compiled by Professor Hull after his expedition of 
1883-1884 are nearly ready, and will be issued before the end of the year; 


_ and the Society has been enabled to secure Mr. Chichester Hart’s Natural 


History memoir, made from new observations during the same journey. 
In addition to Mr. Laurence Oliphant’s paper, the Committee have 
received from Mr. Guy le Strange, and published, observations and notes 
made by him during a recent journey east of Jordan. The results of the 


_ Survey, so far as it has been completed, will appear in a map reduced to 


a scale of about three miles to an inch, showing the country on both sides 
of the river Jordan, instead of on the western side only. The Old and 
New Testament names, with tribe boundaries and later divisions, have 
also been prepared for this map, and will be printed upon it in colour. 
A list of ancient names with modern identifications has been prepared, and 
will be issued with it. This portion of the work is under the direction 
of Colonel Sir Charles Wilson, K.C.M.G., F.R.S. The Society has also 
issued during the last year a popular account, by Professor Hull, of his 
recent journey, called ‘Mount Seir,’ and reprints of Captain Conder’s 
popular books ‘ Tent Work in Palestine,’ and ‘Heth and Moab.’ Finally, 
the Committee have completed the issue of their great work, the ‘ Survey 
of Western Palestine,’ with the last volumes of ‘ Jerusalem,’ the ‘ Flora 
and oo and a portfolio of plates showing the excavations and their 
‘Tesults, 


- 
. 


692 REPORT—1885. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. J. H. GLADSTONE 
(Secretary), Mr. WitLiaMm SHaEN, Mr. STEPHEN BourNE, Miss 
Lyp14 Becker, Sir Jonn Lupzock, Bart., Dr. H. W. CRossKEy, 
Sir RicHARD TEMPLE, Sir Henry E. Roscor, Mr. JAMES HEYwoop, 
and Professor N. Story MASKELYNE, appointed for the purpose 
of continuing the inquiries relating to the teaching of Science 
in Elementary Schools. 


THE principal duty of your Committee is to watch the course of legisla- 
tive action as far as it has any bearing on the teaching of science in 
elementary schools; and naturally the annual modifications of the 
Educational Code claim the first consideration. This year, however, 
these modifications have been exceedingly small, and there is but one 
which affects the teaching of science, and that only indirectly. : 

Drawing has been made a class subject in the schools, and is to take 
its place with English, geography, elementary science, history, and 
needlework (for girls). Grants may be earned for three of these 
subjects. If one only is taken, it still must be ‘English.’ If three of 
these are taken, one of them must be ‘drawing’; but if two are taken, 
the choice of the second subject lies between any of those that come 
after ‘English.’ Hence the addition of drawing reduces the chance of 
either of the scientific class subjects (geography or elementary science) 
being taught in elementary schools. . - 

The Revised Instructions to Her Majesty’s Inspectors issued this year 
contain the following additional clauses on geography, which meet with 
your Committee’s entire approval :—‘ Geographical teaching is sometimes 
too much restricted to the pointing out of places on a map, and to the 
enumeration of such details as the names of rivers, towns, capes, and 
political divisions. It is hardly necessary to say that geography, if 
taught to good purpose, includes also a description of the physical aspects 
of the countries, and seeks to establish some associations between the 
names of places and those historical, social, or industrial facts which 
alone make the names of places worth remembering. It is especially 
desirable in your examination of the Fourth and higher Standards, that 
attention should be called to the English colonies and their productions, 
government, and resources, and to those climatic and other conditions 
which render our distant possessions suitable fields for emigration, and 
for honourable enterprise.’ 

As to the effect of the regulations on the teaching of these class 
subjects, the annual return of the Education Department shows that the 
teaching of geography is actually diminishing in our schools, and that 
elementary science has scarcely gained a footing. The following table 
shows the position of affairs, the figures for 1882-3 being calculated on 
the basis that the departments examined in the last four months of that 
year were 31'1 per cent. of the whole :— 


Class Subjects 1882-3 | 1883-4 | 

se i =e 

Geography . Departments : - - 12,823 | 12,775 
Elementary Science 54 : 4 : , 48 51 
History . 5 s * : - : . 367 382 | 
Needlework . g _ , , 3 : 5,286 5,929 1 
18,524 19,137 


rr 


ON THE TEACHING OF SCIENCE IN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. 693 


In regard to the scientific specific subjects, the following are the 
numbers of children individually examined, the figures for the year 
1882-3 being computed as before :— 


Specific Subjects | 1882-3 1883-4 

Algebra. 2S. Si. «Children Sw iwtistd|:Ctié BAT 24,787 | 

Euclid and Mensuration it : e =] 1,942 2,010 { 
Mechanics, A. ; ‘ % : 3 +5] 2,042 3,174 
P B. ” ‘ z : : : 206 
Animal Physiology , = : ‘ , 22,759 22,857 
Botany . ‘ : ‘ 5 4 3,280 2,604 
Principles of Agriculture - , f ? 1,357 1,859 

Chemistry . ; , x§ E p | 1,183 1,047 | 
Sound, Light, and Heat 5 : : | 630 1,253 
Magnetism and Electricity _,, 4 ¢ 3,643 3,244 
Domestic Economy , p : ‘ ; 19,582 21,458 
Extra (Physiography) . 7 ; i 4 —o 16 
82,965 84,515 


It will be seen that a slight increase has taken place in the aggregate 
number, but this is not at all in proportion to the increase in the number 
of children presented in Standards V., VI, and VII,—viz. 286,355 in 
1882-5, and 325,205 in 1883-4, Next year’s return will indicate more 
clearly what changes are taking place in the popularity of the different 
subjects ; but it would appear that botany is decreasing, while mechanics, 
sound, light, and heat, and the principles of agriculture are making a 
decided advance. 

This increase in the study of mechanics is no doubt partly due to the 
peripatetic method of teaching this subject which has proved so success- 
ful in Liverpool and Birmingham. It has just been commenced in one 
district in London. 

The Report of the Committee of Council on Education, which has 
just been issued, makes the following comments on the small extent to 
which science is taught in our elementary schools :— 

‘The wider range of class subjects allowed by the Code under the 
head of “‘ Elementary Science” does not appear to be taken advantage 
of to any great extent at present.’ 

‘As to specific subjects . . . only 20°49 percent. of the scholars 
eligible for examination in a specific subject have been so examined.’ 

It also draws attention to the proportionate amount of the Govern- 
ment grant paid for instruction in the various subjects in the boys’ and 
girls’ schools (excluding infants). It would appear that, out of a total of 
17s. 24d. per head, less than 13d. is for specific subjects, while 84d. is 
given for singing alone. 

It should, however, be mentioned that a few more children are study- 
ing some branch of science in classes under the Science and Art Depart.- 
ment in some of our best schools. 

In regard to technical education, it will be remembered that at the 
Southport meeting a recommendation was passed that this Committee 
‘be requested to consider the desirableness of making representations to 
the Lords of the Committee of Her Majesty’s Privy Council on Education 
in favour of aid being extended towards the fitting up of workshops 


5 


694. REPORT—1885. 


in connection with elementary day schools or evening classes, and of 
making grants on the results of practical instruction in such workshops 
under suitable direction, and, if necessary, to communicate with the 
Council.’ 

The Committee awaited the appearance of the second report of the 
Royal Commissioners on Technical Instruction, and at the meeting at 
Montreal merely expressed a thorough approval of the recommendations 
of the said Commissioners :—‘ That proficiency in the use of tools for 
working in wood and iron be paid for as a specific subject, arrangements 
being made for the work being done, so far as practicable, out of school 
hours. That special grants be made to schools in aid of collections of 
natural objects, casts, drawings, &c., suitable for school museums.’ 

Last February, however, your Committee reported to the Council that 
they did consider it desirable to make representations to the Education 
Department, and suggested that the encouragement for the teaching of 
handicraft might take the form of that recommended by the Royal Com- 
missioners on Technical Instruction ; or that ‘the use of tools’ in boys’ 
schools might be placed in the same position as ‘practical cookery’ in 
girls’ schools. The Council received the report, but did not see their way 
to proceed further in the matter. 

In the meantime, a very interesting experiment is being made by the 
Birmingham Board at the Bridge Street Seventh Standard School. This 
is an attempt to add to the education given in the public elementary 
schools a practical training in the use of ordinary workshop tools and 
sound elementary instruction in those sciences and arts upon which the 
trades and manufactures of Birmingham are based, such as theoretical 
and practical mechanics, chemistry, electricity, model and machine draw- 
ing, and the principles of machinery. Although it is necessary to pre- 
pare for examinations by Her Majesty’s Inspector under the Code, all 
the subjects are taught on lines which will have a practical and technical 
bearing. A two years’ course of instruction has been arranged, the sub- 
jects taken being :—Arithmetic, algebra, Euclid, theoretical chemistry, 
practical chemistry, drawing (solid geometry, free-hand), In the second 
year electricity is added. 

The London Board has just arranged an experiment for teaching the 
use of tools toa class of boys on Saturday mornings in the Carlton Road 
school. It is confined to working in wood, and follows the plans adopted 
in the Sloyd system, which is carried out to such a large extent in 
Sweden, and has been introduced into some other parts of the Continent. 
It is proposed also to try another experiment at Beethoven Street 
School, Kensal, with Seventh Standard boys. It will take more the form 
of practical carpentry. 


ON PATENT LEGISLATION. 695 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Sir FREDERICK BRAMWELL 
(Secretary), Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Professor Sir WILLIAM 
Tuomson, Mr. St. Jonn Vincent Day, Sir F. ABEL, Captain 
Doveias Gaiton, Mr. E. H. Carsutr, Mr. Macrory, Mr. H. 
TRUEMAN Woop, Mr. W. H. Bartow, Mr. A. T. AtcHtson, Sir R. 
KE. Wesster, Mr. A. CARPMAEL, Sir JoHN Luspock, Mr. THEODORE 
Aston, and Mr. JAMES BRUNLEES, appointed for the purpose of 
watching and reporting to the Council on Patent Legislation. 


On August 14, 1885, an Act was passed entitled ‘An Act to amend 
the Patents Designs and Trades Marks Act’ of 1883. 

This amending Act consists of six sections, the first and second of 
which relate to matters of form. 

The third section deals with an extension of time which under certain 
circumstances might be allowed for the reception of the complete 
specification and for the sealing of the patent. 

The fourth section is a very important one. It provides for that which 
the members of this Committee and the Committee of the Society of Arts 
desired to see introduced into the Act of 1883, viz., that where an 
application for a patent has not been perfected, the specification, with its 
drawings, if any, left in connection with the application, shall not at any 
time be open to public inspection or be published by the Comptroller. 

In the view of the Committee this isa most salutary provision. As 
the law stood, the publication of crude and immature ideas, meaningless 
at the time, but to which a meaning might be given when.success had 
been attained by some independent inventor, frequently prevented such 
inventor from obtaining a valid patent, to the great loss of the public as 
well as of himself. 

In at length introducing this provision into the Patent Act, the 
Government has followed the plan pursued in the United States in respect 
of the document which, so far as its citizens are concerned, is the equivalent 
of our provisional specification. 

The Committee regard this fourth section with great satisfaction, as 
showing that it is at last recognised to be for the benefit of the public not 
to throw open new inventions, but to give an inventor the strong personal 
interest which induces him to push his invention into practical work. In 
fact, the truth of the oft-quoted saying of the late Sir William Siemens, 
that ‘if an invention were found lying in the gutter, it would be in the 
interest of the public to assign it to some person as owner,’ is admitted. 

Section 5 is also important as clearing up a doubt whether, under the 
Act of 1883, a patent could be lawfully granted to two or more persons, 
when some of the persons to whom it was granted had not had any part 
in the invention. Section 5 of this Act of 1885 declares that it has 
been, and is, lawful, under the Act of 1883, to grant a patent under such 
circumstances. 

The sixth and last section relates to a slight, but not unimportant, 
alteration in section 103 of the Act of 1883. This section (section 103) 
has not yet attracted as much public attention as its importance demands. 
Many of the Governments of Europe, including Great Britain, have 
entered into a Convention by which they are endeavouring to introduce an 
International Patent Law. It has been officially announced that England 


696 REPORT—1 885. 


has complied with all necessary formalities, so that it is to be assumed 
that this law is already in force. Its effect will not be inconsiderable = 
as the date of applying for a patent in any country of the Union fixes. 
the time from which the applicant may be entitled to a patent in all the 
other countries, even though he may not apply in the other countries for 
a considerable time after having made application in his own, and even 
though others may have applied in the meantime. Section 103 of the- 
1885 Act provided in effect that if Her Majesty became a party to the- 
Convention, an applicant from any of the States of the Union should be- 
entitled to an English patent in priority to other applicants, and that his. 
patent should have the same date as the date of the protection obtained 
in such foreign State. The amendment made by the sixth section of the- 
Amending Act is to change the words ‘ date of the protection’ which occur 
in section 103 of the Principal Act, into ‘date of the application,’ which. 
seems to be more in accordance with the terms of the Convention. 

The Committee desire to be reappointed, in order to be in a position 
to watch the working of the Principal Act, of this Supplementary Act, and 
of the International Convention, and to report upon any amendments 
that may be proposed in any of them. 

The Committee would be glad for the grant of 5/. for expenses to be 
renewed. 


Report of the Committee, consisting of Dr. E. B. TyLor, Dr. G. M. 
Dawson, General Sir J. H. Lerroy, Dr. DanreEL Winson, Mr. 
Horatio Hate, Mr. R. G. Hauisurton, and Mr. GEorGE W. 
BioxamM (Secretary), appointed for the purpose of investigating 
and publishing reports on the physical characters, languages, 
industrial and social condition of the North-western Tribes of the 
Dominion of Canada. 


THE Committee have been in active correspondence with missionaries. 
and others stationed among the Indians, but the unsettled state of the 
country during the past year has made it impossible to do more than 
collect materials for a preliminary report; the Committee, therefore, ask 
that they may be reappointed, with a continuance of the grant. 


Report on the Blackfoot Tribes. Drawn up by Mr. Horatio Hale. 


The tribes composing the Blackfoot Confederacy, as it is commonly 
styled—in some respects the most important and interesting Indian com- 
munities of the North-west—have been until recently less known than 
any others. It seemed, therefore, that the best contribution which a 
single member could make to the general report of the Committee would 
-be a special study of these tribes. This view was confirmed by the 
opinion of President Wilson, the only other member of the Committee 
who was near enough for me to consult with. With his aid a corre- 
spondence was opened with two able and zealous missionaries residing 
among these Indians, both of whom have replied most courteously and 
liberally to my inquiries. These are the Rev. Albert Lacombe, widely 
and favourably known as Father Lacombe, Roman Catholic Missionary 
among the Siksika, or proper Blackfeet Indians, and the Rev. John 
McLean, Missionary of the Canadian Methodist Church to the Blood and 


ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 697 


Piegan (or Kena and Piekané) tribes. Father Lacombe has been many 
years a missionary in the Canadian North-west, and has a very extensive 
knowledge of the tribes of that region. His elaborate work, the ‘Gram- 
mar and Dictionary of the Cree Language,’ ranks among the best contri- 
butions to American philology. Mr. McLean has been engaged in his 
missionary duties for five years, has prepared a grammar of the Blackfoot 
language, and is at present occupied in translating the Scriptures into 
that tongue ; he has been most considerate in furnishing the information 
which was requested on behalf of the Committee, and is now making 
special researches for this object. 

The unfortunate troubles of the past season have for a time inter- 
rupted the correspondence, and have left the investigations necessarily 
incomplete. The principal portion of the report on these Indians will 
therefore have to be deferred for another year. It has seemed advisable, 
however, to submit a summary of the knowledge now obtained by way of 
introduction to the fuller account which the Committee may be able to 
render hereafter. With this view some other sources of information 
have been examined, particularly the valuable official reports and maps 
of the Canadian and United States Indian Departments, which have been 
obligingly furnished by those Departments for this purpose. 

Fifty years ago the Blackfoot Confederacy held among the western 
tribes much the same position of superiority which was held two centu- 
ries ago by the Iroquois Confederacy (then known as the ‘ Five Nations ’) 
among the Indians east of the Mississippi. The tribes of the former con- 
federacy were also, when first known, five in number. The nucleus, or 
main body, was—as it still is—composed of three tribes, speaking the 
proper Blackfoot language. These are the Siksika, or Blackfeet proper, 
the Kena, or Blood Indians, and the Piekané, or Piegans (pronounced 
Peegans), a name sometimes corrupted to ‘Pagan’ Indians. To these 
are to be added two other tribes, who joined the original confederacy, or, 
perhaps more properly speaking, came under its protection. These were 
the Sarcees from the north, and the Atsinas from the south. The Sarcees 
are an offshoot of the great Athabascan stock, which is spread over the 
north of British America, in contact with the Eskimo, and extends in 
scattered bands—the Umpquas, Apaches, and others—through Oregon 
and California into Northern Mexico. The Atsinas, who have been 
variously known from the reports of Indian traders as Fall Indians, Rapid 
Indians, and Gros Ventres, speak a dialect similar to that of the Arapo- 
hoes, who now reside in the ‘ Indian Territory’ of the United States. It 
is a peculiarly harsh and difficult language, and is said to be spoken only 
by those two tribes. None of the Atsinas are now found on Canadian 
territory, and no recent information has been obtained concerning them, 
except from the map which accompanies the United States Indian Report 
for 1884, and on which their name appears on the American Blackfoot 
Reservation. 

The five tribes were reckoned fifty years ago to comprise not less 
than thirty thousand souls. Their numbers, union, and warlike spirit 
made them the terror of all the western Indians on both sides of the 
Rocky Mountains. It was not uncommon for thirty or forty war parties 
to be out at once against the Salish (or Flatheads) of Oregon, the Upsa- 
rokas (or Crows) of the Missouri plains, the Shoshonees of the far south, 
and the Crees of the north and east. The country which the Blackfoot 
tribes claimed properly as their own comprised the valleys and plains 


698 REPORT—1885. 


along the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains, between the Missouri and 
the Saskatchewan. This region was the favourite resort of the buffalo, 
whose vast herds afforded the Indians their principal means of subsistence. 
In the year 1836 a terrible visitation of the small-pox swept off two-thirds 
of the people, and five years later they were supposed to count not more 
than fifteen hundred tents, or about ten thousand souls. Their enemies 
were then recovering their spirits, and retaliating upon the weakened 
tribes the ravages which they had formerly committed. 

In 1855 the United States Government humanely interfered to bring 
about a complete cessation of hostilities between the Blackfoot tribes and 
the other Indians. The Commissioners appointed for the purpose sum- 
moned the hostile tribes together, and framed a treaty for them, accom- 
panying the act by a large distribution of presents. This judicious 
proceeding proved effectual. Dr. F. V. Hayden in his account of the 
Indian Tribes of the Missouri Valley (published in the ‘Transactions of 
the American Philosophical Society for 1862’), states that from the 
period of this treaty the Blackfoot tribes had become more and more 
peaceful in their habits, and were considered, when he wrote, the best 
disposed Indians in the North-west. He remarks that their earlier repu- 
tation for ferocity was doubtless derived from their enemies, who always 
gave them ample cause for attacking them. He adds: ‘From my own 
experience among them, and from information derived from intelligent 
men who have spent the greater portion of their lives with them, I am 
convinced that they are among the most peaceable and honourable 
Indians in the West ; and in an intellectual and moral point of view they 
take the highest rank among the wild tribes of the plains.’ 

This favourable opinion of Dr. Hayden, it may be added, is entirely 
in accordance with the testimony of the Indian agents and other officials 
of the Canadian North-west, who place the Blackfeet decidedly above 
the surrounding tribes in point of intelligence and honesty. At the 
present time, while constantly harassed on their reserves by the incur- 
sions of thievish Crees and other Indians, who rob them of their horses, 
they forbear to retaliate, and honourably abide by the terms of their treaty, 
which binds them to leave the redress of such grievances to the 
Dominion authorities. It has seemed proper to dwell upon this point, 
as the marked differences of character among the Indian tribes has been 
too little regarded. As a question of science and a matter of public 
policy, these differences deserve a careful study. The good disposition 
manifested by the Blackfoot tribes during the recent disturbances has 
displayed their natural character, and has been a fact of the utmost 
value to the welfare of the new settlements. 

Since the general peace was established by the American Government 
the numbers of the Blackfeet have apparently been on the increase. Dr. 
Hayden reports the three proper Blackfeet tribes as numbering in 1855 
about 7,000 souls. The present population of the three Canadian 
Reserves is computed at about 6,000, divided as follows: Blackfeet 
proper, 2,400; Bloods, 2,800; Piegans, 800. Onthe American Reserva- 
tion there are stated to be about 2,300, mostly Piegans. This would 
make the total population of the three tribes exceed 8,000 souls. The 
adopted tribe, the Sarcees, have greatly diminished in numbers through 
the ravages of the small-pox. In 1870 this disease raged among them 
with great virulence. They were then residing on the American side, in 
Montana. Mr. McLean writes: ‘An eye-witness told me that at the 


ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 699 


Maria’s River, in Montana, there stood fully one hundred lodges, and not 
one contained less than ten bodies. His estimate of dead Sarcees was 
1,500.’ This tribe, now numbering less than 500 souls, have their 
Reserve near Calgary. They are reputed to be less cleanly and moral 
than the proper Blackfeet tribes. In this respect their habits and cha- 
racter correspond with those of other Athabascan tribes. 

During the past five years, as is well known, a great change has taken 
place in the condition of the north-western tribes through the exter- 
mination of the buffalo. The transcontinental railways have brought 
into the interior great numbers of hunters, armed with the most de- 
structive weapons, who have engaged in a constant and reckless slaughter 
of these animals, until it is now doubtful if any are left alive. The 
Blackfeet have been the greatest sufferers from this cause. The buffalo 
were their main dependence. The animals, which roamed the plains 
during the summer, were accustomed to resort to the sheltered and 
wooded valleys of the Blackfoot country during the winter; and thus the 
tribes were assured of a supply of food at all seasons. The skins 
furnished their clothing, their tents, and their couches. Suddenly, 
almost without warning, they found themselves stripped of nearly every 
necessary of life. The change was one of the greatest that could well 
befall a community. If the inhabitants of an English parish were 
suddenly transported to the centre of Australia, and set down there, 
utterly destitute, to make a living by some unknown methods of tropical 
agriculture, they would hardly be more helpless and bewildered than 
these unfortunate Indians found themselves. The Governments both 
of the United States and of Canada came to the rescue; but in the 
former country the urgency of the case was not at first fully understood, 
and much suffering ensued. The agent on the Blackfoot Reservation in 
Montana (Major Allen) states in his official report that when he entered 
upon his duties in April 1884 he found the Indians in a deplorable 
condition. The supplies of food which had been sent for them had 
proved insufficient, and before these could be renewed many died from 
actual starvation. Some stripped the bark from the saplings which grew 
along their creeks, and ate the inner portion to stifle the sense of hunger. 
On the Canadian side, fortunately, the emergency was better understood. 
Colonel McLeod, an able and vigilant officer, was in charge of the 
Mounted Police at that time, and through his forethought the necessary 
preparations were made. In 1879 and 1880 the buffalo disappeared from 
that region. Arrangements were at once made for settling the Indians 
on Reserves, and for supplying them with food and clothing, and teaching 
them to erect wooden houses and cultivate their lands. Daily rations of 
meat and flour were served out to them. Ploughs, cattle, and horses 
were furnished to them. Farm instructors were placed among them. 
The Indians displayed a remarkable readiness to adapt themselves to the 
new conditions. According to the reports of all the agents they have 
evinced a quickness to learn and a persevering industry which place 
them decidedly in advance of the other Indian tribes of that region. In 
1882 more than 500,000 lbs. of potatoes were raised by the three Blackfoot 
tribes, besides considerable quantities of oats, barley, and turnips. The 
Piegans had sold 1,000 dollars’ worth of potatoes, and had a large supply 
on hand. ‘The manner in which the Indians have worked,’ writes the 
agent, ‘is really astonishing, as is the interest they have taken, and are 
taking, in farming.’ Axes and other tools were distributed among them, 


5 


700 REPORT—1885. 


and were put to good use. In November 1882 the agent writes that 
log-houses had ‘ gone up thick and fast on the Reserves, and were most 
creditable to the builders.’ In many cases the logs were hewn, and in 
nearly all the houses fireplaces were built. In the same year another 
official—the Indian Commissioner—going through the Reserves, was 
surprised at the progress which he saw. He found comfortable dwell- 
ings, well-cultivated gardens, and good supplies of potatoes in root- 
houses. Most of the families had cooking stoves, for which they had 
sometimes paid as much as fifty dollars. He ‘saw many signs of civilisa- 
tion, such as cups and saucers, knives and forks, coal-oil lamps, and 
tables; and several of the women were baking excellent bread and 
performing other cooking operations.’ Three years before these Indians. 
were wild nomads, who lived in skin tents, hunted the buffalo, and had 
probably never seen a plough or an axe. These facts are recorded, not 
merely as gratifying to a sense of humanity, but for their bearing on the 
question of the natural capacity of uncivilised men. Impartial investiga- 
tion and comparison will probably show that, while some of the aboriginal 
communities of the American continent are low in the scale of intellect, 
others are equal in natural capacity, and possibly superior, to the highest 
of the Indo-European nations. The fundamental importance of this fact 
Gf such it is) to the science of anthropology must be the excuse for 
urging its consideration in connection with the present inquiry. 

The Blackfeet have been known to the whites for about a century, and 
during that period have dwelt in or near their present abode. There is 
evidence, however, that they once lived further east than at present. The 
explorer Mackenzie, in 1789, found them holding the south branch of the 
Saskatchewan, from its source to its junction with the north branch. He 
speaks of four tribes—the Picaneux, Blood, and Blackfeet, and the Fail 
Indians (Atsinas), which latter tribe then numbered about 700 warriors. 
Of the three former tribes he says: ‘They are a distinct people, speak a 
language of their own, and, I have reason to think, are travelling north- 
west, as well as the others just mentioned (the Atsinas) ; nor have I heard 
of any Indians with whose language that which they speak has any affinity.’ 

The result of Mr. McLean’s inquiries confirms this opinion of the 
westward movement of these Indians in comparatively recent times. 
‘The former home of these people,’ he writes, ‘was in the Red River 
country, where, from the nature of the soil which blackened their 
moccasins, they were called Blackfeet.’ This, it should be stated, is the 
exact meaning of Siksika, from siksinam, black; and ka, the root of 
ogkatsh, foot. The meaning of the other tribal names, Kena and Piekané, 
is unknown. That they were once significant cannot be doubted, but the 
natives are now unable to explain them, and use them merely as appella- 
tives. 

The westward movement of the Blackfeet has probably been due to 
the pressure of the Crees upon them. The Crees, according to their own 
tradition, originally dwelt far east of the Red River, in Labrador and 
about Hudson’s Bay. They have gradually advanced westward to the 
inviting plains along the Red River and the Saskatchewan, pushing the 
prior occupants before them by the sheer force of numbers. This will 
explain the deadly hostility which has always existed between the Crees 
and the Blackfeet. 

_ It will seem, at first view, a perplexing circumstance that M. Lacombe, 
who, of all authorities, should be the best informed on this subject, and 


P 
| ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 701 


_ who has himself recorded this westward movement of the Crees, is dis- 


posed to question the fact of the corresponding movement of the Black- 
feet. In his last letter, in reply to my inquiries, he expresses a doubt as 
to their former sojourn in the Red River region, and adds : ‘ They affirm, 
on the contrary, that they came from the south-west, across the moun- 
tains—that is, from the direction of Oregon and Washington Territory. 
There were’ (he adds) ‘bloody contests between the Blackfeet and the 
Nez-percés, as Bancroft relates, for the right of hunting on the eastern 
slope of the Rocky Mountains.’ Mr. McLean, who mentions the former 
residence of the Blackfeet in the Red River country as an undoubted 
fact, also says in the same letter, ‘It is supposed that the great ancestor 
of the Blackfeet came across the mountains.’ 

Here are two distinct and apparently conflicting traditions, each 
having good authority and evidence in its favour. One of the best tests 
of the truth of tradition is to be found in language. Applying this test 
in the present instance, we are led to some interesting conclusions, It 
has been seen that Mackenzie, to whom we owe our first knowledge of 
the Blackfoot tribes, declared that their language had no affinity with that 


of any other Indians whom he knew of. He was well acquainted with the 


Crees and Ojibways, who speak dialects of the great Algonkin stock, but 
he recognised no connection between their speech and that of the Black- 
feet. Another traveller (Umfreville), whose book was published in 1791, 
gave a list of forty-four words of the Blackfoot language. The dis- 
tinguished philologist Albert Gallatin, whose great work, the ‘ Synopsis 
of the Indian Tribes’ (which still remains the best authority on North 
American philology), appeared in 1836, examined this list of Umfreville, 
and pronounced it sufficient to show that the language of the Blackfeet 
was ‘different from any other known to us.’ A few years later he 
received from an Indian trader a more extended vocabulary, and he then, 
in a second memoir on the subject, corrected his former statement, and 
showed that there was a clear affinity between the Blackfoot speech and 
the language of the Algonkin family. More recently the French mission- 
aries made the same discovery, which seems to have been to them equally 
unexpected. M. Lacombe writes to me: ‘The Blackfoot language, 
although far from, belongs to the same family as the Algic, Ojibway, 
Sauteux, Maskegon, and Cree. We discovered this analogy by studying 
the grammatical rules of these languages.’ 

Here will be noticed the rather remarkable fact that some of the 


ablest and most experienced of North American linguists have at first 


supposed the Blackfoot language to be distinct from all others, and have 


only discovered its connection with the Algonkin family by careful study. 


M. Lacombe has been good enough to send mea pretty extensive vocabu- 
lary of Blackfoot words, compared with the corresponding words in the 
Cree and Ojibway languages. He has added what, for the purpose in 
view, is equally important—many paradigms of grammatical forms in the 


Blackfoot, compared with similar forms in the Cree and Ojibway tongues. 


The Blackfoot language is thus shown to be, in its grammar, purely 
Algonkin. The resemblance is complete in the minutest forms, and in 
examining these alone it would seem incomprehensible that any doubt of 
the connection of this language with that stock could have been enter- 
tained. But when we turn to the vocabulary, by which the first judg- 
ment of a language is necessarily formed, the origin of the early error 
becomes apparent. Many of the most common words are totally different 


702 REPORT—1885. 


from the corresponding words in the Algonkin languages. Others, which 
are found on careful examination to be radically the same as the corre- 
sponding Algonkin terms, are yet so changed and distorted that the 
resemblance is not at first apparent. Of this variation and distortion the 
numerals afford a good example. It should be mentioned that in the 
Indian words which follow, the vowels are to be pronounced as in Italian 
or German, and the consonants generally as in English. The only pecu- 
liarities are in the j, which has the French sound (like z in azure), and 
the g, which I have employed to express a sound resembling the German 
guttural ch, as heard in lachen. Mr. McLean writes this sound with ch, 
as in German, and M. Lacombe with 7. It seems to be a trilled guttural, 
approaching the sound which French philologists designate as the r 


grasseyé. 


Blackfoot Cree Ojibway 
One nitokiskam peyak pejik 
two natokam nijo nij 
three newowiskam nisto nisswi 
four nijoim newo niwin 
five nijitji niyanan nanan 
six nawo ningotwasik ningotwasswi 
seven ikitchike tepakoup nijwasswi 
eight nanisho ayenanew nishwasswi 
nine pikkiso kekamitatat jangasswi 
ten kepo mitatat mitaswi 
twenty najippo nijtano nijtana 
thirty neppo nistomitano nissimitana 
one hundred kepippo mitatato-mitano ningotwak 


Other words in ordinary use will show the total unlikeness in some 


cases, and the distorted resemblance in others :— 


Blackfoot Cree Ojibway 
God omakkatose kije-manito kije-manito 
heaven spoutch kitchi kijik kitchi kijik 
day kristikoy kijikaw kijikat 
night kokoy tibiskaw tibikkat 
man matapi ayisiyiniw anisinabe 
woman akew iskwew ikkwe 
boy saqkomapi napesis kwiwisens 
girl akekowan iskwesis ikkwesens 
sun natous pisim gisis 
earth tchaqkoum askiy akki 
water oqki nipiy nipi 
fire tchi iskoutew iskoutew 
river niyetaqkay siply sipi 
lake omaxikimi sakahigan sakahigan 
house napi-oyis waskahigan wakkahigan 
knife stowan mokkouman mokkouman 
kettle iska askik akik 
tree mistis mistek mittik 
my father ninna n’ottawiy n’oss 
my mother nikrista ningawiy ninge 
my son n’oqkowa nikosis nigwis 
my daughter nit’ana nit’anis nind’anis 
my head notokan nistikwan n’istigwan 
my mouth n’ahoy nint-on nind-on 
my teeth n’orpikisth nipita nipita 
my skin n’otokis n’asakay ninjagai 
my tongue natchini nit’eyaniy nin’tenani 
my heart n’oskitchipappi ni-teh ni-teh 
my blood nahaban ni-mik ni-mik 
my leg n’oqkat miskat nikat 


ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 703 


No one who examines this list will wonder that the connection between 
he Blackfoot and the other Algonkin tongues was not apparent to those 
who had to judge from brief and rude vocabularies of the former language. 

ut it will be noticed that the possessive pronoun ‘my’ is evidently 

expressed by the same prefix wi (or m’) in all three languages. Pursuing 

his trace we compare the personal pronouns, and find a close resemblance, 
the difference being mainly in the terminations :— 


i _ee-———— 


Blackfoot Cree Ojibway 
I nistowa niya nin 
thou kistowa kiya kin 
he oustoye wiya win 
we nistoninan niyanan ninawind 
ye kistowawa kiyawa kinawa 
they oustowawa wiyawa winawa 


In the possessive prefixes the resemblance is still more notable. Thus 
in the Blackfoot language n’ofas means ‘my horse, or dog’ (the same 
word, oddly enough, applying in this form to both animals); and in 
Cree w’t’em has the same meaning. These words are thus varied with 
the possessive pronouns and in the two numbers :— 


i 
le 
| 
4 
. Blackfoot Cree 


My horse (or dog) n’otas n’t’em 
jin er sit k’otas kit’em 
his PA Fe otas otema 
our’’"";, Fs n’otasinan n’t’eminan 
your ,, +f: k’otasinan kitemiwaw 
their ,, PP otasiwaw otemiwawa 
my horses (or dogs) n’otasiks n’t’emak 
thy ,, ¥, k’otasiks kit’emak 

7 his “ps =p otasiks otema 
our 4; as notasinaniks n’t’eminanak 
your ,, A kotasiwaweks kitemiwawok 
their ,, xf otasiwaweks otemiwawa 


So we may compare n’inna, my father, in Blackfoot, with n’oss, my 
father, in Ojibway. 


Blackfoot Ojibway 
My father n’inna n’oss 
hy D,; inna k’oss 
his ‘is ounni ossan 
DUT. 45 n’innan n’ossinan 
your ,, kinnawaw k’ossiwa 
their ,, onniwaw ossiwan 
my fathers n’innaeks nossag 
thy kinnaeks kossag 
DiS,, ee i55 ounnieks ossan 
0) ninnaniks n’ossinanig: 
your -,, kinnaweks Fk’ossiwag 
their ,, ounniwaweks ossiwan 


__ It will be seen that the close resemblance in grammar is as striking as 
the wide difference in the vocabulary. These facts admit of but one 
explanation. They are the precise phenomena to which we are accus- 
tomed in the case of mixed languages. In such languages—of which our 
English speech is a notable example—we expect the grammar to be derived 
entirely from one source, while the words will be drawn from two or 
more. Furthermore, wherever we find a mixed language we infer a 
conquest of one people by another. In the present instance we may well 
suppose that when the Blackfoot tribes were forced westward from the 


oY 


704 REPORT—1885. 


Red River country to the foot of the Rocky Mountains, they did not find 
their new abode uninhabited. It is probable enough that the people 
whom they found in possession had come through the passes from the 
country west of those mountains. If these people were overcome by the 
Blackfeet, and their women taken as wives by the conquerors, two results 
would be likely to follow. In the first place, the language would become 
a mixed speech, in grammar purely Algonkin, but in the vocabulary 
largely recruited from the speech of the conquered tribe. A change in 
the character of the amalgamated people would also take place. The 
result of this change might be better inferred if we knew the character- 
istics of both the constituent races. But it may be said that a frequent, 
if not a general, resuit of such a mixture of races is the production of a 
people of superior intelligence and force of character. 

The circumstances thus suggested may account, not only for the 
peculiarities of the language and character of the Blackfeet tribes, but 
also for the different traditions which are found among them in regard to 
their origin and former abode. It would be very desirable to trace that 
portion of the Blackfoot vocabulary which is not of Algonkin origin to its 
source in the language of some other linguistic stock. To do this would 
require a careful comparison of this foreign element with the various 
languages spoken in their vicinity, and particularly with those of the 
tribes west of the Rocky Mountains. For such a comparison there has 
been neither time nor adequate material, and this interesting subject of 
inquiry must be left for another occasion. 

The religion of these tribes (applying this term to their combined 
mythology and worship) resembles their language. It is in the main 
Algonkin, but includes some beliefs and ceremonies derived from some 
other source. Father Lacombe’s account of their cosmogony and their 
deities cannot be better given than in his own clear and pithy style. In 
their view, as in that of the Lenape and other Algonkin nations, there 
were two creations: the primary, which called the world into existence, 
and of which they have but a vague idea; and the secondary, which 
found the world an expanse of sea and sky (with, it would seem, a few 
animals disporting themselves therein), and left it in its present state. 
‘The primitive creation,’ writes M. Lacombe, ‘is attributed to a superior 
divinity, whom they call the Creator (Apistotokiw). This divinity, however, 
is in some manner identified with the sun (Natés). The earth itself is 
believed to be a divinity of some kind, for, in their invocations, if they 
call the sun “our father ” (Kinnon), they call the earth “ our mother ” 
(Kikristonnon). It seems also that the moon is considered to be one and 
the same divinity with the sun. At any rate, in the invocations it is 
designated by the same name, Natés. Yet it is often said to be the “old 
woman,” the consort of the sun. The whole of this is confused enough in 
the minds of the Indians to render them unable to give, when questioned, 
exact explanations. 

‘As to the secondary creation, if it may be so styled, the Indian 
account runs as follows: At a certain time it happened that all the earth 
was covered with water. The ‘‘ Old Man” (Napiw) was ina canoe, and he 
thought of causing the earth to come up from the abyss. To put his 
project into execution he used the aid of four animals—the duck, the otter, 
the badger, and the musk-rat. The musk-rat proved to be the best diver. 
He remained so long under water that when he came to the surface he 
was fainting, but he had succeeded in getting a little particle of earth, 
which he brought between the toes of his paw. ‘This particle of earth 


ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 705 


the “ Old Man ”’ took, and blowing on it he swelled it to such an extent as 
make the whole earth of it. Then it took him four days to complete 
his work, and make the mountains, rivers, plants, and beasts. (This 
number four is a fatidical one in the legends of these Indians.) The 
* Old Man ” worked two days more in order to make the first woman, for 
after the first day’s work he had not succeeded in making anything 
graceful. When the first woman, after much toil, was completed, a sort 
‘of council was held, in which the woman opposed every one of Napiw’s 
_ propositions that would have been very favourable to the welfare of man- 
kind. So we must conclude that all the evil on the earth comes from 
_ the woman’s contradictious will.’ 
This Napiw, or ‘Old Man,’ adds Father Lacombe, ‘appears again in 
_ many other traditions and legendary accounts, in which he is associated 
with the various kinds of animals, speaking to them, making use of them, 
and especially cheating them, and playing every kind of trick. In these 
_ legends Napiw comes down from the high position of creator to a much 
_ lower one, and appears not unlike to a buffoon and treacherous rascal. I 
will mention only that, according to the account of the Indians, the “‘ Old 
Man ”’ is said to have come from the south-west, across the mountains; 
and after a prolonged sojourn in these countries he went toward the 
north-east, where he disappeared, and nobody has heard of him since. 
The Indians point out the place where the “ Old Man” played with the 
Coutonay Indians, not far from the Porcupine Hills ; on another spot he 
slept ; and on a hill not far from Red-deer River any one can see at the 
present day the place where Napiw came down by sliding.’ 

Those who have read Schooleraft’s ‘ Algic Researches,’ Mr. Leland’s 
Algonquin Legends,’ and, above all, Dr. Brinton’s ‘Myths of the New 
World,’ will recognise in Napiw the most genuine and characteristic of 

_ all the Algonkin divinities. In every tribe of this widespread family, 
_ from Nova Scotia to Virginia, and from the Delaware to the Rocky 
_ Mountains, he reappears under various names—Manabosho, Michabo, 
Wetuks, Glooskap, Wisaketjak, Napiw—but everywhere with the same 
traits and the same history. He is at once a creator, a defender, a teacher, 
and at the same time a conqueror, a robber, and a deceiver. But the 
robbery and deceit, it would seem, are usually for some good purpose. 
He preserves mankind from their enemies, and uses the arts and craft of 
these enemies to subdue and destroy them. In Dr. Brinton’s view, his 
origin is to be found in a nature-myth, representing, ‘on the one hand, 
the unceasing struggle of day with night, of light with darkness, and, on 
the other, that no less important conflict which is ever waging between 
_ the storm and sunshine, the winter and summer, the rain and clear sky.’ 
Napiw, the ‘old man,’ has, it seems, other names in the Blackfoot 
tongue. He is known as Kenakakatsis, ‘he who wears a wolfskin robe,’ 
and Mik-orkayew, ‘he who wears a red-painted buffalo-robe.’ These 
names have probably some reference to legends of which he is the hero. 
: The name of the creator, Apistotokiw, as explained by M. Lacombe, offers 
: a good example of the subtle grammatical distinctions which abound in 
the Siksika (or Blackfoot) speech, as in the other Algonkin tongues. 
The expression ‘he makes,’ or ‘he creates’ (which, like other verbal 
forms, may be used as a noun), can be rendered in four different forms. 
Apistototsim signifies ‘he makes,’ when the complement, or thing made, 
1s expressed, and is an inanimate object. Apistotoyew is used when the 
gee object is animate. Apistotakiw is the indefinite form, used 
i . ZZ 


706 REPORT— 1885. 


when the complement, or thing made, is not expressed, but is understood 
to be inanimate; and, finally, Apistotokiw, the word in question, is 
employed when the unexpressed object is supposed to be animate. 
The world, therefore, as first created, was, in the view of the Blackfoot 
cosmologist, an animated existence. 

But while these beliefs are all purely Algonkin, the chief religious 
ceremony of the Blackfoot tribes is certainly of foreign origin. This is 
the famous ‘sun-dance,’ to which they, like the Dakota tribes and some 
of the western Crees, are fanatically devoted. That this ceremony is 
not properly Algonkin is clearly shown by the fact that among the tribes 
of that stock, with the sole exception of the Blackfeet and a few of the 
western Crees, it is unknown. Neither the Ojibways of the lakes nor 
any of the numerous tribes east of the Mississippi had in their worship a 
trace of this extraordinary rite. The late esteemed missionary among 
the Dakotas, the Rev. Stephen R. Riggs (author of the ‘ Dakota Grammar 
and Dictionary’) says of this ceremony : ‘The highest form of sacrifice 
is self-inumolation. It exists in the “sun-dance,’’ and in what is called 
“ vision-seeking.’’ Some, passing a knife under the muscles of the breast 
and arms, attach cords thereto, which are fastened at the other end to 
the top of a tall pole, raised for the purpose; and thus they hang sus- 
pended only by those cords, without food or drink, for two, three, or 
four days, gazing upon vacancy, their minds intently fixed upon the 
object in which they wish to be assisted by the deity, and waiting for a 
vision from above. Others, making incisions in the back, have attached, 
by hair-ropes, one or more buffalo-heads, so that every time the body 
moves in the dance a jerk is given to the buffalo-heads behind. This 
vite exists at present among the western bands of the Dakotas in the 
greatest degree of barbarity. After making the cuttings in the arms, 
breast, or back, wooden setons—sticks about the size of a lead-pencil— 
are inserted, and the ropes are attached to them. Then, swinging on the 
ropes, they pull until the setons are pulled out with the flesh and tendons; 
or, if hung with the buffalo-heads, the pulling-out is done in the dance 
by the jerking motion, keeping time with the music, while the head and 
body, in an attitude of supplication, face the sun, and the eye is unflinch- 
ingly fixed upon it.’ 

My correspondent, the Rev. Mr. McLean, sends me a minute and 
graphic account of this ceremony as he witnessed it, in June last, on one 
of the Blackfoot Reserves, when most of the Kena, or Blood Indians, 
were present as actors or spectators. His narrative is too long for inser- 
tion here in full, but the concluding portion will show the resolute con- 
stancy with which this sacrifice of self-immolation is performed—some 
new features being added, which are not found in the brief account of 
Mr. Riggs, though they may possibly belong also to the Dakota ceremony. 

‘This year several persons, young and old, who had made vows 
during times of sickness or danger, had a finger cut off by the first joint, 
as an offering to the sun; and others had the operation of cutting their 
breasts and backs. The old woman who cut the fingers off held the 
suppliant’s hand up to the sun, and prayed; then placed it upon a 
pole on the ground, laid a knife on the finger, and with a blow from a 
deer’s-horn scraper severed the member. The severed piece was taken 
up, held toward the sun, and the prayer made, when it was dropped into 
a bag containing similar members. This ceremony was gone through 
by each in turn. After this was done each carried an offering, and 


Je 


ON THE NORTH-WESTERN TRIBES OF THE DOMINION OF CANADA. 707 


climbing the sacrificial pole with the face reverently turned toward the 
sun, placed the offering on the top of the pole. This year seven or eight 
persons went through the above ceremony. The other sacrificial cere- 
mony consisted of the slitting of the flesh in two pieces in each breast. 
A wooden skewer was placed through each breast; a rope fastened to 
the sacrificial pole was placed around each skewer; and then the sup- 
pliant, whistling upon the bone-whistle, jumped about until the flesh 
gave way. In some instances the flesh was cut so deeply that the men 
had to press heavily upon the performers’ shoulders in order to tear it 
_ away. The “shield ceremony ” was the same process, only performed on 
the back, and the rope with a shield attached fastened to the skewers, 
and the ceremony continued until the suppliant was relieved.’ 
: Mr. Riggs, it will be noticed, says that the ceremony was most 
zealously performed among the most westerly of the Dakota tribes, that 
is, those which are nearest to the Rocky Mountains. We are thus led to 
_ suppose that it may have had its origin among the tribes west of the 
mountains. Possibly the Blackfeet may have learned it from the tribe 
from which they acquired the foreign element of their language, and 
they may have taught it to the western Dakotas and Crees in their neigh- 
bourhood. In any case it is clear that they have a mixed religion, as 
well as a mixed language—which are both facts of considerable interest 
in ethnological science. 

The form of government among the Blackfeet, as among the Algonkin 
tribes generally, is exceedingly simple, offering a striking contrast to the 
elaborately complicated systems common among the nations of the 
Troquois stock. Each tribe has a head-chief, and each band of which the 
tribe is composed has its subordinate chief; but the authority of these 
chiefs is little more than nominal. The office is not hereditary. The 
bravest or richest are commonly chosen; but in what manner the 
election is made is not stated. Formerly the principal function of the 
head-chief consisted in deciding on the question of peace or war. At 
present it is limited to fixing the place of the camp, or directing a change 
of encampment. He presides in the council of his tribe, and is, in a 
conference with other nations, the representative and spokesman of his 
people. 

The term ‘ confederacy ’ commonly applied to the union of the Black- 
foot tribes is somewhat misleading. There is no regular league or 
constitution binding them together. ‘ The tribes are separate,’ writes Mr. 
McLean, ‘and the bonds of union are the unity of religious belief, social 

‘customs, and language. They united against a common enemy, but I 
have never heard of their fighting against each other.’ Father Lacombe’s 
_ account is similar. ‘The Blackfeet,’ he writes, ‘have no league or con- 
federation, properly so called, with councils and periodical reunions. 
_ They consider themselves as forming one family, whose three branches or 
_ bands are descended from three brothers. This bond of kinship is suf- 
ficient to preserve a good understanding among them.’ They can hardly 
be said to have a general name for the whole community, though they 
Sometimes speak of themselves as Sawketakiz, or ‘men of the plains,’ and 
occasionally as Netsepoyé, ‘ or people who speak one language.’ 

Whether the system of clans, gentes, or totems, as they are variously 
styled by different writers, is found among the Blackfoot tribes is 
uncertain, the replies to inquiries on that subject being thus far some- 


what indefinite. This system is regarded by some eminent ethnologists 
ZZ2 


Pe a eee 


5 


708 REPORT—1885, 


as one of general prevalence, marking a certain stage in the progress of 
society. Others consider it to be merely a special and local manifesta- 
tion of the associative impulse, frequently important, but by no means 
universal or essential in any stage. The fact that, while it prevails among 
the Iroquois, the Dakotas, and the Ojibways, it is not found among the 
Crees or the tribes of Oregon, seems to lend countenance to this view, 
and gives, at all events, particular interest to the inquiry in the present 
case. This and other questions remain for future investigation. For the 
reasons which have been stated, the present report is unavoidably imper- 
fect. It is offered chiefly for the purpose of preserving the information 
which has already been obtained from sources of the highest authority, 
and of thus affording a trustworthy basis for further inquiry. 


Report to the Cowncil of the Corresponding Societies Committee, 
consisting of Mr. Francis Gatton (Chairman), Professor 
A. W. WILLIAMSON, Captain DouGLas GaLTon, Professor Boyp 
Dawkins, Sir Rawson Rawson, Dr. Garson, Dr. J. Evans, 
Mr. J. Hopkinson, Professor MELpoua (Secretary), Mr. Wurr- 
AKER, Mr. G. J. Symons, and Mr. H. GrorGE FoRDHAM. 


Tur Corresponding Societies Committee beg to report that they have 
received and considered applications from fifty-two Societies, and they 
recommend that those of the thirty-nine whose names are entered in the 
accompanying list be granted. 

The Committee in making their selection have interpreted the phrase 
‘ local scientific investigation,’ which occurs in the new Rules (see Report 
1884, pp. lxv. and Ixvi.), according to the tenor of the examples they gave 
of such work in the Report 1883, p. 319, taken from among the subjects 
of inquiry assigned to Committees of the Association during the past 
five years, and rearranged as follows, in the order of the Sections that are 
now severally concerned in them:—(A) Luminous meteors; meteoric 
dust in various localities; rainfall; underground temperature. (C) Ero- 
sion of sea-coasts ; height of underground waters; erratic blocks. (D) 
Migration of birds at lighthouses and lightships; periodical natural 
phenomena (flowering of plants, &c.) ; injurious insects (their first ap- 
pearance, &c.). () Working of Education Code in elementary schools ; 
rudimentary science in schools. (G) Effective wind-pressure on buildings. 
(HH) Photographs of typical races and crosses ; ancient earthworks; pre- 
historic remains ; anthropometric collections. 

They have placed only one Society (the Liverpool Astronomical Society) 
on the selected list which published no results of local scientific investiga- 
tion during the past year; they have included it, and some others whose 
publications of that description were few, on account of their general 
scientific activity and influence. 

Two Societies—the Inverness Scientific Society and the Isle of Man 
Natural History and Antiquarian Society—have been included in the 
selected list, and the titles of the papers furnished by their secretaries, as 
read before them in 1884, have on this occasion been catalogued, although 
the publications have not yet been received. It is proposed that for the 
future Rule 5 be strictly adhered to. 

The Committee are glad to find that the Societies they have selected 
prove to be evenly distributed throughout the United Kingdom. 


CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 709 


SELECTED LIST 


OF SOCIETIES RECOMMENDED BY THE CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES 
COMMITTEE FOR ELECTION AS 


Corresponding Societies of the British Association. 


Title of Society Abbreviated Title ee 

Aberdeen Natural History Society . | Aberdeen N. H. Soc. 1 
Barnsley Naturalists’ Society ; Barns. Nat. Soc. 2 
Bath Natural History and Antiquarian Field Club. | Bath N. H. A. F.C. 3 
Belfast Naturalists’ Field Club Belfast Nat. F. C. 4 
Birmingham Natural History and Microscopical 

Society ; Birm. N. H. M. Soc. 5 
Birmingham Philosophical Society 7 Birm, Phil. Soc. 6 
Burton-on-Trent Natural History and Archzo- : 

logical Society . : : : Burt. N. H. Arch, Soc. 
Cambridge Philosophical Society . | Camb. Phil. Soc. 
Cardiff Naturalists’ Society Cardiff Nat. Soc. 
Cornwall, Mining Institute of : Cornw. Min. Inst. 10 
Cornwall, Royal Geological Society of . Cornw. R. Geol. Soc. diy 
Cumberland and Westmoreland Association for 

the Advancement of Literature and Science Cumb. West. Assoc. 12 
Dumfriesshire and Galloway Scientific, Natural F 

History, and Antiquarian Society Dum.Gal.Sci.N.H.Soc.| 13 
East of Scotland Union of Naturalists’ Societies . | E. Scot. Union 14 
Edinburgh Geological Society Edinb. Geol. Soc. 15 
Essex Field Club . | Essex F.. C. 16 
Glasgow, Geological Society of Glasgow Geol. Soc. 17 
Glasgow, Natural History Society of Glasgow N. H. Soc. 18 
Hertfordshire Natural ie ira: and Field 

Club . Herts. N. H. Soc. 19 
Holmesdale Natural al History Club Holmesdale N. H. C. - 20 
Inverness Scientific Society and Field Club . Inverness Sci. Soc. 21 
Liverpool Astronomical Society Liv’pool Ast. Soc. 22 
Liverpool Engineering Society Liv’pool E. Soc. 23 
Liverpool Geological Society . | Liv’pool Geol. Soc, 24 
Liverpool, Literary and Philosophical Society of . | Liv’pool Lit. Ph. Soc. 25 
Manchester Geological Society Manch. Geol. Soc. 26 


710 REPORT—1885. 


SELECTED LIST OF SOCIETIES—continued. 


Title of Society 


Man, Isle of, Natural oy and es 


Society 
Marlborough College Natural aaa Society 
Midland Union of Natural History Societies 


North of England Institute of Mining and Me- 
chanical Engineers 


North Staffordshire Naturalists’ Field Club and 
Archeological Society 


Northamptonshire Natural ae Soviet and 
Field Club. : 


Perthshire Society of Natural Science . 
Rochester Naturalists’ Club . 
Scottish Geographical Society 


South African Philosophical Society 


Warwickshire Naturalists’ and Ae 
Field Club . 


Yorkshire Geological and Pateaints Society 
Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union 


Abbreviated Title seo 

I. of Man N. H. A. Soc.| 27 
Marlb. Coll. N. H. Soc. 28 
Mid. Union 29 
N. Eng. Inst. 30 
N.Staf. N. F.C. A. Soc. 31 
N’ton. N. H. Soc. 32 
Perths. Soc. N. Sci. 33 
Rochester N. C. 34 
Scot. Geog. Soc. 35 
8. African Phil. Soc. 36 
Warw.N. A. F.C. 37 
Yorks. Geol. Poly. Soc. | 38 

39 


Yorks. Nat. Union 


711 


CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 


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1885. 


REPORT 


712 


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1885. 


REPORT 


714 


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ying 10 wor} 
awnjoa | ~vorqng JO ONL, 


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xopuy 


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* qsuy “SU 'N 


* "009 ‘ThAd “Watg 
‘008 “H 'N “U0}.N 
009 “JOO MOSSYTO 


‘00g “10g ssomIoAUy 


‘OOSSY “4S0,\4 “quing 


. ‘ysuy ‘Sag *N 


“008 "L098 “QUIpH 
20G ‘Toa MOSSBLD 


‘20g ‘TooH "Your 
"009 ‘TOS SsouIOAUT 


“00 *[O94) ALO.SSBLY) 


. “ “ 

. “ec “c 
00Q "10g SSOUIOAUT 

* "29 ‘N deqysoqooy 


‘00g "JOO “quIpA 


‘OOSSY “4SaA\ ‘quIng 


‘og "Ty ‘que 


‘00g “ATO "TOA *SxIOZ 


“008 “08D “qUIpa 


Ayato0g 


Jo eDLL peywraarqay 


PPM Te0O SITGsHOIMIV AA OY} WO SOON, 
MOJION §,SULY OF TAvYysutmaItg wory Ave 
Teqingns 482M Ot} BAOTV WOTJOIG [VOLSOTOey) aU, 
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* Olsen? UvIINTIG UIByZNOg sy} JO MoTaey V 


roqeyooy Jo speoy porrereg 
Wood MeN TOTS 94} FO 
S[ISSO,] PUB UOIL}ZVUIIO,, [BOLSOT[OIH oY} WO SOON 
purl 
-Iopung 4B sayxvys YWeyY JUedeT ouOs pue 
yseop ureyInq oy} 70 soyses- elooolg oy} UO 
; purl 
-JoqUINYJION Ul ‘peojsuIy 4B ANB Jevoid BUC 


aJSVO SSOIPIY WOT VIOVISNID snoIEFIUOGIED 
; FST ‘1 Yorvyy Wo ysnq JO [[Vq BUC SoJON 
JQOUIYST SVT 9} JO SULOA TRLOUT] 


* ahNQ Ul JOLOVLH ysv'] OU, 


* pwoyyoorur AA 
pur SITTPeeT FO SPOIYSIC. SuIUIPL URUNIIg oy], 
* — -spuvysy— AouyIOQ oY} JO UOTWeIORTY 
* snoypuly pue utleN eyy Jo Asopoex) 
pueyyyg Fo euojspuvg poy PIO 
SpuRIs] puLyeYgY ey} JO UOTyeLoRTH eUL, 
Age Avapoy oy} JO ALVUO 
ysmquipy ‘ee[q 
UOJsIOW]Vg YON Ul IJepfnog euojysussiyn VW 
puvplequing “A\ ‘N JO Syooy uvwiteg ot} 
yyeoueq [vo 10y AyPBOOT yseq oy} UO sojJON 
sstouy Aosutony) 
ey} 30 qaed UL UOoIssedOng snonuTU0D & UC 
: * F yvg ‘xejIe_ JO VAOLy [ISso,7 
‘oxy ‘suoljoog Avmpey urqinqng 


. . . 


. . 


qodug Jo a4 


: ‘a a “ATION 


. “M “a ‘ULjIe 
“WO WRIpey 
* -y ‘elqoouo00Re]T 


* +9 ‘aoyssulATT 


“f YOHOT 


‘Vv ') ‘Jorg ‘Inoqs'T 


Wosiopuy min 
ale 'L (A StvouULy 
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‘ "af Tepaey 
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. ‘g as | orp peg 
"pe foul0oyy 
"oud aysPePH 


* aul ‘d ‘ew0H 
. tA ‘L ‘soulloH 


: 3 ‘a ‘1H 
qseg ML ‘SxoTH 
& *p ‘UosIepudeyy 


IOYNY Jo ouvN 


‘POnUYU0I—EHOTOAH—iQ worsay 


715 


CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 


16€ 


€6§ 


68T 


9g 
PEF 


OFT 


8L 
L6T 


“OFT 


9&6 
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€16 


: 004 


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"SUDA, 


: : 0b. 


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‘SUDL], 

D0 
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‘4suy ‘UT “MUIOD 
“ce “ 


‘008 “[09) “qurIpi 


‘00g *ATOg *[0ay “*syIOX 


00g "FN HIP 


00g “ATOT [Oa ‘SYIOX 


‘00g *[Oay ‘Youryy 


‘00G "[O9X) "YT ‘“AUIOD 


08 "YH NUP, 39 


00g "[OBH MOSSE 


y ‘Cl Wl XOssq 
00g ‘Toa [ood ArT 
‘008 “199 “GUlIpH 
"20g "Toa [ood ary 


: woruy) “PIAL 


* uolmg "4009 “T 
: mors) “Pr 


00g "[Od4) MeAdSLTD 


009 “A[Og "[O8H “SxIOZ 


‘00g ‘[o9H “qUIDT 


* "00g "[OEK) "YW “MUIOD 


Sud A SHOTZITTe}o]_ Wodn 
SUOLJOOSIOJUT PUB SUOTJOUNL FO sooUONpUy oy, 
proxy 
quoutporeyy ye posodxe ATyUs00I MOYOeGg v UG 
poorsjoyy rvou q1sodeq ourtysnory @ ug 


poteptsuoo AT[VOLsoTON. oyV.soIIe TT 
Jo s1oq8M TBIOUITL Oy} 10 ‘STOMA OFVSOIIVET VJ, 
* JOIYSI PIPIVD oy} JO Spoo,A [Isso IY, 
SOINSBITT [VOD IAMOT oy UI , S}Og 
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JOIST VovaudyT 9} UT “O22 
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* —- g[eaourpy, XURPT JO 4sV'T 
* a[Vyg SnoLaFITISsO] B UO SoJON 
yoousersy ‘yIeVg 
poarey jo spog Av[Q oudd00I[gG-Jsog ayy woIF 
STIPYG oo0Iy JoyJO pue yALYUIAD HOSsAT UO 


. . . 


qso10,q ourddy ‘Arent TTIyyVO 4B 

speg joysseg puv Avi uopuoTy oy} U0 sojoN 
yoosorg vou 

‘quoyspueg Jojung oY} UI satqqog pajuepuy uC 
soLeynqiiy, yt pue Avy, 

ay} JO syuUeq oy} WO SUTIIMD00 sodvAIOT, OY UC 
auojspurg 

UL TORU JO WONL[NOIID oY} UO squotATIedxG 
4so10,7 poo 

-UIVYD JO SYOOY oY} Ul ayvIOWOLSUOH AAPG B UO 


ASoperouryyy WO 410d ayy 
o1jty oyy Jo LoT[VA By} UL UOTYOW ao] 
sqqnop *f¢ Aq ‘s[Issoq ay} JO 4sUT 
WIA “Oplqry ysegq jo vyeayg oyj uo syremoy 
SUIPIY "M 4} Jo ssuyidg [erouryy 
soTeyg 

Tayodyyeg oy} pur oyyteq Ty [BIOUlL euL, 
sud Ae 

WW IG OY} JO VAIOFIULUAVIO, [ISSO,q OY} U0 SOJON 


. . . 


. . 79) ‘seul, 


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* oy S‘1op Avy, 


‘al cd ‘skVmsuesyg 

* "fp feLIt04g 

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xOW “H 

pue “vy ‘[veAasu10g 

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\L ‘34009 


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‘ML 99TH 


1885. 


REPORT 


716 


EO SL a St ee 


(00g “OTP pur “gSTAL “IBN 
Urey sarong ex0joq, peoy) xspy ouney, uO 
* gjuelg Jo suey ayy, 
“(eg Ul u1oo1su0T orer ayy Jo orngdup puodssg 
qn. SIS[BINyVN 1o}Soyoo yy oy} FO FIOM OYJ UO 
(‘009 “Or 
pue 4ST “JUN Weysurmirg sr1ojoq pro) 
waBy SaTOLITL g0 pooymody ss N 94} JO spaitg 
DIOVMOYY) OI, 
Aapraquary FO 
10Ao,7 durey oy} Jo osnvo oy} our Atmbuy uy 
Co0g “Td pur “gry 
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+ - gOrAgSTC] WOJOTPPIP OT} Ur AvIOT susuny VW 


: : ; : OITYSYOIMIVA\ FO BIOTA OUT, 


: : * gMoT[eAg 


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18 ‘t TIA BYVINIVN “PUT | 66 | ° it *“wora() “PAL 
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F6T TIA BYVINIVN “PLU | 6E | j “morta, “PIN 
6€ € ‘D04q pv suey) ST | 908 HN PS Te) wind 
8F TIL : . ‘sUuDty | 9F ‘009 “TlUd WeOMFY “S 
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‘886 ‘19% ‘12z 
“B61 ‘PST ‘S11 

“QL ‘GF ‘OT TIA BYVMION “PUT | 66 K worm) “Pri 
66 aT ‘SUDLT, PUD ‘I04T | ST 009 "H ‘N Mosse[yH 
F0Z ‘YX c : ‘SUD | IT : "008 08) “H *MUIOD 
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00g “ce . ‘ ‘ . . “ “ 
681 ‘T : ; ‘sunly,| TZ | ° ‘009 ‘log ssouroAUT 
LLE IIIA |° ‘ ‘2047 | RE | 90g ATO “TOA *SHIOX 
€ & , ~ joninop || CE | - ‘008 “H “N “09,.N 
oSeg qv gq 10 mor} ‘ON Ayatoo0g 

aunjo,, | -BoTqnd JO FLL | Xopuy |) JO eFAL poyeasiqqy 


- 90H] YQnouLATY WO sayovog posrery oy, 

‘ uoyhory 4B Spag YOLMTOO\A 94} WO a30N puodag 
ox “Toa, poy oy 

jo seuog 70 aIIYSyIIOg Ul soue1M099 94 UO 

, * gIzuy oy pur uoatyery Jo AsojooH 

: 3 : - Kawa wareyy Jo Acdojpoox, 


' eozkTog snorLoJIUOGIVD aTITSYIOX WO sajON 
: : aitysuoydueyyION Jo sery ieddyq oyy, 


rodvg JO oy, 


“PanwuyuvogIi—XHNOTOAH—D U02r290g7 


* ruey ‘uepsog 
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"TT ‘Ady ‘pleyomold 
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IoyyNy Jo aMe Ny 


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L9 
16 


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106 
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PUYVANION “YOO 


“SUDLT, 
: : 00UT 


8).codaay 


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quodaey 
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. . “ 
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‘ION PUD "SUDAT, 


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PUYDILNIVAT “YOO 


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* WOT) “4009 "i 


‘008 HN ‘109 ‘Tey ‘ung 


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‘009 "H 'N MOssepy 


“009 “Aen ‘sure 
"OD ‘H 'N 9[8psourpoyy 


top sso, oarys 
-proyytoyy Aueutcirpord v ym fsossopy wo SoqJON 


QISTLLVD pUNOIv SIOMOTT PTLAL 
: , * sSoIppy [eyUopisarg 


Spitg wo y10doyy 


: arysuojydmeyyAON JO VAOTT OUT, 

P88T LOZ SUOTZVAIOSGGO TwoLsofouEYyg 

; : : : F Weg ‘Acojomoyuy_ TwooT 
qxodoyy [woLsolouLoyUsT 


*yaeg AvrAy ut ASopoyy1tUI9 

ula], Lasse’ 94} JO Surpaeig oy} WO BION 

; : : *  sypuouwa KYAT JO SoTpoIIE A 
BOS 

“OW oUulIey, pu “oywMmysory Spuery uo 410daxy 

SOMJUN(T FO YsIeg oy} UL poorg yey sparq oy, 
Spllg Jo soroedg quorayip Jo sunox 

pUue soo oY} SurduvyorozUy Fo sqynsaxy oy} UO 
SUNOSGO shUUYNE PUR ‘suaprl2 (9 ‘woIwgnz 

vdoayyoo) JO soyoueA OFT AA 94} WO OJON 

XOSSH UL MPN Suu) 944 Fo sotoody oy} UC 
(00g ‘orp, puw 
‘qSIH] “G@N Weysurumitg e10joq peor) spurysy 

oUIe 984} Jv sULpootq suIoy, oY} WO sojON 
PUAsSig WeyAyeYH puv Ioyseyooy 

ay} UL suttmooo0 vioqydoprdery-orovyy Jo 4sry 
“puvyzooS FO SOMA OY UT 

“UUL'T *81729DpNwW UOPOLOYT JO BDUATINIDO OY} UC 

* (sndunoozdhag wo) vonng Jo syqey ey} uC 

; . S[[B4) JO SULIO, 94} JO UISIIQ 94} UO 


spuvsy AouyrQ oy} JO ouo ‘Avsnoy 
JO Splig puv sTeuUUEyY a4} UO SoJON MoT W 
(u01yenUT}U09) 
Agisuteg jo vsoydoprdory-o1ovyy oy Jo asryt y 
: C : : . xoual vubajoudny oul, 


i a “V ‘sqqn) 


AVY oyg Uo yuopwaord sxaMmoyy | EL *O “Aoy ‘Surpyery 


"AM LOAN 
“ «“ 


‘W “H ‘190 
‘Avyy-puomumnig 
‘9 ‘4 feonig 
‘ ‘N "H ‘woxtq 
: * “% ‘uosmeq 
: “MOL ‘Argred 


" “a “f ‘preysosp 


. “e “ 


“HT ‘s93800 
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. it “ 


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. ity it 


c *q ‘uorsmep 


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iy 7" ae Apergy 
“HT ‘opsog 


1885. 


REPORT 


718 


M g 
36 z 
I oD 
28 ce LL 
ey “AI 
(198g 
IZ 40g) T 
8% “AI 
IZ a 
II-T a 
Lt FZ g 
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SOT ‘TTA 
€8T 
“TIX “ 
“ATX ‘ITIAXXX 
Lg ¢ 
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‘083 “E93 ‘FIZ 
“$81 ‘6PI ‘TST| ‘ITA 
89g ree Tall 
z mn 
- q1v gq 10 
appa! awny[oA 


ee 


‘204T PUD 'sUDLT, | ET 


. . “ce a“ 


008" HN ‘Ps Tey “tng 
"0 ‘HN orepsemox 


: ‘008 "H 'N ‘S319 
‘ * 009 ‘Jen ‘suIeg 


* UOTUA “AVN ‘SyIOX 
: "009 "Jen ‘suIeg 
* "009 "AT 'N MoSsepy 
‘008 “V “H 'N Ue JO T 
* ‘009 ‘H ‘N Weeprsqy 


, "008 "H ‘N 407.N 
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‘ 008 “H 'N ‘8}407 
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. “ “ce 


"009 “Yd “FT [ood ary 


‘00S "HN PS Te) wnd 


; wordy) “PTA 


‘908 "H ‘Nt ‘80H 
' "0 ‘H'N 9repsompoH 


* sudyUoTH 949 Jo ASopoLig 
Spurs, YSU 


ay} Jo voouysnIp poefa-xTBIg OY} JO spIquy oy, 


: SIOMOTT OY} JO SMIOJSNH pure s1dUUe 
E88T rok oy 
SULINp IIIYSpIOF}IOP UL p9arasqo sprig wo soyoNy 
qourysiqy Ao[sureg oY} JO s[RULIMY 97¥1GQ0}.10 A OT, 
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* saoqeqyod-paeg uvilIyO AIM syuouedxia 
: : ULIOM-JNY 


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aoUTAOIg—tsun Jo 4st] Areyuotmetddng puooag 


‘vioydoptderyT ot} FO WoTZwoyIssrTO oYeUTe4yshg W 
; soysty pur ‘erpydoy ‘erqiydury uo yxodayy 
ATYSpIOFJIOF] UL UOTWSYSIAUL ITI} 04 

eouerezer Ya ‘eosnq {ON PUB] oy} UO syreUIOY 
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(wa.vaia vapLY ) WOIBE, OUT, 
AIOUSTET [RINJRN FO sunasnypy 
YIO AM VOUNTOY TBINIVNY TwVoory Jo sqyxodayy 
oukd yoo] 9¥ wag eu jo sousosa10ydsoyg 


SPIN] o1eyy 


: ; ; ; : “  wpyoqod 244 UO 
s}Ioy ‘aspipurg Fo pooynoq 
“YSION om} UL Pestee ge evroydopiday uo sajoN 


*  gsvasiqy 04e40g ou, 


0 ‘ 204qT | OB 
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eset wf 68 
: *SUDLT, a 
‘SUDLT, DUD “901g | BT | 
16 
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BYVMNION "PU | 66 
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BUVDIMNIVN “PY | 6% 
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‘ : ‘004T | 06 
uory ‘ON 


worn JO oanL | Xopuy 


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JO ONT, Peyeracrqqy 


radeg jo opty, 


*‘panu2qU0I—XHNOTOlG—"* Uworvjdday 


a i ee rl 


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‘pa 490A077 
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‘Vy Gag 
y 2 Ee a) 


IoyNy Jo awe Ny 


719 


CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 


6Z “ 
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99 €& 
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“TIXX] “IWATX |‘ IITAXXX 


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‘SUDLT, PUD "90LT 


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PBSYVLNION “PUT 
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qwodaey 


ZSST “of a 


: ‘SUDLT, 


ae Oy] Dane, ON PUA 


‘SULT, 
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qwoday 


‘SUDLT, 


UD *IO4T 


009 ‘Ht 'N ‘SWOH 
‘00S "H 'N Mossepy 


“cc “ec 
"009 “H ‘N ‘S310 
‘009 "A (N MOssely 
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‘009 "HN ‘T1190 “417? 1K 


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‘00g “[IYd WOLITY *g 
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OILYSpIOFIAIOFY Ur 
PoATASGO BOSNT[OP 1o}VMYso1 iy puw purey FO 4srq] 
8ST wok 44 SutIMp oaiTYs 
“p10y3 19 UL pdaAIasqO sJULTY SULIOMO]] FO 4SVT 
: UUTT ‘vUrquivuUl duazIG WO Soz0N 
DITYSPLOFJAOP UL VOSNIPOT 19zVAr 
“qsond pue puey JO soouUsIIM900 papIOdaI 9, 
VIOvUoqwrugy IU, 
godury uomuloy oy} WO seqoN 
(00g “Tq pure “FT Ioqyse010'T 
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FS-GOST ‘VsaT[0H Ysnoroqprey ye woyey Auvyoq 
uo suOIyvAIosqG ,Sivox AqyUeMT, FO syzpnsaxy 
: : y : * — SOOTJON TVOLSOTOYIIUIO 
qarodayy [eormeyog 


. . . 


eioydopide'y oitysyIOX FO ysvyT 
DYDUWOIOISUT 

UoqOaG : OITYSpIOJ ITOH JO wozogorg oy} Wo so}0N 

‘ — sasuadva snyndiwag UO 
soyeug 

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a} dIOJaq pvoyy) Ioyseo1e'7T FO speuMVPL oY} UC 

: uojdroog ayy FO apromg (pasaye) ayy Wo a30N 

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ay} asteingeu 07 4dureqj¥ yeooy, J9yyInZ Vv uC 
winesny{ [oodrtsary oy} UL WOTZDOT 

“100 AT098TH TeINyS NT OF}, 0} SMOHIPPY 37e08% 
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YON JO vijeurumey, snoussipuy surysixe oy, 


‘ : : f : : : *  saymyg 
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ON ELECTROLYSIS. 723 


On Electrolysis. By Professor OLIVER J. LopGr, D.Sc. 


[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed zm catenso 
among the Reports. ] 


WHEN in response to an urgent request by the President of Section B 
I agreed to open the present discussion, it was only after a good deal of 
hesitation that I consented. For though convinced of the immense import- 
ance of amore thorough study of the facts and phenomena connected 
with the passage of electricity through decomposable bodies, and of its 
vital interest to all scientific chemists, yet it was not a subject that I had 
made specially my own; having been in fact to a great extent deterred by the 
immense area it covered, and by the somewhat repulsive character attach- 
ing to any borderland branch of science—in this case not wholly physics nor 
wholly chemistry—a repulsiveness perhaps only subjective, and probably 
to be attributed to a feeling of incapacity for grasping both aspects of 
the subject with equal completeness. This difficulty still remains with 
me, and though I have made a severe attempt to tackle the subject as 
best I could during the past month, I have been quite unable to cover the 
immense field, or to read more than the summaries of its literature ; and 
accordingly I shall attempt no historical or chronological survey, but 
shall endeavour simply to direct attention to certain theoretical points 
which are undoubtedly of interest and importance, and to suggest the 
answers which I myself feel inclined to give to debatable questions which 
bristle round even the most elementary facts; in the hope that, attention 
being thus directed to them, success in finally solving some of them may 
be attained by a more competent hand. 

Naturally I confine myself to the more physical aspect of the subject, 
because, my chemical knowledge being of a meagre and antiquated 
description, it is better worth your while that I should attempt reason- 
ably good physics than that I should perpetrate unreasonably bad 
chemistry. 

Moreover no chemical development will be satisfactory and permanent 
anless erected ona thorough physical basis; and, if I may venture an 
opinion on such a subject, I believe that the work of a few chemical 
philosophers spent in broadening and deepening the foundations of their 
science would soon confer upon the superstructure a less unsightly and 
lopsided appearance than, seen from outside, it at present has. 

The first question which presents itself is— 


I. Waar ts an ELEcrRouyte P 
The question may have either of two distinct meanings— 


(a) Is a substance an electrolyte at all; i.e., when alone ? 
(b) Is it the electrolyte in any particular case ; 7.e., when mixed 
with other substances ? 


First meaning of I. 


As answers to (a) certain chemical statements have been made, such 
as: ‘all electrolytes are compounds of a metal with a non-metal ’ (Miller) ; 
3A2 


724 REPORT — 1885. 


‘electrolytes are either simple binary compounds, or are capable of being 
formed from them by double decomposition, the ions being the radicles so. 
exchanged’ (Wiedemann); &c. Such statements may be true, and if 
trne may be important chemical generalisations, but they are not 
physical definitions or tests of electrolytic conductivity. 

As a physical definition of an electrolyte we have only to say, an 
electrolyte is a substance which conducts electrolytically. 

A statement like this only helps by fixing our attention on the real 
point in question, viz. the difference between electrolytic and metallic 
conduction—a true physical distinction, which is capable of definite 
examination, and may be capable of precise statement. 

Whether we are able thus sharply to divide off electrolytes from other 
conductors will depend on whether any substance be found which can 
conduct both like a metal and like an electrolyte. Such a substance is 
not yet, I believe, certainly known, though it has been often suspected ; 
it has even been suspected that all electrolytes have a trace of metallic 
conductivity. Though for the present this is quite unproved, and may 
be regarded as against the weight of evidence, it would be rash to insert 
the word wholly into the above definition; it must be left as meaning 
that in so far as a body conducts electrolytically, so far it is an electro- 
lyte. 

‘A Now electrolytic conduction differs from metallic conduction in 
several ways. Metallic conduction appears to be a true passage of 
electricity through matter; it is unaccompanied by any reversible or 
chemical process, it simply generates heat. 

Electrolytic conduction is accompanied by certain reversible chemical 
processes, and appears to be of the nature of a convection of electricity 
by the atoms of matter. 

A substance which so conducts is an electrolyte, and whether it be a 
good or a bad conductor is foreign to the inquiry. 

It is important to notice this because it is often sought to deny that 
(say) water is an electrolyte by showing that it is a bad conductor. Of 
course if it does not conduct at all it is no electrolyte, but a dielectric. 
Our definition says first that an electrolyte must conduct, and it then 
proceeds to say how it must conduct. 

Water, alcohol, turpentine, glass, either conduct a little or they do 
not. If they do not, they are dielectrics pure and simple; but experiments 
on leaks have always shown a more rapid leak if water, alcohol, or tur- 
pentine be used to replace air; and as to some kinds of glass, it seems to 
be a mere question of temperature whether they conduct or not. If it be 
proved that any of these things, even when pure, conduct, be it ever so 
badly, they are not simple dielectrics, and it remains only to consider 
whether their conduction is metallic or electrolytic. 

But it may happen that some of these bodies, or perhaps all liquids, 
behave as dielectrics to rapidly intermittent or alternating E.M.F.s, but 
as electrolytes to slow and long-continued E.M.F.; just as pitch is elastic 
to rapid vibrations (it can transmit sound for instance), but is viscous 
and essentially fluid to long-continned forces. Whether this is so or not 
is a vital question in relation to the electromagnetic theory of light, 
wherein the transparency of conducting liquids has only been provisionally 
and tentatively explained. 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 725 


Tests for electrolytic conduction as distinct from metallic. 


So far as experiment has yet gone, electrolytic conduction is found to 
obey Ohm’s law—a remarkable and important fact, if fact it accurately 
be—and we will return to it later. 

The obedience to Ohm’s law shown by electrolytes prevents our 
drawing any easy and sharp line of demarcation between the two classes 
of bodies. To distinguish between them we have to study what happens 
at a boundary or junction of the two classes of conductors. 

At such a place Ohm’s law utterly breaks down; a finite E.M.F. is 
needed to drive any permanent current, however small. And the reason 
is that the atoms which have conveyed the electricity through the electro- 
lyte can accompany it no longer, and have either to give it up and let it 
go on without them, or cling to it and stop the current. In either case we 
have what is called polarisation. If the clinging power of the atoms is 
greater than the applied E.M.F., the current may wholly cease, and as 
soon as the E.M.F. is removed, will spring back again, the opposition to 
it being no longer like friction, but like a strained spring. 

If the applied E.M.F. overcome the atomic force, the current flows 
on, leaving the discarded atoms to do what they like. They may com- 
bine with each other and separate from the liquid, in which case we have 
visible chemical decomposition; or they may combine with each other 
and dissolve in the liquid; or they may combine with the liquid, forming 
secondary products ; or they may combine with the electrodes. 

They usually cling tightly to the electrode, even if unable actually to 
combine with it, and by thus altering its surface they may give rise to a 
permanent opposite current. The four possibilities are— 


Combination with, or solution in, the liquid. 
Combination with, or deposition upon, electrodes. 
Combination with something already dissolved in liquid. 
Combination with each other and freedom. 


Wherever visible decomposition occurs, there is no doubt of elec- 
trolysis, so that is the most simple and obvious test of electrolytic con- 
duction. But the conductivity may be so bad that no visible product 
forms inacentury. In that case polarisation, if present, isa test. As 
Helmholtz says: ‘ Galvanometers are sensitive enough to shew a current 
which could only decompose a milligramme of water in a century.’ ! 

But this test also may fail by reason of secondary actions. It is the 
merest commonplace that an ordinary voltameter behaves as a very 
leaky condenser. A continual drain of electricity goes through it, 
however small the E.M.F. applied; and when charged, and left, the charge 
is found very rapidly to diminish. It is facts like these of course which 
have so often suggested slight metallic conductivity, and which at one 
time tempted Faraday to postulate this. , 

With certain fused salts the decay of polarisation is so rapid that 
polarisation hardly appears to exist; and quite a strong current can be 
sent through them without any visible decomposition. Clark ? has shown 
that in these cases it is the solution of the liberated ions and their rapid 

diffusion which causes this apparent metallic conduction. There is pro- 


? One may notice that even such a current as this is still 10 electrostatic units per 


second, 
2 J. W. Clark, Phil. Mag., October 1885. 


726 REPORT—1885. 


bably a fall quota of decomposition, but, unless special precautions are 
taken, recomposition is just as rapid. 

The same thing goes on far more slowly in dilute acid, especially if 
it contain dissolved gases; and the experiments of Helmholtz with an 
ingeniously contrived gas-free cell, as related in his Faraday Lecture of 
1881, may be taken as settling the quantitative question whether this 
decay of polarisation is any of it due to slight metallic conduction, or 
whether the whole of it is rigorously due to solution and diffusion of the 
semi-liberated ions. It is of course true that these experiments do 
not settle it for all electrolytes, but for dilute sulphuric acid at any rate 
they prove that the diffusion and indirect recombination of the ions 
accurately account for everything; and that, when these are stopped a 
voltameter behaves as a good and non-leaking condenser up to a certain 
E.M.F., beyond which it conducts with visible decomposition. 

It may be as well, perhaps, to avoid misconception by stating that, by 
the solution and recombination spoken of above, I do not absurdly sup- 
pose that nascent O and nascent H, respectively dissolved in the liquid, 
travel to meet each other and recombine. Upon such direct action as 
that the presence or absence of dissolved air could have no influence. 
What one supposes to go on is this. Semi-liberated hydrogen, finding 
dissolved oxygen in its neighbourhood, combines with it; the corre- 
sponding oxygen simultaneously liberated at the other pole dissolves in 
the liquid, and, so replenishing it, keeps the action continuous at a slow 
rate regulated by the rapidity of diffusion. 

I see nothing, however, to prevent a liberated ion from dissolving in 
the liquid, or from diffusing across to the other electrode, where it may 
combine with the nascent ion, and so reduce the apparent out-put of 
the cell; and this action, having nothing to do with dissolved air, 
might go on even in Helmholtz’s gas-free cell. But it could not begin, 
I imagine, unless the H.M.F. were sufficient to set both ions free ;' conse- 
quently, by never applying more than a feeble H.M.F., this disturbing 
action may be obviated. 

When dissolved oxygen already exists, neither ion has really to be set 
free; consequently even a feeble E.M.F. is sufficient to maintain a weak 
current. 

In cases where the polarisation test for electrolysis thus fails, Helm- 
holtz proposes another, viz.: Hlectrolytes do not fall into Volta’s tension 
series. An assemblage of metals at constant temperature can give no 
permanent current: introduce an electrolyte into the series, and they can. 

On this principle Helmholtz considers he has proved that the con- 
duction of glass is not metallic ; for he makes a Daniell cell with a com- 
plete glass partition in place of a porous cell, and finds that the glass 
does not stop the current by polarisation, as a metal partition would, but 
that the cell behaves exactly like any other cell with an enormous internal 
resistance. 

One more test, those of us who believe in the electrical theory of 
light may suggest, viz. transparency. A conductor, if transparent, must 
be an electrolytic conductor. Thus a fused salt, if it be clear and trans- 
parent and yet conduct well (as argentic iodide does for instance), may 
be assumed to be an electrolyte, despite the absence of products of decom- 

1 The E.M.F. required to set an ion free enough to enter into solution is almost 


enough to set it free altogether. The only difference, I suppose, is pdv; and at 
ordinary pressures this is negligible. 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 727 


position and of polarisation ; unless, of course, rigorous proof can be given 
that its conduction is metallic, which has in no case happened yet. 

Electrolytes seem necessarily fluid, and it is difficult to imagine the 
locomotion of atoms which accompanies electrolysis to go on in a solid 
body. Mr. Shelford Bidwell, Dr. Silvanus Thompson and others con- 
sider they have found solid electrolytes, but it behoves us to be very 
careful in accepting such an idea; extreme viscosity there may be, as in 
hot glass, but not the true rigidity of a solid, unless certain proof is 
forthcoming. 

The tests of electrolytic conduction are these four— 


1. Visible decomposition. 

2. Polarisation. 

3. Non-agreement with Volta’s series law. 
4, Transparency. 


We may thus pretty safely distinguish electrolytes from metals, but to. 
certainly distinguish electrolytes from dielectrics is not always easy. 
True a dielectric does not conduct, but it may break down. How to 
distinguish an electrolyte from a weak dielectric, as, for instance, rare 
air: thisis not easy. An initial E.M.F. is needed to commence dis- 
ruptive discharge, but that may be easily confused with electrolytic 
polarisation of electrodes: indeed some facts suggest that there is a 
considerable surface or boundary resistance which opposes the passage 
of electricity from metal into rare air and may altogether stop it when 
yery small terminals are used. 


Second meaning of I. 


Now pass to the second aspect of the question, what is an electro- 
lyte, viz. (b) Is a particular substance the electrolyte when mixed with 
other matter ? 

Ifa voltameter had a glass partition with a hole in it, no supporter of 
the view that glass was an electrolyte would contend that the glass con- 
ducted some of the current. Similarly with a water partition, or with 
any water existing in a mass in any part of the vessel. Non-conductivity 
or bad conductivity has thus everything to say to this question, What 
is the electrolyte ? 

But then, in a solution of acid or salt water, it is not merely mixed 
with the substance, it is combined with it; and it is very possible that 
water in this state may conduct readily enough. Information on this head, 
sure and definite as it seems to me, is given by the simple fact that pure: 
H,O and pure liquid HCl both almost insulate when separate, but 
conduct well enough when mixed. 

There are, then, four hypotheses concerning the apportionment of the- 
current among the substances in a salt solution. 

(1) That the salt alone conducts. 

(2) That the water alone conducts. 

(38) That the salt and the water share the conduction between them. 

(4) That neither salt nor water exist, but that a hydrate is formed, 
and that this conducts and is decomposed as a whole. 

To decide whether when substances are mixed both conduct the cur- 
rent, Hittorf mixed KCland KI in various proportions, and concluded. 
that the eurrent always travelled through both salts. Buff has made 
many similar experiments, and agrees. Gore has deposited brass from a 


728 REPORT—1885. 


cyanide solution of copper and zinc. True the combined resistance is not 
the semi-harmonic mean of the separate resistances, but there is no 
earthly reason why it should be. It is a mere superstition to expect such 
a result. Even if the substances were really mixed and not combined, 
it would not be so; unless there were a boundary surface between the 
media made wholly of stream-lines, i.e. a surface across which no elec- 
tricity flowed.! 

Another mode of discriminating between the hypotheses is to use 
intense currents.? For with intense currents you are more likely to 
get off the real ions: secondary actions are hurried, and cannot go on 
properly. With intense currents the ions are very apt to come off ina 
very self-combined and energetic state (as ozone instead of oxygen, &c.), 
and an extra polarisation force accounts for this extra energy; but 
they do not so easily combine with other matter in the solution. 

Now Magnus showed that from a solution of CuSO, weak currents 
deposited copper only, while strong currents liberated hydrogen as well. 
In fact the observation is now a commonplace. But it is much easier to 
turn copper out of combination than hydrogen. So if copper were the 
real primary ion there is no call for hydrogen to appear. It looks there- 
fore as if hydrogen were at least a primary ion, and possibly the only one. 
But then, as pointed ont by Smee, local exhaustion of the liquid near the 
cathode may cause such a deficiency of copper in the liquid touching the 
plate, that, if the current is too intense for diffusion to keep up the supply, 
hydrogen must perforce be liberated from the simple acid coating of the 
cathode. Hence in repeating any experiment of this kind it will be 
necessary to stir or scour the plate constantly and vigorously ; and even 
then there would be some uncertainty about the matter, supposing hydro- 
gen persistently appeared. 

Is there any more direct and simple mode of answering the question 
as to whether the salt or the water or both conduct the current P 

Yes, what seems to mea very simple and satisfactory one; by determin- 
ing at which pole free acid appears ; and, if it appears at both, by deter- 
mining how much appears at either. 

For the sake of clearness it may be well to point this out in detail, 
though indeed it is so simple as hardly to be necessary. 

Consider a solution of copper sulphate in water; decompose it with 
platinum electrodes, and first make the assumption that the sai¢t conducts 
the whole current, or that the real ions are Cu and SO,. At the cathode 
Cu appears and is deposited—nothing else happens. At the anode SO, 
appears, decomposes water, forming sulphuric acid, and setting free oxygen. 
Thus on this hypothesis all the free acid appears at the anode. 

Next make the assumption that water conducts the whole current, 
so that hydrogen and oxygen are the true ions. At the anode oxygen 
appears and is liberated—nothing else happens. At the cathode hydrogen 
appears, decomposes CuSQ,, forming sulphuric acid, and setting free 
copper. So on this assumption all free acid appears at the cathode. 


} This fact, that no crossflow between ‘multiple arc’ conductors must occur, if 
their combined conductivity is to be the sum of their separate conductivities, is 
sometimes overlooked. The covering on ordinary wires supplies the necessary con- 
dition ; but if the wires touch the law breaks down. To the parts of one conductor 
the ‘ divided circuit law’ is by no means necessarily applicable. 

? Meaning always by ‘intensity’ of current, strength of current per unit area, or 
what is sometimes inconyeniently styled ‘ density’ of current. 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 729 


Finally, let the water conduct ae and the salt = th of the cur- 
a 


rent, then the ratio of the free acid formed at anode to that formed at 
cathode will be «—1. 

Now I have made many preliminary experiments ; avoiding porous 
partitions of course, as introducing electric endosmose, capillary forces, 
and all kinds of unknown disturbances; using only two vessels con- 
nected with a syphon U tube, and other such arrangements. I find in 
all cases acid at both poles, though, with platinwm electrodes, usually most 
at anode. I do not press these preliminary results; a great deal of easy 
quantitative work suggests itself in this connection, and it is necessary 
to specify and to vary the concentration of solution and the strength of 
current used. The method is the important thing, and I should like to 
have it either approved or condemned. 

If one uses copper electrodes, the results are somewhat different. On 
the hypothesis that the salt alone conducts, no free acid should be 
formed anywhere; the solution should become impoverished at cathode 
and concentrated at anode—phenomena which are well known to occur 
to a greater or less extent. If, on the other hand, the water alone 
conduct, free acid should appear at cathode but not at anode; the solu- 
tion near cathode shonld again become impoverished of copper, though 
not of SO,; while upon the anode is liable to form a coat of oxide 
which there is no sufficient supply of free acid near to dissolve off. And 
all these phenomena are also found to occur. The deposit of oxide on a 
copper anode is with intense currents most marked, so much so as almost 
to stop them. It is most instructive to put some dead-beat instrument 
like Ayrton and Perry’s Ammeter into circuit with a copper voltameter 
too small for the current, and watch the needle descend from the stops 
quickly almost to 0.1 Free acid does make its appearance at the cathode 
—and, with intense currents, plenty of it. 

Roughly one may judge perhaps that the salt conducts about three- 
fourths of the current and the water one-fourth, but I have no certain data 
yet for any such statement; and the proportion may well vary, for all I 
know, with the current intensity. One may, however, definitely accept 
hypothesis 3 or 4 as certainly truer than 1 or 2. 

The fact that acid is produced at anode, and alkali at cathode, in the 
decomposition of, say sodic sulphate, proves that the salt conducts at least 
some of the current; and an estimation of the amount of acid and alkali 
respectively generated would decide what proportion was so conducted. 

Again, experiments with electrolytes in series, as made by Hisinger, by 
Berzelius, and by Davy, are interesting in their bearing on this point.? 
Thus, take three vessels containing, say, HCl, HNO;, and AgNO,;; or 
Na,SO,, HCl, and BaCl,, respectively; and the formation of a preci- 
pitate is a good identification of a true ion. ‘The locality of such preci- 
pitate is still more instructive, since it conveys information as to the 
relative rates at which the opposite ions travel, and so leads us on to 
the next question, concerning what is called ‘ the migration of ions.’ 


' Hence, in arranging such voltameters, the anode should be larger than the 
cathode. 

? An old experiment of Faraday’s (Exp. Res. 494) on the formation of magnesic 
hydrate at a junction of Epsom salts and water when a current passes, is now ac- 
<epted, even by Kohlrausch, as proving that water may in some cases conduct. 


730 REPORT—1885. 


II. Tse Micration or Ions. 


Do the opposite ions in solutions travel at different rates ? And, in any case, 
at what rate do they travel ? 


Here, as is well known, we must draw a distinction between fused and 
dissolved compounds. Fused or homogeneous electrolytes, in which no 
solution occurs, must always remain of uniform composition; conse- 
quently, considering any bounded region, exactly equivalent quantities of 
either ion must pass out of it on the whole. It is not evident that the 
two constituents must pass out in opposite directions, but in so far as 
they pass out in the same direction there is no true electrolytic decom- 
position : there is only a kind of electric endosmose, affecting the level of 
the fluid as a whole. Given that the level remains uniform, and that 
ions are only liberated at electrodes, then it is plain that the opposite 
corresponding ions must pass through any imaginary plane in the fluid 
at the same rate in opposite directions; for, if not, the constitution of 
the fluid would not remain uniform. 

This argument fails to apply to dissolved salts, and it breaks down 
before long even with fused salts if they dissolve one of the liberated 
elements or any other body, because in a solution no necessity for uni- 
formity of composition exists—one portion may be concentrated, while 
another is quite weak; and itis well known that such weakening and 
concentrating actions do occur in electrolysed solutions: e.g., to specify a 
hackneyed but sufficiently instructive case, in the electrolysis of dilute 
sulphate of copper with copper electrodes the solution near cathode 
becomes weaker, while that near anode becomes stronger, than before. 
If the anode is arranged above the cathode visible blue streaks descend ; 
if the arrangement is inverted the top liquor gets almost clear. If 
platinum electrodes be used both sides get weaker, but the cathode side 
weakens two or three times as fast as the anode side. It is customary to 
explain these well-known and perfectly certain experimental facts by the 
obvious and plausible hypothesis that the two ions do not travel both at 
the same rate through the liquid, but that the SO, travels quicker than 
the Cu. Such an explanation accounts for the phenomenon, but it does 
not follow that it is certainly the true explanation ; and for the sake of 
examining it more particularly I may be allowed to suggest doubts con- 
cerning it. If these doubts have no sound physical basis their state- 
ment will only result in their removal, and can do no harm. 

First let us quickly see how the hypothesis of unequal velocity 
accounts for the unequal concentration of solution which is called migra- 
tion. Let SO, travel, say, three times as fast as Cu; and consider an 
imaginary partition about the middle of the cell. Three atoms of SO, 
travel unit distance through it towards the anode for every atom of Cu 
travelling unit distance in the other direction ; but the number of atoms. 
of Cu and of SO, liberated against the electrodes in the same time is. 
four of each: hence the anode region of the cell loses only one SO,, 
while the cathode region loses three Cu. 

The reasoning may be made to look more general. 

Consider a compound, AC, arranged in two vessels with a joining 
tube; let A be anion and C be cation, and let A travel » times as fast as 
C, so that through the tube we have n equivalents of A passing for every 
equivalent of C. 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. Gols 


By the time one equivalent of each ion has been liberated against the 
electrode, the ions transmitted by the tube will be 2 and nw equivalents 
respectively: hence the anode vessel will have lost altogether 1 — nz 
equivalents of each ion, and the cathode vessel will have lost 1 —z 
equivalents. 

But z and nz together convey the whole current, soz + nz = 1. 

Thus, then, we have as the respective losses of the liberated elements. 
by the two vessels : 


Loss in anode vessel. . =1——” at ; 
ltn Il1+n 
? 1 n 
Loss in cathode vessel . = 1 — —— = ; 
lin tIl-+n 


Hittorf’s well-known expressions. 

Or consider it this way : 

By the time one equivalent of copper has been deposited, and one of 
SO, has attacked either the anode itself if of copper, or the water in its 
neighbourhood if of platinum, forming CuSO, in the one case, 
H,SO, in the other—no matter which :—by the time all this has hap- 
pened, 3% atoms of SO, have passed from neighbourhood of cathode- 
towards anode, and z of copper have gone the other way. 

The cathode liquid has thus lost 1 — « of copper, and so must have: 
lost 1 — x of SO, too, no more and no less, or else it would contain: 
isolated radicles. 

The anode liquid has gained these 1 — xatoms of SO,; and they 
may be also reckoned as 3z, as we just now saw; whereforea =. The 
cell happens not to lose any SO, by deposition, but, instead, it either 
loses an equivalent of O or gains an equivalent of Cu, according to the 
nature of the anode. 

So the final result in any case is a transfer of 2? equivalent of 
SO, from cathode vessel to anode vessel, combined with a transfer of + 
equivalent of Cu in the opposite direction: a net loss of ? equivalent of 
copper sulphate by the cathode solution : and, in the anode liquid, either a 
net gain of # equivalent of CuSO,, if the anode be copper ; or a gain of a 
whole equivalent of H,SO, combined with a loss of + equivalent of 
CuSO, and of a whole equivalent of oxygen, if the anode be platinum. 

All this is in fair agreement with experiment. The only obviously 
weak place is that relating to the production of free acid. According to- 
the above it ought to appear, if at all, only at anode; now in practice, if 
the experiment be tried, it will be found to appear at cathode too. 
Still, the local concentration changes are satisfactorily and very simply: 
explained by this customary migration hypothesis. 

But before we decide that the sufficiency of this explanation proves 
its necessity or actual truth, let us try whether we cannot get the same 
result on another, and not only plausible but really quite necessary, 
hypothesis, viz. the hypothesis that the solvent conducts some of the- 
current as well as the salt dissolved ; and let us see whether this alone 
will not account for the whole ‘migration’ phenomenon, even though: 
opposite corresponding ions be supposed to travel at equal rates. 

By drawing a scheme, say, for the electrolysis of CuSO, solution with 
platinum electrodes, we can soon see that this hypothesis will do what is 
wanted; for we find, that if CuSO, conducts the whole current, the- 


WiaP REPORT—1885. 


decomposed equivalent comes half from each half of the cell—the anode 
half and the cathode half; whereas, by supposing H,O to conduct the 
whole current, CuSO, is decomposed by secondary action only in the 
neighbourhood of the cathode, and the amount of salt in the anode 
portion of the solution remains unchanged. The proper apportioning 
of conduction, therefore, explains migration just as well as the direct 
Hittorfian hypothesis. 

Moreover, we shall find that this mode of regarding the subject is 
capable of explaining the formation of free acid or other secondary pro- 
ducts exactly where experiment shows them to be formed. Ifit be found to 
account for their appearance in precisely right amount, it may be held to be 
proved; let us therefore examine more closely the full effect of supposing 
the current to be shared between the two ingredients of a doubly com- 
pound liquid in any assigned proportion. 


Theory of Double Electrolysis : or the decomposition of a mixture of 
two substances. 


We must begin by excluding the possibility of double decomposition or 
interchange of radicles, because if such occur there are really not two 
substances mixed, but four. No stress is to be laid on the word ‘ mix- 
ture,’ as distinct from combination; and I shall consider a solution of 
‘copper sulphate as a mixture of CuSO, and H,O, dilute acid as a mix- 
ture of acid and water, without troubling about the perfectly certain fact 
that all these cases (and probably most other cases) of mixture are really 
cases of—it may be very feeble—chemical combination. But commonly 
called ‘mixed’ solutions, such as the heading might at first sight sug- 
gest—like, say, KI+ NaCl, or even KI4+KCl—are excluded, not only by 
double decomposition, but by the presence of water, which is distinctly a 
third substance. 

Limiting ourselves strictly then to two substances, e.g., a salt and 
water, there are still several possible cases : 


(1) The liberated ions may belong wholly to one of the two compounds. 
(2) The liberated ions may belong one to each of the two compounds. 
(3) They may each belong to both. 


At first sight the first case is a mere simple decomposition, like that 
of a fused salt, but not necessarily so; it all depends upon whether the 
substance is primarily decomposed or not—i.e. on whether it conducts 
the whole current or not. If the other substance, whose ions are not libe- 
rated, either wholly or partially conducts the current, it is a true case of 
double electrolysis. 

To simplify the problem we will use unalterable electrodes—e.g. pla- 
tinum ; and we will suppose that the liberated ions do not dissolve, or 
cat any rate have not dissolved, in the liquid, else the mixture will not 
remain merely dual but will become more complex. 

We have next to make some hypothesis concerning the relative speeds 
of opposite corresponding ions—i.e., of the anion and cation of one and 
the same substance. For the sake of simplicity I will first make the 
simplest assumption, in favour of which several considerations may be 
urged, though none of them are conclusive—viz. that opposite correspond- 
ang ions travel at equal opposite rates. We shall find this sufficient to 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 733 


explain every migration phenomenon, and we can see the effect of gene- 
ralising it afterwards. 

Consider, now, the mixture AC + A’C’, where A and A’ stand for anions, 
C and C’ for cations. 

Let the current be conducted by these two compounds in the ratio: 
‘X to X’, so that X + \’=1; and, in order to isolate the portion of the 
liquid near either electrode and study the changes therein occurring, we 
may picture the whole fluid as contained in two vessels united by a siphon 
tube ; and we shall call the two vessels the anode vessel and the cathode 
vessel, respectively. 

Further, we may if we like think of AC as sulphate of copper, and of 
A’'C’ as water; the products of deposition, or liberated ions, will then be 
Cand A’ respectively, and the bye-product AC’ will be free sulphuric 
acid. This example therefore belongs to case (2) above, one ion belong- 
ing to each compound ; and this will serve well enough as an example 
to work out. 

Picturing the convection of electricity by the ions through the tube, 
we see that A carries a quantity of negative electricity a, A’ a quantity 
3’ ; C carries 5 of positive electricity, and C’ a quantity $\’. So by the 
time a unit quantity of electricity has been conveyed, and an equivalent 
of anion and cation deposited on anode and cathode respectively, the follow- 
ing changes have occurred in the ingredients of the fluid in the two 
vessels. The cathode vessel has gained 4A equivalent of C from the 
anode vessel, but it has lost a whole equivalent by deposition, so its net 
loss of C, which we may write dC, is 1—3d. Of the other cation it has 
lost none, and has gained $)’ from the other vessel, so we may write 
dC’ = — 3N’. Of anodes it has lost some of both, but only by travelling 
to the other vessel, and accordingly dA =}, and dA’= 42)’. Similar 
reasoning easily applies to the anode vessel. 

Then passing from the elements only to consider the compounds, we 
recognise at once that a compound is lost by the loss of either of its 
elements, and that those elements may be either lost absolutely or may 
be found in new combinations. We thus soon perceive that the loss 
of the compound AC in the cathode vessel is equal to its loss of C, 
a.e. to its major loss; that is, d/AC) =dC=1—23). The loss of A/C’ 
in this same vessel is equal to whichever is the bigger of the two losses, 
dA’ or dC’; and as dC’ is, in the present instance, not a loss, but a gain, 
there is no doubt but that d(A’C’) = dA’ = 3N’. 

Similarly with the other vessel. 

But there remains to be considered what becomes of the unpartnered 
balance of all the various elements, for unless dC equals dA in both 
vessels, there will be in one or other an excess of either A or C—in the 
present case of A; and, again, unless dC’ equals dA’ there will be an 
excess again—in this case of C’; hence we have the new compound AC’ 
formed :—in amount, d(AC’) = dA — dC = dC’ — dA’. 

The equality of dA — dC and dC’ — dA’ is necessary, unless it is 
possible to obtain isolated ions ; and it will be found that they come out 
equal from the preceding values, and that d(AC’) = — 2’ in the cathode 
vessel, while in the anode vessel d(AC’) = — X. 

Represent all this now in a table :— 


734 REPORT—1885. 


Result of Double Electrolysis on the liquid in anode and cathode vessels, by 
the time one equivalent of an ion belonging to each substance has been 
deposited. 


Substance = pee Loss in anode vessel Total loss 
A 3A _ 3A 0 
A’ An! 1—$0' 1 
C 1—}a 3A 1 
cy — in’ 2A! 0 
AC 1—3a 1x 1 
A'C! ax! 140’ 1 
AC’ =X —i’ =i 


The facts of migration are thus perfectly accounted for, and a good deal 
beside. Thus free acid is shown to appear both at anode and cathode in 
the electrolysis of sulphate of copper with platinum electrodes: the amount 


at anode being 4 of that at cathode. Hencea determination ofthe rela- 


tive amount of free acid in anode and cathode vessels at once gives a 
means of determining X : ’, the proportion in which the current is shared 
by the two substances, if the above hypothesis be true. 

It is easy enough to put Hittorf’s migration number x into the above 
table instead of X\: one has only to write $A = lagen but only three lines 
of the table have any meaning on the Hittorfian hypothesis—viz. the first, 
‘third, and fifth lines—relating to the loss of the compound AC in the 
respective vessels ; the solvent, or other compound, A/C’, is ignored, and 
the production of free acid near cathode is not supposed to occur. But 
it does occur, as some preliminary experiments I have made prove. 

Our hypothesis makes the formation of acid and everything else 
independent of intensity of current. Experiment may not confirm this; 
but then we must remember that we have assumed no mizture af ions to be 
liberated, and it is known that with intense currents some hydrogen is 
given off at cathode as well as copper deposited. If this be taken into 
-account the reasoning must, of course, be generalised. 

A more formidable objection, however, may be made to the theory, 
viz. that it virtually assumes the conduction by the two sets of atoms to 
be independent; for instance, the » portion of current starting fairly 
away from the neighbourhood of electrodes via CuSO, is supposed to go 
through CuSO, all the way, and not to come across patches of water or 
to take either ingredient of the liquid at random. 

Consider for a moment what would happen if this did occur. Take 
a chain, CuSO,, CuSO,, H,O, H,O, H,O, H,O, CuSO,, CuSO,, H,0. 
Imagine the usual Grotthus action to go on through the chain: the 
result is 2H,SO,and 1CuO. This is an unstable condition, or condition 
of non-minimum energy; so one H,SO, will combine with the CnO; 
but it need not combine at once, because there is no need for the two 
compounds to be formed close together. Hence we must expect free 
acid sometimes to make its appearance in the middle of the liquid away 
from either electrode, and also for CuO to appear (in the form of some basic 
salt I suppose) too. Choosing proper materials, an action of this kind 
might be readily looked for, but I have never heard of its being detected, 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 735 


and it is so unlike what we know of the behaviour of electrolytes in general 
that until proof to the contrary is forthcoming I feel compelled to believe 
that a current fairly starting in AC continues in it all the way, that a 
current starting in A’C’ likewise continues in that, and that secondary 
actions, or passage of current from AC to A/C’, only occur in the immediate 
neighbourhood of the electrodes.! 

It is easy to illustrate the preceding table of the changes in the 
solutions by a diagram of a special case :— 


Scheme of decomposition of sulphate of copper solution with platinum 
electrodes on the gratuitous assumption that water conducts + the whole 


current. 
Cathode Anode 
SCAU) Aaa ge ode: OpISOPERGec Te Ofeere CuSO DAsecus. ae « CuSO, 
H,0 H,0 H,0 H,O 7 
<Cus0o, CuSO, CuSO, Cusot 
Blais 7s 2 phen. t oledeiee | as Fi ste tetrened 2 H,O A 
<CuSO, CusOes esas CaSO. srchars « CuSO, 
H,O H,O H,0 Ho 6 
<CuSO,...... aS pt kecd.)t 2's CasOyes s|.2 5,» Cus, 
H,O H,0 : HO Ho A 


The arrangement of the symbols indicates the constitution before 
passing the current: the dotted lines and arrows indicate the state of 
affairs after four units of electricity have passed, on the arbitrary assump- 
tion (only made for the sake of illustration) that the CuSO, conducts 
three times as much current as the water does, z.e. that \ = 3? and )’= 1. 
Inserting these values in the previous table, and multiplying by four, to 
represent that four units of electricity have passed, it becomes :— 


Substance Loss peo Loss in anode vessel Total loss 
80, 13 -—14 0 
O 4 34 4 
Cu 24 13 4 
H, is > > 0 
CuSO, 2s 13 4 
H,O 3 34 4 
H,S0, -1 —3 —4 


1 Tt is assumed, in the text, that the ingredients of the liquid are thoroughly 
mixed. If they are purposely arranged in layers, free acid or free base may certainly 
make its appearance at the bounding surfaces. In fact, Faraday has observed the 
phenomenon, Exp. R. § 494; for he passed a current from strong MgSO, solution 
into ‘water’ (i.e., really weak MgSO, sol.) and found a deposit of magnesic hydrate 
at, the layer of demarcation. It is interesting to note that in January 1886 Kohl- 
rausch accepts this experiment as proving that water does in some cases share in the 
conduction, though he still considers its share as negligible in all but exceedingly 
weak solutions. 


736 REPORT—1885. 


And all this is exactly borne out by the above scheme: for one notes that 
3 atoms of acid make their appearance in the anode vessel and 1 atom 
in the cathode vessel; that 4 an atom of O is transferred one way, and 
4 an atom of H, the other way; that } atoms of Cu travel from anode 
vessel to cathode vessel, but that 4 are deposited, making the net loss 
in this vessel 4 — 15 = 2}; and so on. 


Modification of the above table by the introduction of Kohlrausch’s 
hypothesis that each ion has its own rate of travel. 


Consider now what will happen if, instead of assuming that opposite 
corresponding ions must go at the same pace, we assume that each has its 
own pace ; and that the sharing of the current between the ingredients 
of the fluid depends on these intrinsic ionic velocities and on the propor- 
tion of each substance present. 

Of the two compounds AC and A/C’, we must affix a mass-velocity to 
each ion—say, a, y, a’, y’, respectively ; so that 


a + y is what we formerly called A, 
and a’ + y! 9 » Nv; 


but no longer does a = 43. So the above table becomes :— 


Results of Double Electrolysis, §c. 


Loss in cathode 


Substance socal Loss in anode vessel Total loss 
A a —@ 0 
Al a’ l—a 1 
Cc cy Y 1 
Cc’ hy 7’ 0 
AC 1-y y 1 
A'C! a! a" 1 
AC’ —(a’ +7) —(a+7) —] 


This gives the relative formation ¢ free acid in the two vessels exactly 
he ae 
nae 
It is a trifle more general than the former hypothesis, in the non- 
equality of a and y, and of uw’ and y’, and this fact may furnish a method 
of distinguishing between the two hypotheses. 
From the table we see a way to find these values, thus: 


the same as before—viz. 


y = loss of AC in the anode vessel, 
a’ = loss of A’C’ in the cathode vessel, 
a + y = gain of AC’ in the anode vessel, 
‘and atyta+y=l1. 


In Kohlrausch’s theory, indeed, ionic velocities are supposed to be 
pretty well known, and accordingly we may seek to compare the relative 


quantity of free acid, found in the two vessels, with the ratio At Y 
see y, 


But then Kohlrausch’s velocity-numbers are founded on a strictly Hit- 
torfian view of migration, and do not depend on the assumed conductivity 
of all the ingredients present in a fluid: they are intended to stand for 


eT Ts 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. Gali 


the actual speed of moving salt atoms and the water atoms are neglected. 
Kohlrausch’s numbers are in fact totally different things from our a, y, 
a’, y', which include along with the idea of velocity the idea of amount of 
substance available for conducting the current. In terms of a notation 


to be used later, = pep pred (8 wy 
a’ Py" Ng te 


Generalisation of the above, to suit the case when a mixture of ions may be 
> y 
gwen off at each electrode. 


If we now extend our view a little to cover cases (1), (2), and (3) at the 
same time——that is, to take account of a possible mixture of liberated ions, 
such as one frequently gets with intense currents, and may get at any time, 
we must write the actual amount of liberated cations ¢ and c’, and of 
anions a@ and a’, where, of course, e+ c’ =a+a'=1; and the table 
becomes the following :— 


Results of Double Electrolysis, Sc. 


Sahat Amount of substance | Amount of substance | Total lo 
Dean lost by cathode vessel] lost by anode vessel pune eS 
A a a-a a 
A’ a! a —a! a 
C c-y Y iC 
Cc’ c—y / ce! 
AC (c—y) or (a) (y)_ or (a—a) (c) or (a) 
AIC! (a’) or (e’—y') | (a’—a") or (7’) (a!) or (e’) 
AC’ (a+y)—¢ a—(a+y¥) (a@—c) 
A’C or ¢—(a+y) or (a+y)—a or (e—a) 


This table looks more complex than the others because it contains 
alternatives; they are not ambiguities, and it is easy enough to know in 
any particular case which is the right alternative, but it cannot be 
expressed by the general symbols, because it is impossible to know 
whether c — y or a is going to be the bigger. The rule is that the 
bigger of the two alternatives about the loss of AC and A/C’ is the true 
one; and the substance formed will be at the same time decided by the 
values which in the last two alternative lines come out negative. 

Or take it conversely. Suppose A/C is the substance formed in both 
vessels as the bye-product, then the second set of alternatives are the 
right ones all through ; but if AC’ is the substance formed in both vessels, 
the first set of alternatives are correct; while, if it should happen that 
AC’ is formed in the anode vessel and A’C in the cathode, then the 
first set of alternatives are true for the anode vessel and the second set 
for the cathode vessel. 

With actual chemical substances it is usually easy to see whether the 
bye-product will be AC’ or A/C, and thus to fix the alternatives. Thus 
with a solution of copper sulphate, it is plain that the bye-product will 
be H,SO, in both vessels, and not CuO,! 

As an illustration of the possibility just mentioned, about the bye.~ 
products being different in the two vessels, consider the electrolysis of a 


’ Remember that the electrodes are supposed to be platinum, so that oxygen is 


liberated ; with a copper anode it is easy enough to form CuO, as has already been 
said. 


1885. 3B 


738 REPORT—1885. 


salt of some metal more electropositive than hydrogen—for instance, 
Glauber’s salts. Neither Na nor SO, can be liberated—the liberated 
ions must be H and O ; but the water is not merely primarily decomposed, 
Na,SO, shares in the conduction of the current, and accordingly secondary 
actions go on, forming acid at anode and alkali at cathode, as is perfectly 
well known. The last table gives every detail of the action, and points 
out that in order to determine experimentally how much of the current 
is conveyed by the salt and how much by the water we have only to 
measure either the amount of acid or the amount of alkali produced. 
For in this case a/ =c/ =1; a=c=0; the production of acid is 
a + y =X, the proportion of current conveyed by the salt ; and the pro- 
duction of alkali is precisely equivalent. 


General Theory of Multiple Electrolysis. 


It is now only a matter of writing to make a table for the most general 
case of electrolysis of a single liquid containing any number of substances. 
It is not much use now excluding double decomposition, and we will 
begin by letting the liberated ions be the most complicated mixture 
possible. 

Mix together the substances AO, + A.0, +... + A, C,,; the result 
cof the mixing is that each anion is liable to be combined with all the 
ications, forming A,C, + A,C, +..., and so on for the others ; say A, =C 
+A,50 +... .; or altogether 2A.2C. 
| Let the liberated ions be a), @,... a, equivalents of A,, Ay,... &e. 


land c,, Co, . . » Cy equivalents of C,, Co, . . ., &c. respectively. 
Let the mass-velocities of the independent ions be 
@j, @, . . . a, for the anions, 
and Yi> Yo) + + + Yn for the cations. 
‘Then the following equations hold among the quantities :— 
Fa a= 1, 
La + Sy=1; 


and, if it is worth while attempting to specify how much of the current 
each substance conveys, 
a + y=A3 Gat 72 =Aas- + » ke. 
(Further, if my notion is true that an electric current necessarily con- 
sists of equal positive and negative currents, Sa = Sy. I even venture 


to think it probable that a, = y, 2 = Yo; &c. See below. | 
Now the portion of above table referring to the loss of elements is 


simple enough :— 


Element Amount lost in cathode vessel | Amount lost in anode vessel 
Ay Re Dy 
2 pe Coes 
C, 4-7; n 
C 


: eae % 


But when you come to the compounds there is no definiteness; by reason 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 739 


of the double decomposition which has gone on. Moreover, there are 
‘the apparent alternatives, just as in the last table. To get rid of alter- 
natives, decide that the liberated ions are single, one anion A,, and one 
-eation C,, where & and 1 may be equal as a special case. Then the por- 
tion of the table referring to loss of compounds is :— 


Original substance —_ a Lost in anode vessel Total loss 
A,@C—C,) | ay —a, 0 
A,(2C —C,) Oy —a, 0 
A,(3C-C,) a, 1—a, 1 
A (2C-C,) a, —a, 0 
C,(2A—A,) Woy. ap 1 


If no double decomposition had gone on, the substances would have 
simply been A,C,, A.C., &ec. The meaning of A,(2C — C,) is: all the 
<ompounds into which A, happens to enter, with the express exclusion of 
A,C,, this being considered separately, along with A,C,, A;C,, .. ., &., 
in the last line of the table. 

The remainder of the table, dealing with the secondary or bye-products 
formed, is too indeterminate to be instructive ; for even if double decom- 
position had been excluded originally, it must be supposed to occur now, 
and the substances formed can only be written :— 


Substance formed in cathode A t Substance formed in anode A t 
vessel es || vessel oe 
A,(@C-—C, —C;) CEH | C\(2A—A,—A,) CO ae 61 
A,(2C —C,—C,) Aa + Yo | C,2A—A,—A,) Go + Yo 
A(2C—C,) i—(a 7) C,(@A—A, 1—(a,+¥;,) 
A, (2C a Chy a, + Yn C(ZA —A, rs A.) bane 
, 
where A,(3C —C, — C3) stands for A,C, + A,C,+A,C;+..., or 


any of them—+.e. for all the possible new combinations of A, with 
cations; the C, being excluded because A,C, is certainly not a new 
compound; and C, being excluded because, being the cation deposited on the 
electrode, there is bound to be a deficiency of it rather than an excess, 
unless indeed more is brought over by migration than is deposited. 

Cases of even this anomaly were discovered by Hittorf among the 
iodides and chlorides of zinc and cadmium, especially when dissolved 
in alcohol; more than one equivalent of iodine is carried over towards 
anode, as much indeed, in one case, as two equivalents. This, however, 
is regarded as exceptional by everybody, and is usually explained by 
supposing a sub-salt to travel bodily with the simple ion thus: 
3CdI, = Cd + (2CdI + 21,), where the quantity in brackets may be 
the true anion. The same idea has been extended to other and more 
ordinary cases. 


740 REPORT—1885. 


Objections to the idea of unequal velocities of anions and cations. 


The bare notion of unequal molecular velocity has received consider- 
able and important development at the hands of Quincke, Wiedemann, 
and Kohlranusch; but they all accept the fact, and suggest modes of 
accounting for it. We will therefore defer consideration of their theories 
to a later head. What I wish to point ont is that migration data afford 
no proof that ions travel at unequal rates, because the facts can be 
accounted for without any such assumption, as has been shown at length ; 
but if I have to state what objection I feel towards considering the 
anion and cation velocity unequal, I can only answer in an unsatisfac- 
tory manner as follows :— 

1st. Electricity is known to obey the laws of an incompressible fluid ; 
and whether for positive electricity or for negative electricity, this is 
equally true. It may well be that electricity is far from being such a 
fluid, or pair of finids, but there must be some analogy or they would not 
obey so exactly the same equations. If one allows mental images of 
electric actions, the guise of an incompressible, indestructible, uncreat- 
able fluid, always flowing in closed circnits, naturally suggests itself for 
either kind of electricity. Equal quantities of opposite kinds in coin- 
cidence do indeed neutralise all electrostatic effect, but one does not. 
conceive of their annihilating each other. 

2nd. In certain cases an electric current is known to consist of equal 
opposite streams of positive and negative electricity. In a simple binary 
(fused) electrolyte this is so (see above) ; and in the convection portion 
of the circuit of a Holtz machine it is so. 

If provisionally these lemmas be granted, the argument is obvious. 

Include one or other such arrangement for insuring equal opposite 
flow in any circuit, along with many kinds of voltameters. Can one 
think of unequal rates of flow of opposite electricities in one part of a 
circuit and equal rates of flow in another? Not unless it is possible for 
equal streams of opposite electricities to meet and annihilate each other. 
And if we can thus control and make equal the electric streams without 
affecting phenomena in the slightest, must they not always be equal ? 

And it is plain that equality of the electric streams renders necessary 
the equal speed of anion and cation, since by Faraday’s laws atomic 
charge is constant. Not, indeed, that this rigidly requires that each 
anion should travel at the same rate as its corresponding cation, or that 
) = Yp 42 = Yo, &e. Allis satisfied if the anions as a whole travel as 
quick as the cations as a whole—+.e. if Xa = Sy; but it is difficult to 
think of the relation as being always: satisfied unless each individual a 
equals each individual y: the same kind of argument as that which leads 
one to ‘ equate coefficients.’ But less rigorous! Granted. I do not 
pretend that any of this is a rigorous argument ; it is little better than 
a statement of prejudice with an attempt at justification. 

To see if any definite and unambiguous experimental answer can be 
obtained to the question, ‘At what rate do ions travel?’ I propose to 
try a modification of those old experiments with electrolytes in series, 
where a precipitate is formed in the middle one of three vessels. For 
instance, use BaCl, in the anode vessel, Na,SO, in the cathode vessel, 
and in the intermediate vessel, which is to be in the form of a long tube, 
dilute HCl. Then pass a current, and observe whereabouts, how soon, 
and with what appearances, the precipitate shows itself. 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 741 


Innumerable similar experiments suggest themselves, but it is need- 
less to specify any more of them at present. 


III. Quantitative Laws or ELecrrotysis. 


The main laws known at the present time concerning the passage of 
electricity through liquids may be denominated, (a) Ohm’s or Kohl- 
rausch’s, (b) Faraday’s two laws, (c) Joule’s, or Helmholtz’s, or Thom- 
son’s law. 


(a) Ohm's Law of Electrolytic Conduction. 


The researches of Kohlrausch and Nippoldt, and several others, give 
us very good grounds for asserting that, in all ordinary cases of electro- 
lytic conduction, Ohm’s law is at least approximately obeyed: currents 
being proportional to E.M.F. actually applied to the liquid. It is 
exceedingly important to test this law in liquids with the utmost accu- 
racy, as has been done for metals by a British Association Committee 
(Maxwell and Chrystal), but the research would be a very difficult one. 
We have seen reason for guessing that with violent currents the law may 
perhaps begin to fail, even if it be exact for weak currents; but on Max- 
well’s theory of light it can hardly be quite exact for any current, 
because the optical transparency of electrolytes shows that they behave 
as dielectrics to very rapidly alternating E.M.F.s. But the law is very 
nearly true any way, and this fact of itself is important, as showing that 
infinitesimal E.M.F.s can produce a current. 

Now if there were any chemical cling hetween the atoms taking 
part in conduction this could not be—a finite E.M.F. would be needed 
to tear them asunder; and this is what physicists mean by using the 
term ‘dissociation’ in this connection. The atoms are so free of one 
another that they must be either really or virtually dissociated. Not all 
the molecules of the compound need be in this condition, of course, only 
a certain percentage of them, and the conductivity of the liquid must 
depend upon the value of this percentage. It may be supposed nil in a 
perfectly pure homogeneous liquid like H,O; it may be supposed to be 
caused by the presence of foreign molecules (¢.g. of salt or acid); and it 
may be supposed to increase with rise of temperature. 

The transparency of an electrolyte may, however, be explained 
without assuming any violation of Ohm’s law, by supposing that the 
percentage of dissociated atoms is too small to perceptibly affect the 
properties of the liquid in bulk. On this hypothesis, rise of temperature, 
or other mode of increasing conductivity, might perhaps cause some in- 
crease in opacity ; moreover it is to be remembered that the transparency 
of electrolytes for long waves is possibly very small. 


(b) Faraday’s Two Laws. 


(1) The voltametric law. 
(2) The law of electro-chemical equivalence. 


Law 1 asserts that the amount of electro-chemical decomposition is a 
precise measure of the amount of electricity conveyed; i.e. that no 
electrolyte for which the law is true possesses a trace of metallic conduc- 
tivity ; or, that electrolytic conduction and chemical decomposition are 
precisely correlative. 

The law has been most exactly verified for nitrate of silver solution 


742 rEPoRT—1885. 


by Lord Rayleigh ; for this substance, therefore, we know that it is true 
to a high degree of accuracy. For other substances our knowledge is at 
present only approximate, the main difficulty in its verification lying in 
the prevalence of secondary actions and the confusion they cause. So 
great is the influence of these actions that in some cases an electrolyte 
has been asserted to conduct only metallically, and not to be decomposed 
at all. This has been said, for instance, of the fused iodide and chloride of 
mercury. A strong current may be sent through these fused salts with 
carbon electrodes and no products of decomposition shall appear, because 
they dissolve and diffuse throngh the lhquid with such surprising velocity. 
J. W. Clark! has proved this to be the explanation, and has succeeded 
in getting off a good supply of mercury, and of iodine or chlorine, by 
separating the electrodes by a sufficiency of intervening porous material, 
which, whether it retard true diffusion or not, certainly hinders con- 
vection. 

But of course such an experiment has no exact quantitative signification 
until every trace of recomposition is avoided, and the theoretical amount 
of free ions obtained. And this is just the difficulty ; for even in simple 
acid water, if any air be dissolved in the water it is well known that an 
insufficient supply of hydrogen comes off, while if the water is not satu- 
rated with oxygen, the supply of oxygen must be deficient by reason of 
solution. 

If oxygen be estimated by volume it will be apparently deficient for 
another reason ; but the better way of estimating it is by loss of weight, 
which gets over the ozone difficulty. 

Helmholtz has taught us how to get over the dissolved air difficulty, 
by making a most ingenious air-free cell, described in the Faraday Lec- 
ture, 1881; and he shows that in such a cell polarisation is produced by 
infinitesimal currents, and no permanent leak goes on through the cell 
until the applied E.M.F. attains a certain value. This is a pertectly valid 
proof that no trace of metallic conduction exists in air-free acid-water, 
and that accordingly for this substance Faraday’s law 1 is true. 

We have already expressed the law in several forms of words. Helm- 
holtz expresses it as follows: ‘Through each section of an electrolytic 
conductor we have always equivalent electrical and chemical motion.’ 
And if this fact of equivalent electrical and chemical motion be expressed, 
as Ampére very naturally expressed it, by calling it a convection of elec- 
tricity by the moving atoms of matter, we may state Faraday’s law 1 thus: 

Electrolysis is a kind of electrical convection rather than conduction, 
each atom carrying a charge with it; and the charge conveyed by every 
atom of a given substance is the same. 

Obviously a vitally important statement if the slight amount of 
hypothesis involved in it is legitimate, as I fully believe it to be; and it is 
the one virtually adopted by Clerk Maxwell in his treatise. ; 


Law 2 asserts that when a current is sent through a series of different. 
substances, the mass of each substance liberated (or decomposed, or 
dissolved, or whatever it is that happens to it) is proportional to its 
ordinary chemical equivalence : or, that the amount of any substance acted 
upon during the passage of a given quantity of electricity is equal to its 
molecular weight divided by its atomicity, or, more explicitly, its mole- 
cular weight divided by the number of bonds which under the particular 


1 Phil. Mag., November 1885, 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 743. 


circumstances happen to be loosed or joined, per molecule of that sub- 
stance, be it element or be it compound. 

Evidence for the truth of this law has been accumulated by Daniell 
and Miller, by Wiedemann, Hittorf, Matteucci, Becquerel, Soret, and 
Buff. They all separate the anode from the cathode vessel by various 
devices, and it appears as if the more carefully secondary actions are 
prevented or allowed for, the more nearly is the law true. It may be 
sufficient to refer to Wiedemann’s ‘ Hlektricitit’ for an account of a mass 
of research. 

Further evidence may be suggested as given by the behaviour of 
certain electrolytes in series-contact, without electrodes intervening, after 
the manner of Davy; for, if two meeting ions were not precisely equiva- 
lent, the one in excess would have to appear in a solitary state. Sucha 
phenomenon might be well looked for, but it has never yet been certainly 
observed. 

The physical import of law 2 is that it extends the statement of law 1, 
about each atom in a single substance having the same definite electric 
charge, to all electrolytes, and enables us to conclude that .a definite 
quantity of electricity belongs to each unit of affinity of every atom of 
whatever kind; in other words, that every monad atom or radicle (while 
being liberated on an electrode, at any rate) has associated with it a certain 
definite quantity of electricity, no matter from what compound it is being 
liberated, and no matter what the name of the radicle itself may be ; that 
every dyad radicle has twice this quantity associated with it, every triad 
three times as much, and so on. 

It is impossible to overlook the immense interest of such statements 
as these to any chemist wishing to grasp the real meaning of chemical 
combination and affinity. But the tremendous import of the law to phy- 
sicists also may be more vividly indicated by pointing out that the 
electric charge of a nascent monad atom is a kind of natural unit of 
electric quantity, and that fractional portions of such units are, in elec- 
trolysis at least, wnknown. One may have integral multiples of this 
natural unit, as in dyads and triads, but one cannot have submultiples, 
until chemists discover some quantivalence less than that of hydrogen, 
or rather until they see reason to abandon the idea that quantivalence 
proceeds by integers (the basis of their ‘atomic theory ”) altogether. 

Maxwell no doubt intends to call attention to the superlative interest 
of the fact that there appears to be a non-divisible electrical unit, when 
he calls it ‘a molecule (his customary cautious name, intended to include 
atoms also if they exist) of electricity.’ And Helmholtz does not shrink 
from staring the possibility in the face that electricity may turn out to. 
be as ‘atomic’ as matter. 


Atomic Idea of Electricity ; Electrostatic Theory of Chemistry. 


Let us first consider what is really the evidence for sucha view. Elec- 
tricity is found to associate itself with the atoms of matter in multiples of 
one fundamental quantity, but never in fractions of it; it does not then 
follow that fractions of this quantity are impossible, but it may well be 
that we have never yet dealt with them. The evidence for the atomic 
nature of electricity is pretty much of the same nature as that for the 

_ atomic nature of matter. Gains and losses of electricity are apparently 
continuous, but so they are of matter; all that is necessary to satisfy 


744 REPORT—-1885. 


experience is for the atom of electricity to be smaller than any quantity 
hitherto measured. 

Whether the charge of a monad atom be indivisible or not, it is cer- 
tainly a natural unit of electricity, and it becomes of great interest to 
calculate its value. This is easily possible to the same degree of approxi- 
mation, as we know the size of an atom. The electrical charges in the 
atoms of a gramme of water are known accurately enough, from ordinary 
electro-chemical-equivalent determinations, viz. 1°5 x10!3 electrostatic 
units of each kind; the number of molecules in a gramme of water may 
be considered as something between 10*4 and 10”; and accordingly the 
charge of a monad atom is something like 10-'! or 10-! electrostatic 
units. 

Now this is very small, less than the hundred trillionth of a coulomb, 
and if it were really an ultimate atom of electricity, it is wholly unlikely 
that the fact would have been noticed. It is possible, however, to think 
of some phenomena which may afford an indication one way or the other, 
and I shall venture to suggest one or two later. 

The charge of an atom is so small that its potential cannot turn out 
high, on any customary hypothesis as to actual atomic magnitude, pro- 
vided ordinary considerations of electrostatics apply to atoms. It is 
difficult to know whether they apply or not until it can be shown 
that absolute vacuum has a specific inductive capacity. The transparency 
of interstellar space, and the velocity of radiation in it, would seem re- 
spectively to answer the question in the affirmative, and to suggest 
unity as its value. At any rate, when one has no other mode of tackling 
atomic charges it would seem reasonable to try the ordinary electrostatic 
laws on them, and see how they fit and what happens. 

Consider therefore the following problem. 

A number of equal spheres, each charged with a definite quantity of 
electricity, are commingled with the same number of similar spheres 
each charged with the same quantity of opposite electricity, the poten- 
tials of the spheres being so low that mutual discharge does not occur 
even during a collision, or so-called ‘contact,’ of the spheres, and some 
law of force being assumed between the spheres irrespective of their 
charges. 

I do not propose to attack the problem thus vaguely suggested, 
because many persons can do it far more easily and thoroughly than I; 
but certain facts are patent. The potential of each sphere must be lower 
in the ‘combined’ state than in the isolated, and, unless an atom be 
assumed to be extravagantly small compared with the spaces between 
them in the liquid state, the potential of each isolated atom is but a few 
volts. 

Facts are known which suggest sizes for the actual substance of the 
molecules, but, without pressing them, one may assume that whereas in 
the liquid state the distance of the atoms apart is about 10-8, the radius 
of each of them is about 10-9 or even 10—! centimetres; then, the 
charge of a monad atom being as aforesaid 10-1! or 10~!%, it follows that 
its potential, when isolated, is about 3 volts. 

If such an atom pair off with another of opposite sign, the potential of 
each will fall as they approach ; becoming, when the distance between 
their nearest points is one tenth of the radius of either, about 1-2 volt,} 


* See table by Sir William Thomson in Llectrostatics and Magnetism, § 142. 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 745 


and falling asymptotically to zero as the distance between them still 
further diminishes.' 

It is true that this fall of potential has not the result of postponing 
mutual discharge ad infinitum, however near atoms may approach; but I 
feel constrained to believe that no such discharge ever in practice occurs, 
from the fact (if it be a fact) that the whole of a liquid can be electro- 
lysed away, and from the assumption that any such discharged molecules 
would be wholly intractable to electrical influence. To explain non- 
discharge we can fall back on the rather dark fact of the enormous 
apparent dielectric strength of vacuum, combined with the very low 
potentials to which atoms are charged. 

I have tried an experiment of electrifying two falling clouds of lyco- 
podium oppositely, and allowing them to mix, or, so to speak, combine. 
The result has not yet been satisfactory, but lyeopodium granules are 
coarse and weighty bodies, and are unwieldy representatives of atoms. 
To get anything like such a quantity of each kind of electricity into the 
grains of a cubic millimetre of lycopodium as exists in the atoms of a 
cubic millimetre of water, the charge, and therefore the potential, of each 
granule would have to be enormous, something like a billion volts: for I 
find the diameter of a lycopodium granule about ‘004 centimetre. It is 
easy to see that a given quantity of both kinds of electricity, shared 
among a given bulk of equal and definitely arranged spheres, will raise 
the potential of each by an amount proportional to its superficies. 

It may be noted, as interestingly showing the enormous charges which, 
distributed among the atoms of a substance, produce such an insignifi- 
cant potential, i.e., as illustrating the prodigious electrical capacity of 
molecular arrangement, that if the opposite electricities were extracted 
from a milligramme of water, and given to two spheres one mile apart, 
those two spheres would attract each other with a force of ten tons!” (Cf. 
Helmholtz, Faraday Lecture, 1881.) 

A more hopeful substance than lycopodium, for constructing an 
artificial chemical compound with, is fine smoke, say of magnesia, which 
hovers in air for a long time. 

But, as Clark and I have observed, it is sufficient to electrify such 


1 Or one might work the argument conversely, and perhaps more plausibly, so as 
to obtain an estimate of atomic, as distinct from molecular, dimensions. Thus :— 

The total charge shared among the atoms of a gramme of water is perfectly well 
known, viz., 1073 electro-magnetic units of each kind. The heat produced during 
the formation of a gramme of liquid water from its gaseous constituents is, according 
to J. Thomsen, 4333 thermal units. If two bodies, or sets of bodies, each charged 
with that quantity of electricity (one set positive, the other set negative), approach 
each other so as to do this amount of work, their difference of potential must 
diminish, during the approach, by 1:7 volt. 

The fall may be from 1-7 to nearly 0, as the dissociation idea of electrolysis would 
suggést. Or it may be from 3 to 1-3, as the guess at atomic dimensions in the above 
text implies. Or atomic charge may be a thing acquired during the act of com- 
bination, as the hypothesis of zero charge in a molecular aggregate like HH or 00 
would imply ; in which case the necessary fall of potential must be 3-4 volts. 

The first of these alternatives gives for the diameter of an oxygen atom 


56 x 10% 23 ; 
1/z3 being the number of molecules in a gramme of water. 


2 Tf any cause could make the positive atoms in a drop of water group together 
and face the negative across a vacuum, a furious Leyden-jar, or ‘Globe-Lightning,’ 
would be produced. 


746 REPORT—1885. 


smoke with only one kind of electricity in order to cause the particles. 
to combine or coagulate together—doubtless because of minute differences. 
of potential between them: the aggregations soon becoming very large 
and giving the appearance of snow. 

I now fancy that this same phenomenon of aggregation may go on 
among the atoms of a gas when it is electrified, and may account for the 
formation of ozone near an electric machine, for the formation of ammonia 
from nitrogen and hydrogen, and such like. 


(¢) Joule’s or Helmholtz’s or Thomson’s law of the dependence of 
decomposition H.M.F. on chemical combination-energy. 


The deduction of this law from the first law of thermodynamics may 
be exhibited perhaps most clearly and briefly as follows : 

(i.) Definition of E.M.F. as—the work done in a circuit per unit of 
electricity conveyed, or E= W/Q. 

(ii.) Definition of Electro-chemical Equivalent as—the mass of sub- 
stance decomposed per unit of electricity conveyed, or « = m/Q. 

(iii.) Definition of Thermal Equivalent as—the heat set free during 
the formation of one gramme of the substance from the two radicles into 
which it has just been supposed to be decomposed, provided that none of 
the energy remains in some form other than that of heat, 0 = H/m. 

(iv.) Statement of the first law of thermodynamics applied to the 
electrical decomposition of the said substance in the given way, on the 
assumption that the whole of the work done by a current is expended in 
decomposing the substance, 


Wies JH. 


The simple algebraic consequence of these four equations is 
HK = Jé6, 


which is shorthand for the law, and may be read thus:—the H.M.F. 
needed to decompose a substance into given constituents is calculable by 
simple energy considerations from purely thermo-chemical data. 

If 6” stand for the heat production per dyad gramme-equivalent of 
the substance (e.g. per 18 grammes of water, 98 grammes of sulphuric: 
acid, or 136 grammes of chloride of zinc), it is easy to see that 


ppnow dure, 
—~ 46,000 "°? 
— 6 = wee Piet gi = 2u6 hb i ] i 
for J = 42 x 108, « 96608" z, > Where p is the molecular weight 


of the substance as compared with an atom of hydrogen, and & is the 
atomicity or number of bonds loosed in the decomposition supposed. 

Values of 6” are tabulated direct by Julius Thomsen for a great 
variety of substances, and are quoted in Naumann’s ‘ Chemie,’ vol. i. and 
also partly in Watt’s ‘ Dictionary of Chemistry’; hence the obtaining of 
the volts needed to decompose a substance, by simply dividing 6” by 46,000, 
is extremely convenient. 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 747 


IV. Discusson OF THE LAW (c), AND QUESTIONS CONCERNING 
POLARISATION. 


The chemical changes which go on in a circuit wholly electrolytic, or 
in any homogeneous portion of a circuit, are decomposition and identical 
recomposition, and consume no energy ; accordingly no fresh H.M.F. is 
needed to send a current through a circuit wholly electrolytic or through 
a homogeneous electrolyte, when the force is really applied to it (i.e., not 
merely applied to electrodes), and Ohm’s law is possibly obeyed by elec- 
trolytes exactly as by metals. 

But at junctions of metals with electrolytes, or of electrolytes with 
one another,! permanent chemical changes may occur, and at such places 
a finite E.M.F. must be situated: and the resultant of these may be 
negative, when it is called polarisation, or positive, when the whole 
arrangement is called a battery. 

Total polarisation may be regarded as the sum of two kinds: 


(a) Temporary polarisation, existing during continuance of current. 
(b) Residual polarisation, existing afterwards. 


Residual polarisation is caused by a more or less permanent alteration 
of the surface of the electrodes by clinging or combined ions. Under 
this head comes the whole subject of secondary batteries. 

Concerning temporary polarisation less is known.? On Helmholtz’s 
theory it is caused by the deposited but unliberated and still charged 
ions being unwilling to part with their charges. Whenever the ions are 
able to combine with the electrode or with the liquid, and thus retain 
their charges, temporary polarisation is very small. It seems un- 
doubtedly due to the same circumstances as cause the extra energy of 
the nascent condition of a substance; and it varies very much with the 
particular state of combination, or uncombination, into which the ions 
enter when set free from their former union.* 

xe” Dm 
46,000" ©” 23,0000" 
be used to calculate the theoretical E.M.F. of a battery cell formed of 
specified constituents in which known reactions go on. 

Now is the law really true? Is H. really the E.M.F. needed to de- 
compose a given substance? Or is it only a partial statement of a truth ? 

It may at once be admitted that whatever direct thermal effects the 


The above expression, in the form = (Je@) or 


1 Du Bois Raymond proved polarisation to be possible at liquid-liquid junctions. 
He also asserts the existence of ‘innere Polarisation’ in a uniform liquid, which 
would be contradictory of what is said above; but what he observed is plainly con- 
ae with capillary E.M.F. and endosmose, and in the light of these is natural 
enough. 

2 The experiments of Bernstein, as well as some by Beetz and Edlund, have 
shown how quickly it can rise and decay with make and break of current; so it is 
scarcely a valid proof of its complete non-existence when a galvanometer switched 
into a circuit is not deflected. At the same time no sharp distinction can be drawn 
between temporary and permanent polarisation, any more than between temporary 
and permanent magnetism. 

8 Mr. J. Larmor gave a short communication to the meeting, ‘On the molecular 
theory of galvanic polarisation,’ which he has expanded to a most interesting paper, 
and published in the Phil. Mag. for November 1885. He shows that polarisation, 
whether natural or artificial, must necessarily diminish surface tension, without any 
question of exact reversibility ; and he calculates the distance apart of the consti- 
tuent molecules in the electrical layers of a voltameter-condenser, whose capacity is 
becoming incipiently non-constant. 


748 REPORT—1885. 


current may produce, being an expenditure of energy in other than 
chemical directions, must lie outside the range of the above law, inas- 
much as they falsify the assumption of (iv,). Irreversible or frictional 
heat, and likewise reversible or thermoelectric heat, must thus be con- 
sidered separately. If ever the E.M.F. of a cell or a voltameter is 
seriously different from the value calculated on chemical ground it is to 
be examined whether there be not local heatings or coolings in the cell, 
whereby the total E.M.F. may be either diminished or increased, being 
really the sam of two E.M.F.s., a chemical one and a physical or thermo- 
electric one. 

But all this being understood and allowed for, as was really done by 
Thomson in his original paper in 1851, is the law sustained by experi- 
ment for cases other than the Daniell cell and a few other simple ones ? 

For instance, when two substances combine and produce heat, is any 
of the heat a direct result of their union, or are electric currents the 
direct primary result and heat a secondary or derived result? If any ot 
the heat be primarily generated then it is to be surmised that this por- 
tion of the whole combination energy is electrically inactive, having no 
effect on either the positive K.M.F. of a battery or the negative E.M.F. of 
a voltameter. Secondary actions for instance: it has long been a subject 
of debate whether the solution of zinc oxide in acid, or of zine sulphate 
in water, contributed its full quota to the energy of the current and the 
H.M.F. of a cell, or whether the combination of zinc with oxygen was 
more intrinsically effective. 

Joule showed how to attack the question for substances composing 
batteries, by immersing the battery in one calorimeter and its outer circuit 
in another. Whatever heat necessarily and intrinsically appears in the 
cell itself must be heat primarily and directly generated ; but if all the 
heat of the battery can be made to appear in the outer circuit, by making 
the resistance of this circuit high enough, it is proof positive that the 
primary result of the chemical changes is electric current, not heat; and 
so in Joule’s experiments with certain substances it appeared to be. 
More cells have since been tried, with the result that some directly heat, 
while others directly cool, themselves; though the bulk of their energy 

-still seems to take primarily an electro-kinetic form. 

Helmholtz has discussed the whole question from the point of view of 
reversibility, ¢.e. has applied the second law of thermodynamics as well as 
the first. Directly this mode of treatment is suggested it is almost 
obvious that a cell which heats or cools itself must have an E.M.F. 
variable with temperature, according to the law : 


Maes aa 
QdkK = J 7H, 


where H is the reversible heat generated in the cell during the passage of 

a quantity Q of electricity, and 2 is the rate of change of E.M.F. per 
a 

degree at the absolute temperature T. 

Hence, to investigate the sum of the reversible heat coefficients for a 
whole cell, it is only necessary to experiment on the variability of its 
E.M.F. with temperature, and to write 

H T dE 
Sil = 8 
Q J at 


a 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 749 


The properly calculated E.M.F. is then not simply 3 (Je0) but 
E=J (<9—II).! 


In a Daniell cell it happens that dH/dt, and therefore also XI, is very 
nearly 0, 

It is true that with voltameters a difficulty is often experienced, in 
reconciling the theoretical conclusion that a certain minimum E.M.F. is 
essential to the decomposition of a given substance, with the practical 
observation that any E.M.F., however small, can cause a constant leak 
through an electrolyte; but it has been pointed ont, at sufficient length 
already, how all this is capable of easy explanation by means of secondary 
chemical reactions. 

For remember that 6 is the thermal value of the reaction which actually 
goes on. Nowif the action is such as permits the ions to dissolve in 
the liquid, or to recombine indirectly with each other, less energy is 


expended, and less H.M.F. therefore required, than if they were really 


set free. We must not take 0 as measured for one kind of reaction and 
try to fit it to a case where an altogether different reaction is going on. 

Again it may happen (especially with intense currents such as are 
most easily applied by the use of small electrodes like the ends of Wol- 
laston wire) that ions are liberated in a condition of abnormal activity, 
as, for instance, oxygen as ozone, antimony in its explosive condition, &c. 
This necessarily means greater expenditure of energy, in proportion to the 
thermal value of such extra activity, and accordingly a greater E.M.F. is 
needed to effect decomposition under these circumstances ; .e., the polari- 
sation H.M.F’. rises in value, having been forced as high as 3°3 volts, in 
the case of dilute acid with platinum points, by Buff. 

If all these circumstances are properly taken into account, I am aware 
of no experimental reason which need cause us to doubt the general truth 
of the simple law, E = Je@— JIL} 


VY. Mecuanism or Enectrotytic Conpuction. 


Electrolytic conduction is, I suppose we may say certainly, a convec- 
tion of electricity by the atoms of matter; but concerning the mode in 
which the atoms make their way through the fluid there are several 
hypotheses : 

(1) The molecular chain of Grotthus; modified and accepted by 
Faraday and many others, modified further by Hittorf to explain migra- 
tion, 


1 The simplest mode of writing the complete law is 


1B 
Bi Jeo ee 
aot adv 


From this it follows that if heat of combination is independent of temperature, 


gE must be constant too; and generally, that 


dt 
_@E _d(Jeb) 
IL Pa ll 
Another way of writing it is 
H = — TJe [ 
ike 


Mr. Laurie (Proc. R.S.E., 1884-5) investigates the heat of combination of zinc 
and iodine by measuring the E and dE/d¢t of a zinc iodine cell. 


750 REPORT—1885. 


(2) The dissociation hypothesis of Clausius and Williamson ; virtually 
accepted by Maxwell, modified by Quincke to explain migration, and 
shown by Kohlrausch to explain the facts of conductivity. 

(3) The electrostatic hypothesis of Helmhotitz. 

1. The Grotthus chain, with its postulated pairings and unpairings, is 
too familiar to need the smallest description. The only difference between 
the hypothesis as originally stated and the form in which I suppose 
Faraday to have held it, consists in whether the direct action of the 
electrodes be supposed to extend throughout the liquid, affecting and 
polarising every molecule in it,! or whether the electrodes’ direct action 
be considered as limited to a very minute molecular range, all inter- 
changes beyond this range being conducted on diffusion principles or by 
inter-actions among the fluid atoms themselves. 

The only objection that may plainly be urged against the theory is 
that it seems to require some small force able to effect the necessary 
initial decomposition, and it suggests that conductivity and tenacity of 
composition are related to one another in some opposing manner. Facts, 
however, fail to bear out any such idea; conductivity and chemical 
tenacity seem independent of one another; and, as has been just said 
under head ‘ polarisation,’ no finite force, however small, has ever been 
found necessary to decompose an electrolyte when really applied to it. 

In other words, no polarisation exists inside a homogeneous electrolyte ; 
there is no chemical cling of the atoms there, but only a frictional rub. 

Such a fact as this, if well established, renders necessary some form of 
dissociation hypothesis. A Grotthus chain of quite equidistant atoms 
might serve, or a momentary dissociation would be sufficient, but no 
hypothesis which involves a tearing asunder of molecules in the interior 
of a homogeneous electrolyte can be permitted. Herein lies the great 
distinction between electrolytes and dielectrics. 

2. The form of dissociation hypothesis suggested by Clausius and Wil- 
liamson is well known. It supposes that the vast majority of molecules 
in an electrolyte are quite insusceptible to the influence of electrodes, but 
that a few of them (the number being increased by complexity of com- 
position and by rise of temperature) are, by collision or otherwise, dis- 
sociated, and exist in the free atomic state, each atom with its appropriate 
charge. These alone feel the influence of the electrodes. According to 
some statements of this hypothesis the direct influence of the electrode 
is supposed to reach every dissociated atom in the fluid; according to 
another the direct electrode action extends only to those atoms which 
come within a minute range of its surface, everything else being managed 
by ordinary diffusion, 7.e., by the ordinary chance locomotions common 
to all atoms in a fluid. 

Individual atoms, though permitted to recombine as soon as they 
like, on this theory, are commonly thought of as existing in the disso- 
ciated state for a finite time. If there are chemical or other objections 
to such a view, it need not be held; all that the facts of electrolysis 
require is the most momentary dissolution of partnership, a temporary 
but quite perfect freedom, so that the feeblest possible influence may 
suffice to induce recombination in a definite direction and with some 
‘atom other than its former partner. Provided a sufficient supply of such 


! Grotthus in 1805 supposed electrodes to attract ions according to an elemental 
‘inverse square law. 


~ 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 751 


temporary severances occur throughout the liquid, no individual atom 
need remain in its uncombined state for a thousandth of a second, so far as 
the phenomena of electrolysis are concerned. But in proportion as the 
dissociated atoms are few and far between, the longer must they be sup- 
posed to continue in a free condition. 

Something must here be said concerning the views of Quincke and of 
Wiedemann on the mechanism of electrolytic conduction. 


Theory of Quincke. 


Prof. Quincke, adopting the dissociation view of isolated atoms, sup- 
poses the electrical charges of opposite ions to be not only opposite in 
sign but specifically unequal in quantity. He considers the direct 
action of the electrodes to reach every atom, and to propel the one set 
one way and the other set at a different speed the other way according 
to simple electrostatic laws, and thus explains at one step both decompo- 
sition and ‘ migration.’ Moreover, since the charges of opposite ions are 
not equal they do not neutralise each other; the resulting molecules are 
therefore charged with a balance of one or other electricity, and get pro- 
pelled either with or against the current—thus accounting for electrical 
endosmose. 

Evidently the hypothesis is very elastic, and, if granted, explains the 
facts; but I must confess to an invincible repugnance to the idea of 
numerically unequal charges existing in the dissociated atoms of a mole- 
cule, as well as to the corresponding idea of all the molecules of an electro- 
lyte being similarly charged. 

The laws of Faraday seem to me to point so distinctly to a definite 
charge for every ion, depending solely on its valency in the compound 
from which it has just been liberated, that it would require very strong 
necessity to render palatable any other view. And I find no necessity at 
all. The inequality of charge is postulated only in order to account for 
the facts of migration as provisionally understood by Hittorf, i.e. for the 
assumed inequality in pace of opposite ions. Now without pressing un- 
duly the prejudices I have ventured to suggest against such inequality in 
pace, I may claim to have proved that the facts of migration do not at 
any rate necessitate such inequality; and the facts of migration are all 
that the theory is based upon. 

And as to endosmose: it seems to me very doubtful whether any 
tendency to electric endosmose exists except in the immediate neighbour- 
hood of a surface; one can only observe it in capillary tubes and porous 
partitions, and it seems allied to surface phenomena in general. It has 
indeed been elaborately considered by Helmholtz from this point of view, 
along with the reciprocal phenomenon of the E.M.F. generated by the 
flow of liquids along tubes. 


Theory of Wiedemann. 


Prof. Wiedemann’s theory of electrolysis is not unlike Prof. Quincke’s, 
but it is based on contact electricity. He supposes the atoms charged 
by contact with each other, and the mclecule charged by contact with 
the vessel; and, having thus obtained the needful electrifications, decom- 
position and endosmose naturally follow; moreover endosmose comes 


voz REPORT—1885. 


out properly connected with the existence of liquid and solid contact, or 
surface-action. 

But how does this theory explain migration? For the atoms in a 
molecule, if they electrify each other by contact, necessarily do so with 
equal quantities; and this is where the theory differs from Quincke’s,. 
Wiedemann explains the unequal rate of travel postulated by Hittorf, 
not by inequality in the propelling force, but (more satisfactorily as it 
seems to me) by a difference in the resistance met with. He would say 
that a hydrogen atom slips through the liquid more easily than an oxy- 
gen atom, and so gets along faster ; moreover, he has conjectured, and 
experimentally verified within certain limits, that the ease of travelling of 
a given ion is inversely as the ordinary viscosity of the liquid; so that 
conductivity and viscosity are inverse to one another. He has further 
established the important and convenient fact that migration and endos- 
mose are totally distinct things, having apparently no sort of relation to 
one another. 

Wiedemann’s theory thus chimes in beautifully with that of Kohlrausch, 
who postulates a specific velocity for every ion: a velocity which depends 
only on the nature of the liquid in which it has to travel, and the 
dV which drives it. 

dx 

That part of his theory which asserts a connection between conduc- 
tivity and limpidity is curiously illustrated by the behaviour of water (or 
saline or acid solutions) at different temperatures flowing through a 
capillary tube. It is known that hot water flows some five times as fast 
as cold water through a given tube. It is also known that hot water 
conducts much better than cold, Further, it is known that if terminals 
connected to an electrometer are immersed in the liquid at either end of 
such a tube, an E.M.F. is discovered between them, depending on the 
rate of flow. 

Now J. W. Clark has discovered that, notwithstanding its vastly 
greater rate of flow, the E.M.F. of hot water is almost identical with 
that of cold. His untimely death has prevented his publishing this 
result, but when he told it and showed it me, some year or so ago, I con- 
jectured that the observed E.M.F. must be a sort of residue of the whole 
generated E.M.F., being the part unable to leak back through the liquid ; 
and I accordingly hunted up data to see whether the extra leakiness or 
conductivity of hot water might so nearly neutralise the H.M.F. gene- 
rated by its more rapid flow as to give the same residue of E.M.F. 
Whether this be the true account of the matter or no, the fact is so. 
The empirical formula in Naumann giving the conductivity of the liquor 
used in Clark’s experiment (it was salt and water I think), at different 
temperatures, contains practically the same co-efficients as that giving 
the viscosity of the same liquid, measured by its flow throngh a capillary 
tube. 

The observation thus agrees perfectly with the theory of Wiedemann, 
connecting electrolytic conductivity with mechanical limpidity. 

The decrease in liquid viscosity with increase of temperature is re- 
markable. On any kinetic theory of viscosity, as due to diffusion one 
would have expected it necessarily to increase with rising temperature. 
In a gas it does so, as is well known, but in a liquid it does just the 
reverse. Iam unable to suggest any reason for this. 


i ee 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 753 


Circumstances affecting Conductivity. 


There are two ways of increasing conductivity ; increase of dissocia- 
tion would seem to be the main cause when a weak solution is made 
stronger; diminished viscosity is probably the main cause when a cold 
solution is made hotter. 

But whether the remarkable change in viscosity caused by rising 
temperature is essentially the same thing as what appears in electrolysis 
to be extra dissociation I am not able to conjecture. 

Cases where the conductivity reaches a maximum at a certain stage 
of concentration, and afterwards diminishes as the strength of solution 
still further increases, are easily explained on Wiedemann’s view of vis- 
cosity, combined with that of dissociation; for at first the percentage of 
dissociation may increase faster than does the viscosity, and so conduction 
be on the whole easier; while at last viscosity must increase fast enough 
to neutralise the advantage of whatever extra dissociation there may be. 
Indeed it is probable that dissociation itself may ultimately diminish, 
notably so for instance with nearly strong sulphuric acid, for it seems 
roughly to depend on heterogeneity of constitution. 

It may be plausibly argued that the experiments of Kohlrausch and 
Grotrian support the following view. Dissociation, and therefore also 
conductivity, falls to a minimum whenever the proportion of ingre- 
dients present are such as to make a very simple typical compound, such 
as (markedly) H,O, or H,SO,, or even H,SO,, H,O; but, with inter- 
mediate proportions, a certain number of semi-detached radicles are 
mixed along with these more stable compounds, and high conductivity is 
the result. 


Theory of Kohlrausch. 


The fundamental assumptions underlying the beautiful theory of 
Kohlrausch are the same as those adopted by Wiedemann. He considers 
electrolytic conduction performed by dissociated atoms, each of which 
carries the same numerical charge of electricity, one set positive the other 
set negative. He follows Quincke in considering their motion due and 
proportional to the slope of potential ie ; and he accounts for migration 
by unequal speed of travel. But—and this is the special Kohlrausch 
idea—every ion is supposed to have a specific velocity, in a given fluid, 
when urged by a given slope of potential; a velocity wholly independent 
of all other circumstances. Moreover, all very dilute solutions are found 
to behave similarly, so that an ion’s rate of travel is nearly independent 
of the nature of the dissolved substance so long as there is not sufficient 
of it to interfere with the general aqueous nature of the liquid. 

Kohlrausch has further shown how to calculate this specific ionic 
velocity in absolute measure, from conductivity, concentration, and mi- 
gration, data. And the following table, taken from Clerk Maxwell’s 
‘Elementary Electricity,’ embodies some of his results. 


1885. 3¢ 


754 REPORT—1885. 


Specific Velocity of different ions in centimetres per second when urged in a 
very watery solution (i.e. one whose viscosity differs very little from 
water, no matter what acid or salt is being electrolysed in it) when urged 
by an E.M.F. of one volt per centimetre: according to Kohlrausch. 


Cations: H K Am Na Li Ba Sr 
0029 -00051 00049 -00032 -00020 -00033 -00030 


Ca Meg 
‘00025 -00022 
Anions: I Br Cl F N,O, Cl,03; C,H;0, 


00058 -00056 -00053 -00031 -00050 -00038 -00023 


It is only with much misgiving that I venture to criticise so admirable 
a theory supported by close agreement with experiment; but it seems 
less dangerous to hesitate unduly over a true theory, than to accept 
too hastily a false one. 

In the expectation that the objections I urge against the entire and 
comprehensive truth of this doctrine of specific atomic velocity will be 
speedily met and shattered I proceed to state them. 

In the first place I proceed to draw a radical distinction between the 
sum of the velocities of opposite ions and their individual velocities. 
Even if we admit provisionally that the sum of anion and cation velocities 
can be calculated from conductivity data, I demur at the partitioning of 
this velocity u into two unequal portions and affixing a definite velocity to 
either ion. The only data existing for such apportionment of wu, into 
nu and (1 — n)u, are the migration data of Hittorf; and I have 
shown at some length that all the observed facts may be otherwise ex- 
plained: I even venture to think, must be otherwise (or to some extent 
otherwise) explained. 

But, passing over this point, there are doubts about the sufficiency of 
our present data for u itself. The Kohlrausch theory considers the dis- 
solved salt as the sole electrolyte; it neglects the conductivity of the 
water.1 Let us therefore start de novo and independently. 


Attempt at calculation of absolute ionic velocity. 


Let 7 equal the number of dissociated molecules of the substance 
undergoing decomposition in a liquid, per unit length. Let g equal the 
total charge (reckoning + and — together numerically), and m the mass 
of each molecule; and let w be the relative velocity of opposite ions with 


respect to each other, under the influence of a propelling force te 
Ai 


Consider an element dzdydz. The number of active molecules in its 
face is n7dydz, the number leaving it per second is n?dydz.nu = n3u dydz. 
The quantity of electricity thus conveyed is qn?udydz per second, and 


1 In the January (1886) number of Wiedemann’s Annalen, Professor Kohlrausch 
gives a long account of his present standpoint. In § 20 he discusses this question 
of the conductivity of water, and sees reason fur modifying his original view, and 
for admitting that in very dilute solutions water does share in the electrolysis. 

He mentions, what I did not know, that part-conduction by water had been sug- 
gested by Prof. Ciausius as accounting for migration; but Prof. Kohlrausch himself 
adheres to his old Hittorfian view of it. 


i tie 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 755 


the corresponding amount of travelling matter is mn3udydz per second, 
so that the electrochemical equivalent of the substance is ¢ = m/q. 


By Ohm’s law the strength of current is & ae 


- dydz, where k is spe- 
cific conductivity of the solution; hence, since the current is also the 


quantity conveyed per second, 


i se dydz = qn udydz, 
je 


or 
- dV 
oF when, aN 


\) i ——— ae le >~e —- 
qn mn> de 


But mn’ is the number of grammes of the electrolysed or dissociated 
substance in a unit cube, and this we may write Nu, where N stands for 
the number of monad gramme-equivalents of the really electrolysed sub- 
stance per c.c., and yp is its molecular weight compared with hydrogen. 


Moreover “ is simply the electrochemical equivalent of hydrogen, i.e. a 
pL 


constant, say 7; so 


gk at, 
BL alu. O28 
We see then that for a given slope of potential « varies only with e P 
or, aS Kohlrausch would put it, with conductivity + concentration, 


which latter he has proved within certain limits to be nearly constant for 
many salt solutions.! 

But the question now arises, is N really simple concentration ? What 
is the substance really undergoing electrolysis? Kohlrausch considers 
that in weak saline or acid solutions it is the dissolved salt or acid only, 
and he appears to consider that every molecule of this is effective ; hence 
he would say N is at once determined by knowing how much stuff has 
been dissolved per litre. Take an example : 

A 5 per cent. solution of ammonic chloride contains about ‘001 
gramme equivalent of the salt per c.c. (i.e. say 53 grammes per litre) ; 
‘and it has a conductivity about 9 x 10-° that of mercury at 0°, or say 
10-'° absolute units. The H.C.E. of hydrogen is 10-*; so then we 
an easily calculate the sum of the ionic velocities for the AmCl mole- 
cule in such a solution, on the hypothesis that it is the sole effective com- 
pound present, and that the whole of it is effective— 
da tlne? dV 


= —— me SS = —. 
10-3 tre dz MY dz 


u 
’ Kohlrausch’s latest statements make z/N (understanding N in his sense pro tem.), 
a linear function of #N, i.e. of the distance between molecules; but the plotted 


lines showing this are after all very curved, and all that the facts really amount to 
is, I think, that 


k=a+ dN + cN? + &.; 


where a, being the conductivity of pure water, may be taken as zero. The N here in- 


terpreted in Kohlrausch’s sense, as representing the amount of dissolved salt, I call 
henceforth N’, 


3c 2 


756 REPORT—1885. 


Let the slope of potential be one volt per centimetre, 7.e. let 2a = 105, 
x 


then w= 001; and this agrees exactly with Kohlrausch’s value ; only 
he apportions it ‘00049 to Am, and *00053 to Cl, upon Hittorfian 
grounds, instead of half to each. 

Ignoring this last mere migration question, what is there hypothetical 
about the arithmetical problem? Plainly the nature of the substance 
conveying the current; 7.e. the value of N. 

If what I have said under head ‘ migration’ has any weight, the: 
current is really conveyed partly by the dissolved substance and partly by 
the solvent, in the proportion of \ to 1 — d. Let us reconsider the above 
investigation from this point of view. 

Very little change need be made; we shall have 7? and n,° for the 
number of dissociated molecules of the two substances per c.c., and w, 
and w, for their respective ionic velocities. The ratio in which the two- 
substances conduct the current will be n,3w, : .3v.; and corresponding 
to n,* and 7°, there will be N, and N, to represent the amount of dis- 
sociated substance present, reckoned in gramme-equivalents per cubic: 
centimetre of solution; but g remains of the same value as before, and 
N, 2 
nny To> 

So the equation between two expressions for intensity of current 
becomes Y 


or 


equal to 3 


dV 
kh = q (n,2u, + 23g) =t N,>Uy 5 
or ant AR. dV 
be Tig ot eld 


and 
wa Gaye av 
2 No dz” 

The value of \ is determined by migration experiments, in the way 
already explained, and & of course is known; but, since there exists no 
known means of ascertaining the value of N, and N,, there remains com- 
plete uncertainty as to the absolute values of w, and w,; all that one can 
determine, from conduction and migration data combined, are the values 
of N,u, and of Now. 

On Kohlrausch’s hypothesis, taking the suffix 1 as applicable to dis- 
solved salt, A is supposed to be 1, and w, accordingly 0; moreover, since 
every molecule of the salt is supposed by him to be dissociated sufficiently 
to take part in the conduction, N, is considered known from concentra-. 
tion data, 7.e. from the percentage of salt contained in the water, and 
thus 2, is calculable. 

Permitting ourselves to doubt all this, we come to the conclusion that 
we do not yet know the absolute velocity of any ion, and cannot know it 
without further information regarding the dissociation ratio (that is,. 
N,/N’, or N,/N’) of each substance present. 

On the unlikely supposition that this criticism be in any sense 
accepted, what is the meaning of the striking agreement between Kohl- 
rausch’s theory and experiment ? 

His view leads to the equation 

ky a = Nu, 


Se, ee 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 757 


where N’ is the total number of monad gramme-equivalents of the dis- 
solved substance in a cubic centimetre of solution. 
Our view, on the other hand, leads to the equation 


kn ss = N,u, + Naw, 
where N, + N, represents the (unknown) amount of actually conducting 
substance per c¢.c. of solution. 

Now it seems by experiment that &/N’ is an approximate constant,! 
at any rate for weak solutions ; so we must suppose the fact to mean that 
Nu, + Now, is, within limits, nearly proportional to N’. 

It is in no way surprising that the dissociation of both substances 
should proceed pari passu with, and be initially proportional to, the 
quantity of stuff added to the water; but there remains a further ques- 
tion, which, if I am able to discuss it, shall be considered elsewhere. 


Theory of von Helmholtz. 


Finally we come to the wide-reaching theory of Helmholtz. 

The root idea of this theory is that each kind of matter has a specific 
attraction for electricity, some kinds for positive, other kinds for negative ; 
that, accordingly, work must be done to separate an atom from its electrical 
charge, or to remove electricity from an atom of high specific attraction 
and give it to another lower in the scale. Further, that chemical affinity 
is mainly due to the electrical attraction of oppositely charged atoms, and 
that when such atoms combine into a compound molecule they do not 
discharge into each other, but retain their charge. 

Apply this principle to a Daniell cell. 

During the action of the cell a certain amount of positive electricity 
has to leave (deposited) Cu, a substance which attracts it feebly, and 
enter into union with (dissolved) Zn, a substance which attracts it much; 
hence is derived the energy or E.M.F. of the cell. 

Apply the same principle to a water voltameter. During the passage 
ofa current the charges are torn from hydrogen and oxygen atoms and 
given to the electrodes, which, if they are platinum, have no special 
attraction for either electricity ; hence arises the E.M.F. of polarisation, or 
the work needed to decompose the liquid. Work is done, according to 
this theory, not in tearing the atoms asunder, but in tearing their electric 
charges from them. If the ions are allowed to enter into combination 
with some available radicles, in such a way as to retain their charges, 
polarisation E.M.F.is much reduced. So long as the atoms have not given 
up their charges they cling to the electrodes and cannot be removed 
mechanically, say by exhaustion or the like; but if once their charges 
are given up and molecules of the single substance formed, it makes but 
little difference to polarisation whether that substance be allowed to 
dissolve in the liquid or be made to bubble up from it. 

But it is to be understood, I believe, that in estimating E.M.F., or 
effective energy of a cell per unit electricity conveyed, Helmholtz would 
take into account the energy of all secondary, as well as of all primary 
actions, ‘ minor attractions of solvents’ as well as affinities of ions. 

Helmholtz points out that the interior of an electrolyte can stand not 
the slightest electrostatic strain, and hence, in so far as a voltameter 


1 See, however, a previous footnote. 


758 REPORT—1 885. 


behaves as a condenser, it does so by reason of actions going on within 
the films or boundaries separating the liquid from the electrodes. From 
observations made with his air-free cell Helmholtz estimates the thickness. 
of these quasi-dielectric films as 10~§ centimetre—the customary mole- 
cular magnitude. 

It seems to me that Helmholtz accepts the possibility that ordinary 
electrostatic laws may be applied to the interactions of atoms and their 
charges, and to the attractions of atoms by the electrodes across this thin 
molecular film. And he points out that the reason so feeble an E.M.F. is. 
sufficient to effect decomposition is just because of the extreme thinness 
of the film—the slope of potential dV /dz being by no means insignificant. 

Helmholtz shows that the analogue between the pre-decomposition 
state of a voltameter and a condenser of constant capacity is accurately 
sustained by his air-free cell, charge being proportional to potential dowm 
to y,45p Volt or perhaps lower; and this fact he considers to prove that 
by far the greater part of the force binding atoms together, and probably 
the whole of it, is electrical; for ‘if any chemical force bound ions to- 
gether, requiring work to overcome it, an inferior limit ought to exist to 
such K.M.F.sas are able to attract ions to the electrodes and charge them 
as condensers. No indication of any such limit has yet been discovered.” 

But while he thus considers it proved that the mightiest chemical 
forces are really electrical, he by no means denies the existence of others. 
Atoms cling to electricity, and charged atoms cling to one another, but 
uncharged atoms may cling somewhat, and this may be the distinction 
between ‘typical compounds’ and ‘molecular aggregates.’ This distinc- 
tion had been forced upon me also independently, and so I quote it with 
full agreement. All electrolytes belong to the ‘ typical compound’ class, 
and it is by means of the charges in these atoms that they are so easily 
decomposable, notwithstanding their strong affinities. But combination 
can occur between elements of very weak affinity, which only with diffi- 
culty can be got to unite; and yet, once combined, they seem to cling 
with the most surprising tenacity. These bodies, I should suppose, are 
molecular aggregates held together by purely ‘ chemical,’ i.e. material or 
non-electrical, forces; and the reason of their apparent tenacity is, I 
would suggest, merely that they afford no handle to Jay hold of. They 
are quite unsusceptible to electrical influence, unless it be in the violent. 
and perhaps thermal form of the electric spark. IfI instance such bodies as. 
cyanogen andammonia it is only to indicate more suggestively what I mean. 

I do not feel sure whether Helmholtz would lend his name to the 
suggestion just made, for he hedges a little about these molecular modes 
of combination and says, ‘ But the fact that even elementary substances 
with few exceptions have molecules composed of two atoms makes it 
probable that even in these cases electric neutralisation is produced by 
combination of two atoms each fully charged, not by neutralisation of 
every single unit of affinity.’ I venture with great deference to suggest, 
as an objection to this view, the fact that charged (say hydrogen) atoms 
are unable to unite with each other, though they attack everything else 
with vigour, but that so soon as they are allowed to give up their charges 
to an electrode they at once unite and become molecules of gas. 

I need not stay to do more than remark that the notion of an attrac- 
tion between matter and electricity is made by Helmholtz to explain a 
great many other things—‘ contact E.M.F.,’ ‘thermo-electricity,’ ‘frictional 
electricity,’ and, in fact, all electrostatics and most of current electricity. 


ee 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 759 


These things appear in a great many of his writings, first in his great 
Memoir of 1847, but they are conveniently summarised in his Faraday 
Lecture of 1881, from which I have just now been quoting. 

It is scarcely decent to obtrude my own opinion on so fundamental a 
subject as this, but I may be permitted to say that if one does grant such 
an attraction, and if one further conceives positive and negative electricity 
as the two coustituents of ether, not only chemical affinity but specific 
inductive capacity and refractive index, together with the Fresnel-Fizeau 
connection between ether and matter, can be readily conceived and, so to 
speak, accounted for; and the attraction of gravitation does not lag far in 
the background. Seven years ago I spent some time endeavouring to set 
out all these things in a systematic and pretentious form, but I came to 
the conclusion that the task was beyond my strength. The special 
things which Helmholtz more particularly explains by his theory—viz. 
contact E.M.F., thermo-electricity, and frictional electricity—did not 
suggest themselves to me in sucha direct connection with it; nor do they 
now. 

The theory of Helmholtz insensibly impels one to try to apply ordinary 
electrostatic considerations to the interactions of atoms and to the effect 
of electrodes upon them. It suggests, in fact, a theory of chemistry ; in 
the form of a sort of supplementary kinetic theory of gases with electrified 
atoms. But the liquid state, which (more than ever by recent researches!) 
seems essential to chemical action, has difficulties of its own to be over- 
come before the behaviour of electrified atoms can be properly treated. 

It may be noted that whereas the actual force of attraction between 
two atoms at a distance like 10~° is not great, being something like 10~* 
dyne, the acceleration produced by it in the smal! mass of an atom is 
terrific, being nearly a trillion times that produced in ordinary bodies by 
the earth. To show that mechanical forces are insignificant compared 
with electric ones between charged atoms, Helmholtz reminds us that 
their electric attraction at any distance exceeds their gravitative attrac- 
tion at the same distance nearly a hexillion times.” 


1 Those of Mr. Dixon and others on combustion and on gaseous combination or 
explosion. As Professor Armstrong has pointed out, they seem to suggest a necessity 
for the presence of a dissociated typical compound, i.e. for electrically charged atoms 
(see above), in every reaction. Should this turn out to be a fact, it will be one of 
profound chemical and physical interest. 

2 This is not exactly Helmholtz’s way of putting it (Faraday Lecture, 1881), but 
it comes to the same thing; and it is perhaps as well to notice that there is nothing 
uncertain about the calculation: the least accurately known datum in it is the 
gravitation constant, or the earth’s mean density. The general expression for the 
ratio between the electric attraction of two radicles in an electrolytic compound and 
their gravitative attraction, at any given distance, is 


v2 
AY My Hon?” 
where V is the velocity of light, » the electro-chemical equivalent of hydrogen, ¥ is 


the gravitation constant, gR*/E, or , While uw, and w, are the combining equi- 


39 
8p x 10° 
valents of the radicles in the compound compared with hydrogen; or u, +p, is the 
compound’s ordinary ‘ molecular weight’ divided by its ‘atomicity ’: e.g. for water, 
#, #2=8; for copper sulphate, 80; for silver nitrate, 6696. 

The numerical value of the above ratio is 


TD sS 
Bey Me 


760 REPORT—1885. 


VI. AppENDA. 
Electrostatic calculation of E.M.F. needed to effect decomposition, (a) of an 
electrolyte, (b) of a dielectric. 


(a) I do not think the process is justified by anything Helmholtz has 
said, but I have allowed myself to reckon through what atomic distances 
mutual electrical attraction of two charged atoms might be overcome by 
means of an electrode differing in potential from a liquid by, say, a volt, 
z.e. by means of aslope of potential of 1 volt in 10-® centimetres. 

Let y be the effective distance between two oppositely charged atoms 


in a molecule, so that the force between them is q, and let this mole- 
cule come within range of the electrode, and so under the influence of the 


separating stress q 2 then decomposition will be effected when 
ae 


SE i.e. when y? = oe 
1 de ies Pe ae 
Taking therefore g = 1071, and WV — soo 1 10%, y comes out 
s d dx LOTS, coy Xt 4 


10-° or thereabouts—a very respectable atomic distance. This perhaps 
indicates that, within molecular range of either electrode, actual decom- 
position or tearing asunder of molecules may occur, but that through the 
rest of the liquid the action is propagated in some other way, e.g. by a 
divorced atom being projected so close to one of the constituents of a 
molecule as to combine with it in place of its former partner, and so on. 

In this way two postulates may be avoided—lst, the existence of con- 
tinuous dissociation in ordinary liquids unexposed to electrical influence, 
a hypothesis to which I understand chemists see some objections ; and 
2nd, the attraction of matter for electricity postulated by Helmholtz, so 
far as it is necessary to the explanation of polarisation. Polarisation 
would then really be the E.M.F. needed to tear asunder molecules of the 
given compound within molecular range of the electrode; and automatic 
interactions of the molecules must be trusted to carry the action forward 
throughout the whole mass. 

It appears that on this hypothesis an E.M.F. of one or two volts 
would be sufficient to decompose acid water, dr other similar compound, 
if atomic distance were something comparable with 10-®. But it may be 
considered that the magnitude of this distance points to something like 
at least incipient dissociation as necessary to electrolysis. Let us find its 
value more carefully. 

Put the problem thus: 

To find the relation between molecular distance, 2, and the least 
distance at which atomic electric attraction can be overcome by a slope 
of potential of 1 volt per z centimetres ; on the hypothesis that ordinary 
electrostatic laws are applicable. 


Wo. bow 
et YF 
But G= 1:5 x 1013 ’ 2°, 


and 3 x 10!°V = 108, 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 761 


s0 a = 4:5 x 1019, 23, 
and yf = 767" 108 et 


The most probable value of « at the present time is, I suppose, + 10-8 ; 
and the fact that 7 comes out so nearly equal to z is at least noticeable. 


Distinction between electrolytes and dielectrics. 


Homogeneous electrolytes and dielectrics behave very similarly, when 
supplied with electrodes at slight difference of potential, but the distinc- 
tion is that, whereas in an electrolyte the whole of the strain is thrown 
upon a pair of thin films, the bulk of the medium being as quiescent and 
unstrained as a metal, in a dielectric the strain exists throughout the 
medium, sloping steadily down from anode to cathode; if these terms be 
still permissible. In the one therefore the _ strain is excessive, and 
very small differences of potential easily cause decomposition ; in the other, 
the strain on each molecule is insignificant—there being a whole series of 
them to share it—and accordingly it takes a great difference of potential 
to effect decomposition, or disruptive discharge as it isin this case called, 
especially if mechanical locomotion of the medium, or a chain of dust 
particles, be avoided. 

In rare gases it seems likely that, by a locomotion of molecules, a steady 
convective discharge can be maintained, distinct from true disruption; 
indeed mobility of particles may play an important part in the giving 
way of any fluid. But, ignoring this, we can reckon roughly on electro- 
static principles how much H.M.F. a given thickness of a dielectric ought 
to bear; and this is what, at the beginning of the present section, I call 


(6) Calculation of E.M.F. needed to decompose a dielectric. 
Let the distance of the plates be z; there will be a series of ~ mole- 
x 


cules to share the V—V’ between them. 

Now, since there are about 10° molecules per linear centimetre in. a 
liquid, and about 10° in an ordinary gas, the slope of potential in a die- 
lectric will be some 10-*th of what it is in the films of an electrolyte for 
the same potential difference ; and accordingly, since it takes one or two 
volts to decompose a liquid, it will require one or two hundred million volts 
per centimetre to burst a liquid dielectric, and a tenth of this for a gas. 
This is probably much too high—certainly it is for a gas; but then what 
is one to think about the electrification of the atoms of a simple gas like 
nitrogen? The hint of Helmholtz occurs to one, that possibly even mole- 
cules of elements possess some electric charges; and if one could fancy 
that the atomic charge in such molecules, instead of being 10-", was 
something like 10-", the experimental value of the dielectric strength of 
air (viz. 33,000 volts per centimetre) would be obtained, on the preceding 
hypothesis ; and it would vary with the cube root of the pressure.! 


_ | On any such theory, the bursting potential will vary as the number of molecules 
in a row between the plates, i.e. as the cube-root of the pressure in the case of a 
gas. This is by no means true for the potential required to begin discharge, but it 
is not hopelessly out of accord with some measurements by Réntgen (Wied. Elek. 
av. 465) of the minimum potential sufficient to maintain a discharge already begun 


762 REPORT—1 885. 


Probably, however, one is now not on the right track, and it is better 
to refrain from further guess-work ; though I must just point out that if 
one reckons the distance at which fully charged atoms would be able ta 
cling together, on this hypothesis, if they are to give ordinary dielectric 
strength, though it is too great to be reasonable, it is not outrageously 
so. ‘The simplest plan is, perhaps, just to quote the arithmetic. 

To reckon the greatest atomic distance when the atoms of a molecule: 
are just being torn asunder electrically. Call it y. 

The actual stress which can be supported by ordinary air, according 
to experiment, is given by the equation 


= p = } gramme weight per unit are 


so a centimetre thickness can stand V = 110 electrostatic units, or 
33,000 volts. 
This would give a force of 110 dynes per electrostatic unit, 
or 110°% 15 10-2 65x’ 10 per atom: 
The attracting force of two atoms, at distance y, is ct 
y 
So when a molecule is on the verge of giving way, 


ete KO, 5. aan 
“ee Sh 
or y = 3°65 x 10~’ centimetres, when just giving way. 

This is for common air, and is much too big: a stronger dielectric 
will be satisfied with a smaller limiting atomic range, though still not 
with one small enough. 

It is difficult to suppose that molecules tend to get separated instead 
of atoms, and that accordingly ordinary mechanical, not chemical, tenacity 
is the force to be overcome in a dielectric ; for how can this apply to the: 
case of a liquid or a gas? 


in pure dry air: as the following table shows. Though indeed the fourth root of: 
the pressure would do better still. 


Minimum Potential| Pressure & 
| ve 

639 615 75 

577 499 73 

503 385 €9 

402 198 69 

301 68 74 

258 29 84 

198 10:9 90 

189 we 98 


el 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 763 


Consequences of an atomic theory of electricity. Possible electrostatic 
saturation. 


The fact that atoms in electrolytes have a constant charge which 
is the same for every kind of atom, or at least can only be multiplied by 
an integer, is so striking, that one is constrained to think whether elec- 
tricity is something necessarily associated with atoms of matter, whether 
all electrical actions are simple electrostatics among the atomic charges, 
and whether no quantity of electricity smaller than an atomic charge can 
exist. 

The notion is repugnant, but it just wants considering; though I 
should hardly have ventured to suggest it but for the support Helmholtz 
has given to the view as at least a possible one (see above). 

The first difficulty which meets us is the serious one that, since air and 
gases are not electrolytes, nothing is known about the atomic charges of 
their molecules. 

On the atomic theory, however, the unit of electricity is about 10-", 
and nothing smaller is possible; so we must provisionally use this as 
applicable even to air atoms; for it is hardly reasonable to suppose that 
the aqueous vapour, or other true compound, present is essential to elec- 
trostatic actions. 

Consider a centimetre cube of air at pressure p dynes per sq. cm.; the 
number of atoms init is _?.. ” or say 10" p- 

10° 800 

The number in each face of the cube is 10-° n? p 4, or 101° p 4, 

The available quantity of electricity of either kind on a face of the- 
cube, when every molecule is fully polarised, is therefore 


Fi 3 
1, eae = is electrostatic units. 


This is therefore the maximum possible density to which an air con- 
denser could be charged, on the atomic theory. 

If p is a millionth of an atmosphere, this gives 400 volts per centi- 
metre as the maximum possible. 

If p is 1 atmosphere, it gives 4,000,000 volts per centimetre. 

A liquid condenser would have 400,000,000 volts per centimetre as its. 
maximum charge. 

It is to be understood that this calculation has nothing to do with the 
dielectric strength of the medium. It is not considered whether the 
medium can stand this stress or not; all that is reckoned is the maximum 
that can possibly be produced, on the atomic hypothesis. 

If every dielectric refuses to stand anything like so much, it is diffi- 
cult to test the hypothesis; but if the maximum possible were to come 
out something comparable with what a substance under certain conditions 
can stand, then it may be possible to try the experiment and to discover 
some evidence of the existence of an upper limit to the charge a condenser, 
made of that substance, is able to receive. 

One effect naturally suggests itself. If the maximum possible charge 
is insufficient to burst a given kind of condenser then that condenser 
cannot be burst—it will behave as if infinitely strong. 

Now if what I have said has any sense (an improbable assumption) 
the law of variation of maximum charge with pressure, in a gas, is as p?. 


764 REPORT—1885. 


The dielectric strength of air is ordinarily far below the maximum charge, 
but if it varies with pressure more rapidly than the 2 power, say as p— 
it follows that at some high pressure it will overtake the maximum 
charge and pass above it; and in that case an air condenser at some very 
high pressure would be unbnurstable, i.e. the dielectric strength of suffi- 
ciently high-pressure air would be infinite. 

On the other hand if dielectric strength were to vary say as p}, then 
very low-pressure air would possess this property. 

Experimental evidence tends to show that, over a moderate range, 
dielectric strength varies roughly as p; but that at very low pressures 
this law is largely departed from, dielectric strength rapidly falling 
to a minimum and then apparently increasing again as the exhaustion 
proceeds. 

Cailletet found that air at 50 atmospheres was tremendously strong, 
a millimetre of it being able to resist a powerful induction coil. 

But it is well known that high vacua are apparently very strong too; 
though the latter is open to a doubt suggested by Schuster, who does 
not feel sure that the potential applied to small electrodes is really com- 
municated by them to the gas. 

Another mode of attacking the question, whether an upper limit to 
charge exists, would be by seeking for a diminution in the capacity of a 
condenser when highly charged. It is generally assumed that the capa- 
city of a condenser is a constant quantity ; but perhaps our evidence 
for this is at present insufficient. The electrostatic permeability of a 
medium (1.e. its specific inductive capacity) may be found to diminish 
with high strain, and tend toward zero, in other words, a dielectric may 
become ‘ saturated with electricity,’ just as magnetic permeability tends 
towards zero in a substance very highly magnetised or nearly ‘ saturated 
with magnetism.’ Unless it has been already done, condensers of various 
material (and air is the easiest) ought to be examined over a very great 
range of absolute potential; for a departure from the law of simple pro- 
portion between charge and E.M.F. could not fail to have an important 
signification, whether it be the signification I have hinted at or no. 


In conclusion, I must confess that the latter portion of this communi- 
cation has been perhaps too widely speculative ; and it behoves me to ex- 
plain that only a small portion of the whole paper was spoken by me at 
the meeting of the Association in Aberdeen; and that in ordering it to 
be printed in extenso the Committee have not made themselves respon- 
sible for the contents of the whole. I judged, however, that a little 
latitude would naturally be allowed in the opening of a discussion, and 
have therefore set down all the matters which, had time and convenience 
served, I was prepared to bring forward. The preliminary notes published 
in ‘Nature,’ September 10, 1885, willaccordingly now serve as atable of con- 
tents. I expect my suggestions to receive a severe and salutary criticism, 
but trust that my admitted ignorance of much that has been done may be 
pardoned, for it is to be remembered that I was not called upon to draw up 
a conclusive Report, but to furnish food for reflection and discussion. 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 76 


List oF SUGGESTIONS. 


It seems permissible and convenient to print here the list of suggestions. 
issued, soon after the meeting, to the Committee appointed jointly by 
sections A and B, ‘for the purpose of considering the subject of Electro- 
lysis in its Physical and Chemical bearings,’ in case they might aid any 
member in deciding on a special subject of investigation. 

Some of the statements have been slightly amended ; Nos. 1] and 12 
have been added. 


1. Is Ohm’s law exactly true for Electrolytes ? 


We know that it is roughly true for many electrolytes within certain 
rather wide limits of possible experimental error, but its exact verification 
for any one electrolyte has not yet been attempted, and it is very important. 
The question is whether, eliminating all effects due to rise of temperature, 
the resistance-coefficient of an electrolyte is absolutely constant for 
infinitesimal, ordinary, and powerful currents. 

There are two or three plausible ways in which a discrepancy from the 
exact law may be expected to arise. 

(a) Supposing the ions absolutely dissociated and to make their way 
through the liquid according to customary laws of fluid friction, propelled 
as it were by the electric forces, as is assumed in the theories of Wiede- 
mann, Quincke, Kohlrausch, and others, then so long as the frictional or 
viscous resistance they meet with varies simply as their velocity, Ohm’s 
law is obeyed. But for very strong currents it is possible that the fluid 
friction may vary according to a higher power of the speed, and if so, the 
E.M.F. needed to drive a given current would be a little higher than that 
calculated from Ohm’s law. 

(b) If the ions are not absolutely dissociated, but exhibit a trace of 
chemical cling, then some finite though small E.M.F. may be needed to start 
a current, and thus a violation of Ohm’s law may occur in the same 
direction as that already suggested, but most noticeable with infinitesimal 
currents. Helmholtz has shown that, for ordinary dilute acid, such an 
effect, if existent, is almost too small for observation; but in some worse 
conducting liquids it might conceivably be found. 

(c) Very viscous or highly resisting electrolytes, such as glass, water, 
turpentine, &c., may show some discrepancy. In fact, this may be treated 
as a separate question, and asked thus : 


2. Is Ohm’s law obeyed by very bad conductors ? 


In other words, is the rate of leakage from a charged electrometer 
simply proportional to the potential with which it is charged, no matter 
what kind of slight earth connection is established? Polarisation 
H.M.F.s are in this case probably too small to have much influence, and 
so the problem is in some respects simplified. The investigation is in 
fact precisely similar to an examination of the accuracy of Newton’s law 
of cooling. 


Surface films. 


' Among bad conductors, the films on the surface of glass rods are to 
be remembered and studied. It would be interesting to know the absolute 
. resistance of some such films, if it be possible to specify their conditions. 


766 REPORT—1885. 


Optical observations, combined with electrical conductivity deter- 
minations, like those of Reinold and Riicker with soap-films, may be ex- 
pected to lead to further knowledge of their thickness, nature, &c. 

A hygrometer founded on the resistance of such films would perhaps 
indicate not what is ordinarily called the ‘ humidity ’ of the air, i.e. its 
nearness to saturation, but its actual vapour pressure. 


Possible methods of answering Question 1. 


T find it difficult to make useful suggestions with regard to an experi- 
mental attack on the question of Ohm’s law in electrolytes. 

It is to be remembered that experiment is useless except on a very 
good and well-considered plan. Something like 1 in 1,000 accuracy must 
‘be obtained, and higher may be aimed at. 

Although the best experiments hitherto are probably those of Kohl- 
yausch and Nippoldt with alternating currents, it does not seem to me 
that such currents, employed with electrodes, are suitable for a really 
accurate determination. The capacity of polarisable electrodes is enor- 
mous, and apparently instantanecus, and the use of alternating currents 
by no means avoids effects due to this polarisation ; although it is possible 
very nearly to eliminate these effects by calculation, as Kohlrausch did. 

Methods of avoiding all polarisation, by working in closed circuits 
wholly electrolytic, are tempting. Such, for instance, as the damping 
effect, when a magnet swings over a liquid, or when a vessel of liquid 
is spun between the poles of a magnet (e.g. Guthrie and Boys).' The 
electrolyte may be made to partake of the motion of the vessel by using 
a jelly. But the calculation of such experiments would (to me, at any 
rate) be difficult, and it is not likely that the experiments themselves 
are susceptible of minute accuracy. 

Probably the best plan of research would be some modification of the 
ingenious method planned by Maxwell for the British Association Com- 
mittee on Ohm’s law in metals. (See Brit. Assoc. Report, Glasgow. ) 

If perfectly similar tapping electrodes could be got, it would be 
sufficient to compare the E.M.F.s at the ends of two troughs or tubes, 
one wide, the other narrow, placed in series, so that the same current 
might flow through both. A null method of comparing E.M.F.s is 
simple enough. For instance, a liquid Wheatstone bridge might be made, 
one branch consisting of the very wide and very narrow tubes, the other 
of a uniform tube or trough of moderate width (see figure). A and B 
are battery electrodes, while c and b, which are carefully chosen, make 
connection with an electrometer; c being movable. A galvanometer seems 
dangerous, as allowing slight currents which might disturb the equality 
of the tapping electrodes. 

The liquid employed might be chosen for convenience, and a natural 
liquid to use would be sulphate of zinc, with amalgamated zinc electrodes. 
It is not to be assumed that the polarisation of these is really nil, 
but it is certainly feeble, and will thus diminish the uncertainty and 
risk of error attending the experiment. 

To avoid difficulties due to the inevitably unequal rise of temperature, 
an intermittently strong and weak current can be employed as in the 
Maxwell-Chrystal method? (cf. Schuster, Brit. Assoc. Report, Belfast). 


1 Proc. Phys. Soc. or Phil. Mag., 1879 and 1880. 
2 Brit. Assoc. Report, 1876, p. 36, Glasgow. 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 767 


If any positive discrepancy were obtained, it would be necessary to 
eonsider to what it was due, and whether the effect of surface had any- 
thing to do with it. The fine tube might, for instance, be replaced by a 


tube packed full of thin glass rod so as to have about the same capacity 
but much more surface. 


3. Are Electrolytic and Metallic Conduction thoroughly distinct, so that 
no substance has a trace of both conductivities at once ? 


In other words, has any electrolyte a trace of metallic conductivity ? 
or can any compound metal experience a trace of electrolysis? Is elec- 
tricity able to slip through or among ions, instead of necessarily propel- 
ling them; and is it able to do both things at once? A positive 
answer to this question need not be given in the form of a disobedience 
+o Ohm’s law, for there is no reason for supposing that a metallic slip of 
electricity through the ions would be more prominent with small than 
with great current intensity. 

Insufficient polarisation E.M.F., and constant leakage of a current 
against it, are the facts which have caused many experimenters to suspect 
such metallic slip ; but secondary actions would so easily account for the 
same thing, that it is necessary to be extremely cautious in interpreting such 
observations. Helmholtz’s air-free cell proves that if any effect of the kind 
takes place it must be excessively small for ordinary acid (Faraday lecture). 
‘Clark’s experiments show that no such explanation of the behaviour of cer- 
tain anomalous fused salts is necessary.! But it is impossible to give a 
certain negative answer to the question, on experimental grounds, until 
eyery substance has been tried with minute quantitative accuracy. A 
positive answer for any substance would of course be a denial of the 
applicability of Faraday’s law to that particular electrolyte. 

The second half of the question, 


Can any metallic alloy conduct electrolytically ? 


Seems easier of attack. 
Experiments have been made, on tin and lead, potassium and sodium, 


1 Phil. Mag., June 1885, 


768 REPORT— 1885. 


sodium and mercury, gold and mercury, cast-iron, with negative results 
so far... But none of these alloys except sodium and mercury are well 
chosen. It would seem advisable to choose two metals far apart in the 
voltaic series, or in the thermo-electric series, so that one might cling more 
to positive electricity, and the other more to negative, if possible. Or 
they might be chosen with their so-called ‘ specific heats of electricity’ 
very different. Or, again, it may be well to choose two metals differing 
considerably in conducting power, so that one might be rubbed along with 
thé current, so to speak, more than the other. 

I might suggest gold and lead, or copper and tin,” or copper and zinc, 
or bismuth and antimony ; beside, of course, mercury and zinc, or mercury 
and sodium, or, again, copper and zinc dissolved in mercury &. But 
it is to be remembered, from the experiments of Dr. Guthrie, Prof. 
Chandler Roberts, and others, that diffusion in all such cases is exces- 
sively rapid, and that precaution must be taken to diminish its effect in 
restoring uniformity of composition. 

A U tube with a constriction at its bend might be used, the whole 
filled with homogeneous alloy and kept just above the fusing-point. Pass 
a very strong current through the U, and gradually cool down till the 
whole is solid, keeping the current on all the time. Then analyse the 
two legs, and see if they show any difference in composition. 


4, Is there any relation between Optical Opacity and 
Electrolytic Conductivity ? 


Metallic conductors are opaque, but electrolytic conductors are, 
ordinarily speaking, transparent. At the same time, ordinary water is by 
no means so transparent as bisulphide of carbon; it absorbs a great deal 
of some kinds of radiation. Does this opacity increase as conductivity 
increases, say by addition of acid, and diminish as the water becomes 
purer; or is there no relation between conductivity and opacity in 
liquids ? 

Vision through long tubes is the simplest mode of attacking the ques- 
tion, but to get anything like a complete or satisfactory answer, the 
absorption spectrum of liquids in the less refrangible ultra-red region 
would have to be observed. 

There are two obvious ways of explaining the transparency of a con- 
ducting liquid on the electro-magnetic theory. One is to assume that the 
minute and rapidly reversed electromotive forces which constitute light 
are incompetent to effect anything like alternate decomposition and re- 
combination, so that the liquid to such forces behaves exactly like a 
dielectric ; a supposition which would be equivalent to admitting a slight 
disobedience to Ohm’s law, and which is a very reasonable one. The 
other is to assume that electrolytic conduction only occurs among dis- 
sociated atoms, and that these free atoms constitute so small a percentage 
of the total number as not appreciably to affect the transparency or 
dielectric character of the bulk of the liquid. On this second hypothesis, 
however, some slight absorption of radiation ought to be expected, and it 
might increase as the conductivity, 1.e. percentage of dissociated atoms, 
increased. 


1 In Mr. Shaw’s very useful article ‘ Electrolysis’ in the Hncy. Brit., the slip is 
made of saying that these alloys have been electrolysed. 

2 Prof. Roberts’ curious alloy Sn Cu, is well worth trying; see Phil. Mag., Dec. 
1879, p. 558. 


 —— 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 769 


It may be difficult to maintain perfect homogeneity if change of tem- 
perature be attempted, else, of course, warming a liquid ought, on this 
second hypothesis, to make it less transparent.! 

On the first hypothesis it is possible that exceedingly intense radia- 


tion might develop an opacity in liquids quite transparent to ordinary 
light. 


5. Under what circumstances is solid matter deposited in the Path 
of a Current ? 


It is known, from the experiments of Davy and others, that if at the 
junction of two liquids the opposite ions can form an insoluble compound, 
then such insoluble compound is formed, those ions drop out of action, 
and others have to convey the current. For instance, if a current be sent 
from a vessel containing a barium salt to another containing a sulphate, 


_ through an intermediate vessel containing, say, dilute HCl, then BaSO, 


is precipitated in this vessel. I propose to make this intermediate vessel 
in the form of a tube, and examine whereabouts this formation of BaSO, 
first appears; varying intensity of current, density of solutions, &c.; and 
other similar experiments. (See Question 7.) 

Sir Wm. Thomson, at the meeting, made some important observations 
about deposits of solids in general, and about the possibility of a long- 
established current producing solid concretions of a nature not naturally 
to be expected. As, for instance, nodules of copper in the sawdust of 
a Menotti cell, possible accretions in the joints of animals, &c. 

Some porous substance seems most likely, according to present obser- 
vations, to have such crystals and nodules formed in it ; and steady currents 
might be kept up through porous or cracked crockery, or sawdust, or 
sand, and secular observations made on the subject. 

It is not easy to see why deposits of this latter kind should appear, 
except by reason of the surface action known as capillary H.M.F. and 
by some interference with Faraday’s law; so that, for instance, the 
amount of copper going down current, and of SO, going up, should not 
be exactly equivalent, but a slight excess of copper be left, which has to 
drop out in mid-stream. 

If it is allowable thus to regard some deposits as isolated ions, their 
study becomes of considerable interest. 


6. Is it possible for opposite corresponding Ions to travel at different rates ? 


The notion of different speed for different ions is founded upon the 
facts of ‘ migration,’ but if it can be shown that migration phenomena 
ean be accounted for in another and simple manner, all necessity for 
the hypothesis breaks down. 

There only remains the fact that some solutions conduct better than 
others; and this may be accounted for, either by greater speed of their 
ions, or by a greater number of dissociated atoms able to take part in the 
conveyance of electricity. It affords no answer to the question as to 
whether the opposite radicles travel at the same or at different rates. 

In favour of Kohlrausch’s and the customary migration theory, it may 
be truly urged that it is reasonable to suppose that each ion should have 


1 Tt is here assumed that better conduction means more dissociation ; this is not 
at all certain, it may mean less viscosity ; and it apparently does mean this, for the 


case of rising temperature, though not for the case of increased complexity of con- 
stitution. 


1885. 3D 


770 REPORT—1885, 


a rate of travel independent of any other from which it is completely de- 
tached ; in fact, that it is difficult to see how the velocity of any given 
radicle can be controlled by the nature of the opposite radicle, which is 
travelling at its own pace in an opposite direction. 

And against this independence of the corresponding ions I have only 
to urge that it would mean that an electric current could consist of 
unequal opposite currents of positive and negative electricity, and that in 
some cases at least this is certainly not true. Thus, in a simple fused or 
homogeneous electrolyte, it is quite certain that opposite ions are travel- 
ling at the same rate, and that therefore the current in them consists of 
equal opposite streams of positive and negative electricity. Now if such 
an electrolyte is put in series with salt solutions, and the same current 
sent through all, it is difficult to suppose that in one part of the circuit 
the current consists of equal opposite streams, and in another part of 
unequal; yet this is what Kohlrausch’s theory necessitates. 

Again, when a Holtz machine or other replenisher is used to produce 
a current, half the plate is carrying positive in one direction, and the other 
half is carrying negative in the other direction, so that in the visible con- 
vective part of the circuit it is easy to ensure the existence of equal 
opposite currents; and there is no evidence that the decomposition pro- 
duced by such currents differs in any respect from that produced by 
equally strong voltaic currents. 

But whence the repugnance to admitting that a current may be at one 
place } positive and $ negative, and at another place 3 positive and + 
negative? Only from the habit of picturing positive and negative elec- 
tricity as both obeying the laws of an incompressible fluid, with identity 
or continuity of existence, and the consequent difficulty of supposing 
that + stream of negative electricity and } stream of positive can at one 
point rush towards each other, meet, and disappear, leaving no trace be- 
hind of either. For this is what must happen at the junction of a fused 
electrolyte, in which opposite ions are going at the same pace, with a dis- 
solved electrolyte, in which the positive ion is travelling three times as 
fast as the negative ion. 

If there is no validity in the objection, then Kohirausch’s theory is 
probably true pretty much as it stands ; but if any difficulty may be legi- 
timately felt in the direction indicated, some modification must be made 
in Kohlrausch’s theory. 


7. On the apparent relative velocity of opposite Ions. 


The facts of migration may, I believe, be accounted for by assuming 
that the solvent and the dissolved salt both conduct the current; but the 
result is to produce an apparently unequal velocity of ions, which has 
been mainly examined by subsequent analysis of the liquid near either 
electrode. I propose to examine it further by means of electrolytes in 
series :—e.g. noting whereabouts in the path of a current a solid pre- 
cipitate, caused by uniting ions, first forms. Iam, indeed, now engaged 
in these observations (see Question 5). 

A disobedience to Faraday’s law of electro-chemical equivalence might 
in the same way be detected, either by an escape of an excess of one ion 
past another with which it should wholly combine and become insoluble, 
or by a deposit of the excess of one ion because it finds insufficient of the 
opposite ion with which to combine and remain soluble. 


ON ELECTROLYSIS. 771 


It may also be possible to examine the speed with which an ion, start- 
ing from a vessel at one end of along tube, makes its appearance in 
another vessel at the other end of it, there being in this second vessel 
some sensitive chemical test for faint traces of it; such, for instance, as 
iron in sulpho- or ferro-cyanide, silver in chloride, copper in ferrocyanide. 

Or again, by putting a detecting substance in the tube, the journey 
of an ion may be continuously watched. 

Other things more or less vague might be tried; such as seeing whether 
there is any difference between applying a high H.M F. to given electrodes 
in a long narrow vessel, and a small E.M.F. to similar electrodes in a 
short wide vessel, so that the same current goes through both. One must 
not expect any variation in the primary products of electrolysis probably, 
but there may be some difference in the secondary effects. 


8. How much of the Current is conveyed by the water and how much 
by the dissolved salt in any given case ? 


To answer this question it seems to me sufficient to determine the 
amount of free acid generated at either pole, and to compare it with the 
amount of metal deposited in the same time by the same current. 

For instance, with copper sulphate solution and platinum electrodes. 
If the salt conducted the whole current, one equivalent of free acid would 
be produced at the anode; if the water conducted the whole, one equiva- 
lent of free acid would appear at the cathode; it is easy to see this by 
drawing the section of a cell and considering its action; and go, by de- 
termining the proportion of free acid which actually does appear at either 
pole for given strength of solution and intensity of current, it is easy to 
reckon how much of the current is by each substance conducted. Tt is 
obviously necessary to diminish diffasion between the cathode and anode 
vessels, and to avoid. electric endosmose and the use of porous dia- 
phragms. It is also probably advisable to stir or scrub the surface of 
both electrodes, so as to avoid a layer of some other liquid forming there, 
and so confusing the whole reaction. 

Migration data, if explained in the way I suggest, will also give a 
determination of the proportion of current conveyed by salt and b 
solvent ; and it will be interesting to compare the two methods of deter- 
mination, and see if they give the same result. 

If there is a discrepancy, as is very probable, it will be necessary to 
examine its cause, and to see whether it wholly upsets the suggested 
migration hypothesis, or only entails some slight modification. 


9. Is any quasi-electrolysis possible across an air-space ? 


If there are in acid-water any free dissociated atoms electrically 
charged, it is just possible, though very unlikely, that they might be 
pulled out of the liquid by electrostatic attraction. 

Thus, if hot acid liquid be one plate of a condenser, the other plate 
being a hot metal slab half a millimetre above it, and kept at a very 
different potential, it is just conceivable that the evaporating steam might 
contain a trace of free hydrogen or free oxygen, according to the sign of 
the potential of the plate. 


3D2 


aie REPORT—1885. 


10. Does the energy of Secondary Action contribute to H.M.F. in a cell just 
as much as the energy of Primary Action, or do secondary actions directly 
generate heat ? 


Dr. Wright distinguishes between what he calls ‘ adjuvant’ and 
‘ non-adjuvant ’ chemical actions in a cell—those which help the current 
on, and those which do not. 

Lord Rayleigh raised the same question, at the meeting, in considering: 
a Clark cell; for the sulphate of mercury, being nearly insoluble, must 
certainly be mainly reduced by secondary action if anything like a cur- 
rent is kept going; and yet it seems to contribute to the E.M.F. of the 
cell. 

But one may ask whether the polarisation produced by a moderate 
current in such a cell is not evidence of the speedy exhaustion of the dis- 
solved HgSO,, and of the time taken to replenish the solution from the 
nearly insoluble paste, thus showing that it is after all the dissolved salt 
which is really efficient. 

Moreover, it seems to me that all reversible effects must contribute to 
the E.M.F. Helmholtz’ certainly considers the minor attractions of 
solvents to be as proportionally effective as the main affinities of ions. 

The behaviour of cells which are able to heat or cool themselves, and 
the variation of their E.M.F. with temperature, are of great interest in 
the light of the recent theory of Helmholtz. A result deduced from the 
second law of thermodynamics is pretty surely founded ; but experimental 
verification is always satisfactory, and one can seldom have too much of it. 

The laws that wait examining are these: Measure the total heat, u, 
developed per second in cells of various kinds (internal resistance R) by a 
known current, C; measure also their change of H.M.F. per degree of 
temperature, dE/dt; then see whether 


RC?—JH dE, 
C dt 
Further examine whether each of these quantities is also equal to the 


difference between the observed E.M.F. of the cell and that calculated 
from purely chemical data, viz. to H — = (Je@). 


= (274 + t) 


11. Is specific inductivity a constant, or does it tend towards zero for very 
high strains in the same sort of way that magnetic permeability does ? 


Iam not aware that the capacity of a highly-charged condenser has 
ever been seriously measured. It seems a desirable but difficult thing 
to do. 


12. How does dielectric strength depend wpon density ? 


Considerable work has been done in measuring the dielectric strength 
of different gases at various pressures, but we cannot be said to know the 
law even for air; nor is the truth about the great strength of approximate 
vacua on the one hand, and very high pressure gas on the other, at all 
certain. The dielectric strength of insulating liquids ought also to be 
measured ; and it might be tried how far pressure affects them. 

The effect of pressure upon electrolysis has been worked at, and may 
be said to be fairly understood. The effect of pressure on disruptive 
discharge, and the internal pseudo-conductivity of gases after elimination 
of discontinuities such as cathode-resistance, is more obscure. 


THE INDIAN OCEAN 

RE PUMICE OR VOLCANIC DUST WAS SEEN IN 

BE Tay THE PIAL E OFUBSERVA DATE IS GIVEN BY THE DAY OF THE YEAR THUS 0200 27™ gcr, 
FROM AUC.TO DEC. 1883.— THE PLACE OF OBSERVATION IS SHOWN THUS©, THE 


ate V 


ama 


~ wt Eas 60 ot oe Ts 70 qe, 


Saw BOT Lemsion 
Mustrating M Mddrun's Tatular Statement of the Dates at which, and Localities where, Pumuce or Volcanic Dust was seen in the Indian Ocean in 1883-84. 


Names of Vessels 


Barque Act@a (Capt. 
Walker) 


Ship Zdomene (Capt. 
4 Johnson) 

| Barque West Austra- 
lian (Capt. Thomas) 


Anerly (Capt. 


Strachan) 
; jue County of 
_ Flint (Capt. J. 
prewiend) 


PUMICE OR VOLCANIC DUST IN THE INDIAN OCEAN. 


[PLATES V. and VA. | 


among the Reports. | 


Month and 
Day 
1883 

May 20 

» 21 

» 21 
Aug. 11 
a be 
HS 18 
» 19 
» OT 
a. SSE 
i 28 
28 


773 


A Tabular Statement of the Dates at which, and the Localities where, 
Pumice or Volcanic Dust was seen in the Indian Ocean in 
1883-84. By CuaRLes Metprum, F.R.S. 


[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in eatenso 


| 


| Hours 


2 p.m. 
noon 


Position 
at Noon 


Lat. 


Remarks 


8a.m.to| 6 238. 
8 35S. 


9 418. 
11 0858. 


88 31 


91 53 


90 28 


88 03 


North Watcher 


Auger Roads 


8 205. 


4 228. 


| Great quantity of dust 


Very fine dust com- 
menced to fall about 
2p.m. The fall con- 
tinued all night, and 
stopped about 9 a.m. 
on the 21st. Small 
quantities fell again 
during the night. 

Passed through large 
fields of pumice. 

Passed a great amount 
of floating lava or 
pumice. 

Passed a great amount 
of lava to-day. | 

Large quantities of | 
pumice ; some pieces 
about 3 feet in dia- | 
meter. 

Ashes began to fall at 
10.24 a.m. Showers 
of ashes and pumice 
lasted till midnight. 

Immense quantities of 
pumice and débris of 
all sorts. 


falling; supposed to 
be coral dust. 
L’atmosphére surchargé 
de sable. De minuit 
4 11 heures du matin 
une trés grande quan- 
tité de sable trés 
blanc et trés fin a 
couvert toutes les 
parties accessibles, 
méme presque dans 
la chambre. Je crois 
que c’est le résultat 
d'un orage que nous 
avions observé ces | 
jours derniers sur 
Sumatra, pendant 
lequel le tonnerre | 
avait des roulements 


REPORT—1885. 


Names of Vessels 


French brig Brani— | 
cont. | 


Barque Castleton 
(Capt. Dioré) 


Brigantine Airlie 
(Capt. Knight) 


French barque Gipsy 
(Capt. Martin) 


/ French barque Warie 


Alfred (Capt. Bré- 
geon) 


|Barque Hottenburn | 


(Capt. Chichester) 


S.8. Garonne 


| 
8.8. Countess of Errol | 
(Capt. Taylor) 


| Month and 


Day 

1883 | 
Aug. 29 / 
” 28 
» 29 
Sept. 9 
| 

” 9 
x 20 | 
| 

Oct. 13 
5 14 
” 15 
Pera 
26 


Hours 


9 a.m. 


2 a.m. 


6 a.m. 


2 p.m. | 


6 a.m. 
2 p.m. 


9 a.m. 


6 a.m. 


| 4 p.m. 


| 4 a.m. 


midt. 


9:15 
a.m. 


noon 


Lat. Long. | 


Position 
at Noon 
| 


Remarks 


6 568.| 93 01 


7 318.|103 11} 


4 578.| 79 46 
E 


7 028.) 101 15 


| 
Sunda Straits 


No obs. 
| 
7198. 104 00 
10 158.| 78 07 


7 01S.)| 104 49 


pareils 4 une canon- 
nade, et le sable en- 
levé par cette tour- 
mente a été renvoyé 
sur nous par la pe- 
tite brise. 

in tombe continuelle- 
ment du sable trés 
fin au point d’obscur- 
cir l’atmosphére. 

After a shower of rain 
the air became loaded 
with a fine dust, 
which fell in great 
quantities on deck. 
At noon dust. still 
falling. At 2 p.m. 
dust still falling. 

Collected dust off the 
deck. Pumice-stone 
floating in the water. 
At 2 p.m. dust still 
falling: large quan- 
tities of pumice float- 
ing past. 

Large quantities of lava. 
Passing through large 
quantities of lava. 

Grand bane flottant de 
pierre-ponce pendant 
toute la journée, sui- 
vant le vent comme 
dans la mer de 
Sargosse. 

Nous passons dans des 
bancs successifs et 
trés rapprochés de 
pierre-ponce. 

Tremendous fields of 
pumice stopped the 
vessel. 

Lots of pumice along- 
side. 

Passing large fields of 
pumice. 

Passed through several 
fields of pumice-stone 
of various sizes. Some 
pieces that were 
picked up had bar- 
nacles nearly one 
inch long adhering 
to them. 

Vast quantities of 
pumice all round the 
ship. 


| 


>to 


PUMICE OR VOLCANIC DUST IN THE INDIAN OCEAN. 


Names of Vessels 


8.8. Countess of Errol 
—cont. 

Barque Rollo (Capt. 
Currie) 


Barque Zva Joshua) 
(Capt. Florentin) 


French barque Hen- 
riette (Capt. A. de 
Lavit) 


Barque Ta Lee (Capt. 


Stolzee) 


Ship Shah Jehan 
(Capt. Williams) 


Month and 
Day 
1883 

Oct. 27 

Nov. 15 

> 16 
Bs LG 
” 28 
Dec. 2 
” 3 
” + 
9 5 
2 
” 7 
% 9 
” 13 
” 14 


8 a.m. 


6 a.m. 


noon 


noon 


8 a.m. 


5 a.m. 


5 a.m. 


6 a.m. 


9 a.m. 


4 p.m. 


a.m. 


6 a.m. 


Position 

at Noon 
Lat. Long. 

E. 
° j 2) 4 
8 448./102 40 
6198.] 88 55 
8 048.] 87 25 
9 368.) 85 46 
6 248.] 62 25 
E. P 
5 428.| 86 47 
loge ae 

No obs. 
7 148.| 87 32 

8 4458. 2 
6 078.]} 81 55 
8 598.| 82 14 
7 268S.| 84 58 
13 478.| 82 00 
15 038.| 81 42 


775 


Remarks 


Sailing through vast 
quantities of pumice. 

Since daylight sailing 
through large quan- 
tities of pumice. At 
midnight still large 
quantities of pumice 
floating on water. 

Still large quantities 
of pumice floating 
past. 


” ” ” 

Sailing all day through 
floating pumice co- 
vered with barnacles. 

Au jour nous avons re- 
marqué que nous 
étions environné de 
pierre-ponce. A 9 
heures nous sommes 
toujours entouré de 
pierre-ponce. 

Il y a encore de pierre- 
ponce. 

Nous avons encore ren- 
contré de pierre- 
ponce. 

Nous recontrons encore 
beaucoup de pierre- 
ponce. 


Passed a bank of pumice 
extending about | 
twenty-five miles ; 


some pieces about 
two feet square. 

Still passing pumice- 
stone and a kind of 
ashes. 

Noticed the sea covered 
in streaks with what 
appeared to be pum- 
ice-stone in pieces 
and in powder; low- 
ered the boat and 
picked up some ; some 
of the stones covered 
with barnacles. 

Throughout the day 
the sea covered in 
streaks with some 
kind of lava and 
large-sized lumps of 
pumice-stone. 

Passed a great deal of 
pumice and lava this 
day. 


776 


Names of Vessels 


Ship Shah Jehan— 
cont, 

Ship Invercauld 
(Capt. Leslie) 


Barque Lvelyn (Capt. 
Stevenson) 


Barque May Queen 
(Capt. Hugon) 


Sch. Lord Tredegar | Jan. 


(Capt. Clarke) 


French barque Résolu 
(Capt. Mouton) 
Barque May Queen 

(Capt. Hugon) 


Ship Argomene (Capt. 
H. Williams) 

Ship Roderick Dhu 
(Capt. Boldchild) 


French barque Zu- 
genie (Capt. A. 
Arnaud) 

Barque Star of Greece 
(Capt. W. Legg) 


Barque Era Joshua 
(Capt. Florentin) 
Sch. Glenesk (Capt. 

Feleng) 


Month and 


” 


” 


” 


Day 


1884 


or 


oom 


Sch. Mary Whitridge | Feb. 9 


(Capt. Howes) 


REPORT—1885. 


2 a.m. 


midt. 
p.m. 


a.m. 


7 a.m. 


Position 
ff Peen Remarks 
Lat. Long. | 
E. 

od ° ‘ 

15 308.} 80 51} Passed a lot of pumice 
and lava. 

11 458.| 87 09| Passed through a quan- 

| tity of dust seeming- 
ly floating on the sur- 
face. 

9 548.| 87 56) Passed through a quan- 

| tity of pumice-stone. 

7 568.| 89 32) Passed large quantities 
of pumice-stone. 

9 408.| 88 11| Passing great quanti- 
ties of pumice. 

7 303.) 88 26, Still passing quantities 
of pumice. 

2 14N.) 85 35) Uneinfinitéde parcelles 
de roche brilée sur 
leau. 

| 

6 358.| 68 25) Passed through a quan- 
tity of lava. 

12 128.| 66 59 % 5 35 

14 568.] 65 18/} Passed through a great 
quantity of pumice 
to-day. 

17 348.) 63 04 ss 7 5 

7 058.| 81 41)| Traversé plusieurs bancs 

E. P. de pierre-ponce. 

7 008.| 83 13] Une infinité de roche 
brilée flottant. 

11 238.| 75 46| Une infinité de débris 
volcaniques. 

7 518.| 87 05) Passing through large 
quantities of pumice. 

13 348.|} 90 50] Passing through large 

quantities of pumice. 

9 258.} 90 26 _ ‘3 ss 

6 148.| 81 40; Beaucoup de_ pierre- 
ponce formant de lis 
allongé a l’ouest. 

13 49S.| 85 45| Large quantities of 
pumice in separate 
streams from §.E. to 
N.W. At6 p.m. still 
passing large quanti- 
ties of pumice. 

13 218.| 86 06} The streams of pumice- 
stone stopped. 

10 458.} 85 50;/A large stream of 
pumice-stone. 

13 058.) 64 20) Sighted pumice-stone. 

E. P. 
3.198.| 78 45] Rencontré 4a chaque 
E. P. instant des  bancs 
formés par des pierres- 
ponce. 
9 418.}| 88 26) Passing lots of floating 


pumice-stone. 


SEEN IN THE INDIAN OCEAN 


YW 
ME 


%& iS 
q o S oe ie 
- > Pp bs 
3 ° 81, 


9 
is 
a 


Q 


Gs Nae | 
BATT TT eet 


a7, Tmt ice 


EL CECE 
LN ee 


Dust was seer uv the tndian Ocean tv 1883-84. 


= ~ a _ 


Suis SHOWING WHERE AND WHEN PUMICE OR VOLCANIC DUST WAS SEEN IN THE INDIAN OCEAN 


FROM JAN. 1884 TO NOVEMBER 1884. Plate Vi 
ate Va 


a ee be ee where, Pumuce or Volcanic Dust was seerv ae the fidian Ocean wv 1883-84. 


ae 


Names of Vessels Day 


1884 


| Sch. Mary Whitridge | Feb. 10 
| —cont. 

a 11 
a 12 


| Barque County of\ 5 26 
| lint (Capt. Row- 
land) 


Ship Parthenope s 
(Capt. F. Gray) 


3 5 
Tie bat 
sf Bald 
» 12 
” 16 


ip Kelvinside ee 9 
_ (Capt, Kirkell) 


|Barque zcelsior| ,, 12 
| (Capt. F. Edgar) 


face ee 


| ‘f ” 25 
|Sch. Northern Bell| 4, 24 
| (Capt. L. Morris) 


| 
| 
| 
| 


H 

| Ship Invercauld | April 2 
_ (Capt. Leslie) 

| ” 6 


‘Barque Evelyn (Capt. a 11 
Stevenson) 
Ny Barque Peggie Doy| ,, 15 
A ot Hill) 


Month and ours 


PUMICE OR VOLCANIC DUST IN THE INDIAN OCEAN. “it 


Remarks 


Passing lots of floating 
pumice-stone. 


” ” ” 

Passing large fields of 
pumice. 

Great quantities of 
pumice, which ap- 
pears to have been | 
long in the water. : 

Pumice-stone passing. 

Great quantities of | 
pumice-stone insight. 

Great quantities of 
pumice passing. 


’ ” 
Sea  strewed with 
pumice-stone covered 
with barnacles. 


” ’ ” 
Sea covered with lava | 
and pumice 2 feet 

thick. 

Sea strewed with lava | 
and pumice. 

Since 7th been sailing 
through floating 
pumice in pieces from 
the size of a cocoa-— 
nut to pieces almost 
like dust. | 

Great quantities of | 
floating pumice. | 

Passing vast quantities 
of pumice. 


” ” ” 
For four hours passing 
a vast quantity of 
pumice-stone covered 
with barnacles, 
Passing through a 
quantity of pumice. 
During last five days 
passed through a 
quantity of pumice- 
stone, of a greenish 
colour and covered 
with barnacles and 
crabs. 
Passing quantities of 
pumice-stone. 
Passed large quantities 
of pumice. 


778 REPORT—1885. 


a 


Position at 


: 
Names of Vessels a ei Hours Hane Remarks 
Lat. Long. 
1884 E 
° / fe) ‘ 
Barque Peggie Doy— | April 21 | a.m. |16 558.| 58 22| Passed quantities of 
cont. pumice. 
5.8. Madagascar| ,, 29)| p.m. |18 228.| 54 56] Several pieces of pumice 
(Capt. A. Vielle) | K. P. floating alongside. 
Ship Knight Com-| ,, 29) am. | 16 388.) 72 19| Passed through fields 
mander (Capt. of pumice-stone and 
Bell) scorie. 
Barque Caller Ou May 4) am. |11 078.| 62 41) Sailing through quanti- 
(Capt. Rae) ties of lava. 
Lugger Suecess(Capt. _,, 4 — |10 168.) 60 15} Depuis plusieurs jours | 
Hazel) EK. P. la mer est couverte 
de pierre et de sable 
| voleanique d’une 


couleur jaunatre. 
Ship Knight Com-'| , 15 | am. |10 328.| 88 53] Passing through quanti- 


panion (Capt. ties of pumice. 
Davis) 
Barque Jris (Capt.| ,, 24! pm 5 218.| 94 44) A great quantity of 
Evans) floating pumice. 
French barque Louise __,, 31 | am. |12 438.| 79 09| On rencontre toujours 
Collet (Capt. Beck- | E. P. des pierres-ponce. 
man) 
Brig Flora (Capt. ,, 31 | p.m. |10 188.] 58 09} Le capitaine tombe a la 
Menton) | mer en péchant des 
pierres-ponce. 
Ship Broomhail | June 13 | 2p.m.| 5 298.| 89 39) Passing through quanti- 
(Capt. Grieve) | ties of pumice covered 
with barnacles. 
Brig*Rio Loge (Capt.' ,, 17 noon |11 298.|126 29| Passed large quantities 
Lovett) | of pumice. 
| ” | p.m i a; ” ” ” 
ie 2oe| Gam. | 14 398.) 11336 FA s o 
” 23 | 6 p.m. es ie ” ” ” 
» 24] 5pm,.]15 168./110 08 és z 3 
» 25 | 6pm./16 078./106 51 . % 3 
Sch. Iris (Capt.|July 1 | 2am.|17 088.) 114 33] Passing vast quantities 
Shaw) of pumice. 
Ship Reigate (Capt.| ,, 8 |7am.| 4 258.| 93 47] Passed through large 
Ritchie) quantities of pumice. 
Barque Northern Star| , 25 | 4am.|13 428.) 113 42] Large quantities of 
(Capt. Evans) pumice floating on 


the water. 
3 26 | 4am.}14 468.|109 43 A - ¥ 
Sch. Catherine Marie | ;, 28 | 7am. |23 368.) 59 40} Passed through quanti- 
(Capt. Stubington) ties of pumice vary- 
ing in size from an 
orange to a walnut 
shell. Picked up 
some pieces covered 
with barnacles and 


; limpets. 
Barque City of Tan-| Aug. 9 | 4p.m.|14 458.|)111 20] Passed small pieces of 
jore (Capt. Sinclair) pumice. 


» 10] noon |15 288.]108 12) Sailing through large 
quantities of pumice 
floating in streaks 
like Gulf-weed. 


PUMICE OR VOLCANIC DUST IN THE INDIAN OCEAN. 779 


Names of Vessels Day 


1884 


Barque City of Tan-| Aug. 11 
jore—cont. 


» 12 

» 1 

” 14 

Sch. Jasper (Capt. reeny G) 
Stannard) 

» AT 


Barque Marion Neil| ,, 26 
(Capt. Paterson) 


Barque Jane Maria Sept. 1 
(Capt. Griffiths) 


Sch. Coleridge (Capt.| 5, 17 
Marshall) 


i 18 

yee Lo 

Barque Caller Ou > 27 
(Capt. Rae) 

8.8. Castlebank $ 28 


(Capt. Chevalier) 


Barque Jane Maria| Oct. 10 
(Capt. Griffiths) 


noe ud 
y Se 
Prete. 


Frenchbarque France| ,, 16 
Chérie (Capt. 
Lavary) 
Nov. 11 


Month and Faucsll 


noon 
8 a.m. 


Position at 
Noon 


Lat. 


Long. 


EH. 


fe) / ° ‘ 
16 058.| 104 53 


6 58S. 
110 448. 
(12 338. 


52 24 


.| 107 39 


E. P. 


56 35 
E. P. 


Remarks 


Still sailing through 
quantities of pumice. 
Passed a large spar in 
the water. 

Still sailing through 
pumice. 

” ” ” 
Less pumice to-day. 
Passed several pieces of 

floating pumice. 


” ” ” 
A lot of pumice-stone 
floating past. 


” ” ” 


” ” ” 

Passed through a quan- 
tity of very small 
pumice-stone. 

Several pieces of float- 
ing pumice. 

Passed large quantities 
of pumice which, ap- 
parently has been a 
long time in the 
water. 


” ” ” 

Much lava floating 
about. 

Passed through large 
quantities of pumice, 
which seems to have 
been a long time in 
the water. 

Passed a large quantity 
of floating pumice. 
Passed a large quantity 

of very small pumice. 


” ” ” 

Large and small pieces 
of pumice seen fre- 
quently during the 
afternoon. 

Depuis plusieurs jours 
la mer est couverte 
de pierre-ponce. 

J’ai parcouru environ 
une étendue de 1,200 
milles par latitude 
sud oti j’ai rencontré 
beaucoup de pierre- 
ponce. 


780 REPORT— 1885. 


List of Works on the Geology, Mineralogy, and Paleontology of 
Staffordshire, Worcestershire, and Warwickshire. 


By Wiiu1aM Wuitaker, B.A., F.G.S., Assoc.Inst.C.E. 


[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in eatenso 
among the Reports. ] 


‘1. INDEX OF AUTHORS, WITH THE NUMBERS PREFIXED 
TO THEIR WORKS. 


Adam, W. 95 Crosskey, Rev. H. W. 495 

Addenbrooke, G. 232 Cumberland, G. 418 

Agassiz, Prof. L. 428 

Aikin, A. 56 Dakyns, J. R. 18 

Ainsworth, W. 287 Dalton, 8. 414 

Aitken, J. 248 Daubeny, Prof. C. 310, 422, 426 

Allen, B. 412 Davidson, T. 98, 102, 104, 114, 158, 194, 
Allies, J. 296, 308 195, 205, 219, 234, 395 

Allport, S. 175, 217, 223, 224, 242, 488, | Dawes, J. 15, 85, 89, 90 

' 494, 496 Derham, S. 411 


Anon. 76, 84, 124,127 156, 218, 274, 332, | Dick, A. 36, 37, 147 
391, 394, 439, 446, 447, 454, 459, 472, | Dixon, Rev. R. 385 
480, 489 | Dufrénoy, P. A. 62, 63 
Armitage, J. 487 Duncan, Prof. P. M. 386 
Aveline, W. T. 2-4, 260-263 
| Eccles, J. 226 


Bailey, 8. 203 | Edwards, G. 318 

Baker, T. 100 | Egerton, Sir P. de M. G. 69, 108, 196, 
Barrande, J. 324 328, 448 

Bateman, J. F. 132 England, Rev. T. 291 

Bauerman, H. 29, 401 Evershed, H. 220, 445 

Beaumont, EH. de 62, 63 

Beckett, H. 88, 149, 163, 225 Farey, J. 51-55 

Bellers, F. 41 | Finch, J. 59, 60 

Binney, E. W. 119, 128, 133, 233, 243 Fletcher, W. 109, 144 

Bonney, Rev. T. G. 249 Forbes, D. 122, 197, 203, 206, 207 
Bradbury, J. 150 | Fownes, Dr. G. 91 

Brady, H. B. 369 

Brayley, K. W. 289 | Gages, A. 450 


Brodie, Rev. P. B. 134, 176, 316, 342, 343, | Garner, R. 83, 92, 136 
354, 378, 384, 444, 448, 449, 451, 456, | Gooch, T. L. 429 


458, 460-464, 467, 473, 481 | Granville, Dr. A. B. 311 
Brough, L. 135 Gray, J. 104 
Brown, E. 177, 193, 204 | Greaves, J. 425 
Bruce, A. C. 474 Green, Prof. A. H. 13, 14, 17-19, 23, 24, 
Buckland, Rev. Dr. W. 283, 416, 430-432, 28, 167, 208 

440 Greenwood, Col. G. 213 
Buckman, Prof. J. 96, 97, 101, 316, 319- | Grimes, R. 417 

322 Grover, G. E. 235, 396 
Burr, F. 81, 304, 305 Gruner, — 159 
Cadle, C. 379 | Haime, J. 120, 333 
Capewell, — 157 Harrison, G. 203 
Chambers, J. 281 Hartley, J. 241 
Church, Prof. A. H. 365 | Hastings, Dr. C. 292, 297 
Cleminshaw, E. 468, 475 | Hawkes, W. 129 
Coles, H. 326 | Hayward, W. H. 165 
Collis, W. B. 244 Heath, R. 236 
Conybeare, Rev. J. J. 285 | Hedley, J. 118, 457 


Conybeare, Rev. W. D. 67 | Holden, Dr. J. 8. 227 


WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALAONTOLOGY. 


Holl, Dr. H. B. 370, 373-375, 380, 390 
_ Hollier, H. 160 
Hollier, H. 228 
Homer, J. C. 236 
Horner, L. 277, 279 
Housman, Rev. H. 178, 381 
Howard, 8. 110 
Howell; H: H. 1, 2, 6-9, 12, 21, 22, 26, 


254-259, 261, 263, 265, 269, 271, 402- | 


410 
Hull, Prof. E. 1, 3-5, 7, 9-11, 13-16, 21-25, 
27-29, 35, 137, 151, 166, 167, 258, 266 
Huxley, Prof. T. H. 123, 476, 482 


Ick, W. 93, 94, 436 


Jars, M. G. 45, 46 

Jenkins, H. M. 389 

Johnson, H. 152, 161, 168, 169, 179, 203, 
214, 237 

Jones,. D. 250, 396 

Jones, J. 170, 180, 198, 203 

Jones, Prof. T. R. 361, 374, 390 

Jukes, F. 65, 66, 424 

Jukes, J. B. 1, 5, 7, 20-22, 30_34, 36, 82, 
111, 115, 116, 181, 203, 238, 258 


Keir, J. 48 

Kelly, J. 138 

Ketley, C. 182 

Kettle, R. 171 

Koninck, L. de, 125, 139, 145, 229 


Lambe, W. 413 
Lambert, A. 360 
Lankester, Prof. E. R, 371, 372, 387, 392 
Tau, — 159 

Lees, E. 339 

Lees, Dr. W. 183 
Lewis, W. A. 99 
Lightbody, R. 356 
Lister, Dr. M. 40 
Lister, Rev. W. 140, 153 
Lloyd, Dr. G. 433, 442 
Lloyd, T. G. B. 393 
Lowe, W. B. 493 

Luc, J. A. de 278 
Lucas, §. 184 
Lyttelton, Rev. D. C. 43 


McCoy, Prof. F. 105, 112 

Mackintosh, D. 251, 376 

Madeley, W. 169 

Marten, E. B. 185 

Mathews (or Matthews), W. 130, 141 

Maw, G. 209, 388 

Milne-Edwards, Prof. H. 120, 333 

Molyneux, W. 136, 146, 186, 199, 210, 
221, 230, 252 

Moore, C. 452 

Morris, Prof. J. 106, 348 

Mortimer, Dr. C. 43 


Murchison, Sir R. I. 70, 71, 73, 77, 195, | 


293, 294, 298, 299, 307, 309. 330, 427 


5 


| 
| 


781 


Musgrave, R. M. 483 
Mushet, D. 50 
Myers, E. 203 


Northcote, A. B. 334, 382 


Oakes, J. 211 
Ormerod, G. W. 103 
Owen, Sir R. 437, 438 


| Parkes, 8. 415 


Parton, T. 232 

Payton, — 64 

Pearce, J. C. 86 

Percival, L. 200 

Perey, Dr. J. 147, 172, 355 

Phillips, Prof. J. 2, 14, 18,19, 78, 87, 254, 
261, 263, 264, 267, 268, 312, 315, 335 

Phillips, R..419, 420 

Phillips, W. 284 

Phipson, Dr. 'T. L. 187 

Pitt, W. 58 

Plant, John, 173 

Player, J. H. 398 

Plott, Dr. R. 38, 39 

Polwhele, T. R. 401 

Prichard, Dr. J. C. 280 


Ramsay, Prof. A. C. 1, 4-8, 14, 21, 121, 
258, 264, 403, 406 

Randall, J. 231 

Rastell, Dr. T. 272 

Ricketts, Dr. C. 215 

Riley, HE. 154 

Roberts, G. E. 126, 148, 188, 349, 251- 
353, 356, 357, 362, 366-368 


Salter, J. W. 37, 144, 162, 174, 189, 212, 
268, 344, 360 

Scudamore, Dr. C. 282 

Sedgwick, Rev. Prof. A. 327, 331, 435 

Selwyn, A. R. 15, 260, 261 

Sharpe, D. 423 

Short, Dr. T. 42 

Smith, T. 74 

Smith, T. McD. 477 

Smith, W. H. 75, 79, 302 

Smyth, W. W. 13, 16, 18, 37 

Sowerby, J. D. C. 65, 66 

Spiller, J. 36, 37 

Startin, A. 465 

Strickland, H. E. 290, 295, 300, 301, 809, 
313, 314, 317, 323, 325, 328, 434, 441 

Symonds, Rev. W. 8. 356-338, 340, 341, 
345-347, 350, 358-360, 363, 399, 400 


Taylor, J. 68 

Thomson, Dr. T. 57 
Timins, Rev. J. H. 364, 383 
Timmins, 8. 203 

Tooke, A. W. 80 

Tookey, C. 36 

Trimmer, J. 113, 117 


782 REPORT— 1885. 


Turner, Prof. EH. 421 Wills, A. W. 203 
Twamley, C. 131, 190, 443 Wilson, A. P. 275 
Wilson, J. M. 469, 470, 475, 478, 479, 484, 
Vaux, F, 107 485, 490-492 
Withering, Dr. W. 44, 47 
Wall, Dr. J. 273 Wood, 8. V. junr. 486 
Ward, J. 191 Woodward, C. J. 495, 496 
Ward, Dr. O. 72 Woodward, H. 192, 216, 222, 239, 240, 
Wardle, T. 155 245-247, 377, 397, 400, 471 
Watson, Dr. J. J. W. 142 Wright, Dr. T. 143, 253, 453, 455 
Watt, G. 49 
Weldon, W. 276 Yates, Rev. J. 61, 286, 288, 306 
Whittem, J. 8. 466 Young, Dr. J. 201, 202 


2. STAFFORDSHIRE. 
GroLoGcicaL SurvEY PoBLicATIONs. 
Maps. Scale an inch to a mile. 


(1) Sheet 54, N.W. (small part at N.). By A. C. Ramsay, J. B. 
Jukes, H. H. Howett, and H. Hurt, 1852. New Ed. 1855. 

(2) Sheet 55, N.E. (small part at N.E.) By J. Pumps, W. T. 
Ave.ine, and H. H. Howrett, 1853. New Ed. 1855. 

(3) Sheet 61, S.E. (H. edge). By W. T. Avetine and EH. Hott, 
1852. New Ed. 1855. 

(4) Sheet 61, N.E. (N.E. corner and a little at S.H.). By W. T. 
Avene, E. Hutt, and A. C. Ramsay. ? no date. Reissued 1855. 

(5) Sheet 62, S.W. (all but S. and S.E. parts——Bilston, Dudley, 
Walsall, Wednesbury, Wolverhampton). By A. C. Ramsay, J. B. Juxzs, 
and HE. Hutt. 1852. New Eds. in 1855 and 1858. 

(6) Sheet 62, S.E. (at N.W. and S.W.—Birmingham). By A. C. 
Ramsay and H. H. Howert. 1855? New EHd..in 1868. 

(7) Sheet 62, N.W. (Brewood, Cannock, Penkridge, and Rugeley). 
By J. B. Juxus, HE. Hunt, and H. H. Hower. 1852. New Hds, 1855, 
1858, 1859, partly by A. C. Ramsay. 

(8) Sheet 62, N.E. (all but N.E. and 8.E. corners. Tamworth and 
Litchfield). By A. C. Ramsay and H. H. Howetn. 1856. New Ed. 
1868. 

(9) Sheet 63, N.W. (very small piece on W.). By H. H. Howew 
and E. Hutt, 1855. 

(10) Sheet 71, 8.W. (very small piece on W.). By E. Hutt, 1855. 

(11) Sheet 72, S.W. (Stafford, Stone). By E. Hunt, 1852. New 
Ed. 1855. 

(12) Sheet 72, S.E. (all but N.E. part and S.E. corner.—Abbot’s 
Bromley, Burton, Uttoxeter). By H. H. Howstt, 1852. 

(13) Sheet 72, N.W. (Cheadle, Hanley, Newcastle, Stoke). By 
W. W. Smyrrx and E. Hunn. 1857. Additional information, by A. H. 
GREEN, 1868. 

(14) Sheet 72, N.E. (W. part). By J. Paiurps, A. C. Ramsay, and 
KE. Hunt. 1852. New Ed. 1855. Additions, by A. H. Grezn, 1878. 

(15) Sheet 73, S.H. (H. part.—Eccleshail). By A. R. Senwrn and 
K. Hunt. 1855. 

(16) Sheet 73, N.E. (at E, and S.E.). By W. W. Smyre and 
HE. Hot. 1857. 


WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALZONTOLOGY. 783 


(17) Sheet 81, S.W. (S.E. part.—Leek). By A. H. Green, 1864. 

(18) Sheet 81, S.H. (S.W. corner. Longnor), By J. Parures and 
W. W. Smuytu, 1852. Revisions, by A. H. Grunn and J. R. Daxyys, 
1866. 


Horizontal Sections. Scale six inches to a mile. 


(19) Sheet 18 (top line). Section from the Red Marl plain of 
Cheshire across the Lower Carboniferous rocks of North Staffordshire. . . . 
By J. Puinirrs and A. H. Green. New edition, 1866. (Kd. 1 does not 
refer to Staffordshire. ) 

(20) Sheet 23. South Staffordshire. Section No. 1, North and 
South, from Bellbroughton, through the Clent Hills, Dudley, 
Bentley, Norton, Beaudesert, and Brereton, to the neighbourhood ot 

_ Rugeley. No. 4 . . . across the extreme northern end of the S. 

_ Staffordshire coal-field. No. 5... from Wyrley to Pelsall. By J. B. 
JUKES. 1853. Revised 1865. 

} (21) Sheet 24. South Staffordshire. Section No. 2... from 

_ Lappal, by Rowley, Dudley, and Sedgley, to Compton... . No. 3, North 
and South, through Hagley Park, Brickley Hill, Barrow Hill, Turners 
Hill and Lidget Hill. No. 6, Hast and West. Through Sedgley, Dar- 
laston and Walsall to Barr Beacon. By J. B. Juxzs. ? date. Additions 
and corrections, by A. C. RAmsay, H. H. Howett, and E. Hott, 1856. 
Revised 1865. 

(22) Sheet 25. South Staffordshire. Section No. 7, East and West 
through Kingswinford, Dudley, and Westbromwich. No. 8, East and 
West through Wordesley, Brierley Hill, Rowley, and Langley. No. 9 
Hast and West from Stourbridge by Cradley, the Hawn, Mucklowhill 
and the Quinton. No. 10, North and South, Through Frankley Beeches, 
Hasbury, Hawn, .. . to the Old Lion Colliery. By J. B. Juxus, 1853. 
Additions, by A. C. Ramsay, H. H. Howett, and E. Hurt, 1856. Revised 
1865. 

(23) Sheet 41. Section from South West to North East across .. . 
New Red Sandstone, Permian, the North Staffordshire Coalfield and 
Carboniferous Limestone, through Norton, Whitmore Heath, Longton to 
Waterfall Low. By E. Hutt and A. H. Green, 1857. 

| (24) Sheet 42. Section from West to East across the New Red 
Sandstone; the North Staffordshire Coalfield . . . through Talk, Endon 
& Parwich. By E. Hutt and A. H. Green, 1857. Revisions 1868. 

(25) Sheet 45. No. 1. Section from West to East across the... 

_ New Red Sandstone, near... . Wrottesley Park, and Bushbury, & the 

__&. Staffordshire Coalfield, by Essington Wood, and Pelsall Wood, to the 

_ Lichfield Road. By B. Hui. 1858. 

A (26) Sheet 49. Section 1. From Barr Beacon ... (small piece 
only). By H. H. Howett, 1858. 


4 (27) Sheet 54. No.1. Section from N.W. to S.E.... to Bagge- 
_ ridge Wood, S. of Wolverhampton, Staffordshire. No.2. Section from 
West to East . . . to Oreton Hill, South Staffordshire, through the . 


_ New Red Sandstone. By HE. Hur. 1858, 

(28) Sheet 57. No.1. Section from S.W. to N.E. across the New 

_ Red Sandstone and Permian Rocks, N. of Stone, Fulford & Drayeott, 
the Coalfield of Cheadle, to the Carboniferous Limestone of Throwley 
Low, North Staffordshire. No. 2. Section from S. to N. across the New 
Red Sandstone of Rugeley, North Staffordshire, the New Red Marl and 


5 


784 REPORT—1885. 


Lias, of Bagot Park; to the Carboniferous Limestone of the Weaver 
Hills. By H. Hutt and A. H. Green. 1859. 

(29) Sheet 58. Section No. 2. From West to Hast ... across... 
the Permian Rocks and New Red Sandstone, near Shiffnal and Brewood, 
to the Western border of the S. Staffordshire Coal-field, S. of Cannock. 
By E. Hout and H. Baverman. 1860. 


Vertical Sections. Scale 40 feet to an inch. 


(30-32) Sheets 16-18. Vertical Sections in the South Staffordshire 
Coal-field. By J. B. Juxzs, 1853. 

(33) Sheet 26. Pit Sections from the South Staffordshire Coal Field. 
By J. B. Juxes, 1860. 


Memoirs, 8vo,. London. 


(34) On the Geology of the South Staffordshire Coalfield. By J. B. 
Jukes. Records of the School of Mines, Part ii. Pp. 149-348 (1853) 
Ed. 2, as a separate Memoir, ‘The South Staffordshire Coal-field,’ 
Pp. xiv, 241 (1859). 

(35) The Triassic and Permian Rocks of the Midland Counties of 
England. By E. Huns. Pp. x, 127 (1869). 

(36) The Iron Ores of Great Britain. Part ii. The Iron Ores of 
South Staffordshire. By J. B. Juxes, J. Spinner, A. Dick, and C. Took gy. 
Pp. iv, 99-164 (1858). 

(37) Do: Part IV. Iron Ores of . . . North Staffordshire. Pp. 255—-~ 
296. By W. W. Smyrtu, A. Dick, J. Spmier, and J. W. Satrer (Notes 
on the Fossils). (1862). 


Books, PAPERS, ETC., CHRONOLOGICALLY ARRANGED 


To the end of 1873, after which year the GEOLOGICAL RECORD gives an 
account of works on English Geology. 


1679 and 1686. 
(38) Pxorr, Dr. R. Natural History of Staffordshire. Fol. Oxon. 


1685. 


(39) Puorr, Dr. R. The Contents of some Letters from Two learned 
and curious Observers in Staffordshire, concerning the Sand found in the 
Brine of the Saltworks of that Country. Phil. Trams. vol. xiii. no. 145, 
p. 96. 

1684. 


(40) Lister, Dr. M. Certain Observations of the Midland Salt- 
Springs of Worcester-shire, Stafford-shire, and Cheshire. Phil. Trans. 
vol. xiv. No. 156, p. 489. 


1712? 


(41) Betiers, F. A Description of the several Strata of Earth, 
Stone, Coal, c&c., found in a Coal-Pit at the West End of Dudley in 
Staffordshire. To which is added a Table of the Specifick Gravity of each 
Stratum. Phil. Trans. vol. xxvii. No. 336, p. 541. 


WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALZONTOLOGY. 785 


1740. 
(42) Sort, Dr. T. An Essay Towards A Natural, Experimental, and 


Medicinal History of the Principle Mineral Waters of . . . Staffordshire, 
Warwickshire, Worcestershire, &c. 4to. Sheffield. 


1751. 
(43) Lyrrenroy, Rev. Dr. C. A Letter concerning a nondescript 
petrified Insect. [Dudley]. Phil. Trans. vol. xlvi. no, 496, p. 598. With 


‘Some farther Account of the before-mentioned Dudley Fossil,’ by the 
Editor (Dr. C. Mortimer), p. 600. 


1773. 


- (44) Wirnerine, Dr. W. Experiments upon the different Kinds of 
Marle found in Staffordshire. Phil. Trans. vol. Ixiii. part 1, p. 161. 


1774. 

(45) Jars, M. G. Voyages Metallurgiques, tome i. (p. 253). 4to. 
Lyons. 

1781. 

(46) Jars, M. G. Voyages Metallurgiques, tome iii. (p. 75). to. 
Paris. 

1783. 

(47) Wirnerine [Dr.] W. An Analysis of Two Mineral Substances, 
viz. the Rowley rag-stone and the Toad-stone. Phil. Trans. vol. Ixxii. 
part 2, p. 327. 

1804? (or earlier). 

(48) Kem, J. Mineralogy of the South-west part of Staffordshire, 

Straw’s History of Staffordshire, vol. i. 


1805. 


(49) Wart, G. Observations on Basalt. (Analysis of Rowley Rag.) 
Jown. Nat. Phil. Chem. Arts, ser. 2, vol. x. pp. 113, 165. 


1808. 


(50) Musuzt, D. Analysis of various kinds of Pit-coal. Phil. Mag. 
vol. xxxii. p. 140. 

1809. 

(51) Farey, J. Observations on a late Paper by Dr. W. Richardson, 
respecting the basaltic District in the North of Ireland, and on the 
Geological Facts thence deducible ; in conjunction with others observable 
in Derbyshire and other English Counties... &c. .. . Phil. Mag. 
vol. xxxiii. p. 257. 

1810. 

(52) Farry, J. A List of about Five Hundred Collieries in and near 

to Derbyshire. Phil. Mag. vol. xxxv. p. 431. 


1811. 
(53) Farey, J. A List of about 280 Mines of Lead,—some with Zinc, 


_ &e. &e. in and near to Derbyshire. Phil. Mag. vol. xxxvii. p. 106. 


1885. 2 


786 REPORT—1885. 


(54) —— A List of about 700 Hills and Eminences in and near 
to Derbyshire, with the Stratum which occupies the top of each, and 
other Particulars. Ibid. pp. 161, 443. 


1812. 


(55) Farry, J. An Account of the Great Derbyshire Denudation. 
Phil. Mag. vol. xxxix. p. 26. 


1816. 


(56) Atkin, A. Some observations on a Bed of Trap occurring in 
the Colliery of Birch Hill near Walsall in Staffordshire. Trans. Geol. 
Soc, vol. iii. p. 251. 

(57) Taomson, Dr. T. Geological Sketch of the Gountry round 
Birmingham. Ann. Phil. vol. viii. p. 161. 


1817. 


(58) Pirr, W. Topographical History of Staffordshire, including its 
Agriculture, Mines and Manufactures. 8vo. 


1818. 

(59) Fixcn, J. An Account of a Pseudo-Volcano in the Neighbour- 
hood of Bradely Ivon-works, Staffordshire, and of some Mineral Sub- 
stances found there. Ann. Phil. vol. xi. p. 342. 

(60) An Account of some Basaltic Columns at Pouck Hill, 
Staffordshire, with Prehnite, Zeolite, and Barytes. Ibid. vol. xii. p. 167. 


1821. 

(61) Yares, Rey. J. Account of a Variety of Argillaceous Limestone, 
found in connexion y, th the Iron-stone of Staffordshire. Trans. Geol. 
Soc. vol. v. p. 375. 

1825. 
(62) Durrinoy, P. A., and Exte pz Beaumont. Sur le gisement, 


lexploitation et le traitement des minerais d’étain et de cuivre du 
Cornouailles [ Staffordshire, p. 408]. Ann. Mines, t. x. p. 401. 


1827. 


(63) Durrénoy, P. A., & Exim pe Beaumont. Voyage Métallurgique 
en Angleterre. [Staffordshire, p. 387]. 8vo. Paris. Ed. 2, tome i. in 
1837, tome ii. in 1838. 

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(with Table of Analyses, by D. Forres, A. W. Witts, &c.,) pp. 133-187. 
The Midland Salt Works, p. 138. Basaltie Stone Manufacture (Analysis 
of Rowley Rag), pp. 163-165. 


1867. 
(204) Brown, E. The Weaver Clays. Geol. Mag. vol. iv. p. 381. 
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Part vii. No.2. Pp. 89-168; Plates xiii—xxii. The Silurian Brachio- 
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(206) Forses, D. Researches in British Mineralogy. (Titanoferrite, 
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(207) The Microscope in Geology. (Refers to the Rowley 
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(208) Green, [Pror.] A.H. Sands and Clays subjacent to the Boulder 
Clay. Geol. Mag. vol. iv. p. 335. 

(209) Maw, G. On the Distribution beyond the Tertiary Districts 
of White Clays and Sands subjacent to the Boulder Clay Drifts. Geol. 
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~  ‘(210) Motyneux, W. On the Gravel Beds of Trentham Park. 
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(211) Oakes, J. Ona peculiar Denudation of a Coal Seam at Coates 
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(212) Satrer, J. W. A Monograph of British Trilobites. Part iv. 
Pp. 177-216. Plates xxv*—xxx. Paleontograph. Soe. 


1868. 

(213) Grernwoop, Con. G. Antiquity of Man. Athenewm, Dec. 28, 
and also Jan. 4, 1868. (Refers to impressions in Sandstone at Brewood.) 
Reprinted in ‘ River Terraces,’ pp. 156, 160. 8vo. Lond. 1877. 

(214) Jounson, H. On the Green Rock and Basalt of the South 
Staffordshire Coal Field. Trans. Manchester Geol. Soe. vol. vii. p. 88. 

(215) Ricxerrs, Dr. C. Remarks on the Upper Silurian Formation. 
Proc. Liverpool Geol. Soc. Session 9, p. 62. 

(216) Woopwarp, H. On a Newly-discovered Long-eyed Calymene 
from the Wenlock Limestone, Dudley. Geol. Mag. vol. v. p. 489, See 
also vol. vi. pp. 37, 43. 


1869. 

(217) Auteort, S. On the Basalt of South Staffordshire. Greol. Mag. 
vol. vi. p. 115. 

(218) Anon. (R. G.) Land-shell in the Coal Strata (N. Staff.) 
Science Gossip, No. 51, p. 64. 

(219) Davivson, T. A Monograph of the British Fossil Brachiopoda. 
Part vii. No. iii, Pp. 169-248. Plates xxiii-xxxvii. The Silurian 
Brachiopoda. Palcwontograph. Soc. 

(220) Eversuepv, H. The Agriculture of Staffordshire. (Note on 
the Geology.) Jowrn. R. Agric. Soc. ser. 2, vol. v. p. 263. 

(221) Motynevx, W. Burton-on-Trent: its History, its Waters, &c. 
(Geology, pp. 3-10, 147-213, 260-263.) 8vo. Lond. and Burton. 

(222) Woopwarp, H. On Eucladia, a New Genus of Ophiuride, 
from the Upper Silurian, Dudley. Geol. Mag. vol. vi. p. 241. 


1870. 

(223) Atport, S. On the Basaltic Rocks of the Midland Coal-fields. 
Geol. Mag. vol. vii. p. 159. 

(224) The Microscopical Examination of Rocks and Minerals, 
(Birmingham Nat. Hist. Micros. Soc.) Geol. Mag. vol. vii. p. 431. 

(225) Beckett, H. Remarks on local pebble-beds (Wolverhampton), 
d&c., in the Inaugural Address. Trans. 8. Midland Inst. Eng. vol. 1. pp. 
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(226) Ecctrs, J. On some Specimens Showing the Identity of 
Productus Humerosus (Sowerby), with Productus Sublevis (De 
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(227) Houpen, Dr. J. 8. A Visit to the Mines of the Black Country, 
&e. 8 Ann. Rep. Belfast Field Club, p. 47. 

(228) Hoxtrer, H. On a Specimen of the Homalonotus Delphino- 
cephalus, found at Dudley. Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc. vol. ix. no. 1, 

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. (229) Kontnck, Pror. pp. On some New and Remarkable Echino- 
derms from the British Paleozoic Rocks. (Geol. Mag. vol. vii. p. 258. 
Translated from Bull. Ac. R. Bruelles, 2 sér. t. xxviii. p. 57 (1869). 

(230) Monyneux, W. On the Rhetic Beds of Needwood Forest. 
(North Staff. Nat. Field Club.) Geol. Mag. vol. vii. p. 238. 

(231) Ranpatt, J. Denndation of the Shropshire and South Staf- 
fordshire Coal-fields. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1870, Sections, p. 100. 


1871. 


(232) ADDENBROOKE, G., and T. Parton. Iron Ores Committee. South 
Staffordshire. Journ. Iron Steel Inst. vol. ii. p. 6. 

(233) Buyney, E.W. Observations on the Structure of Fossil Plants 
found in the Carboniferous Strata. Part 2. (pp. 33-62). Lepidostrobus 
and some allied Cones. (Dudley, p. 48.) Paleontograph. Soc. 

(234) Davipson, T. A Monograph of the British Fossil Brachiopoda. 
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(235) Grover, Lizur. G. E. Notes on Fire-bricks. (Section at 
Burton-on-Trent, p. 23; Stourbridge, p. 25.) Papers Corps Roy. Eng. 
ser. 2, vol. xix. p. 15. 

(236) Hearn, R., and J. C. Homer. Iron Ores Committee. North 
Staffordshire. Jowrn. Iron Steel Inst. vol. ii. p. 1. 

(237) Jounson, H. On the Geological Features of the South Staf- 
fordshire Coalfield, with special reference to the Future Developement of its 
Mineral Resources. Journ. Iron Steel Inst. vol. ii. p. 191. 

(238) Juxus, J. B. Letters and Extracts from the Addresses and 
Occasional Writings of. Svo. Lond. 

(239) Woopwarp, H. Note on a New British Cystidean. Geol. Mag. 
vol. viii. p. 71. 

(240) On the Discovery of a New and very perfect Arachnide 
from the Ironstone of the Dudley Coal-field. Geol. Mag. vol. viii. p. 385. 

(241) Report of the Commissioners appointed to inquire into the 
several matters relating to Coal in the United Kingdom. Vol. i. General 
Report and 22 Sub-reports. (S. Staffordshire, by J. Harrier, p. 27, &c.) 
Vol. ii. General Minutes and Proceedings of Committees. (Stafford- 
shire, pp. 193, 389, &c. Warwickshire, p. 388, &c.) Fol. Lond. 


1872. 


(242) Autport, S. On the Palexontology of the District. Proc. 
Birmingham Nat. Hist. Soc. no. 2, p. 31. 

(243) Brinyzy, E. W. Observations on the Structure of Fossil Plants 
found in the Carboniferous Strata. Part iii. Lepidodendron. Pp. 
63-96 ; Plates xiii-xviii. Palwontograph. Soc. 

(244) Corzis, W. B. On the Southern Fringe of the South Stafford- 
shire Coal-Field. Mining Mag. Rev. vol. ii. no. 7, p. 11. 

(245) Woopwarp, H. On the Discovery of a new and very perfect 
Arachnide from the Ironstone of the Dudley Coal-field. Rep. Brit. Assoc. 
Jor 1871, Sections, p. 112 (= abstract of 240). 


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(246) —— A Monograph of the British Fossil Crustacea, belong- 
ing to the Order Merostomata. Part 4. Stylonurus, Hurypterus, and 
Hemiaspis. (Staffordshire, pp. 171-174, 179.) Palwontograph. Soc. 

(247) Notes on some British Palsozoic Crustacea, belonging 
to the order Merostomata. (Geol. Mag. vol. ix. 433. 


1873. 


(248) Aitken, J. Notes on an Ossiferous Cavern recently discovered 
in the Carboniferous Limestone of Staffordshire. [Waterhouses, on the 
Hamps.| Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc. vol. xii. no. 3, p. 28. 

(249) Bonney, Rey. T. G. On the Occurrence of a Quartzite Boulder 
ina Coal.seam in South Staffordshire. Geol. Mag. vol. x. p. 289. (Camb. 
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(250) Jones, D. On the Carboniferous Deposits of Shropshire 
[vefers to Staffordshire]. Trans. Severn Valley Nat. Field Club, 1865-70, 

61. 
r (251) Macxintosu, D. Observations on the more remarkable Boulders 
of the North-west of England and the Welsh Borders. (Staffordshire, 
pp. 358, 359.) Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxix. p. 351. 

(252) Motynevx, W. On the Occurrence of Copper and Lead Ores 
in the Bunter Conglomerates of Cannock Chase. (Geol. Mag. vol. x. p. 16, 
and Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1872, Sections, p. 116. 

(253) Wricut, Dr. T. On a new Genus of Silurian Asteriade 
[Dudley]. (Abstract). Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxix. p. 421. 


3. WORCESTERSHIRE. 
GEOLOGICAL SurRvVEY PUBLICATIONS. 


Nos. 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 20, 22, 34, 35 of the Staffordshire List refer also to Worcestershire. 


Maps. Scale an inch to a mile. 


(254) Sheet 43, N.E. (N.E. part.) By [Pror.] J. Partwips and 
H. H. Howe tt, 1845. New edition, 1855, 

(255) Sheet 44. (N.W. part. Evesham, Upton.) By H. H. Howenn 
and [ Pror.] E. Hutt, 1856. 

(256) Sheet 54, S.W. (Droitwich, Pershore, Worcester.) By 
H. H. Howetn, 1854. 

(257) Sheet 54,S.E. (S. part.) By H. H. Howett, 1854. 

(258) Sheet 54, N.W. (Bromsgrove, Droitwich). By [Srp] A. C. 
Ramsay, [Pror.] J. B. Juxes, H. H. Howetn, and [Pror.] EH. Hunn. 1852. 
New Ed. 1855. 

(259) Sheet 54, N.E. (N.W. Part.) By H. H. Howeu. 1855. 

(260) Sheet 55, S.W. (little bit at N.E. corner.) By W. T. 
Aveine and A. R. Senwry. 1850. 

(261) Sheet 55,S.H. (EH. half.) By [Pror.] J. Puiuuips, W. T. 
Avetine, A. R. Setwyn, and H. H. Howrett. 1853. New Ed. 1855. 

(262) Sheet 55, N.W. (little bit at S.E. corner. Tenbury). By 
W. TT. Avetine. 1850 and 1855. 

(263) Sheet 55, N.E. (Bewdley, Kidderminster, Stourport.) By 
[Pror.| J. Paituirs, W. T. Avenine, and H. H. Howext, 1853. New Ed. 
1855. 


798 REPORT—1885. 


Horizontal Sections. Scrle 6 inches to a mile. 
(264) Sheet 13. (3. Berrow Hill; 4. N. point of Swinyard Hill ; 
5. Herefordshire Beacon; 6. The Wych.) By [Sm] A.C. Ramsay and 
[Pror.] J. PHI.urps. 
(265) Sheet 50. (Section from Neen Soller, near Cleobury Mortimer. ) 
Worcestershire across the Forest of Wyre Coalfield, through the inter- 
vening Permian and New Red Sandstone strata. ... By H. H. Howstt, 


1858. 
(265) Sheet 59. By [Pror.] E. Hutz. 1860. 


Vertical Section. Scale 40 feet to an inch. 
(267) Sheet 15. Section from the Old Red Sandstone through the 
Silurian Strata, to the Syenitic Rocks of the Malvern Hills. By Pror. 


J. PHILLIPS. 
Memoirs. 8vo. London. 


(268) The Malvern Hills, compared with the Paleozoic Districts 
of Abberley. ... By [Pror.] J. Purtnrs. With Palzontological 
Appendix, by J. Puitiirs and J. W. Saurer. Vol. ii. pt. i, 1843. 

(269) The Geology of the Country around Cheltenham. (Sheet 44.) 
By [Pror.] E. Hort. 1857. 

(270) Explanation of Horizontal Sections. (Sheets 50 & 51.) 1859. 

(271) Description of Horizontal Section, Sheet 59. By (Pxor.] 


EH. Hutu. 1861. 


Booxs, PAPERS, ETC., CHRONOLOGICALLY ARRANGED. 


Nos. 40, 42, 57, 70, 72, 80, 112, 121, 126, 134, 135, 137, 143, 156, 174, 175, 188, 189, 
195, 205, 212, 219, 233, 235 of the Staffordshire List refer also to Worcestershire. 


1679. 


(272) Rasrevt, Dr. T. An Account of the Salt Waters of Droytwich 
in Worcestershire. Phil. Trans. vol. xii. no. 142, p. 1059. 


1757. 


(273) Watt, Dr. J. An Essay on the Waters of the Holy Well at 
Malvern, Worcestershire. Phil. Trans. vol. xlix. pt. 2, p. 459. 


1762. 


(274) Anon. A Treatise on the Nature, Properties, &2. of the 
Waters of Pyrmont, &e. Also of the Malvern Waters, from Dr. Wall’s 


Observations. 8vo. Lond. 
1805. 


(275) Witson, A. P. An Analysis of Malvern Waters. 8vo. 


1809. 


(276) Wenvoy, W. Analysis of a Mineral Water near Dudley, in 
Worcestershire. Journ. Nat. Phil., Chem. Arts, ser. 2, vol. xxii. p. 256. 


1811. 
(277) Horner, L. On the Mineralogy of the Malvern Hills. Trans. 
Geol. Soc. vol. i. p. 281. 


WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALMHONTOLOGY. 799 


(278) Luc, J. A. pz. Geological Travels, Vol. iii. (Bromsgrove, 
p- 469). Translated from the French. 8vo. Lond. 


1814. 


(279) Horner, L. An Account of the Brine Springs at Droitwich. 
Trans. Geol. Soc. vol. ii. p. 94. 
1815. 


(280) Pricuarp, Dr. J.C. Remarks on the Older Floetz Strata of 
England [refers to the Malverns]. Ann. Phil. vol. vi. p. 20. 


1817. 


(281) Campers, J. General History of Malvern, and the Mineralogy 
of the Malvern Hills. 8vo. Worcester. 


1820. 

(282) Scupamorz, Dr. C. A Chemical and Medical Report of the 
Properties of the Mineral Waters of Leamington, Malvern, &. 8vo. 
Lond. 

1821. 

(283) Buckianp, Rev. Dr. W. Description of the Quartz Rock of 
the Lickey Hill in Worcestershire, and of the Strata immediately sur- 
rounding it; with considerations on the evidences of a Recent Deluge 
afforded by the gravel beds of Warwickshire and Oxfordshire, and the 
valley of the Thames from Oxford downwards to London. ... Trans. 
Geol. Soc. vol. v. p. 506. 

(284) Puituirs, W. On the Geology of the Malvern Hills. Ann. 
Phil. ser. 2, vol. i. p. 16. 


1822. 
(285) Conysrare, Rey. J. J. On the Geology of the Malvern Hills. 
Ann. Phil. ser. 2, vol. iv. p. 337. 
1826. 


(286) Yates, J. Notice respecting the Quartz-rock of Bromsgrove 
Lickie. Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. ii. p. 137. 


1827. 


(287) Atsworra, W. Sketch of the Physical Geography of the 
Malvern Hills. Hdin. New Phil. Journ. vol. iv. p. 91. 

(288) Yares, Rev. J. Observations on the Structure of the Border 
Country of Salop and North Wales; and of some detached Groups of 
Transition Rocks in the Midland Counties. (Lickey, p. 255; Warwicksh., 
p- 258.) Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. ii. p. 237. 


1829. 
(289) Braytey, E. W. On the Existence of Salts of Potash in Brine- 
Springs and in Rock-Salt. Phil. Mag. ser. 2, vol. v. p. 411. 
1833 (or 1834). 
(290) Srricktanp, H. Letter accompanying a Map of the New Red 


Marl and Lias in the districts adjacent to Pershore, Evesham, Bitford, 
Alcester, Droitwich, and Worcester. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. ii. no. 33, 


800 REPORT—1885. 


p. 5. Reprinted (with a title) in Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. v. p. 260 
(1837). 
1834. 


(291) Enawanp, Rey. T. Notes on the Forest of Wyre Coal-field. 
Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. ti. no. 34, p. 20. 

(292) Hastines, Dr. C. Illustrations of the Natural History of 
Worcestershire, with Information on the . . . Geology of the County, 
including also a short account of its Mineral Waters. 8vo. Lond. and 
Worcester. ; 

(293) Murcutison, [Sir] R. I. On the Gravel and Alluvial Deposits 
of those Parts of the Counties of Hereford, Salop, and Worcester which 
consist of Old Red Sandstone; with an Account of the Puffstone, or 
Travertin of Spouthouse, and of the Southstone Rock near Tenbury. 
Proc. Geol. Soc. vol ii. no. 36, p. 77. 

(294) On Certain Trap Rocks in the Counties of Salop, Mont- 
gomery, Radnor, Brecon, Caermarthen, Hereford, and Worcester; and 
the Effects produced by them upon the stratified Deposits. Ibid. 

. 85. 
: (295) Srricktanp, H. On the Occurrence of Freshwater Shells, of 
existing Species, beneath the Gravel near Cropthorne, in Worcestershire. 
Ibid. p. 95. 


1835. 


(296) Auties, J. Observations on certain Curious Indentations in 
the Old Red Sandstone of Worcestershire and Herefordshire considered 
as Tracks of Antediluvian Animals, and the Objections made to such an 
hypothesis refuted. Also Addenda of a few other facts in Geology, &e. 
8vo. Worcester. 

(297) Hastines, Dr. C. On the Salt Springs of Worcestershire. 
Analyst, vol. ii. p. 359. 

(298) Mourcuison, Sir R. I. On certain Coal Tracts in Salop, 
Worcestershire and North Gloucestershire. Proc. Geol Soc. vol. ii. no. 
38, p. 119. 

log) The Gravel and Alluvia of S. Wales and Siluria as 
distinguished from a northern drift covering Lancashire . . . and parts 
of Worcester, &c. Ibid. no. 43, p. 230. 

(300) Srricknanp, H. E. An Account of Land and Freshwater 
Shells found associated with the Bones of Land Quadrupeds beneath 
diluvial Gravel, at Cropthorn, in Worcestershire. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. ii. 
no. 38, p. 111. 

(301) Memoir on the Geology of the Vale of Evesham. 
Analyst, vol. ii. p. 1. 


1836. 


(302) Smitu, W. H. An Historical and Descriptive Account ot 
Dudley Castle, in the County of Worcester, with . . . Geological Notices 
of the District immediately adjacent. 4to. Lond. & Birmingham. 


1837. 


(303) SrricknanD, H. E. Notices of the Red Marl and Lias of 
Worcestershire; of a Fault by which they are affected; &c. Trans. Geol. 
Soc. ser. 2, vol. v. p. 260. 


WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALHONTOLOGY. 801 


1838. 


(304) Burr, F. Notes on the Geology of the line of the proposed 

Birmingham and Gloucester Railway. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. ii. no. 54, 
fo93, 
, (305) —— Descriptive Notice of the Rock Salt District of Worces 
 tershire. Mining Review (4to.), no. 1, vol. iv. p. 1. 

(306) Yares, J. A Notice of Specimens containing Fossil Vege- 
tables, from the New Red Sandstone at Stanford and Ombersley, in 
Worcestershire. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1837, Sections, p. 59. 


1839. 
(307) Murcuisoy, [Sm] R.I. The Silurian System, founded on 
Geological Researches in the Counties of Salop, Hereford, . . . Worces- 


ter, and Stafford; with Descriptions of the Coal-fields and overlying 
Formations. 2 vols. 4to. Lond. 


1840. 


(308) Axtms, J. On Marine Shells found in Gravel near 
Worcester. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1839, Sections, p. #0; 

(309) Mourcuison, [Sir] R. I., & H. E. Srricknanp. On the Upper 
Formations of the New Red Sandstone System in Gloucestershire, 
Worcestershire, and Warwickshire . . . with some account of the under- 
lying sandstone of Omberley, Bromsgrove, and Warwick. ‘Trans. Geol. 
Soc. ser. 2, vol. v. p. 331. 

1841. 


(310) Daupeny, Pror. C. (Results of his analysis of a mineral spring 
at Tenbury, in Worcestershire.) Proc. Ashmolean Soc. Oxon. no. xviii 
2G. 
; (311) Granvitte, Dr. A.B. The Spasof England. Vol. 2 (Midland 
Spas). 8vo. Lond. 
1842. 

(312) Pups, Pror. J. Onthe Occurrence of Shells and Corals ina 
Conglomerate Bed, adherent to the face of the Trap Rocks of the Malvern 
Hills, and full of rounded and angular fragments of those rocks. Phil. 
Mag. ser 3, vol. xxi. p. 288. 

(313) Srricktanp, H. E. Memoir descriptive of a Series of coloured 
Sections of the Cuttings on the Birmingham and Gloucester Railway. 
Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 545. 

(314) A Postscript to the Memoir on the occurrence of the Bristol 
Bone-Bed in the neighbourhood of Tewkesbury. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. iii. 
no. 89, p. 732. 


1843. 
(315) Purses, [Pror.] J. On the Occurrence of Trilobites and 


' 

_ Agnosti in the lowest Shales of the Paleozoic Series, on the Flanks of 
' the Malvern Hills. Phil. Mag. ser. 3, vol. xxii. p- 384. 
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1844 ? 


(316) Bropis, Rev. P. B., & [Pror.] J. Bucxmay. Onthe Stonesfield 
Slate of the Cotteswold Hills. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. iv. no. 101, p. 437, 
and Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. i. p. 220 (1845). 
(317) Srricktanp, H. HE. On certain Calcareo-corneous Bodies found 
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802 REPORT—1885. 


in the outer chambers of Ammonites. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. iv. no. 101, 
p. 449, and Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. i. p. 230 (1845). 


1845. 

(318) Epwarps, G. The application of Gunpowder as an instrument 
of engineering operations, exemplified by its use in blasting marl rocks 
in the River Severn. (Notice of Shoals, Bones, &e. p. 362.) Proc. Inst. 
Civ. Eng. vol. iv. p. 361. 

1848. 


(319) Buoxmay, [Pror.] J. On the Occurrence of Marine Plants in 
Worcestershire (with list of shells from gravel, &c.) Rep. Brit. Assoc. 
for 1857, Sections, p. 61. 

1849. 


(320) Buckman, Pror. J. The Ancient Straits of Malvern. 12mo. 


Lond. 
(321) On the Plants of the ‘Insect Limestone’ of the, Lower 


Lias. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1848, Sections, p. 66. 


1850. 


(322) Buckman, Pror. J. On some Fossil Plants from the Lias. 
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. vi. p. 413. 

(323) Srricktanp, H. E. [On specimens of vegetable remains in 
the Keuper Sandstone of Longdon, Worcestershire.| Rep. Brit. Assoc. 
for 1849, Sections, p. 66. 

1851. 


(324) Barranpe, J. (Sur les faunes siluriennes du pays de Galles et 
des collines de Malvern.) Bull. Soc. Géol. France, 2 sér. t. viii. p. 207. 

(325) Srricktanp, H. E. On the Elevatory Forces which raised the 
Malvern Hills. Phil. Mag. ser. 4, vol. i. p. 358. 


1853. 


(326) Conus, H. On the Skin of the Ichthyosaurus. Quart. Journ. 
Geol. Soc. vol. ix. p. 79. 

(327) Sepawick, Rev. Pror. A. On a Proposed Separation of the 
so-called Caradoc Sandstone into two distinct groups; viz. (1) May 
Hill Sandstone; (2) Caradoc Sandstone. Jbid. p. 215. 

(328) Srricxnanp, H. E. On Pseudomorphous Crystals of Chloride 
of Sodium in Keuper Sandstone. Ibid. p. 5. 


1854. 


(329) Hcerton, Sir P. pp M.G. Palichthyologic Notes, No. 6. On 
a Fossil Fish from the Upper Beds of the New Red Sandstone at 
Bromsgrove. Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc. vol. x. p. 367. 

(330) Murcuison, Sir R. I. Siluria. The History of the Oldest 
Known Rocks containing Organic Remains. 8vo. Lond. Ed. 2 in 
1859. Hd. 3 in 1867. 

(331) Sepawicx, Rey. Pror. A. On the May Hill Sandstone and the 
ee System of England. Phil. Mag. ser. 4, vol. viii. pp. 301, 

9, 472. 


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1855. 
(332) Anon. Tunnel through the Malvern Hills. Edin. New Phil. 
Journ. ser. 2, vol. ii. p. 209. 

(333) Mricne Epwarps, Pror. H., and J. Harme. A Monograph of the 
British Fossil Corals. Fifth Part. Corals from the Silurian Formation. 
[Malvern, pp. 285, 291.] Palwontograph. Soc. 

(334) Norrucote, A. B. On the Brine-springs of Worcestershire. 
Phil. Mag. ser. 4, vol. ix. p. 27. 

(335) Puiturs, Pror. J. On the Geology of the Malvern Hills. 
Pp. 14. 8vo. Worcester. 

(336) Symonps, Rev. W. 8S. Evidences of Downward Movements 
east of the Malvern Range. Hdin. New Phil. Journ. ser. 2, vol. ii. p. 30. 

(337) Notice of Fossils from the Keuper Sandstone of Pendock, 
Worcestershire. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xi. p. 450. 

(338) Old Stones: Notes of Lectures on the Plutonic, Silurian, 
‘and Devonian Rocks in the Neighbourhood of Malvern. 8vo. Malvern 
and Lond. 


1856. 


(339) Lezs, E. Pictures of Nature in the Silurian Region around 
the Malvern Hills and Vale of Severn: including . . . Notices of the 
. . . Geology . . . of many interesting Localities in Worcestershire. . . 
8yvo. Malvern and London. 

(340) Symonps, Rey. W.S. On the Upper Ludlow Bone Bed near 
Malvern. Edin. New Phil. Journ. ser. 2, vol. iii. p. 172. 

4 (341) On Trap-dykes intersecting Syenite in the Malvern Hills, 
i Worcestershire. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xii. p. 382. 


4 1857. 

(342) Bropiz, Rev. P.B. On some Species of Corals in the Lias of 
Gloucestershire, Worcestershire, Warwickshire, and Scotland [ Brit. 
Assoc.|] Edin. New Phil. Journ. ser. 2, vol. v. p. 260. 

(343) Remarks on the Lias of Barrow in Leicestershire, com- 
pared with the lower part of that Formation in Gloucestershire, Wor- 
-cestershire, and Warwickshire. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 2, vol. xx. 
p. 190, & Proc. Cotteswold Nat. Club, vol. ii. p. 139. 

(344) Satter, J. W. On some new Paleozoic Star-fishes. Amn. 
Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 2, vol. xx. p. 321. 

(345) Symonps, Rev. W.S. Correlation of the Triassic Rocks in the 
Vale of Worcester, and at the Malvern Tunnel. Edin. New Phil. Journ. 
eser. 2, vol. v. p. 257. 

(346) —— Stones of the Valley. 8vo. Lond. 


1858. 


(347) Symonps, Rev. W. S. Presidential Address to the Malvern 
Naturalists’ Club (Abstract). Geologist, vol. i. p. 212. 


1859. 


(348) Morris, Pror. J. Ona Species of Fern from the Coal Measures 
-of Worcestershire. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xv. p. 80. 

(349) Roserts,G. E. On the Upper Ludlow Tilestones. Geologist, 
Bvol. ii. p. 117. 

. (350) Symonps, Rev. W.S. Presidential Address, Malvern Nat. Hist. 
Field Club. Ibid. p. 170. 


3r2 


804 REPORT—1885. 


1860. 
(351) Roserts, G. E. Upper Silurian Corals. Geologist, vol. iii. p. 55. 
(352) The Geology of the Severn Valley Railway. Ibid. p. 433. 
(353) —— Rocks of Worcestershire; their Mineral Character and 
Fossil Contents. 8vo. 


1861. 


(354) Bropiz, Rey. P. B. On the Stratigraphical Position of certain 
Species of Corals in the Lias. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1860, Sections, 
0. 73. 

: (355) Percy, Dr. J. Metallurgy [vol.i.] Fuel, Fire Clays &e. 8vo. 
ond. (Analysis of Worcestershire fire-clay, p. 214.) 

(356) Roserts, G. E. On the Distribution of Cephalaspis and 
Pteraspis in England. Geologist, vol. iv. pp. 102, 189. Remarks on the 
above by R. Licutsopy. Ibid. p, 140. 

(357 On a Plant-bed, cut into by the Severn Valley Branch of 
the West Midland Railway. Proc. Geol. Assoc. vol. i. no. 7, p. 120. 

(358) Symonps, Rev. W. 8. On the Geology is the Baler from 
Worcester to Hereford. Hdin. New Phil. Journ. ser. 2, vol. xiii. p. 204. 

(359) On some Phenomena connected with the Drifts of the 
Severn, Avon, Wye, and Usk. Ibid. vol. xiv. p. 281, & Rep. Brit. Assoc. 
for 1861, Sections, p. 183 (1862). 

(360) and A. Lampert. On the Sections of Malvern and 
Ledbury Tunnels (Worcester and Hereford Railway), and the intervening 
Line of Railroad.—With a ‘ Note on the Fossils found in the Worcester 
and Hereford Railway Cuttings’ by J. W. Sarrer, Quart. Journ. Geol. 
Soc. vol. xvii. p. 152. 


1862. 

(361) Jonus, Pror. T. R. A Monograph of the Fossil Hstherize. 
(Worcester, pp. 43, 57, 61, &c. Warwick, pp. 58, 67, &c.) Palewonto-- 
graph. Soc. 

(362) Roserrs, G. E. Saurian Remains in the Lower Lias. Geologist, 
vol. v. p. 150. 

(363) Symonps, Ruy. W. S. On the Geology of the Railway from 
Worcester to Hereford. Reprinted, with Additions and Corrections (from 
Edin. New Phil. Journ. 1861) for the Trans. Malvern Field Club. 8vo0. Lond. 

(364) Timins, Rev. J. H. On the Chemical Geology of the Malvern 
Hills. Hdin. New Phil. Journ. ser. 2, vol. xv. p. 1. 


1863. 


(365) Cuurcu, [Pror.] A. H. Notes on certain Processes of Rock 
Formation now in Action. Quart, Journ. Chem. Soc. ser. 2, vol. i. p. 30. 

(366) Roserts, G. E. On Bone-beds, their occurrence in Sedimen- 
tary Deposits and possible Origin. Proc. Geol. Assoc. vol. i. no, 9, p. 251. 

(367) Symonps, Rey. W.S. New Species of Olenus. Geologist, vol. 
vi. p. 214. 

(368) On Scutes of the Labyrinthodon, from the Keuper Bone- 
Breccia of Pendock, Worcestershire. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1862, Sections, 
p. 96. 


1864. 
(369) Brapy, H. B. On Involutina Liassica. Geol. Mag. vol. i. 
p- 193. 


~ 


2 
a 


WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALZONTOLOGY. 805 


(370) Hott, Dr. H. B. On the Metamorphic Rocks of the Malvern 
Hills. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1863, Sections, p. 70. 

(371) Lanxusrer, [Pror.] E. R. On the Discovery of the Scales of 
Pteraspis, with some Remarks on the Cephalic Shield of that Fish. 
Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc. vol. xx. p. 194. 

(372) The Old Red Sandstone Fishes of England. Pop. Sci. 
Rev. vol. ui. p. 441. 


1865. 


(373) Hott, Dr. H. B. On the Geological Structure of the Malvern 
Hills and adjacent Districts. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxi. p. 72. 

(374) Jones, Pror. T. R., & Dr. H. B. Hott. Notes on the Paleo- 
zoic Bivalved Entomostraca. No. 6. Some Silurian Species (Primitia). 
[Malvern, pp. 419-422, 424.] Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 3, vol. xvi. 
p. 414. 

1866. 

(375) Hott, Dr. H. B. On the Pre-Cambrian Rocks of Central Eng- 
land. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1865, Sections, p. 59. 

(376) Mackinrosu, D. The Sea against Rivers; or the Origin of 
Valleys. Geol. Mag. vol. iii. pp. 155, 235. ; 

(377) Woopwarp, H. On the Occurrence of Ceratiocaris in the 
Wenlock Formation (Upper Silurian) of England. Ibid. p. 203. 


1867. 


(378) Bropiz, Rev. P. B. On the Correlation of the Lower Lias at 
Barrow-on-Soar, in Leicestershire, with the same Strata in Warwick- 
shire, Worcestershire, and Gloucestershire ; &c. [Brit. Assoc.] Ann. Mag. 


Nat. Hist. ser. 3, vol. xix. p. 31. 


(379) Cavtz, C. The Agriculture of Worcestershire (Note on the 
Geology). Journ. R. Agric. Soc. ser. 2, vol. iii. p. 439. 

(380) Hott, Dr. H. B. On the Geological Position of the Crystalline 
Rocks of the Malvern Hills. Trans. Woolhope Nat. Field Club for 1866, 

. 273. 

¥ (381) Housman, Rev. H. A Glance at Dr. Grindrod’s Museum. 
Ibid. p. 264. 
(382) Norracorn, A. B. On the Water of the River Severn at 


_ Worcester. Phil. Mag. ser. 4, vol. xxxiv. p. 249. 


(383) Timrs, Rev. J. H. On the Chemical Geology of the Malvern 
Hills. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiii. p. 352. 


1868. 


(384) Bropiz, Rey. P. B. <A Sketch of the Lias generally in Eng- 
land, and of the ‘Insect and Saurian Beds,’ especially in the lower 
division in the counties of Warwick, Worcester and Gloucester, with 
@ particular account of the fossils which characterise them. Proc, 
Warwick Nat. Archeol. Field Club, p. 1; and (with a shorter title), 
Trans. Woolhope Nat. Field Club for 1866, p. 205, and Trans. Dudley 
Midland Geol. Sci. Soc. 
_ (385) Drxon, Rev. R. Upper Silurian Fossils. Trans. Woolhope 
Nat. Field Club for 1867, p. 135. 

(386) Duncan, [Pror.] P.M. A Monograph of the British Fossil 
Corals. Second Series. Part IV. No. 2 [Liassic]. (Worcester, pp. 
63, 54, 65; Warwick, pp. 46, 52, 56, 68.) Palwontograph. Soc. 


. 


806 REPORT—-1885. 


(387) Lanxester, [Pror.] E. R. A Monograph of the Fishes of the 
Old Red Sandstone of Britain. Part I—The Cephalaspide. Ibid. 
(388) Maw, G. On the Disposition of Iron in Variegated Strata 
(Worcester, pp. 356, 365, 366, 369-371.) Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 
vol. xxiv. p. 351. 
1869. 


(389) Jenkins, H. M. Farm Reports. 6. Pitchill, Tilesford, and the 
Grove (Geological Map, &c.) Journ. R. Agric. Soc. ser. 2, vol. v. p. 474. 

(390) Jones, Pror. T. R.,and Dr. H. B. Horn. Notes on the Palezo- 
zoic Bivalved Entomostraca. No. ix. Some Silurian Species [Malvern]. 
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 4, vol. iii. p. 211. 


1870. 

(391) Anon. Bath Nat. Hist. and Antiq. Field Club (Account of 
Excursion). (Malvern &c.) Geol. Mag. vol. vii. p. 437. 

(392) Lanxester, [Pror.] E. R. A Monograph of the Fishes of the 
Old Red Sandstone of Britain. Part I. (concluded). The Cephalaspide. 
(Worcester, Plate 12.) Paleontograph. Soc. 

(393) Luorn, T. G. B. On the Superficial Deposits of Portions of 
the Avon and Severn Valleys and adjoining Districts. Quart. Journ. 
Geol. Soc. vol. xxvi. p. 202. 

1871. 

(394) Anon. Coal Discovery (at Halesowen). Geol. Mag. vol. viii. 
p. 576. 

(395) Davipson, T. A Monograph of the British Fossil Brachiopoda. 
Part VII. No. IV. The Silurian Brachiopoda (Worcester, Plate 49). 
Paleontograph. Soc. 

(396) Jonzs, D. The Spirorbis Limestone in the Forest of Wyre 
Coal-field. Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc. vol. x. no. 1, p. 37. 

(397) Woopwarp, H. On some new Phyllopodous Crustaceans from. 
the Palsozoic Rocks. Geol. Mag. vol. viii. p. 104. 


1872. 

(398) Puaver, J. H. Brock Hill. Proc. Birmingham Nat. Hist. Soc: 
no. 2, p. 62. 

(399) Symonps, Rev. W. S. Records of the Rocks; or, Notes on the 
Geology . . . of North and South Wales, &e. 8vo. Lond. 

(400) Woopwarp, H. A Monograph of the British Fossil Crustacea, 
belrnging to the Order Merostomata. Part IIT. with ‘ Notes on Silurian 
Localities in the West of England, &.’ by the Ruy. W. S. Symonps. 
Paleontograph. Soc, 


4, WARWICKSHIRE. 


A Warwickshire List was published in Rep. Rugby School Nat. Hist. Soc. for 
1872, pp. 66-76 ; but it may fairly be reproduced here (rearranged and with a few 
additions), in order to complete the geologic bibliography of the district around 
Birmingham. 


GroLogicaL Survey Pusrications. 
Nos. 5, 6, 9, 26, 255, 256, 257, 259, 265 of the Staffordshire and Worcestershire Lists 
refer also to Warwickshire. 
Maps. Scale an inch to a mile. 


(401) Sheet 45,N.W. (N.W. corner). By H. Baverman and T. 
R. PotwHeie. 1859. 


WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALHONTOLOGY. 807 
(402) Sheet 53,8.W. (Kington, Southam.) By H. H. Howett. 
56 


(403) Sheet 53, N.W. (Coventry, Rugby, Warwick.) By [Sir] 
A. C. Ramsay and H. H. Howrrn. 1854. 
(404) Sheet 53, N.E. (W. edge, Rugby.) By H. H. Howse tt. 1859. 
(405) Sheet 63, S.W. (Atherstone, Nuneaton.) By H. H. Howstu. 
854: 


(406) Sheet 63, S.E. (small piece at S.W. corner). By [Sr] 
A. C. Ramsay and H. H. Howexr. 1854. 


Horizontal Sections. Scale 6 inches to a mile. 
(407) Sheet 48. (From Lazy Hill, across the Warwickshire Coal- 
field to Wysall.) By H. H, Howexz. 1856. 
(408) Sheet 51 (part). Section through ... the Warwickshire 
Coal Field, &e. By H. H. Howsnt. 1858. 


Vertical Section. Scale 40 feet to an inch. 
(409) Sheet 21. Warwickshire Coalfield. By H. H. Howzt1. 
1857. 


Memoir, 8vo. London. 


(410) The Geology of the Warwickshire Coal-field and the Permian 
Rocks and Trias of the Surrounding District. By H. H. Howstt. 1859. 


Books, PAPERS, ETC., CHRONOLOGICALLY ARRANGED. 
* Nos. 42, 54, 57, 65, 66, 67, 72, 74, 75, 85, 90, 124, 134, 137, 143, 172, 241, 282, 
283, 288, 309, 311, 313, 316, 317, 322, 342, 343, 354, 359, 361, 369, 378, 384, 386, 389, 
392 of the Staffordshire and Worcestershire Lists refer also to Warwickshire. 
1685. 


(411) Deruam, 8. Hydrologia philosophica; or an account of Ilming- 
ton Waters in Warwickshire. 8vo. Ozon. 


1699. 


(412) Axtey, B. The Natural History of the Chalybeat and Purging 
Waters of England. ... 8vo. Lond. 


1798. 


(413) Lames, W. An Analysis of the Waters of two Mineral Springs 
at Lemington Priors, near Warwick ; including Experiments tending to 
elucidate the Origin of the Muriatic Acid. Phil. Mag. vol. i. pp. 255, 350. 


1812. 
(414) Datton, S. (Extraordinary Bones found at Rugby.) Monthly 
Mag. vol. xxxiv. no. 234, p. 407. 
1822. 


(415) Parkes, S. Notice on the Black Oxide of Manganese of War- 
wickshire. Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. i. p, 168. 


1823. 

(416) Bucknanp, Rev. Dr. W. Reliquize Diluviane; or, Observations 
on the Organic Remains contained in Caves, Fissures, and Diluvial 
Gravel, and on other Geological Phenomena, attesting the Action of an 
Universal Deluge. (Warwick, pp. 176, 248.) 4to. Lond. 


808 REPORT— 1885. 


1825. 


(417) Grimes, R. Observations on the Flints of Warwickshire 
(Roy. Soc.) Edin. Journ. Sct. vol. iii. p. 77. 


1320, 

(418) CumBERLAND, G. Some Account of the Order in which the 
Fossil Saurians were discovered. Quart. Journ. Sci. Lit. Art, p. 345. 

(419) Puituirs, R. On a new Compound of Oxygen and Mangunese ; 
with Remarks on Dr. Turner’s Memoir on the Oxides of that Metal. 
Phil. Mag. ser. 2, vol. v. p. 209. 

(420) —— On the Oxides of Manganese. Ibid. vol. vi. p. 281. 

(421) Turner, Pror. E. Remarks on Mr. Phillips’ Essay on Manga- 
nese. Ibid. vol. v. p. 254. 


1830. 


(422) Davspeny, Dr. C. Memoir on the occurrence of Iodine and 
Bromine in certain Mineral Waters of South Britain. (Warwick, pp. 
234, 235.) Phil. Trams. vol. exx. p, 233. 

(423) Suaree, D. Description of a New Species of Ichthyosaurus. 
Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. i. no. 16, p. 221. 


1831. 


(424) Jukes, F. Observations on the Diluvial Gravel in the Neigh- 
bourhood of Birmingham. Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. iv. p. 372. 


1832. 


(425) Greaves, J. <A Fossilised Fish and Ichthyosaurus found in a 
Stone Quarry near Stratford-upon-Avon. Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. v. p. 549. 


1835. 


(426) Davseny, Pror. C. On Dr. Ure’s paper, in the Phil. Trans., 
on the Moira Brine Spring, &c. (Warwick, p. 322.) Phil. Mag. ser. 3, 
vol. vi. p. 321. 

(427) Murcuison, S{1r] R. I. On an outlying Basin of Lias on the 
borders of Salop and Cheshire, with a short account of the lower Lias 
between Gloucester and Worcester. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. ii. no. 38, 
p. 114. 

1836. 


(428) Agassiz, Pror.[L.] On Ichthyolites (Tetragonolepis from near 
Stratford-on- Avon). Analyst, vol. ii. p. 182. 

(429) Goocu, T. L. Account of a Toad found alive imbedded in a 
Solid Mass of New Red Sandstone. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1835, Sections, 
p. 72. 

1837. 


(430) Bucxtanp, Rev. Dr. W. On the occurrence of Silicified Trunks 
of large Trees in the New Red Sandstone or Poikilitic series, at Allesley, 
near Coventry. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. ii. no. 48, p. 439. 

(431) —— On the occurrence of Keuper Sandstone in the upper 
region of the New Red Sandstone formation or Poikilitic system in Eng- 
land and Wales. Ibid. p. 453. 


WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALZONTOLOGY. 809 


1840. 
(432) Bucktanp, Rev. Pror. W. On Fossil Impressions of Rain and: 
“Ripple Marks . . . and Fossil Footsteps of Cheirotherium and other un- 


known Animals recently discovered on Strata of the:New Red Sandstone 
formation, in the counties of Cheshire, Salop, and Warwick. Proc. Ash- 
molean Soc. Oxon. no. xvi. p. 5. 

(433) Luorp, Dr. G. A General Outline of the Geology of Warwick- 
shire, and a Notice of some new Organic Remains of Saurians and Sauroid 
Fishes belonging to the New Red Sandstone. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1839, 
Sections, p. 73. 

(434) Srrickuanp, H. E. On the occurrence of a Fossil Dragon-fly in 
the Lias of Warwickshire. Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 2, vol. iv. p. 301. 


1841. 

(435) Sepewick, Rev. Pror. A. Supplement to a ‘Synopsis of the 
English Series of Stratified Rocks inferior to the Old Red Sandstone,’ 
with Additional Remarks on the Relations of the Carboniferous Series 
and Old Red Sandstone of the British Isles. Proc. Geol. Soc. vol. iii. no. 
82, p. 545. 

1842. 

(436) Ick, — On some Superficial Deposits near Birmingham. Proc. 
Geol. Soc. vol. iii. no. 89, p. 731. 

(437) Owen, [Str] R. Report on British Fossil Reptiles. Part 2. 
(Warwick, pp. 155,181.) Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1841, p. 60. 

(438) —— On the Teeth of Species of the Genus Labyrinthodon 
common to the German Keuper formation and the Lower Sandstone of 
Warwick and Leamington. Trans. Ceol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. vi. p. 503. 


1843. 


(439) Anon. Warwickshire. ‘Surface and Geology,’ &e. Penny 
Cyclopedia, vol. xxvii. p. 84. Fol. Lond. 

(440) Bucxtanp, Rey. Pror. W. On Recent and Fossil Semi-circular 
Cavities caused by air-bubbles on the surface of soft clay, and resembling 
impressions of rain-drops. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1842, Sections, p. 57. 


1849. 


(441) Srricknanp, H. E. On the Geology of the Oxford and Rugby 
Railway. Proc. Ashmolean Soc. Oxon, vol. ii. no. 25, p. 192. 


1850. 

(442) Luoyp, Dr. G. Ona New Species of Labyrinthodon from the 
New Red Sandstone of Warwickshire. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1849, Sec- 
tions, p. 56. 

1854. 


(443) Twamury, C. On asingular Fault in the Southern Termination 
of the Warwickshire Coal-field. Rep. Brit. Assoc. for 1858, Sections, 
p. 62. 

1856. 

(444) Bropis, Rey. P. B. On the Upper Keuper Sandstone (in- 
lauded in the New Red Marl) of Warwickshire. With a note on Kstheria 
minuta by [Pror.] T. R. Jones. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xii. p. 374. 


810 REPORT—1885. 


(445) Eversnep, H. Farming of Warwickshire (with account of 
soils, de.) Journ. R. Agric. Soc. vol. xvii. p. 475. 


1857. 


(446) Anon. Kidderminster Deposits (and Passage Beds). din. 
New Phil. Journ. ser. 2, vol. v. p. 380; and vol. vi. p. 184. 


1858. 

(447) Anon. Note on the Warwickshire Coal-field. 22 Ann. Rep. 
Warwick. Nat. Hist. Archeol. Soc. p. 6. 

(448) Eerrron, Sir P. pp M. G. Palichthyologic Notes. No. 10. 
On Palzoniscus superstes. With a ‘Note on the occurrence of a New 
Species of Fish in the Upper Keuper Sandstone in Warwickshire,’ by 
the Rev. P. Bropiz. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xiv. p- 164. 


1860. 


(449) Broptz, Rev. P. B. On the occurrence of Footsteps of Cheiro- 
therinm in the Upper Keuper in Warwickshire. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 
vol. xvi. p. 278. 

(450) Gaces, A. Report on the Results obtained by the Mechanico- 
Chemical Examination of Rocks and Minerals, (Warwick, p. 67.) Rep. 
Brit. Assoc. for 1859, p. 65. 

1861. 


(451) Bropiz, Rey. P. B. On the Discovery of an ancient Hammer-. 
head in certain Superficial Deposits near Coventry. Edin. New Phil. 
Journ. ser. 2, vol. xiv. p. 62. 

(452) Moors, C. On the Zones of the Lower Lias and the Avicula 
contorta Zone. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xvii. p. 483. 

(453) Wricur, Dr. T. A Monograph on the British Fossil Echino- 
dermata from the Oolitic Formations. Part Fourth, containing the 
Echimolampidx, the Stratigraphical Distribution of the Echinodermata, 
&c. (Warwick, pp. 457-459, 462.) Paleontograph. Soc. 


1862. 


(454) Anoy. [Note of Meeting at Avon Dassett.] 26 Ann. Rep. 
Warwicksh. Nat. Hist. Soc. p. 5. 


1863. 


(455) Wricut, Dr. T. A Monograph on the British Fossil Echino- 
dermata from the Oolitic Formations. Vol. 2nd, Part 1st. On the 
Asteroida. (Warwick Sections, pp. 59-61.) Paleeontograph. Soc. 


1864. 


(456) Bropie, Rev. P. B. (Remarks) on the (two) Lias Outliers at 
Knowle and Wooton Warwen, in South Warwickshire, and on the 
presence of the Lias or Rhetic Bone Bed at Copt Heath, its furthest 
northern extension hitherto recognized in that County. Proc. Warwick 
Nat. Archeol. Field Club, p. 26, and Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxi. 
p. 159 (1865) 


(457) Heprny,—. On the Long Wall System. Trans. S. Wales Inst.. 
Eng. vol. iii. p. 148, 


WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALHONTOLOGY. 811 


1865. 


(458) Bropis, Rey. P. B. Excursion to Fenny Compton, &c. Proce. 
Warwick Nat. Archeol. Field Club, p. 6. 


1866. 
(459) Anon. Notice of the neighbourhood of Nuneaton. Geol. Mag. 
vol. iii. p. 273. 
(460) Broprz, Ruy. P. B. Ona Section of Lower Lias at Harbury, 
near Leamington. ep. Brit. Assoc. for 1865, Sections, p. 48. 


(461) On two New Species of Corals in the Lias of Warwick- 
shire. Ibid. p. 49. 
(462) —— (Remarks) on the Drift in a part of Warwickshire, and 


on the evidence of Glacial Action which it affords. Proc. Warwick 
Nat. Archeol. Field Club, p. 14, and Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc. vol. xxiii. 
p. 208 (1867). 

(463) On the Fossiliferous Beds in the New Red Sandstone 
(the upper and lower Keuper) in Warwickshire. Proc. Warwick Nat. 
Archeol. Field Club, p. 33. 

(464) On the Geology of Warwick, Leamington, and its 
neighbourhood. 30 Ann. Rep. Warwick Nat. Hist. Archeol. Soc. 

Some of these papers, by Mr. Bropis, are noticed in Geol. Mag. vol. 
iii. p. 229. 

(465) Srartin, A. On some special Deposits of Drifts in the Parish 
of Exhall, near Coventry, and also a few remarks on the drift of the 
surrounding district generally. Proc. Warwick Nat. Archeol. Field Club, 
p. 26. 

(466) Wuirrem, J.S. On the supposed Glacial Drift in the neigh- 
bourhood of Coventry. Ibid. p. 23. 


1868. 


(467) Broviz, Rey. P. B. Note on Hyperodapedon from Coton End, 
Warwick, in Address to Warwick Nat. Hist. Archeol. Soc. 

(468) CreminsHaw, E. On the Natural History of the Rugby Lias. 
Rep. Rugby School Nat. Hist. Soc. for 1867, p. 31. 

(469) Witson, J. M. On the Objects of the Geological Section of 
the Natural History Society. Rep. Rugby School Nat. Hist. Soc. for 1867, 
p: it. 

(470) —— A List of Local Lias Fossils. Rep. Rugby School Nat.. 
Hist. Soc. for 1867, p. 55. 

(471) Woopwarp, H. Contributions to British Fossil Crustcaea. 
Geol. Mag. vol. v. p. 353. 


1869. 


(472) Anon. [J. M. Wiutson, E. Creminsnaw, &c.] Additions to the 
ae of Local Lias Fossils. Rep. Rugby School Nat. Hist. Soc. for 1868,. 
p. 43. 

(473) Bropis, Rev. P. B. The Oldest British Belemnite. (Geol. Mag. 
vol. vi. p. 239. E 

(474) Bruce, A.C. On the accurate Division of the Local Lias at 
Rugby into Zones, by their Fossils, more especially by their Ammonites. 
Rep. Rugby School Nat. Hist. Soc. for 1868, p. 19. 

(475) Cieminsuaw, E. On the River Gravels of the Upper Avon 
with a Note by J. M. Witson. Ibid. p. 27. 


812 REPORT- --1885. 


(476) Huxxey, Pror. T. H. OnHyperodapedon. Quart. Journ. Geol. 
Soc. vol. xxv. p. 188. 

_ (477) Smite, T. McD. Account of the Rugby Well. Report by 
the Engineer (Metrop. Board of Works) on the Boring Operations at 
Crossness Pumping Station. Revised to Feb. 8. 8vo. Lond. 

(478) Witsoy, J. M. On the Victoria [Lime] Works. Rep. Rugby 
School Nat. Hist. Soc. for 1868, p. 9. 

(479) —— Rugby Waterworks. Remarks to accompany the Section 
of the Well. Ibid. p. 41. 

1870. 

(480) Anon. (Meetings at Bromsgrove and Lutterworth.) Proc. 
Warwick Nat. Archeol. Field Club, pp. 24, 31. See also 35 Ann. Rep. 
Warwick Nat. Hist. Archeol. Soc. pp. 25,27. (1871.) 

(481) Bropm, Rev. P.B. On the Geology of Warwickshire. 34 Ann. 
Rep. Warwick Nat. Archeol. Soc. p. 10. 

(482) Huxtry, Pror. T. H. On the Classification of the Dinosauria, 
with Observations on the Dinosanria of the Trias. (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 
vol. xxvi. p. 32. 

(483) Muscrave, R. M. On the Drift Gravel of Lutterworth, Kil- 
worth, &e. Proc. Warwick Nat. Archwol. Field Club, pp. 11, 23. 

(484) Wison, J. M. On the Surface-deposits in the Neighbourhood 
of Rugby. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxvi. p. 192. 

(485) —— On the Drifts and Gravels and Alluvial Soils of Rugby 
and its Neighbourhood. Rep. Rugby School Nat. Hist. Soc. for 1869, p. 16. 

(486) Woop, 8S. V., Jun. Observations on the Sequence of the 
Glacial Beds. Geol. Mag. vol. vii. p. 17. 


1871. 


(487) Armirace, J. Localities [of fossils] new to the List. Rep. 
Rugby School Nat. Hist. Soc. for 1870, p. 45. 


1872. 

(488) Aturort, S. On the ‘Paleontology of the District.’ Proc. 
Birmingham Nat. Hist. Soc. no. 2, p. 31. 

(489) Anon. Excursion to Warwickshire. Proc. Geol. Assoc. vol. ii. 
no. 7, p. 284. 

(490) Witson, J. M. Note on a Boulder lately discovered in Cosford 
Valley and a Conglomerate Boulder in Brownsover. ep. Rugby School 
Nat. Hist. Soc. for 1871, p. 19. 


(491) Note on a newly-discovered Oolitic Drift at Browns- 
over. Ibid. p. 20. 
(492) —— Catalogue of Local Fossils in the Museum. Ibid. p. 55. 


1873. 
(493) Lows, W. B. Geological Section [Report of]. With a Section 


of Rugby Pit, Victoria Lime Works, &. Rep. Rugby School Nat. Hist. 
Soc. for 1872, p. 47. 


The following may be added as referring to the Birmingham district, 
or to some part of the three counties :— 


(494) Atutrort, S. On the Igneous Rocks of the Midland Coalfield. 
Proc. Birmingham Nat. Hist. Soc. no. 2, p. 58. 


WORKS ON GEOLOGY, MINERALOGY, AND PALHONTOLOGY. 813 


(495) Crossxey, [Rev.] H. W., and C. J. Woopwarp. The Post 
Tertiary Beds of the Midland District. Ibid. p. 42. 

(496) The Birmingham Saturday Half-Holiday Guide. Fossils by 
S. Autrorr. Geology by C. J. Woopwarp. 8vo. Birmingham. 


On Slaty Cleavage and Allied Rock-Structures, with special 
reference to the Mechanical Theories of their Origin. By ALFRED 
Harker, M.A., F.G.S. 


[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso 
among the Reports. | 


I. ‘Introductory and Historical. 


Tue following paper is intended to deal in a comprehensive, though far 
from exhaustive, manner with the main phenomena of the cleavage 
structure in slate-rock, the received views of the origin and significance 
of these phenomena, and the relations existing between slaty cleavage 
and various allied rock-structures. It may be regarded as to some extent 
supplementary to the Report on Cleavage and Foliation presented to the 
British Association at the Cheltenham meeting in 1856 by the late Pro- 
fessor John Phillips;! and accordingly a few words seem to be called for 
in justification. 

The facts so ably summarised by Professor Phillips were mnch less 
complete than those now at our disposal, and although they were perhaps 
sufficient in 1856 to establish on a firm basis the mechanical theories of slaty 
cleavage which had been already put forward by Messrs. Sharpe and Sorby, 
it could not be said that such theories had obtained anything like universal 
acceptance. Indeed Professor Phillips had in contemplation? a further 
report, in which the ‘mechanical pressure’ which these authors advo- 
cate’ was to be ‘placed in comparison with the crystalline polarity, 
formerly advanced by Professor Sedgwick,’ and in which ‘Mr. Fox’s 
ingenious imitation of slaty cleavage by electrical currents’ was also to 
receive attention. Following the tendency of more recent speculations, 
I propose to discuss the subject of slaty cleavage from a purely mechani- 
eal standpoint. Such an investigation will involve considering the rela- 
tions of cleavage to contortion, to faulting, to jointing, and to foliation, 
subjects which had received but little notice at the date of Professor Phillips” 
report, but some of which are now recognised as among the foremost 
questions of geology. 

Slaty cleavage may be defined as a superinduced tendency in a rock 
to split in a definite direction more readily than in other directions, such 
direction of splitting being independent of the planes of deposition in a 
sedimentary rock. In the classical paper of Professor Sedgwick,’ referred 
to below, the following passage occurs : ‘ Besides the planes of cleavage, 
we may often find in large slate quarries one or more sets of cross joints, 
which, combined with the cleavage, divide the rock into rhombohedral 
solids. Should any one assert that this subdivision of slate rocks into. 
rhombohedral solids implies three planes of cleavage, we might reply,. 


1 British Association Report, 1856, p. 369. ‘ Report on Cleavage and Foliation in, 
Rocks, and on the Theoretical Explanations of these Phenomena. Part I.’ 
? Op. cit., p. 392. * Geol Trans., 2nd ser., vol. iii. p. 473, 1835. 


814 REPORT—1885. 


that such solids are not capable of indefinite subdivision into similar 
solids, except in one direction, viz., that of true cleavage.’ The distinc- 
tion here stated between true slaty cleavage and mere jointing is funda- 
mental: slaty cleavage, like the crystalline cleavage of minerals, is a 
property of a definite direction, jomting a property of definite planes in 
the rock. If a rock-mass will split along a certain plane owing to a 
true slaty cleavage structure, it will split with equal readiness along any 
other plane parallel to the first; but although parallel joints may occur 
in a rock at very small distances apart, there is no special tendency in 
the parts of the rock between two successive joints to split parallel to 
them. Moreover, cleavage planes are merely surfaces of weakness, not 
of actual discontinuity, in the rock in which they occur ; while, although 
secret or ‘close’ joints are not uncommon in some kinds of rocks, the 
structural planes properly known as joints are: usually actual fissures, 
which may, however, be of very minute width. 

The structure of slaty cleavage, to which the above remarks are strictly 
applicable, is typically exemplified in ordinary roofing-slate: in some other 
rocks we find a passage from the true cleavage structure to a system of 
close parallel planes of discontinuity (which, however, are not to be with 
propriety regarded as joints), while, on the other hand, it is difficult to 
discriminate the cleavage of slates from the schistosité of certain schists. 

The words clivage and Transversalschieferung, when strictly appropri- 
ated,! are used in nearly the same sense as that in which we have defined 
cleavage : the first-named term is, however, employed by many writers 
with reference to structures which we should describe as jointing. 

It seems desirable, if possible, to limit the name slate to rocks which 
exhibit the true cleavage-structure, although this restriction has not 
always been observed. 

Confining our attention for the present to true slaty cleavage, it will 
be convenient to summarise at the outset the information that had been 
obtained on that subject prior to Professor Phillips’ Report in 1856. 

It is a matter of no small wonder that the fundamental difference of 
cleavage planes from surfaces of original deposition should have met with 
such tardy recognition at the hands of geologists in general. In North 
Wales, for instance, where some of the quarries have been worked for at 
least six centuries,” the cleavage-planes are often seen to cut at high 
angles across alternating bands of different lithological characters, which 
clearly indicate the original bedding of the rocks. The names of Otley,’ 
MacCulloch,! and Phillips may be mentioned as among the first to 
recognise slaty cleavage as a distinct phenomenon. The scientific study 
of the structure must, however, be considered as dating from Prof. Sedg- 
wick’s paper ‘ On the Structure of Large Mineral Masses,’ ° read before 
the Geological Society of London in 1835. In this valuable contribution 
to physical geology the author insisted anew upon the distinction between 
cleavage and stratification, and pointed out clearly for the first time how 
the former structure differs from jointing ; he showed that cleavage-planes 

1 Hg. Heim: Untersuchungen iiber den Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung, Ba. ii. 
s. 58, 59; 1878, Basel. 

2 Davies, Slate and Slate Quarrying, chap. xxii., 2nd ed., 1880, London. 

3 Kirkby Lonsdale Magazine, 1820. ‘Concise Deseription of the English Lakes,’ 
1823. Keswick. 
4 Western Isles of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 33, and pl. xxii. fig. 6, 1819. Journ. Roy. 


Inst., 1825. System of Geology, vol. ii. 1831. 
5 Trans. Geol. Soc., 2nd ser. vol. iii. p. 461, 1835. 


ON SLATY CLEAVAGE AND ALLIED ROCK-STRUCTURES. 815 


may cut the bedding at any angle, according to the varying dips and 
-contortions of the latter ; he stated that they are much more regular in 
their arrangement than the bedding, maintaining their straight course 
throughout large tracts of country, and their dip changing very gradu- 
-ally as we cross successive planes; finally he laid down, as the result of 
his own researches in districts of slate-rocks, the important law, that 
“where the cleavage is well developed in a thick mass of slate-rock, the 
strike of the cleavage is nearly coincident with the strike of the beds.’ ! 

This last statement was modified by Professor Phillips, Dr. Darwin,? 
and Mr. Sharpe, who replaced it by the law, that the strike of the cleay- 
age planes in a district is ‘ parallel to the main axes of elevation,’ and not 
necessarily with the strike of the beds at any given locality. In this 
form the law was borne out by the researches of field-geologists ? in all 
parts of the world where slate-rocks are met with. The law as enunci- 
ated by Professor Sedgwick has many exceptions, as he himself was the 
first to remark. 

The alleged second direction of cleavage in certain slates, at right 
angles to the chief cleavage, as stated by Mr. D. Sharpe,‘ and subse- 
quently by Professor Sedgwick® and others, is a point to be discussed 
below. 

The next advance was the observation that the fossils associated with 
cleaved rocks are commonly more or less distorted in form, and that the 
mode of distortion is related to the direction of the cleavage-planes in the 
rock. This fact was first brought into notice by Professor Phillips,® but 
its significance was only subsequently made clear by Mr. Sharpe.? The 
latter geologist drew the conclusion that rocks affected by slaty cleavage 
have suffered a compression of their mass in a direction everywhere per- 
pendicular to the plane of cleavage, and an expansion in the direction of 
¢leavage-dip. The numerical results of Professor Haughton,* merely 
mentioned by Professor Phillips in an addendum, confirmed at least the 
former of these conclusions. 

Messrs. Sharpe® and Sorby’? showed that the form and arrangement 
of the fragments, both macro- and micro-scopic, which compose the mass 
of a cleaved rock, agree in every respect with the kind of distortion 
‘supposed, and made various other observations having the same bearing. 

Finally, as regards the theories of slaty cleavage, Bakewell! and most 
of the earlier investigators considered the structure to be ‘ the effect of 
crystallisation’; MacCulloch!* supposed it to be the result of ‘ concre- 
tionary action’; Professor Sedgwick! himself ascribed it to ‘ crystalline 


1 Loc. cit. p. 473. ? Geological Observations in South America, p. 163, 1846. 
* Darwin, Forbes, Harkness, Hopkins, Jukes, Murchison, Phillips, Ramsay, Rogers, 


Sedgwick, Sharpe, &c. * Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. v. p. 114, 1849. 
° Synopsis of British Paleozoic Rocks, Introd. p. xxxy., 1855. London and 
Cambridge. 


° Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1843, Trans. sec. p. 61. 

7 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. p. 74, 1847. 

8 Phil. Mag. 4th ser., vol. xii. p. 400 (1856). 

° Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc., vol. v. p. 112 (1849). 

%° Edinb. New Phil. Jowrn., vol. lv. p. 137 (1853). Phil. Mag., 4th ser., vol. xi. 
'p. 20 (1856). 

1 Introduction to Geology, p. 86 (1813). 

1 Western Isles of Scotland, vol. iii. p. 33 (1819). Journ. Roy. Inst. (1825). 
System of Geology, vol. ii. (1831). 

18 Geol. Trans., 2nd ser., vol. iii. p. 477 (1835). Synops. Brit. Pal. Rocks, Introd. 
(1855). Cf. Professor H. D. Rogers, Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb., vol. xxi. p. 464 (1856). 


. 


816 REPORT—1885. 


and polar forces acting on the whole mass simultaneously, in given direc- 
tions, and with adequate power.’ Sir H. De la Beche! invoked the 
agency of electric currents and terrestrial magnetism, and cited in con- 
firmation of this theory the experiments of Messrs. R. W. Fox? and 
R. Hunt. Mr. Hopkins,‘ too, endeavoured to show a connection 
between cleavage and ‘ magnetic currents.’ Dr. Charles Darwin,® whose 
views will be further referred to, was led to suspect ‘ that the planes of 
cleavage and foliation are intimately connected with the planes of 
different tension, to which the area was long subjected, after the main 
fissures or axes of upheavement had been formed, but before the final 
consolidation of the mass and the total cessation of all molecular move- 
ment.’ The mechanical theory gained ground slowly, geologists being 
apparently reluctant to admit so simple an explanation of the phenomena. 
Mr. J. Beete Jukes,® for example, generalising from his observations in 
Newfoundland, wrote thus: ‘ The same causes which gave their prevalent 
and general direction to the mechanical forces by which the rocks were 
elevated from their original position, and their strike and dip produced, 
likewise determined the direction in which those forces should act (what- 
ever they were), which produced the cleavage.’ Mr. Sharpe’ in his first 
paper on slaty cleavage, while admitting the action of pressure in the 
production of cleavage, declined to regard it as the sole agent concerned, 
and considered that heat may have had some share in the process; in his. 
second paper, however, he had apparently arrived at a purely mechanical 
theory. But it still remained for Mr. Sorby* to show that all the main 
facts connected with slaty cleavage are explicable as the effects of a dis- 
tortion of the mass of the rock consequent upon lateral compression. 
This theory was strengthened by the synthetic experiments of Mr. Sorby 
and Professor Tyndall,° in which a fissile structure resembling cleavage 
was artificially produced in various plastic substances by the agency of 
lateral pressure alone. 


Il. The Mechanical Theory of Slaty Cleavage : the Distortion of 
Cleaved Rocks. 


It will be convenient at this point to put forward briefly the views of 
those geologists who have offered explanations of slaty cleavage founded 
solely on mechanical principles. These theories, however complete in 
themselves, are to be regarded not as the end of the investigation but 
rather as important landmarks by the way ; for they are applicable only 
to the slaty cleavage structure proper in its various degrees of perfection, 
and there may even appear reasons for doubting whether the whole trath, 
even as regards roofing-slates and cleaved limestones, can always be 
expressed by a purely mechanical theory, in the sense implied here. 


1 Report on the Geology of Cornwall, Sc. p. 281 (1839), Kc. 

2 Reports of Cornwall Polytechnic Soc., 1837, pp. 20, 21, 68, 69. Of. Phillips, 
Treatise on Geology, vol. ii. p. 87 (1839). 

3 Mem. Geol. Surv. Gr. Brit., vol. i. p. 433 (1846). 

4 The Connection of Geology with Terrestrial Magnetism, ch. xiii. (1848). 

5 Geological Observations in South America, p. 168 (1846). 

© Excursions in Newfoundland, vol. ii. p. 325 (1842). 

7 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. p. 104 (1847). Ibid. vol. v. p. 129 (1849). 

8 Edinb. New Phil. Journ., vol. lv. p. 137 (1853). Phil. Mag., 4th ser., vol. xi. p. 20, 
and vol. xii. p. 127 (1856). 

® Phil. Mag., 4th ser., vol. xii. p. 37 (1856). 


ON SLATY CLEAVAGE AND ALLIED ROCK-STRUCTURES. 817 


The exponents of such theories agree in referring the structure to the 
action of powerful lateral pressure, and in considering that such pressure 
operated simply by producing a distortion of the rock-mass upon which 
‘it was exerted. They differ to some extent, according to the special 
examples studied by each observer, as regards the precise kind of distor- 
tion produced, and the manner in which it has affected the intimate 
structure of the rocks in question. 

We consider first, then, the kind of distortion which the rock, 
regarded for the present as a homogeneous mass, is supposed to have 
experienced under the action of the lateral pressure. If we imagine a 
sphere traced in the rock previous to its distortion, the effect of any 
uniform strain upon the mass will be to distort this sphere into an 
ellipsoid. This latter surface, which may be called the strain ellipsoid, 
or ellipsoid of distortion, may conveniently be taken to express by its 
form and position the kind of strain or distortion undergone by the rock. 
We shall call its principal semiaxes, in descending order of magnitude, 
a, b,c. If the radius of the original sphere be &, it is evident that, in 
general, the distortion is accompanied by a change of volume in the 
ratio abe : k’. 

Mr. D. Sharpe’s? conclusions were drawn from an examination of the 
fossils in the cleaved rocks of Tintagel and South Petherwin, but he 
extended them to all rocks having slaty cleavage, and confirmed them by 
the slates of North Wales, Westmoreland, and Cumberland. He says: 
* It may be asserted as probable that all rocks affected by that peculiar 
fissile character which we usually call slaty cleavage, have undergone 

‘1. A compression of their mass in a direction everywhere perpen- 
dicular to the plane of cleavage. 

‘2. An expansion of their mass along the planes of cleavage in the 
direction of a line at right angles to the line of incidence of the planes of 
bedding and cleavage ; or, in other words, in the direction of the dip of 
the cleavage. No proof has been found that the rock has suffered any 
change in the direction of the strike of the cleavage planes. We must 
therefore presume that the masses of rock have not been altered in that 
direction.’ 

Assuming these laws, the strain ellipsoid would have its least axis 
perpendicular to the cleavage-planes, its greatest axis along the cleavage 
dip, and its mean axis along the cleavage-strike. Also the last clause in 
Mr. Sharpe’s results makes } =k, and therefore the change of volume 
would be represented by the ratio ac: b?. Mr. Sharpe speaks of the 
compression being ‘compensated’ by the expansion; if this is to be 
interpreted strictly, we should have ac = b?, and no change of volume ; 
but it is highly probable that in most cleaved rocks, ac would be less than 
b?, and the volume would be reduced in proportion. 

Dr. H. Clifton Sorby ¢ examined the slates of Penrhyn and Llanberis, 
and the cleaved limestones and dolomites of Devonshire, and drew con- 


1 Thomson and Tait, Natural Philosophy, vol. i. pt. i. § 160, new ed. (1879). 
: Minchin, Zyeatise on Statics, § 280, new ed. (1880). 

2 «On Slaty Cleavage,’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. p. 87 (1847). 

8 The latter form of statement must be preferred ; the two expressions are clearly 
Not equivalent, unless the strikes of the cleavage and the bedding coincide. 

4*On the Origin of Slaty Cleavage,’ Edinb. New Phil. Jowrn., vol. lv. p. 137 
(1853). ‘On Slaty Cleavage as Exhibited in the Devonian Limestones of Devon,’ 
Phil. Mag., 4th ser., vol. xi. p. 20 (1856). 

1885, 3G 


818 REPORT—1885. 


clusions entirely in agreement with those of the geologist just quoted. It 
appears from his observations that a common form for the strain ellipsoid 
in the slates of North Wales is one whose axes are in such ratios as 
16:1:027. These figures indicate a total diminution of volume in the 
ratio 0°43 : 1. 

Professor S. Haughton! made numerical calculations of the distortion 
of form exhibited by the fossils of cleaved rocks, examining specimens 
from eight localities in Ireland, Cornwall, and Wales. He found a very 
marked compression in the direction perpendicular to the cleavage-planes, 
but his results led him to reject Mr. Sharpe’s other laws relating to the 
expansion along the cleavage-dip and the unchanged dimensions along 
the cleavage-strike. His ellipsoid of strain was thus an oblate spheroid 
or ellipsoid of revolution, having its equator in the cleavage-plane. This 
implies, either no expansion in any direction, or equal expansion in all 
directions along the cleavage-planes. In the former case the diminution 
of volume would be in the ratio c : b (orc: a) ; in the latter the diminu- 
tion of volume, if any, would be indeterminate by this method. Professor 
Haughton’s results, expressed in the notation already employed, are given 
in the following table :— 


Ratios of axes of ellipsoid 


Carboniferous slate of Ardroginna, Waterford . . | 0°975 3 1:000 : 0°412 


1 

2 5 5 South Petherwin, Cornwall . | 1°010 : 1:000 : 0:256 
3 - “ Tintagel, Cornwall . . | 0°669 : 1000 : 0°102 
4 Lingula beds of Abereiddy Bay, Pembrokeshire ./| 1-000: 1:000 : 0-145 
5 Green grits of Llyn Padarn, Llanberis. . - | 0°805 : 1:000 : 0°531 
6 Silurian black slates of Moel Benddu, North Wales. | 1:000 : 1:000 : 0-270 
i = > Garth, Portmadoc ; . | 1:000 : 1-000 : 0-090 
8 Carboniferous slate of Carrigaline, Co. Cork . - | 1:000 : 1:000 : 0°466 


In the last three examples it is asswmed that a and b are equal, and ¢ 
is calculated on this assumption, which seems scarcely warranted by the 
results obtained for the first five rocks examined. It will be noticed that 
Professor Haughton’s investigations included the fossils on which Mr. 
Sharpe based his conclusions, but the more perfectly cleaved roofing 
slates, such as those of North Wales, studied by Dr. Sorby, are excluded, 
owing to the absence of fossils in them. 

Professor J. Phillips,? in an early paper read before the British 
Association, described the distortion of cleaved rocks as a ‘creeping 
movement among the particles of the rock, along the plane of cleavage, 
the effect of which was to roll them forward, in a direction always 
uniform over the same tract of country.’ This rather indefinite language 
may be interpreted to mean what would now be termed a shearing 
motion * along the cleavage planes. In other words, if we conceive the 
rock divided into indefinitely thin slices, parallel to the cleavage planes, 
then each slice is supposed to have slipped an indefinitely small distance 
over its neighbour in the direction of the cleavage dip; the relative dis- 


1 «On Slaty Cleavage and the Distortion of Fossils,’ Phil. Mag., vol. xii. p. 409 
(1856). ‘Ona Model Illustrative of Slaty Cleavage,’ Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1857, Trans. 
sect. p. 69. 

7 ©On Certain Movements in the Parts of Stratified Rocks,’ Brit. Assoc. Rep., 
1843, Trans. sects. p. 61. 

* Thomson and Tait, Natwral Philosophy, vol. i. pt. i. §§ 169-171, new ed. (1879). 
Minchin, Treatise on Statics, p. 474, new ed. (1880), Oxford. 


ON SLATY CLEAVAGE AND ALLIED ROCK-STRUCTURES. 819 


placement of any two distant slices being proportional to the distance 
between them, and equal to s times that distance, where s is called the 
measure of the shear. A square (ABCD, fig. 1) would be distorted by the 
shear into a parallelogram (ABCD, fig. 2) ; and the ratio BE : AE would 
be the measure of the shear. The axes of the ellipsoid of strain would be 
in the ratios 
J/s?*ta4+s a: V/s? +4—s 
2 pie 2 ; 
One set of circular sections of the ellipsoid would coincide with the 
cleavage planes, and its major axis would make with these planes the 


angle whose tangent is 2 . The axes would be such that ac = b?, and there 


would be no change of volume in the rock during distortion. 


Fig. 2. 


A B 


M. Aug. Langel! also regarded cleavage planes as planes along which 
a shear (glissement) of the rock has taken place. It is easily seen, how- 
ever, that such an idea is entirely incompatible with the observed facts. 
For the kind of distortion described implies (i.) no compression of the 
rock in a direction perpendicular to the cleavage planes, and (ii.) no dis- 
tortion of plane objects lying in planes parallel to the cleavage planes. 
Moreover, as will appear in the next section, any mechanical theory of 
true slaty cleavage requires that the cleavage planes should be perpen- 
dicular to the least axis of the ellipsoid of strain. 

Accordingly the Rev. O. Fisher, who formerly endorsed the theory 
just mentioned,” was led to change his opinion, and, while still describing 
the distortion of slate-rocks as a shear, to suppose that the shearing has 
taken place, not along the cleavage planes, but in such a direction that 
ese planes are perpendicular to the least axis of the resulting strain 
ellipsoid. But if there be, as seems to be indicated by the facts of 
cleavage, a diminution of volume during the process, the distortion of the 
rock cannot be resolved into shearing ; and if, on the other hand, as Mr. 
Fisher maintains, there be little or no change of volume, it still seems 
‘simpler, as I have contended,‘ to describe the movement as a compression 


1 «Du clivage des roches,’ Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de Fr., 2° sér., t. xii. p. 363 (1855). 
2 «On Faulting, Jointing and Cleavage,’ Geol. Mag., 1884, p. 268. 

2 «On Cleavage and Distortion,’ Geol. Mag., 1884, p. 396. 

4 «On the Cause of Slaty Cleavage,’ Geol. Mag., 1885, p. 15; Reply, Zbid. p. 174. 
"i 3a? 


oe? =e 


820 REPORT—1885. 


perpendicular to the cleavage-planes accompanied by a compensating ex- 
pansion along the cleavage-dip, for to this his shearing, with the neces- 
sary rotation concurrent with it, may be reduced. In this case the strain 
ellipsoid, having b a mean proportional between a and c, differs both from 
that of Dr. Sorby, in which 6 is greater than that mean proportional, and 
from that of Professor Haughton, in which a = b. 

Finally, it seems reasonable to suppose that the precise kind of dis- 
tortion produced in a rock by powerful lateral pressure depends on the 
nature of the rock itself and on the intensity and duration of the pressure. 
We may perhaps distinguish, as I have elsewhere suggested,! three stages 
of the process, at any one of which it may be arrested. In the first stage 
the rock-mass yields by a simple lateral compression with no considerable 
expansion to compensate it; the volume is accordingly diminished, this 
being effected by the closer packing of the constituent fragments and the: 
expulsion of the greater part of the interstitial water. In the second 
stage the limit of this packing has been reached, and further lateral com- 
pression is therefore compensated by expansion along the cleavage-dip, 
there being no diminution of volume. In the third stage the intense 
pressure facilitates chemical changes in the rock, involving a further 
diminution of bulk, and so a lateral compression only partially com- 
pensated by expansion along the cleavage-dip. The strain ellipsoid of 
Professor Haughton would characterise thé first stage, that of Dr. Sorby 
the latter stages of the process. 

A rock may, of course, be operated upon, either successively or 
simultaneously, by pressures in two or more directions, and the cleavage- 
structure will be determined by the resulting distortion. For instance, 
there may be compressions in two directions and an expansion in the 
direction perpendicular to both, producing a very prolate strain ellipsoid, 
in which } and care nearly equal and a considerably greater. In this 
case the rock would have the fibrous structure which Professor A. Heim? 
denominates linear cleavage as distinguished from ordinary plane cleavage, 
and which has been artificially imitated in the well-known experiments: 
of MM. Tresca* and Daubrée.t Instead of a plane of cleavage there is: 
an axis of cleavage. K 
III. The Mechanical Theory of Slaty Cleavage: the Intimate Structure 

of Cleaved Rocks. 


The direct evidence for the distortion of cleaved rocks and the 
methods of arriving at a numerical estimate of it will be treated in the 
next section. At present we have to consider what effect such distortion 
has upon the intimate structure of these rocks, and how slaty cleavage is 
only a logical consequence of it. 

Mr. Sharpe,® examining certain coarse brecciated bands in the slate 
quarries of Langdale and Patterdale, noticed that the included large 
fragments, of which the rock was to a great extent made up, were com- 
pressed perpendicularly to the cleavage-planes and elongated along the 
cleavage-dip, thus approximating, when allowance was made for their 


’ *On the Successive Stages of Slaty Cleavage,’'Geol. Mug., 1885, p. 266. 

* Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung, Ba. ii. s. 59 (1878), Basel. See also Dufet, 
Ann. de V Ecole Norm. Supér., sér. 2, t. iv: p. 184 (1875). 

’ Sur écoulement des solides, 1872, Paris. 

‘ Htudes Synthétiques de Géologie Expérimentale, 1879. 

* Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. v. p. 112 (1849). 


o~ 


ON SLATY CLEAVAGE AND ALLIED ROCK-STRUCTURES. 821 


irregular shapes, to an almond-like or ellipsoidal form. Observing with a 
glass the fine-grained slates, he was of opinion that they too presented 
the same structure on a small scale, their minute constituent fragments 
tending to the general form of ellipsoids with their shortest axes perpen- 
dicular to the cleavage-planes and their longest axes along the cleavage- 
dip. He pointed out that a rock having this constitution would, in 
consequence, split most readily in a direction perpendicular to the shortest 
axes of the ellipsoids, and so to the greatest compression of the rock- 
mass, for such a surface of fracture would run along the flattest faces of 
the fragments and meet the smallest number of them. The cleavage 
perpendicular to the direction of greatest compression in the rock was 
thus accounted for. Mr. Sharpe also maintained that there would be a 
second, though less perfect, cleavage perpendicular to the strike of the 
first, and so parallel to what the workmen call the ‘side’ of the slate ; 
but we shall see that this could not be called a direction of cleavage in 
the strict sense of the word. 

The author quoted considered, then, that the distortion of the rock- 
mass was shared by the ultimate fragments composing it. Dr. Sorby, 
on the other hand, held that the yielding of the rock was effected by a 
sliding of the originally flat or linear fragments over one another and a 
re-arrangement of them approximately perpendicular to the greatest 
compression of the rock. He supposed that the rocks which now form 
slates were originally composed, to a large extent, of flat and linear 
elements: in the slates of Penrhyn, of Llanberis,! about half the bulk of 
the rock consists of minute flakes of mica averaging ,,),, inch in length 
and +54 op inch in thickness; in the Devonian limestones of Devonshire ? 
fragments of crinoids and corals play a similar part. In certain uncleaved 
rocks of like composition the fragments lie in all directions at random, 
and we may suppose that the slate-rocks and limestones in question had 
originally a similar constitution. When the rock experienced a lateral 
compression and an expansion in a direction perpendicular to it, the 
fragments moved with the mass; there was thus a tendency in the flat 
constituents to set themselves perpendicular to the direction of the 
greatest compression, and in the linear fragments to arrange themselves 
not only approximately perpendicular to the compression, but also roughly 
parallel to the direction of expansion. In this way a structure would 
be set up in the rock effectively the same as that supposed by Mr. 
Sharpe, but arising in a different way. Premising that the two theories 
are by no means mutually exclusive, we may go on to consider that of 
Dr. Sorby more closely. 

Conceive a number of planes traced in the rock, having the same 
‘strike’ as the cleavage, and arranged, previously to the distortion, at 


_ equal angular intervals: fig. 3 shows the traces of such planes on a plane 


perpendicular to the cleavage-strike. After the distortion of the whole 
it is clear that all the planes will have been turned so as to make smaller 
angles with the plane perpendicular to the greatest compression, or, in 
other words, the principal diametral plane of the strain-ellipsoid ; and, 
further, the planes in the neighbourhood of that plane will be more closely 
packed together than those more remote (fig. 4). In fact, if @ be the 
angle made before distortion by any one of these planes with the plane 

1 Edinb. New Phil. Jowrn., vol. lv. p. 187 (1853). Phil. Mag., 4th ser., vol. xii. 


p. 127 (1856). 
? Phil. Magq., vol. xi. p. 20 (1856). 


822 REPORT— 1885. 


perpendicular to the greatest compression, the angle 6’ which it makes 
after distortion will be given by the equation 


tan 6! = “tan 0; 


and if the number of such planes be indefinitely great, the closeness of 
their arrangement, after distortion, in the neighbourhood of the plane 
considered will be proportional to 

cos*8 a 

cos*0! 


This expression becomes ?}for 6’=0, and © for 6’/=90°; so the degree 
c a 


of closeness of the planes in the neighbourhood of the principal diametral 
plane of the strain ellipsoid is to that in the neighbourhood of the plane 
perpendicular to it in the ratio a? : c?, Now let all these planes represent 


Fie. 4. 


Before compression and elongation. After compression and elongation. 


flat fragments such as scales of mica originally arranged at random 
through the rock, and suppose the distortion such that a= 6c. Then 
after distortion the number of scales of mica making angles of less than 
1°, say, with the principal diametral plane will be about 36 times the 
number making angles of less than 1° with the plane perpendicular to it ; 
and it is easy to see that the rock must split with much greater readiness 
along the former plane than along the latter. The number 36, however, 
cannot be taken as giving any precise indication of the relative facilities 
of splitting in different directions, for, in the first place a slate-rock is not 
wholly made up of flat and linear particles, and secondly, the above 
mode of demonstration—that followed by Dr. Sorby and Professor Phillips. 
—takes account only of those flat particles whose planes have their 
strike perpendicular to the direction of compression, or of linear par- 
ticles whose long axes lie in vertical planes parallel to the direction of 
compression. A stricter investigation would be too tedious for insertion 
here. It is sufficient to notice that, according to the mechanical theory 


. 
\ 


eS 


ON SLATY CLEAVAGE AND ALLIED ROCK-STRUCTURES. 823 


here developed, of all planes passing through b (fig. 5), the facility of 
splitting is a maximum for that plane which also passes through a, and a 
minimum for that which passes through c. It is easy to see, from con- 
siderations precisely similar, that, of all planes passing through c, the 
facility of splitting is a maximum for that passing through a and a mini- 
mum for that passing through 6: and, of all planes passing through a, 
the facility of splitting is a maximum for that passing through b, and a 
minimum for that passimg through c. Summarising these conclusions, 
we may say that the plane through a and bd gives a maximum, and that 
through } and ca minimum among all other planes in the rock, while 
the plane through a and c gives a maximum among all planes through ¢, 
and a minimum among all those through a. With respect to these 
results, two remarks may be made. 

In the first place, the principal diametral plane of the strain ellipsoid 
which passes through a and } is the cleavage-plane par excellence; but 
the facility of cleavage along other planes nearly parallel to it is nearly 
as great, and it is evident that under suit- 
able stresses the rock will split along any Fie. 5. 
plane making a small angle with the true 
cleavage direction. This is not a truism, 
but a consequence of the fact that the fa- 
cility of splitting along the true cleavage 
is a maximum in the proper mathematical 
sense, and varies continuously from that 
plane ; the same would not be true of the 
crystalline cleavage of minerals. 

The other point to be noticed is that, 
on this theory, there can be but one true 
cleavage direction: a plane parallel to the 
‘side,’ z.e., the plane passing through a and 
¢, is not a cleavage-plane in the sense just 
indicated. For although the facility of 
cleavage along such a plane is a maximum 
for all planes passing through c¢, it is a 
minimum for all planes passing through a. A similar argument holds 
good on Mr. Sharpe’s theory of the constitution of slate-rock, and his 
‘secondary cleavage’ seems to be no more than the properties of ‘side’ 
referred to below, in Section VI. It has been suggested ' that a second 
cleavage might arise from the action of a second and subsequent lateral 
pressure, operating in a different direction from the first one. But this 
is not the case, for after any combination of uniform compressions and 
expansions of the rock, the strain surface will still be an ellipsoid, and 
the line of argument indicated above will hold for this final or resultant 


strain ellipsoid. 


In the case of the fibrous or ‘linear’ cleavage mentioned above, a pheno- 
menon of only local occurrence, if we suppose b = ¢, the facility of cleavage 
along all planes passing through a will be the same, and greater than 
that along any other plane. In the case of Professor Haughton’s strain 
ellipsoid, in which a = 8, it will be seen that the facility of cleavage will 
be the same for all planes passing through c, which is incompatible with 
the distinctive properties of the ‘side’ and ‘end,’ recognised by the 


. Quarrymen in all the best roofing-slates. 


1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. v. p. 116 (1849), &c. 


824 REPORT—1885. 


I have not thought it necessary in the foregoing réswmé to discuss all 
the views concerning cleavage propagated prior to the development of 
the mechanical theory, since they were, for the most part, founded on 
very meagre evidence as to the facts. Mr. W. Hopkins,’ for instance, 
concluded fron mathematical considerations, that, if the direction of the 
cleavage-planes in a rock be determined by stresses to which it has been 
subjected, those planes ought to be either perpendicular to the direction of 
maximum normal pressure, or parallel to the planes of maximum tangen- 
tial stress, which make angles of 45° with the maximum normal pressure. 
From an examination of Mr. Sharpe’s distorted fossils only, he was led 
to fix on the latter supposition, whereas the truth of the former, which 
was that embraced by Mr. Sharpe himself, has since been amply con- 
firmed. 

Neither have I noticed explicitly the objections brought against a me- 
chanical explanation of slaty cleavage by Professors Sedgwick,? H. D. 
Rogers,? and others, for such objections are found to disappear on a fuller 
examination of both the theory and the facts, and are indeed implicitly 
answered by the more complete exhibition of that theory in its various 
applications. 


IV. The Mechanical Theory of Slaty Cleavage: the Direct Evidence of the 
Distortion of Cleaved Rocks. 


The most obvious information regarding the distortion which cleaved 
rocks have undergone is that derived from the contortions produced in 
intercalated beds of less yielding materials. A typical example in the 
cliffs near Ilfracombe was described and figured by Dr. Sorby,‘ and has 
been frequently copied.® Here a bed of coarse-grained sandy slate occurs 
among fine-grained shaley slate, and is seen to have been forced into a 
series of bold undulations, although the bedding at a short distance above 
and below is undisturbed. The axial planes of the undulations coincide 
with the cleavage-planes of the finer slate,® and the thickness of the sandy 
bed at the troughs and crests of the undulations is four times the thick- 
ness at the intermediate places. The clear interpretation of this section 
is that the whole has undergone a lateral compression of considerable 
amount, partly compensated by yielding in an upward direction perpen- 
dicular to the compression ; and further, that the direction of compression, 
as deduced from the position of the axial planes of the folds, is at right 
angles to the cleavage-planes. Similar phenomena may be observed in 
almost any of the slate-quarries of North Wales. 

Dr. Sorby also made use of the evidence of the greenish spots, 
apparently of concretionary origin, which are of common occurrence in 
the Welsh roofing-slates examined by him. These spots may be assumed 


1 «On the Internal Pressure to which Rock Masses may be subjected, and its 
Possible Influence on the Production of the Laminated Structure,’ Zrans. Camb. Phil. 
Soc., vol. viii. p. 456 (1847). 

* Synopsis of British Paleozoie Rocks, Introduction (1855). 

$ On the Laws of Structure of the More Disturbed Zones of the Earth’s Crust,’ 
Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb., vol. xxi. p. 431 (1856). 

* Edinb. New Phil. Jowrn., vol. lv. p. 137 (1853). 

® Tyndall, Phil. Mag., 4th ser., vol. xii. p. 41 (1856). Phillips, Brit. Assoc. Rep., 
1856, p. 385. Liyell’s Student’s Elements, p. 594, 2nd ed. (1874). Forbes, Pop. Set. 
Rev., 1870, &e. 

° Cf. fig. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxv. p. 88 (1879), where unsymmetrical 
flexures are seen to follow the same law. 


nh 


ON SLATY CLEAVAGE AND ALLIED ROCK-STRUCTURES. 825 


to have been originally spherical, or perhaps slightly extended in the 
direction of the stratification so as to form a rather oblate spheroid ; but 
their present shape is that of an ellipsoid of three unequal axes, viz., the 
greatest axis in the plane of cleavage and along its dip; the mean axis 
in the plane of cleavage and along its strike ; the least axis perpendicular 
to the plane of cleavage ; thus indicating a compression perpendicular to 
the cleavage-planes, and an expansion along them in the direction of their 
dip. In fact, if the original form was spherical, the present form of these 
spots must give us the strain ellipsoid itself. If, however, as suggested 
by Mr. Fisher,! the formation of these spots be posterior to that of 
cleavage, we must account for their form by ‘ the chemical influence 
spreading most readily along the grain of the slate, and with greatest 
difficulty across its laminz,’ and in this case no quantitative conclusions 
can be drawn from the phenomena. 

The most valuable evidence of the nature and amount of the distor- 
tion of cleaved rocks is that obtained by noting the altered forms of 
contained fossils. The merit of first applying numerical calculation to 
this line of inquiry belongs to Professor Haughton,? whose work has 
already been alluded to. We are, however, not justified in assuming that 
the deformation of the fossils is invariably a correct measure of the dis- 
tortion of the rocks themselves. A hard substance imbedded in a softer 
matrix would evidently yield but slightly, or not at all, to any compression 
to which the mass as a whole might be subjected; and it is a matter of 
common observation that in many slate-rocks those fossils of more solid 
substance or stouter form are comparatively unchanged in shape, while 
those of slighter build exhibit a marked deformation. It might be 
possible by noting the degrees of distortion of different kinds of fossils in 
the same rock to form some idea of the consistency of that rock at the 
time of its deformation. Meanwhile, it may be remarked that the dis- 
tortion of the rock as deduced from the forms of its contained fossils will 
be in all cases an under rather than an over-estimate ; and where different 
kinds of fossils in the same rock exhibit deformation to the same extent, 
We may reasonably suppose that they have all shared to the full the dis- 
tortion of the rock itself. 

Taking this last case, it is clear that the degree of distortion of the 
fossils must be in direct relation with the form of the strain ellipsoid, so 
that with sufficient data the latter may be deduced from the former. It 
will be convenient to adopt the usual assumption that the bedding and 
cleavage have the same strike, and to regard the fossils as plane figures 
lying parallel to the bedding. 

Fig. 6 is taken in a plane perpendicular to the common strike of 
bedding and cleavage. The ellipse is the section by this plane of the 
strain ellipsoid, AOA’, COC’, are the greatest and least axes of the 
ellipsoid; POP’ is the trace of the bedding-plane, and the angle AOP is 
the angle between the planes of bedding and cleavage, which we shall 
call. If the radius OP be called p, then 


2 m2 
Escort ERAN “Guylied. catain. (S) + cPayont eit 


wo t 
p2 a? a 


The plane of bedding cuts the strain ellipsoid in an ellipse whose semi- 
axes are p and b, and this may be called the strain ellipse for objects 


1 Geol. Mag., 1884, p. 402. 2 Phil. Mag., 4th ser., vol. xii. p. 409 (1856). 


826 REPORT—1885. 


lying in the plane of bedding, since its form expresses completely the 
distortion of such objects. If the radius of the original sphere before 
distortion be /, the dimensions of any fossil lying in the bedding-plane 

ee have been altered in the ratio p : k along the dip, 
and in the ratio b: k along the strike. If there 
be no alteration along the direction of the strike, 
b=k; but without making this assumption, we 
may say, in Professor Haughton’s terminology,' 


that the distortion along the dip is ? or the dis- 


tortion along the strike - 


It is of importance to notice that although the 
rock is supposed to undergo an expansion along 
the cleavage-dip, the distortion along the dip of 
the bedding may be either an expansion or a com- 
pression, according as the angle between the bed- 
ding and the cleavage is small or great; for it is 
easy to see from equation (i.) that p may be either 
greater or less than b. If the bedding-plane happen 
to make such an angle with the cleavage that p=b, its strain ellipse is 
a circle, and the fossils suffer no deformation in the bedding-plane. It 
follows from equation (i.) that in this case 


bed 

b? a? 

a ° 
ts a Saami 
a7P 


for smaller values of ¢, p is greater than b, and the distortion of the 
fossils is a relative expansion along the dip of the bed ; for greater values 
of , p is less than b, and the distortion is a compression along the dip. 
If, as Professor Haughton maintains, in the rocks examined by him, the 
strain ellipsoid be one of revolution, having a=b, the circular sections 
must be parallel to the cleavage. In this case there will be no deforma- 
tion of fossils when the bedding and cleavage coincide, but in every other 
position of the bedding relatively to the cleavage there will be a com- 
pression of the fossils in the direction of the dip. These conditions do 
not appear to be always verified even in the localities studied by Professor 
Haughton.” Reverting, then, to the general case, it is manifest that the 


distortion along the dip is an expansion = when the bedding and cleavage 
coincide, and a compression ; when they are at right angles. For any 


other position the distortion 2 may be determined from the equation 


(5) = (2) cost + (2) sary 7 ee a 


* Loe. cit. p. 410. There seems to be some obscurity here. The only two lines. 


which are at right angles to one another, both before and after distortion, are those 
parallel to the dip and strike respectively. 


* Bg.,in the Portmadoce district, both in the Lingula Flags of Borth and the: 
Tremadoc beds of Garth Hill. 


a 


ON SLATY CLEAYAGE AND ALLIED ROCK-STRUCTURES. 827 


By observing the distortions 2 and as for two places in the same locality 


Pp 
where the bedding makes angles ¢ and ¢’, respectively, with the cleavage, 
we can calculate the ratios of the axes of the strain ellipsoid. For it is 
easy to show that, from equation (ii.) and the corresponding one, we 
obtain 
\'=(58 P sing!) (5 si sin» ) iad 
—) =/{—sm¢-+- sin ¢ — smn @¢@— — sim Ai ll. 
(<) di order uinans Salles aoc ee 
sin (> +9") sin (p— 9") 
2 
(:) =(° cos ¢’+ ae cos ) (2 cos g! — Ay cos ) Od Mee) 
c p p \e p 
sin (p +9’) sin (p—¢’). 
The practical question is, then, how to determine the distortion i for 


any position of the bedding-plane by observations of deformed fossils in 
that plane. Let us call the length of a fossil, such for instance as a 
trilobite, that line about which, in an undistorted specimen, there is 
bilateral symmetry, and let the breadth be measured along a line which 
before distortion is at right angles to the length. The length and breadth 
of a distorted fossil will not in general be at right angles to each other: 
they will be so only when one of them lies in the direction of dip, and 
consequently the other in the direction of strike. In this special case we 
may profitably adopt Professor Haughton’s method, viz., comparing the 
relative dimensions of the distorted fossil with the known relative 
dimensions of the species when undistorted. If the length of the fossil 
lie in the direction of dip, the ratio of its length to its breadth, divided 
by the ratio of length to breadth in an undistorted specimen, will give 


; ; if the breadth of the fossil lie in the direction of dip, the same calcu- 


lation will give © {fon the same slab of rock occur specimens in the 


two positions, we can estimate the distortion without knowing the 

undistorted form of the species; for if we divide the ratio of length to 

breadth of a specimen in the former position by the ratio of length to 
2 

breadth of a specimen in the latter, we get at once (; 

A single specimen of a fossil whose length and breadth lie oblique to 
the dip and strike, is sufficient to determine the distortion without pre- 
vious knowledge of the form of the species when undistorted. For if a 
and (3 be the angles which the length and breadth make with the direction 
of dip, it is readily proved that 


(5) = tana tan Wi Caen nd eee he SM 


This method is readily applied, and if the length and breadth make 
considerable angles with the dip, it is very accurate. It is tantamount 
to that employed by M. H. Dufet,! who, however, makes use of geome- 
trical constructions. 


( 1 « Déformations des Fossiles, &c.,’ Ann. de ? Ecole Norm. Sup., sér. 2, t. iv. p. 183 
1875). 


828 REPORT—1885. 


We have already remarked that the extent to which the fossils partake 
of the distortion of their matrix depends necessarily on the relative con- 
sistencies of the two at the time of the distortion. Jt should be added, 
for the sake of completeness, that sometimes hard but brittle fossils, such 
as the guards of belemnites, have been able to resist distortion, but have 
yielded by fracture. In such cases the several portions of the fossil are 
found to be separated from one another in the direction of the cleavage 
dip; and we have in these rocks, not only a proof, but a direct measure 
(which cannot be an over-estimate) of the expansion of the rock in that 
direction. Examples are quoted by MM. Heim! and Daubrée;? and 
we may see that at the time of the distortion the rocks must have already 
acquired a degree of firmness and hardness, from the fact that the 
separation of the fragments of the fossils left cavities, which were only 
subsequently filled by crystallised calcite. 


V. Slaty Cleavage in Rocks of various Lithological Characters. 


Slaty cleavage is by no means confined to the rocks of any one geo- 
logical period or era, but owing to its association with earth-movements 
on an extensive scale, the structure is, in the British Isles, characteristic 
of the older Paleozoic formations. The best slates of North Wales are 
procured from the Lower Cambrian strata, as at Penrhyn, Llanberis, and 
Nantlle, and from the Bala and Llandeilo beds, as at Ffestiniog and other 
places. The slates of the Lake District also are referred to the Bala and 
Arenig series, but slates of Devonian age are worked in Cornwall, and 
Carboniferous in Devonshire. In different parts of Europe, North 
America, &c., good slates are obtained from strata of Jurassic, Cretaceous, 
and Tertiary ages. 

But although the structure is not restricted to strata of any special 
geological age, its association with rocks of particular lithological types 
has been noted from an early date. It is met with in perfection in 
argillaceous rocks of fine texture and in fine-grained fragmental rocks of 
volcanic origin. A specimen in the Woodwardian Museum shows fifty 
slates split from a block 3} inches in thickness, and in the Nantlle 
Apansiess where this was obtained, the best slates are usually from } to 
yy inch thick. The Llanberis ‘slates are similar, and the beds. at 
Ffestiniog are even more yielding. The degree of thinness to which the 
slates can be split in working depends, however, not only on the per- 
fection of the cleavage structure, but also on the flexibility and toughness 
of the rock. 

Some argillaceous limestones exhibit cleavage well developed, as do 
others, for example some in Devonshire, which are almost purely cal- 
careous and dolomitic. In some cases a relation is observable hetween 
the percentage of argillaceous matter and the facility of cleavage. An 
excellent instance is furnished by a section in the Lias at Grenoble, 
where several beds of argillaceous limestones of different compositions 
are exposed, and those with the greatest amount of argillaceous matter 
are found to present the best cleavage. M. KE. Jannettaz? has examined 
these different strata by a method which he has applied with success to 


» Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung, Atlas, Taf. xiv., figs. 1-5 (1883). 

? Htudes Synthétiques de Géologie Lnpérimentale, p- 404 (1879). 

’ «Mém. sur les Clivages des Roches, &c.,’ Bull. de la Soc. Géol. de France, sér. 3, 
t. xii. p. 216 (1884). 


ee 


ON SLATY CLEAVAGE AND ALLIED ROCK-STRUCTURES. 829 


other non-isotropic rocks and minerals ; a method depending on the fact, 
that a cleaved rock conducts heat better along than across the cleavage- 
planes. His process is to cut a section perpendicular to the cleavage, 
coat the surface with a thin film of grease, and heat at one point. It is 
found that the curve marked out by the ridge of melted grease after its 
cooling is not a circle, but an ellipse whose longer axis is along the trace 
of the cleavage. The ratio of the axes of this ellipse indicates the relative 
thermal conductivity of the rock along and across the cleavage-planes, 
and may be regarded as, to some extent, an index of the non-isotropic 
character of the rock.! In the Grenoble section this ratio was found to be 
greatest in those beds which contained most argillaceous and least cal- 
careous matter, as appears from the table quoted below. 


Percentage composition 3 : 
5 I Ratio of axes of ellipse 


of conductivity 


Argillaceous matter | Calcareous matter 


62 38 1:04 
35 65 1:23 
6 94 11 
10 90 1:06 


Sandstones, for the most part, are capable of taking but a very rude 
cleavage. In Wales the diabase dykes, so common in some slate-quarries, 
occasionally exhibit the same structure in a very imperfect degree. 

When alternating beds of different lithological characters have been 
subjected alike to the forces which produce cleavage, it frequently 
happens, as was long ago noticed,” that the more fine-grained and 
argillaceous beds have acquired a cleavage-structure, while the coarser 
beds, calcareous or arenaceous, have not been so affected. Even when 
intercalated sandy beds among slate rocks have received a certain 
cleavage structure, it is not only of a more rudimentary character than 
that of the slate-rock, but has a slightly different angle of dip, the 
cleavage surfaces being bent or curved at the junction of the two kinds of 
rocks. Most writers on the subject of cleavage have described instances 
of these phenomena. In the Welsh slate quarries the ‘steps’ produced in 
the cleavage planes by the thin gritty bands of rock are very noticeable. 
Where the slate rock rests upon a gritty band, the dip of the cleavage is 
seen to change abruptly on passing from the one rock to the other, the 
deviation sometimes amounting to as much as 20° or 30° (fig. 7). On 
emerging into the slate rock again, the cleavage planes resume their 
original direction in a manner suggestive of the refraction of a ray of light 
through a plate of glass. If gritty bands of different textures occur 


? This ellipse is not, however, the same as the trace of the strain ellipsoid; its 
axes are in the same directions as those of the latter, but less unequal. For example, 
in some slates from Nantlle and Groeslon, I find for the ratio of the axes of the ellipse 
of conductivity, by three experiments, the numbers 1:23, 1:24, 1:21; the ratio of the 
axes of the strain ellipse is much greater. Cf. Dufet, Ann. de Ecole Norm. Sup., 
sér. 2, t. iv. p. 185 et seg. (1875). 

M. Jannettaz has also shown that the conductivity in the direction of cleavage-dip 
is slightly greater than that in the direction of cleavage-strike, which is in accord- 
ance with what might be expected. 

, * £.g., De la Beche, Geological Observer, p. 616, 2nd ed. (1853). Geikie’s Zeatbook 
of Geology, p. 311, figs. 75, 76 (1882). 


830 REPORT—1885. 


together, there may be two or more successive ‘refractions’ of small 

amount (fig. 8), and if the texture of the foreign bed change gradually 
upward, so as to pass into the 
overlying slate rock, the cleavage 
surfaces assume a curved form 
as in fig. 9. 

The following rules seem to 
hold good in all such deviations 
of the cleavage surfaces :— 

(i.) In passing from slate 
rock to a gritty band, or from a 
finer gritty band to a coarser, 

age the cleavage planes are invari- 
ably bent so as to make a higher 


Fic. 7. 


ge angle with the bedding. 

Bi (ii) The deviation of the 
cleavage planes is of greatest 
amount, ceteris paribus, when 
they cut the bedding at a mode- 
rate angle. If perpendicular, 
there is no deviation, and if the 
angle be very small, the cleavage 
produced in the gritty band is ofa very rudimentary character, the band, 


Fic. 9. 


Fia. 8. 


if thin, splitting in an irregular manner mainly in the direction of the 
bedding.! 


1 Professor Hughes has observed that in cleaved flagstones, ‘ when the cleavage- 
planes approach within about 15° of the stratification, the rock is apt to split along 
the lines of bedding.’ [Lyell’s Student’s Elements, 3rd ed., p. 590 (1878).] In the 
Lingula flags of the Nantlle valley and of the Portmadoc district, it is easy to find 
wedge-shaped ‘junction-specimens’ of slate and flags, having opposite faces slightly 
muelineds one being a cleayage-plane of the slate, and the other a bedding-plane of the 

ags. * ee 
Good slate-rock will split truly along the cleayage-planes, however near these 
may be to the bedding. 


ON SLATY CLEAVAGE AND ALLIED ROCK-STRUCTURES. 831 


Dr. Sorby ! long ago noted similar laws, and gave his explanation of 
the phenomenon, which is briefly this. Since the grit yields less than the 
slate to the compressing force, the total voluminal compression is greater 
for the slate than for the grit. But near the junction of the two rocks the 
change of dimensions in the direction parallel to the bedding must be 
the same for both. Consequently, in the direction perpendicular to the 
bedding, the slate undergoes a less expansion (or greater compression) 
than the grit; and the cleavage planes, which are in each rock perpen- 
dicular to the direction of greatest compression, will therefore be less 
inclined to the bedding in the slate than they are in the grit. 

Professor Tyndall ? draws quite different conclusions from the pheno- 
mena in question, connecting the deflection of the cleavage planes with 
the progressive development of the structure concurrently with the con- 
tortion of the beds. Referring to a contorted gritty bed intercalated in 
slate-rock, he says: ‘When the forces commenced to act, this inter- 
mediate bed, which, though comparatively unyielding, is not entirely so, 
suffered longitudinal pressure ; as it bent, the pressure became gradually 
more lateral, and the direction of its cleavage is exactly such as you 
would infer from a force of this kind; it is neither quite across the bed, 
nor yet in the same direction as the cleavage of the slate above and below 
it, but intermediate between both.’ 

The latter statement seems rather obscure, and raises the question 
how far the production of the cleavage structure and the concomitant 
contortion of the strata can be regarded as contemporaneous. Dr. Sorby’s 
exposition seems sufficient, and is a necessary consequence of the me- 
chanical theory. To compare the theory with the phenomena we may 
proceed as follows. 

Let a, b, c be the semiaxes of the strain ellipsoid for the slate, and 
a’, 0’, c’ for the grit, and let ¢ and 9’ be the angles between the bedding 
and cleavage for the two rocks respectively. Referred to axes re- 
spectively parallel and perpendicular to the bedding, the Cartesian 
equation to the ellipse in fig. 6 is, for the slate, 


(cos ty sing)” , (ycos¢ SEU ER OREIIS Ihe” Bay 

a c 
UP 

The change of volume is in the ratio a for the slate, and ra for the grit, 


and, consequently, if we call the ratio ac: a/c’, m, the equation to the 
ellipse for the grit is 


a aiht ahs eee ge 
ee) mes xsin g)?_ Ee 
a c 


By the usual rule for finding the axes of an ellipse, we may deduce that 


cot @ (ma? —c?) — tan ¢ (a?— mc?) 


a 
cot 2 9’ = Im (@—2) 


From this last equation it may be seen that if ¢ = 0, 9! =0;"land if 
$ = 90°, ’ = 90°; but in any other case ¢/ is less than @ (for mjis, of 


1 Edinb. New Phil. Journ., cit. (1853). Cf. Professor H. D. Rogers, Trans. Roy. 
Soc. Edinb., vol, xxi. p. 449 (1856). 
2 Phil. Mag., 4th ser., vol. xii. p. 43 (1856). 


832 REPORT—1885. 


course, less than unity). This is in accordance with the rules stated 
above, as deduced from observation. To obtain a numerical test, suppose 
that, during the process which results in the cleavage structure, the slate 
is reduced to half its former volume, while the grit remains unchanged in 
bulk, so that m=4. Suppose, too, that the distortion of the slate is such 
that a= 6c; then equation (vili.) becomes 

8 143 


2q( se a wot” cosine » old Spe 
cot 29 gn Coto {ao 27 93 (ix.) 


from which we can find 9g’ when ¢ is known. Thus, if ¢=45°, we get 
¢’ = 64° 12’, and therefore the deflection of the cleavage planes would be 
19° 12’; or if 6=30°, we get ¢’ = 46° 45’, and so a deflection of 16° 45’. 
These figures agree very well with observation. 

As an approximate rule, when the slate is strongly cleaved, we may 
use the equation 


ARP hehe ieee Oe Jee 11. 2.) acum elon hiepobeeeel 


22 
which results from neglecting the quantity =f in equation (viii.), 
a 


Another peculiarity of contorted gritty bands intercalated among 
slate rocks may be investigated by means of the above considerations— 
viz. the fact that a thin band of this kind is found to be thickened at the 
crests and troughs of the undulations (where the band is cut perpen- 
dicularly by the cleavage), and more attenuated at the intermediate 
places. In order to find a’ and c’ from equation (vii.), we may make use 
of the relation 

1, 1 _ cos’ + m?sin®@ , sin? + m?cos’ 
pie lactaalaon aged } bck & dol Gas Ae 
a? ¢ a c 
which reduces to 

a/? + ¢/? = { (1+m?) (a?+c?) —(1—m?) (a? —c?) cos 2 o} p(x) 

This equation, together with the one 


. (xii) 


suffices to determine a/ and c’ ; and since the values thus obtained depend 
upon ¢, the distortion of the gritty band will vary in different parts. It 
is greatest, as appears from equations (xi.) and (xii.), where cos 2¢ is 
least—z.e. where ¢ = 90°, or at the crests and troughs of the folds. At 


these places the thickness of the band is increased in the ratio ws (=) ; 


which, with the numerical data assumed above, is 3°46. These numerical 
results accord very closely with what I have noted in the slate districts of 
North Wales. 

Other peculiarities at the junction of slate-rock with a more gritty 
bed may be explained in a similar manner. One of these characters was 
mentioned and figured by Dr. Sorby in the Ilfracombe section already 
mentioned. On approaching the gritty band, which shows a series of 
contortions, the cleavage-planes of the slate are seen to curve slightly 
away from the crests of the folds, in a manner suggestive of ‘stream- 


ON SLATY CLEAVAGE AND ALLIED ROCK-STRUCTURES. 833 


lines’ meeting an obstacle, and in fact for a similar reason. Very per- 
fect examples of this peculiarity are sometimes seen in North Wales, e.7., 
near the Dorothea Quarry, Nantlle. 

Again, we may occasionally observe that where slate with a cleavage 
oblique to its bedding adjoins a harder bed or even such obstacle as a 
sheet of quartz along a joint-fissure,! the cleavage of the slate is slightly 
turned aside on approaching the harder bed, so as to make a smaller 
angle with it. Here asimilar explanation may hold, as has been remarked 
by Mr. Sharpe. M. Laugel,? however, ascribed this phenomenon to a 
certain amount of shearing (glissement) along the planes of bedding, sub- 
sequently to the setting up of the cleavage structure ; and there seem to 
be some cases of irregularity in cleavage-surfaces to which this explana- 
tion applies, as suggested by Professor T. McKenny Hughes.* There may 
even be a bending or crumpling of the cleavage-surfaces where they meet 
planes which are not those of bedding,‘ for it is obvious that those sur- 
faces must share all subsequent vicissitudes of the rocks in which they 
occur. In the cases figured by Sir H. De la Beche® it is possible, as he 
suggested, that the beds have shrunk owing to the abstraction of some 
constituent by solution. 


VI. The Mode of Working Slate-Rock in the Quarries. 


The behaviour of slate-rock when broken and split agrees perfectly 
with its intimate structure as described in the foregoing pages. Besides 
the cleavage, the Welsh quarrymen ® recognise in slate a certain ‘ grain’ 
giving the rock different properties along different directions in the 
cleavage-plane. The facts are completely in accord with the deductions 
made above as the results of the mechanical theory. A slate breaks 
across the cleavage more readily parallel to its ‘length’ or ‘side,’ 7.e., 
the cleavage-dip, than it does parallel to its ‘ breadth’ or ‘end,’ i.e., the 
cleavage-strike. In a case where it is difficult to ascertain by merely 
looking at a block which is its length and which its breadth, the quarry- 
man tries to find a chip on its surface: on striking this with a hammer 
it is found to break (stolpio) parallel to the length or side of the block. 

In breaking across the massive blocks or slabs of rock which are 
afterwards to be split into roofing-slates, the same peculiarity of struc- 
ture shows itself. Ifa block is to be broken lengthwise, it is sufficient 
to cut a slight groove at one end, place the edge of a chisel on it, and 
strike a blow witha hammer. The cut travels tolerably straight along 
the length of the block, although its surface often becomes grooved and 
fluted towards the further end. The object of the groove is to steady 
the chisel for the first blow, and in cutting smaller blocks it may be dis- 


1 Sharpe, Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc., vol. v. p. 117 (1849). Forbes, tbid., vol. xi. 
p. 170 (1855). 

2 Bull. Soc. Géol. Fran., sér. 2, t. xii. p. 363 (1855). 

3 Lyell’s Student's Elements of Geology, p. 590, 3rd ed. (1878), 

4 Jukes, Quart. Jowrn. Geol. Soc., vol. xxii. p. 359 (1866). 

5 Geological Observer, p. 709 (1851). Geikie’s Textbook of Geology, fig. 248, 
‘p. 522 (1882). 

§ The following remarks apply more particularly to the Lower Cambrian slates of 
_ North Wales. I am greatly indebted to C. W. Rathbone, Esq., Manager of the 
Pen-y-bryn Quarry at Nantlle, who has afforded me every opportunity of examining 
the working of the slate-rock, and to Messrs. J. T. Parry and John Roberts, of the 
‘Same quarry, who have kindly given me the benefit of their large practical ex- 
perience. 


Dy, 1885. 3H 
# 


834 REPORT—1885. 


pensed with. For cutting across a block in a direction parallel to the 
‘end,’ a circular saw worked by steam is employed in the larger quarries, 
and when the operation is performed by hand it requires much more care 
than cutting in the other direction. The method employed is to cut and 
carefully smooth a groove in one ‘side’ of the block, then turn it over and 
strike a heavy blow with a mallet upon the opposite point of the other 
‘side.’ Ifthe ‘side’ is smooth and perpendicular to the cleavage-face, a 
cut may be started with a chisel instead of the groove, but for a block 
whose ‘sides’ are ‘bevel’ the method described above must be adopted. 

Again, in splitting the blocks into slates, the splitis always effected 
from ‘end’ to ‘end,’ because it is thus less liable to ‘run out’ across 
the cleavage than if the operation were attempted from the ‘side.’ There 
are, however, in some parts of North Wales certain ‘ veins’ or beds of 
slate which can be cleaved from the ‘side.’ In this case, too, the blocks 
can be cut across by the same process as that described for cutting them 
lengthwise. Such ‘veins’ are said by the quarrymen to have ‘no 
length and breadth,’ and we may suppose that in them the strain ellipsoid 
is one of rotation, as in Professor Haughton’s calculations. Certain beds 
of slate which are rather coarse-grained at the bottom and grow finer up- 
wards, must be split always from the top ‘end’; such is the case in some 
of the Ffestiniog veins. 

The fine strize seen on the surface of a slate, and regarded by Mr. 
Fisher! as an arrangement analogous to ‘craig and tail,’ connected with 
the shearing movement of the rock-mass, seem, however, to be dependent 
less on the ‘grain’ than on the method of splitting the rock into slates. 
When a block has been roughly split off by a blow upon a chisel applied 
at the end, it is seen that the striz are not straight and parallel, but 
diverge in curves from the point of percussion, and sometimes from 
harder lumps or bands in the slate. This appearance is not observable 
in a slate split in the ordinary way, for the cleavage is opened by two 
broad chisels inserted at the end, and the resulting surface shows there- 
fore a system of roughly straight and parallel striz, as may be well seen 
on wetting a cleavage-face of an ordinary roofing-slate. 

The mode of splitting a block into slates also illustrates the internal 
structure of the rock. A block is taken of sufficient thickness to yield 
say eight slates ; this is split into two ‘fours,’ each of these into two ‘ twos,’ 
and finally each of the latter into two slates. In this last stage of the 
process there is a tendency for the split to ‘run out’ to the face of the 
slate on the weaker side. Accordingly, after starting the split at one 
‘end’ by two broad chisels driven in with a hammer, the workman 
watches its progress carefully, and on seeing it deviate from the true 
cleavage, he draws it back by slightly bending the stronger half. This 
tendency of the split to ‘run out’ is strongest in the harder ‘ veins’ or 
beds and in blocks which have been indurated by proximity to a dyke (a 
peculiarity known as hollt gron, or ‘round cleavage’). In this case the 
quarryman sometimes has to mark or guide the cleavage all round the 
edge before beginning to open it, especially in cleaving the thickness of 
two slates. In the softer beds, on the other hand, there is a liability to 
break in the process of splitting, and the workman is sometimes obliged 
to use a long flat chisel, or ‘driver,’ which he forces into the split with 
a mallet. 

‘he successful splitting of the slate-rock depends on its possessing a 


1 Geol. Mag., 1884, p. 269. 


ON SLATY CLEAVAGE AND ALLIED ROCK-STRUCTURES. 835 


certain degree of flexibility, and to this flexibility the ‘quarry water’ or 
natural moisture of the rock is essential. .The blocks must therefore be 
worked while fresh from the quarry; even an exposure of a day or two 
makes an appreciable difference in the facility of cleavage, and in dry 
weather the men are careful to keep the blocks well watered. The softest 
rock, which is the easiest to cleave when fresh, becomes the most difficult 
if allowed to dry. 

The tendency of the split to ‘run out’ to the face of the slate and the 
manner in which it can be drawn back are instances of the fact which we 
have found to be a necessary consequence of the mechanical theory, viz., 
that the rock will split at a small angle with the true cleavage-planes 
under the action of suitable stresses. It is well known that a ‘false 
cleavage,’ slightly oblique to the direction of the true, is often obtained. 
Such is the case on the faces of the blocks when they are roughly split 
off with a thick chisel and hammer. In blasting, too, the fracture is 
commonly slightly oblique to the true cleavage direction, and often 
curves away from it at a considerable angle in the neighbourhood of a 
‘fast’ foot-joint. In these cases the surface of the false cleavage is not a 
rough surface consisting of portions of successive true 
cleavage-planes, but a surface as smooth as that of an 
ordinary slate. 

With reference to the so-called ‘ secondary cleavage’ 
parallel to the ‘side,’ the mode of treating the blocks of 
slate-rock in the quarries is again instructive. In cutting 
a block lengthwise, parallel to the ‘ side,’ a tendency to 
‘run out’ towards one side may be shown (fig. 10). To 
bring back the crack, a flat bar of iron (6 in the figure) 
is laid across the end, near the groove and towards the 
weaker side, and this is struck with a hammer. The 
effect is to bring back the crack as shown by the dotted 
line. This is the most approved method; the old- 
fashioned plan was to place a lump under the block, immediately below 
the crack (at c), and then to strike with a mallet on the upper end, at 
the corner (@ in fig.) next the stronger side. This was less accurate 
than the other method described, besides presenting the danger of break- 
ing the block at the corner struck. It is easy to see why the deviation 
of the cut in this case should be greater than that of the ‘ false cleavage,’ 
for (referring to fig. 5) though the tendency to split along the ‘side’ isa 
maximum among all planes parallel to the axis c, the maximum is much 
less sharply defined than in the case of the cleavage proper. The face 
of a fracture parallel to the ‘ side,’ also, is much less smooth and regular 
than a cleavage face, and is frequently fluted and grooved. Indeed, it may 
safely be asserted that no evidence of anything that can fairly be described 
as a second cleavage is to be found in the slate workings of North Wales. 
The structure known as ‘ cross-cleavage,’! the gwniad of the quarrymen 
and the ‘ lace’ of slate merchants, which renders worthless much other- 
wise valuable rock, is only a system of secret jointing. 

M. Jannettaz,? however, asserts that the longrain of the Ardennes 
slates is a true second cleavage, but it is not quite clear in what sense he 
employs this term. 

? Davies, Slate and Slate Quarrying, 2nd ed., pp. 25, 48, 49, &c. (1880). 

* Bull. Soc. Géol. Fran. sér. 3, t. xii. p. 211 (1854). Cf. Sedgwick, Synops. Brit. 
Pal. Rocks, Introd. p. xxxvy. (1855). 


Fie. 10. 


3H 2 


836 REPORT— 1885. 


VII. Spurious and Incipient Cleavages. 


In a paper read before the British Association in 1857, Dr. Sorby! 
put forward what may be regarded as a limitation of his original theory 
of slaty cleavage. He showed that besides the structure contemplated in 
his earlier papers, which is ‘ quite independent of any actual fractures or 
breaks of continuity, and may be called wltimate-structure-cleavage,’ there 
is also ‘ a cleavage due to very close joints, often so close as to be quite 
undistinguishable unless a thin section is examined with the microscope, 
whilst the arrangement of the particles in the spaces between them is 
independent of the direction of the joints, and is often related to quite 
another plane. This kind of cleavage may therefore be called close-joints- 
cleavage. The distinction thus enforced is abundantly confirmed by the 
microscopic study of various slate-rocks, and we shall therefore find it 
convenient to use the term cleavage in a sufficiently wide sense to include 
not only the structure we have discussed above under the name slaty 
cleavage proper, but also other structures, which, though effectively 
identical with it, have arisen in a different manner. 

In fact Professor Heim, in his comprehensive work ‘ Ueber den 
Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung,’ ? distinguishes three types of cleavage, 
which, however, may, and frequently do, occur in conjunction : 

(i.) Cleavage produced by a succession of displacements or minute 
faults, resulting from small contortions ; this he calls Ausweichungselivage. 

(ii.) Cleavage produced by the individual particles of the rock being 
flattened or elongated perpendicularly to the direction of maximum 
pressure ; this is Mikroclivage. 

(iii.) Cleavage produced by a parallel arrangement of all the flat and 
elongated constituents of the rock; to complete the terminology this 
might appropriately be styled Flwidaltexturclivage. 

This last type of cleavage is that originally described by Dr. Sorby ; the 
Mikroclivage, characteristic of limestones and similar rigid rocks, is that 
more particularly emphasised by Mr. Sharpe; while the Awsweichungs- 
clivage is the structure, or rather the set of allied structures, which we 
have now to discuss, and which includes the ‘ close-joint-cleavage’ 
mentioned above. It includes also those structures in which parallel 
planes of weakness (not actual discontinuity) occur in a rock at certain 
finite distances apart. If there be actual surfaces of disruption, there 
may or may not be appreciable displacement along them; the former case 
presents a series of minute reversed faults of very steep bade. They are, 
of course, ‘ close,’ as distinguished from open joints, and they may subse- 
quently become sealed up, either by mere cementation or by actual 
foliation taking place along them. If they thus become obsolete as 
surfaces of weakness in the rock, there may even be produced by subse- 
quent changes asecond cleavage cutting across the first, a result which 
we have seen to be impossible with true slaty cleavage. 

Ausweichungsclivage assumes locally many curious forms, and these 
structures are met with on very various scales of magnitude, being some- 
times very minute, at other times readily detected by the naked eye, when 


* ‘On Some Facts connected with Slaty Cleavage,’ Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1857, Trans. 
Sect. p. 92. Cf. President’s Address to Geological Society, 1880, ‘On the Structure 
and Origin of Non-Calcareous Stratified Rocks,’ Quart, Journ. Geol. Soe,, vol. XXxvi. 
p. 72. 
* Band ii. s, 49-58 (1878). 


ON SLATY CLEAVAGE AND ALLIED ROCK-STRUCTURES. 837 


the term ‘ cleavage’ ceases to be properly applicable to them. The same 

_ laws of formation seem to govern the small and the great. Professor 
Heim in his figure! illustrating the passage of an overfold into an over- 
fault by the obliteration of the middle limb gives the scale as ‘ 22° to 
topoo Of the natural size.’ Some of the macro-structures analogous to 
this type of cleavage may therefore be found worthy of note. 

First, however, it may be remarked that that flattening and elongation 
of the individual particles of the rock, which constitutes Mikroclivage, has 
its counterpart in the similar distortion of fossils, nodules, and pebbles; 
and where pebbles or other fragments of visible dimensions make up the 
bulk of a rock which has yielded uniformly under pressure, we have, in 
the flattened pebbles é&c., a representation on a large scale of the micro- 
structure of slate as pictured by Mr. Sharpe. A cleaved conglomerate 
of this kind was long ago noticed by Professor Ramsay ? at Llyn Padarn. 
It consists of ‘ slaty pebbles in a slaty matrix.’ A similar rock, in which 
both pebbles and matrix are apparently compacted volcanic ash, occurred 
to me in the Boulder-clay at Nantlle. In this specimen the closely-packed 
pebbles are all strongly distorted in the same directions into approximately 
ellipsoidal forms. They are all very nearly of the same shape, the ratios 
of the axes of the ellipsoid being about 1°6 : 1:0 : 0-23, which figures are 
very nearly the same as those for the green spots in the slates of the 
_ district. Numerous examples of distorted pebbles in conglomerates occur 
in the eastern states of America ;* the remarkable squeezed conglomerates 
of the Bergen peninsula have been well described by M. H. H. Reusch.! 
In such cases the pebbles are either so closely packed as to be in contact 
with one another or, as in the case of the Welsh conglomerates, the 
pebbles and matrix are about equally hard, and so yielded equally to 
pressure. 

Another type of what we may call macro-cleavage corresponds to the 
structure produced by the parallel flakes of mica in the Llanberis slates ; 
_ the difference being that in this case the flakes are less minute, and have 
had an original arrangement parallel to the lamine of stratification. The 
laminez are thrown into a series of small contortions in such a manner 
that the flakes of mica lie chiefly along certain definite parallel planes 
oblique to the general direction of stratification, which thus become 
planes of easy fracture or ‘cleavage.’ This kind of structure forms a 
connecting link with Ausweichungsclivage, to which type, indeed, it is 
referred by M. Reusch, who gives a good example from the black, mica- 
ceous clay-slates of the Bergen district. In his figure the pseudo-cleav- 
age-planes appear to be about }-inch apart, and this interval is determined 
by the scale of the small contortions. 

As an example of true Ausweichungsclivage arising from minute and 
regular contortions, I may instance a black slate-rock from the pass of 
Drws-y-Coed, near Snowdon. In this rock the contortion has taken 


' Op. cit. Atlas, Taf. xv., fig. 14. 

* Mem. Geol. Surv. Gr. Brit., vol. iii., ‘Geology of North Wales,’ p. 179, 2nd ed, 
(1881). 

; * Hitchcock, Crosby, Wadsworth, &c. For references, see Proc. Bost. Nat. Hist. 
Soc., vol. xx. pp. 308 et seq. (1879). 

* Silurfossiler og Pressede Konglomerater i Bergenskifrene, 1882; German trans., 
Die fossiiienfiihrenden hrystallinischen Schiefer, gc. 8. 22, 51, figs. 11, 12, 33, 37 
(1883), Leipzig. 

5 Op. cit., 8. 51, fig. 32. 


838 REPORT—1885. 


place in a more symmetrical manner than in the last-named, so that the 
resulting ‘ cleavage-planes’ are perpendicular to the general direction of 
stratification. The interval between them is from } to }-inch (fig. 11), 
but there is also some tendency in the intermediate parts of the rock to 


split in the same direction. This is explained by a microscopic examina- 
tion, which reveals that, besides the contortions mentioned, there is also 
a system of much smaller contortions, which give rise in like manner to 
a set of less pronounced cleavage-planes at distances of from ;}, to +4,- 
inch apart (fig. 12). Ifthe rock be split along the bedding, which is 
easily done, these microscopic con- 
tortions are seen as fine strize marked 
on the surface of the larger flutings, 
and having the same direction. The 
larger contortions in this rock, and 
the resulting ‘ cleavage ’ may be com- 
pared with an example figured by 
Professor Heim.! 

When a rock-mass becomes con- 
torted by the action of pressure, it 
usually yields in such a manner that 
the contortions into which the planes 
of stratification, or any pre-existing 
planes, are thrown, are of an undu- 
lating form. It seems, however, that, 
under certain circumstances, zigzag, 
instead of undulating, contortions are 
produced, the crests and troughs 
of the contortions being not curved but more or less sharply angled, 
as in fig. 13. Here a shearing motion has taken place in the direction 
parallel to AA’ and BB’, but such shearing has occurred only in certain 
parts of the mass, such as those between AA’ and BB’, or between CC’ 
and DD’, while the other parts, such as those between BB’ and CO’, 
have not been affected. In the kind of contortions considered,” each zig- 
zag is usually unsymmetrical, having a long and a short limb. Excellent 


Fie. 12. 


* Op. cit., Atlas, Taf. xv., fig. 11. 
? Cf. Stapf, Neu. Jahrb. fiir Min., 5c., 1882, Bd. i. 8. 75. 


ON SLATY CLEAVAGE AND ALLIED ROCK-STRUCTURES. 839 


examples, associated also with curved and irregular contortions, are met 
with in what Professor T. McK. Hughes! calls the ‘ gnarling’ of the per- 
plexing beds about Amlwch in the North of Anglesey. Some of these are 
figured in the Survey Memoir on North Wales.’ In this case, if, as Pro- 
fessor Ramsay supposes, the planes such as AA’ in fig. 14 indicate the 
original stratification of the rocks, and the zigzag planes represent an obso- 
lete cleavage, the shearing has taken place along the bedding, and has 
affected certain beds to the exclusion of others. Professor Liversidge * 
has described and figured a slate-rock in which the undoubted cleavage- 
planes are thrown into well-defined acute zigzags by subsequent con- 


tortion. 


To return to Ausweichungsclivage, it is evident that planes like AA’ 
and BB’ in fig. 14, passing through the angles of the zigzag contortions, 
must be planes of structural weakness in the rock, even though no actual 
disruption of the lamine of stratification may have occurred at the places 
where they are sharply bent. M. W. 

C. Brégger‘ states that such planes of Fie. 18. 

weakness, which he terms Knickungse- 3 
bene, are common in the friable, finely A 

laminated beds of his Silurian Etage 2. pire tay 

in the Christiania district. Ihave no- ~~ es 
ticed a dark shale at Porthwen onthe ~ \/ 
north coast of Anglesey, in which the tte Low ok 
lamine of stratification, marked by ae es Rte! 


graptolites, are thrown into sharply de- Was a aed ee 
fined zigzag contortions, the longer and we > 
shorter limbs of which are about 2 inches ais he eg 
and }-inch respectively, in length. A pe cen fae 


similar instance is figured by M. Reusch® (ak 


from Débeln in Saxony. These rocks A’ B’ ( , 
are readily fractured along the Knic- oi 
kungsebene. 


Lastly, there is the variety of Ausweichungsclivage, in which the 
‘cleavage-planes’ are actual surfaces of discontinuity in the rock—in fact, 
minute faults. Prof. Heim regards the faulting in this case as a further 
stage of unsymmetrical contortion of the laminw of bedding, so that the 
dislocations are of the kind which he names /fold-faults (Faltenverwerfun- 
gen), as distinguished from the ordinary fissure-jaults (Spaltenverwerfun- 
gen). Examples on a microscopic scale are not uncommon: the ‘gnarled 
beds’ of Amlwch ® afford a beautiful instance (fig. 14). As seen in the 
figure, the faults are related to the visible contortions of the rock, being 
roughly parallel to the axial planes of the zigzags or contortions (the 
apex of one of which is shown in the figure), but curving away upon 
reaching a felspathic layer, through which they do not pass. It is indeed 
evident that the faults could not be perpendicular to the direction of the 
lateral pressure which produced them. In accordance with what might 


1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. XXXVi. p. 237 (1880). 

2 Mem. Geol. Surv., vol. iii. pp. 237-240, figs. 91-96, 3rd ed. (1881). 

3 Paper read before Roy. Soc. New South Wales, December 6, 1876. 

4 Die silurischen Etagen 2 und 3 im Kristianiagebiet, Sc., 8. 216 (1882), Chris- 
‘tiania. 

5 Op. cit. 8. 52. 

6 [Some slides of the Amlwch rocks show very clearly the passage of an ‘ over- 
fold’ into a ‘ fold-fault,’ as described by Heim. ] 


840 REPORT—--1885. 


be expected, the hade of the faults, measured from the axial plane, be- 
comes less as we approach that plane, and the throw of the faults dimin- 
ishes also. These faults are on an average about =4,-inch apart; a 
cleavage-structure on a like scale, and showing altogether very similar 
appearances, has been figured by Prof. Heim.' Owing to subsequent 
actions, the Amlwch rock shows no marked tendency to split in the 
direction determined by this microscopic faulting, but on examining one 
of the contorted surfaces of ‘ foliation,’ the traces of the minute faults are 
visible as a very fine striation running parallel to the strike of the con- 
tortions. 

Dr. Sorby,? in his Presidential Address to the Geological Society in 
1880, described and figured an interesting case of cleavage due to close 
parallel planes of discontinuity in slate-rock at Liskeard, the planes being 
apparently about ,1,-inch apart. This instance is instructive, because in 
the less disturbed parts of the same rock, where the cleavage is very im- 
perfect, the earliest stage of the structure is seen in the shape of minute 


Fic. 14. 


contortions of the lamine of stratification. He also pointed out that in 
some other cases, such as the pencil-rock of Shap, the effect of lateral 
pressure has apparently been to break up the laminz of deposition in an 
irregular manner, so that the laminated structure is almost obliterated, 
and the microscopic flakes of mica, which constitute nearly the whole 
mass of the rock mentioned, are practically inclined about equally in all 
directions. This removed a difficulty which had previously been felt 
with regard to his original theory of slaty cleavage, viz., the postulate 
that the rocks which now form roofing slate had, prior to their becoming 
cleaved by lateral compression, &c., a structure in which the flat consti- 
tuent particles were not arranged in lamine of deposition, as is commonly 
the case in uncleaved shales, &c., but distributed at random in all posi- 
tions. Dr. Sorby? had formerly endeavoured to account for this assumed 
original structure of slate-rock by the supposition that the microscopic 
flakes of mica in it were of secondary origin; but we now see that the 
required arrangement might be brought about by the earlier effects of 


1 Opycit., at. xyv., fic. 8: 2 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxxvi. Proc. p. 73- 
8 Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1857, Trans. Sect. p. 92. 


ON SLATY CLEAVAGE AND ALLIED ROCK-STRUCTURES. 841 


the same lateral pressure which, as a final result, produced the cleavage 
structure in the manner described in preceding sections. This supple- 
mentary hypothesis therefore must be regarded as an essential part of the 
mechanical theory of slaty cleavage. 

It appears from the above remarks that a system of close parallel 
planes of discontinuity in a rock, though lacking many of the charac- 
teristics of slaty cleavage proper, may be in general effect very similar 
to it; and, again, that such a structure may be itself a first step towards 
the true slaty cleavage. Such planes of discontinuity, however, are not 
properly speaking joints, but rather small faults. They are due to 
lateral pressure, and their distance apart is determined by the dimensions 
of the small folds which are a first step towards the faulting. True 
joints, on the other hand, although, as in the case of the ‘cleat’ of coal, 
they may be very close together, must be ascribed proximately to lateral 
tension, and their distance apart seems to be regulated by the lithological 
character of the rocks in which they occur,' and doubtless also by the 
thickness of the beds which they traverse. 

If, however, a rock having originally a true jointed structure be sub- 
sequently subjected to lateral pressure, it may fairly be supposed that 
this pre-existing jointing will affect the results of the pressure. Thus, 
unless the direction of the pressure be nearly perpendicular to the joints, 
the rock may conceivably begin to yield by sliding along the joint-planes, 
which thus become small reversed faults, and the subsequent effects of 
the pressure on the rock may be modified accordingly. This point is 
emphasised by Professor W. King,” who, however, makes it the starting- 
point of a general theory of slaty cleavage, in which he will probably 
have few followers. Stated in his own words, his thesis is that ‘ Slaty 
cleavage is essentially the result of pressure exerted against divisional 
planes, chiefly belonging to jointing, that existed in any given rock prior 
to its becoming affected by such pressure.’ But there seems to be no 
evidence to show that jointing or any other special structure is a neces- 
sary preliminary to cleavage, and it is yet to be proved that the direction 
of the cleavage-planes produced in a rock by lateral pressure is in any 
way dependent on those pre-existing planes of weakness, which we should 
naturally expect would be obliterated as such by the action of the 
pressure itself. 

In connection with the subject of jointing, it may be noted that many 
of the recorded instances of a second direction of cleavage in rocks are 
due to a confusion between cleavage and fine lamellar jointing.* 


VIII. Comparison of the Cleavage- and Fluxion-structures. 


We shall find it convenient to use the term fluxion- or flow-structure* 
in a wide sense, to embrace all those structures, whether macroscopic or 


! Phillips, Zllustrations of the Geology of Yorkshire, pt. 2 (1836); London. Fisher, 
Geol. Maq., 1884, p. 211. 

2 «Report on the Superinduced Divisional Structure of Rocks, called Jointing, and 
its Relation to Slaty Cleavage,’ Trans. Roy. Irish Acad., vol. xxv. Sci. p. 605 (1875). 
An Old Chapter of the Geological Record, &c., Appendix, p. 107 (1881). 

8 MacCulloch, Introduction to Geology, new ed. (1833). Sharpe, Quart. Jowrn. 
Geol. Soc., vol. v. p. 115 (1849). De la Beche, Geological Observer, pp. 712, 713 (1851). 
Nicol, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xv. p. 113 (1859). Davies, Slate and Slate 
Quarrying, pp. 25, 48, 49, 2nd ed. (1880), &c. 

1 Benegungs-Phiinomen (Weiss, 1866), Fluidal-Textur (Vogelsang, 1867), /luctua- 
tions-Textur (Zirkel, 1867). 


842 REPORT— 1 885. 


microscopic, consequent upon a flowing motion of a mass of any material. 
The comparison between slaty cleavage and the various types of fluxion- 
structure met with in different rocks has been made by Mr. Poulett 
Scrope and others.!_ The movement which the parts of a rock experience 
under the action of the forces which produce slaty cleavage may evidently 
be regarded in the light of a flowing motion along the cleavage-planes in 
the direction of their dip, and so is analogous to the similar flowing of 
other plastic materials, such, for instance, as a viscous lava.2 Thus the 
rearrangement of the ultimate fragments of a slate-rock in the general 
direction of the ‘ grain’ or cleavage-dip corresponds to the arrangement 
of the microlites in a rhyolitic or andesitic lava parallel to the lines of 
flow: the distortion of fossils, &c., in the slate is analogous to the draw- 
ing out of vesicular cavities in the lava into amygdaloidal or ellipsoidal 
forms: the more resisting fossils, around which the cleavage is slightly 
curved, are paralleled by the porphyritic crystals in the lava, round 
which the lines of flow sweep in curves: and, finally, both the fossils in 
a cleaved rock and the porphyritic crystals in a lava are occasionally 
found to be shattered and the fragments drawn apart in the direction of 
flow. Fluxion structure, in its various phases, is moreover common, 
though local, in plutonic, as well as volcanic rocks; and where a rock is 
largely made up of parallel tabular or linear crystals of such minerals as 
felspar, &c., it is not infrequently found to possess in consequence a kind 
of rude macro-cleavage, either lamellar or fibrous, in the direction so 
determined. 

This ‘ parallel-structure,’ to be clearly distinguished from foliation on 
the one hand and from platy jointing on the other, was long ago re- 
marked by various geologists ;3 the ‘grain’ in certain Cornish granites, 
described by Professor Sedgwick‘ is a structure of this character. In 
rocks which have a large proportion of isotropic ground-mass, the fluxion- 
structure does not produce any marked tendency to split parallel to it. 

Hitherto we have spoken of the flowing of igneous rocks only when in 
a partially molten condition ; but the comparison may be carried much 
further. Since the experimental researches of M. Tresca® the flowing of 
solid bodies is no longer a contradiction in terms, and of recent years the 
plasticity of rock-masses has been the subject of much discussion. In 
greatly disturbed regions even the hardest rocks are found to have 
suffered a mechanical deformation, which is in part of the nature of 


 Scrope, ‘On Lamination and Cleavage Occasioned by the Mutual Friction of the 
Particles of Rocks while in Irregular Motion, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xv. p. 84 
(1859). Geologist, vol. i. p. 361 (1858). Heim, op. cit., Bd. ii. S. 56. 

* Cf. Miller, ‘ Fluxion-structure in Till,’ Geol. Mag., 1884, p. 472. 

’ Von Buch, Scrope, &c. For the earlier notices of both parallel structure and 
gneissic structure in igneous rocks, see Naumann, ‘ Ueber die wahrscheinlich eruptive 
Natur mancher Gneisse und Gneiss-Granite,’ Neu. Jahrb. fiir Min., Sc., 1847, 8. 297 ; 
trans. in Quart. Journ. Geol, Soc., vol. iv. pt. ii. p. 1 (1848). 

* Trans. Geol. Soc., 2nd ser., vol. iii. p. 483 (1835). Introduction to Synopsis of 
British Pala@ozoie Rocks, p. xxiv. (1855). 

° Comptes Rendus, 1864, p. 754; 1865, p. 1228; 1867, p. 809. Mém. Savants 
Etrangers, vol. xviii. p. 733; vol. xx. p. 75. Sur Vécoulement des solides, 1872, Paris. 
‘Flow of Solids,’ Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng., 1878, p. 301. 

® Heim, Ueber den Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung, 1878, Basel; Zeitsch. Deutsch. 
Geol. Geselisch., BA, xxxii. 8. 262 (1880). Stapff, Ueber die Plasticitit der Gesteine 
beim Zusammenpressen, &¢., ibid., 1879, 8, 292, 792; 1881, Bd. i. S. 185. Pfaff, Der 
Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung, 1879, Heidelberg. Lehmann, Zntstehwng der 
Althrystallinischen Schiefergesteine, §c., 1884, Bonn. 


ON SLATY CLEAVAGE AND ALLIED ROCK-STRUCTURES. 843 


flowing. In describing the phenomena in the neighbourhood of the great 
‘thrust-planes’ of Eriboll, the officers of the Geological Survey’ re- 
peatedly make use of the expression ‘ fluxion-structure ’ as one specially 
applicable to the result of a shearing motion in the rocks. According to 
the character of the rocks affected and the intensity of the forces to 
which they have been subjected, the deformation of the mass appears to 
have proceeded partly by internal fracture and faulting of the rocks, and 
partly by their gradual and continuous distortion in the manner of plastic 
bodies. In fact, continuous and disruptive movements seem to have 
taken place concurrently, in such a way that the planes of shearing with 
the consequent ‘ grain ’ or fluxion-structure are not always distinguished 
from planes of abrupt slipping with their associated slickensides. A 
characteristic of these intense mechanical changes is that they are fre- 
quently accompanied, and their results complicated, by the paragenesis, 
recrystallisation or destruction of some of the constituent minerals of the 
rocks and the production of new ones. In this way foliation and gneissic 
structure may be produced as the result, partly of mechanical, partly of 
mineralogical and chemical agencies. Apart from these last, however, 
the plastic movement or flow, which in a crystalline rock gives rise to 


‘foliation, is precisely analogous to that which in a clastic rock produces 


slaty cleavage; and in fact where rocks of the required lithological types 
are found associated together and affected by the same movements, the 
foliation of the one passes into the cleavage of the other. As, moreover, 
the development of new minerals takes place on the cleavage-planes of the 
latter as well as on the foliation-planes of the former, it is impossible to 
draw any line of demarcation between the two structures. As instances 
of foliation associated with, and in part at least produced by, mechani- 
cally caused movements, we may cite the hornblende-schists of the Bergen 
peninsula and the Saxon Erzgebirge, and the granulites, and probably in 
part the gneisses of the latter region. An instance on a small scale has 
been described by Mr. Teall in a dyke at Scourie, Sutherland, where the 
conversion of dolerite into hornblende-schist is clearly exhibited. 

By regarding cleavage and some cases of foliation in the light of 
fluxional structures, we gain a clue to some of the difficulties connected 
with those phenomena. The segregation of the several constituents into 
lenticular patches is a peculiarity of some types of foliation, and, indeed, 
in some gneisses, presents a very characteristic appearance. Now it isa 
matter of common observation that a ‘stream of liquid moving in any 
general direction tends to divide itself, more or less, into veins and 
threads composed of particles of different degrees of coarseness, and, con- 
sequently, of different degrees of mobility, and moving at different rates.’ 
The significance of this was pointed out by Mr. Poulett Scrope? in con- 
nection with his theory which made the foliation of gneiss and mica-schist 
an original structure produced during the protrusion of an igneous mass 
in a partially molten state, and the same principle would probably have at 
least a limited application to the flow of solid rock masses which gives rise 
to the foliation or fluxion structure in the Eastern gneiss of Sutherland 
and other rocks of like character. Whether the segregation in these cases 
is to be referred in any measure to the cause described, or whether it is 


1 Geikie, Peach, and Horne, Nature, November 13, 1884. Cf. Lapworth, Geol. 
‘Mag., March 1885, p. 97. 
wey vol. i, p. 363 (1858). See also Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xii. p. 345 


844 REPORT—1885. 


due solely to the action of molecular forces, which would probably be 
intensified by the extreme pressure, is one of the questions which must be 
left for further elucidation.! But as bearing upon this question, and as 
showing that it isa speculation by no means foreign to the subject of slaty 
cleavage proper, we may notice the interesting case described and figured 
by Professor Bonney,” of a ‘ structure imitative of foliation produced by 
pressure on a stratified rock without important mineral change.’ Here, in 
a cliff section at Torcross, South Devon, are alternate layers of fine dark 
mud and silt, the former predominating, which are much folded, and con- 
sequently inclined at various angles to the cleavage which traverses the 
whole. Where the cleavage and bedding coincide, the layers, though 
much compressed, are distinct ; but where the angle between the direc- 
tion of pressure and the normal to the surface of the bed has been a large 
one, the stripe is obscured or obliterated, and a new structure produced. 
The broader gritty bands have their edges ‘ frayed out,’ or send out comb- 
like processes into the finer bands in the direction of the cleavage ; the 
narrower bands are entirely obliterated and replaced by a new structure 
of parallel lenticular streaks or elongated ‘eyes’ extending in the direc- 
tion of the cleavage. 

Connected with the tendency of a heterogeneous mass in flowing 
motion to separate into layers or patches is its liability to unsteady or 
sinuous motion. The very tortuous fluxion structure exhibited by many 
rocks of volcanic origin must be ascribed to this circumstance. As Mr. 
Poulett Scrope* remarked with reference to the ribboned and banded 
trachytes, &c., the contortions are owing to ‘the various degrees of 
mobility of the different layers, those of coarser grain . . . retarding the 
motion of the proximate layers which possessed a greater liquidity.’ In 
fact, the resistance to motion within a moving mass of the kind con- 
sidered would be more of the nature of surface friction than of viscosity, 
and so would be a condition unfavourable to steady motion. A similar 
explanation may apply to those cases in which contorted foliation is 
attendant upon the fluxional motion of rock masses.? Such contortions 
occur, it should be noticed, both along the dip and along the strike of the 
foliation. 

The constant association of intense mechanical deformation and 
crushing of rocks with molecular and atomic changes of a certain 
character naturally leads to the inquiry, what is the nature of their con- 
nection, and to what extent can the two phenomena be supposed to have 
acommon origin? In fact, in what measure the intense lateral pressure 
which we assume to have been the agent by which a fluxional structure 
was impressed upon solid rock masses, may be held to account for con- 
comitant changes of a mineralogical and chemical kind. Some materials 
for such an inquiry will find their place in the following section. 

But to prevent misconception, I must point out at this stage, that in 
the present paper, foliation, except in so far as it is related to cleavage, 
has no proper place. Our subject embraces only those types of structure 


» Cf. Lehmann on the ‘ Augengranulites ’ of Saxony, op. cit., S. 202 et seq. 

2 Quart. Journ. Geol. Sve., vol. x1. pp. 18 et seq. 

8 Trans. Geol. Soc., 2nd ser., vol. ii. p. 195 (1826). 

* Osborne Reynolds, ‘An Experimental Investigation of the Circumstances which 
Determine whether the Motion of Water shall be Direct or Sinuous, &c.,’ Proc. Roy. 
Soc., vol. xxxv. p. 84 (1883). 

° Cf. Fisher, Physics of the Earth’s Crust, p. 124 (1881), London. 


ON SLATY CLEAVAGE AND ALLIED ROCK-STRUCTURES. 845 


which are clearly referable, in whole or in part, to the action of mechanical 
forces. With the views of those geologists who ascribe the formation of 
certain schists to unique physical conditions prevailing in Pre-Cambrian 
times, we are in no wise concerned. Neither is it within the province of 
this paper to discuss superinduced foliation on pre-existing structural 
planes in a rock. We will only remark that such foliation in a stratified 
rock may apparently be produced upon any kind of structural planes 
previously existent in the rock, whether of lamination, bedding, current- 
bedding, cleavage, or jointing; and that the foliation will follow which- 
ever of these sets of planes is the most pronounced, according to Forbes’s 
law of ‘least resistance.’ Further, such superinduced foliation may 
apparently be formed upon structural planes in a crystalline rock. 
Referring to the central portion of the Alps, Professor Bonney! says: 
*The gneissic mass has been crushed, cleaved, and on the cleavage planes 
films of a hydro-mica have been developed. We cannot fail to be struck, 
when once our eyes have been opened to it, by the frequency of a slabby 
structure in the more central parts of the Alpine ranges, the surfaces of 
these slabs being coated with minute scales or films of mica.’ These he 
regards as ‘records of a rude cleavage which has been impressed upon the 
more central and less flexible portions of the Alps during the great earth- 
movements which they have undergone since they were first meta- 
morphosed.’ 


YX. Physical and Chemical Changes dependent on Pressure. 


A simple pressure acting at any point of a mass in a definite direction 
is mathematically equivalent, as may readily be proved,? to (i.) a uniform 
pressure in all directions, combined with (ii.) certain shearing stresses. 
The former tends to produce a compression of volume without change of 
shape, the latter a deformation without alteration of volume. It is then 
to the latter that the mechanical deformation or fluxion of rock-masses 
must be attributed ; while the former, which is of the nature of a hydro- 
static pressure, may prove to have been at least an important factor, if 
not indeed the prime agent, in the mineralogical and chemical changes 
observable in the same rocks. We shall therefore, to fix ideas, disregard 
for the present the shearing stress and the consequent movements of the 
rock, and consider only that ‘ quaquaversal’ or uniform pressure with 
which hydrostatical theories render us familiar. 

The importance of pressure as an element in the conditions of mole- 
cular and chemical changes has from an early date been more or less 
clearly recognised by geologists as well as physicists. It figures, at least 
as an accessory, in all modern theories of ‘ regional metamorphism,’ and 
high pressures play an important part in the experiments of those who 
have worked at the artificial production of minerals and the imitation of 
the structures of crystalline schists. 

Pressure, however, does not appear to be always ranked in its proper 
place as a condition, codrdinate with temperature, determining the action 
of all physical and chemical forces ; and its importance as such does not 
seem to be thoroughly realised in the discussion of all geological questions. 
Indeed we may say with Professor Lehmann? that ‘ we stand at present 


1 Proc. Roy. Inst., vol. xi. p. 64 (1885). 
* ? Thomson and Tait, Natwral Philosophy, vol.i. pt. ii. § 682, new ed. (1883). 
3 Op. cit., p. 244. 


846 REPORT—1885. 


only on the threshold of a knowledge of the changes of substances and 
their effects upon one another under the influence of pressure.’ Amon 
those whose experimental researches have added to our knowledge in this 
line may be mentioned Sir James Hall,’ Sir William Thomson,? Sir D. 
Brewster,? Dr. H.C. Sorby,‘ M. L. Cailletet,® Dr. F. Pfaff, and M. Walth. 
Spring.’ 

Speaking generally, it may be said that the effect of increased pressure 
is to facilitate such physical and chemical changes as involve a contraction 
of volume in the substances operated upon, and to retard changes which 
are accompanied by an expansion. For instance, both theory’ and 
experiment? show that the melting-point of a solid is raised or lowered 
by an increase of pressure, according as the substance expands or con- 
tracts in melting. Again, the experiments of Dr. Sorby prove that when 
a salt contracts on passing into solution, which is the case with most 
known substances, the effect of augmented pressure is to increase its 
solubility. This fact he has shown!’ to have important bearings in 
geology, for it follows that where a mass of rock is subjected to unequal 
pressure, some of the constituents may be dissolved at those points where 
the pressure is greatest, and redeposited where it is least. In a contorted 
limestone band among slate-rocks at Ilfracombe, the calcareous matter is 
seen to have been thus removed from the central portions of the limbs of 
the folds and collected at their crests and troughs, which suggests another 
possible explanation for some cases of the obliteration of stratification by 
pressure and its replacement by lenticular and elongated structures. 
Tn a Devonian limestone, too, the stems of encrinites have been partially 
dissolved on those sides where they were subjected to the greatest 
pressure, and the crystalline calcite redeposited on those sides where the 
pressure was least; this observation is of importance in connection with 
the effects of intense mechanical forces upon the individual crystals and 
crystalline grains of a rock, which might thus change their form by mole- 
cular rearrangement without possessing in themselves the property of 
plasticity!! in any degree. 

Next, it has been recognised since the classical experiments of Sir 


1 ¢ Account of a Series of Experiments showing the Effects of Compression in 
Modifying the Action of Heat,’ Zrans. Roy. Soc. Hdinb., vol. vi. p. 71 (1805). 

2 Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb., 1850. Mathematical and Physical Papers, p. 165 

1882). 
' 3 ©Qn the Production of Crystalline Structure in Powders by Compression and 
Traction,’ Proc. Roy. Soc. Edinb., vol. iii. p. 178 (1853). 

4 Qn the Direct Correlation of Mechanical and Chemical Forces,’ Proc. Roy. Soc., 
vol. xii. p. 538 (1863). ‘ Ueber Kalkstein-Geschiebe mit Hindriicken,’ Veu. Jahrb. 
fiir Min., Sc., 1863, 8. 801. Letter to M. Delesse, Bull. Soc. Géol. Fr., sér. 2, t. xx. 
p. 184 (1862). 

5 ‘De Vinfluence de la pression sur les phénoménes,’ Comptes Rendus, t. xviii. 
p- 395 (1869). 

6 «Versuche iiber die Wirkungen des Druckes auf chemische und physikalische 
Vorgiinge, Neu. Jahrb. fiir Min., Sc. 1871, 8. 834. 

7 «Récherches sur la propriété que possédent les corps solides de se souder par 
Vaction de la pression,’ Bull. Acad. Roy. Sci. Belg., sér. 2, t. xlix. p. 323 (1880). 

® Professor James Thomson, ‘ Theoretical Considerations regarding the Effect of 
Pressure in Lowering the Freezing-point of Water,’ rans. Roy. Soc. Ldinb., vol. xvi. 
p. 575 (1849). 

® Sir W. Thomson, loc. cit. 

10 Presidential Address, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. xxv. p. 88 (1879). 

1 Lehmann, loc. cit., 8.197. Teall, Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe., vol. xli. pp. 139, 
140 note (1885). 


ON SLATY CLEAVAGE AND ALLIED ROCK~STRUCTURES. 847 


James Hall, that pressure exerts a modifying influence on the passage of 


_ bodies from the amorphous to the crystalline state; the experiments of 


M. Spring’ go to establish the law that this change is assisted by 
increased pressure, when the volume of the substance diminishes in the 
process of crystallisation.2. The same observer has shown that substances 
of almost every kind in the state of powder can be welded into a solid 
mass by the action of very great pressure without high temperature. 

More striking is the effect of pressure upon chemical changes. Dr. 
Sorby,’® in 1863, suggested a direct correlation between mechanical and 
chemical forces, but M. Spring, using much higher pressures, obtained 
results of a very definite character. He found, for example, that by 
operating upon a mixture of sulphur and copper filings, with a pressure 
of 5,000 atmospheres, he obtained crystallised copper sulphide. He laid 
down the rule that pressure assists those chemical changes which involve 
a diminution of bulk. The complementary part of this law, that pressure 
retards or prevents such chemical actions as are accompanied by an 
increase of bulk, had already been supported by the experiments of 
M. Cailletet and Dr. Pfaff. 

Such facts as the above seem to afford a firm basis for a mechanical 
theory of metamorphism, applicable to regions which, by their general 
structure, present evidence of the action of great pressure, but not to be 
applied to any given district without inquiry into the epoch of the 
chemical and mineral changes in the rocks, and the possible existence of 
other metamorphosing agents. For a comprehensive study of a difficult 
tract of metamorphic rocks from a purely mechanical standpoint we may go 
to Dr. Lehmann’s work on the ‘ Saxon Granulitgebirge,’ referred to above. 

Viewing the matter in the most general way, we may start from 
the axiom that both physical and chemical forces are controlled by two 
conditions—temperature and pressure. Wherever we see evidence of 
changes in rock-masses other than those now in progress among surface 
rocks, we may infer the operation of either extreme temperature or 
excessive pressure, or both these conditions in conjunction, and the 
decision must depend on a full consideration of the facts. Experiment 
shows that in certain cases of physical and chemical changes, elevated 
temperature and increased pressure tend in the same direction, while in 
others they conflict. In the latter case, had we sufficient data, we should 
obtain a crucial test as to which of the two agencies has been answerable 
for the changes in question; but for this purpose we must await further 
evidence from the laboratory. It may, however, be safely affirmed that 
some of the mineral changes evinced in the districts we have mentioned 
cannot credibly be referred to the effects of high temperatures, and are 
even the reverse of those changes which we know to be ordinarily pro- 
duced by heat. For instance, the conversion of augite and diallage into 
hornblende is a fact witnessed to by several observers ;4 but at ordinary 
pressures fused hornblende recrystallises in the form of augite.6 The 


1 Loe. cit. 
* As an example of this principle, compare a holocrystalline with a vitreous rock 
of similar chemical composition; the former, produced under great pressure, is 


_ denser than the latter, which consolidated at an ordinarily low pressure. 


° Proc. Roy. Soc., cit. sup., p. 546. 
_ * Reusch, Lehmann, Teall, &c., loc. cit. 
° Rose, Pogg. Ann., vol. xxii. p. 338 (1831). Fouqué and Michel-Lévy, Synthese 
des Mineraux et des Roches, 1882. 


848 REPORT—1885. 


formation of white mica and quartz by the destruction of orthoclase is 
probably another significant metamorphosis ; muscovite, like hornblende, 
has never been reproduced artificially. The mode of occurrence of 
hydrous micas, frequently associated with slickensides and other imme- 
diate evidences of stress, seems to point to the importance of mechanical 
forces in their genesis. Professor Bonney! considers that ‘ these filmy 
minerals appear to be very readily formed under pressure from damp 
argillaceous material in a state of fine division,’ and is of opinion that 
* perhaps it is hardly too much to say that the difference between a satiny 
slate or phyllite and an ordinary shale is due even more to the action of 
pressure than to mineral composition or geological age.’ The same 
authority, however, insists on an essential distinction between such rocks 
and true schists, which latter, he maintains, require for their production 
something more than mechanical forces. 

In weighing the relative importance of the results of mechanical stress 
on the one hand, and the more direct effects of the central heat of the 
earth on the other, it must not be overlooked that not only increased 
pressure, but also rise of temperature may result from the former agency. 
‘ The heat produced locally within the crust of the earth by transformation 
into heat of the mechanical work of compression, or of crushing of 
portions of that crust,’ as in Mr. Mallet’s* experiments, has been invoked 
by Professor Prestwich,* in a recent paper, as a factor of the first im- 
portance in the metamorphism of certain regions, such as the Appalachian 
Mountains and the Ardennes. This transformation of the mechanical 
work done by pressure into heat is, of course, quite distinct from the 
direct effects of pressure on physical and chemical forces discussed above. 
The latter necessitates no rise of temperature, but involves an immediate 
correlation between mechanical work and the energy of molecular and 
atomic forces. The heat in the former case, moreover, would arise partly 
from the hydrostatic pressure and consequent compression, partly from the 
shearing stress and associated deformation ; and in hard rocks the latter 
would doubtless be of the most importance. It seems reasonable to 
suppose, then, that the work done upon a rock by a lateral pressure to 
which it yields is expended in three ways—viz., in producing deformation 
of the rock mass both by plastic shearing and by fracture, in bringing 
about molecular and chemicai changes in its composition, and in gene- 
rating heat, which will again give rise to changes not always of the same 
kind as the former. The proportion of the available energy devoted to 
each of these effects must naturally depend upon the nature of the rocks 
operated upon. 

Considerations such as these may perhaps serve in some measure to 
lessen the difficulties that beset the study of cleavage and foliation by 
referring apparent anomalies to the different lithological characters of the 
rocks affected. Thus in Mr. Teall’s® dolerite dyke molecular rearrange- 
ment is seemingly an earlier effect of the forces concerned than foliation- 
structure, while, in Professor Bonney’s Torcross section, the reverse is 
the case. In an originally soft rock, a deformation or flowing, with its 


1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. x1. pp. 18, 25, 26 (1884). 

2 «On Volcanic Energy,’ Phil. Trans., vol. clxiii. p. 147 (1873). Cf. Daubrée, 
Etudes Synthét. de Géol. Expérim., p. 448 et seg. (1879), Paris. Bull. Soc. Géol. Fr., 
1878, p. 550. 

3 Roy. Soc., June 18,1885. Nature, July 2. * Sorby, doc. cit. 

5 Loc. cit., pp. 139, 142. 


ON SLATY CLEAVAGE AND ALLIED ROCK-STRUCTURES. 849 


attendant phenomena, would doubtless be the first effect of lateral 
pressure, while a more intense application of stress might induce mineral 
changes of the nature already alluded to. Thus it may, according to some 
speculators, be possible to bridge over the differences between schists and 


_ gneisses of certain types, on the one hand, and satiny slates or phyllites 


on the other, while between the latter and ordinary slates every gradation 
may be found. 

In this way we arrive at Dr. Darwin's! theory that ‘in most cases 
foliation and cleavage are parts of the same process; in cleavage there 
being only an incipient separation of the constituent minerals ; in foliation 
a much more complete separation and crystallisation ;’ or, again,” ‘ that 
the same power which has impressed on the slate its fissile structure or 
cleavage has tended to modify its mineralogical character in parallel 
planes.’ This may be compared with the hypothesis of Mr. W. Hopkins,? 
that slaty cleavage is the result of molecular forces, but has its direction 
determined by mechanical stress. Dr. Darwin apparently supposed that 
the mechanical force was not only a directing influence, but also the 
prime cause of the molecular actions. In so far as this is a return to the 
purely crystalline theory of slaty cleavage, as advocated by Professor 
Sedgwick, the mass of evidence referred to in the preceding sections must 
compel us to pass it over; but we may reconcile Dr. Darwin’s valuable 
observations with the theories of Dr. Sorby and others, by admitting that 
many of the rocks which we call slate have experienced a development of 
new minerals (such as micas, chlorites, and epidotes) concurrently with 
the production in them of the cleavage structure, and that there appears 
to be a passage from such rocks into mica-schist and foliated gneiss. In 
fact, it seems probable that if the term cleavage be applied only to rocks 
in which no mineral changes are to be detected, the class of cleaved rocks 
will be much reduced in size; and, further, that if we ascribe all such 
mineral changes in slates to subsequent foliation on cleavage planes, the 
number of our metamorphic regions will be greatly augmented. In North 
Wales, for instance, Professor Sedgwick‘ described the cleavage planes 
of the slate as ‘coated over with chlorite and semicrystalline matter, 
which not only merely define the planes in question, but strike in parallel 
flakes through the whole mass of the rock.’ From the microscopic 
examination of the same rocks, Dr. Sorby ° regarded the minute scales of 
mica which make up a large part of the mass, and resemble in structure 
“pseudomorphs of mica or chlorite after felspar’ as being of secondary 
origin ; and although he apparently considered the origin of these scales 
anterior to the cleavage structure, he stated that these so-called clay 
slates are ‘analogous to very fine-grained mica-schist, into which they 
gradually pass by the increase in the size of the crystals of mica.’ In the 
roofing slates of other districts there is often evidence of mineral changes 
which appear to have been contemporary with the cleavage. 

In leaving this part of the subject, we may remark that certain other 
theories, not otherwise of much interest, have linked together cleavage 
and foliation under a common explanation, Professor H. D. Rogers,® 

1 Geol. Obs. in South America, p. 166 (1846); 2nd ed. p. 466 (1876). 
* Ibid. p. 163; 2nd ed. p. 462. 

$ Camb. Phil. Trans., vol. viii. p. 456 (1849). Cf. also the cautious statement of 
Mr. Jukes quoted in the first section of the present paper. 

4 Geol. Trans., ser. 2, vol. iii. p. 471 (1835). 

** Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1857, Trans. Sect., p. 92. 
C cea Rey. Soc. Edinb., vol. xxi. p. 471 (1856). 


850 REPORT—1 885. 


endorsing with modification Professor Sedgwick’s crystalline theory, 
held that ‘ both cleavage and foliation are due to the parallel transmission 
of planes or waves of heat, awakening the molecular forces and determining 
their direction,’ a view differing from that of Dr. Darwin only in that it 
assigns the part of pressure to heat. A similar idea with respect to 
‘cleavage had been expressed by Sir John Herschel.! 


X. The Relation of Cleavage to Earth-movements. 


The theories discussed in the foregoing pages make the cleavage of 
rocks a result of lateral thrust operating throughout larger or smaller 
tracts of country, and the extreme stages of the structure, which involve 
mineralogical as well as lithological changes, a consequence of the intense 
stresses in the earth’s crust? to which mountain-systems owe their 
structure. Into the ultimate cause of these mechanical forces we are not 
called upon to enter;* but some of the resulting peculiarities in the 
arrangement of cleavage planes over an extended area require a passing 
notice. 

As regards the strike of cleavage, its regularity over considerable 
distances‘ and its parallelism to the main axes of disturbance of the district 
in which it oceurs, need not be further dilated upon; local exceptions to 
the latter rule have been noticed by various observers. As regards the 
cleavage-dip, no such simple laws can be laid down. The angle of dip 
may have any value, though the most perfect cleavage is usually inclined 
ata high angle. So far as observation at any one locality can discover, 
the dip of the cleavage is quite independent of that of the bedding. On 
traversing a district of slate-rocks in the direction across the cleavage the 
dip is observed to change very slowly and gradually; when an abrupt 
variation is noticed there is reason to suspect some disturbance posterior 
to the production of the cleavage-structure.® In fact, subsequent tilting 
and faulting of the rocks may affect not only the dip but to some extent 
also the direction of strike of the planes of cleavage ; and wherever in the 
preceding pages we have referred to the cleavage-strike and cleavage-dip, 
the original strike and dip of the cleavage-planes ought strictly to be 
understood. As another possible source of error in observing the dip of ~ 
cleavage-planes must be noticed the not infrequent surface-curvature ° of 
those planes in consequence of movements of the rocks near the surface 
of the ground, a phenomenon well seen in the valleys about Snowdon. 

Dr. Charles Darwin,” who made careful observations of cleavage and 
foliation over a large part of the South American coast, suggested as an 
explanation of the varying and opposite dips that the cleavage-surfaces— 
though to the eye appearing plane—may possibly be ‘ parts of large abrupt 
curves with their summits cut off and worn down.’ Mr. Sharpe,® fol- 
lowing out this line, endeavoured to trace ont ‘ systems of cleavage’ in 


} Lyell’s Student's Elements of Geology, p. 592, 2nd ed. 

® Rindenzusammenschub (Heim), Gebirgsdruck (Lehmann), Pression orogénétique 
(Barrois), &c. 

° For a discussion of this subject, see the concluding part of Heim’s Mechanismus 
der Gebirgsbildung, 1878, Basel. 

* Sedgwick, Jukes, Darwin, Phillips, &c., op. cit. 

5 Cf. Jukes, Manual of Geology, p. 271, ed. 1862. 

®° De la Beche, Geological Manual, p. 42. Darwin, Geol. Obs. in South America, 
p. 160 (1846). Jukes, Student’s Manual of Geology. 

* Geol. Obs. in South America, p. 146 (1846); 2nd ed. (1876), p. 446. 

§ Quart. Journ. Geol, Soc., vol. iii. p. 74 (1847). 


ON SLATY CLEAVAGE AND ALLIED ROCK-STRUCTURES. 85lL 


Wales, Cornwall, and Devon, and the Cumbrian Mountains,! and subse- 
quently in the Scottish Highlands. He maintained that in each of the 
districts, which he regarded as distinct areas, there are certain lines of 
strike, many miles apart, along which the cleavage is vertical; that on 
each side of such a line the cleavage dips towards it, and at continually 
lower angles, until midway between two such lines is a zone of horizontal 
cleavage ; so that over such an intermediate place the cleavage-surfaces, 
if carried on continuously, would pass in broad flat arches. With such 
an arrangement, low angles of cleavage-dip would be much more preva- 
lent than they are found to be. Professor Phillips criticised Mr. Sharpe’s 
theory and some of the sections on which it was based, and even these 
sections themselves only bear out the author’s view in a very limited 
degree. It is curious, too, that M. Laugel* employed Mr. Sharpe’s data 
to verify his own quite different theory of a sheaf-like or fan-like arrange- 
ment of the cleavage-planes of a district, which is much more in agree- 
-ment with recorded observations. According to Mr. Sharpe‘ this 
appearance is due to the junction of two of his arches, but certainly the 
prevailing high dips in most districts where cleavage is well developed 
point to the fan-like arrangement as the essential part of the phenomena. 
This latter peculiarity is specially characteristic of mountain systems, 
where, as noted by Dr. Darwin,* the cleavage-planes on the flanks of the 
mountains ‘ frequently dip at a high angle inwards.’ In a symmetrical 
mountain complex also there is usually a parallelism between the cleavage- 
planes and the axial planes of the folds into which the strata are thrown, 
as remarked by Professor H. D. Rogers.® In less disturbed districts the 
fan arrangement is less perfect, and any connection between the direction 
of the cleavage-planes and the position of the folds of the rocks is, as a 
rule, not to be made out except occasionally on asmall scale.7 A traverse 
through the slate-districts of North Wales seems to show that the 
cleavage-planes, as it were, oscillate from one side of the vertical to the 
other when followed in a direction perpendicular to their strike, as if 
there were a series of imperfect fans; some of the Geological Survey’s 
sections show the same character. 

Mr. Sharpe’s presumed arch-arrangement was used by him to support 
an elevation theory of cleavage, which was briefly that a mass of fluid 
igneous matter, forced upward through a fissure coinciding in direction 
with the axis of the ‘area of elevation,’ had compressed the surrounding 
rocks; the pressure being supposed to act radially, the resulting cleavage- 
planes, which are at right angles to the direction of pressure, would form 
a flat arch. The fan-arrangement, on the other hand, seems to connect 
itself in a simple manner with the lateral compression theory; ® for a 
mountain mass thus elevated would be acted on by lateral thrust some- 
what like that in an arch of brickwork; the cleavage-planes, being per- 
pendicular to the thrust at each point, would be arranged like the planes 
which separate successive bricks in the arch, i.e. in a radiating or fan-like 
manner. 

1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. v. p. 112 (1849). 

* «On the Arrangement of the Foliation and Cleavage of the Rocks of the North 
of Scotland,’ Phil. Trans., 1852, p. 445. 

* ‘Du clivage des roches,’ Bull. Soc. Géol. Fran., sér. 2, t. xii. p. 363 (1855). 

* Phil. Trans., 1852, pp. 447, 448, &c. + 

° Geol. Obs. in South America. p. 164 (1846). 

Ԥ Trans. Roy. Soc. Edinb., vol. xxi. p- 447 (1856). 

7 See, ¢.g., Dr. Sorby’s Ilfracombe section, loc. cit. 


* Cf. Pilar, Grundziige der Abyssodynamik, 1881. 
312 


852 REPORT— 1885. 


The last point we have to refer to is one of some importance, as raising 
a possible objection to the mechanical theory of cleavage : it is the relation 
in point of time between the earth-movements and the production of the 
cleavage-structure. It has been pointed out by Professor Sedgwick,! Pro- 
fessor Phillips,? Mr. Sharpe,’ and others, that the cleavage appears to 
have been impressed on the rocks subsequently to their being thrown 
into synclinal and anticlinal folds by the disturbing forces. Mr. Fisher,* 
insisting on this view, maintains that ‘cleavage is due to an internal 
movement of the rocks rendered necessary by the disturbed region being 
left, after elevation, in a position too lofty for equilibrium.’ This theory, 
it will be noticed, ascribes the elevation of the area in question to forces 
acting directly from below upwards. I have endeavoured elsewhere * to 
show that the kind of movement advocated by Mr. Fisher would result 
in an arrangement of the cleavage-planes and a difference in the perfec- 
tion of the structure in different parts of the area, which is quite out of 
accordance with the facts. 

It is evident that the cleavage-planes would be affected by so much of 
the disturbance of the rocks as was subsequent to their formation, and con- 
sequently the cleavage-structure, at least in its final state, must have been 
of later origin than the foldings by which it is not disturbed. Professor 
Tyndall ® seems to be of opinion that the production of the cleavage was 
more or less simultaneous with the disturbance, and consequently has 
been actually affected in a certain measure by the displacement of the 
rocks in which it occurs. At least this is apparently implied in his ex- 
planation, quoted above, of the deviations experienced by cleavage-planes 
in traversing alternating strata; this phenomenon admits, however, as we 
have seen, of a different explanation. It may be remarked too, that the 
fan-like arrangement which often characterises cleavage-planes in a dis- 
trict of disturbed strata might be connected with a certain amount of 
elevation in the central parts of the area subsequently to the setting up 
of the cleavage structure. But this does not in any way touch the 
fact that in any ordinary slate district the planes of cleavage may be seen 
ranging with approximate parallelism through contorted beds, the irre- 
gularities of which do not in any way affect the former. From this we 
cannot but infer that the impression of the cleavage structure on the 
rocks is an event of later date, in the main, than the tilting and flexures: 
observable in them. 

Granting this, however, we are still able to regard the cleavage and 
the folding as concomitant, though not simultaneous, effects of the same 
lateral pressure. As has been remarked by Mr. Fisher himself, they are 
two distinct ways of satisfying the same lateral compression of an area. 
But as the cleavage involves a rearrangement of the intimate parts of the 
rocks and an actual compression of their bulk, we might naturally expect 
it to be a later result of the lateral pressure than those changes which 
merely consist in displacement of the rock-masses as a whole. This con- 
sideration may fairly be held to remove the difficulty alluded to in accept- 
ing the theory which refers the origin of cleavage to the same mechanical 
stresses that brought about the disturbed position of the strata. 

1 Geol. Trans., 2nd ser. vol. iii. p. 474 (1835). 

2 Brit. Assoc. Rep., 1843, Trans. Sect., p. 60; 1856, p. 373. 

& Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., vol. iii. p. 104 (1847). 

4 Gel Maq., 1884, pp. 397, 275, 276. 5 Tbid., 1885, p. 15. 5 Loe. cit. sup. 


ON THE STRENGTH OF TELEGRAPH POLES. 853 


On the Strength of Telegraph Poles. 
By W. H. Preece, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.k. 


[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso 
among the Reports. | 


THE resistance of timber to rupture has frequently been experimentally 
investigated both at home and abroad, but almost invariably with the 
view of determining the dimensions or scantling of beams, trusses, and 
framed structures. Few experiments have been made upon naturally 
grown trees with a view of utilising them in their native condition. 

Fincham’s! experiments on the relative qualities of timber used for 
the masts of ships were made upon cut pieces, 4 feet in length, and 3 
Square inches in sectional area. The strength of square balks was inves- 
tigated by Messrs. Tredgold, Barlow, and others, the results giving a 
constant of 1,341 for red pine in the formula 


4 
w= Ke BO ag Ra RE Rs laa 
where w = breaking weight in lbs. at end of bean. 
b = breadth in inches 
d = depth 3 
1 = length As 
K=a constant dependent on the character of the 
timber. 


The formula for round timber based on the same value of the con- 
stant K becomes 


¥ being the radius. 

The value of the constant quoted above was obtained by experiments 
on small sections of timber one and two inches square only. Wisely 
distrusting results obtained in this manner, Mr. Edwin Clark, during the 
construction of the Britannia tubular bridge, caused trials to be made 
with beams of red pine 12 inches square, which gave a constant of 810 
only, whilst experiments on balks of Baltic fir made by the Mersey Dock 
Board gave results varying between 771 and 873. “Mr. Gavey, during 
certain investigations made in Bristol in 1876, obtained a constant of 804 


_ from square sections cut out of Norway round telegraph poles. 


Telegraph poles in England now consist principally of native grown 
unhewn Norwegian or Swedish red fir preserved with creosote. 

They have acquired their pre-eminence by a species of natural selec- 
tion, after extended trials of cut Memel timber, native grown larch, and 
preserved Scotch fir. The Scandinavian red fir is now almost exclu- 
Sively employed. It seems to have been provided by nature specially for 
telegraphic purposes. 


* Papers on Naval Architecture, vol. i. pp. 53-4. 


854 REPORT—1885. 


The specifications for telegraph poles, in addition to quoting dimen- 
sions, prescribe that they are to be winter felled, sound and hard grown 
(.e., well-hearted, with the annual rings closely pitched), straight, free 
from large or dead knots and other defects, to have the bark completely 
removed, and to contain the natural butt of the tree. They are usually 
from 5 to 6 inches in diameter at the top, and they grow with a taper 
that accords satisfactorily with the theoretical law that should give the 
greatest strength at each section of their length. 

No systematic inquiry has, as far as I am aware, been made into the 
mechanical properties of Scandinavian red fir in its native or unhewn 
state, though at different times isolated experiments have been made on 
its resistance to flexure. 

The immense growth of the telegraph system in this country, the 
increased utilisation of public highways with their bends and curves, the 
wind pressures arising from the rapid multiplication of wires, have forced 
closer attention to the stresses applied, and to the more scientific bearing 
of the question. The selection of the proper scantling has been very 
much a rule of thumb process, but stability has been obtained by struts, 
stays, and double poles framed together. Subsequent experiments have, 
however, shown that practical experience has not erred in specifying 
dimensions. 

As considerable doubt existed as to whether constants obtained from 
square timber could be accurately applied in calculating the strength of 
naturally grown trees, in which the annual rings of growth were un- 
severed, it was determined by the Post Office authorities to make careful 
and accurate measurements of the strength of the poles actually used, and 
a substantial testing apparatus was constructed for the purpose. A stout 
wrought-iron cylinder, 14 inches in diameter and 6 feet long, was rigidly 
held down on a suitable framing by two 2-inch tie rods. The butt of the 
pole to be tested was placed inside this cylinder to a depth of 5 feet 
6 inches, carefully packed all round, and tightly rammed with gravel to 
represent the conditions when in use. It was then placed horizontally, a 
scale pan was suspended from what would be the resultant point of a line 
of wires at the further end of the pole, and weights were added until the 
pole broke. An oak plank or saddle distributed the load as would be the 
case on an actual line of telegraph. 

Table No. I. contains the results of the experiments made upon ten 
comparatively newly creosoted poles. 

This gives a mean constant with formula 2 of 1,337, that obtained 
from the seven stout poles alone being 1,302, and from the three light 
poles 1,417. 

As the investigation referred primarily to lines built with stout poles, 
1,302 is the value used in calculating subsequent tables. 

Table No. II. contains the results of similar experiments made upon 
six old poles creosoted fifteen years ago, and upon three uncreosoted 
poles imported in 1884, the constants being 1,276 and 1,232 respectively. 

As previously stated, formula 2 is really derived from experiments 
made on square timber, a multiplier being used to reduce results when 
round timber is in question. But obviously the strength of round 
timber varies as the cube of the diameter, so a constant has been obtained 
for the formula 

D3 
w= K “2 . . : . . ° . (3) 


ON THE STRENGTH OF TELEGRAPH POLES. 855- 


D being the diameter ; 
whilst for poles of elliptical section it becomes 


2 
w=K has : : : : : : (4), 
D being the axis in the line of stress, and D, that at right angles to it. 

The value of K, for formule 3 and 4, as deduced from the mean of the 
experiments on new stout creosoted poles, is 765. 

It appears from these experiments that creosoting does not impair 
the strength of red fir, and age has had no apparent influence on its. 
qualities. 

The curves formed by the poles in bending were very perfect.” Rupture 
invariably took place at the ground line, and about half broke by fracture 
of the upper fibres under tension, while the other half buckled in the 
under fibres under compression, showing that nature had proportioned 
them well to their work. 

An important question that arises out of this inquiry is what shall be: 
the proper scantling of timber and the span separating the poles on tele- 
graph lines of varying number of wires. 

In solving this problem we have not only to take into consideration 
the proper factor of safety to be allowed, and the wind pressure to be 
exerted upon the wires and the poles, but the fact that the diminution of 
spans beyond certain limits is impracticable owing to the injurious lower- 
ing of the insulation by the multiplication of supports. 

The factor of safety is 4, and the maximum wind pressure per 
square foot is taken at 18°75 lbs., reducing the effective area in the ratio 
of ten to six, owing to the circular section of the wires. We know very 
little of the average pressure on a long wire supported close to the ground. 
Most records have been made in exposed positions, and at considerable 
heights, whereas the average height of a trunk line of wires is but 20 feet 
above the surface. The President of this Section (Mr. Baker) thinks 
30 ibs. per square foot a fair average to take for telegraph wires when 
very much exposed, but considering the frictional resistance of the ground 
and the obstructions due to hedges, banks, walls, trees, &c., I am in- 
clined to consider this too high for low levels. We have usually taken 
18°75 Ib. per square foot as a fair measure of the wind pressure on our 
wires, and the results of practice very much confirm this view. 

Table No. III. has been drawn up showing the strength of round 
poles one foot long, and varying in diameter from 6 to 13} inches. To 
obtain the strength of any pole it is only necessary to divide the tabulated 
breaking strain by the length of the pole in feet. 

The strength of the timber being satisfactorily settled, and a maximum 
wind pressure and factor of safety having been accepted, the length of 
spans for varying lines is readily calculated. Tables IV. and V. give the 
_ stresses on seventeen and twenty wire lines, so arranged as to fulfil the 
implied conditions. 

The experiments and calculations in this paper were done by Mr. 
Andrew Bell and Mr. John Gavey, of the Post Office Telegraph De- 
partment. 


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858 REPORT—1885. 
Taste III.—The Calculated Strength of Round Poles one foot long. 


Diameter meters | Breaking weight in lbs. || Diameter meters | Breaking weight in lbs. 
6 13,776 10 63,773 
6°25 15,568 10°25 68,678 
6°5 17,517 10°5 73,819 
675 19,611 10°75 79,218 
7 21,873 11 84,874 
7°25 24,304 11:25 90,798 
75 26,902 115 96,992 
775 29,725 11°75 103,454 
8 32,648 12 110,196 
8°25 35,807 12°25 117,219 
8:5 39,166 12°5 124,555 
8°75 42,716 12°75 132,182 
9 46,491 13 140,100 
9°25 50,467 13°25 148,344 
9°5 54,678 13°5 156,901 
9°75 59,102 13°75 165,782 


To obtain the strength of any pole divide the tabulated breaking weight by the length of 
the pole in feet between the ground line and the resultant point of the load. 


Taste LV.— Wind Presswre, 18°75 per sq. ft.—factor of safety of 4; Strains 
and Strength of 17 wire line; 60 yards spans; calculated to constants 
obtained at Gloucester Road. 


No. 8 Wire No. 14 Copper 
Length of | eee Re ie) 
Pole Moment of Safe Moment of Safe | ie ne 2 
Pressure in lbs. | diameter || Pressure in Ibs. | diameter | 
26 8,344:0 8:25 3,953°6 6:0 | 8°25 
28 9,374°4 8:5 4446-4 6°5 | 8°75 
30 9,811:2 8:5 4,648-0 675 | 9:0 
32 10,796°8 8:75 5,118°4 70 | 9°25 
34 11,771°2 9°25 5,577°6 725 | 9°75 
36 12,264-0 9:25 5,790°4 Tbe | akOO 
40 14,224-0 9°75 6,742°4 T5 10°75 


Taste V.—Wind Pressure, 18°75 per sq. ft—Strains and Strength of 20 
wire line: 60 yards span: calculated on constants obtained at Gloucester 
Road. 


No. 8 Wire ! No. 14 Copper 
SNC ae > Specification 
Pole Moment of Safe | Moment of Safe diameter 
Pressure in lbs. | diameter || Pressure in lbs. | diameter 
26 9,811:2 8:5 | 3,953°6 (35) 8:25 
28 10,964°8 9:0 / 5,196°8 8-0 8°75 
30 11,547:2 9-0 } 5,465°6 8-0 90 
32 12,700°8 9:25 | 6,014°4 8:5 9°25 
34 13,8544 95 - || 6,663-2 8:5 9°75 
36 15,545°6 10:0 7,369°6 9-0 10:0 
40 16,732°8 10°25 | 7,907°2 9°5 10°75 


"4 


ON THE USE OF INDEX NUMBERS. 859 


On the Use of Index Numbers in the Investigation of Trade 
Statistics. By STEPHEN Bourne, F.S.S. 


[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso 
among the Reports. ] 


WHATEVER opinions may be held on the oft-mooted question whether 
statistics are to be deemed a science or merely as an art, there can be no 
denying that statistical research may, and ought to be conducted on scientific 
principles. The collation of facts, the method in which they are grouped 
and treated, and the results attained by such treatment, is as truly the 
pursuit of science as is the study of many another branch of knowledge 
directed to the discovery and promulgation of truth. Many of the 
elements with which statisticians have to deal are obscure and variable, but 
the conclusions they may be made to support are capable of being of 
as definite establishment as those worked out by the processes of the more 
exact sciences. One of the methods resorted to is the use of an ‘ index 
number,’ which as its name denotes, indicates certain conditions and 
connections of figures which it is otherwise difficult to associate with 
each other. The use of this method is not without difficulty, and two or 
three instances in whichit has been adopted may serve to illustrate both 
its merits and its disadvantages, as well as an introduction to the special 
occasion for its application which forms the subject of this paper. 

The late Professor Jevons, in a pampblet on the fall in the value of gold 
published in 1863, sought in this manner to indicate the various changes 
which had taken place in the price of the various articles of commerce 
following upon the then recent gold discoveries in Australia, and from 
thence to infer that the altered nominal values were in reality due to a 
depreciation in the value of the precious metal in which these prices were 
expressed. Later on, the same evidence of a fall in price was adduced in 
proof of the subsequent appreciation of gold, which more recently both Mr. 
Goschen and Mr. Giffen have asserted to be still in progress. Collecting 
together the average mean prices of thirty-nine different commodities 
during the six years of 1845-50, the Professor took these as the datum 
line with which to compare those of the three years 1860-2. Subsequently 
adding to these seventy-nine new commodities, and by logarithmetic cal- 
culations dividing the arithmetical averages of the former period into that 
of the later three years, he obtained a ratio or percentage which repre- 
sented the rise of prices presumed to be due to the fall of gold. Having 
thus reduced prices expressed in various coins—pence, shillings, and 
pounds—and appertaining to quantities denoted by various weights, 
measures, and numbers, to a series of index numbers each having a 
definite and proper relation to the commodity it represented, it became 
possible to add together the equivalents of that which could not be other- 
wise combined, and so to obtain an average marking a distinct alteration 
with respect to gold. This was taken to establish a universal rise in 
price corresponding to a depreciation of gold by about 9 per cent., which 
was thereby deemed to be proved to have taken place. 

The ‘ Economist,’ commencing with the average price for the same 
six years, 1845-50, of each of twenty-two separate articles or groups of 


‘860 REPORT—1885. 


articles, to which it gave the index number of 100, has year by year 
calculated for a new index number the percentage of variation in price 
and thus indicated the specific yearly rise or fall down to the present 
time. Thus cotton wool, the price of which was represented at the 
commencement of the series by 100, the actual price being 8d. per lb., 
103 x 100 
a 
In the interval it had risen in 1866 to the equivalent of 267, and in 1883 
9@ 9R7 
fell solowas 71. It is evident that a ie 


26 + 167 — 29 


rising to 103d. in 1873, was represented by 126, the result of 


=1544, or leaving out 


from each the original 100, = 542 would give the index 


numbers for the average price or increase of price for those three years, 
‘and by conversion back into pence show the actual price and increased 
price: for as 100 : 1542::81 : 122 and 100: 54°6::8-25 : 4°51, and so 
on for every succeeding year. Each of the twenty-two articles being on 
the datum line as 100, the total index number becomes 2,200, and the 
several new numbers in the following years being added together, we get 
3,964 and 2,947 as the totals for 1866 and 1873, with 1,564 and 747 as 
the respective indications of the general rise in prices. The index for Ist 
January, 1885, is but 2,098, showing, so far as this table is evidence, that 
we have now reached the lowest prices for at least thirty-five years. 

This table however—good as it is so far as it goes—is defective, 
inasmuch as it only deals with the quotations for forty-four distinct 
-articles out of the numerous commodities in which we deal, and it takes 
no account of the relative importance of the articles, either in the range 
of value, or the quantities bought and sold. Thus wheat at 30s. to 50s. 
per quarter, of which we grow some 80,000,000 bushels, and import some 
120,000,000 more, reckons for no more than indigo at 2s. to 8s. per lb., 
the transactions in which must be limited to the 100,000 cwts. we import. 
Again, including as it does four descriptions of cotton, each numbering 
as one out of twenty-two, the unusual fluctuations to which this article is 
subject affects the index number, for the years in which this may occur, in 
a fourfold degree. The same to less extent may be said of iron. These 
sources of derangement, together with that of the entire omission of such 
an important article as coal, Jed me, in a paper on the silver question 
read before the Statistical Society in 1879,! to substitute corrected index 
numbers in which these two sources of error were avoided. The effect 
of these corrections was to reduce amongst others the average index 
number of 1865 from 162 to 138, and to increase that of 1873 from 134 
to 142. It is obvious also, as the ‘ Economist’ itself remarks, ‘that in the 
course of so long a period of years, 1845-84, some variations have 
inevitably arisen in the mode of quoting prices.’ 

It must be evident therefore that imperfections in the data upon 
which these calculations are made prevent entire confidence in their 
results, notwithstanding the scientific accuracy in the methods employed. 
It is probable, however, that for the purpose of comparing one year with 
another or others, especially with those not separated by long intervals, 
the ratio of progress is accurate. In such statistics as these, which em- 
brace a multitude of small items, and thus afford opportunities for minor 
errors to balance each other, the results are not far from the truth, even 


» «Some Phases of the Silver Question.’ Stat. Journal, vol. xliii. 


ON THE USE OF INDEX NUMBERS. 861 


_ though the figures for one or other period may not be absolutely correct. 
Since each one is liable to the same chances of error, the relative accu- 
- racy may thus be quite sufficient for purposes of comparison. 

The most recent instance of the use of index numbers is perhaps that 
contained in this year’s report upon ‘Changes in Imports and Exports,’ 
rendered by Mr. Robert Giffen to the Secretary for the Board of Trade. 
The object here sought for is to ascertain the yearly progress of the 
nation’s trade with colonies and countries outside its own borders, both 
as regards its money value and the volume of the goods which it receives 
and parts with. This, so far as the value is concerned, is easily ascer- 
tained by the figures published year by year in the ‘ Statistical Abstract,” 
which sets forth the value of each principal article of both import and 
export, with the combined value of all the minor articles, and then 
collects them all into one total which shows in one sum the aggregate 
import, and in another, that of export. Thus we find without any calcu- 
lation that in 1883, the last year with which the paper deals, the imports 
were yalued at 427,000,000/., whereas ten years ago they were at 
371,000,0001., showing an increase of 56,000,0007. Also that the values 
of the exports at the same dates were 240,000,0007. and 255,000,0001., 
the difference being 15,000,000/. against the later period. In like manner 
that the sum total at one time was 667,000,000/., and at the other 
626,000,000. Also that the imports exceeded the exports in 1883 by 
187,000,0001., and in 1873 by 116,000,0007. These particulars are by 
no means all that are needed for the formation of a true judgment as to 
our trading prosperity or adversity. To the banker or the broker it may 
be sufficient to know the gross amount on which commissions may have 
been earned or charges realised; but the merchant needs to understand 
the changes in the goods which have passed through his hands, the 
shipowner has to take note of the quantity of goods he has carried. So. 
the economist looks to be informed of the volume of our trade, and 
it is the business of the statistician to evolve from such data as are 
within his reach the fullest information they are capable of furnishing. 
This is not so easy as at first sight it appears to be. 

The ‘Statistical Abstract,’ the only source of information dealt with 
on the present occasion, sets forth the principal articles in quantity where 
that is capable of expression, and the respective values for each enume- 
rated article, all others being included in one total of value only. If the 
investigation be confined to one article alone, little more than inspec- 
tion is needed. Take for instance pig iron, of which we exported in 
1883, 1,564,000 tons, at a value of 4,077,0001., and in 1873, 1,142,000 
tons, at 7,118,0001.; and cotton yarn 265,000,000 lbs., at 13,500,0002. in 
the one year, and 215,000,000 lbs., at 15,895,000/. in the other. There 
is no difficulty in seeing wherein the quantities and values have in each 
case changed, but inasmuch as the quantity of one is stated in tons 
and the other in pounds weight, and the unit values are in pounds and in 
pence, we cannot as with the money add the two together, to see whether 
on the whole the bulk has increased and in what proportion. Much less 
could all the goods having the quantities in yards, gallons, &c., be thus 
brought into one representative sum. Mr. Giffen therefore takes 100 as 
the index number for the total value, say of exports in 1883, which we 
have seen to be 240,000,0007. Then to find the proportion of the pig 
iron value, says, as 240,000,000 : 4,077,000::100:1°7, the index 

number for pig iron; and as 240,000,000 : 13,500,000 ::100 : 5°6, the 


862 REPORT—1885. 


index number for cotton yarn. Pursuing the same course with each of 
the other articles of export for that year, which are enumerated in quan- 
tity as well as value, and adding them all together, he arrives at a total of 
61 as the index number of the whole, which stands as the index number 
or representative of 146,000,0007. ont of 240,000,000. In like manner 
dealing with any other year, say 1873, he takes 100 to represent its total 
value of 255,000,000/., and finds the index number of the enumerated 
articles to be 67:2. It should be observed here that the index number 
for 1883is “of 249,000,0000,, and that for 1873, 67 of 255,000,000, 
go that the two index numbers do not stand in a definite relation to each 
other. This is a defect, as I venture to think it, to which allusion will be 
made further on. Thus far the process has been with values only, aud 
the index numbers show no more than the actual money figures do. The 
use to be made of them is to get other index numbers that shall represent 
quantities algo, and so determine whether, and to what extent, the volame 
as well as the value of one year has changed with reference to the other. 
This is effected by the following means. In the first place, a simple 
division of the total value by the total quantity of each article in each 
year will show the average price per unit whether that be a ton, pound, 
yard, gallon, or any other measure. 

Keeping for illustration to the two articles already quoted, it appears 


that Togas tons gives 5214s, as the price per ton of pig iron in 
118,0371. 4 ; LEM aT, 
1883, and Tae Os = 12465s. the price for 1873, giving a decrease 


of 72°51s., which shows that this article was more costly by 139 per cent. 
13,509,7321. 
264,772,000 


=17:76d., from whence it is seen that 


in the earlier than the later year. So with cotton yarns 


15,895,4407. 
= 19-9 med aia Pallet is 
See eee ano 4 778 Bar 
this article was 45 per cent. higher in price in 1873 than in 1883. If 
now, we increase the index numbers of 1883 by 139 and 45 per cent. respec- 
Lif X1390 o 2°36, and 5°6 x #9 = 2°52 as additi hich 

SABIE; Ge 100 = 722 as additions whic 
will represent the alterations necessary when quantity is considered aS 
well as value. 

Mr. Giffen, however, has preferred a comparison with 186], and to 
take the proportion of each article as it was in 1875 instead of that of 
each year, and has worked out the alterations thus to be made for twenty 
of the years included in the period 1840-1873. Taking then the total 
index number ascertained for 1875 to be 65°8, he finds that 1873 is 
+ 19:93, whilst 1883 is — 5-95; that is (though he does not so state it), 
these changes would make that for 1883, compared with 1873, as 59:85 
to 85°73, in which proportion the values of the latter year must be in- 
creased to bring them into comparison with the former. Thus 146,000,0007. 
must be increased to 209,000,000/.; and assuming that the non-enume- 
rated articles vary in the same ratio 224,000,001. x ao = 321,000,0002., 
as the value to which the total exports of 1883 would have reached had 
the prices been the same as in 1873. 

Adhering to the principle of the foregoing calculations, there would 


tively, we get 


ON THE USE OF INDEX NUMBERS. 863 


yet appear to be room for simplifying and improving upon them. In the 
first place it seems erroneous for the purpose of comparing one year with 
another or others, that the component parts from which the yearly index 
numbers are built up, or rather we should say into which each of them 
is split up, should not have a common basis to rest upon, so that they may 
be added to or subtracted from each other, and then converted back into 
the figures of actual values, as for instance, cotton yarn in 1865 is 6°2 per 
cent. of 166,000,0007., in 1883 5°6 of 240,000,000/., and therefore cannot 
be combined without previous reduction to a common denominator. It 
is proposed therefore to reduce all to one standard, and to choose 240 
millions, the total exports of 1883, for the datum amount. This too 
because in the latter year a greater number of articles are specifically 
enumerated, and we can in consequence operate upon a larger proportion 
of the whole. It is evident that whether we take 1, 10, 100, or 1,000 as 
the standard index, the figures into which it is divided will be the same, 
only differing in the place of the decimal point. In the Board of Trade 
tables 100 is chosen, which for closeness of calculation requires the 
use of decimals, and also of the plus and minus signs, whereas if 1,000 
be taken we avoid the use of both, and all our indices are in whole numbers. 
‘Thus the total value of enumerated articles in the tables, which is 
expressed by 61:0, or by adding 9-4 for articles not included in the 
enumeration of earlier years, will appear as 704, which is the same thing 
without the point. But that for 1840 will be 214 instead of 79:1. 


704 214 i : 
“baciea casei h 
Hence {000 and t000 22 be added together or otherwise dealt with, 
because the denominator signifies the same amount, but ri and for 


cannot be, because the 100 stands in one case for 24.0 and in the other for 
51 millions. The one set of tables will show at a glance the proportion 
which exists between every figure they contain, which the other requires 
an elaborate calculation to discover. 

The object to be attained, as already pointed out, is to get a number 
which shall indicate for each article, and for the whole together, the bulk 
as well as the value, and so to ascertain the very important point, whether 
the changes, both in the respective items and the grand total, are due 
wholly, or in what proportion, to an increased or diminished volume of 
goods, or to a variation in the prices at which they are valued. Hence itis 
convenient to make 1883 the year for comparison, rather than 1861, which 
Mr. Giffen uses, and this once established may be utilised for succeeding 
years, until some great alteration in the conditions of trade may make it 
necessary to adopt some new method of exhibiting its effects. 

The number of distinct articles which are specified, both as to value 
and quantity, is 65, for each of which individual calculation has to be 
made in each year. These furnish a wide enough range for assuming 
with safety that those which cannot, for want of definite information as 
to quantities, be so estimated, may be taken in the same ratio of bulk 
as the others are found to yield. The mode of estimation is first to 
convert the value for each given year into a number proportionate to that 
of 1,000, which is the index number for 1883. Then taking the price per 
unit, be it a pound, a gallon, or a yard, as deduced from the amounts and 
shown in the ‘Statistical Abstract,’ to consider that for 1883 as 1:00, and 
for other years in the percentage of increase or decrease. Having thus 

_ obtained a divider for the value index, the resulting number becomes 
‘ 


«<4 


864 REPORT— 1885. 


an index of quantity for each article, and so by simple addition for the 
whole of the specified articles in each year. To illustrate this process, in 
1883 the exports of cotton yarn were in round numbers 265,000,000 Ibs., 
and the value 13,500,0001., in 1865 they were 193,500,000 lbs. weight, 
and 10,300,0001. ; the price per lb. being 12°25d. and 23-98d. respectively, 
or 96 per cent. higher in the earlier year. The value index of 56 stands 
for 1883, but being multiplied by 1-96 we change it into 110 to represent 
the value 26,400,0007. which would have accrued had the price been the 
same as in 1865. Or reversing the process we divide 42, the index for 
1865, by 1:96, giving 21:5, to show the value 5,165,000. which the yarn 
of that year would have realised had it been sold in 1883, and thus get 
the ratio of quantity to value for this article, All the enumerated goods 
being dealt with in the same way, and the non-enumerated assumed to. 
follow the same ratio, it is evident that the index numbers fairly indicate 
the proportionate bulk of the trade in therespective years. The following 
tables in which the enumerated articles, instead of being separately 
detailed, are gathered into groups, show first (A) certain index numbers for 
1883, and the changes which would have to be made on estimating the 
goods at the prices of three other years within the decade 1873-83, and 
of one earlier year 1865, in which the disturbance of prices arising from 
the American Civil War exercised a marked influence upon the export trade 
of this country. Secondly (B), the index numbers for these same four 
years are shown in parallel columns with the alterations that the prices of 
1883 would have produced. These illustrate the manner in which the full 
set of tables for a series of years may be easily used to manifest the 
fluctuations in quantity as well as value, either by way of comparison 
between later and earlier or earlier and later years. 


A.—Ezxports of 1883 in Index Numbers, together with those numbers as they 
would have been at the prices of other years. 1,000 = 240,000,0002. 


Additions to 1883 for Prices of 


Articles Grouped 1883 

1879 1875 | 1873 | 1865 

Cottons . ‘ 3 é ; - ‘ ‘ 299 12 68 100 | 243 
Linen and Jute Z ; ‘ > z 2 36 } 5 8 13 
Woollens ‘ ; . ; > : : 89 —6 19 23 27 
Chief Textiles . ‘ A ‘ 424 if 92 131 283 

Coals. : 3 : : : 3 44 —3 20 54 1 
Tron . ; 4 : 5 : ; : 118 —1 59 109 36 
Other Metals . \ f ; ‘ = 2 21 —1 7 9 4 
Chief Minerals . . : ; 183 —5 86 172 41 

Other enumerated . 2 ; : : 99 2 17 23 26 
All other goods. : : : : . 294. 2 82} 137_| 147 
Total Exports . , 3 . | 1,000 6} 277 | 463] 497 


ON THE USE OF INDEX NUMBERS. 865 


Hezports of 1883 


At prices of 1883 . 5 . Index No. 1,000 = 240,000,000/7. value 
— 1879 . ; 7 ¥ 1,006 = 242,000,0002. 
sg 1875 . ‘ . oc 1,277 = 306,000,0002. 
59 USZay i F . ‘ 1,463 = 351,000,000/. 
“ 1865 . } ; * 1,497 = 359,000,0007. 
5 1884 . 3 5 Ps 1,010 = 243,000,0007, 


B.—Ezxports of five different years in Index Numbers, with those numbers 
as they would have been if changed into prices of 1883. 


The Black Figures at 1883 prices. 


| 1888 | 1879 1875 1873 1865 
Cottons . / : F | 299 | 255 | 245 | 287 | 234} 312 | 288 | 238 | 181 
Linen and Jute |; 386| 33) 32) 43] 88 44 | 36 | 49 | 386 
Woollens | 89} 80] 86] 110] :1] 123] 98! 107]! 82 
PET ea =r el Eel 
Chief Textiles. | 424 | 368 | 863 | 440 | 8363 | 479 | 367 | 394 | 249 
meee or 48)! 30") 88 /F 40°)" 28 55 | 25) 19] 18 
Tron . i : 118 81 81 | 107 76 161 84 64 49 
Other Metals , . sel 2bclee L8ee Del > 20 Loa y 22 [45 beh, jel 
| | 
Chief Minerals ; 183 | 129 | 182 | 167 | 119; 238 } 124| 100} 81 
Other enumerated . , 99) 79| 77 | 86) 7% 90} 73 | 58| 46 
All other goods : : 294 | 222 | 221 | 238 | 202 256 | 175 | 140 94 
Totalexports. ./1,000 | 798 | 798 | 931 | 789 | 1,063 | 727 | 692 | 460 | 
a | { 
Actual values. At prices of 1883. 
Index No. £ Index No. £ 
1883 F 1,000 = 240,000,000 - 1,000 240,000,000 
1879 “ 798 = 192,000,000 4 798 192,000,000 
1875 ‘ 931 = 223,000,000 ‘ 739 177,000,000 
1873 : 1,063 = 255,009,000 3 727 174,000,000 
1865 - 692 = 166,000,000 A 460 111,000,000 
1884 4 970 = 233,000,000 : 1,010 243,000,000 


The index number of 1,000 that has been employed to represent the 
240,000,000/. of British produce and manufactures exported in 1883, and 
to which all the other numbers have the same relation, might have been 
applied to the value of 1884, and would have been so done but that the 
‘ Statistical Abstract’ for last year was not published in time. The 
figures required could be gathered from other sources, but not in quite 
the arrangement of their component parts whieh fits them for the com- 
parison that will be made when the ‘ Abstract ’ makes its appearance.' So 
large an index number has been used for convenience in calculating the very 
numerous items depending upon it, but it is obvious that by cutting off 
the three ciphers and prefixing or inserting the decimal point in other 
places, we shall have the relation of all the other figures to the value of 


1 Vide end of paper, pp. 872-3. 
1885. 3K 


866 REPORT—1885. 


1883 as the unit. We have then for the last twelve years, 1884—73, 
the following actual values and their respective index numbers :— 


£ Index No. 

1884 : : : : : 232,927,575 “971 
1883 3 : F : 239,799,473 1-000 
1882 : 3 : : : 241,467,162 1-006 
1881 : ; ; : : 234,022,678 ‘975 
1880 : : : : : 223,060,446 "929 
1879 : . 5 : ‘ 191,531,758 ‘798 
1878 ; - 3 : . 192,848,914 “803 
1877 : . : ; é 198,893,065 829 
1876 5 ; : : : 200,639,204 835 
1875 : : : ; 3 223,465,963 931 
1874 , ‘ : : : 239,558,121 998 
1873 - 4 3 = ‘ 255,164,603 1-063 

Average. - : 222,781,583 928 


Stating also the values of 1865 and 1864 we get a comparison with two 
years of high prices though not of large exports. In 


PsGnel ee eee). 185,885,725 Index No. “692 
W864) on heer ois 160,449,052 2 669 


But this Index may also stand for the collected quantities of the 
goods exported in 1883, and then represents the # or unknown gailons, 
yards, cwts., &c. of the various articles, whether detailed or not in the 
trade figures ; and as already shown it may be split up into its component 
parts. Altering each one of these according to the variation of the prices 
of other years and collecting them into one total, we get a comparison 
between the bulk which the index of money in the standard one 1883 
bears to that of other years, for it needs no explanation to show that a 
given amount of money represents a greater or lesser quantity of goods 
according as the prices of these were lesser or greater. Thus (A) taking 
the index number of 1883, as standing for both money and quantity, and 
altering it for each of the four years given by way of illustration in the 
foregoing table, we get a number which enables us to estimate the growth 
in bulk at present as compared with the past. Or (B) taking the index 
number for each of those years as standing for quantity and money alike, 
and altering it to the standard of prices in 1883, we ascertain what pro- 
portion quantities in those years bear to the later one. 


A. At prices of former years B. At prices of 1883. 
1883 Index No. 1: Index No. 1: 


in 1879 wonld have swollen to 1:006 -798 would have shrunk to -798 = 1 to 1 
1875 vi Ma E207 -- "93! Pf rs 739, =1 to "794 
1873 es i 1-463 1-063 * ‘727 = 1 to “684 
1865 PF * 1:497 "692 Pe es “460 = 1 to °665 - 


The one set of figures indicating the enlarged volume of goods the money 
of 1883 would represent as compared with its predecessors, the other the 
contracted bulk of those previous years as compared with 1883. 

One more comparison is needed to show the full bearing of these num- 
bers. The actual difference betwixt the values of the trade of one or 
more years and other years is thus compounded of two elements, the 
one arising from differing quantities, the other from varying prices. The 
foregoing increases to the index numbers of 1883 do not indicate the 
additions to the value of our trade, but only what would have resulted 


ON THE USE OF INDEX NUMBERS. 867 


from a maintenance of the prices obtained in former years. They in 
every case exceed the actual differences between the index numbers, and 
consequently the money value of the several years, which being deducted 
from the apparent increase which represents the bulk, the remainder will 
show the diminution in the value of this branch of our trade in 1883 from 
that of the other quoted years. This will be made more distinctly appa- 
rent by disregarding the use of the index numbers and showing the sums 
which they represent. In the following table, column (A) is the total 
value of the exports in the years previously noted ; (B) the excess or defi- 
ciency of the figures of 1883 over or below those amounts ; (C) the addi- 
tional sums which would have accrued in 1883 had each former year’s 
prices remained; and (D) the consequent net remunerative advantage or 
disadvantage to our whole export trade in 1883, as compared with the four 
earlier and one subsequent year, regard being had to both quantity and 
price.— 


F B C 
at 1883 1883 D 
Million £ i= Fee 

1883 239-80 

1879 191°53 + 48-27 syne + 46° 
1875 223-47 + 16°33 = olf — 50: 
1873 25516 SeieBEU hive bs HLR: — 127° 
1865 165-84 + 73:96 ms Lae py 

| 
1884 with 83 232:93 BovgBe OU uss taba: or 3? 


Prior to the publication by the Board of Trade in 1879 of its first 
report, to which that already referred to relating to the trade of 1883 is 
a successor, the ‘ Economist’ compiled tables arriving at much the same 
results by av independent method. In these, without resorting to an 
index number, the value of the goods of the later year was directly 
calculated at the prices of the former, to show how much the bulk would 
have realised had there been no change of price, the difference being 
the gain or loss from having obtained higher or lower prices. Thus the 
difference between these computed sums and the actual values manifested 
the gain or loss due to greater or smaller quantities. These tables have 
been continued from year to year, and being drawn from the figures of 
the monthly trade account published seven days after the last day of each 
month, the readers of that paper have before them, within a month after the 
termination of each year, a pretty accurate comparison with the trade of 
its predecessor in imports as well as exports. Calculations for exports on 
the same plan between 1883 and 1873, and dealing with articles repre- 
‘sented in the later year by 166,000,000/., showed that the prices of the 
earlier one would have given 8:,000,000/. more than they realised, 
-and the actual difference in the values of the two years, 23,000,000/., was 
thus shown to give 60,000,0001. as the loss from diminished value 
lessened by the increase in volume. The value of the non-enumerated goods 
being assumed to have followed the same course will give results agreeing 
with index number method, and so confirm the accuracy of both. 

Similar figures, to be found in that paper for 31st January last, are for 


_ the present used in the foregoing tables to show that whereas the exports 


for 1884 were valued at 232,928,0001., as against those of 1883, the gain 


3 K°*2 


868 REPORT—1885. 


from increased sales of 2,733,0007. was lessened by 9,604,0001. fron» 
lower prices, the actual difference adverse to last year being 6,871,8981. 

Of the present year, only two-thirds having elapsed, it is impossible: 
to speak definitely, but assuming that the next four months will follow 
the same course as those which are gone, it is probable that there will be: 
a further decay of 21,000,000/. on the total of last year. Of this a 
rough calculation points to one-third as the probable loss from quantity;. 
and two-thirds the failure in prices. 

Although the purport of this paper has been to explain the method of 
investigation rather than the results to be obtained by its use, it would 
scarcely be right to leave wholly untouched some of the evidence it elicits; 
or the problems whose existence may thus be manifested, though not 
solved. Had time permitted, illustrations might have been drawn from 
the import records which admit of exactly the same treatment that has 
been bestowed upon the exports. Before this, however, it may be well 
to allude again to the differences of the two methods as accounting for: 
the figures evolved by the one process differing from those produced by the- 
other. 

It has been previously noticed that the selection by Mr. Giffen of 
1861 as a basis narrows the list of articles which can be specifically 
calculated by so many as were not enumerated in that year, and so throws. 
the calculation on the whole year to be made upon a smaller proportion. 
In 1883, 61° instead of 70-4, leaving 39: to be averaged instead of 29°6. 
But it does more than this, for many of the classes left out in the later 
year are really included in the earlier. For instance, the total value of’ 
iron exported in 1861 was 10,000,0001., and in 1883, 29,000,0001., but 
only 6:4 represented the latter, whilst 5°6 stood for the former in building 
up the index numbers, owing to the exclusion of descriptions separately 
shown in 1883, but included under more general heads in 1861. This. 
applies still more to earlier years. 

Then the choosing for the index number a percentage of the actual: 
value of its own year, instead of some fixed datum, rendered the figures 
of unequal values in the different years. Thus 61, the index for 1883,. 
meant a of 240,000,000 = 146,000,0001., whilst 71:1, for 1861, meant. 
ee of 125,000,000 = 89,000,000/., each unit of the index being of 
double value in one year to what it bore in the other. 

Again, taking the proportions of 1875 as those to which the increased 
prices should be reckoned as affecting the index of all years alike, could 
only be correct for such years as happened to have the same relative 
quantities as in that particular year, and must be particularly injurious. 
where a very high or low price happened to be coincident with a greatly 
varying quantity. This too would be aggravated or minimised by the 
proportions being those of value rather than of quantity. Thus the 
proportions of cotton yarn for 1865, 1875, 1883 stood as 104 : 216 : 265,. 
but by value as 10 : 13 : 14, and tke percentages of increase or decrease 
from the standard of 1861 were as + 91:23 : + 41°63 : — 2:31. Tt is. 
difficult to see how any combination of these factors, so widely differing in 
their ratios, can bring about the result that the index numbers for cotton 
yarn should be altered as +5°38 : +1:00 : — 0:'14.as shown in the Board 
of Trade tables. 

The effect of these three several arbitrary departures, as they seem to. 


ON THE USE OF INDEX NUMBERS. 869 


“%be, from sound bases in the Board of Trade tables does not affect the total 
results so much as might be supposed, from the fact that the year 1875 on 
which the calculations are made was one unmarked by any great 
irregularity in any of the articles, either in quantity or price, and also 
from the deviations happening to take different directions, so as to 
‘neutralise cach other. The effect of the two systems may be shown side 
by side for the five years already detailed in a previous table, where the 
alteration in the index numbers, and the export values they represent, 
were based upon the prices of 1883, thus: 


Prices of 1883 Prices of 1861 
| Actual Values Index No. | Altered Value | Index No. ' Altered Value 
£ | / £ £ 
18835 240,000,000 | 1,000 240,000,000 59°85 | 264,000,000 
1879 192,000,000 | 798 192,000,000 | 59°70 212,000,000 
1875 224,000,000 | 739 177,000,000 | T£AT 198,000,000 
1873 255,000,000 | 127 174,000,000 85°73 196,000°000 
1865 166,000,000 | 460 111,000,000 | 89°26 122,000,000 
| 


The prices of 186] having been 10 per cent. higher than those of 1883 
would make that difference between the calculated values in each of the 
years. These index numbers of 1861 will not however permit of being 
added together, either in the whole or the several parts, for the different 
articles, because they are in each year percentages of varying totals, 
‘whilst those for 1883 are in every case a percentage of the same amount, 
mamely the total of that year, 240,000,0001. 

But having got these altered values by applying the prices of one year 
to others and deducting from them the actual values of the respective 
years, it would appear in the case of the three years that the bulk of our 
‘trade in 1883 is to be measured as more than 1875 by 83,000,0001., than 

1873 by 96,000,0007., and than 1865 by 193,000,000/. But both 1865 and 
1873 are abnormal years in which the extravagant prices of coals, and 
therefore of iron, or of cotton, ran the total values up to an undue extent, 
and so by the large proportion they are of our whole trade had an unfair 
influence, not only upon the values of these goods themselves, but upon 
the average of the non-enumerated as well. For instance, the price of 
cotton in 1865 raised the index number in comparison with 1883 by 
adding 243 to 299, being 81 per cent., whereas all the other enumerated 
articles together only added 107 to 405, being 24 per cent. In like 
manner the cost of coals in 1873 added 54 to 44, at the rate of 123 per 
cent., and the other goods, excepting metals which were almost equally 
affected, were increased 309 on 521, or but 59 per cent. For the ultra 

free-trader therefore to compare the results of these two exceptional years, 
as has often been done, with 1883, is about as absurd as should some 
opponent of sanitary reform in Spain compare the death-rate of some 
fature year, when cholera has ceased its ravages, in proof of the superior 
healthiness of the nation in the later over the previous year. The true 
worth of such investigations is historical, as furnishing one factor amongst 
the many which are combined in influencing the prosperity of trade, and 
sets of tables thus constructed may possibly be of great help in the 
collection of information towards solving the problems committed to the 
consideration of the recently appointed Royal Commission on Trade. 


870 REPORT—1885. 


It is essential that one other warning be given. After all the care 
which can be exercised in eliminating sources of error, it is not at all 
certain that the quantities of goods, though expressed in the same 
denominations, are in truth alike in the substance of the unit. A ton of 
coals cannot vary in quantity, or greatly in quality, from year to year, 
but a yard of cotton piece goods may greatly alter in width, thickness, 
and tineness of texture, according to the make which happens to be sale- 
able at the time. Fabrics of mixed materials, such as cotton or jute 
conjoined with wool or silk, do greatly change in the proportions of the 
dearer substance, as well as in size or texture, according to the fashion of 
the day. There is good reason to believe that in all these respects. the 
yards of both cotton and woollen goods are now intrinsically less valuable 
than they were in past years, and in whatever degree this may be true of 
these and other goods, the comparison of goods by the price, weight, or 
measurement must be fallacious. As an instance of this, it happened that 
the value given for a consignment of shirtings to New Zealand was 
challenged as being preposterously low. The production of invoices proved 
the figures of both yards and money to be absolutely correct, and that the 
gcods were really described as shirtings. But further inquiry elicited the 
fact that these goods were destined not to make shirts for Europeans, or 
even for Maories, but to form shrouds for the carcases of sheep in the 
refrigerating chambers of the vessels bringing them home. For this 
purpose a much inferior article was serviceable, although in the trade 
accounts it would necessarily be grouped with those of far higher quality 
and price. 

But it is high time to leave these wearisome details and descriptions, and 
to point out a few of the purposes for which the tables may serve. They 
must be regarded as means, not ends; tools wherewith crude and unsightly 
statistics may be reduced into useful, and it may be comely shapes. 
Like interest tables and logarithmic numbers, though equally tedious to 
construct, and far more difficult to describe, they may save a vast amount of 
labour to those by whom they are used, and lead up to results of real utility. 

In the first place, the extreme variation of price within short periods 
of time, and the equal irregularity of their recurrence, forbid the assump- 
tion that gold is now or has very lately been altering in value. I do not 
say that it may not have become appreciated, but if so the evidence to 
sustain the theory must be sought elsewhere. When coals rose from 
884s. in 1863 to 20°49s. in 1873, and in 1883 sank to 9:20s. it cannot be 
affirmed that the change was in the metal rather than the mineral. Con- 
trast this with cotton yarn, which in the three years named stood at 
26°01d., 17°76d., and 12-°25d. Like the gold itself, to procure which we 
must crush down the quartz in which it lies imbedded or wash away the 
sand with which it is mixed before the grains are discovered, so the 
hard mass of statistics, or the encumbering multitude of figures, must be 
ground or boiled down if we would eliminate the truth from the sur- 
rounding sources of error so prone to lead the judgment astray. 

In the next place, by bringing out so clearly the great accessions to 
the bulk of our trade, and yet limiting these changes within narrower 
bounds than many economists are disposed to admit, we discover the 
severe fall which prices have sustained, and hence the enormous quantity 
of goods we have to give for an equal or lesser amount of money. Com- 
paring 1883 with 1873, for instance, we find the actual value of the goods 
we sold to have been 15,000,0007. less, or a fall of 6 per cent., whereas. 


ON THE USE OF INDEX NUMBERS. 871 


the goods given were at least 40 per cent. more. It is often claimed 
that this is but a temporary alteration, accompanied by conditions which 
neutralise the injury. No doubt in many cases there has been a contrac- 
tion in the cost of the materials employed which, if imported from abroad, 
especially from foreign countries rather than our colonies, is a clear saving 
to the nation. Yet even this is not so when home capital is employed in 
their production abroad. But when, as with coals and iron, the whole 
proceeds of the sale are distributed at home, the diminution of these 
proceeds is a home loss. Improved mechanism or increased industry 
may have lessened the expenditure on production by diminishing or 
restraining from proportionate increase the numbers to be sustained out 
of these proceeds ; and to this may be attributed the number of workers © 
who are out of employ, or what is still more largely the case at present, 

the short time in which they are working. But it surely cannot be 

-gravely maintained that there is here no depreciation in our most impor- 

tant means of obtaining wealth. Neither does an attentive consideration 

of these figures afford any assuring indication that the evil is in process 

of passing away. Again, we find that the decay in prices of imports is 

greatly below that of exports. Even Mr. Giffen’s figures show that the 

index number by which the bulk of the trade is estimated—for the 

exports of 1865 has to be altered from 65°8 by the addition of 23°46, 

and for 1883 by the deduction of 5°95, a correction of 45 per cent., 

whilst that of imports has to be changed from 81:16 by an addition of 
13°59 and deduction of 9°43, a correction of but 28 per cent.—the 

corresponding alteration in total value having been 4/ and 36 respec- 

tively ; that is, we have lost nearly twice as much by the reduced prices 
of our sales as we have gained by those of our purchases. It seems 

mockery to talk of enlarged trade as a proof of national prosperity when 
these are the terms on which it is conducted. Butin truth the whole of 
this part of the question depends upon whether the prevailing lowness of 
prices is due to causes which are removable or temporary, or to such as 

are in process of increase and so likely to be enduring. 

It is by no means to be presumed from what has been said that the 
consideration of these figures or the grave teachings they afford are in any 
way calculated to support a return to protection, or whatever is meant 
by ‘fair ’ as opposed to free trade. The declension in prices and the con- 
sequent destruction of profits arise from the fierce competition to which 
our manufactures are exposed in the markets of the world, and especially 
in those countries which wield protection against us. These evils would be 
multiplied tenfold by any steps which would increase the cost of our home 
products for foreign sale. It is to the extension of the ground our markets 
cover, and to increased economy of production, that both manufacturer 
and artisan should look for the desired recovery from the prevailing 
depreciation of their products. 

I fear that details and figures such as these have been difficult to 
follow without diagrams large enough to be seen, but trust that those 
who are accustomed to follow calculations of this sort will not think I 
me altogether failed in the attempt to put them upon a truly scientific 

asis, 


The following table shows the method of arriving at the index numbers 
’ and of comparing one year with another. The index number for the 


872 REPORT—1885,. 


price of each article in 1883 is 1 or 100, according to the use or otherwise 
of the decimal point. The index for quantity is the same as that for value 
in the standard year (1883) ; that for 1884 is arrived at by dividing the 
value index by the price index, and is shown in the last column. The 
variations in prices between these two years are not sufficient to alter 
many of the smaller index numbers unless carried to one or two decimals. 
It will be seen, however, how few are the articles of which the quantity 
is large enough to have much influence upon the total result. 


British Goods exported in 1884, compared with those of 1883. 


1883 | 1884 
| 
Value of Exports | Index Numbers 
avhiotas Aver. As dl | Aver. Value of | 
ae million peer Price Exports | Value | Price ney 
£’s INO. | . | ity 
| } 
PEA gel cwt.| 6:12s.| £212.| 9 || 6378.; £209. 9 | 104] 9 
Anls., horses ...... ea.| 55°627. ‘41. 2 || 58°362. 41. 2 1-05 2 
Arms, fire <2201.... » | 27°40s. “36. 1 || 25-68s. 39. 2 “94 2 
Gunpowder......... Ib| 5:83¢.| -38.| 2 || 582d. 39.| 2] 100| 2 
BaP te bsens-s eres doz.) 5:16s. 1:14. 5 4-885. 1:01. 4 *95 4 
IBGEDMauagiss oosce% brl.| 79:82 1:82 8 || 7o-L1s: 1:64. 7 552 YL am 
BOOKS: vesespesesent ewt.| 9°55. aay, OT eae | eas |e ee 99 5 
IBMUGEr Sascets.seee » | 139°58s. ‘21. 1 || 140:18s. ‘20. 1 1:00 1 
Candles ...... doz. Ibs| 6°72s. 15 1 || 6°66s. “21, 1 “99 1 
Cement ..........0. cwt.| 2-318 93 4 2:25s. 87. 4 “97, 4 
GHECEC st oce se cakes » | 84:15s. O65 —— 84:08s. ‘06.; — 1:00 | — 
OBIE a aos soder<sba- ton} 9°35s.| 10°65.| 44 9°29s.} 10:85.| 465 ‘99 | 46 
ICOTOACC.. cree +ces ewt.| 51:05s. 44. 2 || 45:°53s. ‘42. 2 “89 2 
Cotton yarn......... Ib.) 12:°25d.| 13°51.} 56 || 12:24d.| 13:81.) 58 1:00 | 58 
»  manfd. 
plain ...yd.| 2°61d.| 34:15. | 142 247d.| 31°85, | 182 "95 | 140 
printed ,,| 3°62d.; 20°83.| 87 3°60d.| 19°81.) 83 ‘99 | 84 
mixed ,, 581d. -55, 2 753d. — — 1:29 | — 
», Stockings doz.| 3:28s. “54. 2 6°25s. 57. 2 1:00 2 
» thread ......lb.| 3-27s.| 236.] 10 || 3-37s.| 248] 10 | 103] 10 
Fish, herrings ...brl.) 29°73s. 1-43. 6 || 24°75s. 1-65. 7 83 8 
Glass, plate ...sq. ft.) 1-428. -26.| 1|| 1-45e. 57 Me ane We Wes | 
Sven flint; bey ewt.| 44:°94s. 34. st 46°94s. “30. if 1:05 1 
Spe COMMON cco... 927s. “36. 2 9°30s. °35. 1 1-00 i 
12 £2) sb ee He doz.) 21-50s. 1:14. 5 || 21-43s. 1-15. 5 1:00 5 
Leather ............ cewt.| 9°34. 1:64, 7 9°451. 1-68. uf 1-01 7 
» boots dz.prs., 60°10s. 1:54. 6 || 59:92s. 1:58. 7 1:00 7 
Jute walncess:c0 eee lb.) 3:05d. ‘27. 1 279d. 32. i 91 1 
SPELLS! Ue geet yd.| 2°64d. 2'50.| 10 2°43. 2'46.| 10 OO Ne Ld : 
Linen yarn ......... Ib.| 14°36d. 1-06. 4 || 13:95d. 1-14, 5 ISM 5 
ants: 
white...... yd. 6°95d. TALS 662d. 396: | 17 ‘95 | 18 
printed ... ,, 780d. eee 1 647d. 19. 1 *83 2 
sailcloth ,,| 11:73d. “ty 1 10:95d. “21. 1 “93 1 
ose MDOTCAG ey. cd.ece Tbs, e2s6ie: “29. 1 2°43s. 31. 1 93 1 
VON Old sseteres ees ton| 3°471. 34. 1 3281. ‘22. 1 “94 1 
sie resctwasbere » | 5214s, 4:08.| 17 || 46-40s. 2:95.|; 12 89 | 14 
ST MIDGL:, hetee tes 5 7-062. 2:03. 8 || 6-552. 1:94. 8 “93 9 
3, rallpoad|.....2 2, 6192. 601.| 25 5692. 4:14,; 17 *92 19 
go ewateoaes’: .. 5.5 » | 14-802. 93. 4 || 13-082. 69. 3 *88 4 
gruBHeeh Fis i5 cc. sel LO wens 1-48. 6 || 9-382. 1:35. 6 93 7 
» galvanised ,,! 15:182, irae 7 || 14-302. 1:74. 7 “94 8 


ON THE USE OF INDEX NUMBERS. ° 873 


British Goods—cont. 


| 1884 


Value of Exports) Index Numbers 
Aver, | Soop) || Aver. | Value of 
Articles Pri In rie fe | 
vere million goes Price | Exports Value | Price |Quan- 
£'s NO. ! : tity 
= , / — _| 
Tron, hoop ......... ton| 7°77. ‘67. 3 7-270 60h} “V2 “94 2 
me ttinned ..it.. » | Lt-470. 4:71.| 20 || 16-457. AT5. 1.9205) |seosOdi ae 
SCAB 203..252% » | 12:97. 4-62.; 19 || 12-177. 458.| 19 | -94| 20 
», steel, wrght. ,, | 19-100. 140.| 6 || 19-802. 1:18. 5 1-04 5 
a pe Es, 55 ee TOL. 58. 2 || 36°377. “40. 2 85 | 2 
Copper ingots ...cwt.| 3°38/. 1:14. 5 2-941 1:05. 4 ‘87 5 
» yellow 
metal... ,, 2°991. 1:18. 5 2°731. 1:06. 4 “91 4 
»  otherkinds ,, 3°87. 1:24, 5 3°527. 1-46. 6 ‘91 7 
IERRS Baten puncdvs ase a 4-47]. 43.) 2 4°241, “45, 2 “95 2 
3 ton} 14-077. ‘55. 2 || 12-587. ‘42. 2 90} 2 
C2 eS Ree ee ewt.) 4°882. “82. 2 4271, ‘47. 2 cS le). me 
PREG re sthoctt ccs » | 13°89s. ‘10.| — |} 13°59s. 10.; — ‘98 | — 
Oil-seed............ gal.| 185s. 1-86. 8 1:83s. 1:47. 6 99 | 6 
IEAICT Is 3555 iva 0 = 30% ewt.| 27157. 1:28. 5 2-051. 1°37. 6 ‘95 | 6 
St Ce eS ton} 12°84s. “65. Se eos: ‘61 3 1:01 3 
Silk, Brd. stfs. ...yd.J 3°26s. 25s le, @e 3° 26s. i lcabil 5 L000) ee 
1) Oe SR eae cwt.| 22°96s. 45.| 2 || 22°99s. ‘55 2 1:00 2 
BPATIUS. 2702.20 -+- 0+ gal.| 5°93s. “oly WG 615s. 81 3 1:04 3 
BO Soc cwaseceess. ewt.| 21°40s. 1:24.| 5 Li-7%8: i Les la | 5 ‘Slav mG 
DMG ashi 5. dcc0cccs lb.| 12°71d. 1:03.| 4} 10:94d. 83 3 “86 3 
U/l », | 23°41d. 3:27.| 14 || 23-78d. 3°89.| 16 1:02 | 16 
MEECIOLD: .....- 25: yd.) 38°30d. 7:35.| 31 || 41:-42d.) °7:93.| 33 108 31 
aeetiannels...... » | 14°82d. *B4.; 3 || 13:98d. “QI 4 “94 4 
soli aa ui 994d. 769.| 32 9-64d. 8°72.| 36 ‘97 | 38 
marcarpets y..3.). » | 28:24d. 1:26. 5 || 26-16d. 1:26 5 "93 6 
| pte 
Total specified | iat | } 
— is ome 170-14. , 706 — 163-87. | 683 — | 711 
Total unenume- ‘ f 
cd dol } — 69:66. | 294 — 69:13. | 288 — | 299 
£239°80. | 1:000 a=) 285 00) "ort — |1-010 


The Forth Bridge Works. By ANDREW 8S. Biccart, C.F. 
[PLATE VI.] 


[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso 
among the Reports. ] 


‘Works of exceptional magnitude, and more especially those in which the 
difficulties in the way of their accomplishment are in any degree propor- 
tionate to their size, must of necessity be of interest to this Association, 
constituted as it is to assist, and in its own way act as a beacon to all 
an search of true knowledge. 

While the difficulties met with in preparing for and founding the piers 


874 REPORT—1885. 


of the Forth Bridge have been neither few zor unimportant, it is patent, 
to even the uninitiated, that causes for anxiety will neither disappear nor 
diminish till the erection of the steel superstructure has been completed. 

Presently my remarks will be confined to the main steel piers and 
approach viaducts. The term steel piers refers to those parts of the super- 
structure immediately over and between any of the three groups of four 
caissons. Described generally, each may be said to consist of two sloping 
and two vertical planes ; the sloping, including one connecting horizontal 
column and two 12-foot rising columns, joined at the upper extremi- 
ties by the top member, while from the lower end of each to the top of 
the opposite one there extends a diagonal eight-foot tube. These two 
planes run parallel with the centre line of the bridge, and are 120 feet 
apart at the base and 33 feet at the top. 

The vertical planes complete the structure at the ends of the two: 
sloping planes. They consist of the 12-foot rising columns, already 
mentioned, with the lattice bracing joining these together. These mem- 
bers, with the internal viaduct and the bracing girders attached to the 
skewbacks, form the principal parts of the steel piers, the extreme height 
of which is fully 340 feet above the bottom of the lower bedplates. 

The approach viaducts are, generally speaking, of ordinary design, 
with the exception of some special features to meet the unusual require- 
ments demanded of them. The girders span a distance of 160 feet, and 
rest on granite-faced piers, rising to a height of 130 feet above high 
water; the heights of these piers themselves gradually diminishing as 
they near the abutments, owing to the rising nature of the banks of the 
river. 

The magnitude of the main steel piers, both in respect of their great 
height and immense weight, demands that exceptional means be employed 
in their erection. Many proposals for effecting this have been suggested, 
and may be said to range from that of Mr. Arrol’s first, which was to 
run up the columns independently, using them as the only staging, to 
that proposed by Mr. Baker, viz., to carry up simultaneously with the 
columns a rising platform, extending round the whole four columns, by 
utilising them as supports, and upon this platform to carry up the top- 
member, having the end junctions all previously riveted up, so that on 
arrival at the top the final closing lengths of the 12-foot rising columns. 
had only to be joined to the junctions already fitted, to complete this 
part of the work. After careful consideration the weight requiring to be 
lifted was found to be too great, when compared with the advantages 
to be gained, to allow of its full adoption. In the case of the Fife and 
Queensferry piers, the weight was close on 1,200 tons, and several hundred 
tons more in that of Inch Garvie. 

A modification of this plan is that finally adopted by Mr. Arrol, with 
Sir John Fowler and Mr. Baker’s full approval. The carrying up of the 
top member is done away with, but otherwise it is very similar. 

The main lifting girders of the platform pass through the 12-foot. 
rising columns, and running in line with the vertical planes extend from 
the one sloping plane to the other. Lying across these are placed other 
four girders, one being on either side of each set of 12-foot rising columns, 
thus completing a rectangular platform resting indirectly on the main 
rising columns. The weight of this platform, including the necessary 
cranes and other plant required during the erection of the higher parts of 
the pier, will be about 400 tons. 


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Mrs Laie te A Mel 


Mlustrating M’ Andrew §. Biggarts Paper on The Forth Bridge Works. 


ON THE FORTH BRIDGE WORKS. 875 


The first part of the superstructure is that termed the lower bedplate. 
Several of these are now completed and in position. They are made up 
of a series of longitudinal and transverse plates, securely riveted together, 
and run about 37 feet long by 17’-8’’ wide, with a thickness of from 3 to 
4 inches. The whole plate is bolted on a number of short iron columns 
in situ, and is riveted up by a special hydraulic machine. Two girders 
are employed, one above and the other below the bedplate; and extend- 
ing beyond it are there joined together. On each of these girders slides 
a hydraulic cylinder, one having a little more effective area than the 
other, while both are regulated by the same cock. The result is that 
when water is admitted the total pressure on one cylinder is greater than 
that on the other, thereby holding the rivet-head firmly in place while 
the point is being pressed up. The work thus produced is of the very 
highest quality; since the whole machine moves lengthwise, and the 
cylinders slide crosswise, the full surface of the plate is commanded by 
it. The riveting is also done expeditiously, the machine being capable, 
in ordinary work, of closing during a single shift 600 11” countersunk 
rivets. When finished, the bedplate is finally lowered into position. 

The upper bedplate or base, on which the various connections at the 
foot of the rising column rest (and which collectively constitute what is 
termed the skewback), is preposed to be rivéted in a like manner to the 
lower bedplate. While being riveted it will be secured to heavy steel 
girders instead of columns, as in the case of the lower bedplate, to keep 
it in true form. After lowering the upper bedplate into position, the 
diaphragms and various other parts will then-‘be built on it, and riveted 
up by common hydraulic machines as well’ as by the special hydraulic 
machines designed by Mr. Arrol for the purpose. As many of the spaces 
in which riveting has to be done are very confined and difficult of access, 
high pressures will be used with machines correspondingly small. Thus 
while the ordinary pressure will still be 1,000 lbs. per square inch, it 
will be increased in some cases to as high as 3 tons per square inch, by a 
simple pressure multiplier, wrought by the ordinary 1,000 lbs. pressure. 
This low pressure is admitied to the large end of the compressing ram, 
the smaller end of which produces the increased pressure (proportional to 
the difference in areas) required to close up the rivet properly. 

The riveting machine is very small, each cylinder weighing about halfa 
hundredweight. The smallest proposed cylinder is only 4 inches diameter, 
is of the simplest form, and contains a hollow plunger provided with a single 
cup leather at the inner end. A spring is secured to the plunger and 
back end of the cylinder, for the purpose of drawing back the plunger, 
when the exhaust water is allowed to escape. Whenin place and at work 
the machine will be hung to the one end of a small wire, passing over a 
pulley, while at the other will be fixed a balance weight to relieve the 
operator of the weight of the machine. Two cylinders, one outside and 
one inside, will be required at the closing up of the rivets. Both willbe 
connected to the compressor and wrought by it. 

The horizontal tubes, skewbacks, and lower parts of all the columns 
will be built by ordinary cranes till they attain a height of about 30 feet 
above the bedplates. At this point of the 12-foot rising columns will then 
be commenced the longitudinal channels (through which are drilled the 
holes for the steel pins to pass through them and the cross girders) ; to 
these channels the cross girders will now be attached within the column, 
on the higher of which will be laid the two main lifting girders of the 


876 REPORT—1885. 


platform. Extending between and beyond these, but at right angles, will 
be the other girders required to complete the rectangular platform already 
referred to. The principal work above this will be executed from this 
platform as it is being raised towards the top of the pier. In that work 
will be included the 12-foot rising or supporting columns, the eight-foot 
diagonal columns, and the bracing in the sloping planes. The vertical 
planes will be built similarly as the platform is raised upwards. When 
allis ready to be raised for the first time, the positions of the various 
members in the pier will be somewhat as follows. The four rising 12-foot 
columns will have the whole of their channels and eight of the ten plates 
in section, in each column, at a convenient working height above the 
platform. The other two plates require to be kept off at this point, to 
allow the main lifting girders to pass through the columns, and can only 
be placed in final position from underneath the main lifting girders. The 
columns will only be bolted together at this point, but as few more bolts 
will be required than those necessary to make good work when riveting 
up, very little labour will be lost. The eight-foot diagonal tubes in the 
sloping planes will also be carried up above the level of the platform. 
They pass between the girders, and lie in the sloping planes, and will be 
wholly riveted up above the level of the platform. The bracing in the 
vertical planes, being 12 feet wide, allows the main lifting girders to pass 
through it, and will be built to a large extent from a platform on the top 
of these girders, only the top and bottom bracing requiring to be placed and 
riveted in position underneath the main lifting girders, while the whole of the 
tubes will be built in single pieces. In the case of the bracing girders it is 
intended to take up and fix in position sections of a size convenient for 
handling with despatch under the somewhat novel circumstances around. 

The riveting machines employed will be of various forms, the common 
type being used for such work as the bracing girders, while those for 
the rising and horizontal columns will be the same in principle as those 
riveters employed for the bedplates, with several special features to suit 
the different kind of work. The girders on which the cylinders slide will 
be similar, and similarly placed in relation to the work to be done, one 
being outside the column and the other inside, while at the ends they are 
secured to and made to slide round two circular rings by a small hydraulic 
cylinder. Stiffening packings or struts are placed between these cir- 
cular rings and the channels of the columns inside and plates outside, to 
keep all in true furm, and these are transferred from one point to another 
as the girders pass the various positions at which they are placed. 

The girders are thus made to move round the complete circle, and as 
the hydraulic cylinders on these slide a length of 16 feet, it follows that 
the riveting done at each shifting of the machine is equal to this length 
of the completed column. To enable the riveting to be executed with the 
longitudinal built up channels complete, the power of the hydraulic 
cylinder on the inner girder is transmitted to the rivet through a lever of 
the third order, this cylinder having the amount of greater area necessary 
to exert nearly the same pressure as the cylinder on the outer girder. It 
1s proposed that the whole machine be fixed to the platform and under- 
neath it. It will consequently be raised with it, but during the stationary 
periods between the lifts, it will rivet up the 12-foot rising columns close 
to but always underneath the main lifting girders. Each machine is made 
to carry its own working platform, from which all the necessary operations 
will be conducted. 


ON THE FORTH BRIDGE WORKS. 877 


The raising of the main platform by the hydraulic cylinders placed 
within the 12-foot rising columns will be performed thus. Water will 
first be admitted to the lower end of two of the hydraulic cylinders in one 
or other of the sloping planes, sufficient to ease the main lifting girders. 
and the two upper cross girders within the columns. The pins through 
these cross girders and the channels of the columns being withdrawn, 
water is again admitted and made to raise the one end of both main lifting 
girders one foot ; when this is accomplished the same pins are reinserted, 
and the load again transferred to the cross girders. The water in the 
lower end of the cylinders now being allowed to escape, that in the small 
annular space at the other end, and which is constantly acting as a back 
pressure, raises the cylinders and with them the lower cross girders to the: 
same position relative to the upper girders which they occupied before 
the lifting operations began. As the pin holes in the four lifting channels 
run the full height, the point to which the platform may be lifted at any 
one shift is a matter of expediency. This lift in most cases will be about 
16 feet, but in any case it will be effected by single lifts of one foot ata 
time, as already described. 

It will be apparent that the manner of lifting at the different points in 
each platform is exactly similar. The cylinders being in line with the 
12-foot rising columns and made to raise the platform to all intents ver- 
tically, induces a slight rocking motion, which is provided for in the cylin- 
ders by planing their bottom surfaces to a very obtuse angle, the apex 
of which is slightly rounded off to form a better bearing, 

As the platform is raised the girders in line with the sloping planes 
will be slid towards the centre of the bridge, each pair on either side 
being always kept as near as practicable atan equal distance from the centre- 
of the rising columns, 

The raising and riveting will thus be carried on till the whole arrives. 
at the top of the pier, the platform being then in a convenient position on 
which to build the top members extending between the columns in line. 
with the bridge. These will now be built, and with them the top junc- 
tions or connecting portions of the upper part of the steel pier, resembling 
in many respects the lower junctions termed the skewbacks, All will be 
riveted in position by the machines already referred to. 

After the main platform has passed the point at which the internal 
viaduct is joined to and made to form an integral portion of the bracing 
in the vertical plane, the lifting of the girders, &c., of which this part is 
composed (and previously riveted complete) to its position will then be 
commenced. This will be done by means of four complete sets of columns, 
girders, and hydraulic cylinders. The cylinders will be placed within 
and fixed to the upper of two cross girders sliding on and temporarily 
bolted to the two vertical columns at each corner of the part to be raised. 
Passing between and extending across from one set of columns to the other 
will be the carrying girders, resting on the top of the upper cross girders 
and bearing the portion to be lifted into position. The ram will be made 
to point downwards and bear against the top of the lower cross girder. 
When water is admitted to the upper end of the cylinders, the bolts in the 
higher cross girders meanwhile having been withdrawn, the rams are. 
forced against the lower cross girders, but as these are securely fixed to. 
the columns, the hydraulic cylinders with the cross girders, carrying 
girders, and structures to be raised are bodily lifted upwards. When 
sraised about one foot the upper cross girders are again fixed to the 


S78" -. REPORT—1885. 


columns and made to carry the load. The water is now allowed to escape, 
and as there is a back pressure in the cylinders similar to that in those 
used for raising the main platform, the rams are forced into the cylinders, 
and being secured to the lower cross girders are made to raise these also. 
This action will be repeated till all is raised to the desired height, when 
the girders will be quickly secured to the points previously prepared for 
their junction with the bracing in the vertical planes. 

In addition to the several parts of the bridge already mentioned, the 
cantilevers will form a leading subject for careful thought. The proposed 
method of their erection is, however, beyond the scope of this paper, and 
I need only remark that all concerned see their way to successfully 
overcoming this part of the work also. 

The approach viaducts on both sides of the Firth are presently in a 
forward state of progress; the girders on the south side, immediately 
over the water, being practically complete, having been built on timber 
staging, the top of which was on a level with the stone piers, so far as 
completed, or about 18 feet above high water. These girders will be 
raised to the level of the next stage erected on shore, on which will have 
been built during the time occupied in that lifting another pair of girders 
to which the first portion of the viaduct will be connected. This raising 
and joining to other portions still higher up will be continued till the full 
height is reached, when all the ten spans will be complete. 

The north viaduct is in a more forward state than the south, it being 
wholly completed with the exception of a few of the end bays, which 
cannot be put in position till a higher point has been reached. The whole 
of the north viaduct piers are on land of a very undulating character. 
This necessitated some of their number being raised a considerable height 
so that a uniform level throughout might be attained, and all the girders 
built at the same time on a stage similar to that used for the other 
side. 

The piers provide points from which the lifting can be easily and 
safely done. Various proposals for effecting this were discussed ; that 
finally sanctioned by Sir John Fowler and Mr. Baker is to place under- 
neath the end pillars of the main girders on each pier a temporary cross 
girder extending between and beyond these, and bearing up the whole 
weight, on timber blocking resting directly on the pier. In each of these 
temporary cross ‘girders are placed two hydraulic cylinders, one being 
directly underneath each main girder; in both, the ram faces downwards. 
Each cylinder is provided with a separate valve to regulate its action in 
raising. When at rest the temporary cross girders will transmit their 
load to the piers, either through the blocks placed close to but between 
the lifting cylinders or those outside and nearer the ends of the piers, this 
being determined by the point at which building has to be carried on. If 
in the centre then the supports are outside, and vice versd, the ram when 
lifting will bear on a prepared sole of hard wood spreading somewhat over 
the stonework. Great care must be exercised to keep the different bear- 
ings in the whole viaduct as near one uniform level as possible during the 
lifting operations, to avoid any undue straining of the main girders. As 
soon as the structure has been raised the full stroke of the cylinders, a 
new lift will be commenced, the blocks on which the rams bear having, 
however, been previously packed up. The height required to give ample 
clearance for building underneath will be about four feet. 

At the ends of the north viaduct, in lieu of a bearing on the piers, 


ON THE FORTH BRIDGE WORKS. 879 


Rohastins with all the other appliances have been provided, similar to those 


to be adopted for lifting the internal viaduct already described. 

A hoist is provided for lifting from the ground underneath the main 
girders the whole of the stone, &c., required in building the piers upwards 
from their present level. This material will be raised while on trollies, 
and while still on these run along the temporary road laid on the bottom 
of the main girders to any or all of the piers. On arrival at any pier it 
can be raised and laid in position by a pair of small runners fixed to the 
girders immediately above each pier. The power used for raising, lower- 
ing, or traversing either way being transmitted through special horizontal 
winches driven by a rope extending well nigh the full length of the 
viaduct, the work will thus be carried on till the desired end is attained, 
that being reached when the rail level is fully 150 feet above high water. 

Were I to state that these are the exact methods by which those 
parts of the bridge presently treated of will be erected, I should only be 
laying myself open to the ridicule of all experienced engineers, as it is 
a well-known fact that no undertaking of such magnitude is ever carried 
out to the letter of the plans originally decided upon. The foregoing are 
only presented as the results arrived at after full discussion by all con- 
cerned, and as the principles on which the full details will be wrought 
out as the work proceeds. Thus far all has gone well, no difficulty having 
arisen which can be said to have taxed the latent ability of either the 
engineers or contractors ; and judging the future from the past there is 
every reason to conclude that in the near future the successful erection 
and completion of the Forth Bridge will be a matter of history. . 


Electric Lighting at the Forth Bridge Works. 
By James N. SHooLsRED, B.A., M.Jnst.C.E. 


[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso 
among the Reports. ] 


ty the summer of 1883 the contractors for this most important engineer- 
ing work, Sir Thomas S. Tancred, Arrol, & Co., decided to make use of 
electricity in the illumination of the works required for the preparation 
and construction of this large undertaking. The author was by them 
entrusted with the preparation of the necessary plans, together with the 
supervision of the arrangements to enable the lighting by electricity to be 
thoroughly and suitably carried ont. 

For the construction of the bridge and the proper preparation of the 
large amount of steel which enters into it, very large workshops have 


_been erected at South Queensferry, where also are concentrated the 


principal offices, central stores, canteen, &c. A steep incline conveys the 
materials from the height on which the workshops stand down to the shore 
of the Firth; the lines of way being then continued on a broad wooden 
jetty, fifty feet in width, projecting into the Firth for about seven hundred 
yards, up to the Queensferry main piers, whence springs the sonthern- 
most of the two large spans of the bridge. 

The island of Inch Garvie, situate in mid-channel, with its group of 
workshops, offices, &c., necessary for the operations carried on at this 
isolated and exposed situation, forms the next spot requiring, at present, 
the use of the electric light. 


880 REPORT—1885. 


On the northern, or Fife, shore of the Firth, the operations about the 
Fife main piers, the northern end of the second of the large spans, together 
with the branch workshops, stores, &c., connected therewith, as well as 
portions of the land viaduct extending northwards, and a part of the large 
stone quarries and shipping stages in the vicinity thereof, are the spots. 
there requiring to be lighted by electricity. 

The conditions to be fulfilled in the illumination of the above localities 
(owing to the ever-changing extent of the demands upon the lighting and 
the alteration in the position of each light—a matter which varied con- 
stantly, with the progress of the work in its vicinity, with the state of 
the tide, and from other causes) rendered it evident that the details of 
the arrangements for the lighting must be such as to allow of the requi- 
site changes being effected readily and expeditiously. 

Again, it was seen also that portions of the cables, wires, and other 
working parts of the ighting apparatus would be constantly within reach. 
of the workmen. The primary condition, therefore, demanded a system 
of lighting simple in its arrangements, and which would inspire confidence 
in the new illuminant among the workmen. 

It became evident, also, that while arc lights would be required for the 
outside, the offices, residential premises, stores, &c., demanded incan- 
descent lights ; and, again, that other buildings, such as the large work-, 
shops, nesessitated the use of both are and incandescent lights. Likewise, 
that the use of storage accumulators, as well as the transmission of power’ 
by electricity, might at some time be desirable. 

To meet these various conditions it was decided: 1st, to adopt con-- 
tinuous current machines; 2nd, that the type of dynamo for the outside 
arc lights (limited to six lights in series) should not have a greater 
E.M.F. than 300 volts between the terminals; 3rd, that the type of 
dynamo for the incandescent lights, or for the arc and incandescent lights 
used conjointly, should be on the so-called ‘compound-wound ’ principle, 
with a maximum E. M. F. of 120 volts between the terminals. The 
incandescent lamps, in parallel series, used with these machines to have 
an K. M. F. of 110 volts; while in the large workshops arc lamps in pairs: 
(an series with one another, with the addition of a suitable resistance): 
would be used, where required, conjointly with the above incandescent 
lights. 

: Near to the large workshops are a number of parallel-lines of rails, 
forming a large uncovered workshop, and termed the ‘ drill-roads.’. Upon 
these roads circulate large moyable huts, each containing an engine, 
drilling machines, and a circular frame intended for the formation of the 
various steel tubes of the bridge. Here, as in the large workshops, the 
use of both are and incandescent lights is necessary. But, as the exact 
site where each kind of light might be wanted depended upon the where- 
abouts of the hut upon the rails, it became necessary to provide for this,. 
at certain fixed points, supply or ‘service’ boxes, whence readily fixed 
flexible branch-mains lead the current to the desired site of the lights. 

Tenders having beea invited for the carrying out of the necessary 
works, all the lighting on the South Queensferry side was entrusted to, 
and very efficiently carried out by, Messrs. Siemens Brothers & Co., 
Limited; while the works on the north side and on Inch Garvie were 
ee in a very satisfactory manner by Messrs. R. E. Crompton 

o. 

The electrical plant contained in the above installations may be stated: 


= 


ELECTRIC LIGHTING AT THE FORTH BRIDGE WORKS. 884 


briefly, as thirteen dynamo machines, developing about one hundred and 
fifty electrical horse-power ; one hundred large arc lamps (of 2,000 can- 
dles each) ; and five hundred incandescent lamps (of 20 candles each), 
A total length of about twelve miles of mains has been laid down in the 
yarious circuits, exclusive of branch wires to lamps. The lighting by 
electricity has been carried on continuously and with satisfactory results 
for nearly two years, by means of the above arrangements. That the 
peculiar requirements of the situation, together with the storms of winter, 
have been successfully coped with, attest the careful and thorough manner 
in which both of the well-known firms who executed the works performed 
the part entrusted to them. 

During that period of working several points of interest have arisen, 
and among them the following :— 

1. The excessively varying conditions which are constantly occurring 
with regard to the outside are lights, both as regards the number in 
actual use, and as to the exact position of each light (dependent greatly 
upon the character of the particular work going on its vicinity, the state 
of the tide, &c.), have been satisfactorily met in the following manner. 
The duty of each series-machine was limited to six arc-lights, as already 
stated, in order to avoid an excessive H. M. F.; the actual number lighted 
being varied between one and six at will, by means of resistance-frames. 
Furthermore, arrangements have been made on a general switch-board 
by which any of the circuits (sometimes as many as six in one locality) 
could be coupled with each other, so that the six lights or less, the 
complement of one machine, might be made to occur, if desired, over a 
circuit of very varied length (sometimes more than a mile long). 

2. The lighting of the large workshops, the drill-roads, &c., demanded 
a combination of arc and of incandescent lights—the relative proportions 
between the two kinds being subject to constant variations. It was also 
necessary that the position should be readily changed, and also that addi- 
tional lights of either kind might be easily obtainable at will. The use of 
* compound-wound ’ dynamos, with the lamps in parallel circuit (the arc 
lamps being in pairs, in series with each other, with a suitable resistance 
in addition), provided for the first condition ; while the second was com- 
plied with by the use of ‘ service-boxes,’ containing ‘ plug-sockets,’ into 
each of which was inserted the plug-end forming the extremity of a 
certain length of flexible twin-leading wire attached to each portable are 
or incandescent lamp. The lanterns in which these several lamps were 
placed varied considerably in form—with arc-lights for outside or for 
workshop use—while for incandescents, hand-lamps, reflecting bulls- 
eyes, divers’ or miners’ lanterns, &c., might be required. 

The advantages attached to this mode of working lamps in parallel 
circuit have proved very considerable. The ease with which lights of 
either kind can be added to or diminished in number, together with the 


comparatively low E. M. F. (110 volts), are points which must be in 


practice appreciated by electrical engineers. At South Queensferry alone 
as many as 50 arc lights (or, in lieu, 600 incandescents) are being 
worked on this principle. Great credit is due to Messrs. Siemens on this 
head, for at the time of their first being used, nothing on so extended 
a scale on the parallel system existed elsewhere ; and certainly the working 
in pair-series was then quite unique. 

3. Perhaps nowhere have more pots of interest arisen than in the 
oo of the working chambers of the deep-water caissons, which 

1885. 3 L 


B82 REPORT—1885. 


were constructed to assist in getting in the foundations of the main piers. 
Each of these circular steel caissons, 60 feet in diameter and rather more 
in height, has its sides projecting downwards for about 8 feet below the 
diaphragm or ceiling which extends across the bottom of the cylinder. 
The lower chamber, which is thus formed, is open-mouthed and becomes 
a huge diving-bell. In it a number of workmen, having passed down 
from the surface through a tube 3’ 6” in diameter, excavate the bottom 
(passing the débris up another tube), and thus gradually sink the caisson 
to the requisite depth. This operation is, of course, effected under the 
influence of air compressed according to the height of the water outside. 

In the caissons for the Queensferry main piers, where the bottom was 
of clay, the illumination was effected by means of Swan incandescent 
lamps, twenty in number, of the ordinary 110 volt, 20 c. p. type, used 
throughout the works, but each protected by a strong spherical wire- 
guard for protection from any blow. They were pendent from the ceiling, 
hung on to a hook or wherever else required; each having a certain 
length of twin-wire attached, terminating at the other end in a contact 
plug. The two gutta-percha covered mains, for conveying the electric 
current from the dynamo, pass from the outer air into the air-lock cham- 
ber through a stuffing-box, and thence down the descent-tube into the 
working chamber, where they are led along the ceiling to a ‘ distributing- 
box,’ and then, when required, to a second or even a third ‘box.’ These 
“distributing-boxes’ each consist of two solid copper rods, kept suffi- 
ciently apart and embedded in a wooden block, having a number of square 
openings in it; each opening exposing sufficient of the copper rods to 
allow of a good contact being made. This contact is effected by the 
insertion, when required, of the ‘ plug-end,’ which is at the extremity of 
the flexible lead attached to each lamp; and which, at the moment of in- 
sertion, automatically lights up. 

In the caissons at Inch Garvie a different mode of lighting had to be 
adopted, owing to the rocky bottom, which necessitated blasting ; the 
shock of which would most probably have shattered the incandescent 
lamps. Here three arc-lamps (of the same type as on the surface) have been 
used on two circuits working in parallel (a resistance replacing the fourth 
lamp, which was not required). Above each lamp in the ceiling is a sort 
of hood, into which it is entirely withdrawn during blasting operations, 
in order to avoid any damage. A small pipe in the top of this hood leads 
off the products of combustion into the vertical shaft, and so into the air- 
lock, whence they are discharged into the air. 

The firing of the dynamite charges is performed from the same dynamo 
which does the lighting. A special pair of mains are carried from the 
dynamo down the descent-shaft to a distributing-box on the ceiling of the 
working chamber. The arrangement of the plugs, &c., is the same as for 
the incandescent lamps, a firing fuse of a very simple construction re- 
placing the incandescent lamp. At the top of the descent-shaft the two 
firing mains are both severed, and kept permanently in that state. By 
means of a peculiar double-contact maker, connection can be made 
instantaneously. When everything is ready for firing, the foreman, who 
alone has access to the box where is the contact-maker, fires readily the 
number of charges that may be required. A great deal of the successful 
working of the lighting arrangements in the caissons, as also in other 
ea on the surface, is due to the ingenuity and assiduous attention of 

r. Svdney Baynes, the resident electrician at the Forth Bridge Works. 


ELECTRIC LIGHTING AT THE FORTH BRIDGE WORKS. 883 


The preceding gives a brief description of the general arrangements 
which have been in use, so far, for the lighting, not merely of what may 
be termed the (comparatively) permanent part of the works (such as the 
offices, stores, workshops, &c.), but also for the actual operations on the 
foundations of the bridge itself. Shortly this last-named stage will be at 
an end, and the erection of the superstructure will necessitate, probably, 
far different arrangements—lights scattered widely and of a very port- 
able character. Then may perhaps come into play, as valuable adjuncts, 
those two other applications of the electric current—its utilisation in con- 
nection with storage accumulators, and for the transmission of power— 
objects the possibility of the future use of which led the author to adopt 
continuous current dynamo machines for the lighting by electricity of the 
Forth Bridge Works. 


The New Tay Viaduct. By Crawrord Bartow, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 
[PLATE VII.] 


[A communication ordered by the General Committee to be printed in ewxtenso 
among the Reports. | 


ConsIDERABLE interest is attached to this undertaking, because of the com- 
paratively few viaducts of so great length crossing tidal water in such an 
exposed position, and also because of the fact that it is to replace the Tay 
Bridge, which was rendered useless by the memorable disaster of Decem- 
ber 1879. The Tay Viaduct is being constructed at the side of, and 60 ft. 
distant from, the bridge, the standing portions of which are used for the 
conveyance of men and materials, and in otherwise assisting the con- 
struction of the new work. The total length is 3,600 yards, i.e., a little over 
two miles. The number of spans is eighty-five, of dimensions varying 
from 50 ft. to 230 ft., and the height of the rails above high water where 
greatest—at the southern end—is 83 ft. At the four navigable spans 
near the middle of the river the height is 79 ft., which gives a clear head- 
way for shipping of 77 ft.; and from this point to the Dundee or north 
end there is a falling gradient of 1 in 114, which reduces the rail level at 
the Dundee end to about 25 ft. above high water. 

For the purposes of description the work may be divided into three 
parts—(1) the arching at Wormit, at the southern end of the viaduct; 
(2) the Esplanade spans, at the Dundee or northern end; and (2) the 
viaduct proper, #.e., that part which extends over the tidal water. 

1. The arching at Wormit consists of four arches of 50ft. span, with 
their abutments and piers—Nos. 1 to 4—-the whole being built of brick. 
Tn plan the width of the arching is equal to that of the viaduct at the 
‘northern end, but widens out at the southern end to accommodate the 
junction of the Newport branch with the Edinburgh main line. 

2. The Esplanade spans at the Dundee or north end of the viaduct are 
‘seven in number, between piers Nos. 78 and 85, and derive their name 
from the fact that they cross the existing and proposed extension of the 
Dundee Esplanade. Two of these spans—between piers 78 and 80—consist 
of brickwork piers and wrought-iron skew arches, built to suit the direction 
of the proposed Esplanade; next to these are four spans of wrought-iron 


girders supported on cast-iron columns, standing on granite and brick- 
312 


884 REPORT—1885. 


work bases. The last span is over the existing Esplanade, and consists 
of a pair of hog-backed girders of 100 ft. span resting on two brick piers. 

3. The viaduct proper has seventy-four spans of various dimensions, 
consisting of wrought-iron girders resting on piers—Nos. 4 to 78. The 
piers are constructed with a pair of cylinders connected at a short distance 
above high water, and on which is a wrought-iron structure of heights 
varying from 10 ft. to about 70 ft., the top of which carries the girders. 
The cylinders of about two-thirds of the piers—Nos. 5 to 53—are con- 
structed with a wrought-iron caisson lined with brickwork and filled 
with concrete up to low-water level; above this is a brick shaft also filled 
with concrete. Those for the remaining third—Nos. 54 to 77—are of 
cast iron lined for their whole height with brickwork, and filled with 
concrete. The bases of the cylinders are of various diameters—10 ft. for 
the piers of the smallest spans to 23 ft. for those of the largest; and, 
except in the few cases where rock is met with, the cylinders are being 
sunk to depths varying from 20 ft. to 30 ft. below the bed of the river, so 
as to be out of reach of the scouring action of the tide. Before building 
the upper part, the cylinder foundations are tested with a weight 33 per 
cent. greater than the maximum load which can come upon them. At 
14 ft. above high water there is a strong connecting piece between the 
pair of cylinders constructed with cast-iron girders, wrought-iron ties, 
brickwork and concrete; its height is 8 ft., and width nearly equal to that 
of the cylinders. On the top of each cylinder and above the connecting 
piece rises an octagonal shaft of wrought-iron, the base of which is formea 
of a gridiron framework of channel irons attached to the cylinders by 
long wrought-iron bolts. These shafts are joined together near the top 
of the pier by a semicircular arch, forming at the top one structure 
sufficiently wide to carry the girders. The whole of this structure is 
constructed of wrought-iron plates, riveted together with channel, Tee, 
and angle irons. The dimensions of the girders for the seventy-four 
spans are very various, and are as follows :—Eleven spans with 245 ft. 
girders, two spans with 227 ft. girders, one span with 162 ft. girders, 
thirteen spans with 145 ft. girders, twenty-one spans with 129 ft. girders, 
one span with 113 ft. girders, twenty-four spans with 71 ft. girders, and 
one span with 56 ft. girders. The thirteen large spans, with 245 ft. and 
227 ft. girders—between piers 28 and 41—are near the middle, and over 
the navigable channel of the river. At each of these spans there is a 
pair of hog-backed girders, the rails being laid between and at the bottom 
of them. The rest of the spans—twenty-four on the south side, and 
thirty-seven on the north side—are constructed with four rectangular 
girders, the two outer ones being the girders of the old bridge. At 
these spans the rails are laid on top of the girders. The flooring or deck 
plating is corrugated in form, and is constructed, at the large spans, of 
channel irons and plates riveted together, so as to form alternate troughs. 
and ridges; and at the smaller spans of steel plates hydraulically pressed 
into a corrugated shape. 

On each side of the viaduct for its whole length is a wrought-iron 
latticework parapet or wind screen 5 ft. high above the rails. 

The Act of Parliament for the undertaking was obtained in 1881, but 
the contract for the works was not settled until April 1882, owing toa 
question raised with the Board of Trade concerning the ruins and débris 
of the old bridge. The present state of the works is as follows :—The 
arching at Wormit and the Esplanade spans are completed to the level of 


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ON THE NEW TAY VIADUCT. 885 


the railway, and the greater part of the parapets of the Esplanade spans 
is erected. At the viaduct proper the cylinders for fifty-eight out of the 
total of seventy-three piers have been sunk. The method adopted by 
Messrs. Arrol, the contractors for the works, for sinking them is specially 
ingenious. It consists of a rectangular pontoon, having at each of its 
corners vertical wrought-iron tubular legs, which can be raised or lowered 
hydraulically, When these are lowered to the bed of the river the 
pontoon can be raised out of the water, and thus form a stage for the 
machinery, materials, and men required in sinking and filling the cylinders. 
In the pontoons are two openings, within which the cylinders are pitched 
and adjusted in position. The excavation is effected by means of steam 
diggers, and as the digging proceeds the cylinders follow down, until the 
required depth is reached. When the sinking and filling is completed, 
the supporting tubes or legs are raised from the bottom, and the pontoon 
floated into position for another pier. It may be mentioned that, in 
raising or lowering these legs, great use is made of the tide. Four of 
these pontoons have been used for sinking the cylinders. The wrought- 
iron structures or shafts of four piers on the south side, and of twenty- 
four piers on the north side, have been erected. The girders for one 
span on the south side and nine spans on the north side are erected in 
position on the piers, and nearly all the girders, except those for the 
large spans, are built and ready for erection. The girders and flooring 
for each of the thirteen large spans are being built entire on a staging 
erected for this purpose at the south end of the viaduct, and arrange- 
ments are being made by which the girders and flooring for each span 
complete will be floated out to position in the viaduct, and placed on the 
eylinders ; they will then be raised hydraulically to their proper height, 
the wrought-iron shafts of the piers being built up at the same time. 
The general progress of the whole viaduct may be briefly stated to be as 
follows :—Nearly seven-eighths of the foundations of the eighty-six piers 
are put in; almost one-half of the piers are built up to the level of the 
girders, &c., and out of the total length of 3,600 yards, 540 yards—i.e. 
rather more than one-eighth—is complete and ready for the railway. All 
the wrought-iron and steel for the work is carefully tested, the tests 
being that the wrought-iron must be capable of bearing a tensile strain 
of 22 tons per square inch, with an extension of 6:25 per cent. in a 
length of 8 in.; and the steel 27 tons per square inch, with an extension 
of 15 per cent. The whole of the iron and steel work is shaped and 
drilled at Messrs. William Arrol & Co.’s works at Glasgow, preparatory 
for erection either on the shores or in position in the viaduct. In 
_ executing these works a great amount of plant is required, and a number 
of ingenious machines and clever contrivances have been devised and 
brought into operation by the contractors for the better performance of 
the work and saving of labour. 


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TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 


889 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE SECTIONS. 


Section A—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE. 


PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor G. CHRYSTAL, M.A.,, F.R.S.E, 


THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. 


The PRESIDENT delivered the following Address :— 


Wuen a man finds himself unexpectedly in some unusual situation his first 
impulse is to look round and see how others have done in like circumstances. I 
have accordingly run through the addresses of my predecessors in the honourable 
office of president of Section A, which is fated this year to be filled somewhat 
unworthily. This examination has, I am bound to say, comforted me not a little. 
I have found precedents for all kinds of addresses, long and short, even apparently 
for none at all. The variety of subjects is also suggestive of great latitude. I 
have found reviews of the progress of mathematical and physical science, discussions 
of special scientific subjects, dissertations on the promotion of scientific research, 
and on the teaching and diffusion of science, all chosen in their turn for the subjects 
of this opening address. 

Following some of the most eminent of my forerunners, I propose to be brief; 
following the last of them, Professor Henrici, I shall take for my subject, so far as 
I have one, the Diffusion of Scientific Knowledge. Apart from the fact that 
Professor Henrici’s address greatly interested me, and that I find many of his 
conclusions in agreement with the results of my own experience, and that, there- 
fore, I wish to second him with all my power, I have other reasons for this choice. 
For more than half the year I am employed with absolute continuity in teaching 
mathematics, and it has happened for the last eight years or so that the other half 
has been mainly occupied in a variety of ways with science-teaching generally. 
This isthething concerning which I have had most experience, and T hold it to be the 
most respectful course towards my audience to speak to them on the subject that I 
know best. 

Ever since I began to study science I have been deeply interested in the question 
of how it could best be taught. I believe my meditations in that direction were 
awakened by some unsuccessful boyish efforts to apply to the satisfaction of a 
ploughman, who was my friend and confidant, certain principles of natural 
philosophy to explain the action of his plough. Wisely and unwisely I have 
always been ardent about the improvement of scientific teaching. I was so long 
before I dreamt that I should one day be called upon to put my ideas through the 
cold ordeal of practice. It would not be becoming that I should speak at any time, 
more particularly to-day, regarding the success of my own efforts, or even regard- 
ing my alternate fits of hopefulness and despair. It is enough to say that, in such 
a cause, 

“Tis better to have loved and lost, 
Than never to have loved at all.’ 


890 REPORT—1885. 


The British Association, by its title, exists for the advancement of science. Now, 


I hold that one of the essential conditions for that advancement is the existence of 


a scientific public—a public, like the Athenians of old, eager to hear and tell of 
some new truth; eager to discuss and eager to criticise; ready to appreciate what 
is novel; to receive it if sound, to reject it if unsound. It is to such a public that 
the British Association appeals, and certainly in the past it has not found its public 
wanting in generosity. What I should wish to see is less of mere friendly onlook- 
ing and more participation in the dance. 

I am not speaking now merely of a professional public, such as is so prominent 
in Germany for instance, made up of teachers and others professionally concerned 
with science. I refer mainly to that amateur but truly expert public which has 
always been so honourable a feature of English science, as examples of which I may 
mention Boyle and Cavendish in former days, and Joule and Spottiswoode in our 
own. It is quite true that much of that scientific public came in days of yore from 
the leisured class, whose ratio to the rest of the nation will not improbably decrease 
in the course of our social development. I think, however, that the loss we may 
thus sustain will be more than compensated by the continual increase of those who 
have received higher education of some kind or other, and whose daily occupations 
give them an interest, direct or indirect, in one or more branches of science. 

It may not be amiss to insist for a little on the advantages to science of a 
great body of men unofficially engaged in scientific research, in writing regarding 
science, or even in merely turning scientific matter over in their minds. It will 


not have escaped the notice of those among you who have studied the history of 


science, that few scientific ideas spring up suddenly without previous trace or 
history. It is perfectly true that in many cases some mind of unwonted breadth 
and firmness is required to formulate the new doctrine, and carry it to manifold 
fruition ; but a close examination always shows that the sprite was in the air 
before the Prospero came to catch him. It is very striking to notice, in the history 
of Algebra for instance, long periods in which great improvements were effected in 
the science, which cannot be traced to any individual, but seem to have been due 
merely to the working of the minds of scientific men generally upon the matter, 
one giving it this little turn, another that, in the main always for the better. Like 
every other thing that has the virtue of truth in it, science grows as it goes, not 
like the idle gossiping tale by the casual accretion of heterogeneous matter, but 
by the chemical combination of pure element with pure element in reasonable 
proportion. 


I know of no greater advantage for science than the existence of an army of 


independent workers sufficiently enlightened for self-criticism, who shall test the 
results and theories of their day. Great and indispensable as are the uses of pro- 
fessional schools of scientific workmen, they are open to one great and insidious. 
danger. The temptation there to swear by the word of the master is often irresis- 
tible. Not to speak of its being often the readiest avenue to fame and profit, it is 
the perfectly natural consequence of the contact of smaller mind with greater. 

There are few things where the want of an enlightened scientific public strikes 
an expert more than the matter of scientific text-books. If the British public 
were educated as it ought to be, publishers would not be able to palm off upon 
them in this guise the ill-paid work of fifth-rate workmen so often as they do; 
nor would the scientific articles and reviews in popular journals and magazines so 
often be written by men so palpably ignorant of their subject. 

We all have a great respect for the integrity of our British legislators, what- 
ever doubts may haunt us occasionally as to their capacity in practical affairs. 
The ignorance of many of them regarding some of the most elementary facts that 
bear on everyday life is very surprising. Scientifically speaking, uneducated 
themselves, they seem to think that they will catch the echo of a fact or the solu- 
tion of an arithmetical problem by putting their ears to the sounding-shell of 
uneducated public opinion. When I observe the process which many such people 
employ for arriving at what they consider truth, I often think of a story I once- 
heard of an eccentric German student of chemistry. This gentleman was idle, 
but, like all his nation, systematic. When he had a precipitate to weigh, instead 


Pare, 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 891 


of resorting to his balance, he would go the round of the laboratory, hold up the 
test-tube before each of his fellow-students in turn, and ask him to guess the 
weight. He then set down all the replies, took the average, and entered the 
result in his analysis. 

I will not take up your time by insisting upon the necessity of the diffusion of 
science among that large portion of the public who are, or ought to be, appliers of 
scientific knowledge to practical life. That part of my theme is so obvious, and 
has been of late so much dwelt upon, that I may pass it by and draw your atten- 
tion to another place in which the shoe pinches. All of you who have taken any 
practical interest in the organisation of our educational institutions must be aware 
of the great difficulty in securing the services of non-professional men of sufficient 
scientific knowledge to act on School Boards, and undertake the direction of our 


‘higher schools. It is no secret among those who carefully watch the course of the 


times in these matters that our present organisation is utterly insufficient ; that it 
has not solved, and shows every day less likelihood of solving, the problems of 
higher education. This arises, to a great extent, from the fact that a scientifically 
educated public of the extent presupposed by the organisation really does not at 
present exist. 

If the existence of a great scientific public be as important as I think I have- 
shown it to be, it must be worth while to devote a few moments to the considera- 
tion of the means we adopt to produce it both in the rising and in the risen gene- 
ration, 

It would naturally be expected that we should look carefully to the scientific 
education of our youth, to see that the best men and the best means that could be 
had were devoted to it; that we should endeavour to make for them a broad 
straight road to the newest and best of our scientific ideas; that we should exercise 
them when young on the best work of the greatest masters; familiarise them early 
with the great men and the great feats of science, both of the past and of the 
present; that we should avoid retarding their progress by making the details and 
illustrations or particular rules and methods ends in themselves. Granting that it 
isimpossible to bring every learner within reach of the fullest scientific knowledge 
of his time, it would surely be reasonable to take care that the little way we lead 
him should not be along some devious by-path, but towards some eminence from 
which he might at least see the promised land. The end of all scientific training of 
the great public I take to be, to enable each member of it to look reason and 
nature in the face, and judge for himself what, considering the circumstances of 
his day, may be known, and not be deceived regarding what must to him remain 
unknown. If this be so, surely the ideal of scientific education which I have 
sketched is the right one: yet it is most certainly not the ideal of our present 
system of instruction. To attain conviction on that head it is sufficient to examine 
the text-books and examination papers of the day. 

Let us confine ourselves for the present to the most elementary of all the 
exact sciences, viz., geometry and algebra. These two, although among the oldest, 
are, as Professor Cayley very justly reminded the Association not long ago, perhaps. 
the most progressive and promising of all the sciences. Great names of antiquity 
are associated with them, and in modern times an army of men of genius have aided 
their advance. Moreover, it cannot be said that this advance concerns the 
higher parts of these sciences alone. On the contrary, the discoveries of Gauss, 
Lobatschewsky, and Riemann, and of Poncelet, Mobius, Steiner, Chasles, and Von 
Staudt, in geometry, and the labours of De Morgan, Hamilton, and Grassmann,. 
not to mention many others, in algebra, have thrown a flood of light on the 
elements of both these subjects. What traces of all this do we find in our school 
books? To be sure antiquity is stamped upon our geometry, for we use the text- 
book of Euclid, which is some two thousand years old; but where can we point to 
the influence of modern progress in our geometrical teaching? For our teaching of 
algebra, I am afraid, we can claim neither the sanction of antiquity nor the light 
of modern times. Whether we look at the elementary, or at what is called the 
higher teaching of this subject, the result is unsatisfactory. With respect to. 
the former, my experience justifies the criticism of Professor Henrici; and I have- 


892 REPORT—1885. 


no doubt that the remedy he suggests would be effectual. In the higher teaching, 
which interests me most, I have to complain of the utter neglect of the all-important 
notion of algebraic form. I found, when I first tried to teach University students 
co-ordinate geometry, that I had to go back and teach them algebra over again, 
The fundamental idea of an integral function of a certain degree, having a cer- 
tain form and so many coefficients, was to them as much an unknown quantity 
as the proverbial 2. I found that their notion of higher algebra was the solution 
of harder and harder equations. The curious thing is that many examination 
candidates, who show great facility in reducing exceptional equations to quadratics, 
appear not to have the remotest idea beforehand of the number of solutions to be 
expected; and that they will very often produce for you by some fallacious 
mechanical process a solution which is none at all. In short, the logic of the 
subject, which, both educationally and scientifically speaking, is the most important 
part of it, is wholly neglected. The whole training consists in example grinding, 
What should have been merely the help to attain the end has become the end 
itself. The result is that aleebra, as we teach it, is neither an art nor a science, 
but an ill-digested farrago of rules, whose object is the solution of examination 
problems. 

The history of this matter of problems, as they are called, illustrates in a 
singularly instructive way the weak point of our English system of education. 
They originated, I fancy, in the Cambridge Mathematical Tripos Examination, as 
a reaction against the abuses of cramming bookwork, and they have spread into 
almost every branch of science teaching—witness test-tubing in chemistry. At 
first they may have been a good thing; at all events the tradition at Cambridge 
was strong in my day, that he that could work the most problems in three or two 
and a half hours was the ablest man, and, be he ever so ignorant of his subject in 
its width and breadth, could afford to despise those less gifted with this particular 
kind of superficial sharpness. But, in the end, it came all to the same: we were 
prepared for problem-working in exactly the same way as for bookwork. We 
were directed to work through old problem papers, and study the style and 
peculiarities of the day and of the examiner. ‘The day and the examiner had, in 
truth, much to do with it, and fashion reigned in problems as in everything else. 
The only difference I could ever see between problems and bookwork was the 
greater predominance of the inspiriting element of luck in the former. This 
advantage was more than compensated for by the peculiarly disjointed and, 
from a truly scientific point of view, worthless nature of the training which was 
employed to cultivate this species of mental athletics. The result, so far as 
problems worked in examinations go, is, after all, very miserable, as the reiterated 
complaints of examiners show ; the effect on the examinee is a well-known enerva- 
tion of mind, an almost incurable superficiality, which might be called Problematic 
Paralysis—a disease which unfits a man to follow an argument extending beyond 
the length of a printed octavo page. Another lamentable feature of the matter is 
that an enormous amount of valuable time is yearly wasted in this country in the 
production of these scientific trifles. Against the occasional working and pro- 
pounding of problems as an aid to the comprehension of a subject, and to the 
-starting of a new idea, no one objects, and it has always been noted as a 
praiseworthy feature of English methods, but the abuse to which it has run is 
most pernicious. 

All men practically engaged in teaching who have learned enough, in spite 
of the defects of their own early training, to enable them to take a broad view of 
the matter, are agreed as to the canker which turns everything that is good in our 
educational practice to evil. It is the absurd prominence of written competitive 
examinations that works all this mischief. The end of all education nowadays is 
to fit the pupil to be examined; the end of every examination not to be an 
educational instrument, but to be an examination which a creditable number of 
men, however badly taught, shall pass. We reap, but we omit to sow. Con- 
sequently our examinations, to be what is called fair—that is, beyond criticism in 
the newspapers—must contain nothing that is not to be found in the most miserable 
text-book that any one can cite bearing on the subject. One of my students, for 


— 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 8o3 


example, who was plucked in his M.A. examination, and justly so if ever man was, 
by the unanimous verdict of three examiners, wrote me an indignant letter because: 
he believed, or was assured, that the paper set by the examiners could not have 
been answered out of Todhunter’s Elementary Algebra. I have nothing to say, of 
course, against that or any other text-book, but who put it into the poor young 
man’s head that the burden lay with me to prove that the examination in question 
ought to contain nothing but what is to be found in Todhunter’s Elementary 
Algebra? The course of this kind of reasoning is plain enough, and is often 
developed in the newspapers with that charming simplicity which is peculiar to 
honest people who are, at the same time, very ignorant and very unthinking. 
First, it follows that lectures should contain nothing but what is to be found in 
every text-book ; secondly, lectures are therefore useless, since it is all in the text- 
book; thirdly, the examination should allude to nothing that is not in the text- 
books, because that would be unfair; fourthly, which is the coach or crammer’s 
deduction, there should be nothing in the text-book that is not likely to be set in 
the examination. The problem for the writer of a text-book has come now, in 
fact, to be this—to write a booklet so neatly trimmed and compacted that no coach, 
on looking through it, can mark a single passage which the candidate for a minimum 
pass can safely omit. Some of these text-books I have seen, where the scientific 
matter has been, like the lady’s waist in the nursery song, compressed ‘so gent and 
sma’,’ that the thickness of it barely, if at all, surpasses what is devoted to the 
publisher’s advertisements. We shall return, I verily believe, to the Compendium 
of Martianus Capella. The result of all this is that science, in the hands of 
specialists, soars higher and higher into the light of day, while educators and 
the educated are left more and more to wander in primeval darkness. 

When our system sets such mean ends before the teacher, and encourages such 
unworthy conceptions of education, is it to be wondered at that the cry arises 
that pupils degenerate beneath even the contemptible standards of our examinations ? 
These can hardly be made low enough to suit the popular taste. It is no merit of 
the system we pursue, but due simply to the better among our teachers, men many 
of them who work for little reward and less praise, that we have not come to a 
worse pass already. Some even of the much-abused crammers have conceptions of 
a teacher's duty far higher than the system-mongers of the day, whom it is their 
special business to outwit; and it is but fair to allow to such of these also as 
deserve it part of the credit of stemming the torrent of degeneration. We place 
our masters in positions such that their very bread depends upon their doing what 
many of them know and will acknowledge to be wrong. Their excuse is, ‘ We do 
so and so because of the examination.’ 

The cure for all this evil is simply to give effect to a higher ideal of education 
in general, and of scientific education in particular. Science cannot live among 
the people, and scientific education cannot be more than a wordy rehearsal of dead 
text-books, unless we have living contact with the working minds of living men. 
Tt takes the hand of God to make a great mind, but contact with a great mind will 
make a little mind greater. The most valuable instruction in any art or science 
is to sit at the feet of a master, and the next best to have contact with another 
who has himself been so instructed. No agency that I have ever seen at work 
can compare for efficiency with an intelligent teacher, who has thoroughly made 
his subject his own. It'is by providing such, and not by sowing the dragon’s 
teeth of examinations, that we can hope to raise up an intelligent generation 
of scientifically educated men, who shall help our race to keep its place in the 
struggle of nations. In the future we must look more to men and to ideas, and 
trust less to mere systems. Systems have had their trial. In particular, systems 
of examination haye been tested and found wanting in nearly every civilised 
country on the face of the earth. Backward as we are here, we are stirring. 
The University of London, after rendering a great service to the country by forcing 
the older universities to give up the absurd practice of restricting their advan- 
tages to persons professing a particular shade of religious belief, has for many years 
pursued its career as a mere examining body. It has done so with rare advantages 
‘in the way of Government aid, efficient organisation, and an unsurpassed staff 


894 REPORT—1885. 


of examiners. Yet it has been a failure as an instrument for promoting the higher 
education—foredoomed to be so, because, as I have said, you must sow before you 
can reap. At the present time, with great wisdom, the managers of that institu- 
tion have set about the task of really fitting it out for the great end that it pro- 
fesses to pursue. If they succeed in so doing, they will confer upon the higher 
education one of the greatest benefits it has yet received. They have an oppor- 
tunity before them of dethroning the iron tyrant Examination which is truly 
enviable. This movement is only one of the signs of the times. Among the 
younger generation I find few or none that have any belief in the ‘ learn when you 
can and we will examine you’ theory; and small wonder, for they have tasted 
the bitterness of its fruit. Laissez faire asa method in the higher education no 
longer holds its place, except in the minds of inexperienced elderly people, who 
cling, not unnaturally, to the views and fashions which were young when they 
were SO. 

All the same, the task of reformation is not an easy one. Examinations have 
a strong hold upon us, for various reasons, some good, some bad, but all powerful. 
In the first place, they came in as an outlet from the system of patronage, which, 
with many obvious advantages, some of which are now sorely missed, had become 
unsuited to our social conditions. There is a certain advantage in examinations 
from the organiser’s point of view, which any one who, like myself, has to deal 
with large quantities of pretty raw material will readily understand. Again, 
there is an orderly bustle about the system that pleases the business-loving eye of 
the Briton. Yearly the printed sheets go forth in every corner of the land. The 
candidates meet and, in the solemn silence of the examination hall, the inspector, 
the local magnate, or the professor, sits, while for two or three busy hours the pens 
go scratching over the paper. A feeling of thankfulness comes over the important 
actor in this well-ordered scene, that the younger generation have such advantages 
that their fathers never knew. It is only when the answers are dissected in the 
examiner’s study that the rottenness is revealed underlying the fair outward skin. 
But then the examiner must go by his standards; he must consider what is done 
elsewhere, and what is to be reasonably expected. Accordingly he takes his 
report and quickly writes so many per cent. passed. Then the chorus of reporting 
examiners lift up their voices in wonderful concordance ; and all, perhaps even the 
examiners, are comforted. There is something attractive about the whole thing 
that I can only compare to the pleasure with which one listens to the hum of a 
busy factory or to the roaring of the forge and ringing of the anvil. But what 
avails the hum of the factory if the product be shoddy, and what the roar of the 
forge and the ring of the anvil if the metal we work be base ? 

Tn conclusion, let us consider for a moment what might be done for the risen 
generation, who are too old to go formally to school, and yet not too old to learn. 
In their education such bodies as the British Association might be very helpful. 
Indeed, in the past, the British Association has been very helpful in many ways. 
It can point to an admirable series of reports on the progress of science, for which 
every one who, like myself, has used them, is very grateful. It is much to be 
desired that these reports should be continued, and extended to many branches of 
science which they have not yet covered. 

The Association has at present, I believe, a committee of inquiry into science- 
teaching generally. This is typical of a kind of activity which the Association 
might very profitably extend. This Association, with its long list of members 
bristling with the names of experts in every science, not drawn from any clique or 
particular centre, but indiscriminately from the whole land, might take upon itself 
to look into the question of scientific text-books and treatises. Even if it did 
not set up a censorship of the scientific press, which might be an experiment of 
doubtful wisdom, although some kind of interference seems really wanted now 
and then, it might set itself to the highly useful work of filling the gaps in 
our scientific literature. There is nothing from which the English student suffers 
so much as the want of good scientific manuals, The fact is that the expense of 
getting up such books in this country is so great, and the demand for them, though 
steady, yet so limited, that it will not pay publishers to issue them, let alone 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 895 


yemunerate authors to write them. In my student-days the scarcity was even 
greater than it is now, and in fact then no one could hope to get even a reasonable 
acquaintance with the higher branches of exact science unless he had sowe 
familiarity with French or German at the very least—a familiarity which was rare 
among my fellow-students either in England or in Scotland. Might not the 
British Association now and then request some one fitted for the task to write a 
treatise on such and such a subject, and offer him reasonable remuneration for the 
time, labour, and skill required ? 

Another field in which the Association might profitably extend its labours 
appears to me to be the furnishing of reports, from time to time, on the teaching 
-of science in other countries, and the drawing up of programmes of instruction for 
the guidance of schoolmasters and of those who are reading for their own instruction. 
There is no need to impose these programmes ou any one. I would leave as much 
freedom to the teacher as I would to the private student. The programme drawn 
up by the Society for the Improvement of Geometrical Teaching, for example, 
has been very useful to me as a teacher, although I do not follow it or any other 
system exclusively. The great thing is not to fall asleep over any programme or 
system. For the matter of that, Euclid would do very well in the earlier stages of 
school instruction at least, provided he were modernised, and judiciously discarded 
at that part of the student’s career where a lighter vehicle and more rapid progress 
becomes necessary. In such programmes as I contemplate the bearing of recent 
discovery on the elements of the various sciences could be pointed out, and the 
general public kept in this way from that gross ignorance into which they are at 
present allowed to fall. 

The British Association has of late, I believe, given its attention to the 
encouragement of local scientific activity. There can be no doubt that much 
could be done in this way that is not done at present. The concentration of 
scientific activity in metropolitan centres is beginning to have a depressing effect 
in Great Britain. Thisis seen in the singularly unequal way in which Government 
aid is distributed over the country. Large sums are spent—sometimes we out- 
siders think not to the best purpose—through certain channels, simply because 
these channels happen to have a convenient opening in some Government office in 
London, or in some place in that important city which has easy access to the 
ruling powers; while applications on behalf of other objects not less worthy are 
met with a refusal which is sometimes barely courteous. The result is that local 
effort languishes, and men of energy, finding that nothing can be done apart from 
certain centres, naturally gravitate thither, leaving provincial desolation to become 
more desolate. 

I think our great scientific societies—the Royal Societies of London and Edin- 
burgh and the Royal Irish Academy—might do more than they do at present to 
prevent this languishing of local science, which is so prejudicial to the growth of a 
scientific public. Besides their all-important publishing function, these bodies have 
for a considerable time back been constituted into a species of examining and 
degree-conferring bodies for grown-up men. That is to say, their membership has 
been conferred upon a principle of exclusion. Instead of any one being admitted 
who is willing to do his best, by paying his subscription or otherwise, to advance 
science, every one is excluded who does not come up to the standard of a certain 
examining body. So far is this carried in the case of the Royal Society of 
_ London, that there is an actual competitive examination, on the result of whicha 
certain number of successful candidates are annually chosen. Now, against this 
proceeding by itself I have nothing to say, except that it appears to belong to the 
pupillary age both of men and nations. It is not the honouring of the select few 
that I think evil, but the exclusion of the unhonoured many. The original inten- 
* tion in founding these societies was to promote the advancement of science. How 
that is done by excluding any one, be it the least gifted among us, who is honestly 
willing to contribute his mite towards the great end, fairly passes my comprehen- 
sion. If it is thought necessary, for the proper cultivation of the scientific spirit 
among us, that the degree-conferring function should be continued, let there by all 
means be an inner court of the temple, a place for titular immortals; but let there 


896 REPORT—1885. 


be also a court of the Gentiles, where those whose fate or whose choice it is to 
serve science unadorned may find a modest reception. I believe that the adoption 
of this suggestion would enormously extend the usefulness of our great scientific 
societies, and give to their voice a weight which it never had before. At all 
events, if the trammels of tradition, or some better reason with which I am un- 
acquainted, should prevent them from broadening their basis in the way I indicate, 
nothing prevents the British Association, with its more liberal constitution, from 
considering what may be done for the scientific plebeian. 

There is one other function of the British Association in connection with 
which I wish to venture another suggestion. During the annual meeting, scientific 
men haye an opportunity of making each other's acquaintance. Great men ex- 
change ideas with great men; and, most important of all, young and little men 
have a chance, rarely otherwise afforded, of taking a nearer view of the great. 
What I would suggest for consideration is, whether it might not be possible to 
form an organisation which would in a certain sense carry this advantage through 
the whole year. I have already alluded more than once to the difficulties that the 
scientific public—and here I include professional men generally, in fact all but the 
leaders of science—have in keeping pace with recent advances. Would it not be 
possible to have an arrangement enabling at least every large centre of the higher 
education to haye periodically the benefit of communion with and instruction from 
the high priests of the various branches of science? How glad we, the teachers of 
science in Edinburgh for example, would be to have a course of lectures once every 
three or four years from Professors Cayley, Sylvester, Stokes, Adams, or Lord 
Rayleigh. In this way effect would be given to the principle which cannot be 
too much insisted upon, that the power of the spoken word far exceeds that of the 
written letter. Not only should we learn from the mouths of the prophets them- 
selves the highest truths of science, but the present generation would thus come to 
Imow face to face, as living men, those whose work will be the glory of their time 
and a light for future ages. From the want of a proper circulating medium, the 
influence of great scientific men very often does not develop until they and the 
secrets of their insight have gone from among us. The object of what I propose 
is to make these men more of a living power in their own lifetime. 


The following Papers were read :— 


1. On the Dilatancy of Media composed of Rigid Particles in Contact.} 
By Professor Osporne Reynoups, M.A., FBS. 


In the account which Professor Reynolds gave of his paper, he did not submit 
a complete dynamical theory, but discussed a very fundamental property of 
granular masses. To this property he gives the name of dilatancy. It is ex- 
hibited in any arrangement of particles where change of bulk is dependent upon 
change of shape. In the case of fluid matter, as we know it, change of shape and 
volume are independent. In solids they are sometimes not separable. With 
granular masses the result is different—change of shape always produces change of 
volume. And further, in every case, if change of volume is prevented all change 
of form is impossible. 

If we suppose the granular masses to be spherical, no granule can change its 
position without disturbing the adjacent particles—for the granules are all supposed 
to be perfectly rigid, and to be absolutely in contact ; and the internal particles are 
fixed if the external ones are. In illustration Professor Reynolds showed a model 
of connected spherical bodies arranged in crystalline form, This model showed the 
arrangement of the particles corresponding to, say, the condition of least possible 
density of the whole mass (about one-half the density of the separate spheres). 
The shape could then be altered to that which corresponds to maximum density— 
the change taking place by sliding of the particles one upon another. Between the 
extreme states there are intermediate stages of equilibrium corresponding to maxi- 
mum-minimum positions, where alteration in one direction produces decrease of 
density, and in the other increase of density. 


1 Published in full in Phil Wag. Dec. 1885, p. 469, 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 897 


In a complete treatment of the problem, friction must be closely considered ; 
but in the experiment shown it is not of consequence, the result being independent. 
The above statements will be true of any continuous mass of granules if we hold 
the boundaries. 

This principle of the dilatancy of such granular media explains many pheno- 
mena of common occurrence. For example, take a sack of corn, if set on end, it 
remains perfectly flexible ; but if placed on its side it becomes hard, and its shape 
will not alter. Now take an indiarubber sack, fill it with shot—it remains per- 
fectly flexible in all positions. The reason for this difference of behaviour is that 
in the former case the boundary of the granular mass is inextensible, while in the 
latter it allows increase of internal volume. So if it be possible with an extensible 
envelope to impose a limit to the volume of the contents, effects similar to 
those obtained with the inextensible boundary may be expected: and this can be 
done. If we place some shot (No. 6 was used in the experiment) in a thin india- 
rubber bag, and add a certain amount of water, we obtain the result wished. For 
if the amount of water added be such that the spaces between the granules when 
in close arrangement are all filled by it, while with a wide arrangement the amount 
is not enough, a point will be reached in passing from the first to the second 
arrangement such that any further change of volume, and consequently of shape, 
would produce a vacuum. When this stage is reached the whole mass becomes 
perfectly hard. Professor Reynolds illustrated this by means of a ball of shot to 
which a glass tube open at the end was fitted. With a close arrangement of the 
shot, the water, which was coloured, stood high in the tube; but when pressure 
was applied to the bag, the level was lowered. This was shown also with a ball con- 
taining sand instead of shot. The water level sank till the whole was at maximum 
density, and, still more pressure being applied, the level again rose, the maximum 
having been passed. In these experiments about 6 per cent. of the water was free 
at the top of the ball with the close arrangement of granules. When another ball 
containing 20 per cent. of free water was used, the hard condition could only be 
approximated to by pressure, and then passed. So long as the maximum is not 
passed in this case the ball springs back to its original state when the pressure is 
released. But if the maximum be passed, it will not spring back. Ifsome of the 
water be now let out, the maximum cannot be passed, except by shaking, and, if 
the flattened ball be then turned on edge, it will bear a pressure of a hundred 
weight without change of shape. 

When the dilatant material, such as shot or sand, is bounded by smooth sur- 
faces, the layer of grains adjacent to the surface is in a condition differing from 
that of the grains within the mass. This layer can slide between the one suc- 
ceeding it and the surface, causing much less dilatation than would be caused by 
the sliding of a layer within the mass. Hence, if two parts of the mass are con- 


_ nected by such a surface, certain conditions of strain may be accommodated by a 


streaming motion of the grains next the surface. Thus, if into a glass funnel par- 
tially filled with shot and held in a vertical position more shot be forced from 
below, the particles will flow up all around the sides—not rising in the centre as 
might have been thought. 

As the foot presses upon the sand when the falling tide leaves it firm, that 
portion of it immediately surrounding the foot becomes momentarily dry. When 
this happens the sand is filled, completely up to its surface, with water raised by 
capillary attraction. The pressure of the foot causes dilatation of the sand, and so 
more water is required. This has to be obtained either by depressing its level 
against the attraction or by drawing it through the interstices of the surronnding 
sand. As this latter requires time, for the moment the capillary forces are over- 
come, and the surface of the water is lowered below that of the sand, leaving it 
dry until a sufficient supply has been obtained from below, when it again becomes 
wet. On raising the foot we generally see that the sand under and around it be- 
comes wet for a little time. This is because the sand contracts when the distorting 
forces are removed, and the excess of water escapes at the surface. 

In referring to the results which might be expected to follow from a recognition 
of the property of dilatancy, the author said that it places a hitherto unknown 

1885, 3M 


898 REPORT—1885. 


mechanical contrivance at the command of those who would explain the funda- 
mental arrangement of the universe, and one which seems to promise great things 
besides possessing the inherent advantage of great simplicity. He then proceeded 
to explain, in a general way, how bodies in such a medium would—in virtue of 
the dilatation caused in the medium—attract each other at a distance, with a force 
depending on the distance, which might well correspond with the force of gravita- 
tion. Further, owing to the existence of a region close to the body in which the 
density varies several times from maximum to minimum, the mutual force might 
undergo a change from attraction to repulsion, and this more than once as the 
bodies approach—a condition which seems to account for cohesion and observed 
molecular force far better than any previous hypothesis. 

The transmission of distortional waves becomes possible if the medium be 
composed of small grains with large grains interspersed. The separation of two 
such sets of grains leads to phenomena closely resembling the phenomena of statical 
electricity. The susceptibility of such a medium for a state in which the two sets 
of grains are in conditions of opposite distortions may explain electrodynamic and 
magnetic phenomena, while the observed conducting power of a continuous surface 
for the grains of a simple dilatant medium closely resembles the conduction of 
electricity. 


2. On Calculating the Surface Tension of Liquids by means of Cylindrical 
Drops or Bubbles. By Professor G. Pirm, M.A. 


The author asserted that surface tensions are found only approximately and 
with difficulty by measuring the dimensions of round drops. He suggested that 
cylindrical drops should be used. He worked out the theory and described ex- 
periments of verification. 


3. On the Surface Tension of Water which contains a Gas dissolved in tt. 
By Professor G. Pirie, M.A. . 


The object of the experiments was to discover if water, which holds a gas in 
solution, has a different surface tension from water which holds no gas; and if it 
has to discover the law according to which increasing quantities of gas absorbed 
affect the capillarity. 

It was found that the surface tension is not measurably affected by those gases 
which, like air and carbonic acid, are not absorbed in sufficient quantities to affect 
markedly the specific gravity. A table of values of the specific cohesion was given 
for different quantities of two gases which are absorbed in large quantity. 


4, Thermodynamic Efficiency of Thermopiles.! 
By Lord Rayteicu, D.O.L., LL.D., F.R.S. 


5. On the Measurement of the Intensity of the Horizontal Component of the 
Earth's Magnetic Field.2 By THomas Gray, B.Sc., F.R.S.E. 


The general principle of the method adopted was that of Gauss, with these 
modifications. In the deflection experiment the magnetometer needle was made 
so short that in the calculations it could be assumed without sensible error to be 
of zero length, and two deflectors were used simultaneously. The deflectors were 
placed one on each side of the “magnetometer needle, with their axes in a line at 
right angles to the magnetic meridian ; and in position for deflecting the needle the 
direction of the line passing through the centres of the deflectors and the magneto- 
meter needle, were: first, the magnetic meridian, and second, a line at right angles 


1 Published in Phil. Mag. Oct. 1885. 
2 Published in Phil. Mag. Dec. 1885. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 899 


“to it. The author pointed out that this mode of procedure leads to two equations 
~which suffice for the determination of the horizontal component of the earth’s 
~magnetic field, and also of the effective length of the deflector. In these equations 
the also showed that the leneth of the deflector entered as a minus term in the one 
‘and plus in the other, and thus rendered the observations highly sensitive to pos- 
sible errors in that term, and enabled a good estimate of the effective leneth of the 
different deflectors to be had. Apparatus was described by which the whole cycle 
of observations, both for this and the oscillation experiment, might be obtained 
“without the necessity of handling the deflector magnets. 

The effects of the various corrections on the value of ‘ H1’ derived from the 
-equations were discussed. Such of the errors as were sensible had been made the 
“subject of direct experiment, and their effect allowed for in the table of values of 
‘ H’ given in the paper and quoted below. 

As the observations necessary for a determination of ‘H’ by this method 
-extend over such a time as may make the diurnal variation sensible, and further to 
-guard against the readings being vitiated by undetected magnetic storms, a mag- 
netic vibrator was kept going throughout the time of the experiment, and its period 
-taken from time to time as might be found necessary. 


, lse |¢33 | 22 SE 
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sie |= |& (SPP |222 | 22) 44] 84] a, |e 
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Als-|@.| 82 |=So5/.8,8| 83/22/82 | #2 33 
185 || 22/282) 48 e8s|B5ee| 28) P2/ 82] sa | Sz 
Soe) Sale, colee_s pas) eS | FS | ae 
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BIS | | 2 lg8"a/3e"3/ 83) S8/ee) 84 ls 
Ss] se c oO San lame. =o ort 2A 
al = 2 a eBSs(S2e5)/ aa] & go = 
ag alt Ei 228e(sF9s)/uP/F | ws 
BAtela~zlezelas “Ss 
May 27| 1/0-21 | 8-03 | 3-050 | 32:06 | 28:75 |108-7| 6-91 /44-9 |-1521 
» 27| 2/0:21 | 8:05 | 3-063 | 32:06 | 2875 |108-7) 7:10 58:5 |-1524| 1.55 
» 28] 3/0-21 | 8:05 |3-075 | 32:06 | 28-75 |108:7| 6°31 |54-1 |-1521 
» 29| 4/0:21 | 8:05 | 3-067 | 32:06 | 28-75 |108-7| 7:11|52°3 |-1522 
June 5| 5/021 | 4:00 | 1:526 | 30:0 | 25-125)108-7| 3-12/35-2 |-1524 
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» 11] 9/0-21 /15-030| 5-727 | 51-9 | 38:85 |108-7| 12-82 64-3. |-1525 | |-1526 
»» 11/10] 0-21 [15-021] 5-666 | 51-9 | 38-85 |108-7|13-58 [54:5 1527) 
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| ,, 21|12/020 oor |2336| 35-0 | 300 |128-9) 914 62-7} 2° 
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» 31/14/0-20 |10-005| 2:336 | 35:0 | 30:0 [128-9] 9-14 61:8!|°° 


6. On Atmospheric Electricity? 
By Professor C. Micuiz Suira, B.Sc., F.R.S.E. 


The commonly accepted opinion, that during fine weather the air potential is 
salways positive, is not accurate for Madras. There it is found that with a dry 
dJand wind (‘.e.,a westerly wind) the potential of the air is usually negative during 
__-Several hours of the day. In the early morning, and up to about 9 a.., the 
eal is usually positive, then it becomes negative, reaching a maximum 
‘between 10 and 11 a.at., and continues negative till the sea breeze sets in in the 


1 Corrected to noon for diurnal variation, 
? Published in full in Phil. Mag. Nov. 1885. 


5 


3m 2 


900 REPORT—1885, 


afternoon. During the prevalence of land winds there are frequent local showers, 
but these are evidently not the cause of the negative readings. Negative readings 
are never obtained in fine weather, except when the wind is westerly, and not 
even then, unless the ground is dry. A shower of rain, which cools the ground, 
makes the succeeding readings positive for some hours, A marked feature during 
the prevalence of land winds are the great clouds of dust which fill the air, and it 
seems probable that there is some connection between these dust clouds and the 
negative electrification of the air. 


7. Molecular Distances in Galvanic Polarisation.} 
By Professor J. Larmor, M.A. 


It has been shown, principally by Helmholtz (‘ Wissen. Abhand.’ Vol. I.. 
Galvanismus, and Faraday Lecture, ‘ Journal of the Chemical Society,’ 1882), that 
polarisation involves a condensing action on the surface of the metallic electrodes. 
The particles, say of the cation, which exist in the electrolyte in a state of tem- 
porary dissociation, are drawn towards the cathode by the electromotive force till 
further approach is prevented by chemical forces. Thus along the surface of the 
cathode we obtain a sheet of positively charged cation molecules, which are in an 
equidistant arrangement on account of their mutual repulsion; and opposite to- 
each on the material of the electrode there is the equal and opposite charge drawn: 
there by electrostatic induction, This double sheet is equivalent to a condenser. 

Kohlrausch and Helmholtz measured the charge required to produce a given 
polarisation difference of potential, and therefrom estimated the thickness of this: 
double layer. 

Lippmann (‘Comptes Rendus,’ 1882) determined the surface energy of the 
charge for unit area from the variation of the capillary constant of a mercury 
electrode; and thereby gained an estimate in agreement with the above. 

We should expect that the capacity of the double layer per unit surface would 
remain constant until the distance between contiguous cation particles became of 
the same order as the thickness of the double layer, ¢.e., until the contiguous parti-- 
cles began to feel one another’s chemical forces, and be influenced thereby. An 
examination of Lippmann’s results shows this constancy of capacity to a very close: 
degree for a range of about a volt. We may, accordingly, conclude that with his. 
acidulated water polarised to a yolt the particles of the polarisation layer have 
just become so numerous as to be in chemical contact with one another. This 
eae to a third estimate of a molecular distance which we find to agree with the: 
two former. 

The first estimate is based on the absolute electrostatic measurement of the 
charge ; the second on the measurement of a surface tension; the third on the: 
absolute electro-chemical equivalent of the electrolyte. The complete agreement 
of three estimates founded on physical constants so various and of so different 
orders of magnitude, is strong evidence of the validity of this method of interpre- 
ting the phenomena of polarisation. 

They are all in satisfactory agreement with the estimates of Sir W. Thomson 
and others from different considerations (‘ Nature’ 1870, ‘ Appendix F, Thomson 
and Tait’s Natural Philosophy,’ part ii.), and give an average result of about one 
10°7° metre, more or less. 


8. On the Employment of Mance’s Method for eliminating the Effects of 
Polarisation, to determine the Resistance of the Human Body. By 
Dr. W. H. Stonz, M.A. 


The author commenced by stating that he had given a similar paper at the 
Southport meeting of the Association, in which it was noted that the electrical 
resistance of the human body was surprisingly less than that usually given, even 
by such authorities as Rosenthal, in Germany, and Dolbear, in America. He had 


1 See Phil, Mag. Nov. 1885, 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 901 


shown that this was due to imperfect contact through the insulating skin. By 
immersing the extremities in saline solutions, and using large leaden electrodes, 
this initial error was eliminated, and a fair approximation to the real value 
obtained. But additional difficulties at once presented themselves; firstly, in that 
the living body acts as a secondary battery, and sets up very appreciable counter- 
electromotive force ; secondly, that it has considerable electrostatic capacity, and 
acts to some extent as a condenser. 

The former of these might be minimised by alternating momentary contacts 
with a reversing key, but, even thus, later readings were always somewhat higher 
than the earlier, giving a resistance compounded indefinitely of real resistance and 
polarisation. The use of alternate currents from a small induction coil on 
Kohlrausch’s system, substituting a telephone for the galvanometer, an extremely 
elegant method, had occupied him for a year, but unfortunately it gives too 
low a result, probably from condenser action, and from the fact that a current 
rapidly reversed never actually traverses a very imperfect conductor like the 
human body, but only charges and discharges it in layers or sezments. 

Two opposite sources of error seem thus to be indicated, a condenser action 
spuriously lowering the reading, especially with alternate currents of high tension, 
and a polarisation action fallaciously raising it. The problem of ascertaining the 
amount of each of these was difficult. It had struck him, however, that the 
human body in many respects resembled a faulty submarine cable, in being at once 
2 conductor, a condenser, and an electrolyte. He therefore, on the advice of 
Mr. Latimer Clark, adopted a method employed by Sir Henry Mance, on the 
Persian Gulf cables, and described before the Society of Telegraph Engineers, on 
May 8,1884. It consisted in suddenly shifting the proportional coils of a specially 
constructed Wheatstone bridge (which was exhibited), and rapidly taking a 
fresh reading under the changed conditions. The values both of proportional coils 
and readings were then cross-equated so as to eliminate adventitious, and only 
retain intrinsic resistance. This method answered well, and gave results infinitely 
more concordant than any previously tried. For instance, two consecutive 
readings thus corrected gave 1,009 ohms and 1,007°8, a difference of less than one 
in 500, which was as near or nearer than could be expected in physiological 
electricity. He hoped thus to have overcome his first difficulty, and was 
endeavouring to meet those of measuring electrostatic capacity and opposite 
E. M. F. He already had roughly determined that the healthy body had a 
charging power as a secondary battery of about one volt or an ordinary Daniel 
cell, and he believed the chemical decomposition of tissue thus indicated was some- 
times, especially in cases of rheumatic sciatica, the cause of the cure which 
frequently, indeed almost invariably, ensued. 


9. On Contact Electricity in Common Air, Vacuwm, and different Gases, 
By J. T. Borromiry, M.A., F.R.S.E. 


The discussion at the British Association meeting at Montreal last year on the 
seat of electromotive force in the voltaic cell, the paper of Professor O. Lodge 
- which resulted from that discussion, and the subsequent discussion at the Society 
of Telegraph Engineers, must have brought forcibly before the minds of those 
interested in the subject the extremely unsatisfactory state of our experimental 
knowledge on some of the fundamental questions relating to contact electricity. 
Foremost among these, perhaps, is the question of the behaviour of various metals 
as to Volta contact effect in air and vacuum, and in gases different from common 
air. I have undertaken a series of experiments on this subject, and have already 
obtained some definite results; although the experiments which I have made up 
to this time are only to be considered as preliminary to a fuller inquiry. 

The apparatus which I am using is shown in the diagram. ‘The lower of the 
two plates to be experimented on is supported in the vacuum chamber by a small 
stand with a glass pillar, and the electrode from this plate passes through the side 
of the chamber, hermetically sealed into it. The upper plate is hung from the top 


902 REPORT— 1885. 


by a long platinum spiral, the upper end of which is also hermetically sealed into- 
the glass. To the lower end of the spiral is attached a long hook, which carries 
the lower plate, and at the junction of the spiral with this hook there is a small 
globe of soft iron. It is by means of this small soft iron globe, and a magnet 
applied outside the tube, that the upper plate is lifted from the lower plate. The 
nature of the vacuum chamber and its connection to the pump will be readily. 


| 


. 
PHOSPHORIC ACID 


QUADRANT ELECTROVE?ER 
SLIDE RESISTANCE 


understood from the diagram. ‘The final adjustment of distance between the two 
plates when at their nearest is done at the top of the tube by heating it and draw- 
ing out the glass carefully, or else letting it fallin till the adjustment is satisfac- 
torily made. The branch tube on the right-hand side of the diagram, which is: 
shown sealed off, is used for supplying gases to the apparatus, A small part only 
of the drying and purifying apparatus is shown in the diagram, 

For determining the value of the Volta contact effect, I have used the quad- 
rant electrometer and the compensation method of Sir William Thomson. The 
Daniell’s cell and slide resistance and the connections are shown in the figure. 
The method is so well known that it need not be described here. It was given 
in ‘ Nature,’ April 14, 1881, and has also been described in the paper of Professor 
O. Lodge, which was printed in the British Association Reports. 

The plates which I have used are zine and copper discs, a little larger than 2 
shilling. Testing them first with full air-pressure, I found that the Volta contact 
difference was rather oyer 0°74 volt: which is as nearly as possible what has been 
found by previous experimenters, and by myself experimenting a few weeks ago 
with Sir William Thomson’s old contact apparatus. 

The air was then very carefully exhausted, the exhaustion being maintained 
for two days, and finally made exceedingly good with two and a half hours work at 
the pump just before testing. The pressure during the testing was not greater than, . 
and was probably much less than =4; mm. of mercury, or 2°5 M (23 millionths of 
an atmosphere). The electrical test was then applied, and the value of the Volta 
contact effect was found to be exactly the same as before, a little over 0°74 volt. 
The final test, however, consisted in allowing the air to come back into the appa- 
ratus, and then testing electrically. This was done by breaking the point of the 
sealed tube to the right of the diagram; and as the air entered the electrometer 
test was rapidly applied. So far as the sensitiveness of the testing apparatus goes, 
there was absolutely no change in the Volta contact difference. 

My experiments, therefore, are absolutely contradictory, so far as they have 
gone, to those of Dr. W. von Zahn, quoted by Professor Lodge, who experimented 
in a high vacuum and found the Volta effect to be diminished, and to be repre- 
sented by a potential difference of only half a Daniell. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 903 


I have also experimented on hydrogen and oxygen gases in this apparatus in a 
way precisely similar to that described above. The chamber was very carefully 
exhausted, and the Volta contact effect tested with the electrometer. Hydrogen 
was then admitted, and while it was entering, which it was forced to do slowly, 
the electrical testing was repeated several times. 

A second and a third exhaustion were made, and hydrogen admitted a second 
and a third time. 

The same was subsequently done with oxygen, except that it was, of course, 
sufficient to admit the oxygen a single time. The result of my investigation, so 
far as it has gone, is that the Volta contact effect, so long as the plates are clean, 
is exactly the same in common air, in a high vacuum, in hydrogen at small and 
great pressure, and in oxygen. My apparatus, and the method of working during 
these experiments, was so sensitive that I should certainly have detected a varia- 
tion of 1 per cent. in the value of the Volta contact effect, if such a variation 
had presented itself. To do away with all question as to the dependence of the 
Volta effect on ‘ancient air sheets,’ I propose to modify my apparatus by making 
the vacuum chamber much longer, and finally of combustion tubing. I shall then 
apply great heat to the plates while they are contained in a vacuum as high as I 
cancommand, If then there be any ancient air-sheets existing, they must either 
be driven off or else absorbed into the plates. If any gas be driven off, it will be 
removed by the pump. The plates will then be tested when they have perfectly 
cooled, and the value of the contact difference determined. That being done, the 
atmosphere air or some other gas will be admitted, and the contact difference will 
be again determined. The effect of the presence of the atmosphere or other gas 
will, I think we may safely suppose, be thus ascertained. 

In conclusion, I have to express my indebtedness to Mr. J. Rennie, assistant to 
the Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Glasgow, for most 
valuable aid during my investigation. 


10. On a Specimen of almost Unmagnetisable Steel. 
By J. T. Borromisy, M.A., F.R.S.£. 


The author has examined a specimen of steel presented to Sir William Thomson 
by Mr. R. R. Eadon, of the firm of Moses Eadon & Sons, Sheffield. This steel is 
made under Hadfield’s patent, and contains 15 per cent. of manganese, and one 
side of the specimen bar has been polished, and shows that the steel is capable of 
taking a very high finish. The present specimen has probably a tensile strength of 
forty-five tonsto the square inch. To test it magnetically, the bar was first touched 
with steel magnets, and such preliminary trials seemed to show that the magnets 
had not the slightest effect upon it. It was then placed between the poles of a 
powerful Rhumkorf electro-magnet, which was excited by forty large tray 
Daniells, arranged in fours for quantity and ten in series; and the process for 
magnetising which is always used in the Glasgow University laboratory, and 
which is very satisfactory, was proceeded with. It was very astonishing to find 
the bar of steel absolutely unaffected by the electro-magnet, so far as could be 
perceived by the hand. 

After magnetisation the bar was carefully tested by the magnetometer method, 
a mirror magnetometer being used for the purpose. The weight of the bar is 
192:09 grammes, its length is 14:29 centims, it is of square section, and is 1°5 
centim thick. ‘The effective length of the bar as a magnet was estimated at 10 
centims, The magnetometer determination gave for the magnetic moment 

p= 2°55 ©.g.8. 
Dividing by the weight of the bar we find for the magnetisation per gramme of 
this specimen of steel, 0°013 c.g.s. 

To compare this with other specimens of steel we find in many specimens that 
magnetisation of 40, 50, or even 60 c.g.s. per gramme can be obtained. In some 
specimens as much as 90 or even 100 c.g.s. per gramme has been obtained. 

. P.S. The author has been informed that Dr. Hopkinson has already experi- 


904 REPORT— 1885. 


mented on steel containing manganese, and has obtained similar results. He has 
not, however, seen Dr. Hopkinson’s figures, and is unable to compare his own 
results with them. 


11. On the Cooling of Wires in Air and in Vacuum. 
By J. T. Bortomury, M.A., F.R.S.H. 


This paper gave a brief account of recent experiments on radiation of heat 
from the surface of metallic wires in air and in vacuum, A preliminary paper on 
this subject was communicated to the British Association at its meeting last year. 
Since that time the arrangements for experimenting have been greatly improved, 
and further results have been obtained. The object is to determine in absolute 
measure the loss of heat from the surface of small wires of various materials, both 
uncovered and covered with various coatings, the wires being surrounded with 
different gases at various pressures down to the very lowest. 

The chief experimenters on this subject in recent times have been Kundt and 
Warburg, and Mr. Crookes. My method of experimenting, which is very different 
from that of other experimenters, consists in passing a current of known strength 
through the wire under examination, and determining the increase in resistance of 
the wire due to heating of the currents when the wire has assumed a permanent 
temperature with the given current passing through it. When the temperature of 
the wire has become constant, the heat generated by the current (which can be 
calculated in absolute measure) must be equal to that emitted at the surface of the 
wire, plus that lost at the ends of the wire. The temperature of the wire at the 
moment is also ascertained from its resistance (as was done by Siemens in his 
experiments in resistance of platinum wire at different temperatures, ‘ Proc. R.S.’ 
vol. xix. p. 443); and the emissivity of the surface of the wire can thus be 
determined in absolute measure. 

My recent experiments have been directed to the determination of emissivities 
invery high vacuums. Using a Sprengel pump with five fall tubes, and a McLeod 
gauge of improved construction, due to Mr. C. H. Gimingham, I have obtained and 
measured a vacuum with air pressure as low as 4, M (one thirty millionth of an 
atmosphere). The wire with which I am experimenting at present is a platinum 
wire half a metre long and 0:04 c.m. in diameter. It is contained in a glass tube 
about 0°6 c.m. internal diameter. 

A table of emissibilities per metallic surface has not yet been completed, but 
one result obtained with a high vacuum may be quoted. On passing a current of 
1:18 amperes through this wire with full air pressure, the permanent temperature 
obtained by the wire was 75° C., the temperature of the room at the time being 
15:2 C. On exhausting down to 3, M (4 x 10-® atmosphere) and passing the same 


9 
current, the wire became heated to a good red heat. 


FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11, 


The following Papers and Reports were read :— 


1. On Kinetic Theories of Matter. 
By Professor A. Crum Brown, M.D., F.R.S. 


2. On Kinetic Theories. By Professor G. D. Livete, M.A., F.B.S. 


3. On Thermal Effusion and the Limiting Pressure in Polarised Gas. 
By G. Jounstone Stoney, LL.D., F.R.S. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 905 


4, On a Law concerning Radiation. By Professor Scuuster, Ph.D., F.R.S. 


5. On Boltzmann’s Theorem. By Professor W. M. Hicks, M.A., E.R.S. 


It has always seemed to me that one of the strongest objections to Boltzmann’s 
theorem lay in the supposition that the mean energy of any kind of vibration of 
any atom must be equal to that of translation in any direction, and therefore 
capable of unlimited increase. It is not difficult to conceive of systems where this 
cannot be true, as, for instance, a rigid spherical shell with a vortex ring inside. In 
this system the internal energy may be made to vary within certain limits, but 
cannot possibly be increased beyond a certain amount. The fact seems to be that 
Maxwell’s theorem and Boltzmann’s extension do not necessarily correspond to the 
actual state, but are only proved to give possible distributions of energy which are 
permanent. In any case, however, even if we assume the law of distribution of 
momenta given by them to be true, I can see no reason to justify us in assuming, 
either that all values of any momentum from — o to + © are possible, as is done 
in Watson’s proof, or even that all values consistent with the equation of energy 
are possible, as is done in Maxwell’s proof. If in Watson's proof all the non- 
existent states are left out of account, the form of solution is unaltered, but the 
energy will no longer be equally distributed amongst the co-ordinates. In this 
case, therefore, there is no difficulty in accounting for the ratio of the two specific 
heats in different cases, although it is not possible to predict it until the general 
constitution of the atom is known. Maxwell’s proof takes account of the whole 
history of a molecule, and not merely of what happens at a collision as in 
Watson’s. But it cannot be generally true that all states consistent with the 
equation of energy are possible. For instance there may be geometrical relations 
which prevent it, but which do not appear in that equation; as for example in a 
system of mutually attracting spheres. The equation of energy would permit of 
the infinite velocities due to an infinitely near approach of the centres of two 
spheres, a state which cannot exist owing to the finite size of the spheres. Another 
ease is where the integrals of the equations of motion of the atom introduce 
relations between different momenta, as, for example, where part of the system 
consists of connected gyrostats. 


6. The Rate of Explosion of Hydrogen and Oxygen. By H. B. Dixon, M.A. 


The author has continued his experiments on the velocity of explosion of electro- 
lytic gas. His results confirm those of Berthelot that the explosion is propagated 
at a constant velocity which is independent of the diameter of the tube. With a 
tube 100 metres long the mean of ten experiments gave a velocity of 2,819 metres 
per second, with a probable error of four metres. This velocity is in close agree- 
ment with the mean velocity of translation of the steam molecules produced in 
the reaction calculated on the supposition that all the heat produced is retained in 
the steam. The calculated velocity is 2,831 metres per second. 


7. Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing practical Standards 
for use in Electrical Measurements.—See Reports, p. 31. 


8. Report on Hlectrical Theories. By Professor J. J. THomson, M.A., 
F-.R.S.—See Reports, p. 97. 


9. On Constant Gravitational Instruments for measuring Electric Currents 
and Potentials. By Professor Sir W. THomson, LL.D., F.R.S. 


‘These instruments, the author stated, were parts of two series of electric mea- 
suring instruments, for current and potential, which he was now working out. In 
the two current instruments—the milliamperemeter and the hecto-amperemeter— 


906 REPORT—1885. 


the mode of effecting the measurement was founded on Faraday’s law, according to 
which a ferro-magnetic mass placed in a variable magnetic field experiences forces 
tending to make it move from places of weaker to places of stronger force. The 
essential parts of the milliamperemeter are shown in the sketch diagram, fig. 1. It 
consists of an electro-magnetic coil, fixed with its axis vertical, and a little cylin- 
drical mass of soft iron hung from one end of a light balanced lever so as to be 
free to move up and down in a circular arc, deviating but little in its middle and 
at its two ends from the axis of the coil. 

The measurement is given by the deflections indicated on a scale by the end of 


Fig. 2. 


the balanced lever, when a weight of known amount is hung on the ring below the 
iron mass. To screen the iron from the eflects of the earth’s magnetism the coil is- 
enclosed in an iron box. 

In the hecto-amperemeter the variable magnetic field is obtained by a suitable 
disposition of the metallic conductor conveying the current to be measured. The 
conductor may he taken as consisting of two thick copper plates, shaped each 
according to the sketch, fig. 2, supported in a vertical position parallel to each. 
other, say one centimetre apart, and metallically connected at the place indicated 
by B. At A is fixed a suitable electrode. The course of the current is therefore 
from A to B, and from B across to and through the other plate to the part of it 
corresponding to A, which forms the other electrode. In this way, two similarly 
varying magnetic fields are produced, and the balanced lever, capable of motion 
in a plane situated midway between the plates, carries two masses of iron, one in 
each field. In other respects, the instrument is similar to the milliamperemeter. 

The electrometer consists of an air condenser with one of its plates capable of 
a to-and-fro motion so as to vary the capacity of the condenser. 

The fixed brass plates are supported so as to be accurately parallel to each other 
and in metallic connection, while they are thoroughly insulated from the case of 
the instrument. The movable plate is of aluminium, and is supported in a vertical 
position on a knife edge; the plane of its motion being parallel to the fixed plates. 
and situated midway between them. The upper end of this movable plate has a 
fine prolongation which serves as a pointer for indicating the deflections on the 
scale of the instrument, and at its lower end is fixed a knife edge having its length 
perpendicular to the plane in which the plate moves, 

When the fixed and movable plates are connected respectively to two points of 
an electric circuit between which there exists a difference of potential, the movable: 
plate tends to move so as to augment the electrostatic capacity of the instrument,. 
and the magnitude of the force concerned in any measurement is proportional to 
the square of the difference of potential by which it is produced. In the use of 


the instrument this force of attraction is balanced by the horizontal component of 


a weight of any convenient amount hung on the knife edge at the bottom of the 
movable plate. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 907 


10. On a method of multiplying Potential from a hundred to several thou- 
sand Volts. By Professor Sir Wittiam Toomson, LL.D., F.R.S. 


The method described by the author was to arrange in series a number n of 
condensers, where m is the number indicating the required multiplication, A 
terminal is connected to the junction between each pair of adjacent condensers. 
This series of n+1 terminals is conveniently placed so that by a suitable mechanism 
a pair of movable electrodes, between which a known difference of potentials exists, 
may be brought successively and repeatedly, at short intervals of time, into con- 
tact with each pair of adjacent terminals in the series, moving always in the same 
direction along them. In this way the difference of potentials established between 
the two end terminals of the series of condensers is m times the known difference 
of potentials between the movable electrodes. 


11, On a form of Mercury Contact Commutator of Constant Resistance for 
use in adjusting Resistance Coils by Wheatstone’s Bridge, and for other 
purposes. By Professor J. Viriamu Jones. 


The author was first led to consider commutators of the kind described by two 
needs: (1) In simple experiments on the induction of electric currents by the 
solution of a current in a magnetic field, it was desirable to substitute mercury 
contacts for the brass brass and copper copper contacts of the simple split ring 
commutator, and (2) for experiments on the resistance of electrolytes it is necessary 
to continue rapidly reversing the current without altering the resistance of the 
circuit. 

The simple commutator with mercury contacts consists of two co-axal, parallel, 
and equal split rings of copper, the lines of split being parallel to one another, and 
the halves being cross-connected. The split rings are supported on ebonite discs. 
If it is desired to convert a continuous current into an alternating current without 
change of resistance in the circuit, it is only necessary to add to the above simple 
commutator two other (unsplit) rings of copper properly connected and turning in 
mercury cups communicating with the terminals of the part of the circuit in which 
the current is continuous. 

If more rapid commutation is required, then by dividing the copper rings of the 
simple commutator into say six parts, and cross-connecting these, the current will 
be reversed six times in each revolution. 

By means of eight discs, each carrying a copper ring divided into two parts, the 
lines of split in the first, fourth, fifth, and eighth, being all parallel and at right 
angles to the lines of split of the second, third, fifth, and sixth, which are also 
all parallel, we may by proper connections change the direction of the current 
through two independent coils, then interchange the coils, and again reverse the 
direction of the current through the coils in their new position. Such a commu- 
tator, it will be perceived, is of great utility in adjusting resistance coils by 
Wheatstone’s bridge. 


12. On Slide Resistance Coils with Mercury Contacts. 
By Professor J. Viriamu Jones. 


13. On the relative Merits of Iron and Copper Wire for Telegraph Lines. 
By W.H. Preece, F.R.S. 


Copper is gradually replacing iron for aérial telegraphs, owing to its greater 
durability in the atmosphere ; but its greater cost has led to the use of smaller- 
sized wires. This can be done without detriment to the economy of the line, for 
the resistance of copper, as compared with iron, varies very nearly inversely as its 
price per ton, and hence the cost per mile remains about the same. Hitherto only 
short lengths have been erected in smoky towns and through districts where 


‘908 REPORT—1885. 


chemical industries filled the air with gases destructive to iron wires; but the Post 
‘Office Telegraph Department has recently erected a No. 14 copper wire, ‘080 in. in : 
diameter, weighing 100Ib. per mile, all the way from London to Newcastle, 278°08 
miles in length, and it became desirable to measure very accurately its electrical 
elements, so as to see if it possessed, as was anticipated, any marked advantage as 

a telegraph line over the galvanised iron wires hitherto used. 

There were two series of experiments made. In the first series the relative 
electrical condition of the two kinds of wires was determined, and in the second 
series their relative rates of working. 

The first series was divided into two parts, the one consisting of tests made 
from Bishop Auckland to Teams, near Newcastle, a distance of 30°235 miles on 
the north side, and to Pierce Bridge, a distance of 9:172 miles on the south side, 
and the other consisting of tests of a section of line between Pierce Bridge and 
Baldersby Cross Roads, 26-7 miles in length. The poles carried ten wires. The 
tests were made in dry and favourable weather by Messrs. Kempe and Eden. 

The electrostatic capacity of an aérial line is known to vary as 
4h 
d 
where / is the height of the wire above the ground, and d its diameter. Now, the 
vaverage height of the copper wire on the sections between Bishop Auckland and 
Teams and between Pierce Bridge and Baldersby Cross Roads is 28 feet, and that 
of the iron wire (on a lower arm of the pole) 22 feet, their diameters being ‘V80 in. 
and ‘171 in. respectively. We have, therefore, for copper wire 


4h 4 x 23 x 12 x 1000 


log 


log d log. 30 = 41398791, | 
for iron wire i 
log =” = log £* 23 12 x 1000 _ 3.7908678, 
d 171 
-and 
3°7906678 _ 


Tis05791 916 nearly, 
which makes the capacity of the copper wire to be 100—91°6, or 8:4 per cent. less 
than that of the iron wire. This result agrees pretty closely with the mean value 
-of the differences of capacity obtained by actual measurements on these sections— 
viz., 9°] per cent. 

For the Bishop Auckland-Pierce Bridge section we have :— 

For copper wire 


Nee logs 2 RIO cr g0ngney 
d 80 
For iron wire 
4h 4x20x12x1000 4. ? 
log 4 = log 4420 x10 x 1000 _ 3.749975 

and 

3°7492751 _, 

#1003705 ~ °!4 


making the capacity of the copper wire to be 100~91°4, or 8°6 per cent. less than 
that of the iron, whilst the actual value was found to be 9°7 per cent. The 
differences between the calculated and the experimental values are probably due 
to the influence of trees, buildings, &c., which cannot be allowed for theoretically. 
These measurements were made when the other wires on the poles were left 
insulated. The effect of having all the other wires to earth when the capacity of 
any one wire was measured was very marked. Thus, on one wire the capacity was 
increased from ‘362 to ‘451 microfarad, or 22 per cent. 
_ As regards the induction between wire and wire the effects obtained were very 
slight, though their actual value was determined with comparative accuracy. 
The second series of experiments were conducted between London and New- 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 909 


castle, and were designed, as stated above, to test the working efficiency of the- 
copper wire as compared with iron wires, They were conducted by Messrs. 
Chapman and Eden. 

Copper shows a very decided superiority over iron, the speeds being as 
follows :— 


Copper Tron 
Simplex working » 414 +. ~~, 345 words per minute. 
Duplex a . 270 : p2os  ,, oe 


It is anticipated that the superiority of copper over iron indicated by these 
experiments will have a beneficial and economical influence on our telegraph 
system, and that its extended use will enable us not only to work better, but to: 
dispense with intermediate repeaters in many cases where, on long lines, they are 
now necessary. 

The most interesting point, however, in connection with these experiments is 
that they apparently prove that the superiority of copper is not simply due to its. 
smaller electrostatic capacity and resistance, but that it is more susceptible to rapid 
changes of electric currents than iron ; for when the resistance and capacity of the 
copper and iron wires were equalised by the insertion of resistance coils and con- 
densers, the speed on the former was not thereby diminished. Possibly the 
magnetic susceptibility of the iron is the cause of this. The magnetisation of the 
iron acts as a kind of drag on the currents. It is well known that telephones 
always work better on copper than on iron wires, doubtless for the same reason. 

These experiments also show the high speed of working that is now attained by 
the Post Office authorities with the Wheatstone automatic apparatus. The follow- 
ing table gives an interesting résumé of the different stages of the progress made, 
and its rate of growth :— 


1877 . . 80 words per minute, { 1881. - 190 words per minute. 


1878; 100 ,, - 1982, . 300". 
1879s ..180—,, A TOSS 7 1 be BOO... 4 
BSA 0170) iy, ré TEAM etic: BHO ote, a 


SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 12. 


The following Papers were read :— 


1. On Orthoptic Loci. By the Rev. C. Taytor, D.D. 


An orthoptie point with reference to a curve is a point at which it subtends a 
tight angle, that is to say, it is the point of concourse of a pair of orthogonal 
tangents. The orthoptic locus of a curve is the locus of intersection of pairs of 
tangents drawn to it at right angles. It is proposed to determine the order of the 
orthoptic locus of a curve of given class. 

The order of the locus is determined when its complete intersection with any 
straight line, for example the line at infinity, is known. 

The tangents drawn from any point on the line at infinity are parallel, and in 
general cannot be regarded as including any finite angle, But the case is different 
with lines drawn from one of the circular points I or J. 

Any two such lines, IO and 10’, may be regarded as including any angle whatso- 
ever, since all the circles that can be drawn through any two points O and O” pass 
through I, 

The orthoptic locus of an ellipse (or hyperbola) is a circle, as De la Hire showed 
ust two centuries ago (Paris, 1685). This may be demonstrated as follows :— 
rom I (or J) one pair of tangents and one only can be drawn to the ellipse,. 
and they may be regarded as intersecting at right angles, Hence I and J being 
single points on the locus and being its only points at infinity, the locus is a circle. 


910 REPORT—1885. 


The orthoptic locus of the cardioid, a curve of the third class, is known to consist 
of a circle and a bicircular quartic, together making up a ¢rictreular sextic. Such 
likewise must be the locus for a curve of the third class in general, since three 
tangents can be drawn to it from I (or J), and they may be regarded as intersect- 
‘ing two and two at right angles. Consequently I and J are threefold points on the 
locus: and they are its only points at infinity. 

If the original curve be of class ”, then from I (or J) x tangents can be drawn to 
(n= 


+) ways in orthogonal pairs. This being there- 


it, and these can be taken in x — 
fore the order of each of the circular points on the orthoptic locus, the order of the 
locus is 2 (n-1). 

The order of the locus is apparently reduced when the original curve towches the 
line at infinity. Thus, in the parabola the line at infinity may be regarded as at 
right angles to the second tangent that can be drawn from any point upon it. 
Every such point therefore belongs to the locus, and the remainder of it when the 
line IJ is subtracted is a straight line not passing through the circular points, 
evidently the polar of the focus 8, since SI (or SJ) is a tangent at right angles to 
itself. In like manner the reduction for a curve of class x which touches the line 
IJ in » points may be estimated. 

By the same kind of argument it may be shown that if pairs of tangents be 
drawn to two curves of class m and class respectively, each to each, their locus 
of intersection will be a curve of the order 2mn, passing mn times through the 
circular points. The pedal of a curve of class is therefore an n-circular 2n-ic. 
That of an ellipse in general a bicircular quartic. 

It remains to explain the apparent reduction of the order of the pedal with 
respect to a focus. 

Taking for example the case of the ellipse, and eliminating between the 
equations :— 

y — mx = /(b? + ma’) 
and 
my + «= /(a?— 6?) 
we have 
(1 + m*) (a? + y? — a*) =0 


The factor 1 +m? equated to zero gives the directions of I and J, the tangents 
from which intersect in opposite pairs at the foci. The perpendicular from a focus 
S to the tangent SI is SI itself, which is accordingly a factor of the pedal, as like- 
wiseis SJ. But SI and SJ make up the potnt-circle at S. This factor corre- 
sponding to 1+m* being rejected, the remainder of the pedal must be a circle, 
evidently that on the axis as diameter. 


2. On the Reduction of Algebraical Determinants. 
By W. H. L. Russett, F.R.S. 


_ The following method, it will readily be seen, is applicable to all determinants 

in which the constituents of every column are rational and entire functions of (). 

Consider the determinant :-— 

a, + b,a + 0,27 + d,x", a, + b,x + ¢,27 + da, a, + byt + 0,0? + d,2°, 

at bye + Cu? + d,a?, a,+b.v + ¢,27 + da, a, + bv + cv? + d,r', 

. 2 3 , 3 

Ay + b,% + CyX* + dyX®, dg + bgt + Cgt* + dt, ay + byt + C527 + dyr*, 
Divide the first, second, and third rows by a, a, a, respectively, and subtract 

the first row from the second and third rows, and the determinant becomes 

f 1 / ean 12 
1+ b’ e+ e wt dit a’, + bau + cq" + C528, a4 +0/,0 +007 + d’,0°, 
0+ ba 4 ¢/,27 + d/,05, a+ 0/0 + ¢',07 + d’52, a’ +O oa t+ C/gt? + dU u* 
aa oder guiness tee ARONA een a its Pee oq 
040,27 40,07 + d/,2°, a’, + b’4x + c’42” + d’gt®, a’y + b’gu + C2” + d' 42”, 
that is :— 


a’, +02 +¢/,07 + d’,a%, a’, + Ou + cx? + d’,x%, 
a’, + bt + 0/0? +. d’gu°, a’, +O’ gu + c'2? + d’yt°, 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 911 


bi t+e,vt+d’,2%, a’, + 0,0 + e/,2? + d',23, a’, +b’ x + c/42? + d’,28, 
’ 1 So 7 asd , fom ae) Li oc / / fee 4 
By +e etd 2? a’+b tev +d'.a5, a’ +02 + 6.07 + d’,r, 


+ pL 
B+ cv +d',2", a’, + bor + c'g2? + d’.05, a4 + b’ yu + c/,27 +d’ yx, 


Where p does not involve (x): by repeating the process we obtain two more 
minors and the determinant :— 


dd TIT mp PP Port [Ve dd 1) ) saa TH n® dP 
wy b Pgh TO gt + aoa ast it gt te” .2? + a’ oa§ 
Q, @ +0 a +e 0 +d a, a! +b 0 + x? + 8 
da hn TIP pnd Lid i 3 dd PES vn JEP XS etre 
ry a Be + Ca? + Ba, a + Oat + e/a? + a!" 428, 


/ 


a8 


so that the original determinant is resolved into the sum of six minors of the 
form :— 

A, +B,7+C,2?+D,2°, A. + Br + 0,2? + Dr" 

A, + Bx + C2? + Dov’, A, + Bux + Ca? + Dia, 


3. Account of the Levelling Operations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey 
of India. By Major A. W. Bairp, R.E., F.R.S.—See Section E, p. 1123. 


4, A Theorem relating to the Time-moduli of Dissipative Systems. 
By Lord RayuericH, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. 


In the proceedings of the Mathematical Society for June 1873, it is shown that 
the times of vibration of a conservative system fulfil a stationary condition, so that 
the time of vibration in any normal mode would remain unaltered, even though 
the system, by the application of suitable constraints, be made to vibrate in a mode 
slightly different. It is pretty evident that a similar theorem must obtain for the 
time-moduli of the normal modes of a dissipative system, but a formal statement 
may not be useless. 

The class of systems referred to is that of which the mechanical properties depend 
upon ¢wo functions, one being the dissipation function F, and the other either the 
‘kinetic energy T, or the potential energy V. As examples of the first case may be 
mentioned, the subsidence of the small motion of a viscous fluid contained in a fixed 
envelope, and of free electric currents in a conductor. On the other hand, in the dis- 
tribution of heat in a thermal conductor, or of electricity in a cable, the undissipated 
energy is usually regarded as potential. The argument is almost exactly the same 
whichever case be contemplated ; to fix ideas we will take the former. 

By suitable transformation the two quadratic functions T and F may be reduced 
to sums of squares of co-ordinates, and these co-ordinates are consequently called 
normal. Thus:— 


T= cr $7,+3 [2] 7+... 
F= 3(1) $’7,+4(2)o7+... 
in which all the coefficients [1]... (1) . . . are positive. 


The normal modes are those represented by the separate variation of the co- 
ordinates, and the corresponding differential equations are of the form :— 


[s]ps + (s) ds =0, 
d. = Pe-» 


p=(s)/[8] 

If r, be the time-modulus, the time in whieh the motion is diminished in the 
ratio of e : 1, t,=p7}. 

Suppose now that by suitable constraints an arbitrary type of motion is imposed 
upon the system, so that ¢,=A,6, d,=A,6, ... where A,, A, &c. are given 
(real) coefficients. Then 

T= {[1JA+3[2]A,?+ ... 6 
F={i()A,?+3(2)A.7+ ... A; 


~whence 


-where 


912 rEPORT—-1885. 


and the equation of motion 
ddT\ , dF 
dae) * ae ° 
gives as the solution 6 « e~”', whence 
(TIA +[2]Ae+ 


It is evident that the value of p (and therefore of r) is stationary when all but. 
one of the coefficients A,, A,, &c., vanish, that is when the type coincides with one 
of those natural to the system. 

From this theorem corollaries may be drawn as from the corresponding theorem 
for times of vibration. The greatest time-modulus can only be reduced by the 
application of constraint, and where the normal mode is difficult of calculation a 
good approximation to the greatest time-modulus may be had from a hypothetical 
type chosen so as not to deviate too widely from the real one. Any increase in T or 
diminution in F asa function of the co-ordinates entails in general an augmentation 
in all the time-moduli. In the case of free electric currents, already referred to 
as an example, this augmentation of time-moduli would result from the approxi- 
mation of iron (treated as a non-conductor), or from an improvement (however 


local) in conductivity. 
5. On a new Polariser devised by Mr. Ahrens. 
By Professor Sirvanus P. Tuompson, D.Sc. 


This prism consists of a tetragonal block of cale-spar, the square ends of which 
are principal planes of section of the crystal; the axis of symmetry of the prism 
being at right angles to the crystallographic axis. It is divided by two planes 
making an angle of about 36° with one another; their intersecting line lying across 
the middle of one of the end faces. These two planes divide the prism into three 
wedges which are united together by Canada balsam. The polarised field of vision 
has about 28° of angular aperture. The line of junction which traverses the end 
face is quite imperceptible when the prism is used as a polariser, though it inter- 
feres slightly with the field when the prism is used as an analyser. In the writer’s 
opinion it is the best polariser hitherto designed. 


6. On a simple Modification of the Nicol Prism giving Wider Angle of 
Field. By Professor Sirvanus P, Taompson, D.Sc. 


This modification consists in reversing the obliquity of slope of the end-faces 
making them incline about 5° instead of 45° with the crystallographic axis, and in 
cutting the crystal across in such a plane that the balsam film makes 89° with the 
new end faces, or about 94° with the crystallographic axis, This ‘ reversed’ prism 
may have, externally, exactly the same form as the ordinary Nicol prism if cut 
from a longer piece of spar. If cut from a piece of the same proportions as an 
ordinary Nicol prism, the new prism will be somewhat shorter; but will have a 
slightly wider field. The 2 ‘reversed’ prisms presented to the section have angu- 
lar fields of 32° and 37° respectively. That of the ordinary Nicol is about 25° 30’. 
This method of construction may be looked upon as a compromise between the 
methods of Hartnack and of Nicol. It combines most of the advantages of the 
former with the cheapness of the latter. 


7. On some of the Laws which regulate the Sequence of Mean Temperature 
and Rainfall in the Climate of London, By H. Courtenay Fox, M.B.C.8. 


_ The materials used in preparing this paper are the monthly temperature and 
rainfall for the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, from 1815 to the present time. 
They form a series of carefully recorded facts extending over the long period of 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 913 


seventy years. In order to make practical use of this large mass of material, it 
was arranged in the following manner :—Taking out first all the Januaries, then the 
Februaries, and so on, [ arranged each month, not in chronological order, but in 
the order, first, of its mean temperature, and afterwards of its rainfall. The same 
thing was also done for each meteorological season (winter consisting of the three 
months, December to February, and the other seasons in order), 

In accordance with the principle which I had the pleasure of explaining to the 
British Association in 1879, and which is described at page 277 of the Report for 
that year, I divided each of these arranged lists as nearly as possible into five equal 
sections. Those referring to temperature are termed respectively, very cold, cold, 
average, warm, and very warm, and those referring to rainfall are named, very 
dry, dry, average, wet, very wet. We have thus a fair division of this long series 
of years, as regards the important characters of warmth and moisture. This 
simple arrangement is of the greatest utility in enabling us to generalise upon the 
mass of facts that have accumulated to our hand. 

Taking out first all those months that were ‘very cold,’ there is no difficulty in 
writing down against them, in order, the character as regards mean temperature: 
and rainfall of the months that came next after, and in saying how many of these 
latter were very cold, how many were cold, and so on, through the several sections 
of temperature and rainfall. Then, to ascertain the influence of high temperature, 
or of very dry or rainy weather, we take out all those months that were very 
warm, or very dry, or very wet, and proceed in the same manner. Supposing, for 
example, that we wish to inquire in what way great warmth in January affects 
the following month. We take all the instances (fifteen in number) within the 
last seventy years in which January was ‘ very warm.’ Obviously there must be 
fifteen Februaries to be examined. We find that three of these were ‘ very cold,’ 
none were ‘cold,’ five were of ‘average’ temperature, two were ‘ warm,’ and five 
were ‘very warm.’ Therefore, as regards the temperature of February it is safest to 
say that the result is zndefinite, because the three very cold and the five very warm 
ones too nearly balance each other to enable us to assert that there is a distinct 
tendency toward either side. But as regards the rainfall of these same Februaries, 
we find that seven of them were very dry, one was dry, two were average, three 
more were wet, and the remaining two were very wet. These facts exhibit a 
strong tendency for a very warm January to be followed by a dry February. Out 
of fifteen cases, seven Februaries were very dry against two that were very wet. 
The probability, therefore, of a very dry rather than a very rainy February may 
be conveniently expressed by the formula—7 to 2 out of 15. 

Proceeding in the manner thus briefly indicated, it is remarkable what a 
harvest of interesting results promises to reward the inquirer. It is, indeed, sur- 
prising in how many cases the warmth or moisture of one month or season is 
discovered to be influenced by some unsuspected law of association with the month 
or season which it succeeds. 

Omitting all those results which are of an ambiguous or indefinite character, I 
would venture to state the following definite propositions :— 

1. A very cold spring tends to be followed by a cold and wet summer. The 
probability of a very cold summer is decidedly strong, being 6 to none out of 15,} 
and that for a very wet one is 5 to 1 out of 15. 

2. A very cold summer tends to be followed by a cold autumn, the probability 
being 6 to 1 out of 14. 

vil wery warm summers are prone to be succeeded by warm autumns, 5 to 1 
out of 14. 

So much for the influence of the seasons on those which come directly after 
them. Except in these three instances I perceive no definite law. Now let us 
see the apparent effect of one month upon another following it :— 

4, In seven out of the twelve months we find that very Jow temperatures tend 
to be prolonged into the succeeding months. Thus, a very cold January gives a 
likelihood of a cold February, the probability being 4 to 1 out of 14; a very cold 


' That is to say, of fifteen very cold springs, six were followed by very cold 
Summers, and none by a very warm one. 


* 1885. 3N 


914 REPORT—1885. 


April has a strong tendency to be followed by a cold May, 6 to none out of 13; a 
very cold June conduces to a cold July, 6 to 2 out of 13; and a very cold July to 
a cold August, 5 to none outof 13. A very cold August gives a remarkably strong 
probability of a cold September, 7 to none out of 14; a very cold September is 
succeeded by a cold October in the smaller ratio of 4 to 1 out of 13; and a very 
cold December tends to be followed by a cold January, 6 tol out of 14. Itis 
noticeable that in three of these months, April, July, and August, the influence of 
cold is so strong that the facts were without marked exception. 

In the other five months of the year I find no evidence that low temperature 
definitely affects the succeeding months, Meanwhile it is interesting to observe 
that of the seven which do show influence four are consecutive, namely, June, July, 
August, and September, the hottest four months of the year. 

5. A very warm June has a strong probability to be succeeded by a warm 
July, 7 to none out of 13; and a very warm July by a warm August, 7 to none 
out of 14, A very warm August tends to be followed by a warm and wet Sep- 
tember, the probability for each one of these events being identical, namely, 5 to 
none out of 15. It will be noticed that this proposition applies to the three con- 
secutive summer months, and that the facts were without any marked exception, 

6. The rainfall sequence of consecutive months and seasons appears to observe 
no definite rule, except in one striking case, which is as follows:—A very dry 
August is apt to be followed by a wet September, 7 to 1 out of 16. Nowhere else 
do we find a distinct tendency for a month or season to be of opposite character as 
regards warmth or moisture to that which it succeeds. 

In addition to the foregoing, there are some instances in which the temperature 
of certain months appears to be related to antecedent conditions of rainfall, and 
vice versd. Thus :— 

7. In two months of the year the fact of their being dry is strongly followed 
by warmth in the next month. Thus a very dry June has a strong tendency for a 
warm July, 5 to none out of 15; anda very dry July for a warm August, 6 to 
none out of 15. 

8. On the other hand, in three months of the year abundant rain gives likelihood 
of a warm month to follow. Thus a very wet January is followed by a warm 
February, 7 to 1 out of 13; a very wet March by a warm April, 4 to none out 
of 11; and a very wet April by a warm May, 5 to 1 out of 13. 

9. The contrary of this occurs in two months—a very wet May being strongly 
followed by a cold June, 6 to none out of 14; anda very wet July by a cold August, 

5 to none out of 13. 

10, A very warm January is likely to be succeeded by a dry February, 7 to 2 
out of 15. 

It may naturally occur to ask—all these being instances in which a month or 
season is looked at in one character only—What are the results when they are 
examined with relation to the combinations of temperature and moisture? Do 
their characters, as warm and wet, cold and dry, warm and dry, cold and wet, 
show a tendency to influence the months following? We cannot so fully answer 
this question, because, in proportion as we define the character, we lessen the area 
of the observation. At the same time there are a few results that it may be worth 
while to adduce, 

11. Warm and Wet.—lIf November be of this character (which has happened 
five times in the past 70 years), December will tend to be wet, 2 to none out of 5; so 
also a very warm and very wet December is likely to be followed by a wet January, 
4 to 1 out of 6. But in January the same combination gives a probability of a warm 
February, 4 to 1 out of 8. i 

12. Cold and Dry.—If November have this character, the following December 
hasa slight tendency to be dry, 2 to none out of 6. But a very cold and yery dry 
December gives likelihood of a cold January, 3 to none out of 6. 

13. Warm and Dry.—In two months this combination is strongly followed by 
a continuance of warm weather. Thus a very warm and very dry June is suc- 
ceeded by a warm July; or if July be of this description, the ensuing August tends 
to be warm, the probability in either case being 4 to none out of 7. On the other 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 915 


hand, a very warm and very dry August is prone to be succeeded by a wet 
September, 4 to none out of 7. In each of these cases the actual probability is four- 
sevenths, but the value of this fact is much strengthened by there being no case of 
the opposite. 

14. Cold and Wet.—If July have this character the next month will generally 
‘be a cold one, 3 to none out of 5. So, likewise, a very cold and yery wet August 
tends to be followed by a cold September, 3 to none out of 5. 

15. With regard to the meteorological seasons, there is only one case in which 
the combination of extremes of temperature and moisture in one season seems to 
definitely influence the following one. A very cold and very wet summer is usually 
succeeded by a cold autumn. The facts in this case, although few in number, give 
evidence of a remarkably strong probability, being 5 to none out of 4. 

In conclusion, I beg to offer these results, so far as they go, with some confi- 
dence, obtained as they are from the purely numerical treatment of a long course 
of carefully recorded facts, whilst they are utterly free from any bias derived from 
theory. Let it be freely acknowledged that they take the rank only of empirical 
laws, which may some day be knit together by cautious induction to form a part 
of the future science of meteorology. 


8. Notes upon the Rotational Period of the Earth and Revolution Period of 
the Moon deduced from the Nebular Hypothesis of Laplace. By W. F¥. 
Stanzey, £.G.S., F.R.MS. 


This paper was in part a defence of the nebular hypothesis of Laplace (last note 
<Systéme du Monde’) in opposition to a modification of it proposed by Mr. G. H. 
Darwin (‘ Phil. Trans.’ 1879, p. 536) as regards the present and former velocities of 
motions of the earth and moon, The author proposed a theory by which the rela- 
tive velocities of an earth and moon might be deduced from consideration of the 
early nebulous conditions. Thus where the nebulous system of the earth was con- 
tracting by loss of heat, and the tangential velocity of the exterior parts of it ex- 
ceeded the centralising action of gravitation, so that it was possible for a sateliite 
system to become detached, there must necessarily be a plane of equilibrium of the 
particles surrounding the earth where they would he equally solicited by the earth 
and by its satellite, and this would be the plane of separation of the system. After 
the separation, the tangential velocities of the separate parts would give the final 
velocity of the central mass when these parts had condensed to form it. Thus 
taking the earth and the moon, or their original nebular systems by the simple 
formula e : m :: d*:d,?, where e and m are earth and moon, and d and d, the respec- 
tive masses. The attraction being directly proportional to the mass, and inversely 
as the square of the distance, we find by this formula in taking the separate den- 
sities and distances of the earth and moon, that the earth at its point of separation 
where a particle would be in equilibrium would form at first a nebulous globe of 
212,347 miles radius. The tangential velocity of the equatorial surface of this 
globe, assuming it moved at the present rate of the moon, of one revolution in about 
27% of our days, would be a sidereal tangential velocity of 1,534,215 miles in this 
period. The present velocity of the earth’s equator taken for the same period is 
679,305 miles, or only about half this. If we assume the density of matter of the 
nebulous system which formed the earth diminished directly as the square of the 
distance from the centre, then upon condensation the equatorial surface of the 
present globe should have the final velocity of its original nebulous equator imme- 
diately after its separation from the moon, supposing the system acting entirely 
without friction. But during the formation of the present globe, the matter con- 
densed upon the central mass impressing its momentum of higher tangential velocity 
upon this mass would cause the centre of the system to have higher radial 
velocity than the exterior parts, and as the exterior of the system would still be 
nebulous matter offering considerable resistance to the central mass moving at 
higher radial velocity, this motion would be necessarily frictional, causing a relative 
loss of velocity in the central mass which would be developed into heat. It is also 


3N 2 


916 REPORT—1885. 


probable that a liquid nucleus was already formed at the period of separation of the 
earth and moon systems, so that the tangential motion of the exterior nebulous 
mass surrounding it must be taken into the relative inertia of the denser centre. 
Therefore the present velocity of the earth’s rotation becomes quite rational, allow- 
ing this deduction from its former nebular velocity, assuming this has remained a 
constant on the conditions proposed, according to the hypothesis of Laplace. 


9. On a Galvanic Battery. By C. J. Burnett. 


MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14. 
The following Reports and Papers were read :— 


1. Report of the Committee on Standards of White Light. 
See Reports, p. 61. 


2. Photometry with the Pentane Standard. 
By A. Vurnon Harcourt, W.A., F.B.S. 


At Southport two years ago the author exhibited and described a lamp fed 
with a mixture of gaseous pentane and air which gave constantly when its flame 
was maintained at a height of 24 inches (65°5 m.m,) the light of an average sperm 
candle. Various improvements in the lamp have been made since that date. The 
narrow tube whose diameter determines the quality of the gas burnt forms the 
through-way of the plug of a stopcock at the bottom of the siphon, and thus its 
freedom from obstruction can be verified at any moment. A metal cylinder con- 
taining an arrangement of rack and pinion by which the wire above the flame can 
be adjusted to any desired height has been placed round the burner, and upon this 
when the flame is exposed to draughts stands a glass chimney partially closed above 
and below by a perforated metal plate. Thus protected, the flame of the lamp is 
much steadier than the flame of the candle. 

The loss of light due to a thin cylindrical chimney of clear glass has been found 
by placing such chimneys round a small glow lamp, through which a constant cur- 
yent was passed. It amounts to about 1 percent. A greater absorption of light, 
amounting to 6 per cent., occurred with an equally clear chimney of thicker glass. 
By adjustment of the size and number of the holes in the plates below and above 
the chimney, the height and brightness of the flame can be made the same when 
the chimney is used and when it is not. 

The relation between the height of the flame of pentane gas burning from a 
easholder and the light emitted has been determined. From a height of 715 m.m., 
at which the flame gives the light of 1-2 candle, down to a height of 35:5 m.m., at 
which the light is that of 0°3 candle, every millimetre of height corresponds to a 
light of ‘025 or 3, of a candle. Measurements of the light of gas and oil flames 
ranging from 900 to 2,500 candles were made at a distance of 50 feet in the photo- 
metric gallery at the S. Foreland, the pentane burner being fixed at a distance of 
one or ,/2 foot from the illuminated paper, by adjusting the height of the flame 
till equal illumination was obtained, bringing down the platinum wire till it touched 
the tip of the flame, lowering or extinguishing the flame, and reading on a scale of 
millimetres the height of the wire above the burner. 

For testing lighthouse burners with a Bunsen photometer the pentane lamp was 
used either at its normal height of 63-5 m.m. or, when distant lights had to be 
measured, with a shorter flame. The relation between the height of flame and light 
of the lamp has been determined for a range of 30 m.m. 

Lastly, the effect of variations of atmospheric pressure upon the pentane flame 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 917 


has been determined. To give constant light the height of the flame must be in- 
creased or diminished by ‘2 m.m. for every ‘1 inch of barometric height below or 
above 30 inches. The height of the flame is thus inversely proportional to the 
atmospheric pressure, as though the flame were a visible cone of gas of constant 
base. It is found that the height of the flame varies directly with the volume of 
gas passing to the burner. Recent observations on Ben Nevis show a less rate of 
variation for a difference of 4 inches of the barometer. 


3. On a Photometer made with Translucent Prisms. By J. Jouy, BE. 


When two pieces of a translucent substance such as paraffin are placed in con- 
tact along a plane face and illuminated by sources of light placed on opposite sides 
ofthis plane and viewed in this plane, they do not appear equally bright unless 
the illumination by each source is equal. This may be used as a very sensitive 
test of equality of illumination, and so as a photometer. It has this advantage 
over both shadow and Bunsen’s photometers, that the illuminated surfaces to be 
compared are in absolute contact along the line of contact of the two pieces of 


parattin. 


4, Report of the Committee for reducing and tabulating the Tidal Observa- 
tions in the English Channel, made with the Dover Tide-gauge ; and for 
connecting them with Observations made on the French coast.—See Re- 


ports, p. 60. 


5. Seventeenth Report of the Committee on Underground Temperature. 
See Reports, p. 93. 


6. Fifth Report of the Comivittee on Meteoric Dust.—See Reports, p. 34. 


7. A Tabular Statement of the Dates at which, and the Localities where, 
Pumice or Volcanic Dust was seen in the Indian Ocean in 1883-84. 
By Cuartes Metprvum, F.f.S.—See Reports, p. 773. 


8. Report of the Committee for co-operating with the Meteorological Society 
of the Mauritius in their proposed publication of Daily Synoptic Charts 
of the Indian Ocean from the Year 1861.—See Reports, p. 60. 


9. Daily Synoptic Charts of the Indian Ocean. 
By Cuartes Mexprvw, F.R.S. 


10. Report of the Committee appointed to co-operate with the Scottish 
Meteorological Society in making Meteorological Observations on Ben 
Nevis.—See Reports, p. 90. 


11. On the Meteorology of Ben Nevis. By AupxaNDER Bucwan. 


The advantages possessed by Ben Nevis as a first-class meteorological observa~ 
tory are these: itis the highest mountain in the British Islands, rising to 4,406 feet ; 
its summit is in horizontal distance little more than four miles from a sea level 
station at Fort William, and it is situated in the track of Atlantic storms which 
exercise so preponderating an influence on the weather of Europe, especially in 
autumn and winter. Its advantages are thus unique, and observations made there 
are of the highest interest and value in meteorology. 


5 


918 REPORT—1885. 


In establishing this national observatory, the object sought to be attained was 
a knowledge of atmospheric changes and disturbances such as would lead to a 
juster conception of the great movements of the atmosphere, and of the weather 
preceding, accompanying, and following these movements. From the knowledge 
thus gained, and from the Ben Nevis daily observations themselves, the value of 
forecasts of the weather of the British Islands will, it is believed, be muck 
enhanced. 

The importance attached to the Ben Nevis Observatory as contributing aid in 
framing weather forecasts for the British Islands was soon apparent in discussing 
the observations in some of their relations to the weather changes of North- 
Western Europe. The occurrence of remarkable differences from the normals was 
disclosed in the vertical distribution of the temperature, pressure, and humidity of 
the atmosphere between the top of Ben Nevis and the sea level at Fort William. 
As the discussion proceeded it became more and more apparent that these diffe- 
rences gradually grouped themselves into separate classes according to the different 
types of weather which either prevailed at the time or occurred soon after. 

A series of large inquiries thus open up which will lead to important scientific 
and practical results. These inquiries are, it is unnecessary to say, among the 
most difficult in physics, and for their satisfactory investigation the directors have 
thought it essential in the first place to investigate as completely as possible the 
meteorology of the top of the mountain and of Fort William at its base. This 
being done, the bearing of the Ben Nevis observations on the weather of the 
British Islands can be more satisfactorily investigated, particularly the bearing of 
the observations on the coming weather—an investigation now being prosecuted. 

With regard to the climatology of Ben Nevis, reference is made to the Report 
submitted to this Meeting (see page 90), and to the previous Reports. A large 
number of other observations haye been made and entered in ‘the log’ of the 
observatory which yet remain undiscussed. These embrace optical observations, 
the state of the sky, and other eye-observations, which cannot be conveniently 
entered in the daily weather sheet, but which are of the greatest importance in 
the meteorology of Ben Nevis, particularly in investigating weather changes. 

The greatest interest attaches to departures from the normals occurring so 
repeatedly, of which the thermometric and hygrometric are the most striking. 
Thus the state of complete saturation of the atmosphere which may be regarded 
as the characteristic of the weather of the Ben frequently gives way, often quite 
suddenly, and the air becomes dry, frequently intensely dry, the sky singularly 
clear, and the temperature rises rapidly, resulting in the relative humidity often 
falling to 30, or on rarer occasions below 20. 

These recurring periods of intense dryness and heat do not occur at any of the 
stations of the Scottish Meteorological Society at lower levels; and from Mr. 
Wragge’s observations made in 1882 at the eight stations established that year on 
the slopes of Ben Nevis from sea level to the top, it was shown that the weather 
conditions of this type are confined to the highest part of the mountains. Heavy 
rains appear always to accompany this weather, occurring in some neighbouring 
region, These are the essential characteristics of the foehn; and its frequent 
occurrence on Ben Nevis which stands isolated above all the hills around it, leads 
to the conclusion that it is also of not infrequent occurrence in all parts of Europe, 
at heights in the atmosphere of about 4,400 feet and upwards. 

If this be so, consequences of the greatest importance follow. Instances have 
occurred when the temperature on Ben Nevis has been from 5° to 8° higher than 
in the vicinity near sea level, and as the normal temperature of Ben Nevis is 1673 
lower than at Fort William, it follows that the temperature sometimes rises fully 
20° above the normal difference. Now as regards the aerial stratum from sea 
level to 4,406 feet high, this manner of distribution of temperature with height 
will not be productive of any violent movements. But it is quite otherwise for 
heights greater than Ben Nevis, where it is evident temperature will fall with 
height at a rate very greatly exceeding the normal. It is probable that it is from 
the conditions of unstable equilibrium here indicated that whirlwinds and the 
more dangerous gusts which occur during storms have their origin. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 919 


A comparison of the winds on the top of Ben Nevis with the surface winds 
shows that sometimes both are within the same cyclonic system or of the same 
anticyclonic system overspreading that part of Europe at the time. In such cases 
the direction is nearly always different, and so far as the investigation has been 
carried it appears that the observed differences give an indication as to whether the 
coming storm will pass to the north or to the south of Ben Nevis. " 

Sometimes, however, while the surface winds are part of a cyclone, the winds 
on Ben Nevis are part of an anticyclone, and vice versd; or putting it in other 
words, the manner of the distribution of atmospheric pressure at sea level over 
this region of North-Western Europe is quite different from what obtains over the 
same region at the height of 4,406 feet. It is this peculiarity in the winds and 
atmospheric pressure of Ben Nevis, due to its height and proximity to the central 
paths of the Atlantic storms, which will give to the observations an additional 
yalue in framing daily weather forecasts for the British Islands. 


12. On some Results of Observations with kitewire-suspended Anemometers 
up to 1,300 feet above ground, or 1,800 feet above sea-level, in 1883-85. 
By HE. Douactias ARCHIBALD. 


The author began by relating that he had, since the Montreal meeting of the 
Association, made twenty-five fresh observations, and as these embraced records 
at altitudes reaching to 1,300 feet above the ground, or 1,800 feet above the sea, 
he hoped the results from them, as well as fifteen of the former observations com- 
bined, might be considered sufficiently numerous and valuable to merit a short 
discussion. 

In the discussion the observations were divided into six groups, according to 


Sek: 
altitude, and the exponent for each observation in the formula es *) being 
v 


calculated, the means were taken for each group, with the following results: 


TABLE I. 
Mean height |Mean height eas AEN Re 
beep | upper _of ined ae Ae SS a Mean of | Mean value 
instrument | instrument | instrument | instrument both of x 
above ground|above ground ¥ 
H h V v 

q) 250 102 1,617 1,174 }, 1,395 372 
(2) 322 128 2,232 1,679 | 1,955 307 
(3) 407 179 1,705 1,385 1,545 “275 
(4) 549 252 2,107 1,773 1,940 237 
(5) 795 481 2,192 1,957 2,074 ‘250 
(6) 1,095 767 2,236 2,096 2,166 194 


From which it is manifest (as well as from the individual observations) that whale 
the velocity always increases with the height above the ground as far as 1,800 feet 
above sea-level, the ratio of the increase measured by the exponent x progressively 
diminishes. 

As the station itself is 500 feet above sea-level, the motion of the air at some 
height above the surface should correspond more or less with that at an equivalent 
height above the sea over an open sea-level plain. Where this actually is exactly 
the case is difficult to determine, but assuming that it is approximately the case at 
the mean level of group 6, or 931 feet above the ground, and adding 400 feet to 
both heights, we get 2 =0:26, which is nearly identical with the value already 


1 The exceptional case of group 5 being due to the inclusion in that group of an 
abnormally large value of 2 corresponding to an equally abnormally small velocity. 


920 REPORT—1885. 


determined by the author as the value of the exponent in the formula v= i J 
v ’ 


which best accords with the results of Dr. Vettin’s cloud observations over Berlin 
extending from 1,600 to 25,000 feet above sea-level (‘ Nature,’ vol. xxv. p. 506), 
and the result shows not only that the observations of the author agree generally 
with those of Dr. Vettin, but also that beyond a certain height the exponent 
becomes nearly constant. The author finds, apart from height, that the values of 
the exponent, or in other words the ratio of the increase of the velocity with the 
height, is affected principally by four factors: (1) the mean velocity of the two 
heights; (2) the hour of the day ; (3) the direction of the wind ; and (4) the time 
of year. 

“On comparing the exponents for each group with each of these factors in turn 
variations appear of a periodic character, which in some cases are difficult to 
exhibit independently, owing to chance arrangements of the other factors affecting 
the results co-directionally. In the first two cases, however, the results can be 
shown to be independent of the other factors, and lead to the enunciation of the 
following laws :— 

1. Above the first 160 feet from the ground, the exponent generally decreases 
with an increase of velocity, and vice versdé. Below the first 160 feet this law is 
apparently reversed, owing probably to undue sheltering of the lower instrument 
by surrounding objects. 

2. When the exponents are arranged for different hours of the day, for heights 
above 160 feet and up to 1,500 feet above the ground, the exponents in all the four 
upper groups show a uniform increase from a minimum value about 2 or 3 P.M. to 
a maximum about 7 or8 p.m. Below 160 feet the first two groups show some 
signs of a contrary variation, which may admit of an explanation similar to that 
for the preceding law. 

This second law is in complete agreement with Dr. Képvpen’s theory of the 
diurnal period in the velocity of wind and other casual observations of the author, 
but requires more morning observations to confirm it. 

The other laws of which indications have been observed are a maximum value 
of the exponent for winds from a westerly quarter and a minimum for those from 
an easterly quarter. Also a maximum value of x in October falling to a minimum 
in the winter and rising again to a maximum in spring and early summer, but 
these are more involved by the co-existence of the other factors. 

The last law, if found to be confirmed, might be due in part to the changes in 
terrestrial friction due to the falling of the leaf in winter. 


13. On the Measurement of the Movements of the Ground, with reference 
to proposed Harthquake Observations on Ben Nevis. By Professor J. A. 
EwinG, B.Se., F.R.S.E. 


Measurements of earth movements are of two distinct types. In one type the 
thing measured is the displacement, or one er more components of the displace- 
ment, of a point on the earth’s surface. For this purpose the mechanical problem 
is to obtain a steady point to be used as an origin of reference, and this is effected 
by making use of the resistance which a mass opposes to any change of motion. 
This may be called the inertia method of observing earth movements. It is appli- 
cable to ordinary earthquakes, and also to the more minute earth tremors, which 
would pass unnoticed if instrumental means of detecting their presence were not 
employed. The steady point is to be obtained by suspending a heavy mass (with 
one, two, or three degrees of freedom) in such a manner that its equilibrium is 
very nearly neutral. Any moderately sudden displacement of the ground in the 
direction in which the mass has freedom to move leaves the mass almost undis- 
turbed, and the displacement of the ground is therefore easily measured or recorded 
by a suitable autographic arrangement, which must be so designed as to introduce 
exceedingly little friction. 

The second type of measurements is that in which the thing measured is any 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 921 


‘change in the inclination of the surface of the ground relatively to the vertical. 
Movements of this class have been examined by d’Abbadie and Plantamour, and 
‘also by G. H. and H. Darwin, who have given the results of their observations to 
the British Association in two Reports on the Lunar Disturbance of Gravity 
(1882-3). Perhaps the most convenient name for these movements is earth-tiltings. 
They are measured by what may be called the equibrium method. A pendulum 
suspended in a viscous fluid is employed to show by its equilibrium position the 
true direction of the vertical, and that is compared with the direction of a line 
which is fixed relatively to the surface of the ground ; or, instead of a pendulum, 
a dish of mercury or a pair of spirit-levels are employed to define a truly horizontal 
surface, and the tilting of the earth’s surface relatively to that is observed. 

This method is practicable only when the displacements of the surface have so 
great a vertical amplitude in comparison with their horizontal wave-length that 
the slope of the wave is sensible; and further, only when the changes of slope 
occur slowly enough to put the inertia of the pendulum or fluid out of account. 
On the other hand, the inertia method is applicable only when the displacements 
have so short a period in comparison with their amplitude that the acceleration of 
the ground during the greater part of the motion is large relatively to the frictional 
resistance of the suspended mass. Between ordinary earthquakes and tremors on 
the one hand, capable of observation by the inertia method, and slow earth-tiltings 
on the other, capable of observation by the equilibrium method, it is at least 
possible that there may lie many movements not reducible to either type. For 
example, if successive upheaval and subsidence of small amplitude were to occur 
with a very long horizontal wave-length, and with a period of say one or two 
minutes or more, it would be practically impossible even to detect its existence by 
either of the methods named, unless by chance it were repeated several times with 
uniform period in the presence of a very frictionless vibrator whose free period 
happened to agree nearly with the period of the disturbance; even then no 
measurement of its amount could be made. We are in fact forced to classify earth- 
movements under the two heads which have been named—not because there is any 
necessary discontinuity between the two, but because they must be treated by two 
entirely distinct modes of observation. 

For the measurement of palpable earthquakes by the inertia method the writer 
has devised many instruments which have been successfully applied to the regis- 
tration of Japanese earthquakes, and which are described in a memoir on earth- 
quake measurement published in 1883 by the University of Tokio. He has not 
attempted in any case to give the astatically suspended mass three degrees of 
freedom, and nothing would be gained by doing so. An instrument with two 
degrees of freedom is now exhibited to the Association. It consists of an ordinary 
pendulum coupled with an inverted pendulum in such a manner that the two bobs 
move together in any horizontal direction. This combination of a stable with an 
unstable mass can be adjusted to give any desired degree of astaticism. In 
practice it is convenient to allow the joint mass to have a free period of from five 
to ten seconds—the period of ordinary earthquake waves being much less than this, 
A long and light lever pivoted to the frame of the instrument at one point and to 
the steady mass at another forms a registering index, by which a magnified trace 
of the earth’s horizontal movement is deposited on a fixed plate of smoked glass 
with the least possible friction. 

In another instrument two separate components of horizontal motion are deter- 
mined each by a horizontal pendulum tilted slightly forwards to give a small 
degree of stability, and furnished with a multiplying pointer. In this instrument - 
the pointers trace the successive movements of the earth on a plate of smoked 
glass, which is kept revolving uniformly by clockwork. The velocity and accelera- 
tion of the movements are deducible from the records. This is the standard form 
of seismograph employed by the writer; and to make the information it gives 
complete, another instrument for registering on the same plate the vertical motion 
of the ground is added. 

The vertical motion seismograph is a horizontal lever, supported on a horizontal 
fixed axis, and carrying at one end a heavy mass. A spring, attached to a fixed 


5 


922 REPORT—1885. 


point above, holds up the lever by pulling on a point near the fulerum. To make 
the mass nearly astatic the point at which the spring’s pull is applied is situated 
below the horizontal line of the lever, so that when the spring, by (say) being 
lengthened, pulls with more force, the point of application moves nearer the fulcrum, 
and the moment of the pull remains very nearly equal to the moment of the weight. 

Apart from the registration of palpable earthquakes, the inertia method is to 
be applied to the minute earth tremors which have been observed in Italy by 
Bertelli and Rossi, and which are probably to be found wherever and whenever 
one searches for them with sufficient care. But in dealing with them no mechanical 
means of recording can well be applied on account of its friction, and a still more 
frictionless method of suspending the heavy mass is desirable. The writer prefers 
for this purpose a mode of astatic suspension (of which a model was exhibited) 
based on Tchebicheff’s straight line motion; and to detect the movement of the 
ground he observes, by a microscope fixed rigidly to the frame of the machine, the 
displacement of the frame with respect to the suspended mass. This is Bertelli’s 
method, except for the substitution of a nearly astatic mass for the stable mass 
used by him—namely, the bob of a short pendulum—which, of course, gives a 
misleading magnification of certain vibrations. 

The writer was recently requested by the directors of the Ben Nevis Observatory 
to design seismometers for use there, and obtained a Government grant for their 
construction. The equipment at Ben Nevis will include recording seismographs 
and a micro-seismometer of the kind just described. To measure slow earth-tiltings 
an instrument is being constructed in which a modification (due to Wolf) of 
d’Abbadie’s arrangement (described in Professor Darwin’s Reports) is followed. 
Light from a lamp travels some twenty feet horizontally to a mirror inclined at 
45 degrees to the horizon. It passes vertically down through a lens which brings 
the rays into parallelism. They strike two reflecting surfaces—one the surface of 
a basin of mercury, the other a plane mirror very rigidly fixed to the rock. The 
rays come back to form two images near the source, and any relative displacement 
of the two images is measured by a micrometer microscope. In the choice and 
design of this instrument the writer has to acknowledge much assistance from 
Professor G, H. Darwin, This apparatus, like the others, was intended for Ben 
Nevis, but a visit to the observatory there has convinced the writer that to use it 
on that site, and in the atmosphere which prevails on the top, would be a matter 
of extreme difficulty, and that, in the first instance at least, observations should be 
made with it on lower ground. 


14. On the supposed Change of Climate in the British Isles within recent 
years. By Tuomas Heavy, B.A. 


This note gives the result of an examination of the Meteorological Tables 
published by the Registrar-General of Births, Marriages, &c., in Scotland, and 
shows that there has been no material alteration in the mean temperature, either 
of all Scotland or of six stations whose records have been separately examined ; 
but that there has been a decided increase in the amount of rainfall within recent 
years, which increase seems to exhibit itself more particularly on the eastern coast. 


15. On Malvern, Queen of Inland Health Resorts, and on improved 
Hygrometric Observations. By Professor C. Prazzt Smyru, F.R.S.L. 


The conditions for health resorts so often include useful requirements for scien- 
tific observing stations, that the author hoped the identification, chiefly by hygro- 
metrical observations, of a remarkably favourable example of the former, might be 
interesting to a British Association meeting. ; 

Having first carried on several weeks’ observing in a low level region of the 
Midland Counties, he then removed to Malvern Hills with the same instruments, 
and immediately obtained more than twice the amount of depression of the wet 
below the dry bulb thermometer, as ordinarily observed at the tirst station. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 923 


The reasons for this remarkable dryness he then discusses, and adds to what 
has been already advanced by local medical men, the elevation of Malvern above 
the stratus—tfog level of the low country, the effect of rising above which he 
compares, though on a far smaller scale, to rising above the north-east wind’s cloud 
level on the Peak of Teneriffe. 

Several other circumstances are then detailed, which all tend to enhance the 
mean temperature, check the variations or range of temperature, and decrease the 
strength of the winds at Malvern, combining altogether to produce the most 
genial and healthy atmosphere yet ascertained in Great Britain. 


16. The Annual Rainfall of the British Islands. By AunxanpER BucHAN. 


As regards the British Islands, the greatest differences in local climates arise 
from differences in the rainfall. Ifthe climate of Skye be compared with that of 
the coasts of the Moray Firth, in no month will the mean temperatures be found to 
differ so much as 2°0, and for several months of the year they are nearly identical. 
But the annual rainfall of Skye rises to, and in many places exceeds 100 inches; 
whereas from the mouth of the Spey to Tain, the rainfall is little more than a 
fourth part of that amount; and this difference in the rainfall, with the clear skies 
and strong sunshine which accompany it, renders the southern shores of the 
Moray Firth one of the earliest and finest grain-producing districts of Scotland, 
whereas Skye is one of the latest and poorest grain-producing districts. Hence 
the paramount importance of the rainfall in the climatology of a country. 

The temperatures of comparatively few places are required, in order to draw, 
with approximate correctness, the lines of mean atmospheric pressure and tempera- 
ture for any particular region. But with the rainfall it is very different, this being, 
of meteorological data, the most difficult to represent cartographically, and there is 
no other way to arrive at a tolerable approximation to the average rainfall of a 
district than by numerous rain-observing stations. This inquiry, the results of 
which are represented on the map exhibited, is based on observations of the rain- 
fall made at 1,080 stations in England and Wales, 547 in Scotland, and 213 in 
Treland—in all 1,840; and while it cannot be said that any district is overstocked 
with rain-gauges, large districts remain wholly, or at least very imperfectly, 
represented. 

The period which has been selected for this inquiry is the twenty-four years 
extending from 1860 to 1883, it being only in 1860 that fairly adequate data for 
the whole of the British Islands began to be available by the appearance of 
Symons’ ‘ British Rainfall.’ In Mr. Symons’ energetic hands, aided for some years 
by grants from the British Association, the stations for observation of the rain- 
fall, and the publication, have increased year by year, till in 1884 the stations 
number nearly 2,600, and the publication occupies 242 pages. While the returns 
published by the Meteorological Societies of Hngland and Scotland, and returns 
from other sources have been utilised, it is mainly on Mr. Symons’ invaluable 
annuals that this inquiry is based. 

The methods of discussion employed, and the average annual rainfall of the 
different stations, are detailed at length in the ‘ Journal of the Scottish Meteoro- 
logical Society,’ recently published. 

The distribution of the rainfall for the twenty-four years over the British Islands 
is shown by six shadings indicating the districts where the annual rainfall does not 
exceed 25 inches; is from 25 to 30 inches; from 30 to 40 inches; from 40 to 60 
inches; from 60 to 80 inches; and lastly above 80 inches. 

The regions of heaviest rainfall, marked off by an average of 80 inches or up- 
wards annually, are four—Skye and a large portion of the mainland to the south- 
east as far as Luss on Loch Lomond; the greater part of the Lake district; a long 
strip including the more mountainous part of North Wales; and the mountainous 
district in the south-east of Wales. 

The West Highlands present the most extensive region of heaviest rainfall in 
the British Islands. The mountain masses along whose slopes the rainfall is pré- 


5 


924 REPORT— 1885. 


cipitated offer a practically unbroken face of highlands to the rain-bringing winds 
of the Atlantic. Further, these mountain masses present innumerabls lochs and 
valleys directly in the course of these winds, up which therefore the winds are 
borne, and being cooled as they ascend, pour down those deluges of rain which 
- deeply trench the sides of the mountains in the lines of their watercourses. The 
heaviest rainfall in Scotland, 128-50 inches, is at Glencroe in this district. 

On the other hand, the smallest rainfall, varying from about 22°50 inches to 
25‘00 inches, overspreads a large portion of the south-east of England, extending 
from the Humber to the estuary of the Thames, exclusive of the higher grouuds of 
Lincoln and Norfolk, where the rainfall rises above 25 inches. To this is to be 
added a small patch in the valley of the Thames, from Kew to Marlow. In every 
other part of the British Islands the rainfall exceeds 25 inches. 

The districts characterised by rainfalls intermediate between these extremes 
were then referred to, and it was pointed out that everywhere the key to the dis- 
tribution of the rainfall is the direction of the rain-bringing winds in their relation 
to the physical configuration of the surface. Of this law or method of the dis- 
tribution, the rainfall over the south-western counties of England is one of the 
best examples. Some of the other more striking illustrations are the Bristol 
Channel, which secures an increased rainfall for a large portion of central England ; 
the Solway Firth, together with the mountainous regions on each side of the 
entrance to it, in their influence on the singular distribution of the rainfall of the 
south of Scotland and north of England adjoining; and the mountains of North 
Wales, with the estuary of the Dee, in their relations to the rainfall of a large 
portion of England lying to the east and north-east. 

Asregards the rainfall of the twenty-four years from ] 860 to 1883, the most note- 
worthy feature is the comparatively large average amount for the second half of 
the period over nearly the whole of the British Islands. The excess is most 
marked over the more strictly eastern districts, the means of the 12 years ending 
1883 being generally from 5 to 10 per cent. greater than the means for the twenty- 
four years. 


17. Remarkable Occurrence during the Thunderstorm of August 6, 1885 
at Albrighton. By J. Beprorp Ewe tt. 


St. Cuthbert’s, my residence, is situated at Albrighton, ten miles from Wolver- 
hampton, with which it is connected by telephone. The house has a lightning 
protector twenty-five years old. The telephone wire very improperly makes earth 
on this conductor, 

The storm was at its height about half-past eight in the evening, and we had 
just retired to the drawing-room, there being only a single lamp left alight in the 
dining-room, in the centre of the corona. The telephone-bell was sounding with 
every flash of lightning, when suddenly a report like a rifle shot was heard in the 
hall, and at the same instant the servants in the dining-room were plunged into 
darkness by the lamp in the corona flashing up and then going out. (Another lamp 
was immediately put in, showing the leads were not injured.) Also at the same 
moment the telephone wires were both fused. ‘The wire sometimes used to connect 
the telephone with the drawing-room was also fused, and through it the lightning 
tried to make earth (or vice versd) all over the electric light system, succeeding in 
one place, in a bedroom over the entrance hall, where a bell-pull was close to one 
of the leads. The current struck across—showing an E.M.F. of many thousand 
volts—and fused the bell wire. None of the lead cut-outs were fused on any of 
the wires. 

On examining the burnt lamp in the dining-room, it was found to be so 
blackened that (although it was perfectly clear and bright the moment before, and, 
being a 48 volt Swan lamp, could not be overrun from 24 cells) it was with diffi- 
culty that the filament could be seen. It was burnt off at both ends where the 
platinum wire joined, and lay entire in the bottom of the globe. A few globules of 
melted glass or platinum were also rolling about within the globe. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 925 


‘The glass globe has become a beautiful mirror by the fine particles of platinum 
that have been projected against it. 

N.B.—A separate earth-plate has since been put to the telephone, so that 
nothing of the kind can again happen. : 


18. On a supposed Periodicity of the Cyclones of the Indian Ocean south of 
the Equator. By Cuartes Metproum, F.R.S. 


In papers printed in the Reports for 1872, 1873, 1874, and 1876, I endeavoured 
to show that there were grounds for supposing that the cyclones of the Indian 
Ocean south of the equator increased in number, extent, and intensity from a 
minimum in one year to a maximum in another, and then decreased to a minimum, 
the period or cycle apparently corresponding with the eleven-year period of solar 
activity. 

From the data given in the last of those papers (Report for 1876, page 267) it 
would appear that from 1856 to 1875, the years of minimum cyclone-activity were 
1856 and 1867, and the years of maximum activity 186] and 1872, but that the 
results for each of those years did not differ much from the results for the year 
immediately preceding or following it, the variation near the turning-points being 
small. 

Before giving a brief outline of the results which have been obtained since 1875, 
it may be well to mention that the sources of information were the same as in 
former years. Two clerks were constantly occupied in tabulating the meteorological 
observations contained in the log-books of vessels that arrived in the harbour of 
Port Louis from different places. The number of days’ observations tabulated in 
each year, that is, observations extending over twenty-four hours, and made in 
different parts of the Ocean, was as follows :— 


Days’ Days’ 
Years Observations Years Observations 
STO. . i : rae ire ily LSS sy bas : Y «if, LOvtro 
Biles ; 2 wet, 006 LS8205" Jy, P Fs - 15,089 
BTS 1%. : : . 17,050 MASS). k at 2 ‘ ‘ t 16,930 
i : ! , 15,889 niko hs ¢ Swe aes 3 : . » 15,697 
1880. : : Sh OG 


The tables give an average of forty-six observations of twenty-four hours each 
for every day of the nine years over the frequented parts of the Ocean. 

All details and reports respecting hurricanes, storms, or gales, were recorded in 
separate registers. 

For each day on which there was a gale in any part of the Ocean between the 
equator and the parallel of 34°S. a chart was prepared, showing as nearly as possible 
the positions of the vessels, the direction and force of the wind &c. at a certain 
hour, viz., noon on the meridian of 60° E. 

From these synoptic charts, the details given from hour to hour in the log-books, 
and all the information obtained from other sources, the positions of the centres 
of cyclones at noon on each day were determined, and the tracks laid down on 
separate charts. 

Nine Cyclone-Track Charts have thus been prepared, since 1875, namely, one 
for each of the years 1876-84. 

These Track-Charts, together with the twenty that had previously been prepared 
for the years 1856-75 show, as far as has yet been ascertained, the tracks of the 
cyclones of the Indian Ocean south of the equator in each of the years 1856-84, 
and the tracks for the years 1848-65 are nearly ready. 

With respect to the period 1876-84, the areas of the cyclones and the distances 
traversed have not yet been determined, but upon the whole the nwmber and 
duration of the cyclones decreased to a minimum in 1880, and then increased till, in 
1884, they were more than double of what they were in 1880. 

From the accompanying Track-Charts for the eleven years 1856, 1857, 1860, 
1861, 1867, 1868, 1871, 1872, 1879, 1880, and 1884, it will be seen that the number 


5 


926 REPORT—1885. 


and duration of the cyclones of 1856 and 1857 were much less than those of the 
cyclones of 1860 and 1861; that the number and duration of the cyclones of 1867 
and 1868 were much less than those of 1860 and 1861 on the one hand, and also 
than those of 1871 and 1872 on the other; and that the number and duration of 
the cyclones of 1879 and 1880 were much less than those of the cyclones of 1871, 
1872, and 1884. 

F® It would appear, however, that in 1884 there was less cyclone-activity than in 


1861 and 1872. 


19. A new Wind Vane or Anemoscope, specially designed for the use of 
Meteorologists. By G. M. Wniprte, B.Sc., F.RA.S. 


The author described a modification cf the ordinary wind vane which serves to 
render its indications more certain when read from a distance. 

He permanently attaches the letters N.E.S.W. to the vane and carries them 
round with it. A fixed pointer is suitably placed beside the vane or beneath it, 
and the observer merely looks at the letters and determines the direction of the 
wind from their position with reference to the pointer.’ 


20. On the Third Magnetic Survey of Scotland. 
By Professor T. E. Torre, F.R.8., and A. W. Ricker, F.R.S, 


At the last meeting of the British Association held in Aberdeen, Professor 
Balfour Stewart presented the Report of the Observations made in connection with 
the Magnetic Survey of Scotland in the years 1857 and 1858. This Survey was 
undertaken at the request of the Association by the late Mr. Welsh, of the Kew 
Observatory, and the report is published in the account of the Society’s Proceedings 
for 1859. My. Welsh’s observations constitute the second magnetic survey of 
Scotland, the results of the first survey having been recorded by the late Sir 
Edward Sabine in the ‘ Report of the British Association for 1838.’ 

In a ‘Note on the Irregularities in Magnetic Inclination on the West Coast of 
Scotland,’ published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society for Nov. 15, 1883 
we drew attention to the fact that the present time was very opportune for a new 
magnetic survey of Scotland as part of a general survey of the British Islands. 
‘More than twenty-five years,’ it was remarked, ‘ have elapsed since Mr. Welsh made 
his survey, and this was separated by an interval of twenty-one years from that 
which we owe to the joint labours of Sir Edward Sabine, Sir James Ross, and Mr, 
Fox. The instruments and methods of observation in 1858 were greatly superior 
to those in 1836-7, and hence a new survey, made during the approaching period 
of minimum sun-spot disturbance and on stations selected with careful reference to 
their geological character, would undoubtedly afford far more accurate data as to 
the absolute value of the magnetic elements, and as to the extent of secular change 
in this part of the world, than we at present possess.’ 7 

As the accounts of the previous surveys were published in the Reports of the 
British Association, we may perhaps be allowed to take this opportunity of intima- 
ting to the members that we have during this and the preceding summer made the 
necessary observations for the survey suggested in the above remarks. A determi- 
nation of the magnetic elements, that is of inclination, declination, and force, has 
been made at fifty stations. The great increase in the facilities for travelling 
in Scotland since 1857-8 has placed us at a considerable advantage as compared 
with Mr. Welsh for reaching various places at which observations “were desirable. 
The greater number of the coast stations were visited in a yacht belonging to one of 
us; in this way we were able to observe under more favourable conditions as to 
choice of situation and duration of stay, than if we had been dependent upon the 
ordinary steamboat service. 

The following is a list of the stations :— 


1 For illustration, see Quart. Jl. Roy. Met. Soc. vol. xi. p. 64. 


TRANSACTIONS 


Berwick-on-T weed (W.). | 


Hawick. 
Dumfries (W.). 
Stranraer (W.). 
Ayr (W.). 
Carstairs (W.). 
Edinburgh (W.). 
Glaszow (W.). 
Fairlie. 


OF SECTION A. 


Crianlarich. 

Oban (W.). 
Kerrara. 

Tona. 

Coll. 

Tiree. 

Loch Aylort. 
Bannavie (W.). 
Dalwhinnie (W.). 


Soa. 

Canna. 

Loch Boisdale. 
Loch Maddy. 


Stornoway (W.). 


Callernish (W.). 
Gairloch. 


Loch Inver (W.). 


Loch Eriboil. 


927 


Campbelltown (W.). Ballater. Thurso (W.). 
Port Askeg (Islay) (W.). Aberdeen (W.). Wick (W.). 
Tarbert (Loch Fyne). Banff (W.). Golspie (W.). 
Strachur. Elgin (W.). Lairg. 

Stirling. Boat of Garten. Stromness (W.). 
Dundee. Inverness (W.). Kirkwall (W.). 
Pitlochrie (W.). Fort Augustus (W.). Lerwick (W.). 
Crieff. Kyle Alin (W.). 


W. signifies a station also observed at by Mr. Welsh in 1857 or 1858. The 
stations are distributed as uniformly as possible over the whole area of Scotland, 
and they have been chosen with the view of repeating the measurements at as 
many as possible of the positions selected by Mr. Welsh, and, at the same time, of 
avoiding as far as might be regions of great local disturbance. At stations where 
Mr. Welsh’s notes gave the requisite details we have observed when possible on 
the exact site he occupied. At new stations we have been careful to select positions 
which are likely to remain open, so that future observations can be made there. 

Some of the declinations determined by Mr. Welsh on the west coast were dis- 
carded when his results were published by Professor Stewart, as the mirror of 
the magnetometer was found to have been out of adjustment on several occasions. 
Owing to the improvements made in the Kew Unifilar since the time of the last 
survey, the liability to error from this source is practically obviated: it is now 
possible to ascertain readily whether the mirror is properly set and, if necessary, to 
readjust it, before making the solar azimuth observations. With the view, how- 
over, of still further minimising the errors due to the axis of the mirror being either 
not parallel to its plane, or not perpendicular to the line of collimation of the tele- 
scope, our observations of the transits have been made by alternate reversals of the 
axles in its bearing and by back and front observations of the sun. 

The accuracy of thedeterminations of solar azimuth, and hence of the declination, 
has been greatly increased by the circumstance that we were able to make frequent 
comparisons of our chronometers with the time signals sent daily from Greenwich 
at 10 a.m. and | p.m. along the telegraphic system of England and Scotland. We 
have to thank Mr. Cunynghame, the Director-General of Telegraphs at Edinburgh, 
and Messrs. Tansley and Redford, Superintendents of the Glasgow and Ayr dis- 
tricts respectively, for the facilities afforded us in this part of our work. We are 
also much indebted to the postmasters at the various places visited for the readiness 
with which they arranged for the transmission or reception of the signals. 

Our Magnetometer (No. 60 Elliott) and Dip Circle (No. 74 Dover) were com- 
pared with the Kew instruments by observations taken by ourselves and by Mr. 
T.-W, Baker at the Kew Observatory. Our thanks are due to the Kew Committee 
of the Royal Society and to Mr. G. W. Whipple for the assistance thus rendered. 

The actual work of the survey was prefaced by an inquiry as to the nature and 
extent of the influence exerted by the great centres of local disturbance at various 
parts along the west coast of Scotland. With a view of obtaining information on 
this matter we selected the island of Mull, the geological characters of which have 
been very fully described by Professor Judd, and which, as Mr. Welsh’s determina- 
tions show, exerts a highly disturbing influence. The observations were made in 
the summer of 1883, and are published in the ‘ Proceedings of the Royal Society’ 
for 1883-4, They serve to indicate within what limits such centres of local 
disturbance may be approached without affecting the general direction of the 


5 


928 REPORT—1885. 


isoclinals. The survey was begun in the summer of 1884, and was continued during 
the spring, summer, and autumn of the present year. We have been assisted in 
some of our later observations by Mr. A. P. Laurie, of King’s College, Cambridge, 
who was good enough to undertake the measurement of the dips at a number of 
the inland stations. Our best thanks are due to Mr. Laurie for the valuable help 
thus rendered. 

It is hardly possible for us as yet to say anything about the general results of 
the survey, as the observations are only partially reduced. We trust to be able to 
complete the calculations without delay. We venture, however, te hope that the 
statement that all the necessary observations for what now constitutes the third 
Magnetic Survey of Scotland have been taken, may not be without interest for the 
members of the British Association. 


TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15. 
The following Reports and Papers were read :— 
1. Report of the Oommittee for considering the best means of Comparing 


and Reducing Magnetic Observations.—See Reports, p. 65. 


2. Report of the Committee for considering the best methods of recording the 
direct Intensity of Solar Radiation—See Reports, p. 156. 


3. On a means of obtaining constant known Temperatures. 
By Professor W. Ramsay, Ph.D., and Sypney Youne, D.Se. 
This method, which has involved the determination of the true vapour-pressures 


of numerous substances, with help of mercurial, air, and vapour-pressure thermo- 
meters, is published in full in the ‘Trans. Chem. Soc., Sept., 1885. 


4. On certain facts in Thermodynamics. 
By Professor W. Ramsay, Ph.D., and Sypney Youne, D.Se. 
This paper has reference to the equation 
_L _@t 
s—s, dtJ 
L 


While Dr. Ramsay discovered in 1877 that at the same pressure is approxi- 


&—8, 
mately constant for all liquids for which there exist data, the correctness of the 
data and assumptions on which the statement is based was open to question. Hence 
the investigation was unpublished until a relation in some degree connected 
with this was rediscovered by Mr. Trouton, ‘ Phil. Mag.’ 1884, p. 54. Since then, 


Dr. Young noticed that the value of dp T at the same pressure is an approximate 


dt J 
constant for all liquids, and as the data in this case are much more reliable than in 
the former, it has been thought desirable to publish both researches under one title. 

The first law is:—The amounts of heat required to produce unit increase of 
volume in the passage from the liquid to the gaseous state at the boiling-point under 


== 88 
81-5. 


The second law is:—Zf the amounts of heat required to produce unit increase of 
volume in the passage from the liquid to the gaseous state be compared at different 
pressures for any two bodies, then the ratio of this amount at the boiling-point under 


normal pressure are approximately constant for all bodies ; or 


: 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 929 


a pressure p, to the amount at another pressure p, ts approximately constant for all 
liquids ; or 


at p, bears a constant proportion to— 


3185 


pus at Pe for all liquids and probably for all solids. 
ae | 2 

It has also been noticed as a corollary from the first law that the internal and 
total work bear an approximately constant ratio to each other for any one pressure, 
whatever the liquid. 

In considering the second part of the equation, the following relations have 
been noticed :— 

If acurve be constructed to represent the relation of temperature to pressure 
for any liquid, and if tangents be drawn to touch the curve at various points corre- 
sponding to certain temperatures, these tangents will give the rate of increase of 
pressure per unit rise of temperature, in other words, the value = for those tem- 


peratures. 
If we construct curves for a number of substances, and determine the value of 


_ for each of them at the same temperature, it isclear that the values obtained will 
differ widely, and will be greater for volatile substances than for those which are 
less volatile. But if we determine the values of 2 not at the same temperature, 


but at the same pressure, the conditions under which the comparison is made will 
be more similar, and the resulting values may be expected to differ much less. In 
the calculation of the vapour pressures of a number of substances for each degree 
between certain limits of pressure, it became evident that at any given pressure the 
rate of increase was generally, though not always, greater for the volatile sub- 
stances than for the less volatile. 

A closer study of the matter led to the following generalisations :— 

1. The products of the rate of increase of pressure per unit difference of tem- 
perature into the absolute temperature = T are approximately the same for all 
stable substances at the same pressure, but the differences are real and are not due 
to errors of experiment or calculation. 


2. The rate of increase of this value a T with rise of pressure is the same for 


all stable bodies, at any rate for pressures between 150 and 2,000 mms., while for 
alcohol and water it is the same for all pressures between 100 and 20,000 mms. 

3. In the case of certain substances nearly related to each other, such as bromo- 
and chlorobenzene, or ethyl bromide and chloride, the ratio of the absolute tempera- 
tures of the related bodies at any given pressure is a constant. 

Complete paper to be found in ‘ Phil. Mag.,’ December 1885. 


5. Report on Optical Theories. By R. T. Guazesroox, M.A., F.B.S. 
See Reports, p. 157. 


6. On a Point in the Theory of Double Refraction. 
By R. T. Grazesroox, M.A., F.R.S. 


The author suggested that the theory of double refraction given by Lord Ray- 
leigh, in which the ether is supposed to have an effective density different in 
different directions, might be modified so as to agree with Fresnel’s theory if it be 
not necessary to assume that the ether offers an infinite resistance to compression, 
but only that as compared with its rigidity, its incompressibility is very great, and 


f 1885. 30 


930 REPORT— 1885. 


further, that in a crystal the light vibrations are normal to the ray, not to the 
wave normal, as was pointed out by Boussinesq, and referred to by Ketteler in 
some of his papers. 


7. Exhibition of a Mechanical Model illustrating some properties of the 
Ether. By G. F. Firzcerarp, F.B.S. 


8. On the Constitution of the Luminiferous Ether on the Vortex Atom 
Theory. By Professor W. M. Hicks, M.A., F.B.S. 


The simple incompressible fluid necessary on the vortex atom theory is quite 
incapable of transmitting vibrations similar to those of light. The author has 
therefore considered the possibility of transmitting waves through a medium . 
which consists of this fluid modified so as to contain small vortex rings closely 
packed together. The rings are supposed composed of the same material as the 
rest of the fluid, to be very small compared with the wave length, and at distances 
from one another also small compared with the wave length. Their motion of 
translation is also taken to be so comparatively slow that very many waves can 
pass over any one before it has much changed its position. Such a medium would 
probably act as a fluid for larger motions. 

The vibration in the wave front may be (1) swinging, such as a ring oscillating 
on a diameter, (2) transversal vibrations of the ring, (3) vibrations normal to the 
plane of the rings, (4) apertural vibrations. Of these (3) seems to be impossible. 
If + be the radius of the rings, 7 the distances of their planes, » their cyclic 
constant, and v the velocity of translation, the author found 


for : 
we 2t() 


hp [r\? 
oe4 

whilst for (4) in case of rings arranged parallel to a wave front, 
ye ay 
(? + 4r?)3 


for 


9. On an improved Apparatus for Christiansen’s Experiment.’ 
By Lord Rayueieu, D.O.L., LL.D., F.R.S. 


10. Optical Comparison of Methods for observing small Rotations.? 
By Lord Ray.eicu, D.C.L., DL.D., F.R.S. 


11. On the Accuracy of Focus necessary for sensibly athe Definition. 
By Lord Rayteicu, D.C.L., LL.D., F. 


12. On Electro-Optice Action of a charged Franklin’s Plate.‘ 
By J. Kerr, LL.D. 
The experiments described in this paper were carried out by the author in 


1882, and he has now made them known in view of certain statements made by 
M. Wiedemann in his ‘ Die Lehre von der Electricitit,’ vol. ii.; particularly where 


1 Published in the Phil. Mag., Oct, 1885. 2 Thid. 
> Ibid. 4 Thid. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION 4A. 931 


he says that there appears to be no electro-optic double refraction in the case of a 
uniformly charged Franklin’s plate. The results obtained were shown by the 
author to prove that electrostatically strained glass acts in the polariscope as if 
compressed along the lines of electric force, and this always, whether the electric 


field is uniform or not. 


13. On Magnetic Double Circular Refraction. 
By De Wirt B. Brace, Ph.D. 


The main object of the investigation has been to determine whether the re- 
fractive index of a medium under magnetic stress experiences a change for cir- 
cularly polarised light when the direction of propagation is that of the lines of 
force. 

In connection with the investigation, several important equations have been 
deduced for the case of reflection and refraction near the critical angle. A very 
small change in the refractive index produces a very great change in the angle of 
deviation and in the amount of reflected light. A slight change in the angle of 
incidence may produce a very great change in the angle of deviation of the re- 
flected or refracted ray. 

In the first experiment a piece of Faraday glass was placed in a strong mag- 
netic field, and one of the two interfering rays from a Jamin’s interference 
refractor allowed to pass through it in the direction of the lines of force. When 
the ray was circularly polarised, a displacement of the bands was observed, 
the direction of which depended on whether the ray was right or left-handed 
circularly polarised. This displacement became less and less distinct as the ray 
was more and more elliptically polarised. Every ray is then broken up into its 
opposite circular components, and either the velocity of propagation, or the phase 
(period), or both, changes. The observed displacement was ‘1355, while the 
value calculated from a double rotation of the plane of polarisation of 49° 20’ 
was ‘137. 

Several experiments for direct observation were made, which seemed to indicate 
no change in the velocity of propagation, but a change in the phase. In one of 
these experiments, a prism of glass was placed between the poles of a magnet, so 
that the rays were parallel to the lines of force and perpendicular to the first face 
of the prism, and were refracted out at the second face at a very large angle. 
Refraction then took place at a surface near the critical angle, and aslight change 
in the refractive index due to the induced magnetic stress would produce a very 
large deviation, in accordance with the equations found. The two halves of the 
narrow image were oppositely circularly polarised, so that each should have been 
displaced in the opposite direction. There should also have been a slight change 
in the intensity of the two halves. Nothing of the sort could be observed. 
Direct measurements of the rotation of the plane of polarisation, and comparison 
with a Fresnel’s double quartz prism, showed that the effect was within the limits 
of observation if such a change in the refractive index had occurred. 


14. Determination of the Heliographic Latitude and Longitude of Sun- 
spots. By Professor A. W. Tuomson. 


In the ‘ Observatory,’ published monthly, we have for any day—The Position 
Angle of the Sun’s Axis, and the Heliographic Latitude and Longitude of the 
‘Centre of Sun’s Disc. 

The method devised by me consists in throwing the image of the sun from an 
equatorial telescope on to adise representing the sun, with lines of latitude and 
longitude drawn thereon, and reading off the latitude and longitude of any spot. 

The latitude of the centre of sun’s disc varies from 0° to about 7°; a cardboard 


‘ Inaugural Dissertation,‘ Ueber die magnetische Drehung der Polarisationsebene 
und einige besondere Falle der Refraction.’ Berlin, Aug. 12, 1885. 


s 302 


9382 REPORT—1885. 


disc for each whole degree is prepared, and is in fact an orthographic projection of 
a sphere turned through an angle equal to the latitude for which it is drawn. 

The proper disc for the day of observation is taken and set to the angle corre- 
sponding to the position angle of sun’s axis ; the disc is held at that distance from the 
eyepiece of the telescope, which allows the image of the sun to exactly coincide- 
with it. Thelatitude is then read off; and the longitude is found by taking the 
longitude of centre of disc given in the table, and subtracting or adding the 
difference as shown in the cardboard disc. 

The paper of which the above is an abstract had appended to it a set of card- 
board dises suitable for actual use, and tables required for the construction of 
these discs. 


WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16, 


The following Papers were read :— 


1. On the Nature of the Corona of the Sun.' 
By Witu1am Hveerns, D.O.L., LL.D., F.R.S. 


Mr. De La Rue in his address before Section A in 1872, said truly :—‘ The 
great problem of the solar origin of that portion of the corona which extends more 
than a million of miles beyond the body of the sun, has been by the photographic 
observations of Col. Tennant and Lord Lindsay in 1871 finally set at rest, after 
haying been the subject of a great amount of discussion for many years.’ (Report 
Brit. Assoc. 1872, p. 6.) 

Professor Hastings has recently revived the theory of Delisle that the corona 
is an optical appearance due to diffraction. He bases his view upon the behaviour 
of the bright line 1474, which he saw in his spectroscope change in length east and 
west of the sun, during the progress of the eclipse at Caroline Island in 1883. 
Captain Abney’s discussion of the photographs taken by the English observers 
shows that there was considerable diffusion during the eclipse, and that therefore 
the observation of Professor Hastings may have been due to a scattering by our air 
of the light from the brighter part of the corona, and therefore may not indicate: 
any change in the corona itself.” During the time that Professor Hastings observed 
the change in the length of the line 1474, photographs of the corona were taken by 
M. Janssen, and by Messrs. Lawrance and Woods. M. Janssen says: ‘ Les formes 
de la couronne ont été absolument fixes pendant toute la durée de la totalité,’* 
The photographs taken by Messrs. Lawrance and Woods (now in Captain Abney’s 
hands for discussion) show that the corona suffered no such alterations in form as: 
would be required by Professor Hastings’ theory during the passage of the moon. 
across the sun. 

The evidence seems to be conclusive that the corona which comes into view at 
a total eclipse corresponds to an objective reality of some kind existing about the 
sun. It is difficult on any other hypothesis to explain satisfactorily : 

1. The observed and photographed spectra which vary at different parts of the- 
corona. 

2. The visibility of the planets Venus and Mercury as dark bodies when near 
the sun. 

3. The filamentous, and especially the peculiar curved structures seen in photo-- 
graphs of the corona. 


1 The chief points of this discussion of the nature of the corona were suggested 
in a Discourse on the Solar Corona given at the Royal Institution, February 22, 1885. 
A more full discussion of these points will be found in the Bakerian Lecture, 1885,. 
in the Proc. Roy. Soc., vol. xxxix. p. 108. 

2 Report of Expedition to Caroline Island, 1883, Washington, p. 105. 

8 Annuaire pour Van 1884, p. 859. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 933 


4, The close agreement of photographs taken at different times during an 
eclipse, and especially between photographs taken during the same eclipse at places 
many hundreds of miles apart. 

Considering the force of gravity on the sun, and the circumstance that comets 
have passed unscathed through the coronal regions, we cannot regard the corona 
as a true solar atmosphere, that is, as a continuous mass of gas held up by its own 
elasticity, which extends several hundred thousand miles above the photosphere. 

Up to a certain point the spectroscope gives to us definite information as to the 
condition of the matter about the sun which forms the corona. We learn that 
there is incandescent solid or liquid matter, which also reflects to us light from 
the photosphere. The spectrum of bright lines, which is relatively fainter and 
varies greatly at different eclipses, tells us of glowing gaseous matter which 
accompanies the solid or liquid matter. As the solid or liquid matter can exist 
in the corona only in the form of discrete particles of extreme minuteness, the 
corona must consist of a fog, in which the particles are incandescent, and in which 
the gaseous matter does not form a continuous atmosphere. 

It has been suggested that the matter of the corona is furnished by meteoroids, 
and by the lost matter of the tails of comets. Though some planetary meteoroids 
may be thrown into the sun, and there are meteoroids which doubtless fall directly 
into the sun from space, yet we can scarcely suppose so steady an inflow of 
meteoroids as would be needed to maintain the corona in the state of permanence 
in which we know it to exist. A similar difficulty presents itself more strongly on 
the view that the corona is fed by the débris of comets’ tails. 

It seems to me much more probable that the matter of the corona is supplied 
by the sun. This view is supported by the spectroscopic evidence, for the coronal 
gas is shown to consist of substances which exist also in the photosphere. The 
structure seen in the corona is much more in harmony with the view that the 
matter is going up from the sun, than that it is coming down upon the sun. 

We have now to consider under what dynamical conditions matter coming 
from the sun can take on forms such as those we see in the corona, and can pass 
easy. to such enormous distances, in opposition to gravitation, which is so powerful 
at the sun. 

There is another celestial phenomenon very unlike the corona at first sight 
which may furnish a clue to the true answer to this question. The head of a large 
comet presents us with luminous streamers, rifts, and curved rays, which are 
not very unlike, on a small scale, some of the appearances which are always 
present in the corona. We do not know for certain the conditions under which 
these cometary phenomena take place, but the only theory upon which they can 
be satisfactorily explained, and which now seems to be on the way to become 
generally accepted, attributes them to electrical disturbances, and especially to a 
repulsive force acting from the sun, probably electrical, which varies as the surface, 
and not like gravity, as the mass. A force of this nature in the case of highly 
attenuated matter can easily master the force of gravity, and as we see in the tails 
of comets, blow away this thin kind of matter to enormous distances in the very 
teeth of gravity.? 

If such a force of repulsion, acting from the sun, is experienced in comets, it 
must also be present near the sun, and may well be expected to show its power 
over the matter ejected from the sun. Such a force would be present if we suppose 
the sun’s surface to possess permanently an electric potential of the same name. 
The sun may acquire such a potential from processes always going on, or if once 
charged, would doubtless remain so, and on this supposition it is not necessary to 
assume local electrical disturbances. But electrical disturbances must be present on 
the sun on a very grand seale in connection with the ceaseless and fearful activity 
of the photosphere. Through these disturbances the ejected matter might come 


1 Proc. Roy. Inst., vol. x. p.9. Also papers by Bredichin in the Annales de T Ob- 
servatoire de Moscou, and Astr. Nachr., No. 2411. Also Stokes, On Light as a Means 
of Investigation, p. 70 et seg. See also papers by Professor Young in the Amer. Jour. 
Science; and by Mr. Proctor in The Sun, 3rd ed., pp. 326-427. 


. 


934 REPORT—1885. 


to have a higher potential than it possessed as forming part of the sun, and in 
this way too might come about some of the varying conditions upon which the 
observed changes in the corona may depend. 

The photosphere is the seat of ceaseless convulsions and outbursts of fiery 
matter. Storms of heated gas and incandescent hail rush upwards, or in cyclones, 
as many miles ina second as our hurricanes move in an hour. Is it then going 
beyond what might well be to suppose that some portions of the photospheric 
matter, having an electric potential of the same name as that of the solar surface, 
and ejected, as is often the case, with velocities not far removed from that which 
would be necessary to set them free from the sun’s attraction, should come under 
the action of an electric repulsion, and so be carried upwards from the sun P 

If we accept this view of things, many of the coronal phenomena can be satis- 
factorily explained. 

1. The yery long coronal rays, which rest upon sufficient testimony, no longer 
appear improbable. 

2. The peculiar curved rays within the corona may well arise from the smaller 
rotational velocity of the photospheric matter, which would make it lag behind as. 
it rose from the sun, and from probably varying directions of the force of eruption 
combined with the repulsive force acting radially. 

8. We should expect to find the largest coronal extensions over the spot- 
latitudes where solar activity appears to be greatest. 

4. We have an explanation of the rapidly increasing tenuity of the coronal 
matter from the sun, as the repulsion existing between the similarly electrified 
particles would cause them to separate from each other. 

5. The gas carried up with the solid or liquid particles would constantly vary 
in amount, and also in the height to which it was carried asa gas. This state of 
things is in accordance with the great differences observed in the’ spectra of different 
parts of the corona, and in the spectra of the same parts at different times. 

6. If the corona consists of electrified particles, it may well be that the planets. 
especially Venus and Mercury, may have an influence in determining the mode of 
outflow of this electrified matter in the directions in which they happen to be. 
M. Trouvelot, in his report of the eclipse of 1878,' pointed out that the two great 
coronal extensions which were remarkable at that eclipse were directed respec- 
tively to the planets Mercury and Venus. General Tennant informs me that some 
recent calculations show that at the eclipse of 1871 the positions of Mercury and of 
Venus coincided with the two positions of greatest coronal extension. He considers 
further that at the eclipse of 1882 the combined effect of these planets is distinctly 
shown ‘in the protruding angle at the upper left side of the engraved corona in the 
“ Phil. Trans.” 1882.’ ; 

7. It seems obvious, that, if the corona is due to a supply of matter and to 
forces coming from the sun, the coronal structure and the degree of extension 
which are produced by them at any part of the sun, would continue to be produced 
by these agencies at that part of the sun; and in that sense the corona would 
rotate. In the case of the more distant and diffused parts the rotation could 
scarcely be of one and the same material object, any more than in the sweep of a. 
comet’s tail at perihelion. The action of any external force, as that of a planet, 
would continue to be in the direction of this object, and independent of the solar 
rotation. 

8. Eye-observations, and photographs taken with different exposures appear to 
show that the corona has not an outer boundary, but that it is lost in increasing 
faintness and diffusion. Many of the coronal particles under the influence of the 
electric repulsion would leave the sun, and at the same time separate more widely 
from each other, becoming too diffused to be longer visible. 

9. This ceaseless outflow of extremely minute particles from the sun, very 
widely separated from each other, may possibly throw some light on another 
phenomenon which has not yet been satisfactorily accounted for, namely, the 
zodiacal light. 

10. The view of the sun as an electrically charged body may throw some light. 


) Reporé of Total Eclipse, 1878; Washington, p. 93. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 935 


on the mode in which the sun acts upon our magnets. The sun being a perma- 
nently charged conductor separated from the earth also a conductor, by an insu- 
lating vacuum, would affect the distribution of the earth’s electricity by its power 
of statical induction. As the earth rotates, currents would be set up about it to 
effect the redistribution of electricity required to satisfy the inducing influence of 
the sun. May we not find in these earth currents an explanation of some of the 
phenomena of the earth’s magnetism? However this may be, the changes in the 
sun’s statical induction which follow from the shooting forth of the electrified 
matter of the corona may well so affect the earth’s currents as to bring about the 
disturbances observed in the needle in connection with solar phenomena. 

11. If further evidence should be forthcoming in support of the observation of 
M. Trouvelot in 1878, and of the results of General Tennant’s calculations as to- 
influence of Mercury and Venus on the corona, there would be some probability that 
Venus and Mercury were permanently charged with electricity of the other name 
to that of the sun. If this should be found to hold good of the other planets, we 
should have the planets charged with one kind of electricity, and the sun charged 
with the opposite electricity. As we have reason to believe that the sun and 
planets formed originally one cosmical mass, the question may be suggested 
whether these charges of electricity of opposite names can have been brought 
about in connection with the separation of the planetary bodies." 


2. On the Spectrum of the Stella Nova visible on the Great Nebula in 
Andromeda. By Wiu1am Hueeins, D.C.L., DL.D., PRS. 


This star has appeared very near the position of greatest condensation in the 
great nebulain Andromeda. On the evening of September 3 it presented the appear- 
ance of an orange-coloured star of from the seventh to the eighth magnitude. 
When viewed in a spectroscope of small dispersive power, a continuous spectrum was 
seen which could be traced from about C in the red to alittle beyond F. There 
appeared great brightness from about D to about 4, which suggested strongly the 
presence of bright lines in that part of the spectrum. When a more powerful 
spectroscope was employed, the suspicion of some bright lines in this region was 
strengthened, but this point could not be certainly determined. 

On September 9 the star was again observed. The colour of the star appeared 
less strongly orange. In the small spectroscope the great brightness about D was 
not so marked, but the suspicion of bright lines in the region from D to 6 was con- 
firmed; and the appearance of the spectrum in the large spectroscope left little 
doubt on my mind as to the existence of from three to five bright lines in this part 
of the spectrum. 


3. On the Bright Star in the Great Nebula in Andromeda. 
By Rauew Copenanp, Ph.D. 


The author very shortly reviewed the history of the great nebula from the 
time of Al Safi, towards the close of the tenth century, to the present moment, 
the object being to show that there is no evidence of any actual change in the 
nebula itself, Passing to the recent sudden display, the author quoted various 
observations, beginning with Mr. Tarrant’s on July 2, and ending with that of the 
Rey. 8. H. Saxby on August 9, showing that on the whole there were some pre- 
monitory symptoms of an outbreak in or near the nucleus of the nebula, The 
first positive evidence of the presence of an actual star is given by Mr. J. W. Ward, 
who saw a star-like nucleus of about the ninth magnitude at Belfast at 11 p.m. 


1 Since this paper was read my attention has been called to the following papers 
by Professor Osborne Reynolds: ‘On the Tails of Comets, the Solar Corona, and the 
Aurora, considered as Electric Phenomena,’ Mem. LZ. and P. Soc., Manchester, 3rd 
series, vol. v. p. 44; ‘On Cometary Phenomena,’ ibid. p. 192; ‘On an Electrical 
Corona resembling the Solar Corona,’ ibid. p. 202; On the Electrodynamic Effect 
which the Induction of Static Electricity causes in a Moving Body. This Induc- 
tion on the part of the Sun, a probable cause of Terrestrial Magnetism, ibid. p. 209. 


936 REPORT—1885. 


on August 19. Unfortunately, bad weather prevented a confirmation, and conse- 
quent announcement of this most important observation. The first published obser- 
vation of the appearance of a bright star in the nebula is that of Dr. Hartwig, at 
Dorpat, on August 31. Estimates of the brightness were found by the writer to 
depend largely upon whether the effect of the nebulosity was eliminated or not. 
Estimates with low powers included some of the nebulosity, and made the star 
appear too bright. The spectrum was observed on various nights, beginning with 
September 1. The spectrum is almost absolutely continuous from end to end, and 
only on the closest scrutiny can the faintest irregularities be even suspected. The 
spectrum extended from W.L, 600™™™ to 456™"™, with a maximum about 544™™™, 
A point less obscure than the rest gave W.L. 482 (not far from F.) On September 3 
Lord Crawford, in company with the author, detected a nebulous nucleus 17/0 
from the bright star. By micrometrical comparison with a neighbouring star, of 
which Lord Rosse gave the relative position in 1851, the author found that this 
nebulous nucleus now visible is really that of the Great Nebula. He then quoted 
from the ‘ Astronomical Register’ of November 1882, as follows: ‘ A small star s.p. 
the nucleus of the great nebula in Andromeda (M. 31) has been suspected of 
variation by the Rev. T. W. Webb. He found the star readily visible on several 
occasions with a 93 inch “ With” speculum, while at other times he found it very 
faint with the same instrument.’ At present there is no star visible, except Dr. 
Hartwig’s, at all corresponding to the one seen by Mr. Webb.! It seemed, there- 
fore, to the author ‘ not unlikely that the true state of affairs is expressed by Lord 
Rosse in a letter dated the 9th inst., viz., “Zt would appear to be the abnormal 
blazing out of a quick, faint, variable star, rather than the appearance of a new star 
which has never been seen before.” ’ The spectroscopic observations are in accord with 
this opinion, for the spectrum is not unlike that of a variable star, while it presents 
no resemblance to that of a genuine blazing star like those of 1866 and 1876. 


4. On Solar Spectroscopy in the Infra Red. By Dr. Dantet Draper. 


In the year 1877 Professor Piazzi Smyth, who had just re-observed in Lisbon 
Brewster's three celebrated lines in the ultra red of the solar spectrum, X, Y, and 
Z, was in correspondence with the late Dr. Henry Draper about them, as being the 
furthest lines visible to the human eye in that direction, and was informed by him 
that his father, Dr. J. W. Draper, claimed these lines, as being the lines he had 
photographed so long before as in 1842, and called a, 8, and y. 

Therefore it became Professor Piazzi Smyth’s rather painful duty to point out 
that that was a mistake ; for the lines a, 8, and y in Dr. Draper's photograph were 
far beyond the possible spectrum places of Brewster's X, Y, and Z. 

But when, in a few years more, Captain Abney by improved photography, and 
then Professor Langley with his admirable bolometer, brought into view whole 
regions of lines beyond and outside Brewster’s furthest X, Professor Piazzi Smyth 
suggested to Dr. Daniel Draper (Dr. Henry Draper having died in the interval), 
that the time had arrived for comparing his father’s primitive photograph of 1842 
with the recent discoveries, and ascertaining whether his lines a, 8, and y cor- 
responded in any way therewith. 

The answer that Dr. Daniel Draper gives, is to the effect that they do cor- 
respond, and in so remarkable a manner as to add great value to photographic 
testimony on a Daguerreotype plate. 


5. The Errors of Seatants as indicated by the Records of the Verification 
Department of the Kew Observatory, Richmond, Surrey. By G. M. 
Wuiprpte, B.Sc., F.R.A.S. 


The author gave the history of the verification of sextants at the Observatory 
from its establishment in 1862, describing the apparatus employed devised by Mr. 


? Unless indeed Lord Rosse’s star is identical with Mr, Webb’s, as was suggested 
by Mr. G. J. Stoney. ote added Nov. 6, 1885. 


7 


; 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 937 


F. Galton, Mr. T. Cooke, and himself. Stating that the verification of the instru- 
‘ments comprises four stages; viz. Examination of (1) telescopes, (2) mirrors, (3) 
dark shades, and (4) errors of eccentricity and graduation of the arc, he detailed 
the various operations conducted in each stage, and finally classified the frequency 
-of the various defects as determined from upwards of 169 instruments verified at 
the Observatory during the past year:—15 per cent. were defective in stage 2, 
-5 per cent. in stage 3, and 10 per cent. in stage 4. An analysis of all the instru- 
ments under test (4) showed that 20 per cent. had errors amounting to 30’, 30 per 
cent. amounting to 60’, 25 per cent. amounting to 120”, and 7 per cent. amounting 
‘to 180”; whilst only 2 per cent. fell below 20”, and were practically perfect in 
‘their gradation. 


6. On the Behaviour of First-class Watches whilst undergoing tests in the 
Rating Department of the Kew Observatory, Richmond, Surrey. By 
G. M. Wurertez, B.Sc., F.R.A.S. 


The watch-rating department of the Kew Observatory, Richmond, Surrey, has 
been established in order to provide makers and the public with certificates of the 
accuracy of the performance of good watches. The conditions of the trials 
‘adopted for three classes, A, B, C, for watches of different qualities, which are 
detailed below, are similar to those in use at the Geneva and Yale Observa- 
tories. 

The following table will indicate the nature of the trials to which the certificates 
refer, the variation of rate being determined daily :— 


For Certificate of Class 


Position of Watch during test 


A B Cc 
Vertical, with pendant up . é : 10 days l4days | 8 days 

” ” ” right o) * 5 ” mc _ 

” ” ” left 5 ” arr | Ty 
Horizontal, with dial up . E Ail # aes 14days | 8 days 

2 aa itt ttddwnl' a: - 3 ba . — | — 

* at temp. 85° F. ones 1 day i 

” ” 35° BF. g 5 ” 1 ” ah 

Not rated (intermediate days) Bay AL as —— 
Total duration of test . - - 45 days | 31 days 16 days 


The results derived from of recent trials of 1384 watches were given in a tabu- 
lated form, and were contrasted with similar numbers derived from foreign trials. 
The number of failures to obtain certificates were— 
14 per cent. for variation of rate 


8» ” ” due to position 
05 ,, » imperfect temperature compensation 
3 4, 4y__ other causes. 


‘7. On a recent Improvement in the Construction of Instruments graduated 
upon Glass. By G. M. Wuippie, B.Sc., F.R.A.S. 


The very clever invention of Messrs. Negretti & Zambra some years ago of 
running a slip of white enamel in the glass at the back of the bore of the tube of 
-a thermometer has been most highly valued by scientists. I now submit to the 
notice of members of the Association a number of thermometers, eudiometers, 
graduated measures, &c., in which a valuable extension of the use of enamel has 
heen carried out by Mr. Jas. J. Hicks, of 8 Hatton Garden, London. 


938 REPORT —1885. 


In the case of thermometers the enamel is caused almost to surround the stem,. 
leaving but an aperture through which to view the mercurial column. This 
enables the graduation to be made and the figures to be etched immediately in 
front of the enamel, and consequently gives them a clearness and distinctness as far 
superior to the ordinary tube as that is to the old-fashioned instrument with clear 
glass stem. 

The application of the enamel to the construction of the variety of fluid 
measuring glasses now in use is quite new, I believe, and will be of great service 
in laboratories and all places where such articles are in use. In this case the 
enamel is not caused to almost surround the measure, but alternate segments of the 
sides of the glass are clear and opaque, so that a view of the fluid being measured 
is obtained through the spaces, and the graduations stand out distinctly on the 
white surfaces. Specimens of the different instruments were laid on the table. 


8. Ow Methods of preventing Change of Zero of Thermometers by Age. 
By G. M. Wutrett, B.Sc., F.R.A.S. 


The author, haying referred to methods which have been adopted at various 
times to rectify the rising of the zeros of mercurial thermometers by age, exhibited 
to the meeting certain instruments which had been annealed in accordance with a 
practice in use for many years in the construction of standard thermometers at 
the Kew Observatory. These have been made by Mr. Hicks, of Hatton Garden, 
who has erected special apparatus for the purpose, and apparently show that 
the desired result has been attained. 


9. On a new and simple form of Calorimeter. 
By Professor W. F. Barrett. 


With this instrument no corrections for the heat capacity of the vessel used or 
of the thermometer are necessary, and only a small correction for the loss by cool- 
ing. The bulb of the thermometer forms the cup that holds the liquid, and the: 
stem the beam of the balance that enables its weight to be found. The tempera- 
ture, T, of the warm liquid is given by the thermometer that plugs the burette as 
the liquid flows into the empty cup, the temperature of which is raised from ¢ to 6. 
If C be the constant of the instrument and W the weight of water used, the heat 
lost is equal to the heat gained by the instrument, or W (T — 6) = C(6 —12), 
whence 

,T-@ 
mith Sere . 

Hence a liquid of sp. heat S and weight W, having an initial temperature T, 
and which raises the temperature of the calorimeter from ¢’ to 6’ is found as 
follows : 

a ke =?) 
hae (T; ip 0’) 

The constant C for each instrument is determined once for all and the opera-- 
tion then becomes a very simple and speedy one. A polished metal cap fits over 
the cup to prevent evaporation. The instrument is the joint invention of the 
es and of Mr. J. McCowan, Demonstrator of Physics in the Royal College of 

cience. 


10. On a modification of the Daniell Battery, using Iron as Electropositive 
Element. By J. J. CoLEMan. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 939 


11. On a new form of Galvanometer. 
By Professor James Buytu, M.A., F.R.S.E. 


The author described a method of measuring electric currents by means of an 
instrument whose scale is graduated to equal divisions, and whose deflections are, 
from the intrinsic nature of the instrument, proportional to the current strength 
through all ranges. 

In principle the instrument depends upon the mechanical action exerted by a 
magnetic field upon a movable conductor carrying a current. In construction it 
is essentially similar to the well-known apparatus, due to Faraday, for showing the 
continuous rotation across the lines of magnetic force of a horizontal radial con- 
ductor carrying a current and having slipping contacts at its centre and circum- 
ference. The construction will be understood from the following description. 

Two bundles of permanently magnetised steel wires are made up in the form of 
cylinders having narrow axial holes. These are fixed with their axes in the same 
vertical line, separated by a narrow gap, and so that the north poles of the one set 
of magnets face the south poles of the other. In this gap the magnetic field is 
sensibly uniform and the lines of force vertical. Inserted in the gap isa thin 
circular disc of wood or vulcanite, having a central mercury cup and a concentric 
circular mercury trough at a short distance from it. A stout brass rod is provided, 
haying a short thick copper wire rigidly attached at right angles to its lower end. 
Its upper end passes freely through the axial hole in the upper magnet, and is 
rigidly attached to the lower end of a long fine torsion wire of steel or silver, 
whose upper end is fixed to a suitable support. The lower end of the brass rod 
dips into the central mercury cup, and the outer end of the copper wire (bent 
down a little at right angles) dips into the concentric canal of mercury. Stout 
copper wires are led from the central cup and canal to binding-screws suitably 
placed so as to form the terminals of the instrument. The upper end of the brass 
rod, which projects a little above the upper magnet, carries a long pointer, which 
moves over a horizontal circular disc, graduated either to degrees or to show 
amperes directly. This disc is fixed with the torsion wire passing freely through 
its centre. The whole is so enclosed as to be free from air current. 

The action of the instrument will be easily understood. Suppose a current sent 
through it. As is well known, the electromagnetic force acting on the radial 
current will tend to make it rotate in a horizontal plane with a uniform force. 
This rotation will go on till a certain angle is reached, when the moment due to the 
ead force is balanced by the moment due to the torsion of the wire. 

et 
2=the current strength, 
a=the length of the radial wire, 
N=the magnetic induction, 
A =the torsion constant, 
6 =the angle of equilibrium, 
we have 
, -_ 24 
4ia?N=AO; or i= a ae 
showing that the current strength is proportional to the angle of deflection. 

The instrument admits of several modifications. Two have been constructed 
in addition to that above described. In the one the permanent magnets are 
replaced by similarly placed electromagnetic coils, through which the current to 
be measured passes. In this case the square of the current strength is proportional 
to the angle of deflection. In the other the fixed magnets are dispensed with, and, 
instead, a eylindrical bundle of magnets is fixed coaxially to the brass rod, but 
insulated from it, so that it rotates along with the rod and radial wire. In this 
case the radial wire projects from the middle of the length of the magnet bundle, 
while the lower end of the brass rod is prolonged so as to dip into a mercury cup 
_ at a considerable distance below the lower end of the bundle. Owing to the 
influence of the exterior part of the circuit leading from the mercury canal to 


5 


940 REPORT—1885. 


the cup, the equation for this case is a little more complicated. With proper 
arrangements, however, the deflection can be shown to be proportional to the 
current strength. 

In the instruments constructed for practical use the mercury cup and canal are 
so made, on the unspillable ink-bottle principle, as to preserve the mercury in case 
ot being knocked over or even inverted. 


12. On the Physical Conditions of Water in Estuaries.! 
By Hues Roserr Mintz, B.Sc., F.R.S.L., F.C.8. 


Observations have been made on the estuaries of several of the most important 
Scottish rivers, of the temperature and density of the water at various posi- 
tions. 

The temperature was observed by means of Negretti & Zambra’s Standard 
Deep-Sea Thermometer, in a special frame devised in order to permit of the 
instrument being worked in shallow water and in places where the current is 
rapid. A modification of the slip water-bottle for the same conditions was made 
and found to work admirably. 

Estuaries were found to be capable of division into three classes :— 

1. Those in which all the salt water is withdrawn from the estuary by the 
ebb-tide, e.g., the Spey. Here the river water freshens the surface of the sur- 
rounding sea, but affects the deep water very slightly. 

2. Those in which the salt water is partially withdrawn, eg., the Tay. Here 
the river is brackish at low tide and the surface water of the surrounding sea is 
slightly freshened. 

3. Those in which salt water always remains, eg., the Forth. Here at the 
river end the density of the water varies with the tide, but is always low ; it rises 
rapidly in the first twelve miles and thereafter, proceeding seaward, it rises very 
gradually. The density of surface and bottom water approaches coincidence as 
the sea is neared, and the merging of the estuary into the sea is marked by a very 
slight decrease of density throughout the entire depth. There is no seasonal varia- 
tion of density, but during a flood the freshening is perceptible all along the line 
in decreasing amount. 

Temperature has a continually diminishing annual range as the sea is approached. 
In summer it falls, and in winter it rises, at first rapidly and then gradually from 
river to sea. The mean annual temperature at each point is the same (47°5). 
Bom water is colder in summer and slightly warmer in winter than that at the 
surface. 


13. Further Experiments in Photo-Electricity. By Professor Mrxcun. 


14. On the Formation of a Pure Spectrum by Newton. 
By G. Grirrira, M.A. 


In English text-books it is generally stated that Wollaston was the first to 
observe a pure spectrum, and that Newton did not know how to form one. 

The author referred to several statements of this character (Professor W. Allen 
Miller, ‘Chemical Physics, 3rd edition, p. 161; Professor Roscoe, ‘ Spectrum 
Analysis,’ 1869, p. 22; see also Parkinson’s ‘ Optics,’ 1859, pp. 148-45.) 

These accounts are probably to be traced to a passage in Sir David Brewster’s 
‘Life of Newton’ (vol. i. p. 117 of the large edition, or p. 58 of the new and 
revised edition, 1875). ‘Had Newton received upon his prism a beam of light 
transmitted through a very narrow aperture, he would have anticipated Wollaston 
and Fraunhofer in their fine discovery of the lines in the prismatic spectrum.’ In 
a previous passage Brewster has described how Newton first formed a spectrum by 
using light which had passed throuch a round hole in a shutter. 


* Published in ewtenso in the Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. II. pt. i. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 94] 


Although Newton admitted light into his darkened room in this way for certain 
experiments, yet he was perfectly aware that the coloured image which is formed 
when such a beam is passed through a prism consists of innumerable coloured 
circles (‘Opticks,’ Prop. iv., Prob. 1, 1), which overlap, and that the mixture 
of the heterogeneous rays can be diminished by making the circles of smaller 
diameter. The first method which he proposed for doing this was to have the 
hole at a great distance from the prism, so that rays coming from the centre only 
of the sun would be used. 

Then follows this passage: ‘But that those circles may answer more distinctly 
to that hole, a lens is to be placed by the prism to cast the image of that hole 
upon the paper. If this be done it will not be necessary to place that hole very 
far off; no, not beyond the window.’ 

He then describes fully how this is to be carried out practically. 

This passage is followed by another, which, strange to say, has escaped the 
notice of Brewster and many others, ‘ Opticks,’ p. 59, 2nded. ‘ Yet instead of the cir- 
cular hole (F), ’tis better to substitute an oblong hole shaped like a long parallelo-. 
gram, with its length parallel to the prism (A, B, C). For if this hole be an inch 
or two long, but a tenth or twentieth part of an inch broad, or narrower, the light 
of the image “?,e. the spectrum ” (pt) will be as simple as before or simpler, and 
the image will become much broader and, therefore, more fit to have experiments. 
tried in its light than before.’ 

He also says that a triangular aperture may be used, the base of the triangle 
being about the tenth of an inch, its height an inch or more. In the spectrum 
formed by light passing through such an aperture, he says that the bases of the 
triangular images overlap a little, but their vertices do not. 

In all these experiments the prisms were placed at the angle of minimum 
deviation. The lens was generally placed at a distance from the aperture equal 
to double its focal length, and the screen at the same distance from the lens. 
The prisms are carefully described; one is stated to have ‘had some veins 
running along witbin the glass from one end to the other, which scattered some 
of the sun’s light irregularly.’ Others are described as being ‘free from veins.’ 
He also used prisms filled with rain-water. In one of his letters to Oldenburg, 
Horsley’s ‘ Newton,’ vol. iv. p. 343, he refers to a crystal prism. This must have 
been rock crystal. 

Very ordinary prisms will show the Fraunhofer lines. Prof. Rood using the 
prisms of an ordinary candelabrum found no prism among twelve which did not 
show several lines. It seems now impossible to account with certainty for their 
not being seen by Newton; it certainly was not for the reason given by Brewster. 
Nor probably was it due to the inferior quality of the glass or workmanship of 
the prisms. Newton used an assistant for observing the spectra in certain experi- 
ments. ‘Opticks,’ p. 110 (2nd ed.) ‘ An assistant, whose eyes for distinguishing 
colours were more critical than mine, did by right lines,’ . . . ‘drawn across the 
spectrum, note the confines of the colours.’ It is possible that this assistant may 
haye seen the lines, but Newton’s attention was not called to them, and their 
existence was not recorded by him. 

For full details of many of Newton’s experiments it is necessary to refer to the: 
‘Lectiones Optic,’ which were not published until after Newton's death. They 
were delivered in the years 1669-71, at Cambridge, where the original manuscript 
was deposited. 

In one of the early lectures he describes his observation of the spectrum of 
the planet Venus. ‘The object glass of a seven-foot telescope, its aperture being 
two inches and more broad, to transmit a sufficient quantity of rays,’ received the 
light of the planet, and formed upon a paper at the distance of seven feet an 
image ‘like a lucid point.’ A prism being then interposed, the spectrum formed is. 
described as ‘a very fine line, though not very bright, however very easily to be 
discerned.’ He then remarks: ‘And I believe the same thing might be observed 
of stars of the first magnitude, as of Sirius, especially if a lens be used four or six. 
inches broad, that it may transmit many rays.’ In a subsequent page it is stated. 
that this experiment had been successfully tried, 


5 


942 REPORT—1885. 


This interesting observation is given, in terms which are substantially the 
same, in a letter addressed to Oldenburg, and dated Cambridge, April 1672 
(Horsley’s ‘Newton,’ iv. p. 311). In the letter the spectrum of Venus is described 
as a ‘long splendid line.’ 

In conclusion, the author referred to the brief but correct account of Newton’s 
experiments described in the early part of the paper, by Lloyd in his ‘ Undulatory 
Theory,’ and in Verdet’s Works, iii, p. 253. 


15. On the Use of Bisulphide of Carbon Prisms for cases of Hutreme Spectro- 
scopic Dispersion, by Professor C. Piazzi SmytH; and their Results in 
Gaseous Spectra, commented on by Professor ALEXANDER S. HERSCHEL, 
M.A., F.B.S. 


The serious loss of light which occurs by absorption in long trains of dense 
glass prisms was attempted to be diminished by the first author using, in place of 
the usual flint-glass prism between two correcting crown-glass ones, a bisulphide of 
carbon prism with a refracting angle of 104°. A train of such compound fluid 
prisms of 2] inches optic apertures, together with two simple flint-glass prisms, each 
of 64° refracting angle, dispersed the spectrum between A and H over an angle of 
about 60°. The spectrum so formed was examined with an inspecting telescope of 
2:25 inches aperture, 32 inches focal length, and of magnifying power 36. About 
cone-seventh of the whole length of the spectrum could be commanded at one 
time by the range of the micrometer-screw which moved the inspecting telescope 
in angle, without resetting the prism train to minimum deviation for the next 
adjoining portion of the spectrum. 

After overcoming the tendency of the interior glass faces to contract a film 


from the cement used in the prisms, by repeated washings, the well-known - 


difficulties of inequality of temperature in the fluid prisms, disturbing their 
homogeneity and altering the total dispersion of the train, had then to be contended 
with, and were obviated sufficiently for relative measurements by the use of non- 
conducting coverings of the prisms, and by guarding carefully in each set of 
observations against accidental changes of temperature in the room. 

With the spectroscope so arranged the first electric spectrum of a vacuum 
tube examined, was that of oxygen gas. The four distinct lines of the so-called 
compound spectrum of the gas were identified, and three of them proved on 
examination with the instrument’s high dispersive power to be really compound, 
each of the three being resolved into a delicate line-triplet. Three similar line- 
triplets in regular configuration with these in neighbouring parts of the spectrum 
were also found, while a strong oxygen line, in addition to other single lines of the 
spectrum, was detected in the ultra-red at a distance from the ordinary field of 
chromatic light in that direction greater than that of any elementary gas-spectrum 
line yet ocularly measured. 

Of the numerous array of lines produced in hydrogen-tubes which have been 
ascribed to hydrogen, 1,616 lines were well seen and measured, most of them 
extremely sharp and beautifully precise lines. Of these 1,442 are in the space 
where 448 such lines are recorded in the hydrogen line catalogue of this gas’s 
compound spectrum in the Report and tables of the wave-lengths of the elements, 
presented last year by the Spectroscopic Committee of the British Association,’ 
20 are beyond the violet, and 154 are beyond the red limit of the range of the 
same catalogue in that Report. 

As another example of the great resolving and defining powers of the 
bisulphide of carbon prism spectroscope, it may be noted that in a single fluting 
of the compound spectrum of nitrogen near the solar line D, in which twenty 
linelets and haze-bands are figured in the extensive map of that spectrum recently 
communicated to the Imperial Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg by Dr. 
Hasselberg, 161 sharp lines were seen and mapped: with the train of fluid prisms, 
while only three wave-lengths of the leading edges in the same fluting are noted 


1 British Association Reports, 1884, p. 390. 


—— 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION A. 943 


in the table of the compound spectrum of nitrogen of the Report already quoted. 
Again, in place of the 115 wave-lengths of haze-band edges, noted as forming the 
whole fluted or compound spectrum of nitrogen in that Report, scarcely less than 
7,000 lines of the same spectrum have been so clearly seen and distinguished in it 
with the bisulphide of carbon spectroscope, as to be all mapped and delineated 
on the lithographic plates of the results obtained with this spectroscope, which will 
ke published in the next, now nearly completed, volume of the Transactions of 
the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 

The measurements of this gas-spectrum’s exceedingly full crowd of lines were 
rendered possible in great measure by end-on vision-tubes of nitrogen of very 
superior purity and brightness, produced for the author by Mr. C. Casella, 
the electric excitation of the tubes being also brought under exceptionally regular 
control by a new battery and five-inch spark induction-coil specially supplied to 
him for this purpose by Mr. Alfred Apps, of London, 

A fourth example of the spectroscope’s great optical efficiency was its complete 
disentanglement of the remarkable web of fine lines forming the green band of the 
electric spectrum of carbonic oxide. When seen through a spectroscope of this 
power a curious crossing presents itself near the band’s brighter edge, arising from 
the concurrence there, apparently, of two really distinct but not easily separable 
series of very similarly arranged linelets, of which the band’s line-cluster must at 
least consist. In Professors Angstrém and Thalén’s drawing of it (14 inch long) 
in their ‘ micrometric measurements,’ ! the details delineated only amount to fourteen 
separately represented light maxima of the gradually decreasing band. But with 
the expansion of this length which the micrometer-screw’s automatic tracing point 
of the bisulphide of carbon prism spectroscope effected on its paper page, from 14 
inch to 26 inches (corresponding in its scale to nearly 4 inches for the interval 
between the two sodium D lines, and to about 220 feet in length for the whole 
visible extent of the spectrum from A to H), no haziness of light was any longer to 
be seen, but instead of ita series of 48 sharp linelets in this space were plotted 
accurately in their true relative positions by the recording pointer on the paper. 

Even with this automatic means of registration, however, the task of projecting 
the prodigious multitude of sharp lines observed in the several different gases sub- 
mitted to examination, demanded the writer’s available diligence towards this end 
too constantly to allow him to give special attention to any harmonic or other 
numerical relations which may exist among the abundant data thus collected, 
although researches of this kind hereafter are not proposed to be omitted. A 
notable example of the probable prevalence of such relations, and a striking corro- 
boration of the clear vision and accuracy reached in the projections, presented itself, 
however, in the mapped places just now described of the 43 carbonic oxide green- 
band linelets. A map of this band’s evidently complete resolution into all its com- 
ponent linelets was sent for inspection to Professor Herschel, and it immediately 
suggested to him a simple law of progression which embraces all the lines mapped 
upon the sheet (of which a figure accompanied this paper) of this band’s visible 
components; if, at least, duplicity of more than half the lines of one of its ranks be 
disregarded, which is so extremely close that it scarcely yet furnishes any material 
occasion for the paired lines’ separate descriptions, The exactness of the surmised 
progression’s agreement with the record is all the more noteworthy when it is stated 
that the latter includes measurements of intervals between some of its lines not ex- 
ceeding the 50th part of the micrometer interval between the two sodium lines, and 
that within about that diminutive quantity also it everywhere agrees with the pre- 
sumed line-places of the theoretical progression, whose range yet extends to many 
intervals between the sodium-lines along the linelet ranks. 

The rank of split-lines of the green carbonic oxide band has successive intervals 
beginning from its first line which forms the leading (or least refrangible) edge of 
the green band, represented by the natural numbers, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., with a space 
between the first two lines, or an arithmetical difference between the intervals of 
the succeeding lines, of about two British, or three-quarters of a metrical wavye- 


1 Transactions of the Royal Society of Upsala, 1875. 


944 REPORT—1885. 


number unit. Its procession remains in sensibly exact agreement with this rule 
to the seventeenth and eighteenth lines, still visible, and measured in the map. 
But it grows quickly fainter from the sixth line onwards, and presents signs of 
division and duplicity in its lines from about the ninth line onwards. 

The other rank of lines (which completes the whole group) is identical in its 
intervals with the first, but its lines are not double, and, fading more slowly in bright- 
ness than those of the other rank, they form in the open part of the band its strongest 
array or main-line troop. Almost exact coincidence occurs of its tenth line 
with the eieventh line of the other rank, and the line intervals being there pretty 
wide, an appearance of crossing of the two series and of condensed brightness in the 
nearly doubled line forms the easily recognised and marked feature of the band’ 
already mentioned, not very far from its bright edge. Nearer to the edge than this 
the lines of the two ranks, nearly equal to each other in brightness, are unaccordant 
and intermixed in place with little apparent signs of orderly relation. But another 
crossing-point yet happens here (an arithmetical consequence of the former one),. 
where the two ranks have a spectral line in common with each other. This is the 
leading line of the second or single-line rank, which coincides and is, as far as the 
observations can determine, identical with the fifth line of the projecting band-edge- 
or split-line rank. 

‘The new common line of the two progressions is not brighter by superposition 
than adjoining lines, preceding and following it, of the two ranks in which it falls; 
but the second rank of lines takes its origin in the fifth line from the band-edge or 
front line (inclusive) of the other rank, and being thus four intervals or ten unit- 
spaces (1+2+3+4) distantfrom that edge, all its lines fall thus far in advance of 
those corresponding to them in the other leading or projecting file. It thus happens 
that its tenth line, instead of coinciding with the other file’s tenth line, is advanced 
ten unit spaces of the progression from it, and falls into agreement, therefore, with 
the eleventh line of that rank, which is also ten unit spaces distant from the last 
preceding or tenth line of its serial progression, as the two lines are found to do 
quite accurately at the crossing-place of the band. For in the faithfully depicted’ 
map, the single or main line at this point exactly hides or takes the place of one of | 
the two half-lines, which together should form a close pair of the split-line spectrum 
at that place. Both the great accuracy of the observations and the perfect correct-- 
ness of the presumed law of line-interval succession seem to be alike proved, and 
established satisfactorily by this unintentional and yet most remarkably exact 
agreement. 

The two partial linelet spectra of this band, as far as they were measured, agree 
with each other when superposed rather more perfectly than with the theoretical 
progressive points computed for them on the micrometric scale of the map; but 
this is to be expected, as the scale of prismatic dispersion, or of micrometric parts, is 
not identical with that of wave-numbers, in relation to which alone the rule of 
succession of the lines in intervals forming an arithmetical progression is in all 
probability exactly true. But the real identity of the formula, whatever it may be, 
for the two partial spectra is shown quite free from any such deceptions by con- 
fronting a copy of the lines of one with the lines of the other spectrum on the 
map, and observing the almost perfect superpositions which this yields, in each 
and every line. It seems allowable to speculate whether the occasional choice of 
valency which chemists find it necessary to ascribe to carbon, between bivalency 
and tetravalency in its varying power of forming saturated compounds, may not 
be connected with this twofold repetition, which here certainly exists, of one 
and the same rank of spectral lines in a single spectral band, thus shown by one of 
that element’s abnormally saturated compounds under very vigorously electrified. 
conditions, 


Section B.—CHEMICAL SCIENCE. 


PRESiDENT OF THE SectIon—Professor H. H. Anmsrrone, Ph.D., F.R.S., Sec.C.S. 


THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. 


The Presrpent delivered the following Address :— 


In the Chemical Section of the British Association for the Advancement of 
Science the advancement of chemistry throughout the British Empire must be a 
subject of commanding interest. Signs of such advancement are not wanting :—the 
rapid establishment of science colleges in one after another of our large towns; the 
establishment of the Society of Chemical Industry, which now, only in the fifth 
year of its existence, numbers over 2,000 members ; the granting of a Royal charter 
to the Institute of Chemistry; the changes introduced at the London University 
in the regulations for the D.Sc. degree; the report of the Royal Commission on 
Technical Education, in which the value to chemical manufacturers of advanced. 
chemical knowledge is so fully recognised; the important conference on education 
held at the Health Exhibition last year; the recent agitation to found a teaching 
university in London with adequate provision for research—surely all these are 
signs that the value of higher education must and will, ere long, be generally re- 
cognised. 

*The neglect of chemical research in our British schools has often been forcibly 
commented upon—of late, especially, by an eminent past-President of this Section, 
Dr. Perkin, whose opinion is of peculiar value, as he is not only world-renowned as 
a chemist, but also as a manufacturer: indeed, as the founder of two distinct im- 
portant chemical industries, There can be no doubt of the fact and of the dire 
consequences to our country of such neglect: how is it, then, that such pronounced 
complaints have been so coldly received ; that hitherto they have produced com- 
paratively so little effect; and that such slight encouragement is being given to 
those who, notwithstanding the many difficulties in their way, have steadfastly de- 
voted themselves to research work? I question whether the value of such work 
has yet been brought home to teachers generally, let alone the public: the ‘cud 
bono?’ cry is almost invariably met by pointing to some discovery of great 
pecuniary value as the outcome of research. This argument educationalists very 
properly refuse to recognise. Too little has been saidas tothe cause of the neglect 
so bitterly and properly complained of. Hence it is that I propose again to take 
up what many may regard as a somewhat threadbare theme. 

Everyone will agree with Professor Sir Henry Roscoe, who in his address last 
year to this Section said ‘that those who are to become either scientific or indus- 
trial chemists should receive as sound and extensive a foundation in the theory and 
practice of chemical science as their time and abilities will allow, rather than they 
should be forced prematurely ’—the italics are mine— into the preparation of a new 
series of homologous compounds, or the investigation of some special reaction, or of 
some possible new colouring matter, though such work might doubtless lead to 
publication” We must also all cordially agree with him that the aim should be, 
as he tells us his has been, ‘to prepare a young man by a careful and fairly complete 
general training to fill with intelligence and success a post either as teacher or 
industrial chemist, rather than to turn out mere specialists, who, placed under 


. 1885. 3P 


946 REPORT—1885. 


other conditions than those to which they have been accustomed, are unable to get 
out of the narrow groove in which they have been trained.’ If it were necessary 
to show that Sir Henry Roscoe is a believer in research in its proper place, ample 
proof would be afforded by his statement, ‘ that, far from underrating the educa- 
tional advantages of working at original subjects, he considers this sort of training 
of the highest and best kind, but only useful when founded upon a sound and 
general basis.’ 

But I venture to think that something has to be added in order to completely 
define the position of those who deplore the slight amount of original work which 
is being done in British laboratories. We maintain that no one can really ‘fill 
with intelligence and success a post either as teacher or industrial chemist’ who has 
not been trained in the methods of research ; and that, owing to the neglect of 
research, the majority of students are of necessity trained in a narrow groove. The 
true teacher and the industrial chemist are daily called wpon to exercise precisely 
those faculties which are developed in the course of original investigation, and 
which it is barely possible—many would say, perhaps with justice, it is impossible 
—to sufficiently cultivate inany other manner. In a works the chemist is scarcely 
required as long as all goes well. The quality of the materials used or produced 
can be controlled by purely routine processes of analysis by the works analyst, or 
by well-trained laboratory boys. But things never do go well for any long period 
of time: difficulties are always arising; obscure points have to be investigated ; 
and, if the manufacturer understand his business, improvements have to be 
effected—which cannot be done unless the conditions under which he is working 
be understood, as well as the character of the changes which are taking place. 
Investigation is therefore necessary at every step. No amount of instruction, such 
as is ordinarily given, in the mere theory and practice of chemical science will 
eoufer the habits of mind, the acuteness of vision and resourcefulness required of an 
efficient chemist in a works, any more than the mere placing of the best tools im a 
workman’s hands will make him a skilful operator. 

Such being our position, we maintain that it is essential to make research an 
integral portion of the student's course in every college which pretends to educate 
chemists. It will not suffice occasionally to set a promising student to investigate, 
but a number of students, as well as the staff, must always be engaged in original 
work: in fact, an atmosphere of research must pervade the college. It cannot be 
too clearly recognised that it is this which characterises and distinguishes the 
German schools at the present time. The student does not learn so much from 
the one special piece of work with which he is occupied, but a number of his 
fellow-students being also similarly engaged, the spirit of inquiry is rife through- 
out the laboratory: original literature is freely consulted, and they thus become 
acquainted with the methods of the old masters ; vigorous discussions take place, 
not only in the laboratory, but also at that most useful institution, the ‘ Kneipe’ ; 
the appearance of each new number of the scientific periodicals is keenly wel- 
comed ;—in fact, a proper spirit of inquisitiveness is awakened and maintained, until 
it gradually becomes a habit. Probably there is less actual routine teaching done 
by the staff in the German schools than in our own. I am proud to own my 
indebtedness to one of them, and I can without hesitation say that I never truly 
realised what constituted the sc’ence of chemistry until I came under its influence. 

But to realise the state which I have pictured—to create an atmosphere of 
research in our science colleges in order that it may be possible for our students to 
obtain complete training in chemistry, several things are required. In the first 
place, it will be necessary that the students come to them better prepared than 
they are at present: asa rule they are so ill-prepared that it is very difficult, if 
not impossible, in the time at disposal to give such preliminary instruction as 
is indispensable before higher work can be attempted. ‘Their mathematical know- 
ledge is so ill-digested that it is more often than not necessary to begin by teaching 
simple proportion, and they look aghast at a logarithm table. They cannot draw 
—so far have we advanced in our civilisation that the subject is more often than 
not an ‘ extra’ in our schools. They understand a little French ; but German, which 
may almost be called the language of modern science, is indeed an unknown tongue 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 947 


to them. I do not complain of their want of knowledge of science subjects, but of 
the unscientific manner in which they have been trained at school, and especially 
of the manner in which their intellectual faculties have become deadened from 
want of exercise, instead of developed and sharpened. Too many have never 
acquired the habit of working steadily and seriously; they have not learnt to 
appreciate the holiness of work,’ so that they render the office of teacher akin to 
that of slave-driver instead of to that of friend. What is perhaps worst is 
their marked inability, often amounting to downright refusal, either to take proper 
notice of what happens in an experiment or to draw any logical conclusion from 
‘an observation. Man is said to be a reasoning being, but my experience as an ex- 
aminer and teacher would lead me to believe that this fact is altogether lost sight 
of by the average schoolmaster, who appears to confine himself almost exclusively 
to the teaching of hard dry facts, and makes no attempt to cultivate those very 
faculties which are supposed to characterise the human race ; or he is so ill-prepared 
for his work that he fails to understand his duty. These are harsh words, but the 
evil is of such magnitude that it cannot be too plainly stated; those who, like my- 
self, are brought full face to it fail in their duty if, when opportunity occurs, they 
do not take occasion to call attention to its existence. 

Probably the only remedy—certainly the most effectual, and that which can be 
most easily applied—is the introduction of a rational system of practical science 
teaching into all our schools, whatever their grade; one effect would be that all 
the school subjects would of necessity soon be taught in a more scientific manner. 
I am not one of those who would eschew the teaching of classics, and I do not wish 
to see science teaching introduced into schools generally in order that the students 
who come to me may already have gained some knowledge of science: under 
existing circumstances I prefer that they shall not; but I desire its introduction 
because the faculty of observing and of reasoning from observation, and also from 
‘experiment, is most readily developed by the study of experimental science: this 
faculty, which is of such enormous practical value throughout life, being, I 
believe—as I have said elsewhere—left uncultivated after the most careful mathe- 
matical and literary training. No one has stated this more clearly than Charles 
Kingsley. We are told that, speaking to the boys at Wellington College, he 
said: ‘The first thing for a boy to learn, after obedience and morality, is a habit of 
observation—a habit of using his eyes. It matters little what you use them on, 
provided you do use them. They say knowledge is power, and so it is—but only 
the knowledge which you get by observation. Many a man is very learned in 
books, and has read for years and years, and yet he is useless. He knows about all 
sorts of things, but he can’t do them.’ This is precisely our complaint—the average 
schoolboy may know a good deal about things, but he can’t do them. The ordinary 
school system of training does not, in fact, develop the ‘ wits,’ to use a popular and 
expressive term for the observing and reasoning faculties ; but it is certain that the 
wits require training. It is because the teaching of experimental science tends to 
develop the wits that those among us who know its power are so anxious for its 
introduction. This cannot be too clearly stated, the popular view—to judge from 
newspaper discussions—heing apparently that science is to be classed with ‘extras’: 
that it 1s good for those who can afford it, but can be dispensed with by those who 
cannot. This undoubtedly is true of the ‘science’ which is taught the specialist, 
and I fear even of much of the ‘science’ which is at present taught in schools: 
let us hope that ere long other views will prevail when the object which it is sought 
to gain by teaching science is made clear. 

While blaming the schoolmaster for his neglect, it must not be forgotten that 
the teaching of sciences in schools meets with comparatively little encouragement 
at the hands of our examining bodies and the universities. Again, examinations 
are too often entrusted to those who have no educational experience, and with 


* Inmy experience, the behaviour of ordinary day male students is, in this respect, 
particularly striking in comparison with that of female and evening students: the 
“evening students, who come with a desire to learn, and the female students are in- 
_ variably most attentive, and make the fullest use of the opportunities afforded them. 


3P2 


948 REPORT. -1885. 


most unfortunate results: in no case, probably, is inexperience so inexcusable as im 
an examiner. Too often, also, the examinations are in the hands of pure specialists, 
who take too formal a view of their duty, and expect from boys and girls at school 
as much as from their own students, who are older and devote more time to the 
work. Such examiners are prone to discourage science by marking too severely ; 
and as their questions govern the teaching, instruction is given in schools without 
due reference to educational requirements, and in a purely technical style: this, I 
fear, is the effect of some of the universities’ local examinations. 

I have it on good authority that the recent changes in the scheme of the 
examinations for admission at Sandhurst have forced one large school, well known 
for the attention paid in it to the teaching of science, to cease to give instruction in 
science to those of its pupils who propose to compete at these examinations, at once- 
on their deciding to do so. Then, not only are the science scholarships at the uni- 
versities few in proportion, but the great majority of students pass through their 
university career without being called upon to gain the slightest knowledge of” 
physical science: yet, more often than not, the teachers are chosen from these. A 
large proportion become clergymen, and considering the demands upon them and 
the unbounded opportunities which they have of imparting useful information, there 
cannot be a doubt that to no other class of the community is a knowledge of 
natural science likely to be of more value.’ Let us hope that the time is near 
when our universities will no longer be open to this reproach. Whatever steps 
they may elect to take, it is before all things important that it be not forgotten 
that their main purpose must be to influence the schools, so that experimental 
science may be used as an educational weapon at the most appropriate time, and not 
when the faculties to be fashioned by it have become atrophied through neglect, 
as I fear is too often the case, ere the university is reached. 

We must carefully guard against being satisfied with the mere introduction of 
one or more science subjects into the school curriculum: some of those who 
strenuously advocate the introduction of science teaching perhaps do not sufficiently 
bear this in mind. Chemistry, physics, &c., may be—and I fear are, more often than 
not—taught in such a way that it were better had no attempt whatever been made 
to teach them. I hold that it is of no use merely to set lads to prepare oxygen, &c., 
or to make experiments which please them in proportion as they more nearly re- 
semble fireworks; and it is not the duty of the schoolmaster to train his boys as 
though they were to become chemists, any more than it is his duty to fit them to 
enter any other particular profession or trade: the whole of the science teaching 
in a school should be subservient to the one object of developing certain faculties. 
Unfortunately, two great difficulties stand in the way at present—viz. the want of 
suitable books and of a rational system of teaching science from the point of view 
here advocated; and the requirements of the universities and other examining” 
bodies. Both books and examinations are of too special a character: they may 
suit the specialist, but do not meet educational requirements. I have already 
somewhat fully expressed my views on this subject in a paper read at the Educa- 
tional Conference in London last year. Although much more might be said, I will 
only now call attention to the important service which we may render in removing” 
these difficulties. 

1 ©] sometimes dream,’ said Kingsley, ‘of a day When it will be considered’ 
necessary that every candidate for ordination should be required to have passed’ 
creditably in at least one branch of physical science, if it be only to teach him the 
method of sound scientific thought.’ 

2 | learnt with the most lively satisfaction, but a few days ago, that Dr. Percival, 
the late head-master of Clifton College, speaking at a meeting of Convocation at 
Oxford last term, said: ‘If twenty years ago this university had said: from this time 
forward the elements of natural science shall take their place in responsions side 
by side with the elements of mathematics, and shall be equally obligatory, you would 
long ago have effected a revolution in school education.’ This remark elicited some 
warm expressions of approval. Dr. Percival, I am sure, has the cordial approval of 
all science teachers, and ‘he will earn their gratitude, and deserve that of the public - 
at large, if he can succeed in inducing his university to take action in accordance : 
with his enlightened views. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 949 


The reform most urgently needed, in which, as members of the community, not 
“merely as chemists, we are all most interested, is the introduction of some system 
~which will ensure a proper training for teachers. Engineers, lawyers, medical men, 
pharmacists, have severally associated themselves to found institutions which 
-require those who desire to join the profession to obtain a certain qualification ; 
even chemists are seeking to do this through the Institute of Chemistry. But 
-schoolmasters, although members of what is probably the most responsible, onerous, 
useful, and honourable of any of the professions, have as yet neither made, nor 
shown any inclination to make, a united effort to ensure that all those who join 
their profession shall be properly qualified. Surely the time has come when the 
-subject must receive full public attention; the country cannot much longer remain 
content that the education of all but those of its sons and daughters who come 
within the province of the School Board should be carried on without any guarantee 
that it is being properly conducted. 

Glaring as are the faults in the existing school system, and although it rests 
with the universities and other teaching and examining bodies—if the public do 
not intervene—to prescribe a proper course of instruction for potential school- 
masters and to enforce a rational system of training all the mental faculties, we 
science teachers may meanwhile do much by introducing more perfect methods into 
our own system of teaching. The students attending our courses belong to various 
classes: some will become chemists, aud require the highest and most complete 
training ; others will be teachers in colleges or schools; many will occupy them- 
Selves as consulting chemists or analysts; many others will have to take charge 
of manufacturing operations in which a knowledge of chemistry is of more or less 
direct importance and value; not a few will become medical men; and a large 
proportion, let us hope, will be those who have no direct use for chemistry, 
although the knowledge will be of great service to them in many ways: among 
such we may include architects and builders, engineers, farmers, and even country 
gentlemen. Have we sufficiently considered the several requirements of all these 
various classes? I submit, with all due deference, that we have not! Our attention 
has been too exclusively directed to the training up of the future analyst; the 
instruction has been of too technical a character. 

I know it is rank heresy to say so, but I maintain that in future far less time 
must be devoted to the teaching of ordinary qualitative and quantitative analysis, 
and that technical instruction as now given in these subjects must find its place 
later in the course. Our main object in the first instance must be to fully develop 
the intellectual faculties of our students; to encourage their aspirations by incul- 
cating broad and liberal views of our science, not an infinite number of petty 
‘details. We must not merely teach them the principles and main facts of our 
Science, but we must show them how the knowledge of those facts and principles 
has been gained; and they must be so drilled as to have complete command of their 
knowledge. The great majority will not be required to perform ordinary analyses, 
either qualitative or quantitative; it will be sufficient for them to have gained such 
an amount of practical experience that they thoroughly understand the principles 
of analysis ; that they shall have learnt to appreciate the sacredness of accuracy ; 
and that they shall have acquired sufficient manipulative skill to be able when 
occasion requires to carry into execution the analytical process which their text- 
‘books tell them is applicable, and even, if necessary, to modify the process to suit 
circumstances. 

Chemistry is no longer a purely descriptive science. The study of carbon 
compounds and Mendeljeff’s generalisation have produced a complete revolution ! 
‘The faults in our present system are precisely those which have characterised the 
teaching of geography and history, and which are now becoming so generally 
recognised and condemned ; in fact, no better statement of the manner in which I 
conceive chemistry should be taught could be given than by broadly applying to 
the teaching of chemistry what was said by Professor Seeley, at the International 
a ene on Education last year, in an important paper on the teaching of 

istory. 

The necessity for some change must, I venture to think, be patent to all thought- 


950 REPORT— 1885. 


ful teachers, and especially to those who are called upon to fulfil the painful duties of 
an examiner. The railway booli-stalls have made us acquainted with ‘Confessions ” 
of all sorts, but if the ‘ Confessions of an Examiner’ were to be written they would 
be far more heartrending than any. The examiner in chemistry, let him go where 
he will, scarcely dare ask a question to which the answer cannot be directly read 

out from a text-book. He will be told ‘that such and such a compound is formed 
by the action of so and so upon so and so,’ but he will usually find blank ignorance 

of the phrase ‘by the action of, and as to the mode of performing the operation. 

The examiner would, however, be bound to agree with the teacher that it is almost 

impossible to induce students to seek information outside the lecture-room, and 
except in the ordinary cram text-books, and that it is hopeless to expect them to 

devote attention to anything unless it will pay in a subsequent examination—in 

fact that the old university spirit of acquiring knowledge for its own sake is almost 

unknown among our science students. Herein lies one of the teacher’s most 

serious difficulties, as he is more often than not bound to teach in a particular way, 

or to teach certain subjects, in entire opposition to his own views, in order to quality 

his students to pass a particular examination: forexample, many of our colleges now 

distinctly state that their courses are intended to qualify students to pass the exami- 

nations of the London University, and hence they are governed by the requirements of 
that university, which vary more or less as the examiners are periodically changed. 

The examiner, on the other hand, is often placed in a difficult position: it is clear 

to him that the system under which the students he is called upon to examine have 

been taught is a bad one: yet he feels that he has no right to set questions such as 

he honestly believes should direct the teaching into proper channels, because he 

knows that the teacher is immovable, and it is not fair to make the examinees 

the victims of a system for which they are not responsible. Hence, perforce, the 
teacher goes on teaching badly and the examiner examining badly. Difficulties of 
this kind are bound to make themselves felt at a transition period like the present, 

and will only disappear if we recognise the grave responsibility which rests upon 

ourselves and improve our methods of teaching and our text-books : these latter, in 

too many instances, are unsuited to modern requirements, and are being made worse 

by stereotyping, and the practice which is gradually creeping in of merely changing 
the date on the title page and the numeral before the word ‘edition,’ thus en- 

gendering the belief that the information is given up to date. 

Both in teaching and examining two important changes ought forthwith to be 
made: our students ought at the very beginning of their career to become familiar 
with the use of the balance; and the imaginary distinction between so-called 
inorganic and organic compounds should be altogether abandoned. I do not mean 
that students should be taught quantitatiye analysis as ordinarily understood, but 
that instead of endeavouring to make clear to them by explanation only the 
meaning of terms such as equivalent, for example, we should set them to perform 
a few simple quantitative exercises in determining equivalents, &c. It can easily 
be done, and terms which otherwise long remain mythical acquire a real meaning 
in the student’s mind. That the elements of the chemistry of carbon compounds 
do not find a place at a very early period in the course of instruction is one of 
those riddles eonnected with our system which it is impossible to answer. Attention 
was once pithily directed to the fact in my hearing by a scientific friend—not a 
chemist—who said he had often felt astonished that, although he had learnt a good 
deal of chemistry, the chemistry of the breakfast-table was practically a sealed 
book to him, common salt being the one object of which he felt he knew something. 

I may here urge that there is one great error which we must avoid in the future, 
that of overworking our students, in the sense of obliging them to pay attention to 
too many subjects at atime. Thisis done more or less, I believe, in all our science 
schools, and medical students are peculiarly unfortunate in this respect. It is to 
some extent necessitated by the deficient preliminary education of our students; 
but I believe that I am justified in stating that it is also partly, perhaps mainly, 
due to the fact that the curriculum is too often imposed by lecturers who are 
directly interested in the attendance of students at their lectures. This is one of 
the great difficulties in the way of higher education, and the continuance of the 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 951 


evil is probably in a measure due to inappreciation of what constitutes higher 
education and culture: neither consist in a smattering of knowledge of a variety of 
subjects such as is too often required at present. 

The more general appreciation of the value of science undoubtedly depends to 
a considerable extent on improvements such as I have indicated being introduced. 
When such is the case, we may hope that a large number of students will enter our 
chemical schools, not with the intention of becoming chemists, but because it will 
be recognised that the training there given is of high educational value, and that 
a knowledge of chemistry is of distinct service in very many avocations. 

We may also hope that it will be possible ere long to teach chemistry properly 
to medical students. Seeing that the practice of medical men largely consists in 
pouring chemicals into that delicately organised vessel the human body, and 
that the chemical changes which thereupon take place, or which normally and 
abnormally occur in it, are certainly not more simple than those which take place 
in ordinary inert vessels in our laboratories, the necessity for the medical man to 
have a knowledge of chemistry—and that no slight one—would appear to ordinary 
minds to stand to reason; that such is not generally acknowledged to be the case 
can only be accounted for by the fact that they never yet have been taught chemistry, 
and that the apology for chemistry which has been forced upon them has been found 
to be of nextto no value. No proof is required that the student has ever performed 
a single quantitative exercise ; and I have no hesitation in saying that the examina- 
tions in so-called practical chemistry, even at the Londor University, are beneath 
contempt: after more than a dozen years’ experience as a teacher under the system, I 
can affirm that the knowledge gained is of no permanent value, and the educational 
discipline m7. Here the reform must be effected by the examining boards: it is 
for them to insist upon a satisfactory preliminary training, and they must so order 
their demands as to enforce a proper system of practical teaching ; and if chemistry is 
to be of real service to medical men more time must be devoted to its study. Physio- 
logical chemistry is taught nowhere in our country, either at the universities or at 
any of our great medical schools; let us hope that the publication cf works like 
those of Gamgee and Lauder Brunton may have some effect in calling attention to 
this grievous neglect of so important a subject. 

Having dealt with the educational aspect of the question, let me now briefly 
refer to some other difficulties which seriously hinder research. It has been more 
or less openly stated that the teachers in our chemical schools might themselves do 
far more. Is this the case? I do not think so; I believe it is not the staff, in most 
ceases, who are primarily in fault. Under our peculiar system of placing the governe 
ment of science schools in the hands of those who have little, if any, experience as 
educationalists and little knowledge of or sympathy with science, the appointments 
are sometimes made without the slightest reference to capability of inciting and con- 
ducting original investigation, and without any proof having been given even of a de- 
sire to promote higher education in the only possible way—by research; nevertheless, 
experience shows that, asa rule, fair use is made by teachers of their opportunities. 
The opportunities afforded us are indeed few. In the first place, the amount of actual 
routine teaching we are called upon to perform is very considerable, many of us having 
to conduct evening as well as day classes ; and the work is often of the most harassing 
description, owing to the want of interest displayed by the students. The assistance 
provided is also too often inadequate, and much which should be done by assistants 
is therefore thrown upon the principals. Higher work under these conditions is 
practically out of the question, not so much because it is impossible to snatch at 
intervals a few hours per week, but because the attention is so much taken up in 
the preparation of lectures and laboratory and tutorial teaching that it is impossible 
to secure that freedom of mind and concentrated attention which are essential to the 
successful prosecution of research. Bad, however, as is often the position of the 
principals, that of the junior staff is usually far worse. During official hours they 
are entirely occupied in tutorial work, and what little energy remains must more 
often than not be devoted to coaching or literary work, to supplement the too 
modest income which the salary attached to their official position affords. Under 
these circumstances, it is remarkable that so much enthusiasm should prevail among 


5 


952 REPORT—1885. 


them on the subject of research. The tradition which prevails in the German 
schools, that the junior staff are bound to find some time for original work, is 
almost unknown in this country, and too often difficulties are raised, rather than 
facilities afforded, when the desire is manifested: we do not, in fact, sufficiently 
honour the assistant as the potential professor. It has also often struck 
me as remarkable, and it must have struck others who understand the German 
system, that in this practical country we have not adopted that cheap luxury—the 
Privat-Docent, who costs nothing and exercises a most important function in pro- 
moting higher education. The explanation of this and many other anomalies les 
in the fact that very few among us realise what a university is: a clear exposition 
of the Scotch and German systems would be of great value in these days of new 
universities and university colleges. 

I believe that in most, if not all, of the German chemical schools a private 
research assistant is placed at the disposal of the professor. Will this ever be the 
case here? The want of material assistance is not only felt in this respect, how- 
ever: few of our chemical schools are really efficiently equipped ; most of them 
are seriously in want of larger and more expensive apparatus, of suitable speci- 
mens, &c.; the annual grant barely suffices for the purchase of the ordinary 
chemicals and the payment of unavoidable current expenses, so that, as a rule, 
nothing remains to meet the expenses of research work—i.e., of higher education. 
In point of fact, nearly all of those who are engaged in research are doing so 
at their own expense ; important assistance, for which we cannot be too thankful, 
is indeed received from the various research funds, but the proportion which 
the grants bear to the total sum expended is not large. I am sure we all re- 
cognise that each one of us is bound, according to his abilities and the opportunities 
he has, to add to the steck of knowledge, and that the keenest intellectual pleasure 
is derived therefrom ; but it must not be forgotten that the results we obtain are 
very rarely of immediate practical value, and that as a rule we reap no pecuniary 
advantage. I venture to think, in fact, that it is remarkable that so much, not 
that so little, is done, and that reproach rests very lightly upon the profession in 
this matter. Whether our national pride will prevent our being much longer 
beholden to foreigners for by far the greater number of new facts in chemistry is a 
difficult question to answer, and must rest with the public ! 

The occasions on which we teachers of science subjects are able to bear witness 
in public are of necessity few. Deeply sensible, not only of the honour, but also 
of the responsibility of my position as President of this Section, I felt that it was my 
duty to avail myself of this opportunity. Being a teacher who is interested in 
teaching ; being convinced of the existence of most serious faults in our educa- 
tional system ; feeling that the present is a most critical period: I have not hesitated 
to speak very freely. Some of the difficulties to which I have referred might soon 
disappear if science teachers generally would agree to consider them together, and 
I believe that it would be a very great advantage if an association for the discus- 
sion of educational questions were formed of the staffs of our science colleges 
throughout the country. The special difficulties which surround our science col- 
lezes, and prevent them from exercising their full share of influence upon the 
advancement of our national prosperity might also be removed at no distant date; 
but I see only one way of accomplishing this, and I fear it will hardly find favour: 
it is by their all becoming vested in the State. In this country we like to do 
things in our own way, and the objection will at once be raised that this would 
deprive all the colleges of their individuality, and would tend to crush originality 
and to stereotype teaching. If I thought so, I should never make the suggestion. 
But it would not, provided that complete academic freedom were secured to the 
staff, and each college were left to adjust itself to local requirements; efficiency 
would be maintained by the competition of the various colleges. Local enterprise, 
which has hitherto been trusted to, is clearly breaking down under the tremendous 
strain of modern educational requirements: some change must ere long be made. 


I now pass to the consideration of a subject of special interest in this Section, 
which I think requires the immediate earnest attention of chemists and physicists 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 953 


aombined—that of Chemical Action. In his Presidential Address to the Associa- 
tion last year, Professor Lord Rayleigh made only a brief reference to chemistry, 
but many of us wust have felt that his few remarks were pregnant with meaning, 
-especially his reference to the importance of the principle of the dissipation of 
energy in relation to chemical change. A year’s reflection has led me to think 
“them of peculiar weightiness and full of prophecy. I would especially draw 
attention to the closing paragraph of this portion of his address: ‘From the 
further study of electrolysis we may expect to gain improved views as to the nature 
of the chemical reactions, and of the forces concerned in bringing them about. 
I am not qualified—I wish I were—to speak to you on recent progress in general 
chemistry. Perhaps my feelings towards a first love may blind me, but I cannot 
help thinking that the next great advance, of which we have already some fore- 
shadowing, will come on this side. And if I might, without presumption, venture 
a word of recommendation, it would be in favour of a more minute study of the 
‘simpler chemical phenomena.’ 

Chemical action may be defined as being any action of which the consequence 
is an alteration in molecular constitution or composition; the action may concern 
molecules which are of only one kind—cases of mere decomposition, of isomeric 
change and of polymerisation ; or it may take place between dissimilar molecules— 
cases of combination and of interchange. Hitherto it appears to have been com- 
monly assumed and almost universally taught by chemists that action takes place 
‘directly between A and B, producing AB, or between AB and CD, producing 
AC and BD, for example. This, at all events, is the impression which the ordi- 
nary average student gains. Our text-books do not, in fact, as a rule, deign to 
notice observations of such fundamental importance as those of De La Rive on the 
‘behaviour of nearly pure zine with dilute sulphuzic acid, or the later ones of 
Faraday (‘ Exp, Researches,’ Series vii., 1834, 863 e¢ seg.) on the insolubility of 
-amalgamated zinc in this acid. Belief in the equation Zn+H,SO,=H, + ZnSO, 
hence becomes a part of the chemist’s creed, and it is generally interpreted to mean 
‘that zinc will dissolve in sulphuric acid, forming zine sulphate, not, as should be 
the case, that when zinc dissolves in sulphuric acid, zinc sulphate, &c., are produced. 
In studying the chemistry of carbon compounds, we become acquainted with a 
Jarge number of instances in which a more or less minute quantity of a substance is 
capable of inducing change in the body or bodies with which it is associated with- 
‘out apparently itself being altered. The polymerisation of a number of cyanogen 
‘compounds and of aldehydes, the ‘condensation’ of ketonic compounds and the 
hydrolysis of carbohydrates are cases in point; but so little has been done to 
ascertain the nature of the influence of the contact-substance, or catalyst, as I 
‘would term it, the main object in view being the study of the product of the 
reaction, that the importance of the catalyst is not duly appreciated. Recent 
discoveries, however—more particularly Mr. H. B. Dixon’s invaluable investigation 
on conditions of chemical change in gases, and the experiments of Mr. Cowper with 
-chlorine and various metals, and of Mr. Baker on the combustion of carbon and 
‘phosphorus—must have given a rude shock, from which it can never recover, to the 

elief in the assumed simplicity of chemical change. The inference which I think 
may fairly be drawn from Mr. Baker’s observations—that pure carbon and phos- 
phorus are incombustible in pure oxygen—is indeed startling, and his experiments 
“must do much to favour that ‘more minute study of the simpler chemical phenomena’ 
~so pertinently advocated by Lord Rayleigh. 

But if it be a logical conclusion from the cases now known to us, that chemical 
action is not possible between any two substances other than elementary atoms, 
and that the presence of a third is necessary, what is the function of the third body 
-—the eatalyst, and what must be its character with reference to one or both of the 
‘two primary agents? In the discussion which took place at the Chemical Society 
-after the reading of Mr. Baker’s paper, I ventured to define chemical action as 
reversed electrolysis, stating that in any case in which chemical action was to take 
place it was essential that the system operated upon should contain a material of 

the nature of an electrolyte (‘ Chem. Soc. Proc.’ 1885, p. 40). In short, I believe 
that the conditions which obtain in any voltaic element are those which must be 


5 


954 REPORT—1885. 


fulfilled in every case of chemical action. There is nothing new in this; in fact, 
it practically was stated by Faraday in 1834 (‘ Experimental Researches in 
Electricity,’ Series vii. §§ 858, 8591); and had due heed been given to Fara- 
day’s teachings we should scarcely now be so ignorant as we are of the conditions 
of chemical change. 

The questions— What is Electrolysis ? What is an Electrotyte? are all-important 
to the chemist, if my contention be accepted. Moreover, the consideration of 
chemical action from this point of view almost of necessity obliges us also to con- 
sider what it is that constitutes chemical affinity. I will not presume to offer any 
opinion on this subject ; but I would recall attention to the prominence which so- 
great an authority as Helmholtz gave in the Jast Faraday Lecture (‘Chem. Soe. 
Trans.,’ 1881, 277) to the view held by Faraday, and which is so definitely stated 
in a passage in his ‘ Experimental Researches ’” (Series viii. 918, also 850 and 869), 

Helmholtz used the words: ‘I think the facts leave no doubt that the very 
mightiest among the chemical forces are of electric origin. The atoms cling to 
their electric charges, and opposite electric charges cling to each other; but I do: 
not suppose that other molecular forces are excluded, working directly from atom 
to atom.’ In the passages which immediately follow, this physicist then makes. 
several statements of extreme importance, which directly bear upon the subject L 
desire to discuss, and which, therefore, I quote.® 


1 «Those bodies which, being interposed between the metals of the voltaic pile, 
render it active, wre all of them electrolytes, and it cannot but press upon the atten- 
tion of everyone engaged in considering this subject, that in those bodies (so 
essential to the pile) decomposition and the transmission of a current are so 
intimately connected that one cannot happen without the other. If, then, a voltaic 
trough have its extremities connected by a body capable of being decomposed, as. 
water, we shall have a continuous current through the apparatus; and whilst it 
remains in this state we may look at the part where the acid is acting upon the 
plates and that where the current is acting upon the water as the reciprocals of 
each other. In both parts we have the two conditions, inseparable in such bodies as 
these, namely, the passing of a current and decomposition ; and this is as true of the 
cells in the battery as of the water-cell; for no voltaic battery has as yet been con- 
structed in which the chemical action is only that of combination: decomposition is- 
always included, and is, I believe, an essential chemical part. 

‘But the difference in the two parts of the connected battery—that is, the decom- 
position or experimental cell and the acting cells—is simply this: in the former we: 
urge the current through, but it, apparently of necessity, is accompanied by decom- 
position ; in the latter we cause decompositions by ordinary chemical actions (which 
are, honever, themselves electrical), and, as a consequence, have the electrical current ;. 
and as the decomposition dependent upon the current is definite in the former case, 
so is the current associated with the decomposition also definite in the latter.’ 

* «All the facts show us that that power commonly called chemical affinity can 
be communicated to a distance through the metalsand certain forms of carbon ; that 
the electric current is only another form of the forces of chemical affinity ; that its 
power is in proportion to the chemical affinities producing it; that when it is 
deficient in force it may be helped by calling in chemical aid, the want in the former 
being made up by an equivalent of the latter ; that, in other words, the forces termed 
chemical affinity and electricity are one and the same, 

’ «Several of our leading chemists have lately begun to distinguish two classes of 
compounds—viz., molecular aggregates and typical compounds, the latter being united 
by atomic affinities, the former not. Electrolytes belong to the latter class. If we- 
conclude from the facts that every unit of affinity is charged with one equivalent 
either of positive or of negative electricity, they can form compounds, being elec- 
trically neutral, only if every unit charged positively unites under the influence of a 
mighty electric attraction with another unit charged negatively. You see that this: 
ought to produce compounds in which every unit of affinity of every atom is con- 
nected with one, and only one, other unit of another atom. This, as you will see- 
immediately, is the modern chemical theory of quantivalence, comprising all the 
saturated compounds. The fact that even elementary substances, with few excep- 
tions, have molecules composed of two atoms makes it probable that even in these- 
cases electric neutralisation is produced by the combination of two atoms, each 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 955- 


The interpretation of Faraday’s law of electrolysis, which Helmholtz has 
brought under the notice of chemists, is of the most definite and far-reaching 
character. Does it, however, at all events in the form in which he has put it 
forward, accord sufficientiy with the facts as these present themselves to the 
chemist’s mind? All will recognise that the chemical changes effected by a 
current in a series of electrolytic cells are equivalent to those which take 
place within the voltaic cells wherein the current is generated; but in neither 
case is the action of a simple character: in both a variety of chemical changes. 
takes place, the precise character of which is but imperfectly understood, and 
we are unable to assign numerical values, either in terms of heat or electrical 
units, to most of the separate changes. Moreover, many compounds are not 
electrolytes, while others which are regarded by the chemist as their analogues 
are very readily decomposed by a current of low E.M.F., although no great 
difference is to be observed in their ‘ heats of formation ;’ liquid hydrogen chloride 
on the one hand, and fused silver chloride on the other, may he cited as examples. 
Again, how are we to interpret on this theory such changes as that involved 
in the conversion of stannic into stannous chloride? The former, I suppose, is to 
be regarded as consisting of an atom of quadrivalent tin charged with four units of, 
say, positive electricity, and of four atoms of univalent chlorine, each carrying a unit 
charge of negative electricity; on withdrawal of two of the chlorine atoms, the 

_ residual SnCl, will have two free unit charges of positive electricity. We know 
that when the temperature is sufficiently lowered two such residues unite, forming 
Sn,Cl,, and it is not improbable that crystalline stannous chloride represents a still 
later stage of condensation. Is this compatible with the theory? That cases of 
this kind are contemplated would appear from the reference to ‘ unsaturated com- 
pounds with an even number of unconnected units of affinity,’ which we are told may 
be charged with equal equivalents of opposite electricity ; and also from the allusion 
to the existence of molecules of elementary substances composed of two atoms. It 
is more than probable that these anomalies would disappear on fuller statement of 
his views by the author of the theory: I have ventured to call attention to them in 
the hope of eliciting such statement. 

Helmholtz tells us that electrolytes belong to the ciass of typical compounds, 
the constituents of which are united by ‘atomic affinities,’ not to the class of 


charged with its full electric equivalent, not by neutralisation of every single unit 
of affinity. Unsaturated compounds with an even number of unconnected units of 
affinity offer no objection to such an hypothesis: they may be charged with equal 
equivalents of opposite electricity. Unsaturated compounds with one unconnected 
unit, existing only at high temperatures, may be explained as dissociated by intense 
molecular motion of heat, in spite of their electric attractions But there remains 
one single instance of a compound which, according to the iaw of Avogadro, must 
be considered as unsaturated even at the lowest temperature—namely, nitric oxide 
(NO), a substance offering several very uncommon peculiarities, the behaviour of 
which will be perhaps explained by future researches.’ The popular mistake is here 
made of assuming that elementary substances, with few exceptions, have molecules 
composed of two atoms. We now know considerably over seventy elements, but of 
these the molecular weights in the gaseous state of only thirteen have been satis- 
factorily determined. The gaseous elements hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and chlo- 
rine, and also bromine, iodine and tellurium, have diatomic molecules ; phosphorus 
and arsenic have tetratomic molecules; those of sulphur are hexatomic, and selenium 
molecules are probably of similar constitution, but more readily broken down than 
those of sulphur; lastly, cadmium and mercury molecules are monatomic. It is more 
than probable that carbon, and also silicon and boron form highly complex molecules. 
‘Of the remaining undetermined elements, the greater number are metals, and it is. 
not unreasonable to assume that many of these will be found to resemble cadmium 
and mercury in molecular composition. It is clear, however, that at present we have. 
no right to say that the elementary molecules are, as a rule, diatomic. It would assist 
in removing this error if chemists would consistently place after the symbol the 
numeral indicating the ‘atomicity’ of the elementary molecule—thus, Hg,, Cd,, O,; 
and if in all cases when a numeral is absent, or is placed before the symbol, it were 
understood that advisedly no indication of the molecular state is afforded. 


5 


956 REPORT—1885. 


“molecular aggregates.’ Is this the fact? Before chemists can accept this con- 
clusion many difficulties must be removed which appear to surround the question. 
In the first place, it is in the highest degree remarkable that, with the one single 
exception of Liquefied ammonia, no known binary hydride is in the liquid state an 
electrolyte: liquid hydrogen chloride, bromide and iodide, for example, with- 
standing an E.M.F. of over 8,000 volts (8,040 De La Rue cells: Bleekrode). Water, 
again, according to Kohlrausch’s most recent determinations, has an almost infinite 
resistance. Yet a mixture of hydrogen chloride and water readily conducts, and is 
electrolysed ; an aqueous solution of sulphuric acid behaves similarly, although the 
acid itself has a very high resistance.! Very many similar examples might be 
quoted, but it is well known that aqueous solutions generally conduct more or less 
perfectly, and are electrolysed.” 

The current belief among physicists would appear to be that the dissolved 
electrolyte—the acid or the salt—is almost exclusively primarily decomposed 
(Wiedemann, ‘ Elektricitit, 1883, ii, 924). We are commonly told that sulphuric 
acid is added to water to make it conduct, but the chemist desires to know why 
the solution becomes conducting. It may be that in all cases the ‘ typical compound’ 
is the actual electrolyte—z.e. the body decomposed by the electric current—but the 
action only takes place when the typical compounds are conjoined and form the 
molecular aggregate, for it is an undoubted fact that HCl and H,SO, dissolve in 
water, forming ‘hydrates.’ This production of an ‘electrolytical system’ from 
dielectrics is, I venture to think, the important question for chemists to consider. 
I do not believe that we shall be able to state the exact conditions under which 
chemical change will take place until a satisfactory solution has been found. 

F. Kohlrausch (‘ Pogg. Ann.’ 1876, 159, 233) has shown that, on adding sul- 
phuric acid to water, the electric conductivity increases very rapidly until when 
about 30 per cent. of acid is present a maximum (6,914) is attained; conductivity 
then diminishes almost as rapidly, and a minimum (913) is reached when the con- 
centration corresponds with that of a monohydrate (H,SO,,0H,); from this point 
conductivity increases somewhat (to 1,031 at 9271 per cent. H,SO,), and then again 
falls, and is probably zero for the pure acid; on adding sulphuric anhydride to the 
acid conductivity again increases. Solutions of other acids and of a number of 
salts—chiefly deliquescent and very soluble salts—also exhibit maximum con- 
ductivity at particular degrees of concentration. In no other case has the existence 
of two maxima, such as are observed in solutions of sulphuric acid, been established ; 
but probably this is because the experiments either have not been, or cannot well 
be, carried out with pure substances or very concentrated solutions. Solutions of 
less soluble salts increase in conductivity as the amount of salt dissolved increases. 

Kohlrausch has suggested, as an explanation of the influence of the ‘ solvent’ on 
the conductivity of an ‘electrolyte,’ that in a solution the ions which are being 
transferred electrolytically come less frequently into collision than would be the case 
in the pure substance. There is therefore less opportunity for the formation of new 
molecules, and the ions are able to travel farther before entering into combination. 

Regarding the question from a chemist’s point of view, however, I cannot help 
thinking that this explanation is scarcely satisfactory or sufficient ; and I cannot 


It is more than probable that the most nearly pure sulphuric acid which can be 
obtained is not homogeneous, but is at least a mixture of H,SO,,H,S,0, and 
‘hydrated compounds’ in proportions depending on the temperature, and hence that 
{pure) sulphuric acid, H,SO,, like water, would behave as a dielectric. 

* On the other hand, it is remarkable that, whereas liquified ammonia may be 
electrolysed, an aqueous solution of ammonia is a most imperfect conductor (Faraday, 
F. Kohlrausch), although solutions of ammonium salts compare favourably in con- 
‘ductivity with corresponding sodium and potassium salts. This fact serves somewhat 
to allay the suspicion that Bleekrode did not take sufficient precautions to dry the 
ammonia; but his result cannot, I think, be accepted as final, on account of the 
relatively high E.M.F. required, and the repetition of the experiment with every 
precaution to ensure purity of the gas is most important. Faraday regarded the 
decomposition of ammonia on electrolysis of its solution as merely the result of 
secondary action. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 957 


resist the feeling that the production of electrolytically conducting solutions from 
dielectrics is in some manner dependent upon the occurrence of chemical change. 
If the composition of the solutions of maximum conductivity be calculated,’ it will 
be seen that they contain but a limited number of water molecules; thus the solu- 
tion of sulphuric acid of maximum conductivity (at 18°) contains 30°4 per cent. 
of acid, and therefore has the composition H,SO, : 12-4 H,O (approximately) ; for 
nitric acid the ratio is 1:8; for acetic acid it isabout 1:17. Now, it is highly 
remarkable that the solutions of maximum electric conductivity are also very 
nearly those in the formation of which nearly the maximum amount of heat is 
developed ; this will at once be obvious on comparison of the curves given by 
Thomsen (‘Thermochemische Untersuchungen’ vol. iii.), and by Kohlrausch. In 
the chemist’s experience, the point of maximum heat development is usually near 
to the point of maximum chemical change, and I think, therefore, that we are 
justified in concluding that, even if electrical conductivity be not a maximum at a 
particular concentration on account of the presence of a particular hydrate (belong- 
ing to the class of molecular aggregates) in maximum amount, at all events the 
‘structure’ of the system is especially favourable, and the ‘ chemical influence’ 
exerted by the one set of molecules upon the other is at a maximum at the point 
of maximum conductivity. The fact that the amount of sulphuric acid required 
to form a solution of maximum conductivity increases with temperature— 
Temp. SP Heyer) ayes vt Fomerpat grab os Her ol 609 «+ 708 
Percent. 30:2 309 317 325 335 341 345 35:4 


and also the fact that the maxima and minima of conductivity tend to become 
obliterated with rise of temperature (Kohlrausch), are both in accordance with the 
view that conductivity is in some way dependent upon chemical composition, as 
the effect of rise of temperature would be to cause the dissociation of hydrates 
such as I have referred to. The increase in conductivity of aqueous solutions with 
rise of temperature would appear to be against the view here put forward ; but it 
is probable that this may be largely due to diminution in viscosity and increase in 
the rate of diffusion. 

Our knowledge of the binary metallic compounds, which are generally admitted 
to be electrolytes per se, also affords evidence, I think, of an intimate relation 
between chemical constitution and ‘electrolysability.’ It has been pointed out 
(comp. L. Meyer, ‘ Theorien d. mod. Chemie,’ 4th ed. p. 554) that, whereas all the 
metallic chlorides and analogous compounds which cannot be electrolysed are easily- 
volatile bodies, the electrolysable metallic chlorides, &c., are fusible only at high 
temperatures. A careful discussion of the various known cases does not, however, 
justify the conclusion that decomposition takes place, or not, according as the tem- 
perature at which the body assumes the liquid state—and at which, therefore, there 
is full opportunity given for electrolysis to take place—is high or low, especially as 
recent observations show that electrolysis may take place prior to fusion. But it is 
especially noteworthy that many of the chlorides, &c. which are electrolytes un- 
doubtedly contain more than a single atom of metal in their molecules; indeed, 
after careful consideration of the evidence, I am inclined to go so far as to put for- 
ward the hypothesis that among metallic compounds only those are electrolytes 
which contain more than a single atom of metal in their molecules. No difficulty 


Percentage Composition in 
1 Formula Formula weight | in solution of |approximate mol.| Conductivity 
max. cond. ratios 
HNO, 63 29°7 deg as, 7330 
HO 36-4 18°3 eo 7174 
H,S0, 98 30°4 1: 124 6914 
H,PO, 98 46°8 26 1962 
C,H,0, 60 16°6 dL eolyy 152 
KOH 56 28-1 aL ats) 5995 
NaOH 40 15:2 dR pt 3276 


958 REPORT—1885. 


will be felt in granting this of cuprous and stannous chlorides, and even of 
cadmium, lead, silver and zine chlorides; but opinions will differ as regards the 
metals of the alkalies and alkaline earths. Assuming the constitution of metallic 
electrolytes to be such as I have suggested, it is not improbable that on electrolysis 
a part only of the metal is determined to the one pole, the remainder being trans- 
ferred alone with the negative radical to the opposite pole. Hittorf, indeed, has 
already put forward this view in explanation of the remarkable results he obtained 
on determining the extent of transfer of the ions in aqueous and alcoholic solutions 
of the chloride and iodide of cadmium and zinc. 

Again, an argument in favour of a connexion between chemical constitution 
and electrical conductivity is the fact that carbon, sulphur, selenium and phos- 
phorus each exist in conducting and non-conducting modifications, as it can 
scarcely be doubted that the so-called allotropic modifications of these elements 
are differently constituted. 

It appears, as I have already said, to be the current belief that when aqueous 
solutions are submitted to electrolysis, as a rule, the dissolved substance, aud not the 
water, is the actual electrolyte. Without reference to the question I have raised as 
to the constitution of an electrolyte, it appears at least doubtful whether this view 
can be justified by appeal to known facts; at all events, I have failed to find satis- 
factory evidence that such is the case. Moreover, as sulphuric anhydride dissolves 
in water with considerable development of heat, it would appear that more work 
has to be done to separate hydrogen from sulphuric acid than to separate it from 
water; on this account we might expect that the water rather than the acid would 
be decomposed. Are not perhaps both affected according to the proportions in 
which they are present? The marked variation in the extent to which the negative 
ion is transferred to the positive pole, as observed by Hittorf, when solutions of 
different degrees of concentration are electrolysed, would appear to support this 
view. The difference in the products, according as dilute or very concentrated 
solutions of sulphuric acid are used, may also be cited as an argument that the 
chemical changes effected vary with the concentration; but, on the other hand, it 
is quite possible that the observed differences may result from the occurrence of 
purely secondary changes. Ostwald has recently put forward the view that one or 
more of the hydrogen atoms of certain acids are split off according to the concen- 
tration of the solution. 

I call attention to this because I conceive that it has a most important bearing 
on the discussion of the nature of the chemical changes which occur during the 
dissolution of metals. Formerly it was said that, when zinc acts upon dilute sul- 
phuric acid, the zine displaces the hydrogen of the water and the resulting zinc oxide 
dissolves in the acid, forming zinc sulphate ; the modern explanation advocated by 
most chemists has been that the metal directly displaces the hydrogen of the’acid: in 
fact, that this is the nature of the change whenever an acid is acted upon by « metal. 
Tf in a solution of sulphuric acid, of whatever strength, the acid be the actual elec- 
trolyte, I imagine that we are right in accepting this modern view ; but if the water 
be the electrolyte, we must, to be consistent, return to the view that the oxide—more 
probably in most cases the hydroxide—is the primary product. And if it can be 


1 We may regard.as evidence in support of this explanation the fact that neither 
beryllium chloride, which fuses at 600°, nor mercuric chloride, is an electrolyte, as 
both of these, at temperatures not far removed from their boiling-points, exhibit the 
simplest possible molecular composition. It should be pointed out, however, that 
Nilson and Patterson found it possible to determine the density of beryllium chloride 
gas at a temperature 100°-150° below the melting-point found by Carnelly; but they 
were not able to say that fusion took place. Clarke’s recent interesting observations 
on mercuric chloride and iodide do not, I think, suffice to prove that these com- 
pounds are electrolytes; it is more than probable that electrolysis is preceded by 
the formation of mercurous compounds. Even an aqueous solution of mercuric 
chloride does not conduct appreciably better than water (Buff). I should perhaps 
add that the mere presence of more than a single atom of metal in the molecule 
does not, I believe, alone constitute the compound an electrolyte; much depends 
probably both on the nature of the metal and on the structure of the molecule. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 959 


shown that during electrolysis both water and acid, according to cireumstances— 
concentration, KH. M. F., &c.—undergo change, it will be necessary to teach that in 
a similar manner the action of metals on acids is no less complex. Our views on 
the action of metals on concentrated sulphuric acid and on solutions of nitric acid 
-of various strength must also materially depend on the interpretation of the beha- 
viour of these acids on electrolysis with varying electromotive forces. 

Having thus fully explained why I venture to think that Helmholtz’s definition 
‘that ‘electrolytes belong to the class of typical compounds, not to that of molecular 
aggregates,’ is somewhat open to question, it now becomes necessary to make some 
slight reference to the constitution of these so-called molecular aggregates. 
Although opinions differ widely as to the definition to be given of a typical or 
atomic compound, and of a molecular compound or aggregate, the majority of 
chemists appear to agree that we must recognise the existence of two distinct 
classes of compounds. Professor Williamson, in his address to this Section at the 
York meeting (1881), entered at length into the discussion of this question, and in 
very forcible terms objected to the recognition of molecular combination as some- 
thing different from atomic combinations; in this I, in the main, agree most fully 
with him. He further said that he had been led to doubt whether we have any 
grounds for assigning any limits whatever to atomic values, and he adduced a 
number of cases which, in his opinion, afforded illustration of a capability of 
elements to assume greater atomic values by combining with both negative and 
positive atoms than with atoms of one kind only; for example, he cited the com- 
‘pounds K,CuCl, and K,HgCl, as proof that copper and mercury may assume 
hexad functions ; the compound K,Agl, as an illustration that silver may act as 
a pentad; and the compounds KAsF, and K,AsF, were regarded by him as 
-evidence of the heptadicity and nonadicity of arsenic. 

I have long been of opinion that the experimental investigation of this question 
is of great importance, and I believe that it must ere long attract the attention it 
-deserves. The problem will be solved, not by discussions on the fertile theme of 
valency, but by determining the structure—the constitution—of bodies such as 
were referred to by Professor Williamson. 

My own view on the question is a very decided one. So far as the mere defi- 
‘nition of valency is concerned, I entirely agree with Lossen; and, as I have said, T 
hold with Prof. Williamson that in all compounds the constituents are held together 
‘by atomic affinities, and atomic affinities only, but I believe that the formation of 
so-called molecular compounds is mainly due to peculiarities inherent more especi- 
-ally in the negative elements—.e., the non-metals and metalloids, and not in the 
positive elements—the metals; in other words, to the fact that, as was first pointed 
-out, I believe, by Lothar Meyer, the negative elements tend to exhibit a higher 
valency towards each other than towards positive elements. The view I take, then, 
is, that in the majority of so-called molecular compounds the parent molecules are 
preserved intact in the sense in which a hydrocarbon radical, such as ethyl, is pre- 
-seryed intact in an ethyl compound, being held together by the ‘ surplus affinity ’ of 
‘the negative elements. Thus I would represent the compounds K,CuCl, and 
K,HgCl, as containing copper and mercury of the same valency as the metal in 
‘the parent chloride, and regard them as compounds of the radicals (CuCl,), 
(HgCl,) and (KCl) ; a view which may be expressed by the formule 


Cl. ClK Cl. ClK 
Cac | Clk He C1 | OK 
"The arsenic compounds referred to may be similarly represented 


F.FK 
F.FK 


We do not hesitate to attribute to the so-called double cyanides this order of 
structure, without in any way supposing that the metal changes in valency. Evi- 
dence that the ‘constituent radicals exist unchanged in molecular compounds’ is 
afforded by facts such as that ferrous and potassium chlorides, for example, form a 


F,AsF . FK F,As 


_ compound which obviously is still ferrous, being of a green colour, which would 


960 REPORT—1885. 


hardly be the case if the valency of the iron were increased ; and that in like manner 
the compounds formed from stannous chloride manifest all the properties of 
stannous derivatives. 

Whatever be the nature of chemical affinity, it is difficult to resist the conclusion 
that the ‘charge’ of a negative radical especially is rarely, if ever, given up all at 
once ; that its affinity is at once exhausted. It would also appear that the amount 
of residual charge—of surplus affinity—possessed by a radical after combination 
with others depends both on its own nature and that of the radical or radicals 
with which it becomes associated. Differences such as are observed in the com- 
position and stability of the hydrates of the salts of an acid—the sulphates, for- 
example—clearly point to this. Other illustrations are afforded by the manner in 
which chlorhydric acid yields chlorhydrates of some metals and chlorides of others.! 

It is noteworthy, however, that often those elements which from the ordinary 
point of view are regarded as possessed of feeble affinities are those which manifest 
the greatest tendency to form molecular compounds. Thus, it is commonly held’ 
that, of the three elements, chlorine, bromine and iodine, chlorine has the highest 
and iodine the lowest affinity, and this view accords well with the recent observa- 
tions of V. Meyer on the relative stability of their diatomic molecules at high 
temperatures ; but nevertheless we find that the compound which HI forms with 
PH, is far more stable than that of HBr or HCl with this gas; and it is well 
known that mercuric todide has a much greater affinity for other iodides than have: 
mercuric bromide and chloride for the corresponding bromides and chlorides.” 

The recognition of the peculiarity in the negative elements to which I would 
attribute the formation of molecular compounds must, I think, exercise an important 
influence in stimulating and directing the investigation of these compounds and of 
compounds other than those of carbon; in the near future the determination of 
the structure of such compounds should occupy an important share of the chemist’s 
attention. It will perhaps afford a clue in not a few cases which are not altogether 
satisfactorily interpreted in accordance with the popular view of valency. I may 
instance the formation of (?) polymeric metaphosphates, of complex series of silicates 
and tungstates, and of compounds of hydrocarbons with trinitrophenol. It may 
even serve to explain some of the peculiarities of the more complex carbohydrates. 

It is one of the most clearly established of the ‘laws of substitution’ in 
carbon compounds that negative radicals tend to accumulate: numerous instances: 
are afforded by the behaviour of paraftinoid compounds with chlorine, bromine and 
oxidising agents, and by that of unsaturated paraftinoid compounds when combining 
with hydrogen bromide and iodide. The special affinity of negative elements for 
negative is not improbably the cause of this accumulation. A similar explanation 
may perhaps be given of some of the peculiarities which are manifested by 
benzenoid compounds. ‘ 

I would even venture to suggest that in electrolysing solutions the friction 
arising from the attraction of the ions for each other is perhaps diminished, not by 


' The name chlorhydric acid is here applied to the compound HC1(OH,)x—pro- 
bably x = 1—which, according to Thomsen, is present in an aqueous solution of hy- 
drogen chloride. It would be an advantage if we ceased to speak of HF, HCl, HBr, 
HI, as acids, and always termed them hydrogen fluoride, chloride, bromide and iodide 
respectively. The names hydric chloride, bromide, &c., might with equal advantage 
be altogether abandoned ; hydrochloric acid is objectionable, as suggesting a relation 
to chloric acid. The names fluor-, chlor-, brom- and iodhydric, as applied to the 
acids present in aqueous solutions of the hydrides, are especially appropriate as indi- 
cating that they are compounds containing the radical water—that they are hydrates : 
indeed, it would be well to restrict the use of hydric and hydro- to bodies of this 
kind, and to speak of hydrides as hydri-, not as hydro-, derivatives. It would then 
be possible to give comparatively simple names even to complex hydrates. 

* Thomsen gives the values in heat units as— 


HgCl,,2KClAq = ~—1380 
HgBr,,2KBrAq = 1640 
Hgl,,2KIAq = 3450 


HgCy,,2KCyAq= 8830 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 961 


> ee ae 


‘the mere mechanical interposition of the neutral molecules of the sclyent—in the 
manner suggested by Kohlrausch—but by the actual attraction exercised by these 
molecules upon the negative ion in virtue of the affinities of the negative radicals. 

One result of increased attention being paid to the investigation of problems 
such as I have indicated will probably be that we shall be called upon to 
abandon some even of our most cherished notions. I would suggest, for 
example, that it may become necessary to regard nitrogen peroxide not as 
a mixed anhydride of nitrous and nitric acids, but as a compound of two 
NO, groups; its conversion into nitrite and nitrate affords no proof of its 
constitution, as chlorine peroxide, ClO,, which exhibits no tendency whatever 
to combine with itself, also yields both chlorite and chlorate. A greater 
shock may result from a conviction arising that not only carbon dioxide, 
but sulphur dioxide, and perhaps even sulphur trioxide, dissolve in water, forming 
hydrates—SO,OH,, SO,,OH,—not hydroxides. In recent times, in discussing 
questions of this kind we have perhaps often been led to attach too much import- 
ance to the argument from analogy; it is not improbable that, especially in the 
case of compounds other than those of carbon, chemical change involves change in 
structure more frequently than we are apt to believe. 

It is possible that a precise estimate of what, for want of a better name, I have 
spoken of as residual affinity, may sooner or later be obtained, if the view Professor 
Lodge has propounded in his paper ‘ On the Seat of the Electromotive Forces in a 
Voltaic Cell’ be correct, that the cause of the volta effect is the tendency to chemical 
action between the bodies in contact ; that, for example, chemical strain at the air- 
contacts is the real cause of the apparent contact-force at the junction of two metals 
inair, Professor Lodge, if I understand his argument, appears to assume that the 
air effects are insome way dependent on the presence of ‘ dissociated oxygen atoms.’ 
I think this is probably an entirely unnecessary assumption; of late years, no 
doubt, it has been the fashion to attribute the occurrence of changes of various 
kinds to the presence of products of dissociation, but probably to a very un- 
necessary extent. Recent investigations to which I have alluded show that there 
are other factors of extreme importance: for example, that water must be present 
in order to render a mixture of carbonic oxide and oxygen explosive. Again, the 
observations of V, Meyer and Langer have shown that, whereas chlorine violently 
attacks platinum at low temperatures, it is without action upon it at temperatures be- 
tween about 300° and 1,300°, but then again begins to act upon it, the action becoming 
violent at 1,600° to 1,700°. I have little doubt that the action at low temperatures 
is dependent upon the presence of moisture ; if it were due to dissociated chlorine 
atoms, the action should increase with rise of temperature without break. In 
short, I see no reason to assume that oxygen at ordinary temperatures consists of 
other than diatomic molecules.!_ Assuming Professor Lodge's view to be correct, the 
strain exists in virtue of the attraction which the oxygen molecules exert upon the 
metal molecules. On this assumption, I can well understand that the method 
of calculation followed by Professor Lodge will not uniformly lead to satisfactory 
results. The ‘heat of combination’ is not necessarily a measure of ‘ affinity.’ The 
values are in all cases algebraic sums of a series of values, scarcely one of 
which is known, and, as I have already pointed out, the affinities of the 
molecules are by no means always of the same order as the affinities of the con- 
stituent atoms: for example, in all probability, oxygen-stuff has a higher abso- 
Jute affinity than sulphur-stuff; chlorine-stuff a higher absolute affinity than iodine- 
stuff, yet iodine and sulphur compounds, more often than not, seem to exhibit more 
residual affinity than chlorine and oxygen compounds. So that, from Professor 
_Lodge’s point of view, chlorine would have the higher and iodine the lower contact 
values ; whereas, from my point of view the reverse might often be the case. I 
point this out because it appears to me that we here have an opportunity of testing 
the question experimentally, and seeing that it is possible practically to prevent 
chlorine from attacking metals by excluding moisture, I do not take the hopeless 


' } This conclusion would also lead me to disbelieve entirely in the explanation. 
_ which Clausius has given of electrolysis. 


1885. 3Q 


, 
~ 
5 
- 


962 REPORT—1885. 


view that Professor Lodge and others seem to hold regarding the possibility of 
settling the important question of pure contact vesws chemical action by appeal to 
experiment. I may also point out that according to my hypothesis it is possible 
that the metals may.exert a considerable attraction for each other, especially those 
having monatomic molecules: + many alloys are undoubtedly compounds ; possibly 
not a few are compounds of the ‘molecular aggregate ’ class.” 

To return now for but a few moments to the subject of chemical change and its: 
intimate connexion with electrical phenomena. One application I would make of 
the views here put forward would he to explain the superior activity of bodies in 
the nascent state, and in particular of nascent-hydrogen. Briefly stated, I believe 
it to consist in the fact that nascent hydrogen is hydrogen in circuit—hydrogen in 
electrical contact with the substance to be acted upon. The experiments of Faraday 
and of Grove afford the clearest evidence that in order to bring about action 
between hydrogen and oxygen at ordinary temperatures it is merely necessary to 
make them elements in a voltaic circuit. The difference in the effects produced by 
‘nascent hydrogen ’ from different sources is, I imagine, attributable to the varia- 
tions in E.M.F. which necessarily attend variations in the constituent elements of 
the circuit. 

It is not so easy, however, as yet to explain some of the changes which take 
place at high temperatures. Mr. Dixon’s experiments have proved that a mixture 
of carbonic oxide and oxygen is non-explosive, but that explosion takes place if 
water he present, the velocity of the explosive-wave depending upon the amount 
of water present. When the mixture of the two gases is ‘ sparked,’ change takes 
place, but only in the path of the discharge. Mr. Dixon considers ‘that the car- 
bonie oxide becomes oxidised at the expense of the water, the hydrogen set free 
then becoming reoxidised.’ M. Traube, who in a series of papers has called atten- 
tion to the importance of water in promoting oxidation, has suggested that the 
oxygen and carbonic oxide together act on the water, forming hydrogen peroxide 
and carbonic acid: CO+20H,+0,=CO(OH),+H,0,; and that the peroxide 
then reacts with carbonic oxide to form carbonic acid: CO+0O,H, =CO(OH),. 
The carbonic acid, of course, is resolved into carbon dioxide and water (‘ Berichte, 
1885, p. 1890). Traube actually shows that traces of hydrogen peroxide are 
formed during the combustion. It appears to me that the water may exercise the 
same kind of action as it (or rather dilute sulphuric acid) exercises in a Grove’s gas 
battery, and that its hydrogen does not become free in any ordinary sense, The produc- 


1 Assuming that the heat absorbed in raising the temperature of a solid is mainly 
expended in overcoming intermolecular attraction, the high ‘atomic heat’ of metals 
may be regarded as evidence that their molecules powerfully attract each other, and 
hence that their molecular composition is relatively simple; and on this view the 
‘atomic heat’ of carbon and of a number of other non-metals and of some metal- 
loids is low owing to the extent to which the ‘affinity’ of the atoms is, as it were, 
exhausted in the formation of their molecules. Comparison of the ‘molecular heats ’ 
of chlorides and similar compounds with those of the oxides lends much support to 
this view, as we have reason to believe that the chlorides—which have high ‘ molecu- 
lar heats’—are of relatively simple molecular composition, and that the oxides— 
which have low ‘ molecular heats "—are of relatively complex molecular composition. 
The great difference in the specific heat of ice and liquid water may perhaps be simi- 
larly explained on the assumption that ice consists of complex aggregates of H,O 
molecules, whereas liquid water consists of aggregates of much simpler composition. 

2 The study of alloys from this point of view will probably furnish interesting 
results. It is noteworthy that the contact difference of potential of brass is less 
than that of copper, and much less than that of zinc, with the same solution, in all 
the cases quoted by Ayrton and Perry ; thus— 


Zinc Copper Brass 
Alm, >. z : . —'536 volt. ? oT 4 . — 014 
Sea salt . 5 : . —565 4, ‘ . —'475 ‘ . —'435 
Sal ammoniac : ROOK, | 5 A . —'596 5 . —'348 


It is especially important to examine the copper-tin alloys, which vary in electrical 
conductivity in so remarkable a manner, 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 963 


tion of hydrogen peroxide is not improbably due to a secondary simultaneous 
change. 

Unlike a mixture of carbonic oxide and oxygen, a mixture of hydrogen and 
oxygen is violently explosive. If we assume that in both cases the reacting mole- 
cules are electrolysed by the very high E.M.F. employed, and that the atoms then 
combine, it is difficult to explain the difference in the results. Does it arise from 
the fact that hydrogen is an altogether peculiar element? Or are we to attribute 
it to an influence which water itself exercises upon the formation of water from 
hydrogen and oxygen—as in the Grove gas battery? It is noteworthy that the 
velocity of the explosive-wave in electrolytic gas, according to Berthelot 
and Vieille, is a close approximation to the mean velocity of translation of the 
molecules in the gaseous products of combustion calculated from the formula of 
Clausius (H. B. Dixon, ‘ Phil. Trans.,’ 1884, p. 636). And this is also true of mix- 
tures of carbonic oxide and oxygen, and of nitrous oxide and oxygen with hydrogen. 
May we therefore assume, as the velocity corresponds with that of the products, 
that the water exercises the important office of inducing change throughout the 
mass, and not that the hydrogen is peculiar? I am tempted here to suggest 
that perhaps the ‘induction’ observed by Bunsen and Roscoe in a mixture of 
chlorine and hydrogen is due to the occurrence of a change in which a some- 
thing is produced which then promotes reaction between the two gases. I here 
assume that there would be no action between the pure gases. 

If I have allowed myself to flounder in among these difficult questions, it is not 
because I feel that I am justified in speaking with authority, but in the hope that 
I may be the ‘ fool,’ and that the ‘angels’ who are well able to discuss them will be 
led to do so without delay: for chemists are anxiously awaiting guidance on 
matters such as I have referred to. 

Attention must, however, be directed to the study of electrical phenomena by 
the recent publications of Arrhenius and of Ostwald (‘Journal fur praktische 
‘Chemie,’ 1884, 30, 93, 225; 1885, 31, 219, 433), and especially by the statement 
put forward by the latter that the rate of change under the influence of acids (in 
hydrolytic changes) is strictly proportional to the electrical conductivities of the 
acids. There cannot be a doubt that these investigations are of the very highest 
importance. 


I trust that in the discussions which we are to have on molecular weights of 
liquids and solids, and on electrolysis, there may be a free exchange of opinion 
on some of the points here raised. My reason for selecting these subjects for dis- 
cussion in this Section will have been made sufficiently clear, I imagine. Last 
year, in the Physical Section, the idea assumed shape which had long been latent 
in the minds of many members of the Association, that it is unadvisable, asa rule, . 
to encourage the reading of abstract papers, which rarely are, or can be, discussed. 
Two important discussions were introduced by Professors Lodge and Schuster. 
We must all cordially agree with Professor Lodge’s remarks on the importance of 
discussing subjects of general interest at these meetings. It appears to me, how- 
ever, that even a more important work may often be accomplished if the discussion 
consist of a series of papers which together form a monograph of the subject. I 
have endeavoured to carry this idea into practice on the present occasion, and a 
number of friends have most kindly consented to assist. Unexpected difficulties 
have arisen, and probably we shall none of us succeed in doing all we might wish. 
I trust, however, that the Section will approve of this first attempt sufficiently to 
justify my successors in this chair in adopting a similar course. 


I much regret that is impossible for me to attempt any review of recent work 
in chemistry. Not a few really important discoveries might be chronicled, and the 
patient industry of many who have toiled long to win results apparently insignifi- 
cant should have been mentioned with high approval. A few remarks I will crave 
permission for regarding the general character of the work being done by chemists, 
and regarding that which has to be done. 

Complaints arenot unfrequently made in this country that a large proportion of the 


5 3Q2 


964 REPORT—1885. 


published work is of little value, and that chemists are devoting themselves too exclu- 
sively to the study of carbon compounds, and especially of synthetical chemistry. 
We are told that investigation is running too much in a few grooves, and it is said 
that we are gross worshippers of formulz. Most of these outbursts are attributable 
to that pardonable selfishness which consists in assigning a higher value to the 
particular class of work with which one happens to be engaged or interested in 
than to any other line of investigation ; too frequently they result from want of 
sympathy with, if not absolute ignorance of, the scope and character of the work 
complained of. It must not be forgotten that chemical investigation, like other 
investigation, is to a large extent the work of genius; the rank and file must 
necessarily follow in the order of their abilities and opportunities: hence it is that 
we work in grooves. The attention paid to the study of carbon compounds may 
be more than justified both by reference to the results obtained and to the nature 
of the work before us: the inorganic kingdom refuses any longer to yield up her 
secrets—new elements—except after severe compulsion ; the organic kingdom—both 
animal and vegetable—stands ever ready before us: little wonder, then, if problems 
directly bearing upon life prove the more attractive to the living. The physio- 
logist complains that probably 95 per cent. of the solid matters of living struc- 
tures are pure unknowns to us, and that the fundamental chemical changes 
which occur during life are entirely enshrouded in mystery. It is in order 
that this may no longer be the case that the study of carbon compounds is being so 
vigorously prosecuted : our weapons—the knowledye of synthetical processes and 
of chemical function—are now rapidly being sharpened, but we are yet far from 
ready for the attack. As to the value of the work, I believe that every fact 
honestly recorded is of value; an infinite number of examples might be quoted to 
prove this. No unprejudiced reader can but be struck also with the improvement 
in quality which is manifest in the majority of the investigations now published ; 
at no time was more attention given to the discovery of all the products of the re- 
actions studied, and to the determination of the influence of changes in the condi- 
tions. As regards our formule, those who look upon the outward visible form with- 
out proper knowledge of the facts symbolised, and who take no pains to appreciate 
the spirit in which they are conceived, are undoubtedly misled by them. The 
great outcome of the labours of carbon-chemists has been, however, the establish- 
ment of the doctrine of structure ;1 that doctrine has received the most powerful 
support from the investigation of physical properties, and it may almost, without 
exaggeration, be said to haye been rendered visible in Abney and Festing’s infra- 
red spectrum photographs. Some of us look forward to the extension of the 
doctrine of structure not only to compounds generally, but even to the ‘elements.’ 
The relationships between these are in so many cases so exactly similar to those 
which obtain between carbon compounds, which we are persuaded differ merely in 
structure, that it is almost impossible to avoid such a conclusion, even in the absence 
of all laboratory evidence.? 

As the field of view opens out before us, so does the vastness of the work to be 
accomplished become more and more apparent ; and Faraday’s words of 1834 may 
be quoted as even more appropriate than a half-century ago: 

‘ Indeed, it is the great beauty of our science, CHEMISTRY, that advancement in it, 
whether in a degree great or small, instead of exhausting the subjects of research, 
opens the doors to further and more abundant knowledge, overflowing with beauty 
and utility, to those who will be at the easy personal pains of undertaking its ex- 


perimental investigation.’ 


1 I yenture here to direct attention to an extension of the acknowledged theory of 
structure suggested (by myself, I may say) at the close of the discussion of the 
van’t Hoff-La Bel hypothesis of isomerism in Miller's Chemistry, vol. iii. 1880 
edition, p. 993. The same view was soon afterwards independently put forward by 
Dr. Perkin. 

2 #. Exner in a recent paper (Monatshefte fiir Chemie, 1885, p. 249) ‘On a New 
Method of Determining the Size of Molecules,’ actually put forward an hypothesis as 
to the structure of elements. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 965 


The following Report and Papers were read :— 


1. Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose of investigating by 
means of Photography the Ultra-Violet Spark Spectra emitted by 
Metallic Elements and their combinations under varying conditions. 


See Reports, p. 276. 


2. On the Non-existence of Gaseous Nitrous Anhydride.' By Professor 
Witiiam Ramsay, Ph.D., and J. Tupor CunDatt. 


The existence or non-existence of nitrous anhydride in the state of gas cannot 
be decided, as attempted by Lunge, by acting on it with any reagent, for that 
reagent may either decompose it or react with the products of dissociation of 
nitrous anhydride, NO and (N,0O,+NO,) as if they consisted of the anhydride 
itself. The only true criterion of the existence or non-existence of such a sub- 
stance is its vapour density. It was first conclusively proved by the author’s 
experiments that the volume of nitric peroxide when quickly mixed with nitric 
oxide does not contract, clearly showing that no immediate combination ensues. Dr. 
Lunge has previously granted the probability of this result, but says that combi- 
nation is very slow. If the combination of the products of dissociation of a 
dissociating body is slow, it must equally be the case that the dissociation of the 
dissociable substance is slow also. If this be so, the vapour density of the gas 
distilled from liquid nitrous anhydride should have a density 38, corresponding to 
the formula N,O,. A dark blue liquid having been prepared by the usual 
method, it was fractionated into a large specific gravity balloon by exhausting 
the balloon and attaching it to the bulb containing the liquid trioxide, certain 
precautions being taken to ensure that the final pressure was equal to that of the 
atmosphere. The result was that the first portion had the density of 22°35, 
while its empirical composition exactly corresponded with the formula N,O,. A 
mixture of (N,O,+NO,) with NO, in such proportion as to have the compo- 
sition N,O, should possess, from Professor W. Gibbs’ formula, the density 25-42. 
Supposing the gas thus weighed by us to have contained no N,O, but only NO + NO,, 
the percentage of N,O, necessary to be added to raise the specific gravity to 
22°35 must be 17°63. 

On analysis further fractions show a constantly decreasing percentage of 
nitrogen and a corresponding higher density. 

The argument stands thus. On mixing NO and (N,O,+NO,) no contraction 
oceurs. If combination occurs at all it must occur very slowly. On distilling a 
liquid containing N,O, the first portion of the distillate has the empirical compo- 
sition N,O,, but is proved by its density to contain at most 17°63 per cent. of N,O,, 
and this on the assumption, known to be false, that no N,O, is present in the gaseous 
mixture. These facts, combined with Dr, Lunge’s statement that the dissociation 
of nitrous anhydride is uninfluenced by rise of temperature, its behaviour thus 
being unique, in our opinion decide the point against the existence of gaseous 
nitrogen trioxide. 


3. On some Actions of a Groves’s Gas-battery. 
By Professor Wittiam Ramsay, Ph.D. 


The ordinary form of gas-battery invented by Groves consists of two tubes 
containing oxygen and hydrogen respectively, in contact with strips of platinum 
coated with spongy platinum, which dip into weak sulphuric acid. On connecting 
the terminals of the platinums outside the liquid a current is set up, and the 
hydrogen and oxygen combine to form water. But as these gases are not in 
contact, it must be conceived that at that point where the platinum is in contact 
with hydrogen and liquid, the water-molecule is decomposed, its oxygen uniting 
with the gaseous hydrogen to form a new molecule, while the hydrogen is liberated 


1 Published in full, Jowr. Chem. Soc.,1885, 672. 


966 REPORT—1885. 


from molecule to molecule, until free hydrogen appears at the point of contact of 
oxygen, platinum, and liquid in the other tube, and unites with oxygen to form 
again a fresh molecule of water. 

Now if indigo-sulphonic acid be present in the acid, it is noticeable after a day 
or so that the indigo is decolorised when in contact with oxygen, being in all 
probability converted into isatine, but when in contact with hydrogen no action 
takes place. The hydrogen therefore does not reduce indigo when it is in the act 
of combining with oxygen, 

If, on the other hand, the conducting liquid be a saturated solution of common 
salt, and the reacting gases chlorine and hydrogen, the indigo becomes decolorised 
in both tubes, the bleaching taking place from above downwards. Of course 
decolorisation takes place at once on admission of chlorine, but it is not until some 
time has elapsed that reduction by the hydrogen becomes evident. Hydrogen 
appears therefore to possess the power of reducing indigo when it isin the act of 
combining with chlorine. 

Further experiments were made in order to ascertain whether other substances 
would comport themselves like indigo. Acid coloured with potassium permanganate 
was employed, and it was found that in both tubes decolorisation was to be 
noticed. he decolorisation of permanganate can take place only by reduction, 
and it must therefore be concluded that on the one hand hydrogen deprived it of 
its oxygen, and that on the other the action was due either to nascent oxygen, to 
ozone, or to hydrogen peroxide. 

A blank experiment was then made; hydrogen, potassium permanganate, and 
platinum were left in contact, and it was found that in a few hours the permanganate 
became colourless. To decolorise permanganate, therefore, does not require the 
ordinary arrangement of a gas-battery ; the feeble currents in the platinised platinum, 
or possibly the action of occluded hydrogen, are themselves sufficient to cause 
reduction and the union of the hydrogen. 

A similar experiment was made with oxygen, platinum, and permanganate; 
after thirty-six hours the permanganate had not lost its colour. The couple 
appears therefore to be necessary to the formation of active oxygen, whether it be 
in the state of ozone or of hydrogen dioxide. 

Experiments were also carried out with a solution of iodine in acidified potas- 
sium iodide, with similar results; hydrogen in contact with platinum alone reduced 
the iodine to hydriodic acid, but oxygen alone had no action. The solution on the 
oxygen side of the couple was however decolorised, although oxygen in contact 
with platinum had no action. With ferric chloride also the reaction was in all 
respects analogous. The results with indigo are therefore the only ones from 
which a conclusion can be drawn as to the action of the couple. The hydrogen is 
inactive when the couple consists of hydrogen and oxygen, but active when the 
couple consists of hydrogen and chlorine. Now to what cause is this difference in 
behaviour to be ascribed ? The gaseous hydrogen is in both cases the same; the 
production of sodium hypochlorite on the hydrogen side is improbable, inasmuch 
as the formation of ozone or hydrogen dioxide on the hydrogen side is excluded 
when the hydrogen-oxygen couple was employed. 

I would suggest as a possible explanation of this action that when a molecule 
of hydrogen reacts with a molecule of chlorine to form hydrogen chloride, atomic 
hydrogen must exist for a short interval of time. This atomic hydrogen, in the 
normal state, would at once combine to form molecular hydrogen, but in presence 
of indigo, indigo-white is produced by the union of the atomic hydrogen with 
indigo, as is usual when indigo is placed in contact with nascent hydrogen. But 
on the other hand, when a molecule of oxygen reacts with two molecules of hydrogen 
to form two molecules of water, it may be possible for the molecule of hydrogen 
to unite with the oxygen without assuming the atomic or nascent condition, and 
hence there is no reducing action on the indigo, But the oxygen must assume the 
nascent or active condition, and it is impossible to say whether its bleaching action 
on indigo is to be ascribed to direct action or to the formation of such intermediate 
products as ozone or hydrogen dioxide. 

It may perhaps be objected that it is unnecessary to bring in the idea of a 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 967 


status nascendi in accounting for this action. It is indeed possible that the reaction 
may be a direct one. Whereas the heat of formation of water is 68,360 cal., that 
of 2HC1.Aq is 78,640 cal., nearly 10,000 calories in excess; and the reducing action 
on the indigo may be ascribed to this excess. But with our present views regard- 
ing the formule of water and hydrogen chloride, which rest so far on a physical 
proof—that of the volume proportions of the gases and their compounds, it appears 
to me that the phenomena described present corroborative evidence of a chemical 
kind of the correctness of the method of writing the equations, 


H, + Cl, = HCl + HCl, and 
2H, +O, =H,0 + H,0. 


4, On the Spontaneous Polymerisation of Volatile Hydrocarbons at the 
ordinary atmospheric temperature.' By Professor Sir Henry KH, 
Roscoz, F.R.S. 


Some time ago a small quantity of a white crystalline camphor-like substance 
was sent to me by Mr. W. W. Staveley of West Bromwich, with the information 
that it had been obtained by him from the most volatile portions of the hydro- 
carbons, resulting from the decomposition of crude phenol at a red heat. Mr, 
Staveley writes, ‘ After standing for some weeks the greater portion of the volatile 
bodies, boiling from 20° to 30°, was changed by absorption of atmospheric oxygen 
into bodies boiling between 160° and 170°. After distilling off the lighter portion 
from the oxidised mixture, the residue in the retort, on cooling, solidified to a white 
crystalline mass.’ 

Examination of this product has proved that the above supposition is incorrect, 
and that the crystalline body is a hydrocarbon having the formula C,,H,,. For 
the purpose of purification the crude material, which had a yellow colour and was 
saturated with liquid, was pressed between filter-paper, and afterwards distilled ina 
vacuum, when it came over without decomposition at about 63° under 9 m.m. of 
pressure, but is found to decompose when distilled under the ordinary pressure. 
The hydrocarbon thus purified is perfectly colourless, crystallising in brilliant 
stellar clusters which melt at 32°9°. It volatilises slowly at the ordinary tem- 
perature like camphor, crystals being deposited on the upper part of the vessel 
containing it. Analysis gave: 


1 2 3 - Mean 
Carbon, : - 90°78 90:79 90°96 90°84 
Hydrogen . - . 959 8-69 9°27 9°18 


100°37 99°48 100:23 100-02 
The vapour density by Hofmann’s method gave: 


u 2 
Weight of substance . - 0:0728 g. O:1777 g. 
Barometer reduced , ‘ - 760°7 m.m. 760°7 m.m. 
Mercurial column . : - 686:°2 m.m. 587:0 m.m. 
Volume of vapour . < se por! Ce: 206°3 c.c. 
Temperature of vapour . onyeellulos 132° 
Vapour density - “ - 4:39 4:57 


The molecular formula C,,H,, requires a vapour density of 4°57, and the percent- 
age composition C=90'°9 H=9-10. The sp. gr. of the solid hydrocarbon is 1-012 at 
17°-5,the crystals sinking under water in a vacuum. It dissolves readily in petroleum 
spirit, ether, and alcohol, and possesses a peculiar smell resembling, but distinct 
from, that of camphor. On exposure to air it rapidly absorbs oxygen and is con- 
verted into a yellow resin. When heated in a vacuous tube to 180° for four hours 
the compound undergoes further polymerisation, and an opaque white battery mass 
is obtained, the solid portions of which melt with decomposition at 200° to 220°. 
Both solid and liquid possess a very strong odour. The hydrocarbon C,,H,, at 
once combines with bromine, and yields a liquid bromide, which however soon 


1 Chem. Soc. Trans. xlvii. 669. 


968 REPORT— 1885. 


decomposes even in a freezing mixture, and instantly on warming yielding hydro- 
bromic acid and a black resin. Nor could any oxidation product be obtained, the 
hydrocarbon being apparently completely burnt on treatment with permanganate 
or chromic acid. Nitric acid dissolves the crystals easily, and the addition of 
water to the solution throws down an amorphous nitro-compound, but the quantity 
obtained was insufficient for analysis. 

In order to attempt to trace the genesis of this solid hydrocarbon, I had recourse 
to my friend Mr. Josiah Hardman, who, through his chemist, my former pupil Mr. 
Irwin, kindly provided me with about 200 litres of the first rannings from 240 tons 
of tar. This product was carefully distilled, and about 2 litres of liquid boiling 
below 30° was collected. Of this 200 c.c. was distilled on April 16, the whole 
boiling below 30°, and leaving no solid residue. On again distilling this portion, 
which had been at once sealed in a tube nearly filled with the liquid, about 60 c.c. 
boiled above 30°, and a solid crystalline residue, weighing about two grams, was 
left behind. This substance melted at 30°, and proved to be the hydrocarbon 
C,,H,,._ One hundred ¢.c. of another portion of the volatile mixed hydrocarbons, 
obtained from a second sample of the first runnings, was distilled on March 7. It 
all came over between 30° and 40°, and no trace of solid crystals was noticeable. 
On April 13 the liquid contained a high-boiling constituent, and the residue yielded 
crystals of ©,,H,,. On repeating the operation on May 5 the thermometer rose to: 
75°, and crystals were again obtained from the residue. The fraction of this last 
portion boiling from 20° to 30° was then sealed up till June 29, when it was again 
distilled, and from it a small quantity of the crystals was obtained. A third por- 
tion of the volatile hydrocarbon from a different tar also exhibited the same be- 
haviour ; when first distilled it all came over below 30°, and gave no indication of 
the presence of the solid hydrocarbon, but after standing in a sealed tube for six 
weeks the thermometer ran up to 65°, and the last drops of distillate yielded the 
crystallised substance. Hence there can be no doubt that these volatile hydro- 
carbons do polymerise spontaneously at the ordinary temperature, and that the 
solid C,,H,, is probably the final product. 

To identify the volatile hydrocarbon or hydrocarbons which yield the solid 
substance proved no easy matter. In order to separate the acetylenes the most 
volatile product obtained was shaken up with an ammoniacal nitrate of silver 
solution. The light-yellow precipitate obtained consisted mainly of the silver, 
composed of ethylacetylene, as its molecular weight was found to be 164°3 and 
158'7 instead of 161. Portions of the mixture of hydrocarbon thus freed from the 
acetylene were distilled on March 4, and the whole distilled over at 30°, and showed 
no trace of crystals. It was then allowed to stand, as described, until April9, 
when the liquid was found to yield the same solid body. Hence it appears that 
hydrocarbons, not acetylenes, are capable of spontaneous polymerisation. For the 
purpose of separation, these non-acetylene hydrocarbons were brominated. The 
fraction boiling below 30° yielded a large crop of a well-crystallisable bromine 
compound which, on analysis, proved tc be butine tetrabromide, C,H,Br,, the 
percentage of bromine obtained being 85°7 and 85:3 as against 85°6 required.! 
Amylene dibromide, boiling at 170°-180°, and giving a percentage of 70:0 of bromine 
as against 69°56, was also obtained in quantity. A liquid pentine tetrabromide, 
C.H,Br,, also occurred amongst the numerous brominated derivatives. This was 
distilled in a vacuum, and yielded, on analysis, 81:83 per cent. of bromine as against 
82°47 per cent. The sp. gr. of this bromide was 2°37. Whether, as seems not 
unlikely, the new crystalline hydrocarbon is derived from a hydrocarbon, C,H,, an 
isomeride of valylene, must at present remain doubtful, as the search for this body 
proved unsuccessful. 


5. On some new Vanadium Compounds.? By J. T. Brrerey. 


These compounds are formed by the following remarkable reaction :—If a blue 
solution of hypovanadic sulphate be mixed with a colourless solution of an alkaline 

’ The melting point of this tetrabromide was 116°; that of Helbing’s was 99° 
(L. Annalen, 172, 281.) 

* Printed in full in the Journal of the Chemical Society, 1885. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 969 


metayvanadate, a dark green liquid results, and if to this a slight excess of caustic 
soda be added, the colour of the solution quickly changes to a deep black. From 
this dark-coloured solution well-defined crystalline salts can be obtained, having a 
purple or dark green colour and metallic lustre, in which the condition of oxidation 
of the metal is intermediate between the tetroxide V,O, and the pentoxide V,O.. 
I have succeeded in preparing five distinct members of this group of salts, viz. : 
1. A soluble sodium salt having the composition 
2V,0,. V,0,; . 2Na,0 + 13H,0, 
2, A soluble potassium salt 
2V,0,. V,0, . 2K,0 + 6H,0. 
3. An insoluble potassium salt 
2V,0,.4V.,0,; 5K,0 + H,0. 
4. A soluble ammonium salt 
2V,0,.2V,0; (NH,),0 + 14H,0, 
5. An insoluble ammonium salt 
2V,0,.4V,0; 3(NH,),0 + 6H,0, 
The soluble potassium and ammonium salts may be converted into the insoluble 
by boiling the solutions for some time, either alone, or much better with potassium 


or ammonium acetate, care being taken to keep the boiling liquid slightly alkaline. 
Free mixed oxides have also been obtained. 


FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11, 


The following Papers were read — 


1. On the Essential Elements of Plants. By T. Jameson. 


2. The Periodic Law, as illustrated by certain physical properties of Organic 
Compounds.' By Professor THos, Carnetty, D.Sc. 


In this paper it was shown that the physical properties of the normal halogen 
and alkyl compounds of the hydrocarbon radicals exhibit numerous relationships, 
which, with one exception, are exactly similar to those which have been proved 
on previous occasions (‘ Phil. Mag.,’ July 1884 and September 1885) to exist 
between the halogen or the alkyl compounds of the elements. 

Hence the general conclusion that the physical properties of the following four 
classes of compounds (so far as investigated) obey the same rules :— 

(1) The halogen compounds of the elements, é.e., of elements with elements. 

(2) The alkyl compounds of the elements, 2.e., of elements with 

(3) The halogen compounds of the hydrocarbon radicals, hydrocarbon radicals 

(4) The alkyl compounds of the hydrocarbon radicals, z.e., of hydrocarbon 
radicals with hydrocarbon radicals. 


3. Suggestions as to the Cause of the Periodic Law ‘and the Nature of the 
Chemical Elements.? By Professor Tuos. Carney, D.Sc. 


The object of this paper was to show that the elements are analogous to the 
hydrocarbon radicals of organic chemistry, the line of argument being somewhat 
as follows :— 


1 Phil. Mag. January, 1886. 2 Chemical News. 


970 REPORT—1885. 


As regards physical properties, the alkyl compounds (methides, ethides, pro- 
pides, &c.) of the elements exhibit exactly the same relationships as the correspond- 
ing halogen compounds; hence the allyl radicals, methyl, ethyl, propyl, &c., have 
the same function in these compounds as the halogens, chlorine, bromine, and 
iodine. 

Further, the halogen or alkyl compounds of the hydrocarbon radicals exhibit 
exactly the same relationships as those exhibited by the corresponding compounds 
of the elements, even when these relationships are of the most minute and intricate 
kind. The relationships, in the case of both elements and hydrocarbon radicals, 
and for either their halogen or alkyl compounds, are strictly periodic, the several 
periods corresponding exactly with the series of elements usually given in tables 
representing the natural classification of the elements according to the Periodic 
Law. 

It may, therefore, be inferred that the elements are built up of (at least) two 
primary elements, A and B, which by their combination produce a series of 
compounds (viz., our present elements) which are analogous to the hydrocarbon 
radicals. 

If the above theory as to the constitution of the elements be true, the Periodic 
Law would follow as a matter of course, and we should therefore be able to 
represent the elements by some such general formula as An Bonr+(2—x), analogous to 
that for the hydrocarbon radicals, C,H2n+(2—2), in which n=the series, and w the 
group to which the element or hydrocarbon radical belongs. 


4. On the Value of the Refraction Goniometer in Chemical work. 
By Dr. J. H. Guavstone, F.R.S. 


The principal points illustrated and enforced in this communication were: 

The index of refraction and the length of the spectrum are important physical 
properties of any substance. 

The specific refraction and specific dispersion may be serviceable: 1st, in de- 
termining the purity of a substance; 2nd, in the analysis “of such mixtures as 
ethylic and methylic alcohols ; 3rd, as a guide in the investigation of organic sub- 
stances; 4th, as an arbiter between rival theories as to the constitution or structure 
of particular chemical compounds. 

The double or treble refraction equivalents of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, 
phosphorus, iron, chromium, silicon, &c. offer a specially promising field of research. 


5. On the Refraction of Fluorine.’ By Grorcr Guapstone, F£.0.8. 


The author gave data for a more exact determination of the effect of fluorine 
on the refraction of light than has hitherto been published. A comparison of 
observations on fluor spar, cryolite, and various artificial compounds containing 
fluorine, showed that the refraction equivalent of this body must be considerably 
less than was previously supposed, and that it ranges between 0°3 and 0°8, the 
mean of the whole being 0°6; and that the specific refraction can, at the highest 
estimate, be scarcely equal to the half of that of any other substance Inown. 


6. Note on some Conditions of the Development, and of the Activity, of 
Chlorophyll. By Professor J. H. Gitpert, LL.D., F1.8. 


All who are accustomed to observe vegetation must have been struck with the 
great variety of shades of green which the foliage of different plants presents. With- 
out pretending to generalise further, it may be stated that, at any rate so far as our 
common agricultural plants are concerned, they show somewhat characteristic shades 
of colour, according to the Natural Order to which they belone—the Leguminosze 


1 Published in eatenso in the Phil. Mag. December, 1885. 


OS ———— 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 97] 


differing from the Graminee, the Cruciferze, the Chenopodiacese, and so on. But 
the same description of plant will exhibit very characteristic differences, not only 
at different stages of growth, but at the same stage in different conditions of 
luxuriance, as affected by the external conditions of soil, season, manuring, &c., 
but especially under the influence of different conditions as to manuring. 

The Rothamsted Field experiments have afforded ample opportunity for ob- 
servations of this kind ; and it has been quite evident that, in a series of comparable 
experiments with the same crop, depth of green colour by no means necessarily 
implied a finally greater amount of carbon assimilation; whilst we have long ago 
experimentally proved that the deeper colour was associated with relatively high 
percentage of nitrogen in the dry or solid substance of the herbage; and this obviously 
means a lower relation of carbon to nitrogen. 

Mentioning these facts to Dr. W. J. Russell, who has devoted so much attention 
to the subject of chlorophyll, he kindly undertook to make comparative determina- 
tions of the amounts of chlorophyll in parallel specimens, in which we were to 
determine the percentages of dry matter and of nitrogen, Accordingly, in June 
1882, during the period of active vegetation, Dr. Russell spent a day at Rothamsted 
for the purpose of collecting appropriate samples, which were taken from several 
differently manured plots of meadow-grass, wheat, barley and potatoes, respectively. 

The following table gives the results of some of these experiments; namely, the 
percentages of nitrogen, and the relative amounts of chlorophyll, in the separated 
gramineous and the separated leguminous plants in the mixed herbage of grass 
land; in specimens of wheat grown by a purely nitrogenous manure, and by the 
same nitrogenous manure with a full mineral manure in addition; and in specimens 
of barley grown by a purely nitrogenous manure, and by a mixture of the same 


RELATION BETWEEN NITROGEN ACCUMULATION, CHLOROPHYLL FORMATION, AND 
CARBON ASSIMILATION, 


(The figures in parentheses represent determinations in the not fully dried substance). 


Carbon assimilated 
| Nitrogen per Relative | per acre per annum 
| cent. in dry | amounts of | 

substance Chlorophyll | ’ 
Actual Difference 


Hay. lbs. lbs. 

Graminee . : 4 1:190 0-77 
Leguminose . : - 2-478 2°40 

WHEAT. 
Ammonium salts only : (1:227) 2-00 1,398 — 824 
Ammonium salts and mine- 

ralmanure .. : (0°566) 1-00 2,222 

BARLEY. 
Ammonium salts only i (1474) 3-20 1,403 ~ 685 
Ammonium salts and mine- 


ralmanure . : . (0-792) 1:46 2,088 


nitrogenous manure and mineral manure in addition. It is to be borne in mind that 
the specimens were collected while the plants were still quite green, and actively 
growing. It should be further explained that the amounts of chlorophyll recorded 
are, as stated in the table, relative and not actual; that is to say, the figures show 
the relative amounts for the individual members of each pair of experiments, and 
not the comparative amounts as between one set of experiments and another. 

It will be seen in the first place that the separated leguminous herbage of hay 
contained a much higher percentage of nitrogen in its dry substance than the 


972 REPORT—1885. 


separated gramineous herbage; and that, with the much higher percentage of 
nitrogen in the leguminous herbage, there was also a much higher proportion of 
chlorophyll. Under comparable conditions, however, the Leguminose eventually 
maintain a much higher relation of nitrogen to carbon than the Graminez, in other 
words, in their case carbon is not assimilated in so large a proportion to the 
nitrogen taken up. 

Next, it is to be observed that the wheat plants manured with ammonium salts 
alone show a much higher percentage of nitrogen than those manured with the 
same amount of ammonium salts, but with mineral manure in addition. The high 
proportion of chlorophyll again goes with the high nitrogen percentage; but the 
last column of the table shows that, with the ammonium salts without mineral 
manure with the high percentage of nitrogen, and the high proportion of chloro- 
phyll, in the dry substance of the green produce, there is eventually a very much 
less assimilation of carbon, The result is exactly similar in the case of the barley. 
The plants manured with ammonium salts alone showing the higher percentage of 
nitrogen, and the higher proportion of chlorophyll, but eventually a much lower 
assimilation of carbon. 

It is evident that the chlorophyll formation has a close connection with the 
amount of nitrogen assimilated, by that the carbon assimilation is not in pro- 
portion to the chlorophyll formed, if there be not a sufficiency of the necessary 
mineral constituents available. No doubt there had been as much, or more, of both 
nitrogen assimilated, and chlorophyll formed, over a given area, where the mineral 
as well as the nitrogenous manure had been applied, the lower proportion of both 
in the dry matter being due to the greater assimilation of carbon and consequent 
greater formation of non-nitrogenous substances. 

It is of interest to observe, that these results of experiments in the field are 
perfectly consistent with those obtained by vegetable physiologists in the laboratory ; 
they having found that the presence of certain mineral or ash-constituents, and 
especially that of potassium, is essential for the assimilation of carbon, no starch 
being formed in the grains of chlorophyll without the aid of that substance. Sachs 
says, ‘ Potassium is as essential for the assimilating activity of chlorophyll as iron 
for its production.’ 


7. A Plea for the Empiric Naming of Organic Compounds. 
By Professor Opuine, F.R.S. 


8. On the Action of Sodium Alcoholates on Fumaric and Maleic Ethers.! 
By Professor Purvis, Ph.D., B.Sc. 


In a previous research (‘ Chem. Soc. Journ.,’ 1881) the author has shown that by 
the action of sodium alcoholates in alcoholic solution on the ethereal salts of fumaric 
acid, products are obtained which by saponification yield alkyloxysuccinic acids ; 
thus ethoxysuccinic and butoxysuccinic acids were prepared by the action re- 
spectively of a solution of sodium ethylate on ethylic fumarate, and of sodium 
butylate on butylic fumarate. The object of the present investigation is to elucidate 
the nature of the chemical reactions concerned in the change, and to compare the 
etheric acids obtained from fumaric acid with the corresponding additive products 
procured by similar methods from maleic acid. 

Action of sodium methylate on ethylic fumarate.—When a solution of sodium 
methylate in methylic alcohol is added to ethylic fumarate, the first product 
of the action is methylic fumarate, which, however, is quickly converted into 
methylic methoxysuccinate, an oil boiling about 220° C., not without some 
decomposition, The sodium methylate used converts much more than its 
molecular proportion of fumaric ether into the addition compound, and it appears 
that an intermediate compound, a methylic methoxysodosuccinate, is formed, 
which, however, is continuously decomposed in the presence of alcohol, exchanging 


1 Jour. Chem. Soc., 1885, 855. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 973 


its sodium for the hydrogen of the latter while sodium methylate is reproduced, 
Methoxysuccinic acid procured by decomposition of its calcium salt with sulphuric 
acid is a crystalline solid melting at 101° to 103°C. Descriptions and analyses of 
the acid potassium salt and of the calcium and zine salts are given. The observed 
conversion of ethylic fumarate into methylic fumarate by the action of sodium 
methylate is by no means an isolated instance of the interchange of alcoholic 
radicles between an ethereal salt and an alcohol, but in the instances hitherto 
observed the interchange is accompanied by partial saponification, as when ethylic 
oxalate is converted by the action of potassium methylate into potassic methylic 
oxalate. The author finds that in this reaction normal methylic oxalate is also 
produced, and that in a similar manner ethylic cinnamate is converted into methylic 
cinnamate ; also, that if the ethylic salt is dissolved in methylic alcohol, the addition 
of certain salts, such as potassic carbonate, calcic chloride, and ignited borax, 
induces the interchange of alcoholic radicles. 

The general subject of the interchange of alcoholic radicles between ethereal 
salts and alcohols, induced by various reagents, is being now investigated. 

Action of sodium ethylate on ethylic fumarate,—This action has been previously 
described by the author, and ethoxysuccinic acid and several of its salts characterised, 
Further observations indicate that here also an intermediate sodium compound is 
formed, which, however, undergoes partial saponification, forming sodie ethylic 
ethoxysodosuccinate. 

Action of sodium methylate and of sodium ethylate on ethylic maleate——From 
the latter reaction no pure products could be obtained, but from the former a 
methoxysuccinic acid was procured, in its properties closely approximating to, if 
not identical with, the acid obtained from ethylic fumarate. 

Action of sodium methylate on hydric methylic maleate.—As it was found that a 
solution of maleic anhydride in methylic alcohol could be substituted for the 
normal maleic ether, this solution was used to obtain the material required for the 
further examination of the addition products from maleic acid. Hydric methylic 
maleate is formed by heating maleic anhydrid with methylic alcohol, and the sodic 
methylic maleate, formed on the addition of sodium methylate, being soluble in 
the alcohol, is quickly converted into sodic methylic ethoxysodosuccinate, which 
by saponification yields the sodium salt of a methoxysuccinic acid. The acid, 
obtained as before from the calcium salt, crystallises in the same manner and has 
the same melting-point as the corresponding acid obtained from fumaric acid. 
The salts also which have been already mentioned are identical, with the exception 
of the zinc salts, which seem to differ slightly. Both salts crystallise with four 
molecular proportions of water, three of which are given off at 100°, while the 
remaining molecule is retained to nearly the temperature at which the substance 
undergoes decomposition ; they appear, however, to differ in mode of crystallisation, 
and the salt derived from fumaric acid loses its last molecule of water of crystal- 
lisation at about 205° C., while that obtained from maleic acid does not become 
anhydrous till about 215° C. The high temperature required for the complete 
elimination of the water of crystallisation is remarkable, and an exact determination 
is attended with considerable difficulty, owing to the incipient decomposition of the 
salts at slightly higher temperatures. 

Action of sodium ethylate on hydric ethylic maleate.—By the addition of sodium 
ethylate to a solution of maleic anhydrid in ethylic alcohol, and subsequent saponi- 
fication of the product of the reaction, an ethoxysuccinic acid was obtained, the 
properties of which were found to be identical with those of the corresponding acid 
from fumaric ether. The calcium and barium salts were analysed and found to agree, 
as regards water of crystallisation and solubility, with the corresponding ethoxy- 
succinates previously obtained from fumaric ether. 

The above experiments show that fumaric and maleic acids yield alkyloxysuccinic 
aeids, which are identical with one another, or, if not identical, so closely resembling 
each other that their isomerism must be of the same nature as that of substances 
which differ only in optical and crystallographic characters. This supposition is by 
no means improbable in view of the fact that the malic acid prepared from fumaric 
acid by the action of caustic soda seems to differ from ordinary malic acid and 


974 REPORT—1885. 


from Kékulé’s inactive malic acid, and in view also of the discovery of Kékulé and 
Anschiitz that fumaric acid on oxidation gives racemic acid, while maleic acid 
yields mesotartaric acid. On the other hand the slight differences found to exist 
between the zine methoxysuccinates—the only difference observed so far between 
the corresponding addition products—may be due to slight impurity in one or both 
of the salts, a supposition not improbable, considering that the acids did not give 
absolutely definite melting-points. 

K. Grosner has recently shown (Inaugural Dissertation, Wiirzburg, 1885), 
that the ethers of the isomeric pyrocitric acids, when treated with sodium aleoholates, 
yield alkyloxypyrotartaric acids; he finds, however, that itaconic and mesaconic 
ethers yield the same acid, and citraconic ether an acid which, though isomeric, is 
essentially different in its properties from the other. In view of the relation of 
citraconic to mesaconic acid being in so many respects similar to that subsisting 
between maleic and fumarie acids, these results are difficult of explanation. 

The author intends, as soon as he has a sufficient quantity of material at his 
disposal, to investigate the optical and crystallographic characters of some of the 
salts of the ethoxy- or methoxysuccinic acid, obtained from the two parent acids, 
with the object of determining the identity or isomerism of the acids in question. 
He purposes also preparing alkyloxysuccionic acids direct from malic acid, so as 
to compare these acids, obtained from various sources, with each other, and also 
with the isomeric malic acids now being investigated by Anschiitz. He also reserves 
for further study the intermediate sodium compounds to which reference’ has been 
made. 


9. On Sulphine Salts derived from Ethylene Sulphide. 
By Orme Masson, MA., D.Sc. 


Ethylene sulphide, as obtained by mixing alcoholic solutions of ethylene bromide 
and potassium sulphide, is a white amorphous powder, insoluble in any of the 
ordinary solvents, and very difficult to obtain in astate of purity. When heated to 
about 160° C., either by itself or with carbon disulphide in sealed tubes, it is converted 


in great part into the crystalline diethylene disulphide S C.H, S, whose consti- 
§ P J J Pp C,H, 


tution is adduced from its vapour density, its reactions, and from the fact that it 
is also produced according to the equation 


C,H,<S>He + Br,0,H, = C,H, <g>0,H, + HgBr, 
(Crafts, Ann. Chem. Pharm. exxiv. 110 ; exxviii. 220 ; Husemann, did. exxvi, 269.] 


The author has found that this crystalline sulphide is capable of combining 
directly with methyl iodide to form a sulphine salt of the formula 
C,H, CH. 
S<cHs< i 
the combination taking place slowly at the ordinary temperature when the re- 
agents are mixed in ethereal solution, and quickly when they are heated to 
60°-70° in sealed tubes. 

Diethylenesulphide-methyl-sulphine iodide is freely soluble in hot water, much 
less so in cold water, practicably insoluble in alcohol or ether. It separates from 
the hot aqueous solution, on cooling, in opaque white crystals which at first sight 
appear to be cubical, but are not truly so; and by slow evaporation of the mother 
liquor it is obtained in the form of transparent prismatic needles. It enters into 
double decomposition with soluble silver salts, producing well defined crystalline 
salts of the sulphine radical. Of these the nitrate (C,H,),S,(CH,)NO,, and the 
sulphate {(C,H,),S,CH,},SO,. 3H,0, have been examined. From the latter, by 
the action of barium salts, the chloride and other compounds of the sulphine 
radical may be prepared. The chloride (C,H,),S,CH,Cl, yields insoluble or 
sparingly soluble compounds with certain metallic chlorides. Thus with platinic 
chloride it gives a heavy yellow precipitate of (C,H,),S,CH,Cl. PtCl,, insoluble in 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 975 


hot or cold water, alcohol, or dilute acids; and with mercuric chloride it gives a 
white crystalline compound, (C,H,),.S,CH,Cl. HgCl,, which is soluble in hot 
water. 

The above-mentioned salts of diethylenesulphide-methyl-sulphine undergo de- 
composition on heating, and yield sublimates of diethylene disulphide. The haloid 
salts give also the corresponding methyl compounds. In this behaviour when 
heated, in their method of formation, and in their general properties, they resemble 
the salts of trimethyl-sulphine, from which, however, they differ widely in some 
respects. None of the salts, for instance, are deliquescent, which is a marked pro- 
perty of those of trimethyl-sulphine. The platinic chloride compounds differ m 
composition and properties. But'the most marked characteristic of the diethylene- 
sulphide-methyl-sulphine salts isto be found in their behaviour with alkalis, Thus 
the sulphate treated with barium hydrate in the cold gives a precipitate of barium 
sulphate and a solution which is strongly alkaline (before sufficient baryta has been 
added to decompose all the salt), and from which the sulphate can be again 
obtained by neutralising with sulphuric acid and evaporating to dryness. This 
solution undoubtedly contains the base, (U,H,),S,CH,OH ; which, however, cannot 
be separated, as it quickly undergoes a change on standing and is converted, by loss 
of the elements of water, into an oily liquid possessing a very peculiar and disagree- 
able smell. This oil is produced at once if the iodide or other salt be boiled with 
potash or even with an alkaline carbonate, which shows that diethylenesulphide- 
methyl-sulphine hydroxide, unlike trimethyl-sulphine hydroxide, is capable of being 
turned out of its compounds by the alkalis. The investigation of this oil is not yet 
completed. 

In 1865 Dehn (‘ Ann. Chem. Pharm. Suppl.,’ iv. 83), described the action of 
ethyl sulphide on ethylene bromide when these are heated together with water in 
sealed tubes. His main products were ethyl bromide, diethylene disulphide, and 
triethyl-sulphine bromide; but he also obtained small quantities of two other 
sulphine compounds. His method was to remove by suitable means the diethylene 
disulphide and ethyl bromide, to treat the remaining aqueous solution with silver 
oxide, and then to add excess of hydrochloric acid and fractionally precipitate with 
platinic chloride. By this means he obtained three distinct compounds, of which 
the last to come down was the triethyl-sulphine salt, {(C,H,),SCl1},PtCl,, which is 
soluble in, and can be crystallised from, hot water. The two others were obtained 
as yellow precipitates, insoluble in all ordinary solvents. Dehn estimated the 
platinum in the first of these and the platinum, carbon, and hydrogen in the 
second. His results led him to conclude that they were compounds of the formule 
(C,H,),S"'Cl,.PtCl, and (C,H,) (C,H,),S"Cl,.PtCl,,—what he called sulphinic salts, 
containing hexad sulphur, as opposed to sulphinous salts in which the sulphur is 
tetrad. It seems almost certain, however, judging from the method of formation, 
from the properties of the platinic salts themselves, and from the results of Dehn’s 
analyses, that he was really dealing with compounds analogous to the diethy- 
lenesulphide-methyl-sulphine platinic-chloride salt described above: viz, with 
{(C,H,).8,},(C,H,)CI,.2PtCl, and (C,H,),8,(C,H;)Cl.PtCl,. The percentages of 
carbon, hydrogen, and platinum, calculated from these formule, those calculated 
from Dehn’s formule, and those found by him, agree with one another within the 
limits of experimental error; the chlorine and the sulphur, which differ widely, 
were not estimated by him. If the view here advanced be correct, then Dehn’s 
reaction may be represented by the equations :— 

(1) 2C,H,Br, + 2(C,H,),S =(C,H,).S, + 4C,H,Br. 

(2) (C,H,).S + C,H.Br = (C,H,),SBr. 

(3) (C,H,)S, + C,H, Br = (C,H,),S,.C,H,Br. 

(4) 2(C,H,).S, + O,H,Br, = {(C,H,).5,}..C,H, Bry. 


10. An apparently new Hydrocarbon distilled from Japanese Petroleum. 
By Dr. Divers and T. Nakamura. 


976 REPORT—1885. 


11. Description of some new Orystallised Combinations of Copper, Zinc, and 
Tron Sulphates. By Joun Spitzer, F.C.S. 


It was known that these metallic sulphates were capable of crystallising 
together, but the author had made experiments with the view of getting definite 
combinations. 

In consequence of the wide differences in the degree of solubility, it was 
necessary to employ the zinc salt in large excess, so as to force this ingredient into 
the combination. Sulphate of copper being, on the other hand, much more 
sparingly soluble, had a tendency to separate out alone, or with at most 8 to 10 
per cent. of zinc (or iron) sulphate in admixture. 

A large series of well crystallised double salts had been prepared and analysed, 
of which the following were the most definite examples :— 


Cu Fe (SO,), +12 aq. 
Zn Fe,(SO,), +28 aq. 
‘Zn, Fe,(SO,), + 35 aq. 
Cu Zn,(SO,), + 26 aq. 
Cu Zn,(SO,), +58 aq. 
Cu Zn,(SO,), +40 aq. 


The last named double salt could be obtained in magnificent pale-blue rhombs, 
like a tinted calc-spar, but not double refracting. The tri-zinc cupric sulphate had 
long ago been prepared by Lefort, who asserted, Lowever, that it contained 28 
molecules of water, a statement which the author believed to be incorrect, finding 
by his analysis that each salt introduced its own proper amount of water of 
crystallisation, 


SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 12. 


The following Papers were read :— 


1. The Composition of Water by Volume. 
By A. Scorr, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E. 


No determinations as such of the ratio of the volumes in which oxygen and 
hydrogen combine to form water have been made since those of Humbeld and 
Gay-Lussac in 1805. The experiments of Regnault and Amagat show conclu- 
sively that neither of these gases obeys Boyle’s law, their deviations being in 
opposite directions ; hence if we admit Avogadro’s law for perfect gases, it could 
only be by the merest chance that the true ratio would be 2 of hydrogen to 1 of 
oxygen, With the improved methods for preparing and measuring gases now at 
our command, it seemed that this important ratio ought to be redetermined, if possible 
on a larger scale. The quantities operated on are about 150 c.c. of oxygen and 
300 c.c. of hydrogen in each case. Two experiments gave the following ratios— 


1: 1/994 
and 

1: 1:9935 
or 

1 : 1:9960 


if the impurity be supposed to exist in oxygen alone. 

The purity of the gases was tested by subsequent analysis, of the residue, and 
‘2 to 3.c.c. of foreign gas found in 450 c.c. of gas used. 

The author, however, hopes by his processes of preparing the gases to obtain 
them in a still higher degree of purity. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 977 


2. Description of a new Mineral from Loch Bhruithaich, Inverness-shire. 
By W. Ivison Macapam, F.C.S., and THomas WALLACE. 


3. Hehibition and Description of the Apparatus employed in obtaining 
Oxygen and Nitrogen from the Atmosphere. Description of Method 
used in converting atmospheric Nitrogen into Ammonia. By Messrs. 
Brin Brothers. 


MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14. 


The following Report and Papers were read :— 


1. Report of the Committee on Chemical Nomenclature. 
See Reports, p. 262. 


2. On Electrolysis. By Professor Oiver J. Lope, D.Sc. 
See Reports, p. 723. 


3. On Helmholtz’s views on Electrolysis, and on the Electrolysis of Gases. 
By Professor Scuuster, F.R.S. 


The author explained some of the views expressed by Helmholtz in his recent 
papers on electric polarisation and electromotive force, remarking that the Presi- 
dent of the Chemical Section had, in his opening address, already drawn attention to 
the bearing which these views have on chemical theories. The fundamental notion 
of Helmholtz consists in the assumption of a different attraction of chemical elements 
for positive and negative electricity. If this is admitted, the difficulties which have 
been felt in explaining electromotive force of contact disappear. In compound 
bodies like water, the hydrogen is positively electrified ; the oxygen, on the other 
hand, is charged with negative electricity. If an electromotive force acts on the 
liquid, the positively charged atom is driven to the negative pole, and the oxygen 
to the positive pole. 

This motion is called forth by any electromotive force, however small, and no 
work is done except that due to overcoming of the internal resistance. The posi- 
tively charged hydrogen atom covers the negative electrode, but does not constitute 
free hydrogen. When the electromotive force is sufficiently strong, an interchange 
of electricity takes place between the pole and the ion, and then only can the 
hydrogen separate out. 

A large amount of work has to be done to separate the positive charge from the 
hydrogen. In all decompositions where the elements separate out in a neutral 
state, it would seem, if these views are correct, that before decomposition an inter- 
change of electricity must take place. Thus, for instance, when aqueous vapour is 
dissociated by heat, the oxygen must give up its free electricity before it can form 
neutral oxygen molecules, The conversion of stannic into stannous chloride, men- 
tioned by the President, would have to be accompanied by an interchange of a 
negative charge on the chlorine with a positive charge on one of the atoms of tin, 
leaving then both neutral chlorine and neutral stannous chloride. 

With respect to the question of rates at which the ions travelled, Professor 
Schuster thought Professor Lodge had not laid sufficient stress on the remarkable 
result arrived at by Kohlrausch, that in dilute aqueous solutions, and for a given 
intensity of current, each element had its own rate of travelling, which was inde- 
pendent of the other ion; thus the barium atom travelled at the same rate whether 

885. oR 


978 REPORT—1885. 


originaily combined with chlorine or iodine. This result gave a very strong support 
to the views from which it could be deduced, and proved conclusively the different 
velocities of different ions. 

Finally, Professor Schuster explained his views of the electric discharge of 
gases, which, in his opinion, presented many analogies to the electrolytic conduction, 
or rather that called by Helmholtz electric convection. The peculiar phenomena 
surrounding the negative electrode, as well as stratifications, do not appear in the 
discharge through mercury vapour, and were probably due to a splitting up of the 
two-atomed molecules at the negative pole. Phenomena of polarisation con- 
sequently appear at the kathode, but the ordinary methods of investigating these 
phenomena are not available in gases. Experiments which the author hoped to 
perform in the next few months will decide whether in the gaseous discharge 
each atom carries off, as in electrolysis, the same quantity of electricity. 


4, On the Determination of Chemical Affinity in terms of Electromotive 
Force. By C. R. Atper Wricat, D.Sc., F.R.S. 


During the last eight years, the author has carried out (partly by himself, and 
partly in conjunction with Dr. Rennie and with Mr. C. Thompson), a lengthy 
series of observations on various points connected with this problem, many of the 
results of which have been communicated from time to time to the Physical 
Society of London, and published in its proceedings and in the ‘ Philosophical 
Magazine, in a series of nine memoirs. Whilst these experiments have served to 
corroborate or correct various previously measured values, and to establish a 
number of new ones, they have as yet not sufficed to solve the entire problem, but 
on the contrary, rather tend to indicate that electrical measurements alone are 
unlikely to give any simple means of readily obtaining exact determinations of the 
amounts of force and energy involved in the occurrence of chemical changes, at 
least so far as the more deep-seated phases of these reactions are concerned. 

The fundamental idea involved in the conception of the possibility of such 
determinations being made is due to Sir William Thomson, having been put forth 
by him in a paper on the Mechanical Theory of Electrolysis! The reasoning 
involved may be simply stated as follows :— 

Faraday has shown (1) that when a compound is electrolysed, the weight of 
substance decomposed is proportionate to the quantity of electricity passing.’ 
In symbols, nq, where n is the number of grammes decomposed, and qg the 
quantity of electricity passed. (2) That the weight decomposed by a constant 
quantity of electricity is proportionate to the chemical equivalent of the substance ; 
ze. if a be the equivalent moa. Hence, on the whole, nwaq; and hence, 
n=ag x coustant, this constant, or ‘ Faraday coefficient,’ being a numerical value 
conveniently indicated by the symbol F, just as the Joule value J indicates the 
somewhat analogous constant relating to mechanical work and heat. Now, suppose 
the passage of the current to effect no work other than chemical decomposition, 
and let the lowering of potential (H.M.F.) occurring between the extremities of the 
mass through which the current passes causing decomposition be e; then eq repre- 
sents the work done: if frepresent the work done by the force of chemical affi- 
nity in synthesising a gramme of the compound decomposed from the products of 


decomposition, the work done is also nf= agi f; whence af = aE that is, the value 


of the chemical affinity per gramme equivalent of compound is measured by a value 
in E.M.F. 


1 Phil. Magq., 1851, vol. ii. p. 429, 

2 Various experimenters have been led to believe that under certain conditions, 
‘conduction without electrolysis ’ may take place, more especially when extremely 
feeble currents are passed through acidulated water. The author has shown in a 
rigorously conducted series of experiments that the non-appearance of products of 
decomposition in such cases is due to causes other than exceptionality to the law of 
Faraday (Phil. Mag., April 1881.) 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 979 


In actual practice the work ultimately done by the passage of a current through 
an electrolyte is not solely chemical decomposition ; a disturbance of the thermal 
equilibrium also tales place, usually heat evolution. A certain amount of heat 
evolution, in fact, necessarily ensues, owing to the resistance proper of the medium. 
‘Tn accordance with ‘ Joule’s Law’ the work done in this form is C*Ré (where C is 
the current, R the resistance proper, and ¢ the time), which may be written e’g, 
since g = Cf, and by Ohm’s Law CR represents an E.M.F’. which may be written e’. 
Tf, then, a total fall of potential of E occur, part of this, e’,is due to heat evolution 
through resistance proper; the rest, H —e’, is due to other causes, viz. chemical 
decomposition modified by secondary actions taking place, either spontaneously in 
the products of electrolysis themselves, or by their causing chemical changes in the 
electrodes. These secondary actions are usually of such a nature as to cause as 
final result the production of more or less sensible heat ; but generally a greater or 
less fraction of the energy due to these acts in the same sense as the current itself; 
that is, the secondary actions assist the current, and cause a less amount of lower- 
ing of potential to take place than would otherwise be the case. That portion of 
the energy due to these secondary changes that thus assists the current may con- 
veniently be spoken of as adjuvant, and the rest as nonadjuvant. 

With certain kinds of electrolytes and electrodes, the amount of adjuvant 
energy is sufficient not merely to equal the lowering of potential due to the passage 
of the current per se, but to preponderate thereover, so that a negative lowering of 
potential results as the current passes. Such cells constitute ordinary electromotors 
or ‘ voltaic circles,’ and usually require no external current to start their action. 

Whether an electrolytic cell be one in which an actual lowering of potential 
takes place during the passage of a current from an external source, or one capable 
of causing an increment in potential of itself without any current passing derived 
ab extra, it is invariably found that the actual potential difference subsisting 
when a current passes, after correction for the quantity e’ due to heat evolution 
in consequence of resistance proper, is not a constant quantity, but varies with the 
degree of concentration of the solutions and the nature of the surfaces of the elec- 
trodes, and with the density of the current (ratio of current to electrode superficies). 
With a decomposing cell (where actual lowering of potential takes place) this 
corrected potential difference increases, ceteris paribus, with current density ; and 
with an electromotor (where negative lowering of potential ensues) it decreases 
therewith ; the same rule being observed throughout, that the greater the density 
the greater is the amount of nonadjuvant energy due to secondary actions. In other 
words, the ‘ counter E.M.F.’ of a decomposing cell, H—e’, continually increases 
with increasing current density, constantly tending towards a limiting value attain< 
able theoretically with an infinite current ; whilst the negative counter E.M.F. (or 
positive E.M.F.) of a voltaic cell or electromotor is at its maximum when the 
current density is extremely small, and continually decreases as the current density 
increases. 

A large number of experiments have been made (as yet unpublished) with a 
view of deducing for various electrolytes the limiting values of the ‘ counter 
E.M.F.s.’ set up during electrolysis, the method adopted being the construction of 
curves with current densities and counter E.M.F.s as co-ordinates from which 
empirical exponential equations might be deduced leading to the evaluation of 
the limiting values for infinite densities. Much labour is necessarily entailed in 
this class of experiment in order to obtain any results of value even as approxima- 
tions. The results obtained so far show that these limiting values far exceed those 
corresponding with the heat evolutions ensuing when the final products of the 
electrolytic decomposition are made to recombine so as to reproduce the compound 
experimented with. Thus, for example, the heat disengaged when one gramme of 
hydrogen and eight of oxygen (both gaseous under ordinary conditions) coalesce 
to form nine grammes of liquid water is close to 34,100 gramme degrees, corre- 
sponding with about 1°5 volts; but the limiting value of the counter H.M.F., E-e’, 
in this case exceeds 4 volts. On the other hand, when water is decomposed by 
feeble currents so that the evolved gases are absorbed or occluded by the electrodes, 
or are attracted thereto forming air-films over their surfaces, the values of E —e’ may 


3R2 


980 REPORT—1885. 


fall far short of 1-5 volt, being in certain cases barely appreciably greater than 0. It 
would thus seem that whilst the heat evolved during the condensation of 1 gramme 
of hydrogen and of 8 grammes of oxygen to the physical state of the gases occluded 
or attracted in the form of these films must jointly amount to something close to 
34,100 gramme degrees at least, the energy requisite to break up water not into 
ordinary free oxygen and hydrogen, but into the nascent forms of these bodies, 
unmodified by subsequent coalescence or spontaneous modification must be equal 
to something not far short of three times that amount; whilst the total heat 
evolved during the subsequent modification of these elements (passage from atomic 
to molecular condition ?) must represent at least 2°5 volts. 

A large number of observations have been made (mostly published) on the 
relationships between the positive E.M.F.s generated in various kinds of voltaic 
cell when at their maximum, and the amounts of heat corresponding with the nett 
chemical changes ensuing between the electrolytes and electrodes. The general 
result of these investigations has been to show that in but few instances are the two 
values approximately coincident (say within a departure of +01 volt), and even 
in these cases very material fluctuations in the actual E.M.F. of an electromotor 
may be brought about by alterations in solution, strength, and plate surface nature 
that exert but little influence on the nett heat development. Oue conclusion 
deducible from this and other allied facts is that the seat of primary action in such 
cases lies at the junctions of the surfaces of the electrodes and fluids, and that the 
modus operandi of a voltaic cell is in certain respects closely akin to that of a 
thermo-couple or Peltier couple, consisting of two dissimilar forms of solid matter 
(metals, &c.) where conversion of sensible heat into current takes place, or vice 
versa. In fact the actual maximum E.M.F-.s set up in such cells as those examined 
(mostly after Daniell’s construction, e.g., Zn | ZnSO, | CuSO, | Cu) are found to: 
be conveniently represented by assigning to each given metal immersed in a given 
solution of one of its salts a numerical value, or thermo-voltaic constant (analogous 
to the thermo-electric values assignable to metals, &c., when used in thermo- 
electromotors), and adding the algebraic difference between the values for any two 
given pairs of metal and salt (which difference may be a positive or negative 
quantity) to the value in volts corresponding with the heat evolution due to the 
nett chemical change. According as this difference is plus or minus, the E.M.F. 
actually set up exceeds or falls short of the amount due to the nett chemical 
change. Relatively to zinc, some metals have thus in general a negative and 
others a positive thermo-voltaic constant assignable, no matter what the class of 
salt employed. The cells where the algebraic difference between the thermo- 
voltaic constants is positive in sign are characterised by the peculiarity that in the 
production of a current by them sensible beat must become converted into current 
energy, causing cooling of the cell; for with a large external resistance more work 
is done outside the cell than corresponds with the heat development due to the 
nett chemical change. With cells where this difference is negative in sign, the 
reverse holds so long as the numerical value of the difference is not greater than 
that corresponding with the difference in heat of formation between the two fluids 
surrounding the plates; the cell in this case being warmed by the passage of the 
current, and less external work being done than corresponds with the nett heat 
development due to chemical change. When, however, the numerical value of the 
negative algebraic difference between the thermo-voltaic constants exceeds that 
corresponding with the difference in heat of formation, the remarkable result ensues 
that the current circulates in the direction opposite to that predicable from the 
relative heats of formation of the fluids in the cell; so that not only is there 
absorption of heat in the cell itself, due to the character of the chemical changes 
occurring as the current passes, but, further, any work done outside the cell must 
be at the expense of the sensible heat of the cell itself. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 981 


5. On the Sensitiveness to Light of Selenium and Sulphur Cells.’ 
By Suetrord Browse, M.A., LL.B. 


The fact first announced by Mr. Willougby Smith in 1873 that the electrical 
resistance of crystalline selenium is temporarily diminished by the action of light 
has been fully confirmed by subsequent experimenters. Of the many investigations 
which have been undertaken in reference to this subject, by far the most valuable 
and exhaustive are those of Professor Adams and Mr. R. E. Day, an account of 
which was published in the ‘ Philosophical Transactions’ for 1877. These gentle- 
men arrived at the conclusion that the diminution in the resistance of selenium 
might be accounted for by the fact that light promotes crystallisation, for in 
changing to the crystalline state selenium becomes a better conductor of electricity. 
They also state their belief that selenium conducts electrolytically ; but it may be 
inferred from the paper—and was indeed explained by Professor Adams himself at 
the meeting of the Physical Society on June 13 last—that the authors did not 
Suppose that actual electrolysis occurred, but rather that the molecular structure or 
crystalline condition of the substance was altered or modified by the action of a 
current of electricity in such a manner as to produce effects analogous to those 
which would have occurred if the selenium were an electrolyte, and actually 
decomposed by the current. 

A new form of selenium cell has recently been described by Mr. C. E. Fritts, of 
New York. A thin film of selenium is spread upon a plate of some metal, such as 
brass or copper, with which it will form a chemical combination. The selenium is 
melted and crystallised under pressure, and, when cold, its surface is covered with 
a film of gold-leaf sufficiently thin to transmit light. The metal plate and the gold- 
leaf form the two electrodes of the cell, the resistance of which is yaried by the 
action of the light which passes through the gold-leaf. 

Upon reading this description, it occurred to the author that the conduction of 
selenium, when prepared in the form of cells, might be in reality, and not 
merely in appearance, electrolytic. Selenium will, he believes, combine more or less 
readily with all metals, the combination being assisted by heat. And in the pre- 
paration of selenium cells it has been the usual, if not the universal custom, to 
submit the selenium to prolonged heating while in contact with metallic electrodes. 
This operation is generally called ‘annealing, and the undoubted fact that it 
diminishes the resistance of the selenium and increases its sensitiveness to light has 
been explained by supposing that the process is favourable to perfect crystallisation. 
The author suggests as an alternative explanation that the prolonged heating, by 
promoting the combination of the selenium with the metal of the electrodes, results 
in the formation of a selenide which completely surrounds the electrodes, and is 
perhaps diffused to some extent throughout the selenium when it is in a liquid con- 
dition ; and that the apparently improved conductivity of the selenium, together 
with the electrolytic phenomena which it exhibits are to be accounted for by the 
existence of this selenide. It was found that while the specific resistance of the 
selenium contained in a well-annealed cell having copper electrodes was ‘9 megohm, 
that of a similar piece of selenium annealed in a glass mould without contact with any 
metal was as much as 2,500 megohms. This enormous difference is to be attributed 
to the presence of selenide of copper in the selenium of the cell. 

‘The above hypothesis has not been submitted to the test of direct experiment, 
but certain indirect evidence in support of it has been forthcoming. Selenium is an 
element which, in its properties, closely resembles sulphur, and many unsuccessful 
attempts have been made to develop in sulphur that peculiar sensitiveness to light 
which is such a remarkable characteristic of selenium. It occurred to the author 
that if this property of selenium were really due to the accidental existence of 
metallic selenides, then the admixture with sulphur of metallic sulphides might be 
expected to lead to similar effects. Several cells were therefore constructed, in 
which selenium was replaced by sulphur containing a proportion of silver sulphide, 


* Published in extenso in the Electrician, Sept. 18, 1885, and in the Chemical 
Nens. See also Phil. May., Aug. 1885. 


982 REPORT—1885. 


the electrodes being formed of silver wire, and they all turned out to be more or 
less sensitive to light, and to exhibit other properties of annealed selenium. 

‘When, as in the case of these cells, a current of electricity passes between silver 
electrodes through a mass of sulphide of silver, silver will be deposited upon the 
cathode, and sulphur upon the anode. Now sulphur has an enormously high 
resistance, and the existence of a mere film of free sulphur upon one of the 
electrodes would be sufficient to stop the current altogether. The current is not, in 
fact, stopped, because the deposited sulphur combines with the silver of the anode, 
merely adding a new layer to the electrolyte. Thus the metal of the anode 
gradually combines with the sulphur of the electrolyte, and the conductivity of the 
arrangement will depend, to a great extent, upon the facility with which this com- 
bination is effected. It might therefore be expected that the resistance of a sulphur 
cell with silver electrodes would be diminished by any influence which assisted the 
combination of silver with sulphur. Experiment shows that such an influence is 
exerted by light. 

But it is not perhaps necessary to assume that the effective action of light is 
confined entirely to the electrode. It seems reasonable to suppose that any circum- 
stances which are favourable to the union of two substances when they have a 
tendency to unite would also be favourable to their separation when from any cause 
they have a tendency to separate. If, then, as is commonly supposed, electrolysis 
involves a series of decompositions and recompositions, both these processes would 
be assisted by the same agency which, under ordinary conditions, favours the union 
of the constituents of the electrolyte. The electrolysis of silver sulphide may there- 
fore be assisted by light, and its electrolytic resistance at the same time diminished. 

Although results similar to those above described have not yet been obtained 
when other metals than silver have been used in conjunction with sulphur, the 
author believes it probable that the action of light upon the resistance of selenium 
in conjunction with any metal whatever with which it forms a sensitive combina- 
Hon is of a nature analogous to that which occurs in the case of sulphur and 
silver. 


6. On the Generation of a Voltaic Current by a Sulphur Cell with a Solid 
Hlectrolyte.| By Surtrorp Bipwex1, M.A., DDB. 


While observing the secondary or polarisation currents, which are generated by 
sulphur cells (as by those made with selenium), after being disconnected from a 
battery, certain effects were noticed which seemed to indicate that when the 
electrodes consisted of two different metals, a sulphur cell might be capable of 
originating an independent or primary current. Experiments were therefore made 
with the object of investigating this point, and some of the results obtained are 
here given, though without any attempt to explain them, or to connect them to- 
gether by a complete theory. They appear, however, to possess sufficient interest 
to render them worthy of record from the fact that no voltaic arrangement with a 
solid electrolyte has hitherto been constructed which—at least at ordinary tem- 
peratures—was capable of producing the smallest effect upon the most delicate 
galvanometer. 

A plate of copper about one inch squaré was heated, and upon it was spread a 
mixture consisting of five parts of sulphur and one part of sulphide of copper. A 
plate of silver previously heated was then laid upon the melted mixture, and the 
two plates were squeezed together, thus forming a sandwich-like cell. When this 
cell, after cooling, was connected with a reflecting galvanometer, the spot of light 
was violently deflected off the scale. From very careful measurements it appeared 
that the E.M.F. of the cell was ‘0712 volt, and its internal resistance 6537 ohms. 
The direction of the current was from the silver through the electrolyte to the 
copper, and there could be no doubt that it was of a voltaic nature. After the 


cell had been in existence for about three months, its E.M.F. had not materially 
fallen off. 


1 Published iz extenso in the Electrician, September 18, 1885, and in the Chemica? 
News. See also Phil. Mag. October, 1885. ~ 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 983 


The current was small owing to the great internal resistance of the cell, and 
attempts were made to reduce this resistance by diminishing the proportion of free 
sulphur. But it was found that when the resistance was reduced in this manner 
the E.M.F. was also reduced, and when there was nothing but simple copper 
sulphide between the plates, there was no sensible E.M.F. whatever. 

Another cell was made in which powdered silver sulphide without any free 
sulphur was compressed between plates of silver and copper. This arrangement 
generated a current, the direction of which was opposite to that produced by the 
cells above described, but the E.M.F. rapidly fell off, and in three or four days had 
almost completely disappeared. 

When a similar cell was constructed in which the silver sulphide was mixed 
with sublimed sulphur and placed in the form of a powder between the plates, the 
direction of the current was, as with simple silver sulphide, from copper to silver. 
But if the mixture was first fused and the plates between which it was com- 
pressed heated, the current generated by the cell when cold was in the reverse 
direction. Sulphide of copper was undoubtedly formed in the process of con- 
struction. 

Consideration of these results led the author to believe that the sole function of 
the free sulphur in the copper sulphide cell was to form a film of silver sulphide by 
direct combination with the silver plate. A cell was therefore made as follows :— 
A layer of copper sulphide was spread upon a plate of copper, a polished steel 
plate was laid upon the sulphide, and the whole was strongly compressed in a vice. 
The steel plate was then removed and a thin layer of silver sulphide was spread 
upon the smooth surface of the copper sulphide. The cell was completed by 
pressing a silver plate upon the silver sulphide. This was found upon trial to give 
a current which, with an external circuit of low resistance, was many times 
stronger than that generated by any of the cells previously made. Its action was 
probably analogous to that of a Daniell’s cell consisting of plates of zinc and 
copper in solutions of zinc sulphate and copper sulphate. The quantity of the 
copper sulphide would be gradually diminished, copper being deposited on the 
copper plate, while the quantity of the silver sulphide would continually increase 
with consumption of the silver. 

A very curious experiment observed in the course of the experiments was the 
following :—If a battery current was passed for a short time through a cell con- 
taining two silver electrodes embedded in a mixture of sulphur and copper sulphide, 
the cell after being disconnected from the battery generated a current of very short 
duration (not impossibly due to thermo-electric action) in the direction opposite to 
that of the battery current; and this current, which rarely lasted for more than 
two or three minutes, was followed by another which was in the same direction as 
the battery current, and was generally maintained for several hours. 


7. A Theory of the Connection between the Crystal Form and the Atom 
Composition of Chemical Compounds.’ By WiLL1aM Bar1ow. 


The author bases a theory of the origin of the symmetry of crystals upon the 
hypothesis that the different kinds of chemical atoms of a crystallising body so 
far preserve their individuality in the combined state as to personally attract or 
repel one another differently. 

His theory is that liquid matter in the act of crystallising, just before solidification 
takes place, has the chemical atoms of different kinds which compose it sym- 
metrically arranged in space with respect to one another, and that this symmetrical 
disposition of the atoms is the direct consequence of different degrees of attraction 
and repulsion exercised by the different kinds of atoms during fluctuations in. the 
distances between them which are caused by waves of alternate condensation and 
rarefaction traversing the mass. He supposes that crystallisation occurs only in 
those cases in which the different kinds of atoms are present in such proportions as 
will admit of the necessary symmetrical arrangement. 


1 Published in eatenso in the Chemical News, January 1 and 8, 1886. 


984 REPORT— 1885. 


After having argued the probability of the theory from first principles, the 
author traces several systems of symmetrical arrangement for various different 
atom proportions, and points out that these systems are in harmony with the 
known crystal forms. The pair of systems which he derives for the atom propor- 
tions of quartz have spiral dispositions of the same kind of atom, right-handed 
in one, left-handed in the other, such as may account for the production of right- 
handed or left-handed rotation of a polarised ray by crystals of the substance. 

The cause of dimorphism is suggested, and symmetrical systems of arrange- 
ment of the atoms indicated for the dimorphic forms cale-spar and aragonite. 

The different expansion in different directions of crystals not of the regular 
system is explained. 

The phenomenon of twin crystals is shown to be in harmony with the theory. 

A general theory of isomorphism is submitted; the case of isomorphism of 
ammonic sulphate and potassic sulphate being specially referred to. 


8. On the use of Sodium or other soluble Aluminates for softening and 
purifying hard and impure water, and deodorising and precipitating 
sewage, waste water from factories, &c. By F. Maxwett Lyre, F.C.S. 


Roscoe gives the formula for sodium aluminate as Na,Al,O,, and this nearly 
agrees with the composition of the soluble portion of the crude salt. But, owing 
to its tendency to lose alumina on keeping in solution, even in closed bottles, and 
to the invariable presence of soluble silicates, the dissolved salt has practically 
rather the formula Na,A1,0,. 

Sodium aluminate is decomposed by all soluble acids and acid salts, and even 
by many strictly so-called neutral salts, among them being the sulphates, chlorides, 
and nitrates of the earthy and heavy metals. In this latter case a corresponding 
portion of earthy or metallic hydroxide is liberated, or rather the earthy or metallic 
oxide remains so loosely combined with the precipitated alumina that it is prac- 
tically free even to the point of being decomposed by carbonic acid, with the forma- 
tion of a carbonate of the base it contains, thus destroying a like amount of tem- 
porary hardness if present, just as the aluminate itself has already destroyed a 
certain number of degrees of permanent hardness. Thus (if we adopt Roscoe’s 
formula)— 

Na,A1,0, + CaSO, + CO, + 3H,0 = 
Na,SO, + 1CaCO, + Al,(HO),. 


The aluminium hydroxide takes down several times its own weight of organic 
matter, and thus may be produced— 

(A) Precipitation of any organic impurity. 

(B) Destruction of the permanent hardness, 

(c) Destruction of the whole or part of the temporary hardness. 


If the permanent and temporary hardness balance one another—z.e., are equal 
in amount—an addition of aluminate only sufficient for the permanent hardness 
will gradually destroy both it and a like number of degrees of temporary hardness. 

But if, as however is not often the case, the permanent hardness so far exceeds 
the temporary that there is not sufficient carbonic acid in solution to throw down 
as carbonate all the lime or other base producing the permanent hardness, a little 
sodium bicarbonate may be added, or, in order to keep down to a minimum the 
soluble sodic salts, a little phosphoric acid. 

If the temporary hardness be in excess, it may be destroyed by Clark’s method, 
or a little more aluminate may be added. 

The time required for the precipitation of the aluminium salts and formation of 
the calcium and other carbonates, varies with different waters from a few minutes to 
a few hours, so that where time is an object it may be advisable to use some kind 
of rough filter. Indeed water so softened and purified passes easily and filters 
perfectly. Where water is contaminated with organic substances, but contains no 
appreciable hardness, or where it is desired to retain its hardness so as not to lose 


=—_” 


a 2 eee 


—————————— 


= ae 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 985 


its freshness, the sodium aluminate may be precipitated with aluminium sulphate, 
when the following reaction takes place :— 

3Na,A1,0, + Al,(SO,),18H,O = 

3Na,SO, + 4A1,(HO), + 6H,0. 


Indeed as the decomposition of the insoluble aluminate formed only takes place 
slowly, it is best to use this method in addition, even when adding the aluminate 
alone for softening, in all cases where much organic matter is present which it is 
desired to get rid of, and thus it is very applicable to the purification of sewage, 
waste waters from factories, &c. Its advantages consist— 

(1) In its economy over every other known method of precipitation by alu- 
minium hydroxide. 

(2) The comparatively harmless nature and small proportion of the salt left 
in solution. 

The usual way of obtaining the hydroxide is by aluminium sulphate and lime 
or chalk. But the sulphate (even the pure crystallised salt) contains only 15:44 
per cent. of alumina (the commercial salt about 2 per cent. less), while sodium 
aluminate contains 523 to 623 per cent. and even the crude salt of commerce 
now obtainable abroad 33 per cent., so that a very much smaller quantity of the 
latter will suffice to produce a given quantity of hydroxide. Again, by using the 
sulphate with any salt other than the aluminate, the quantity of matter left in solu- 
tion would be greatly increased, while in the case of lime or chalk with sulphate 
the effluent would possess that objectionable quality, ‘ permanent hardness.’ 

As to the question of cost, sodium aluminate has never been manufactured in 
England on a large scale, so that its price at present is abnormally high, though 
there is reason to believe that ere long it will fall considerably. As it is, where 
water possesses 20 degrees of hardness—7e., 10 permanent and 10 temporary—it can 
be freed from both these, as well as from any organic matter, for about 2d. per 1;000 
gallons. Practically, and using the crude salt, the expenditure in the above case 
would be only just over 1 grain per gallon and per degree of hardness. The simple 
purification of water or sewage would be considerably less, 

Tn experimenting practically with the above process for purifying sewage and 
waste waters it must be borne in mind, first, that great care must be taken to 
obtain a proper aluminate; and, secondly, that the salt should not be previously 
dissolyed, but added, finely powdered, to the liquid it is desired to purify. 


TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15. 
The following Reports and Papers were read :— 
1. Report on Vapour Pressures and Refractive Indices of Salt Solutions. 
See Reports, p. 284. 
2. Report on certain Physical Constants of Solution.—See Reports, p. 261. 


3. On Solutions of Ozone and the Chemical Actions of Liquid Oxygen. 
By Professor Drwar, F.R.S. 


4. On Physical Molecular Equivalents.!. By Professor Gururin, F.R.S. 


1 Published in the Chemical Nen's, 1885. 


986 REPORT—1885. 


5. The Size of Molecules. By Professor A. W. Retnotp, M.A., F.R.S. 


The four lines of argument by which Sir W. Thomson has been led to form 
an estimate of the size of a molecule are, briefly, as follows :— 

1. Argument from the Refractive Dispersion of Light.—If transparent sub- 
stances like water, glass, &c., were infinitely homogeneous, the velocity of propa- 
gation of light through them would be independent of the period of vibration or 
wave-length. The fact that the velocity of propagation does depend on the period 
is irrefragable proof that such transparent substances are not infinitely homo- 
geneous—2z.e., the coarse-grainedness of such substance is comparable with the 
wave-length of light. Cauchy was the first to arrive at this conclusion, but his 
theory leads to results altogether untenable. The same general principle is, how- 
ever, applicable, and by making certain assumptions as to the connection between 
the ether and the heavier particles of matter, results may be obtained in agreement 
with those derived from other considerations. 

2. Argument from the Phenomena of Contact Electricity—If a plate of zine 
and a plate of copper be brought into contact with each other, they become oppo- 
sitely electrified and attract each other. Let the plates be each a square centimetre 
in area, and, after being made to touch, let them be brought to a distance of 
10—-* centimetres from each other. The work done by electrical attraction while 
the plates are allowed to approach each other is about 2 x 10® x 10-8 =2 x 10-? centi- 
metre-grammes. If now a third plate, of copper, be similarly placed upon the 
zinc platean, equal additional amount of work will be done by electrical attraction, 
and by making a pile of plates, alternately of zinc and copper, an amount of work 
will be done by electrical attraction proportional to the number of plates employed. 
Suppose a pile so constructed of 100 millions and one plates, 50 millions and one 
of zinc, and 50 millions of copper, each plate being the hundred millionth of a centi- 
metre thick, and the distance between the plates the 100 millionth of a centimetre. 
The volume of the metal will be a cubic centimetre, and its mass 8 grammes. The 
work done by electrical attraction will be 2 x 10% centimetre-grammes, or, 3 x 10° 
centimetre-gramme per gramme of metal. To raise the temperature of 1 gramme of 
zinc or copper,the heat required is equivalent to 4030 centimetre-crammes. Hence 
the work done by electrical attraction would, in the form of heat, raise the temperature 

lh 108 
4030 16,120 
our present knowledge of the heat of combination of zine and copper. By suppos- 
ing the plates and intervening spaces to be made yet four times thinner, it is shown, 
in a similar manner, that the temperature attained would be 990°. A result 
requiring more heat than is prodused by the chemical union of copper and zinc. 
Hence plates of zinc and copper ,.\_. centimetres thick, placed close together 

000,000 : c 

alternately, form a near approximation to a chemical combination, if indeed such 
plates could be made without splitting atoms, This argument, therefore, gives 
3y M. (M=millionth of a millimetre) as the diameter of a zinc or copper particle. 

3. Argument from Liquid films.—The surface tension of water is 81 dynes per 
centimetre, corresponding to about 8 milligrammes per millimetre. Therefore in 
the case of a water film with two faces the contractile force is 16 milligrammes per 
millimetre. Hence the work done in stretching a film of water, measured in milli- 
gramme-millimetres, is 16 times the number of square millimetres by which its area 
is increased. But the film is cooled in being stretched, and Sir William Thomson 
has shown that half as much energy must be supplied to the film in the form of 
heat to maintain its temperature constant. Hence the intrinsic energy of a mass 
of water in the shape of a film kept at a constant temperature is increased 24 milli- 
gramme-millimetres for every square millimetre added to its surface. Starting 
with a film ofa thickness of one millimetre, and supposing it to be stretched until 
its area is increased 10,000 fold, the heat equivalent to the work done in stretching 
it, supposing the temperature to remain constant, is calculated. It is thus shown 


that work spent in stretching this film until its thickness is moma Mullimetre, 


would, in the form of of heat, cause a rise in temperature sufficient to vaporise the 


of the mass by ; x 10° x = 62° C, which is not improbable according to 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 987 


film. This amount of work is far more than can be admitted, and the conclusion 
is inevitable that a water film falls off greatly in its contractile force before it is 
reduced to a thickness of || (14, millimetre. Such a falling off in the contractile 
force would indicate that there are not several molecules in this thickness of 
water, 

4, Argument from the Kinetic Theory of Gases.—Supposing the molecules of a 
gas to be hard elastic globes all of one size, influencing one another by actual 
contact only, each molecule will move along in a zigzag path consisting of rectilinear 
portions, with abrupt changes of direction. Clausius has shown the average length 
of a free path of a particle, from collision to collision, to bear to the diameter of 
each globe, the ratio of the whole space in which the globes move to 6,/2 times 
the sum of the volumes of the globes. Or if \ be the average length of free path, 
o = diameter of a globe, v = volume of the globes in 1 c.c. of gas, then ¢ =6,/2 v X.° 
Since it is inadmissible to suppose that, in the liquefaction of any of the ordinary 
gases, they could be made 40,000 times denser than at ordinary temperature 
and pressure, without reducing the whole volume to less than that of the sum of 
the globes, the free path must not be more than 5,000 times the diameter of the 
gaseous molecule. The average length free path of each molecule from collision to 
collision in the case of oxygen, nitrogen, or air, has been shown to be _1_ of a 


100,000 
centimetre. The diameter of the gaseous molecule, therefore, cannot be less than 
amma centimetre, ze, 2x10-° or 4 M (millionth of a millimetre), Nor 


can the number of molecules in a c.c. of gas be greater than 6x 1074. Since the 
densities of known liquids and solids are from 500 to 16,000 times that of air, at 
ordinary pressure and temperature, the number of molecules in a c.c. may be from 
5x 10* to 10°, Assuming a cubic arrangement of molecules, the distance from 
centre to nearest centre in solids and liquids may be estimated at from aaa 
to ayo Millimetres. 

These four lines of argument show that in liquids and transparent solids the 
mean distance between the centres of contiguous molecules is something between 
jth and ;4.th of a millionth of a millimetre. 

Quite recently Professor F. Exner has shown that v in the formula ¢ =6./2 vA, 
mentioned above, may be calculated in another way. Starting from Faraday’s 
assumption that a dielectric consists of particles of conducting substance dis- 
tributed throughout its mass and separated from each other by absolutely non- 
conducting (void) spaces, and supposing » =the sum of the conducting particles in 
lec. of dielectric, Clausius has shown, supposing the particles to be spheres, the 
following simple relation to hold between v and the specific inductive capacity of 

K-1 


the dielectric viz., aoe Further, according to Maxwell’s theory, K=n’, 
+2 
where n=the refractive index of the substance. Hence in the case of gases the 
K-11 n?-1 


formula v = —,—., may be applied. The values obtained by this method 


K+Z n?+2 
for the diameter of a. molecule are smaller than those obtained by the other 
methods, but of the same order of magnitude. 

The author goes on to give a brief account of the experiments on soap films, 
conducted by himself conjointly with Professor Riicker (‘ Nature, vol. xxxii., p. 210), 
the results of which, even when the highly complex character of the liquid em- 
ployed is considered, are not out of accord with the estimate of Sir W. Thomson 
as to the size of molecules, although the upper limit given in 1873 by the latter 
(viz., 3 M), is probably tvo high. 


6. An approvimate determination of the Absolute Amounts of the Weights 
of the Chemical dtoms.’ By G. Jonnstone Sroney, D.Sc., F.R.S. 


Several inquiries (see Professor Loschmidt, ‘Zur Grosse der Luftmolecule,’ 
Academy of Vienna, Oct. 1865; G. Johnstone Stoney on ‘ The Internal Motions of 
Gases, Phil. Mag. August, 1868; and Sir William Thomson on ‘The Size of 


988 REPORT—1885. 


Atoms,’ Nature, March 31, 1870) have led up to the conclusion that the number 
of molecules in each cubic millimetre of a gas at atmospheric temperatures and 
pressures is somewhere about a unit-eighteen (10'%). Hence, the number of 
molecules in a litre will be about a unit-twenty-four (104). Now, a litre of hy- 
drogen at atmospheric pressures and temperatures weighs, roughly speaking, a 
decigramme There isno advantage in taking account of the ratio of 1-2 decigramme 
to 1 decigramme. Hence, the mass of .a molecule of hydrogen, or weight, as it 
is called by chemists, is a quantity of the same order as a decigramme divided by 
10**—1.e. a twenty-fourth decigramme, which is the same as the twenty-fifth 
grammet. (The grammets are the decimal subdivisions of the gramme, of which 
the first is the decigramme, the second the centigramme, and so on.) Hence, the 
mass of the chemical atom of hydrogen may be taken to be about half the twenty- 
fifth of the grammets. There is no use in retaining the co-efficient ‘half’ in an 
estimate in which we cannot be certain to a unit that we have assigned the right 
power of 10, and we may, therefore, for the sake of simplicity, take the twenty- 
fifth grammet itself as being such an approach as we can attempt to the value of 
the mass of the chemical atom of hydrogen. 

Having obtained the mass of one atom, that of hydrogen, the masses of the 
atoms of the other simple substances bear the ratios to this that are assigned to 
them in the table of atomic weights, and the masses of molecules of compounds 
can be derived directly from these in accordance with their formulz, so that ail 
are approximately known. 


7. On Macromolecules (Molecules of Matter in the Crystalline State as 
distinct from the Chemical Molecule), and determinations of some of 
them. By G. JouNstone Sronty, D.Sc, F.R.S. 


The molecule of a crystal is usually found, in the few cases in which an inves- 
tigation is possible, to include several chemical molecules. On this account the 
author has suggested that they be called macromolecules, as in reference to them 
the chemical molecule is a sub-molecule. 

In a communication made two years ago to the British Association, it was shown 
that although each chemical atom of a solid may be in a state of internal motion, 
this motion must be such that a point can be assigned within each atom (and which is 
determined by an integration similar to that by which centres of gravity are deter- 
mined) which point is a fixed point in solids, and a travelling point if the atom be 
an atom of a liquid or gas. This for convenience may be called the centre of the 
atom. Ina crystal, these centres are all in fixed positions and at definite distances 
asunder, so that a diagram may be conceived consisting of these points, with lines 
connecting them wherever the corresponding atoms are chemically in combination. 
The chemical formula limits geometrically the number of positions relatively to 
one another in which these points can stand within one chemical molecule. 

The only hypothesis that needs to be made is at this stage and the next, at 
both of which it is assumed that the bonds or connections between the chemical 
molecules of a solid are identical with the bonds found by Chemistry between the 
atoms of chemical molecules, being some not used in forming that particular sub- 
molecule. 

By this hypothesis the diagram can be extended to a group of chemical 
molecules, and, as before, there is geometrically only a limited number of such 
diagrams possible. 

Finally, these groups or macromolecules are again connected together by 
chemical bonds not yet employed, and these final connections must be such that 
the resulting form &c. are identical with the observed crystalline form with all its 
faces and with its cleavage planes, &c. All these when known furnish conditions 
that limit the number of possible arrangements at the preceding stages, and if the 
number of such conditions be sufficient, or where the crystalline form is sufficiently 
complicated, and especially where hemihedral faces occur, they give an indication 
as to which of the possible arrangements at the preceding stages is the real one. 
In a few cases it has been possible in this way to make out with considerable 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B 989 


seca what the arrangement at each step is, and thus to trace a connection 
tween the chemical constitution and the crystalline form, &c. 

Thus in iron pyrites, FeS,, the hemihedral form with parallel faces which is 
characteristic of this mineral, and which is from it called the pyritohedron, can be 
traced on from the chemical molecule FeS, through a macromolecule which 
includes six of these as sub-molecules, and which is connected with the other 
similar macromolecules in a regular way. 

So, again, the general form and tetrahedral hemihedralism which are found 
in boracite can be traced from its formula, 


3Mg0, 4B,0,, 


through macromolecules each of which contains four of these chemical molecules. 

And, again, the two kinds of hemihedralism, the right-handed and the left- 
handed, which present themselves in different specimens of quartz, can be traced 
from the chemical molecule SiO, through a macromolecule which contains six of 
these connected in one or other of two possible ways, and thence on to the two 
crystalline forms of the perfect crystal that present themselves. 

There is therefore reason to believe that in each of these crystals the macro- 
molecule or crystalline molecule consists of several chemical molecules, and must 
be carefully distinguished from the latter, containing in iron pyrites six, in boracite 
four, and in quartz six, chemical molecules. 


8. On the Dilatancy of Media composed of Rigid Particles in Contact. 
By Professor OspornE Reynops, F’.R.S.—See Section A, p. 895. 


9. On the Evidence deducible from the Study of Salts. 
By Spencer U. PICKERING. 


In this paper the author dealt with the evidence as to the molecular weights of 
salts, derived from a study of the composition (1) of hydrated salts; (2) of basic 
salts; (3) of double salts, He also criticised the evidence deducible from experi- 
ments on hydration, dehydration, and the vapour tension of hydrated salts, and 
finally examined the conclusions drawn from the calorimetric investigations of such 
compounds. The conclusions arrived at by the author are, that, although ina few 
isolated cases the molecular weight obtained would appear to be greater than the 
analytical results necessitate, still in a vast majority of cases there are no grounds 
for multiplying these weights, and, indeed, there is a considerable mass of evidence 
in favour of adhering to the simplest possible formule. Such a conclusion may, at 
first sight, appear opposed to conclusions drawn from other sources. On the one 
hand the author considers it undeniable that if we succeed in determining the 
number of replaceable portions of the elements in any compound, we determine 
ex hypothesi the number of atoms in the molecule—that is the molecular weight— 
and although the data‘at our disposal at present are of the most meagre description, 
they nevertheless seem to point incontestibly to the simplicity of these molecules. 
On the other hand, considerations based on the crystalline form and other physical 
properties of bodies force on us the conclusion that liquid and solid molecules are 
in all probability of a very complicated nature, certaimly more complicated than 
gaseous molecules. Both these conclusions the author considers to be reconcilable 
with one another, and contends that because the smallest particle of a substance 
which enters into a chemical reaction may be simple, there can be no reason why 
many of these particles may not agglomerate and act in unison as regards certain 
physical forces. That this agglomerate does not act as a unit towards chemical 
forces would simply imply that the force which unites the individuals constituting 
it is not chemical force, or is chemical force of sucha weak nature that, in presence 
of the strong chemical agents we make use of, it is inappreciable. The molecule 
of achemist is not necessarily identical with the molecule of a physicist. 


990 REPORT—1885. 


10. On the Molecular Weights of Solids and Salts in Solution. 
By Professor W. A. TrtpEn, D.Sce., F.R.S. 


It seems to be generally agreed that bodies in the solid state consist of units or 
molecules which are very complicated and made up a of considerable number of such 
smalier aggregates as compose the molecules of gases. Accepting the conclusion, 
the author is disposed to go further, and to say that in any given case there appears 
to be no reason for limiting the number of small molecules which may thus be 
bound together to form the physical unit of a solid. The law of Dulong and Petit, 
and Neumann’s law, according to which every elemental atom, whether free or in 
combination, has the same, or nearly the same, specific heat, point to a conclusion of 
this kind. The law of Dulong and Petit states that, approximately at least, the specific 
heat in the solid element is inversely as the atomic weight, or as n times the atomic 
weight. This seems to indicate that, since n may be made as large as you please, 
there is in solids of this kind, and in salts, &c., no difference between molecule and 
mass, and that the physical unit is the atom, The same kind of argument may be 
deduced from the facts known concerning the specific volumes and refraction equiva- 
lents. 

Solid bodies according to this view are composed of atoms which are only dis- 
tributed into molecules capable of taking up an independent state of existence when 
the body becomes fluid. 

Such a hypothesis involves or implies another, viz., that chemical combination 
between atoms and the combination of molecules which ensues when a gas or a 
liquid returns to the state of solid are phenomena of the same nature. This agrees 
with the commonly recognised resemblance between the process of dissociation and 
the processes of fusion and of evaporation. In both the change is gradual and is 
dependent upon temperature, and both are directly measurable in terms of heat or 
some other form of energy. Another consequence of this view is that we must 
confine the idea of limited valency to gaseous substances. From the well known 
numerous double salts, and especially such compounds as the periodides of the 
organic bases, it appears, in the solid state, the elements and especially the non- 
metallic elemental radicles, are capable of developing an indefinitely large capacity 
for combination. None of these so-called molecular compounds exist in the gaseous 
state. 

With regard to solutions there are many facts which indicate that the molecules 
of dissolved substances are smaller than those of solids, Thus it appears that the 
alums, the numerous double iodides and chlorides, and such compounds as racemic 
acid, exist only in the solid state. When they pass into solution they are resolved 
into their proximate constituents. To determine whether common salt in solution 
is NaCl or n times NaCl seems almost an insoluble problem. The question of water 
of crystallisation is related to this subject, and here we have some evidence, though 
conflicting. On the one hand we have the evidence of such experiments as those of 
Dr. Nicol on the molecular volumes of salts in solution, from which it appears that 
the water of crystallisation of a salt dissolved in water is not distinguishable from 
the rest of the water with which the salt is mixed. But if this means that when 
a salt such as copper sulphate, for example, is dissolyed in water, the water com- 
bined in the crystal separates from it, leaving the salt molecule to wander free, the 
author can not assent to this view. By this hypothesis we can explain neither 
the colours of such solutions, nor the large evolution of heat which ensues on the 
introduction of such a salt in the anhydrous state into water, 

The composition of the salt molecule in solution appears to be dependent chiefly 
upon temperature. If we dissolve in water a salt like common salt, which habitu- 
ally crystallises without water of crystallisation, the salt molecule in solution at 
ordinary temperatures does not include the elements of water, in other words the 
salt dissolves in the anhydrous state. But if we take a salt such as sodium sul- 
phate, the dissolved molecule retains the same amount of water as the crystals 
formed at the same temperature, whilst if the temperature is raised these molecules 
are gradually broken down until at a certain temperature all the salt molecules 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 991 


present give up their water and become anhydrous, The author has now satisfied 
himself by experiment that this decomposition or dissociation is progressive and 
does not take place per saltum. Taking sulphate of sodium, which has its point of 
maximum solubility at 34° and above that point deposits the anhydrous salt, he 
has made determinations of the rate of cooling of a strong solution and finds the 
time-temperature curve to be parallel with that of water done under the same con- 
ditions. Calorimetric determinations of the heat of solution of the anhydrous salt 
at successive temperatures lead to the same conclusion, 


11. On the Molecular Constitution of a Solution of Cobaltous Chloride. 
By Professor W. J. Russrtt, Ph.D., F.R.S. 


A thin layer of cobaltous chloride gives an absorption spectrum consisting of 
two broad ill-defined bands. If the chloride be fused with potassium, sodium, or 
calcium chloride, the spectrum of these mixtures, both in the solid and fused 
state, is different from that of cobaltous chloride, alone and consists essentially of four 
bands, two of which are marked and characteristic. This same spectrum is obtained 
with solutions of cobaltous chloride in absolute alcohol, in amy] alcohol, in hydro- 
chloric acid, and in glacial acetic acid. This spectrum would, therefore, appear to 
be that of cobaltous chloride in an altered molecular state. The spectrum of an 
aqueous solution is again different, and consists of one broad band nearer to 
the blue end than the other bands, but the addition of cobaltous chloride to such 
a solution, or of such bodies as possess an affinity for water, causes a reversion of 
the spectrum to that of the anhydrous cobaltous chloride. Heat also produces 
the same effect, and it would appear from these results that the anhydrous chloride 
can exist in aqueous solutions. The changes in the character of a spectrum of 
an aqueous solution produced by heat may be explained as arising from a disso- 
ciation of some of the hydrates existing in the solution, and the production of 
anhydrous cobaltous chloride. Further, the fact that those solutions containing 
the anhydrous salt more readily transmit the blue rays and absorb the red rays, 
whilst those containing hydrates in solution more readily transmit the red rays, 
would indicate that the molecule of the hydrate is smaller than that of the anhy- 
drous salt. The action of water on the anhydrous salt, therefore, is not to form an 
additive compound, but to split the molecule of the anhydrous salt and form one 
in which water replaces cobaltous chloride. 


WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16. 
The following Papers were read :— 


1. An Electro-centrifugal Machine for Laboratory use.' 
By ALEXANDER Watt, F.L.C., F.C.8. 


This instrument, although in itself possessing no scientific interest, has been 
found so useful in the laboratory as to justify the hope that a description of it 
and a demonstration of its use may prove of interest. 

The late Dr. Mohr, of Bonn, in his ‘ Titrirmethode’ advocated the use of a 
centrifugal machine for the rapid drying of crystalline precipitates, for use in 
volumetric analysis, and although they are admirably adapted for such purposes, 
centrifugal machines are seldom seen in our chemical laboratories. It is possible 
that the neglect of this valuable addition to our laboratory apparatus is owing to 
the inconvenience involved in driving the machine at a high speed by means of the 
ordinary pulleys or other speed-increasing gear, especially when the rotation has 
to be kept up for a considerable length of time. 


1 Printed in full in the Chem. News, vol. 52, p. 232. 


992 REPORT— 1885. 


It therefore occurred to me, that by directly attaching an electro-motor to the 
revolving drum or basket (or table as in Mohr’s instrument), the inconvenience 
attending the driving might be got over, and at the same time a combination of 
great efliciency would result, as the electro-motor like the centrifugal machine is 
most efficient when driven at a high speed. 

‘The apparatus consists essentially of a basket or drum of perforated copper 
(it might be of iron, or other suitable metal, or of ebonite) slipped on to a cone 
attached to the spindle of a small electro-motor, and is held in position by means 
of anut. The surrounding casing serves to catch the liquid driven out of the 
substance being dried. The electro-motor consists of a Siemens H armature, which 
revolves between the poles of an electro-magnet of soft iron. The centrifugal 
machine, as is well known, has many industrial applications. It is used in laundries 
and in the textile manufactures for drying wool and cloth, in dyeworks for drying 
feathers, and in the manufacture and refining of sugar, for the separation of the 
sugar crystals from the syrup, but it is only quite recently that chemical manu- 
facturers have awakened to its value. 


2. Barium Sulphate as a Cementing Material in Sandstone. 
By Professor Frank Crowes, D.Sc.—-See Section C, p. 1038. 


3. An Apparatus for determining the Viscosity of Oils. 
By A. H. Auten, F.C.8. 


4. The Action of Nitrous Gases upon Amyl Alcohol. 
By J. Wituams, F.0.8., F.L.C., and Mytes H. Sira, F.C.8. 


Having had occasion lately in the manufacture of amyl nitrite, to determine 
for commercial and manufacturing purposes the best mode of producing the 
largest possible result from a given amount of materials, the following results 
were obtained. 

We should mention that in all the trials the same sample of amyl alcohol was 
employed. This had been well purified by washing, fractional distillation, and 
several distillations in the vapour of steam; it was therefore practically nearly 
pure, but may still have contained traces of ethylic and butylic alcohols, and per- 
haps other bodies, 

The nitrous gases were produced by the action of nitric acid of various 
strengths upon arsenious acid. With the very strong acids it was necessary that 
the arsenious acid should be in lump to moderate the action. 

It was found that the gas produced by nitric acid of sp. gr. 1500 was 
nearly entirely absorbed by the amyl alcohol, which when completely nitrified 
changed in colour from a bright yellow to a greenish-brown., The product, washed 
and distilled, gave only from 42 to 48 parts distillmg under 100° C., about 85 
parts under 120°, and remainder boiling at a considerably higher point. This 
result was very unsatisfactory, and proved that the gas produced by acid of this 
strength was nearly pure nitrogen tetroxide, which in contact with the amyl 
alcohol was split up into nitrous acid (producing less than one-half nitrite amyl) 
and nitric acid, producing higher products of oxidation. 

Nitric acid of 1420 was then tried, Much of the gas was absorbed, but a con- 
siderable quantity of unabsorbable gas was produced, and the product yielded about 
65 to 70 parts of a distillate coming over at 100° or a little above. This result, 
although better, was not at all satisfactory. 

Nitric acid of 1850 gave a gas which contained a still larger proportion of 
unabsorbable gas, but ultimately yielded a product which gave on one occasion 
as much as 90 per cent. of distillate under 100°, and 95 under 105°. 

When nitric acid of sp. gr. 1300 was employed, most of the gas obtained 
was unabsorbable, but a small percentage of absorbable gas was obtained, which 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION B. 993 


after some time was sufficient to complete the reaction. The product, washed and 
distilled, gave a result yielding as much as 95 per cent. of distillate under 100°. 

It appeared evident from the experiments that acid of a medium strength, say 
1350, was better adapted for our purpose than either very strong or very weak 
acid. That, in fact, the very strong acid produced little else than nitrogen 
tetroxide, and the very weak acid mainly nitric oxide. We determined to try a 
mixture of these two gases. 

The nitrogen tetroxide was produced by acting upon arsenious acid by nitric 
acid of sp. gr. 1500, or, in a later experiment, by acid of 1520. The nitric 
oxide was made by adding nitric acid to nitrite of sodium, or, in the latter experi- 
ments, by acting upon copper turnings by nitric acid. The gases were allowed to 
mix in a glass vessel, care being taken to keep the nitric oxide in considerable 
excess, Under these circumstances the mixed gases were freely absorbed, some 
unabsorbable gas being of course given off. And the product when examined 
gave at first from 85 to 90 parts boiling under 100°, but in later experiments 
the result came up to 95 parts at 100° and 97 parts at 105°. This result, from the 
manufacturing point of view, was as perfect as we could desire. 

It is not our wish to express any opinion as to the nature of the mixed gas, but 
can only record the fact, that it acts very much as we should expect nitrous acid 
gas (if it exists) would act upon amyl alcohol. That is a question, however, we 
leave for the consideration of others. 


5. On the Action of Water on Lead. By A. H. Atren, F.C.S. 


1885. Me: 


994 REPORT—1885.- 


SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. 


PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION—Professor J. W. Jupp, F.R.S., Sec. G.S. 


THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10, 


The PrestpEnT delivered the following Address :— 


As this city is the only place within the limits of the Scottish Highlands where our 
Association holds its annual gatherings, it is fitting that the attention of those who 
meet in this Section should, on the present occasion, be specially directed to the 
grand problems of Highland geology. Six-and-twenty years have passed since the 
members of this Section assembled here, under the presidency of my dear friend, my 
revered master, Charles Lyell. Few now present can have actually listened to the 
stormy discussions of that memorable occasion, but all are familiar with the nature 
of the problems which in the year 1859 were here so keenly debated. It is true 
that the fires of these controversies have now almost died out, and from their ashes 
haye arisen the new problems which confront us to-day; but it will not, I think, 
be without profit to direct your attention for a few minutes to those two subjects 
which constituted the ‘ burning questions’ of that time—the age of the Crystalline 
Rocks of the Highlands, and the geological position of the Reptiliferous Sandstone 
of Elgin. 

With respect to the first of these questions, there are especial reasons why I 
should briefly review the discussions which have taken place in connection with it. 
It was in the meetings of this Section of the British Association that the successive 
stages of the controversy were gradually developed. It was at a former meeting 
of the Association in this city that James Nicol submitted to the scientific world 
that splendid solution of a difficult problem, which is now universally admitted to 
have been the correct one. This university was, during the last twenty-seven years 
of his active, useful, and honoured life, the scene and centre of the labours of that 
profound but modest thinker to whom we owe so much. Lest it should seem pre- 
sumption on my part to speak on the question, I mayadd that for some years before 
his death it was my good fortune to enjoy the friendship and confidence of the late 
Professor Nicol, with whom I had several opportunities of discussing the great 
questions at issue between himself and Murchison. Seeing, as I do to-day, his own 
great claims too often forgotten or ignored, I feel that should I, on this occasion, 
hold my peace— the very stones would cry out.’ It will indeed be an unfortunate 
day for our republic of science when the palm of recognition—withheld from him 
whom modesty and self-respect restrain from clamorous self-assertion—is permitted 
to be snatched away by the bold and noisy advertiser of his own claims. 

Nearly seventy years ago, John Macculloch—that distinguished pioneer in 
Scottish geology—was able to prove that in our Western Highlands there exists a 
grand formation, made up of red sandstones and quartzite, both exhibiting un- 
mistakable evidence of a sedimentary origin. He also pointed out that, associated 
with these red sandstones and quartzites, are beds of limestone, which are often 
altogether destitute of crystalline characters, and are sometimes bituminous, while 
they occasionally contain fossils. 


—— 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 995 


Macculloch strongly insisted that this great system of strata, which covers 
large areas in Sutherland and Ross, extending also into some of the Western Isles, 
is distinct alike from the Old- and the New-Red Sandstone; he asserted that it 
belongs to a far older period than either of those formations, and, employing the 
phraseology of the early geologists, he gave to it the name of the ‘ Primary Red 
Sandstone.’ ? 

Macculloch showed clearly that the strata of his ‘Primary Red Sandstone 
Formation’ are often found resting unconformably upon the gneissose and schistose 
rocks of the Highlands; but that in other places they appear to be overlain con- 
formably by, and even to alternate with, crystalline schists and gneisses. He was 
further able to state that the quartzites of his ‘ Primary Red Sandstone Formation’ 
contain organic remains, some of which he correctly identified as the burrows of 
marine worms, while others he recognised as Orthoceratites.* It is almost painful to 
have to add that his want of appreciation of the value of paleontological evidence, 
a wealmess which Macculloch shared with so many of the early Scottish geologists, 
prevented any attempt on his part at the correlation of this ‘Primary Red Sand- 
stone’ with the rocks of other districts; and thus for more than forty years this 
important discovery remained almost entirely fruitless. 

The next step in the history of our Inowledge of these Highland strata which 
we have to record, was unfortunately a retrograde one. Sedgwick and Murchison, 
who visited the district in 1827, maintained that Macculloch had fallen into 
grievous error, and that his ‘Primary Red Sandstone Formation’ was in fact no 
other than an outlying part of the Old Red Sandstone.* 

This view was strongly protested against by Hay Cunningham, who, writing in 
1839, after a careful survey of Sutherland, demonstrated the justice of Macculloch’s 
conclusions, and even went beyond that geologist in showing the very intimate 
connexion between the quartzite and limestone. He clearly illustrated by numerous 
sections the unconformity of the ‘Primary Red Sandstone Formation,’ consisting 
of red sandstone, quartzite, and limestone, upon the gneissose rocks, and the 
apparently conformable superposition to it of other schists and gneisses.* 

Such was the state of geological opinion when, in the winter of 1854, the 
attention of geologists was recalled to this ancient formation of Macculloch by the 
discovery in it of fossils by one who fully recognised their value and importance— 
Mr. Charles Peach. These fossils, though imperfect, were sufficient to prove that 
the strata containing them must be of Paleozoic age. 

Three of the leaders of geological science at that day appear to have been 
deeply impressed with the importance of this discovery of Mr. Peach’s; but for a 
time, at least, the fruits of that discovery were missed, through the unfortunate 
retrograde teachings of Sedgwick and Murchison in 1827. : 

Hugh Miller, whose splendid researches in the Old Red Sandstone had made 
him ready to welcome any extension of its boundaries, suggested that the fossils of 
Durness might belong to the marine Devonian. 

Roderick Murchison, who in his younger days had worthily conquered a king- 
dom in Siluria, and by successive annexations in his later years had sought to 
convert this kingdom into an empire—one which should embrace all the Lower 
Palzeozoic rocks of the globe—was not unwilling to claim his native Highlands as 
part of this ever-growing realm. 

James Nicol, who had been the first to discover graptolites in the rocks of the 
Scottish Borderland, and had thus demonstrated their Silurian age, was so struck 
by the resemblance of some of the slaty rocks of the Highlands to the fossiliferous 
shales of his native district, that, ten years before Peach made his important dis- 
covery, he had suggested the probability of the Highland schists and gneisses being 


’ Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 1, vol. ii. p. 450, &e. Western Isles of Scotland (1819), 
vol. ii. p. 89, &e. System of Geology (1831). 

2 Western Isles of Scotland (1819), vol. ii. pp. 512, 513. 

3 Trans. Geol. Soc. ser. 2, vol. iii. p. 155. ; 

4 ¢On the Geognosy of Sutherlandshire,’ by R. J. H. Cunningham, M.W.S. ; Zrans- 
actions of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland, vol. xiii. (1839). 


3s 2 


996 REPORT—1885. 


simply the Borderland shales and greywackes in an altered state.!| Hence Nicol, 
equally with Murchison, was prepared to accept the Silurian age of the Durness 
limestone, and of the rocks associated with it. 

Murchison, still full of his old enthusiasm for discovery, determined to lose no ~ 
time in putting to the test the truth of the suggestion made by his old friend Nicol 
and himself; and accordingly shortly before the meeting of the British Association, 
which was fixed to take place in the year 1855 at Glasgow, we find the two friends 
making their way into the wild district of North-west Sutherland. 

Unfortunately the time was too short and the weather too unpropitious for the 
tasks they had set before themselves. 

When this Geological Section assembled at Glasgow, Murchison declared his 
conviction that the limestone of Durness, which had yielded the fossils to Mr. 
Peach, was of Silurian—that is, as he employed the term, of Lower Paleozoic 
age. But he, at the same time, maintained the truth of his old views, that the 
red sandstones of Applecross and Gareloch are in reality nothing but Old Red 
Sandstone,” and in this latter contention he received the warm support of Sedg- 
wick, who was also present at the meeting.’ 

Nicol, on the other hand, appears to have been greatly dissatisfied with the 
results of this hasty and inauspicious journey to Sutherland. While, however, 
withholding his judgment as to the age of the several rock-masses, he insisted, in 
opposition to the views of Murchison and Sedgwick, that the whole of the vast 
series of Red Sandstones in Applecross and Torridon is, as Macculloch showed, 
inferior to the quartzite and limestone.+* 

In the summer of the next year, 1856, Nicol, so soon as he was released from 
his teaching work in this university, hastened back to the Western Highlands to 
try and resolve some of the doubts which troubled him concerning the age and 
succession of the strata. This summer’s labour was productive of great and im- 
portant discoveries. In the first place, he was able to completely confirm the 
conclusion of Macculloch and Hay Cunningham, that al/ the Red Sandstone of the 
Western Highlands, with the exception of some small patches of ‘ New Red,’ belong 
to an old formation underlying the quartzite and limestone. But his researches 
also enabled him to show that Macculloch’s ‘ Primary Red Sandstone’ in reality 
consists of two formations, the lower—to which he subsequently gave the name of 
the ‘ Torridon Sandstone "—lying unconformably on the gneiss, and the upper (con- 
sisting of quartzite and limestone, containing fossils), resting everywhere uncon- 
formably upon, and overlapping, the sandstones.? It isa yery noteworthy circum- 
stance that while Nicol admitted the accuracy of the descriptions of Macculloch 
and Hay Cunningham which seemed to point to a conformable superposition of 
beds of gneiss to the quartzite and limestone, the results of this first summer’s work 
had already raised serious misgivings in his mind as to the correctness of this 
conclusion, for he wrote as follows :—‘ The fact of the overlying gneiss having been 
metamorphosed zz situ, and not pushed up over the quartzite, is one requiring further 
inyestigation.’® It is not surprising, however, to find that Nicol was so staggered 
by the magnitude of the faults which would be required to brmg about such a result, 
that for more than a year he hesitated to accept this, which we now know to be 
the true explanation of the phenomena. 

There was a suggestion—and it was nothing more than a suggestion—made 
by Nicol at this time, which has often been very unfairly quoted to his dis- 
advantage. Convinced that Macculloch was right as to the infraposition of the 
Torridon Sandstone to the quartzite and limestone, and strongly inclined to accept 


‘ Guide to the Geology of Scotland (1844). 

2 Brit. Ass. Rep. 1855 ; Trans. of Sec. p. 87. 

% Geikie’s Memoir of Sir Roderick Murchison (1875), vol. ii. p. 207. 

4 See Nicol’s Geology of the North of Scotland (1866), Appendix, p. 96. 

5 Col. Sir Henry James is said to have made similar observations during the same 
season, the summer of 1856, and to have communicated them to Sir Roderick 
Murchison by letter. But there can be no doubt that Nicol’s discovery was made 
quite independently, and he was the first to publish it. 

§ Quart. Journ, Geol. Soc. vol. xiii. (1857), p. 35. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 997 


Murchison’s confident assertion that this Torridon Sandstone was simply the ‘Old 
Red,’ Nicol pointed out that the only possible way of harmonising these two views 
was to suppose that the quartzites and limestones were of Carboniferous age; and 
he showed that the imperfect fossils which had been up to that time obtained at 
Durness were not sufficient to negative such a supposition. 

But during the summers of 1857 and 1858, Nicol continued his labours in the 
Western Highlands, with the result of clearing away many of his difficulties and 
perplexities. Murchison, too, had revisited the district, and seen that his idea of 
the ‘Old-Red’ age of the Torridon Sandstone would have to be finally abandoned, 
and that Macculloch’s views, as amended by Nicol, concerning the relations of the 
Highland rock-masses must be accepted. Salter, too, examining more perfect 
specimens of fossils, which had in the meanwhile been obtained from the Durness 
limestone by the indefatigable Mr. Charles Peach, showed that they were 
certainly of lower Palzeozoic age (Silurian of Murchison). 

The position taken up by Murchison, and on which he made his final stand, 
was simply arrived at by combining the stratigraphical conclusions of Macculloch 
and Nicol with the paleontological results of Peach and Salter. 

Murchison attended the meetings of this Association at Dublin in 1857, and at 
Leeds in 1858, on both occasions making use of the opportunity for explaining in 
detail his ideas concerning the age and succession of the Highland rocks. On the 
latter occasion, he challenged his old friend Nicol to meet him at the forthcoming 
meeting at Aberdeen to discuss the question, and the challenge was accepted. 

When Murchison arrived at this city, in September 1859, he brought with him 
a redoubtable champion in the person of Professor (now Sir Andrew) Ramsay, the 
director of the Geological Survey, who had been conducted to Assynt and shown 
the section there. It may perhaps serve as a caution against hasty generalisations, 
drawn from a single section imperfectly examined, to remember that so excellent a 
field-geologist, as Ramsay undoubtedly was, not only failed to see the weakness of 
Murchison’s position, but threw all the weight of his great authority into the 
scale against Nicol in this memorable controversy. 

Nicol, however, laid before this meeting a paper which, afterwards published 
in detail in the Journal of the Geological Society,? must be admitted to have really 
established the main facts concerning the geology of the Highlands as accepted by 
all geologists at the present day ; though his views, as is not uncommonly the case 
with great and original discoveries, were met for a long time with nothing but 
bitter opposition or cold neglect. Permit me to state, as briefly as possible, the 
conclusions which Nicol, as the result of three years of patient work in the Western 
Highlands, was able to announce in this place, just twenty-six years ago. 

1. He maintained with Macculloch and Hay Cunningham, and in opposition to 
the views originally propounded by Sedgwick and Murchison, that there exists in 
the Western Highlands an enormously thick series of red sandstones, quartzites, 
and limestones, which rest uncomformably upon the ancient gneisses and schists, 
and belong to a far older geological period than the Old Red Sandstone. 

2. He showed that this series of strata really constitutes ¢wo distinct formations, 
and that the older of these, the Torridon Sandstone, consists of red sandstones and 
conglomerates, in which no organic remains could be detected. 

3. The younger of these formations was shown by him to lie unconformably upon 
the Torridon Sandstone, and to consist of three members, which Nicol named the 
Quartzite, the Fucoid Beds, and the Limestone.* It is this formation which has 
yielded the interesting fossils of Lower Paleozoic age. 

4, The apparent repetition of beds of quartzite and limestone, which was insisted 
upon by Murchison, was shown to be due to faulting and overthrow, and thus the 


1 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xiii. (1857), p. 36. 

2» Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xvii. (1861), pp. 85-113. This paper was read on 
December 5, 1860; although its title is slightly different, the whole course of the 
argument is the same with that of the paper read here in the September of the 
previous year. 

8 Quart. Journ. Geol. Soe. vol. xvii. (1861), p. 92, &e. 


998 REPORT—1885. 


‘ Upper Quartzite ’ and the ‘ Upper Limestone’ of that author were proved to have 
no real existence.} 

5. What so many authors had taken for a conformable upward succession of 
this older Palzozoic formation into overlying schist and gneiss, was asserted by 
Nicol to be an altogether fallacious appearance, due to the thrusting of the crystal- 
line rocks over the sedimentary ones by great overthrow-faults. 

6. The relations between these crystalline and sedimentary strata in the Scottish 
Highlands were shown to be precisely similar to those which are constantly pro- 
duced by lateral pressure in all great mountain-chains, and consist of sharp foldings, 
inversions, and faulting on the very grandest scale. Examples of overthrow-faults, 
similar to those of the Scottish Highlands, were instanced by Nicol as occurring in 
the Alps.? 

We cannot perhaps better illustrate the position maintained by Nicol in this 
remarkable paper than by quoting the following passage :—‘ Until some rational 
theory is produced of the mode in which an overlying formation, hundreds of square 
miles in extent and thousands of feet in thickness, can have been metamorphosed, 
whilst the underlying formation of equal thickness and scarcely less in extent has 
escaped, we shall be justified in admitting inversions and extrusion’ (7.¢., of older 
masses on younger, as he explains his meaning to be) ‘equal to those of the 
Alps.’$ 

The only serious error into which Nicol fell—and after all it is a very incon- 
siderable one judged in comparison with his undoubtedly great achievements—was 
that of attaching too much importance to the influence of igneous intrusions in 
connection with the tremendous inversions and overthrow-faults to which he so 
clearly showed that these Highland rocks have been subjected. We now know 
that many of these supposed intrusive masses, though really of igneous origin in all 
probability, were of older date than the Paleozoic rocks in the midst of which they 
le; and that they were brought into their present positions, not by intrusion in a 
liquid state, but by complicated faulting. It must be remembered that these 
‘ granulites,’ as Nicol very justly called them,‘ for they present a wonderful analogy 
with the typical rocks of Saxony which are known by that name, have long been 
regarded by geologists as among the most difficult and perplexing of rocks to ex- 
plain the origin of, though the recent researches of Dr. Lehmann haye now done 
something towards the solution of the problem. 

Calmly reviewing, in the light of our present knowledge, the grand work accom- 
plished single-handed by Nicol, I have no hesitation in asserting that when this 
Association met here twenty-six years ago, he had already mastered the great High- 
land problem in all its essential details, and that his results were distinctly pro- 
claimed during the meetings of this Section. 

If, then, Nicol had so fully solved this great problem of Highland geology 
twenty-six years ago, how is it, may not unreasonably be asked, that we have 
waited so long for the justice of these views to be admitted ? 

A variety of circumstances have contributed to bring about this unfortunate 
result. Murchison was at the time too old and infirm to examine in careful detail 
the wild districts where these rock-masses are exhibited. Hence Nicol’s oft-repeated 
invitations to view the sections in his company remained unheeded, and we find 
the great geologist of Aberdeen writing in 1866 his concluding plaintive words in 
this memorable discussion: ‘I must express my most sincere regret that my illus- 
trious opponent—from whom only the most thorough conviction that my views are 
well founded, and that the question was one on which it became a teacher of 
geology in Scotland to give no uncertain utterances, could haye compelled me to 
differ—has never found it convenient to meet me again in the North. Iam con- 
vinced that we agree in so many essential points, that a few hours together in the 
field would bring us nearer in opinion than whole yolumes of controversy.” 

The phalanx of eminent geological authorities opposed to the views of Nicol, 


Quart. Journ, Geol, Soc. vol. xvii. (1861), pp. 98, 108, 109, &c. 
Ibid. pp. 108, 109, 110. 8 Thid. p. 110. 
Ibid. p. 89. 5 Geology of the North of Scotland, p. 96. 


- De 


—EE— ere er rrr errr rt—Crtt—C 


CQ EE 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 999 


including Professors Harkness, Ramsay, Archibald Geikie, and Hull, for a long 
time carried all before them; but it is now admitted that each of these excellent 
observers was deceived by having seen only portions of the evidence, and that they 
based their conclusions on imperfect data. Nicol, though during the later years 
of his life he declined unavailing controversy, still continued to study the High- 
lands year by year, re-examining every joint in his armour and satisfying himself 
of its soundness. 

In the year 1877 I had an opportunity of visiting for the first time the interest- 
ing sections of Assynt and Loch Broom, in company with Dr. Taylor Smith, F.G.S., 
and Mr. Richard D. Oldham, now of the Geological Survey of India. Although 
I entered upon this task with the strongest prepossessions in favour of the 
Murchisonian hypothesis, yet what I saw there during several weeks of work 
convinced me that the theory of an ‘ Upper Quartzite’ and an ‘ Upper Limestone’ 
was altogether untenable, and that, so far as these two sections were concerned, 
Nicol’s interpretation was undoubtedly the correct one. I was greatly impressed 
with the proofs of enormous folding and faulting among these Highland rocks, and 
when, shortly afterwards, I had an opportunity of meeting Professor Nicol in this 
place, and of hearing from his lips many details of his later work, I strongly urged 
him to republish his conclusions with the fuller illustrations and arguments which 
he was then so well able to supply. To all my pleadings he made but one reply: 
important as he knew these discoveries to be, yet in his advancing years he thought 
but little of the glory of them compared to their painful consequences to himself— 
the breach of the old friendly relations with one he, to the end, so greatly loved and 
honoured. He strongly deprecated at that time the re-opening of a controversy 
associated for him with such bitter memories; but he expressed his full conviction 
that when sufficiently accurate topographical maps were in existence, and the 
whole district should be surveyed by competent geologists, the truth of all the 
essential parts of his teaching would be established.' 

Most completely have these anticipations of Nicol been fulfilled. During the 
last seven years many of the sections of the Western Highlands have been visited 
by different geologists, Dr. Hicks leading the way, and not a few papers have been 
published embodying the results of these new studies of some of the disputed points. 
Such an able review of this recent work has been lately drawn up by my friend, 
Professor Bonney, in his Anniversary Address to the Geological Society, that I 
need not go over the ground again, but will content myself by referring to that 
address and to two exhaustive papers read by Dr. Hicks before the Geologists’ 
Association for full details concerning this later work. It will be seen that while 
new methods of study have enabled them to improve or correct Nicol’s petrological 
nomenclature, the principal conclusions of nearly all these writers concerning the 
relations of the several rock-masses entirely support bis views on the subject. 

But very recently Nicol’s work has been tested in the way which he himself so 
earnestly desired. Professor Lapworth, who, like Nicol, was especially prepared 
for the task by long and patient study of the crumpled Silurian rocks of the 
Borderland, taking advantage of the newly-published Ordnance maps of Sutherland, 
proceeded in the summer of 1882 to Eriboll, bent on the task of unravelling the 
complicated rocks and of mapping them upon the large scale of 6 inches to the mile. 
Professor Lapworth’s detailed maps and sections were exhibited to the Geological 
Society on May 9, 1883, during the reading of a paper by Dr. Callaway, in which 
the views of Nicol also received a considerable amount of valuable support. 

In the same year, 1883, a detachment of the Geological Survey of Scotland, 
under the superintendence of Messrs. B, N. Peach and J. Horne, commenced the 
detailed mapping of the Durness-Eriboll district. How admirably these gentlemen 
have performed their task we all know, and I hope that some interesting information 


1 In my two earlier papers ‘On the Secondary Rocks of Scotland,’ published in 
1873 and 1874 respectively, I had employed the Murchisonian nomenclature for the 
older rocks of the Highlands whenever I had occasion to refer to them; but in the 


- third of this series of papers, published in 1878 (Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. xxxiv. 


p. 660), I had no hesitation in abandoning this terminology for that of Nicol. 


1000 REPORT—1885. 


concerning their conclusions will be laid before the present meeting. In offering 
them—as I am sure that I am empowered by you to do—the hearty congratulations 
of the Geological Section of the British Association upon the auspicious commence- 
ment of this great undertaking, I cannot refrain from reminding you that, of the 
leaders in this important enterprise, one is the son of the discoverer of the Dur- 
ness fossils, the veteran Mr. Charles Peach to whom we owe so much, while the 
other is a very active and efficient local secretary of this Section. 

Nor should I do justice to my own sentiments on the subject, if I failed to bear 
tribute to the judgment displayed by the present chief of the Geological Survey in 
his choice of a base from which to attack this difficult problem, to his loyalty in 
accepting results so entirely opposed to his published opinions, and to his prompt- 
itude in making his fellow-workers in geology acquainted with these important 
discoveries. Unfortunately called upon while still young, and with but little of 
that ripe experience which he has since gained, to grapple with the most intricate 
of problems—problems which the most practised of field-geologists might be for- 
given for failing to solye—his own judgment yielded, though not without serious 
misgivings,’ when opposed to the ardent confidence of a companion and friend, 
whose reputation in the scientific world commanded his respect, and whose previous 
achievements had won his complete reliance. If, like your own Randolph at Ban- 
nockburn, he has ‘lost a rose from his chaplet’ at the commencement of this great 
Highland campaign, we are well assured that the error will be worthily repaired in 
its subsequent stages. 

The conclusions arrived at by Nicol, by Professor Lapworth, and by the officers 
of the Geological Survey concerning the relations of the rock-masses in the north- 
west of Sutherland, are, in all their main features, absolutely identical ; and the Mur- 
chisonian theory of Highland succession is now, by universal consent, abandoned. 


In the second of the great controversies to which we have alluded as having 
occupied the attention of this Geological Section in 1859—that concerning the age 
and relations of the Reptiliferous Sandstone of Elgin—the combatants were found 
ranged in quite a different order. Nicol is seen battling shoulder to shoulder with 
Murchison, Ramsay, and Harkness, in favour of the Palozoic age of the beds in 
question ; while Lyell, supported by Symonds of Pendock and Moore of Bath, is 
as stoutly maintaining their Secondary age. 

The tinding by Mr. Patrick Duff, in the year 1852, of the little fossil lizard 
called Yelerpeton, and the determination of its true nature by Mantell and Owen, 
constitute a discovery comparable in importance and fruitfulness to Mr. Peach's 
detection of the fossiliferous character of the limestone of Durness; up to that time 
no doubt had ever been entertained as to the ‘Old Red’ age of the yellow sand- 
stone of Elgin. For bringing together the remarkable fossils of these rocks, geo- 
logists are indebted to the untiring labours of Dr. Gordon of Birnie—whom, ful! of 
years and honours, and the object of such universal respect and love as indeed 
make grey hairs a ‘crown of glory,’ we rejoice to have still in our midst. Studying 
Dr. Gordon’s important collections, Professor Huxley was able, shortly before the 
previous meeting of the Association in this city, to announce that a crocodilian 
(Stagonolepis), and a second lizard of Triassic affinities (Hyperodapedon), existed at 
the period when these beds were deposited, so that even in 1859 the paleontological 
evidence in favour of the Mesozoic age of these rocks was admitted to be almost 
overwhelming. 

But this evidence has been very greatly strengthened since that date; for 
Professor Huxley has shown that the genus Hyperodapedon is represented in the 
Trias of Warwickshire, of Devonshire, and of India. In the same reptiliferour 
sandstone, with its abundant footprints, there have been found the remains of a 
reptile which Professor Huxley permits me to state is, in his opinion, probably 
Dinosaurian. 1 am sure that you will all join with me in the hope that the health 
of the President of the Royal Society may soon be so far restored that he may be 
able to return to the examination of these fossil reptiles of Elgin, in the study of 


1 See Memoirs of Sir Roderick Murchison (1875), vol. ii. p. 238. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1001 


which some of the earliest of his great paleontological discoveries were achieved. 
Within the last few days the remains of another reptile, clearly referable to the 
Dieynodontia has heen found ; so that no less than four orders of reptiles are now 
known to be represented in the formation. 

The manner in which the yellow sandstones, which have yielded these reptilian 
remains, are at many different points found associated with beds containing Holop- 
tychius and other Old Red Sandstone fish, appeared to many geologists altogether 
inexplicable on any other hypothesis than that the strata are all of the same 
geological age. 

In spite, however, of these appearances, and the interesting observations of Dr. 
Gordon and Dr. Joass on the rocks of the Tarbet peninsula, which seemed to 
support the hypothesis just referred to, I am able to announce that proof of the 
most clear and convincing character now exists of the distinction between the 
lish-bearing ‘Old Red’ and the reptiliferous ‘New Red’ of the neighbourhood 
of Elgin. In the year 1873 I showed that rocks, identical in character with 
the reptiliferous sandstone of Elgin, and the overlying calcareous and cherty 
rock of Stotfield, exist on the northern side of the Moray Firth, in the county of 
Sutherland, and that they there conformably underlie Rhetic and Liassic strata. 
Very recently Dr. Gordon has added a crowning discovery to his long list of 
previous ones, by detecting in the same quarry the rocks containing the reptilian 
and fish remains respectively. I find, however, that while the two series of beds 
present well-marked differences in their mineral characters, the yellow sandstones 
with fish remains clearly overlie the undoubted Upper Old Red, and are separated 
from it by a well-marked bed of conglomerate. In other quarries in the district, 
the manner in which these two series of strata have been thrown side by side by 
the action of great faults is very clearly exhibited. I hope that full details of the 
evidence on this interesting subject will be laid before you during the present meeting. 

The facts relied upon by the Paleontologist and the Stratigraphist re- 
spectively are thus found to be no longer opposed to one another. By a com- 
plicated series of parallel faults, the Devonian and Triassic sandstones, which 
happen to have a general resemblance in their mineral characters, are found again 
and again thrown side by side with one another in the Elgin district, so that the 
error into which geologists fell before the discovery of the distinctive fossils of the 
two sets of rocks, was a yery pardonable one. 


A retrospect of these two controversies, now so happily laid at rest, is not, I 
think, without its uses for the student of Highland geology, for it may serve to 
furnish him with some useful warnings which are in great danger of being over- 
looked at the present time. 

The discovery of a few fossil remains in strata where they were previously 
unknown, has completely revolutionized our ideas concerning the age of rock- 
masses of enormous extent and thickness, Resemblances in mineral character have 
been proved not only to have been, at their best, very unsafe guides indeed, but to 
have actually betrayed those who trusted in them into the most serious errors. 
But for the discoveries of Charles Peach on the one hand, and of Patrick Duff and 
Dr. Gordon on the other, geologists would probably still continue to class the sand- 
stones of Torridon and Elgin respectively with the ‘Old Red.’ 

But perhaps the consideration of greatest importance which is impressed upon 
us by this retrospect is, that in these Highland districts we must be always pre- 
pared to meet with rock-masses of very different geological ages, thrown into 
puzzling juxtaposition by the gigantic movements to which this part of the earth’s 
crust has been subjected. He who enters on the study of Highland geology with- 
out being prepared to encounter at every step complicated foldings, vast dislocations, 
and stupendous inversions of the strata, can scarcely fail to be betrayed into the 
most disastrous and fatal errors. 

The early history of Scotland is inextricably interwoven with that of Scan- 
dinavia. This proposition, true as it is of the insignificant periods of which 
human history takes cognizance, applies with even greater force to the vast epochs 
that fall within the ken of the geologist. To us the separation of Scotland and 


1002 RETORT—1885. 


Scandinavia is an event of very recent date indeed; it is not only an accident, but 
an uncompleted accident! The Scottish Highlands, with the Hebrides and Donegal 
on the one hand, with Orkney and Shetland on the other, must be regarded—to 
use a technical phrase—as mere ‘ outliers’ of the Scandinavian Peninsula. 

We must acknowledge, at the outset, that the study of the geological history of 
this Scandinavian peninsula and its outliers is a task bristling with difficulties. The 
problems presented to us in our Scottish Highlands are vast, complicated, and at 
times seemingly insoluble. But they are precisely the same problems that con- 
front our brother geologists in Scandinavia. And if our tasks, our doubts, our 
perplexities are the same, we equally share in the advantages and triumphs of 
discovery. 

The geologists of Scandinavia—and right worthy sons of Thor they are—have 
the advantage of possessing a territory almost limitless in its vastness, and seémingly 
infinite in its variety. But the very extent of their splendid country, with its 
sparse population and restricted means of communication, increases the difficulties 
of their task. ‘ The harvest truly is plenteous, but the labourers are few!’ With 
our smaller area, if we cannot expect so much variety, we may hope to gain some- 
thing from the number of our students and the greater accessibility of our fields of 
labour. 

Nor would I undervalue, in this connection, the importance of the union of this 
country with England. I allude, of course, not to events of yesterday, like the 
Accession of James VI. to the English throne and the Parliamentary Act of 
Union, but to operations that preceded these by many millions of years! It is no 
small advantage that a country like Scotland, in which the rock-formations are 
found hopelessly crushed and crumpled together, or broken into a thousand ill- 
fitting fragments that seem to defy all attempts to reduce them to order, should 
be united to one like England, where, by comparison, all is orderly and simple, 
the strata lying in regular sequence like well-arranged volumes in a library, and 
only await the touch of the geologist’s hammer to display the wealth of their 
fossil contents. 

The great Scandinavian massif, with its outlying fragments, constitutes the 
“ basal-wreck ’—to employ Darwin’s expressive term—of a great Alpine chain. On 
other occasions I have endeayoured to show how much our study of the nature and 
products of volcanic action is facilitated by the existence of similar ‘ basal-wrecks’ 
of volcanic mountains, like those which exist in your beautiful Western Isles. In 
the same way, I believe we may learn more by the study of this dissected moun- 
tain-chain, concerning the operations by which these grand features of our globe 
have originated, than by the most prolonged examination of the superficial characters 
of the Alps or the Himalayas. 

Here the scalpel of denudation has laid bare the innermost recesses of the 
mountain-masses, and what we can only guess at in the Alps and the Himalayas, 
here stands in our own Highlands clearly revealed to view. 

It is a well-ascertained fact that all the existing lofty mountain-chains have been 
formed at a very recent geological period. The reason of this it is not difficult to 
divine. In the higher regions of the atmosphere, the forces of denudation work so 
rapidly that within a very short period—geologically speaking—the vastest moun- 
tain-chain is razed to its very foundations— 


They melt like mists, the solid lands, 
Like clouds they shape themselves, and go ! 


It is not surprising then to find Powell and Gilbert, fresh from the study of the 
svand mountain-masses of the American Continent, giving expression to these 
thoughts in the following words: ‘ All large mountains are young mountains, and, 
from the point of view of the uniformitarian, it is equally evident that all large 
mountains must be growing mountains ; for if the process of growth is continuous, 
and if a high mountain melts with exceptional rapidity before the play of the ele- 
ments, it is illogical to suppose that the uprising of any mountain, which to-day is 
lofty, has to-day ceased.’ 

The Scandinavian Alps were a living and a growing mountain-chain in the far- 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1003 


distant Paleozoic period. Nowit is not only dead, but stretched on the dissecting- 
table of the geologist—its outer integuments and softer tissues stripped away, and 
its very skeleton bared to our view—a splendid ‘ subject’ for the student of moun- 
tain anatomy. 

One of the first to recognise this value of our Scottish Highlands to the student 
of Orographic Geology was the late Daniel Sharpe. He had made himself familiar 
with many of the characteristic details of Alpine architecture—so far as it was then 
understood—and was able to show that the foliated masses of our Highland dis- 
tricts exhibit precisely those relations which would be seen if the contorted and 
fan-like masses of the Alps were planed away by denudation. Nor in suggestions 
of this kind, as we have seen, was James Nicol far behind Sharpe ; but at that time 
many of the most important features of mountain-structure were unrecognised or 
misinterpreted, and the conclusions of these geological pioneers were little more than 
guesses—though very valuable and suggestive guesses— after truth. 

It is to our geological brethren over the Atlantic that we are especially indebted, 
not only for many important discoveries in the mechanics of mountain-formation, 
but for clearing away many of the clouds of error in which the subject had become 
involved. To Henry Darwin Rogers, who, after a career of valuable geological 
work in his native State of Pennsylvania, accepted the hospitality of this country, 
and spent the last decade of his useful life as Professor of Natural History and 
Geology in the sister university of Glasgow, must be assigned the foremost place in 
that school of orographie geologists which has grown up in America. 

The first sketch of the important theory of mountain-building, to which Rogers 
and his fellow-geologists were led by the study of the Appalachian chain, was 
published in 1842, but it was not till 1858 that the complete evidence on which 
this theory was founded could be published. 

The conclusion at which Rogers arrived was, briefly expressed, as follows :— 
The Appalachian mountains were carved by denudation out of an enormously 
thick mass of stratified deposits, thrown into a series of parallel wave-like folds. 
To the westward of the mountain range ‘the crust-wavyes flatten out, recede from 
one another, and vanish into general horizontality ;? but towards the heart of the 
mountain-mass the same flexed strata become greatly crowded together, their ‘ axis- 
planes’ become more and more inclined, till at last their folds, yielding at their 
apices to the tremendous lateral thrust, fractures twenty to eighty miles in length, 
and attended with a displacement of 20,000 feet or more, were produced. 

Unfortunately Rogers accompanied these just views of mountain structure with 
certain crude speculations and untenable hypotheses concerning the methods by 
which they were produced. But inthe minds of other American geologists, among 
whom may especially be mentioned Dana, Le Conte, and Vose—the fruitful ideas 
of Rogers have undergone development and expansion, while they have received 
abundant illustration through the labours of that active band of pioneers—the 
United States Geological Survey—including Clarence King, Powell, Emmons, 
Hague, Dutton, Gilbert, and many others. 

Nor have the brilliant results attained by these investigators in the New World 
been without their effect on the geologists of Europe. Lory, Suess, Heim, Baltzer, 
and others have shown that the clue to the right understanding of the structure of 
the Alps, which had been so diligently sought and so long missed by Von Buch 
and De Beaumont, by Studer and Favre, was now placed in our hands by the 
researches of the American geologists. 

In Northern Europe, Kjerulf, Dahll, Broégger, Reusch, and other geologists have 
ably illustrated the same peculiarities of structure in the denuded mountain-chain 
near the southern extremity of which we are now assembled ; and in a recent 
valuable and suggestive essay ‘ On the Secret of the Highlands’ Professor Lapworth 
has shown how perfectly these structures are exemplified in the western district of 
Sutherland. 

In offering a few remarks on some of the still unsolved problems of Highland 
geology I shall not hesitate to treat, as belonging to the same geological district, 
both Scandinavia and Scotland. Not only is the succession of geological deposits 
in the two areas almost completely identical, but the characters of the several 


1004 REPORT—1885. 


formations and their relations to one another in the one country are almost the 
exact counterpart of what they are in the other. 

The problems which await solution in Scotland are the same which confront 
our brethren in Scandinavia; their difficulties are our difficulties, their successes 
our successes ; if they share the benefits of our discoveries, we equally partake 
with them in the fruits of their achievements. Important links in the chain of 
geological evidence, absolutely wanting in the one area, may perchance be found 
in the other. Every advance, therefore, which is made in the knowledge of the 
rocks of the one country, must necessarily re-act upon the opinions and theories 
which prevail among geologists in the other. 

At the base, and forming the foundation of this greatly denuded mountain- 
chain, there exist enormous masses of highly foliated, crystalline rocks. These, in 
great part at least, underlie the oldest known, fossiliferous strata, and are therefore 
of pre-Cambrian or Archzan age. In spite of the labours of Kjerulf, Dahll, 
Brégger, Reusch, Tornebéhm, and many others in Scandinavia, and of Macculloch, 
Nicol, and their successors in this country, much still remains to be done in study- 
ing the petrographical characters and the geognostic relations of these widespread 
tormations. 

Some thirty years ago it was suggested by Sir Roderick Murchison that among 
these Archzean rocks there exists a ‘fundamental gneiss,’ a formation which is the 
counterpart and contemporary of the rocks in Canada, to which Sir William 
Logan gave the name of ‘ Laurentian.’ Since that time other similar attempts 
have been made to identify portions of these Archzean rocks in the Highlands and 
Scandinavia with crystalline rock-masses in different parts of the New and Old 
World. 

I confess that, speaking for myself, I am not sanguine as to the success of such 
endeavours. The miserable failures which we have seen to have attended similar 
attempts, in the case even of far less altered rocks, where identifications have been 
based on mineralogical resemblances only (and in connexion with which definite 
palzeontological or stratigraphical evidence has been subsequently obtained) ought 
surely to teach us caution in generalising from such uncertain data. It has been 
argued that, where palzeontological evidence is wholly wanting, and stratigraphical 
relations are doubtful or obscure, then we may be allowed to avail ourselves of 
the only data remaining to us—those derived from mineralogical resemblances. 
But surely, in such cases, it is wiser to admit the insufficiency of the evidence, 
and to say ‘ We do not know!’ rather than to construct for ourselves a ‘fool’s 
paradise,’ with a tree of pseudo-knowledge bearing the Dead-Sea fruit of a barren 
terminology! The impatient student may learn with the blind poet that 


They also serve, who only stand and wait. 


It is thought by some that the application of the microscope to the study of rock- 
masses may reveal peculiarities of structure that will serve as a substitute for 
paleontological evidence concerning the age of a rock when the latter is wanting. 
Greatly as I value the insight afforded to us by the microscope when it is applied 
to the study of the rocks, and highly as I esteem the opinions of some of those 
who hold these views, yet I fail to see that any such connection between the 
minute structure and the geological age of a rock has as yet been established. 

Although the bold generalisation which sought to sweep all the crystalline rocks 
of our central Highlands into the great Silurian net has admittedly broken down, yet 
it by no means follows that the whole of these rock-masses are of Archean age. 
Nicol always held that among the complicated foldings of the Highland rocks many 
portions of the older Paleozoic formations, in a highly altered condition, were 
included. The same view has been persistently maintained by Dr. Hicks, to whose 
researches among the more ancient rock-masses of the British Isles geologists are 
so greatly indebted, and also by Professor Lapworth. 

To the settlement of this very important question we may feel sure the effort 


1 See Quart. Journ. Greol. Soc. vol, xix. (1864), p. 184, and Geology and Scenery 
of the North of Scotland (1866). 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION GC. 1005 


\ of the officers of the Geological Survey will be especially directed. The geological 
surveyors of Scandinavia have been so fortunate as to detect, in rocks of an ex- 
tremely altered character, a number of fossils sufficiently well preserved for generic 
and sometimes even for specific identification. Failing the occurrence of such a 
fortunate accident, I confess that it has always appeared to me that the disturbances 
to which these Highland rocks have been subjected are so extreme, and the difficulty 
of making out the original planes of bedding so great, that but little can be hoped 
for from general sections constructed to show the relations of the rocks of the 
Central and Sotithern Grampians to the fossiliferous deposits of the North-West of 
Sutherland. 

Lying unconformably upon these Archean crystalline rocks in our North-West 
Highlands we find great masses of arkose or felspathic grit, with some conglomerates, 
the whole of these well-stratified deposits attaining a thickness of several thousands 
of feet. These rocks, in their characters and their relations, so greatly resemble the 
‘Sparagmite Formation’ of Scandinavia, that it is impossible to refrain from 
drawing comparisons between them. The Scandinavian formation, however, in- 
cludes calcareous and slaty deposits, which are wanting in its Scottish analogue. 
The ‘ Sparagmites’ of Scandinavia, as a whole, appear to underlie strata containing 
Cambrian (Primordial) fossils, but in the very highest portion of the ‘ Upper 
Sparagmite Formation’ of Southern Norway there have been found, according to 
Kjerulf, specimens of Paradoxides. 

The Scottish formation has, on the other hand, yielded no undoubted organic 
remains. Murchison, on the ground of its unconformable infraposition to his 
Silurian strata, and its resemblance to certain beds in Wales which he called 
Cambrian, referred it in his later years to that system. Although an identification, 
based on such grounds, must be admitted to be of small value indeed, yet the dis- 
covery: of ‘ Primordial’ fossils in the very similar rocks of Scandinavia may be 
admitted to lend it some slight support. In the present state of our knowledge, 
however, it is surely wiser to admit that the question of the age of these beds is 
still an open one, and to call it by the name suggested by Nicol—‘ The Torridon 
Sandstone.’ Kjerulf believes there is evidence that the Scandinavian Sparagmite, 
in places, passes horizontally into true gneiss, and similar appearances are not 
wanting in the case of our Torridon Sandstone. 

Concerning the overlying formation of quartzites and limestones, much yet 
remains to be made out. Nicol, Lapworth, and the officers of the Geological 
Survey, have shown it to be made up of three principal members—the identity 
of which cannot be mistaken although different names have been assigned to them. 
While Nicol estimated the total thickness of this formation at from 800 to 800 feet, 
however, and Lapworth places it at the smaller of these amounts, the officers of the 
Survey believe it to be no less than 2,000 feet thick. 

Even greater uncertainty still exists as to the exact geological age of this im- 
portant formation. Murchison, who in his later years made ‘Silurian’ a mere 
synonym for Lower Paleozoic, was no doubt right in regarding these rocks as 
being of that age. I have no intention of attempting to flog that dead horse— 
the controversy concerning the names which should be applied to the great systems 
containing the three faunas which Barrande so well showed to be present in the 
Lower Palzozoicrocks. That controversy, commencing, it must be confessed, with 
some tragic elements, has long since passed into the sphere of comedy, and now bids 
fair, if still persisted in, to degenerate into farce. Little, if anything, has been 
added to the work of Salter in connection with these fossils of the Durness 
limestone. With their abundance of that remarkable and aberrant mollusc, 
Maclurea, they can be paralleled with no other British or even European deposit, 
unless it be the Stinchar limestone of the Girvan district. Salter thought that this 
remarkable Scotch formation had its nearest analogues in the Calciferous sandstone 
and the Chazy limestone of North America. As those rocks contain ‘ Primordial ’ 
forms of Trilobites, they must probably be regarded as either of Cambrian age, or 
as constituting a link between the rocks containing Barrande’s first and second 
faunas respectively. Under these circumstances, it isa piece of welcome intelligence 
that the officers of the Geological Survey have succeeded in obtaining a rich and 


1006 REPORT—1885. 


yaried collection of organic remains from the beds of Sutherland ; and the results 
of the examination and discussion of these fossils will be awaited by all geologists 
with the greatest interest. 

Whether, as in case of Scandinavia, other fossiliferous deposits of Silurian age 
will be found to be represented in a highly metamorphosed condition in our Scot- 
tish Highlands, remains to be discovered. There is such a perfect parallelism 
between the several members of the Silurian in Scania and in the Scottish Border- 
land, so well shown by the researches of Linnarson and Lapworth, that, as Nicol 
always anticipated, we may not improbably find a portion of fhe rocks of the 
Highlands to be altered forms of those of the Borderland. 

Since the last meeting of the British Association in the Highlands, much pro- 
gress has been made in the study of that pre-eminently British formation—the Old 
Red Sandstone. Dr. Archibald Geikie has thrown much new light, by his valuable 
researches, on the relations of the several members of the vast series of deposits 
which go by that name; while Dr. Traquair, bringing to bear on the subject great 
anatomical knowledge, has re-examined the collections of fossil-fish made by that 
indefatigable explorer, Hugh Miller. The Old Red Sandstone is the only great 
system of strata which we possess, while it is either wholly absent, or very imper- 
fectly represented, in Scandinavia. 

In the year 1876, I was able to announce that a vestige—a small but highly 
interesting vestige—of the great Carboniferous system exists within the limits 
of the Scottish Highlands. Well do I recall the deep, the ineffaceable impression 
made upon my mind when, standing at the Innimore of Ardtornish, I beheld for 
the first time this relic of a great formation, preserved by such a wonderful series 
of accidents, What the inscribed stone of Rosetta or the papyri of Herculaneum are 
to the archeologist, this little patch of sandstone is to the geologist. Overwhelmed 
by successive lava-streams that were piled upon one another to the depth of many 
hundreds of feet, and then carried down by a fault which buried it at least two 
thousand feet in the bowels of the earth, this fragment has remained while every 
other trace of the formation has been swept from the Highlands by the besom of 
denudation. 

Highly interesting and important in these northern areas are the Mesozoic 
deposits, which in places attain a vertical thickness of several miles, and which 
must have originally covered enormous tracts of country. Now, judged by that 
very fallacious test, the space which they cover upon our geological maps, they 
appear in the Scottish Highlands to be absolutely insignificant. 

The correspondence in characters between the several Secondary formations on 
the two sides of the North Sea is of the most striking kind. I have had the good 
fortune to study the Secondary rocks of Scania under the guidance and with the 
assistance of Professor Lundgren, of the University of Lund, who has made so 
many important discoveries in connection with them. While doing so, I have 
again and again felt almost constrained to pause and rub my eyes, to convince 
myself that I was not back again in Scotland—so complete is the correspondence 
between the mineral characters, the fossils, and the geognostic relations of these 
strata in the two areas. 

The Triassic rocks of Scandinavia, consisting of variegated sandstones and con- 
clomerates, containing much calcareous material, are absolutely undistinguishable 
from those of the Western Highlands. In both countries the thickness of the 
deposits of this age varies within very short distances, their development being 
local and inconstant. The formation which in places exceeds a thousand feet in 
thickness, at other points is reduced to an insignificant band of conglomerate. On 
the eastern flank of our Highlands, yellow sandstones belonging to this formation 
have yielded to Mr. Duff, Dr. Gordon, Mr. Grant, and others that interesting series 
of reptilian remains which, in the hands of Professor Huxley, have been made to 
throw such important light on the forms of life which existed at that remote geo- 
logical period. In the very similar deposits which occur in Scandinavia, however, 
reptilian remains have not as yet been obtained. The abundance and variety in 
form and size of the footprints which occur in our Scottish rocks of this age indicate 
the richness of the vertebrate fauna which must have existed at that distant epoch. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1007 


On both sides of the North Sea, the Triassic rocks are found passing up in- 
sensibly into the great formation known as the Rhetic and Infralias—a formation 
imperfectly represented in England and Central Europe bya few thin and insignificant 
strata, but in our Highland districts attaining a vast thickness and exhibiting a mag- 
nificent development. This system of strata consists of alternation of marine and 
estuarine deposits, the latter containing in both areas thin seams of coal. In Scania, 
the working of the coal and fire-clays of these deposits has brought to light vast 
numbers of fossil plants, which have been so well described by Nathorst. Several 
very distinct floras, occurring at different horizons, have been made out, and the 
relations of the beds containing these floras to one another, and to the marine 
strata with which they are intercalated, have been clearly demonstrated by the 
researches of Hébert, Erdmann, and Lundgren. That similar rich stores of fossil 

lants would reward a search as skilful and persevering as that made by our 
candinavian brethren, if carried on in the equivalent strata of Scotland, there can 
be little doubt. 

The whole of the vast Jurassic system in these northern latitudes, attaining 
a thickness of 3,000 or 4,000 feet, appears to be similarly made up of alternations 
of marine and estuarine strata. Time would fail me to indicate even in the briefest 
manner the numerous problems of the highest interest suggested by the study of 
these vast deposits. At many different horizons, beds of coal and the relics of a 
rich terrestrial vegetation abound. Most of these await careful study and descrip- 
tion. So far as they are yet known, the Ferns, the Cycads, and the Conifers of 
the Jurassic rocks of the Highlands present wonderful resemblances with those 
described by Heer from strata of the same age in Norway, in Russia, in Siberia, 
and even far away in the Arctic regions. The marine forms occurring in the 
associated strata seem to indicate that they belong to an ancient life-province, 
distinct from those in which the Jurassic rocks of Central and of Southern Europe 
were deposited. In the Upper Jurassic, so well represented in Sutherland by 
strata not less than 1,000 feet in thickness, we find evidence of the existence of 
mighty rivers, the banks of which, though clothed with tree-ferns, cycads, and 
gigantic pines, yet at certain seasons must have borne down ice-buoyed blocks of 
vast dimensions. 

That the succeeding Neocomian period was for Scandinavia and Scotland an 
epoch of elevation and of the prevalence of terrestrial conditions is indicated by the 
total absence of any trace of marine deposits of this age, no less than by the 
enormous denudation which can be shown to have followed the Jurassic and 
preceded the Cretaceous period. Our now ruined mountain-chain then probably 
formed the lofty watershed of a great continent, through which flowed the mighty 
rivers that formed the deltas lnown as the English and German Wealdens. 

How powerful and prolonged were the agencies of sub-aerial waste during this 
period is shown by the fact that the relics of the Cretaceous formation are found 
resting in turn on every member of the Jurassic, the Rheetic, the Trias, and all the 
different Palzeozoic and Archean rocks. A great portion, indeed, of the thick and 
widespread Rheetic and Jurassic strata seems to have been removed by denudation 
before the commencement of the Cretaceous period. : 

That thick strata of chalk once covered large areas of the Scottish Highlands 
and of Scandinavia we have the clearest proofs. In Scania and the adjoining 
parts of Denmark deposits of this age are found let down by tremendous faults, 
and these include even younger members of the series than are anywhere found 
in England. In the West of Scotland I have shown that thin deposits of Ore- 
taceous age, preserved to us by a wonderful series of accidents, still survive the 
tremendous denudation of the Tertiary periods. It is true that in Scandinavia 
and Scotland alike, the chalk alternates with sandstones and even with strata of 
estuarine origin, but the pure foraminiferal rock that occurs in both areas could 
have been formed in no very shallow sea. That before the commencement of the 
great Tertiary denudation large areas, in Scandinavia and Scotland alike, must 
have been swathed in winding sheets of chalky rock there cannot be the smallest 
doubt. That considerable portions of these winding-sheets remained to so late a 
period as the glacial is shown by the fact that the indestructible flints of the chalk 


1008 REPORT—1885. 


with the-rocks and fossils of the upper greensand abound in your boulder-clays of 
Aberdeenshire and Banffshire. 

Of the vast periods of the Tertiary we have left to us, either in the Highlands 
or Scandinavia, but few and insignificant relics in the form of stratified deposits. 
In our beautiful Western Isles and in Antrim the lava poured out im successive 
streams, during enormous periods of time, from the lofty voleanic cones of the 
earlier Tertiary epoch, has here and there buried patches of lake-mud, or river- 
gravel, or ancient soils. But everywhere, alike in the Highlands and in Scandi- 
navia, we behold the most impressive evidences of the sub-aerial waste, and of the 
elevation that promoted this waste during the Tertiary epoch. Among such 
evidences we may reckon the circumstance that all traces of the vast deposits of 
the Secondary periods have been relentlessly stripped away from the country, except 
where buried deeply by gigantic earth-throes, or sealed up under massive lava- 
streams, 

Down to post-glacial times Scotland, and what are now its outlying islands, 
remained united with Scandinavia. I need not remind you how, during the glacial 
period, they were the scene of a similar succession of events; while from their then 
far more elevated mountain-summits streams of ¢lacier-ice flowed down and relieved 
the mantle of snow which enveloped them. 

But at a very recent geological period, and indeed since the appearance of man 
in this part of our globe, the separation of the two areas, so long united, was 
brought about. In the district now constituting the North Sea, which separates 
the two countries, great faults, originating in the Tertiary epoch, appear to have 
let down wide tracts of the softer Secondary strata among the harder crystalline 
rock-masses. The numerous changes of level, of which we find such abundant 
evidence around the shores of this sea, facilitated the wearing away of the whole 
of these softer Secondary deposits, except the slight fringes that remain along the 
shores of Sutherland, Ross, and Cromarty, on the one hand, and the isolated 
patches forming Scania, Jutland, and the surrounding islands on the other. Little 
could the Vikings, as they sailed over this shallow sea, have imagined that their 
predecessors in these regions were able to roam on foot from Norroway to 
Suderey ! 


It is almost impossible to over-estimate the effects produced by the several 
denudations to which Scandinavia and the Scottish Highlands have been succes- 
sively subjected. In that which occurred during the later Tertiary periods, almost 
every portion of the non-crystalline rocks that rose above the sea-level was either 
entirely removed or converted into level plains, which, covered with drift deposits, 
now form districts like Scania and Denmark. Where, as in the great central 
valley of Scotland, hard volcanic masses are associated with the softer sedimentary 
rocks, the former are left rising as picturesque crags, standing boldly up above the 
general level, while the latter are worn down and buried under drift. In the 
west of Scotland a chain of volcanic mountains, with summits towering to the 
height of from ten to fifteen thousand feet, have been reduced by this same denu- 
dation to basal-wrecks, the highest portions of which attain to but little more than 
3,000 feet above the sea-level ! 

During the great elevation and denudation which marked the Neocomian 
period, thousands of feet of strata must have been removed over wide areas, as is 
proved by the wonderful overlap of the Cretaceous beds on all the older strata. 

Of the enormous sub-aerial waste which went on in these Northern Alps during 
the Newer Paleozoic periods we have impressive evidence in the vast masses of 
the Old Red Sandstone and Carboniferous rocks—themselves only a series of frag- 
ments that have survived the later denudations—for these rocks are built up of 
the materials derived from our Northern Alps. 

The Torridon Sandstone is the monument, and a very striking monument too, of 
another and still earlier period of enormous denudation. The thousands of feet of 
conglomerate and sandstone of which it is made up consist of the disintegrated 
crystals of granites and gneisses that have been swept away. 

When we penetrate towards the axis of this eroded mountain-chain, the proofs 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1009 


of the magnitude of these denudations become even more striking and impressive. 
Here we see, towering aloft, the ruined buttresses of vast rocky arches, that when 
complete must have risen miles above the present surface; there we find, lying 
side by side, rock-masses that could only have been brought together by displace- 
ments of tens of thousands of feet; yet so complete has been tbe planing down of 
the surface since, that it requires the most careful study even to detect the almost 
obliterated traces of these grand movements. The Alps and the Himalayas, during 
their elevation, have suffered enormous waste and denudation; but if the elevation 
were to cease and the waste to go on till these magnificent mountain-chains were 
reduced to masses of diminutive peaks, ranging from 2,000 to 8,000 feet in 
height, we should then have the counterpart of this stupendous ruin of the mountain- 
chain of the north. 


The history of the series of successive movements to which the rock-masses 
of our Highlands have been subjected is one well worthy of the most attentive 
study. When the evidence bearing upon the subject is carefully sifted and 
weighed, we become convinced of the fact that many of these movements—including 
some on a prodigious scale—must have taken place during what we are commonly 
accustomed to regard as comparatively recent geological periods. 

On the eastern coast of Sutherland, a mass of Secondary rocks, including 
several thousands of feet of Triassic, Rhietic, and Jurassic strata, has been let 
down by a gigantic fault, so as to be placed in juxtaposition with the Old Red 
Sandstone and the crystalline rocks. Now, taking the very lowest estimates of 
the thicknesses of the several strata affected, the vertical ‘throw’ of this fault 
must have exceeded a mile! It may not improbably, indeed, have heen at least 
double or treble that amount! Yet this great dislocation was certainly produced 
at a later date than the Upper-Jurassic period, for rocks of that age are found to 
be affected by it. 

Along the coasts of the Black Isle, strata of Middle and Upper Jurassic age 
are similarly found faulted against the ‘Old Red’ and the crystalline rocks. 

On ihe other side of the North Sea, in Ando, one of the Lofoten Isles, a patch 
of Lower-Oolite strata, consisting of marine and estuarine strata, and including 
beds of coal like that of Brora, is found let down by gigantic faults into the very 
heart of the crystalline rocks of the district. In Scania, the whole of the 
Secondary rock-masses owe their preservation in the same way to a plexus of 
tremendous faults, by which they have been entangled among the harder rocks. 
These faults have affected not only the Jurassic strata, but even the very youngest 
members of the Cretaceous series. 

Nor are we without evidence that some of the great faults are of post-Cre- 
taceous age, in this country, for in the Western Highlands displacements of several 
thousands of feet have been detected, which aflect not only the Upper Cretaceous, 
but also the Older Tertiary rocks. 

The effects produced by these great dislocations, which have a generally 
parallel direction in our Highlands, from north-east to south-west, are of the most 
startling character. Great strips of Triassic and Old-Red-Sandstone strata, like 
those of Elgin, and Turriff, and Tomintoul, and of the line of the Caledonian 
Canal, are found let down among the crystalline rocks by these gigantic faults. 

The great central valley of Scotland itself consists of masses of Newer Palso- 
zoic strata, faulted down between the harder Archean and Lower Paleozoic rocks 
which form the Highlands on the one hand, and the Borderland on the other. 

The evidences of the existence of these great faults were collected by many of 
the older Scottish geologists, like Landale, Bald, Chalmers, Milne-Home, and Nicol; 
and the accurate mapping of the country by the officers of the Geological Survey 
has, on the whole, tended to confirm their results. With regard to the age of these 
great dislocations of Central Scotland, it can only be certainly affirmed that they 
are of more recent date than the youngest Carboniferous strata; but I have long 
believed tbat, like many similar dislocations both in our own Highlands and in 
Scandinavia, they are really post-Cretaceous. 

Less difficulty perhaps will be found in accepting this apparently startling 

1885. 3T 


1010 REPORT— 1885. 


conclusion, when we remember that a complicated series of fractures injected by the 
lavas of the Great ‘Tertiary voleanic foci of the West, extend right across the 
Highlands, the central valley, and the Borderlands of Scotland, and even traverse 
the whole series of the Secondary rocks in the North of Hngland. 

The indications of the tremendous manifestations of subterranean energy, to 
which these great dislocations owe their origin, are sometimes of a very striking 
kind. For hundreds of yards on either side of the faults, the two sets of strata 
are found bent and crumpled, and not unfrequently crushed into the finest dust 
(‘fault-rock’). In the case of the great Sutherland-fault, to which I have pre- 
viously alluded, we have a beautiful illustration of the way in which mineral veins 
may originate along such lines of fissure, for in the interstices of the granite of 
the Ord, where it has been broken up along this certainly post-Jurassic, and pro- 
bably Tertiary fault, fluor-spar and pyrites have been deposited in large quantities. 

It is impossible to study the tremendous movements and dislocations, and the 
enormous amount of denudation which have taken place in the Highlands and 
surrounding districts during Terdiary times, without being convinced that all the 
existing surface-features of the country must date from a comparatively recent 

eriod, The vast movements which have placed soft and hard masses in opposition 
along certain parallel lines—generally ranging in a north-east and south-west 
direction—and the denudation which has worn away the former, while it has left 
the latter standing in relief, must, I believe, both be referred to the Tertiary period ; 
though the disposition of rock-masses brought about by earlier movements would 
of course exercise a certain though subordinate influence in producing the existing 
forms of the surface of the country. 

At the close of the Jurassic period, and before the commencement of the 
Cretaceous, during the vast epoch marked by the deposition of the Neocomian of 
Southern Europe, a series of disturbances similar to those of the Tertiary, and 
scarcely inferior in their consequences, can be shown to have taken place. 

If the movements of the Scandinavian and Scottish rocl-masses, which took 
place in the Tertiary and Mesozoic periods respectively, were so startling in their 
magnitude and so vast in their effects, what shall we say concerning those far 
greater disturbances which affected the same area towards the close of the Older 
Paleozoic, and the keginning of the Newer Paleozoic, when this Northern Alps 
was still a living and growing mountain-chain ? 

These movements, in which both the Archzan and the Older-Paleeozoie rocks 
are found to be involved, have resulted in the production, through enormous lateral 
pressure, of those reversed faults, caused by the disruption along their axial planes 
of greatly inclined and compressed folds as so well described by Rogers. 

Dr. Archibald Geikie assures us that the studies of the geological surveyors 
in North-west Sutherland lead to the conclusion that certain masses of rock have 
thus been carried almost horizontally over others, along these ‘ thrust-planes ’ for a 
distance of at least ten miles. As the result of these tremendous lateral com- 
pressions, thin beds of limestone and quartzite, which have sufficiently definite 
characters to permit of their recognition, may be seen in Assynt, and in other parts 
of the Western Highlands, to be so repeated again and again by crumpline and 
faulting, that they have been regarded as deposits of enormous thickness; while, on 
the other hand, massive formations have been crushed and rolled out, thereby 
acquiring a laminated structure like so much pie-crust. Great portions of rock- 
masses, which, like the much-discussed ‘ Logan-rock,’ have been nipped between 
gigantic faults, show evidence under the microscope of having been crushed to 
powder and subsequently reconsolidated, while the surfaces of the ‘thrust-planes’ 
sometimes exhibit the phenomena known as ‘slickensides’ on the most gigantic 
scale. 

As we pass away from the central axis of this old mountain-chain, however, 
these complicated puckerings and dislocations pass gradually into more ordinary 
folds and faults, just as is the case with the Appalachians. The oft-repeated 
undulations of the Lower Paleozoic strata of the Borderland, so admirably 
described by Professor Lapworth, bear the same relation to the far more involved 
disturbances of rocks of the same age in the Highlands, which the foldings of the 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1011 


strata in the Jura do to the intense crumplings of those of the Alps; and these in 
turn pass insensibly into the slightly undulating or horizontal strata of the southern 
half of this island. 

We may perhaps add another comparison between the existing mountain-chain 
of Southern Europe and the ‘ basal wreck’ of Northern Europe, one which I find 
has been already suggested by Professor Bonney. The Miocene Conglomerates, 
which in the Rigi and other flanking mountain masses of the Alpine chain are 
found piled to the depth of many thousands of feet, seem to be exactly represented 
in its prototype by the vast masses of the * Old-Red’ Conglomerate. 

Vast as were the three series of movements to which I have been referring, I 
believe that the Scandinavian and Highland rocks bear the impress of a still 
rvander series of disturbances than either of these—one at the same time of older 
date and far more universal in its effects. 

Many writers have treated of the great divisional planes, almost everywhere 
conspicuous in the Highland rock-masses, as being necessarily coincident with planes 
of sedimentation. It is manifest, indeed, that the tracing of sequences and uncon- 
formities among such rocks must proceed upon the assumption that the planes of 
foliation and stratification are coincident. Murchison and Geikie so fully recog- 
nised the fact that this proposition lay at the very root of their arguments con- 
cerning a Highland succession, that they added a supplement to their paper to 


illustrate and enforce it. 


It must not be forgotten, however, that the truth of this proposition has not 
only been doubted, but has been stoutly contested by many of the most profound 
thinkers on geological questions. 

As long ago as 1822, Professor Henslow, in a very remarkable paper, showed 
that the rocks of Anglesea are traversed by a system of divisional planes, which 
intersect the bedding at a very high angle, and must have been produced long sub- 
sequently to the latter; and in 1835 Professor Sedgwick extended the observations 
and enforced the arguments of Henslow. 

At an even earlier date, Poulett Scrope had shown, by his study of viscous Javas, 
that the planes along which crystalline action takes place are determined by 
pressure and strain; and he insisted that the foliation of metamorphic masses was 
a phenomenon strictly analogous to the banding of rhyolitic lavas. 

Charles Darwin, the pupil of Henslow and the friend of Poulett Scrope—whose 
Jabours in the geological field would perhaps have met with fuller recognition had 
they not been overshadowed by his still greater achievements in the world of 
biological thought—strongly maintained the truth of these views. He added the 
important observation that, in the South-American continent, the planes of foliation 
are seen everywhere, over enormous areas, to be parallel to those of cleavage ; and 


_that these latter are of secondary origin and due to lateral pressure, the observa- 


tions of Sharpe and the experiments of Sorby have convincingly demonstrated. 

That the schists and gneisses of our Highlands and of Scandinavia have resulted 
from crystallising forces, acting upon strata of sandstone, clay and limestone, or 
upon igneous materials constituting laya-currents, or intrusive sheets, dykes, and 
bosses, I see every reason for believing. That these re-crystallised and highly- 
foliated masses in the great majority of cases maintain their original positions and 
relations, or indeed anything approaching their original positions and relations, I 
greatly doubt; and my doubt on this point has increased the more I have studied 


the Highland rocks. 


Thin bands of quartzite may be the rolled-out representatives of massive beds 


of sandstone or conglomerate ; wide-spreading schists may consist of the crystallised 


materials of clays and shales, crumpled, pleated, and kneaded together in endless 


conyolutions; vast sheets of gneiss may have originally been intrusive bosses of 


granite or thick strata of arkose. How, then, are we to apply the ordinary principles 


that regulate questions concerning dip and strike, and unconformity in the case of 
sedimentary deposits, to highly-altered rocks like these ? 


The observations of Jukes, Allport, and Phillips on some of the simpler and more 
easily explicable examples of the production of foliation in rocks require to be 
cautiously extended, by patient study in the field and in the laboratory, to cases of 

372 


1012 REPORT—1885. 


a more complex and difficult character. Especially in this connection do we 
welcome such contributions to our knowledge as that made by Mr, Teall in his 
description of the remarkable foliated dyke of Scourie. 

Very significant indeed is the fact that the phenomenon of foliation appears to 
be confined to regions which haye been the scene of the most violent subterranean 
movement and disturbance. That solid rock-masses, subjected to the tremendous 
earth-strains to which they are liable during mountain-making, are capable of 
internal movement and flow—like the ice of a glacier—we have the clearest evi- 
dence. Many illustrations might be adduced in support of the view that crystal- 
lisation is influenced and controlled by mechanical forces—pressures, stresses, and 
strains. May it not also be true, as long ago suggested by Vose, that the heat 
which must be generated in the great shearing movements taking place in rocks 
have also had much to do in giving rise to that re-crystallisation which is the 
essence of foliation? Rock-masses, in the throes of mountain-birth, have, like 
glaciers, behaved substantially as viscous bodies; may not the former have under- 
gone molecular changes analogous to regelation in the latter ? 


That many of the stupendous earth-movements which produced the foliation of 
the rocks of Scandinavia and the Scottish Highlands must be referred to Archean 
times, there is not the smallest room for doubt. That similar effects have resulted 
from the same agencies during subsequent periods, our fellow-geologists in Scan- 
dinayia believe they have found incontrovertible proof. For my own part I look 
forward confidently to the establishment of the same conclusion from the study of 
our own Highland rocks. 

But here I am conscious that I am venturing on topics upon which great and 
allowable differences of opinion still exist. The debates in this Geological Section 
during the-first meeting of the British Association in Aberdeen ought, I think, to 
have marked the practical close of one great series of controversies. ‘The discussions 
of the present meeting will, I trust, result in the recognition and clear statement 
of a number of other equally important problems of Highland geology which still 
await solution. And Iam sanguine enough to hope that when this Association 
next gathers here, my successor in this chair will have to congratulate his audience 
upon a very brilliant retrospect of work actually accomplished in the interval. 

I am encouraged in this optimism by the fact that in the period which has 
elapsed since our last meeting here, great and important improvements have been 
made in the methods of geological investigation. We have seen how the discovery 
of a few fragmentary shells in the limestone of Durness, and of sundry casts of hones 
in the sandstone of Elgin, have been the means of profoundly modifying our ideas 
concerning the age of vast tracts of rock in the Highlands. The development of 
modern methods of petrographical research is destined, I believe, to lead to a similar 
revolutionizing of our views concerning the wonderful series of changes which have 
taken place within rock-masses, subsequently to their original accumulation. 

Especially does the application of the microscope to the study of rocks, when 
employed in due subordination to, and illustration of, work done in the field, pro- 
mise to be the source of valuable and fruitful discoveries in the field of Highland 
geology. 

In cbanastilie with this subject, I cannot refrain from reminding you that while 
the initiative in the application of the paleontological method of research was taken 
by an English land-surveyor, we are indebted to a Scotchman in an equally lowly 
station of life, for overcoming some of the first difliculties in connection with petro- 
graphical study. Many microscopists had employed their instruments, and some- 
times with useful results, in the study of the powders and the polished surfaces of 
rocks; but it is to William Nicol of Edinburgh, the inventor of the well-known 
polarising prism which bears his name, that we owe the discovery of the method of 
preparing transparent sections of fossils, crystals, and rocks, whereby their internal 
structure may be examined by transmitted light. Nicol bequeathed his prepara- 
tions to his friend Alexander Bryson, and some of them are now preserved in the 
British Museum. It is interesting, too, to recall the circumstance that it was a thin 
section of the granite of Aberdeen in the collection of Bryson which exhibited to 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1013 


Sorby that wondrous assemblage of minute cavities containing liquids, and led him, 
shortly before our previous meeting here, to write his paper ‘On the Microscopical 
study of Crystals, indicating the origin of Minerals and Rocks ’—a paper which has 
indeed proved epoch-malking in the history of geology. 

Before concluding the remarks which by your kindness I have been permitted 
to offer you to-day, I cannot forbear from indulging in a pleasant reminiscence of 
a personal character. Nearly fifteen years have passed away since I first visited 
the Highlands for the purpose of geological study ; it was at that time I first found 
myself at liberty to put into practice a scheme cherished by me from boyhood, 
that of studying those Secondary rocks and fossils of the Highlands, among 
which such valuable pioneer work had been done by John Macculloch, Roderick 
Murchison, and Hugh Miller. I had endeavoured to prepare myself for a somewhat 
difficult task, by a training partly unofficial and partly official—I will not employ 
the terms ‘ amateur’ and ‘ professional,’ for of late they haye been so sadly misused 
—hut when I came a stranger among you, I could not have deserved, and I cer- 
tainly did not anticipate, that cordial welcome, that kindly aid and that generous 
appreciation, of which I accept my position here to-day as the crowning manifesta- 
tion. 

While I continue to occupy myself with the glorious problems of Highland 
geology—and hitherto I have found that each difficulty surmounted has resulted, 
like the sown teeth of the slaughtered dragon, in a plentiful crop of new ones—the 
many acts of kindness of my numerous friends here can never cease to be present 
in my mind, For not only am I indebted to those who, like your own Dr. Gordon 
of Birnie and Dr. Joass of Golspie, have been able out of the stores of their know- 
ledge to furnish me with ‘things new and old,’ and who have been unfailing in 
their aid and sympathy, but to those also who have pitied, but nevertheless helped, 
the ‘ daft callant that speers after the chucky stanes,’ 

I know of no higher pleasure than that which the geologist experiences in 
wisiting regions of great scientific interest which are new to him, and of grasping 
the hands of fellow-workers, whose labours and teachings he has learned to admire 
and to appreciate. Whatever may be my lot in this way in future years, however 
tich the country visited may be in objects of profound instructiveness or of surpass- 
ing interest, I can anticipate or desire nothing more valuable than the lessons, or 
Jxnder than the reception which I have met with here. 


‘Tl ask na mair, when I get there, 
Than just a Hiclan welcome,’ 


The following Reports and Papers were read :— 


1. Report on the Volcanic Phenomena of Vesuvius.—See Reports, p. 395. 


2. Fifth Report on the Earthquake Phenomena of Japan. 
See Reports, p. 362. 


3. On some recent Harthquales on the Durham Coast, and their 
probable cause. By Professor G. A. Lesour, M.A., F.G.S. 


Since the end of 1883 up to the present time the inhabitants of certain por- 
tions of the town of Sunderland have been much disturbed by a series of small 
but distinctly sensible earthquakes, which have caused considerable discussion in 
the local press and elsewhere. These shocks were chiefly felt in that quarter of 
the town known as the Tunstall Road, but were not absolutely limited to that 
locality. They were accompanied by rumblings—sometimes dull but often loud— 
by the rattling of crockery and furniture, and frequently by very distinct shakes of 
the entire framework of buildings, Often the shocks have, at night, waked up and 
terrified the sleeping inhabitants. 


1014 REPORT—1885. 


The probable origin of these disturbances has naturally been much canvassed , 
and blasting in quarries, shot-firing in collieries, and the passing of railway trains. 
have in turn been accused of causing them, and, on examination, have been found 
‘not guilty.’ At the present time there is no doubt whatever that the shocks are 
due to some natural cause. As to what that natural cause may be there is, per- 
haps, room for difference of opinion. 

My friend Mr. M. Walton Brown, of the Coal Trade Offices at Newcastle-upon- 
Tyne, in a paper read in 1884 before the North. of England Institute of Mining and 
Mechanical Engineers, refers to the Sunderland shocks as being genuine earth- 
tremors, but I think that their extremely local character—setting aside many other 
points inconsistent with this view of their origin—is conclusive against this being 
sO. 

In another paper, read, at the same time as Mr. Walton Brown’s, before the same 
Tnstitute, I brought forward a number of facts tending to connect the phenomena 
above referred to with certain peculiarities in the geological structure of the dis- 
trict. Since that time, the shocks having continued more or less continuously, 
and evidence of all kinds with regard to them having accumulated, I wish to lay 
my more mature views on the subject before Section C, in the hope that members: 
in discussing them may help to elicit the truth. 

Sunderland stands upon the Permian Magnesian Limestone, of which there 
is from 300 to 400 feet beneath the town. This rock is riddled with cavities 
of every size and shape. The smaller ones give a vesicular aspect to the stone in 
many places, but the larger ones are often true caverns, due to the combined action 
of mechanical and chemical agencies. Many of them may be accounted for by 
noting how frequently masses, both large and small, and of all shapes of soft pul- 
verulent matter occur in the midst of the most compact and hard portions of the 
limestone. How easily such soft, incoherent, earthy rock, or ‘ marl,’ as it is called 
locally, can be removed by the merest percolation of rain-water where there is an 
outlet needs no proof, and that caverns would result and have resulted from such 
removal is clear. This action is indeed chiefly mechanical, but there is also going 
on at the same time a yery considerable destruction or removal of rock by the 
ordinary chemical action of rain-water on limestone. 1 have shown elsewhere 
that-every thousand gallons of Sunderland water, pumped up and ultimately thrown 
into the sea, represents one pound of stone abstracted. In each year the Water 
Company robs the Magnesian Limestone in this manner of about forty cubic yards 
of rock, and, of course, much more is carried off annually by natural channels. 
How large some of the cavities are which form water-cisterns in this rock may 
be gathered from the fact that when, in sinking a shaft at Whitburn Colliery im 
1874, one of them was unfortunately tapped, it yielded 11,612 gallons of water 
per minute for a month. 

_* The rock then immediately underlying Sunderland is a mass of calcareous stone 
mostly hard and compact, but cellular in places and earthy and friable in others, 
often cavernous on a large scale, full of water, and through its action continually 
parting with its substance, and thus enlarging the cavities within tt. ‘ 

Under conditions such as these, it follows necessarily that the vaults of cavities: 
must, from time to time, give way, and, in collapsing, produce concussions accom- 
panied by noise, but limited in the area over which their effects would be felt. In 
short: it seems to me that we have in such natural stone-falls at moderate depths a. 
sufficient explanation of the Sunderland earth-shocks. 

In the paper before alluded to I pointed out that this theory explains equally 
well all the facts connected with the singular fissures full of breccia (‘ breccia- 
gashes’), which are common in the Magnesian Limestone of Durham, and have 
been a standing puzzle hitherto to Lyell, Sedgwick, and all the geologists who 
have published accounts of the magnificent sections exhibited along the coast 
between South Shields and Sunderland. 

Quite recently very similar shocks have been felt, as I am informed, in the 
neighbourhood of Middlesborough, where it is probable that they are due to the 
withdrawal of rock-salt, which has been going on there of late years only. In this 
case the depth at which the cavities are being formed and rock-collapses are, as I 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1015 


believe, taking place is much greater than in the Sunderland ease, the borings for 
salt being from 1000 to 1200 feet deep. 

I will conclude with a quotation from my paper on the Breccia-Gashes ! (p. 
174): ‘The forms of these gashes, which are gullet-shaped and tapering down- 
wards, unlike the sea-cayes ; the breccia with which they are filled, the matter with 
which the fragments are cemented, the half-broken beds which so often bridge over 
the upper portions of the fissures, and the unbroken beds immediately above and 
below them, which would be inconceivable had the fissures and their infillings been 
due to real earthquakes—all these things are necessary accompaniments of the 
rock-collapses which, it has been shown, must in time past have happened fre- 
quently, are happening still, and must happen more and more frequently in the 
future,’ 


4. Notice of an Outline Geologicel Map of Lower Egypt, Arabia Petrea, 
and Palestine. By Professor Epwarp Huit, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. 


The map exhibited was enlarged from that which accompanies the author’s 
book ‘Mount Seir, Sinai, and Western Palestine,’ giving a narrative of the ex- 
pedition sent out into these countries by the Palestine Exploration Society in 
1885-84. It embraces a region extending from the valley of the Nile on the west 
to the table-land of Edom (Mount Seir) and Moab, including the Jordan-Arabah 
Valley, and the mountains of Sinai. Its northern limit is the Lebanon. ‘The fol- 
lowing formations and divisions are represented :— 


1. Sandhills of Lower Egypt, the coast of Palestine, 

( and Arabah Valley. 

. Alluvial Deposits of the Nile, the Ghor, and Jordan 
Valley. 

. Gravel of the Wady el Arabah. 


| 1. Raised Beaches bordering the Gulfs of Suez and 


bo 


RECENT. ~ 


co 


aerate’ Acer Akabah, the Isthmus of Suez, and borders of 


Post-PLIOcENE TO 
PLIOCENE. 


Palestine. 7 
. Ancient Deposits of the Salt Sea (Dead Sea). 
. Old Lake-beds of the Sinaitic Peninsula and Arabah 
Valley. 
. Upper Eocene. Calcareous Sandstone of Phillistia. 
. Middle and Lower Eocene. Nummulite Limestone. 
. Upper Cretaceous. Cretaceous Limestone. 
. Cenomanian. Nubian Sandstone. 


. Limestone of Wady Nasb. 
. Desert Sandstone and Conglomerate. 


co bo 


EocenE TO 
CRETACEOUS. 


Doe BONE 


METAMORPHIC Rocks. 
(Archzean ?) 


MopEerRN VoLcanic 
Rocks. 


Lower Carzonirerovs. { 
} Granite, Gneiss, and various kinds of Schist. 


Basalt, Dolerite, &c. 


Granite, Porphyry, Felstone, Diorite, &c. 
Beds of Tuff and Agglomerate of Wady Haroun and 


Jebel esh Shomrah. 


ANCIENT VOLCANIC OR 
Pruronic Rocks. 


The main lines of fault and dip of the strata are also indicated. 

As an outline of the scientific results which were arrived at by the members of 
the expedition, and which are represented on the map, had already been communi- 
cated to the Association,” it was not considered necessary to repeat them here, but 
the author wished to add that a topographical and geological map of the Arabah 


1 See Trans. N. E. Inst. Min. Eng. vol. xxxii. (1884) 
® Rep. Brit. Assoc. (Montreal Meeting, 1884), Transactions of Sections C and E. 


1016 REPORT—1885. 


Valley on ascale of about six miles to one inch was in preparation, and would accom- 
pany the Geological Memoir now in the press for the Palestine Exploration Society. 
The topographical survey had been made by Major Kitchener, R.E., and Mr. John 
Armstrong (formerly sergeant-major, R.E.),and the geological details had been 
inserted by the author. In addition to these, several longitudinal geological 
sections, illustrating the structure of various parts of this region, and numerous 
drawings would accompany the Memoir. 


5. On the Occurrence of Lower Old Red Conglomerate in the Promontory of 
the Funad, North Donegal. By Professor Epwarp Hutt, LL.D., .R.S., 
F.GS. 


The district in which the Old Red Conglomerate occurs is formed of ridges and 
valleys of metamorphic rocks, consisting of beds of quartzite, schist, crystalline 
limestone, and trap, chiefly diorite. It lies between Lough Swilly and Mulroy 
Bay, and is washed on the north by the waters of the Atlantic. The remarkable 
tract of the Old Red Conglomerate, recently discovered by the officers of the Geo- 
logical Survey, is far remote from any mass of the same formation, and it is un- 
represented on any geological map hitherto published. 

The beds consist of red and purple sandstone and conglomerate, made up chiefly 
of quartzite pebbles and blocks, but also containing others of limestone and trap ; all 
derived from the surrounding metamorphic series. They occupy an area of over 
two miles in length and half a mile across, extending along the northern base of 
Knock Alla, a ridge of quartzite which traverses the promontory from side to side. 
The beds dip towards the base of the mountain, against which they are let down by 
a large fault, and they terminate along their northern edge by an unconformable 
superposition on beds of quartzite and limestone. They reach a total thickness of 
about 800 feet. 

From the position of these beds it becomes evident that they are unconnected 
with any of the recognised basins of Lower Old Red Sandstone, either in Scotland 
or Ireland, and may, therefore, be regarded as having been formed in an 
isolated basin. The tract will be a new feature on geological maps of Ireland. 


6. On Bastite-Serpentine and Troktolite in Aberdeenshire; with a Note on 
the Rock of the Black Dog. Dy Professor T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., LL.D., 
F.R.S., Pres. G. S.} 


Bastite-serpentine (as noticed some time since by Professor Heddle) occurs near 
Belhelvie and on the shore near the Black Dog. The author describes the micro- 
scopic structure of this, showing that it consists of olivine and its alteration pro- 
ducts, enstatite in various stages of alteration, and a mineral of the spinellid 
group. Associated with this in the Belhelvie district is a fairly normal troktolite, 
consisting of a plagioclastic felspar allied to anorthite, olivine, more or less altered, 
and a little diallage. It closely resembles the typical Volpersdorf rock, but has 
rather less magnesia and more alumina, corresponding chemically more nearly with 
a rock described by the author from Coverack Cove, Cornwall. He is of opinion 
that the two rocks differ somewhat in age, though probably the earlier was still at 
a high temperature when the later was intruded, and he inclines to the view that 
the serpentine is the older rock of the two. 

The Black Dog has been incorrectly described as consisting of ‘crystals of tale 
matted in such confusion as to form both a tough and hard rock.’ The rock really 
consists of quartz, sillimanite, two kinds of mica, an iron oxide (hematite ?), and 
most probably some dichroite, with perhaps a little kyanite. In short, the rock 
presents a very close resemblance under the microscope to some specimens of the 
well-known ‘cordierite gneiss’ of Bodenmais. 


} Published in full in the Geological Magazine. 1885, p. 439. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1017 


7. On certain Diatomaceous Deposits (Diatomite) from the Peat of 
Aberdeenshire. By W. Ivison Macapay, F.C.S., FIC. 


The material was found below the peat in certain districts of Aberdeenshire, 
but principally in the basin in which lie Loch Kinnord and Dayiu. After removal 
of the surface peat fuel the lower and more highly mineral portion was cut in 
blocks and air dried. The substance then consisted of almost pure diatomacea 
bound together by the remains of sphagnum, equisetacea, &c. Besides being found 
underlying peat, the substance was also obtained on the shores of Loch Kinnord, and 
the more pure diatoms were thickly distributed over the bottom of the deeper por- 
tions of the lake. These latter. however, from the want of the binding obtained from 
the marsh plants above stated, could not be rendered readily available for market. 
An interesting point regarding these deposits was, that, whilst in Loch Kinnord 
an abundant supply of the diatoms could be obtained, in the neighbouring Loch 
Davin scarcely a single diatom (recent or fossil) was found. This was probably due 
to the fact that, whilst the feeding waters of Loch Kinnord flowed from hills con- 
sisting of a coarse and much disintegrated granite, and consequently containing 
a considerable proportion of soluble silica, the Loch Davin waters were obtained 
from hornblendic mountains, and held much less soluble silica in solution. 

The material was principally used for the manufacture of dynamite, and a 
considerable quantity had been forwarded to the works for this purpose. 
Other uses could be found for the material, suchas the manufacture of ultra- 
marine, for which from the very small proportion of iron present the diatomite 
was more especially to he recommended. As an absorbent, it was of fully double 
the value of the ordinary German varieties of Kieselepolr. 

The paper was illustrated by specimens and diagrams.! 


8. List of Works on the Geology, Mineralogy, and Paleontology of 
Staffordshire, Worcestershire, and Warwicksnire. By W. Wutraker, 
B.A., F.G.S., Assoc. Inst.C.H.—See Reports, p. 780. 


FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11. 


The following Papers and Reports were read :— 
1. The Volcanves of Auvergne. By Temprst AxpErRson, M.D., B.Sc. 


The modern dry plate process of photography has placed in the hands of 
geologists the power of rapidly and faithfully recording and reproducing before 
an audience of any size many geological and especially volcanic phenomena which 
it would be impossible adequately to describe in words. 

By means of the oxyhydrogen lantern a number of photographs were shown on 
the screen which had been taken by the author in the volcanic district of the 
Auvergne and adjacent parts of the Velay and Vivarais, in Central France. 

Cones of scorize with craters were contrasted with the Domitic Puys in Auvergne, 
and these again with the Phonolitic hills in the district of the Mezenc. The 
appearances of various lava streams both on the surface and where exposed in 
sections were shown, especially those of the valleys of Jaujac and Montpezat. 
Lakes in extinct craters were contrasted with those formed in pre-existing valleys 
bebind dams of volcanic ejecta, and the general scenery of volcanic rocks was com- 
pared with that of other adjacent formations. 


1 Trans. Edin. Geo. Soc., vol. iv.; Trans. Min. Soe. of Great Britain, 1884; 
Chemical News, November 21, 1885. 


1018 REPORT—1885. 


2. On the Re-discovery of lost Numidian Marbles in Algeria and Tunis. 
By Lieut.-Colonel R. L. Piayvarr. 


The author explained that the name itself was a misnomer, as they are not 
found within the limits of Numidia proper, but in the province of Africa and in 
Mauritania. Most of the ‘Giallo antico’ used in Rome was obtained from Svmattu 
Colonia, the modern Chemtou, in the valley of the Medjerda, the quarries of which 
are now being extensively worked by a Belgian company ; but the most remarkable 
and valuable marbles are found near Kleber, in the province of Oran, in Algeria. 
There, on the top of the Montagne Grise, exists an elevated plateau, 1,500 acres in 
extent, forming an uninterrupted mass of the most splendid marbles and breccias 
which the world contains. Their variety is as extraordinary as their beauty. 
There is creamy white, like ivory; rose colour, like coral; Giallo antico; some are as 
variegated as a peacock’s plumage ; and on the west side of the mountain, where 
there has been a great earth-movement, the rock has been broken up and re- 
cemented together, forming a variety of breccias of the most extraordinary 
richness and beauty. 

Colonel Playfair exhibited specimens of the principal varieties, to prove that 
his descriptions were not exaggerated. The beauty of these marbles has been 
recognised by the trustees of the British Museum, who are now mounting the 
sculptures of the Parthenon and the Mausoleum on basements of them. Specimens 
may also be seen in the Mineralogical Room of the British Museum, at South 
Kensington. 

The marble mountain belongs to Signor del Monte, of Oran, and, although it is 
not being worked as it ought to be, blocks can be obtained at a cost of about 181. 
per cubic métre, ready for shipment. ; 


3. Second Report on the Rate of Erosion of the Sea Coasts of England and 
Wales.—See Reports, p. 404. 


4. The Chasm called the Black Rock of Kiltearn. By Witu1am Watson. 


This is a narrow ravine in conglomerate: its length is about 14 mile; its depth 
varies from 100 to 130 feet ; its breadth at the top varies from 12 or 15 to about 
30 feet. The river which flows through the ravine is the Altl-Granda; it drains 
Glen Glass (above the ravine) ; the water flows into Cromarty Firth. 

The author refers to popular views held to explain the formation of the ravine 
—earthquakes and fracture, and shows that these are inadequate. The ravine has 
clearly been produced by erosion, of which the marks are still visible on the sides ; 
the difficulty is to explain how erosion could have produced a gorge of this kind 
without weathering action and floods having denuded the sides. 

Above the gorge in Glen Glass was once a lake. This had been silted up to 
the height of about 80 feet with sand, washed out of the Glacial débris of the glen. 
When the barrier that confined the lake gave way the river flowed over the surface 
of the conglomerate, carrying with it much sand from the lake-silt, and using this 
as a means of rapidly eroding the rock. When the chasm was deep enough to 
prevent the floods from overflowing the banks the sides could not be widened to 
any great extent. The disproportion between the deepening and widening process 
has been maintained, thus causing the steep-sided narrow glen. The excavation 
now going on is small, whilst the weather has some effect on the sides; so that 
ultimately an ordinary valley will be produced. 


5. The Bass of Inverurie, a fragment of an ancient Alluvial Bed. 
By the Rev. Joun Davipson, D.D. 


The Bass of Inverurie, a green conical hill about 50 feet high and singularly 
symmetrical, stands isolated in a corner of the united river valleys of the Don and 
Ury, which latter stream washes its base. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1019 


Its form and position were until lately accepted as proving it to be of artificial 
origin, and speculation dealt only with hypotheses of the reason of its being erected. 
Some of these, being of a superstitious character, increased the unwillingness to 
have the mound dug into which veneration for its antiquity and its traditional 
history occasioned. The character of the great mound was discovered by accident 
in 1883, when a burying ground was being prepared around its base. 

The Bass has a prolongation half the height called the Little Bass. In laying 
out the graveyard a walk was made round the conical portion, so as to complete 
the outline of the cone. A way had to be excavated between the Bass and Little 
Bass. The work showed for a day or two a vertical section, which, being observed, 
was examined by a geological expert and pronounced to be clear evidence that the 
hill was produced by successive deposits of sand laid down in the valleys of the 
Don and Ury, until a sand bed lay there whose surface was of the height of the top 
of the Bass. Upon that level, 40 feet higher than the present level of the Don and 
Ury, these streams flowed before the Bass began to be formed ; and in course of time 
it was gradually formed by denudation, something accidentally protecting a spot of 
surface while the streams washed away the soil around. ‘The river beds were 
gradually deepened, while the Bass, once begun to stand up out of the flood, got 
broader and broader, turning the two converging streams aside. 

The alluvial origin of the Bass infers the existence of a breadth of flowing 
water over the whole range covered by the sand bed, which can be traced five 
miles back from the Bass in the line of both rivers. The existence of that lake 
infers the existence of others between it and the sea. Ordnance levels and existing 
rocky narrows in the line of the Don point out the outlines of those lakes. 

The continuing preservation of the form of the Bass, notwithstanding that the 
Ury impinges upon it at right angles, is due to the circumstances that a bed of 
boulder clay 30 feet wide underlies the Ury and the centre of the Bass. The 
boulder clay was discovered in building a wall for the graveyard, and the bed has 
since been found a mile south in digging a well at the Inverurie paper mills. It is 
there 46 feet thick. 


6. Thirteenth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland. 
See Reports, p. 322. 


7. The Direction of Glaciation as ascertained by the Form of the Strie. 
By Professor H. Carvitt Lewis. 


As there seemed to be a disagreement between certain Scotch geologists and 
the Irish geologists regarding the inferences as to the direction of glaciation to be 
deduced from the form of glacial striz, the author was led to bring forward some 
observations of his own, made in America and in Great Britain, which threw light 
upon the disputed point. 

Well-preserved strise are frequently blunt at one end and tapering at the 
other, the shorter ones.sometimes resembling the characters used in the cuneiform 
inscriptions. This form may be seen in strize of all sizes—from those several yards. 
in length, when the blunt end may be an inch or more in breadth, to the finest 
scratches, where a microscope is necessary to detect any ditference between the 
two ends. 

As shown in the Reports of the Boulder Committee of the Royal Society of 
Edinburgh! and elsewhere, certain Scotch geologists regard the blunt end as the 
point of impact of the striating agent, and as therefore pointing to the direction 
from which the motion came. On the other hand, the Irish geologists? interpret 
the shape of the strize as indicating motion in the opposite direction, believing the 
tapering end to point to the direction from which glaciation proceeded. The point 


1 Fifth Report, pp. 18-20, 29, 58 ; and Seventh Report, p. 18. 
2 Memoirs Geolog. Surv. of Ireland, Explanation to sheets 86, 87, 88, p. 55 
Explanation to sheet 193, p. 18, &c. 


1020 REPORT—1885. 


at issue is of importance, especially in outlying islands and elsewhere, where other 
indications of the direction of glaciation fail. 

In Pennsylvania, which is crossed from east to west by the terminal moraine of 
the great ice-sheet, and where the glaciation is uniformly in a southward direction, 
the author had observed that the blunt ends of the strize, where flat surfaces were 
studied, were always to the south.! In certain instances the mode of formation of 
the strie was also indicated by their shapes, which showed that a stone pushed 
along under the glacier had ground in deeper and deeper until, in some cases, it 
stopped or hopped out, in other cases was ground down to another cutting edge, 
and in others turned over and began its work of engraving by a fresh and sharp 
corner. The peculiar gouges at the farther end of certain strize showed a sort of 
slow rocking motion in some stones before they finally turned over. 

The author's observations in Ireland, both at localities where there could be no 
doubt as to the direction of glacial movement, and at localities where such direction 
was not previously known, led to conclusions entirely in harmony with those 
already reached in Pennsylvania and with those held by the Irish geologists, 

One of the best examples falling under the former category was among the local 
glaciers in the mountains of the Dingle promontory, a region not invaded by the 
great confluent ice-sheet of Central Ireland. The striated beds of these small 
glaciers, beginning in a ‘corry’ and bounded below by a semicircular terminal 
moraine, are beautifully defined and afford good opportunities for striae study. It 
was found that the wedge-shaped strie are blunt at the advancing end except on 
convex downward surfaces, where the reverse is the case. While this rule does not 
hold good for every individual scratch at a given locality, it has been found most 
useful when applied to striated surfaces in general. 

At Glengariff, where some finely striated surfaces occvr, a rumber of tracings 
were taken directly from the rock, which clearly show the broader ends of most of 
the striz to be to the south, the direction toward which the glacial stream ad- 
vanced, Similar observations were made at several localities south of the 
Shannon. 

Tinally, as an instance where the direction of glaciation was previously un- 
known, certain strize were described which the author had observed on the top of 
the cliffs facing the Atlantic at Kilkee. These point N. 58° W.and S. 58° E., and 
the question to be determined was whether the glaciation proceeded from the 
Atlantic towards the land, or whether it went north-westward and out tosea. The 
form of the strive alone decided it. Their broad biunt ends were, asa rule, toward 
the N.W.—the surface being horizontal—a fact which, taken in connection with 
other observations made about the mouth of the Shannon, showed that a great ice 
stream had flowed westward ulong the valley of the Shannon, and had opened out 
fan-shaped as it plunged into the sea. 


8. Proposed Conditions to account for a former Glacial Period in Great 
Britain, existing under similar meteorological conditions to those that 


rule at the present time. By W. ¥F.Svranuuy, I.G.S., FR.ALS. 


This paper may be considered as a continuation of a paper read by the author 
last year, in which it was argued that climates did not appear to be greatly 
influenced by excentricity of the earth’s orbit or the position of winter perihelion, 
as assumed by Dr. Croll and other physicists of the present time. The southern 
hemisphere, assumed to be the colder, was shown by observation to be the warmer. 
‘Therefore, looking to other causes for former glaciation, the author suggested that 
these were possibly local phenomena which were dependent upon geographical con- 
ditions, The former glaciationin Great Britain and Western Europe was supposed 
by the author to be due to the following conditions :— 

1. The non-existence of the Isthmus of Panama, by which the warm southern 
tropical current, now deflected by Cape St. Roque, in South America, into the 


* On the Terminal Moraine in Pennsylvania and Western New York. Report Z. 
Second Geolog. Survey of Penn., pp. 33, 85, 86, 107, 275. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1021 


Northern Atlantic, formerly flowed into the Pacific Ocean, leaving the entire 
Northern Atlantic at its mean normal latitude temperature in comparison with 
other oceans. 

2. A former depression of North America in W. long. 80° to 90°, by which the 
northern tropical current, now deflected by resistance of land through the Straits of 
Florida, formerly flowed where we have at present the Mississippi valley, the 
great American lakes, and Hudson's Bay, by which cause warm currents bathed 
the western coast of Greenland, and, turning to the north of this continent, produced 
a compensating return current from the Arctic regions which flowed southward 
along Western Europe and Great Britain, bringing with it icebergs, as at present 
the compensating current to the Gulf Stream brings icebergs to the coast of 
Labrador. 

3. Higher elevation of some interior part of Great Britain of the older strata now 
denuded, by which, at the temperature then ruling, glaciers flowed from the 
interior. 

For the general principles of oceanic circulation reference was made to the 
discussion of this subject, given by the author in his work on fluids, 


9. On the Fynnon Beuno and Cae Gwyn Bone-Caves, North Wales. 
By H. Hicss, W.D., F.B.S., F.G.S. 


In the ‘ Proceedings of the Geolog. Assoc.’ vol. ix. No. 1, [have given an account 
of the discovery of two bone-caves in the carboniferous rocks on the east side of the 
Vale of Clwyd, North Wales, and of the researches carried on in those caverns by 
Mr. Luxmoore, of St. Asaph, and myself, in the summers of 1883 and 1884. This 
summer, by the aid of a grant from the Royal Society (the Government grant), we 
were enabled to employ a staff of workmen, under our personal supervision, to ex- 
plore these caverns more thoroughly, and with very satisfactory results. Our main 
object was to gain a clear idea of the physical conditions of the area when the 
caverns were filled with the deposits, and of the manner in which the remains had 
been conveyed into them. These points we think we have been able to prove to 
satisfaction, but it may be advisable to continue the researches for the purpose of 
obtaining as much confirmatory evidence as possible. 

In the Cae Gwyn Cavern all the deposits were entirely undisturbed except by 
burrowing animals when we first discovered it, and great care was taken throughout 
to notice the conditions of the materials. The deposits in this cavern consisted of, 
first, a reddish clayey earth, varying in depth from two to four feet. Below this 
was found a more compact deposit consisting of thin layers of a fine marly clay. 
about 18 inches in thickness, and under this the material containing the bones 
This material consisted of a reddish clay, with sand in places, and contained many 
boulders similar to those found in the boulder clays of the district. Large frag- 
ments of a stalagmite floor and of stalactites occurred also init, showing that the 
water action which disturbed the original materials in the cave must have been of a 
violent nature. Under this was found a gravelly deposit, containing fragments. 
mainly from the hills above, and no bones. In this cavern the deposits, except the 
lowest, have been cleared out to a distance from the entrance of over 150 feet. 
This cavern is for the most part a true tunnel cavern with well smoothed roof and 
sides. The largest chamber has just been reached at a little over 150 feet from 
the entrance. It is over 11 feet in lencth and 9 feet in height. The other chambers 
are small, being mainly dilatations of the tunnel, which varies from 3 to 9 feet in 
width. Extending from a small chamber, about 45 feet from the entrance, there 
is another branch tunnel whichhas been explored to a distance of about 16 feet. 

The bones discovered in this cavern, according to Mr. W. Davies, F.G.S., of the 
British Museum, to whom they have been submitted, belong to the lion, hyzna,. 
bear, badger, wolf, fox, great Irish deer, reindeer, red deer, roebuck, rhinoceros, and 
horse. A flint scraper was also found last year in association with the remains at: 
a distance of 45 feet from the entrance. 

The Fynnon Beuno Cavern is partly a fissure and partly a tunnel cayern, From 


1022 REPORT—1885. 


the entrance inwards for a distance of about 40 feet it is a true tunnel cavern, and 
there is a branch tunnel extending from this for a further distance of over 50 feet, 
ultimately opening out on the hill side above the main entrance. Another tunnel 
communicates with an extensive fissure cayern, which had evidently been disturbed 
at some time by mining operations, though I could obtain no information as to when. 
In the undisturbed parts of this cavern the deposits were of a similar character to 
those in the Cae Gwyn Cave. This cavern, however, being for some extent an open 
eayern, had probably been inhabited in Neolithic, or perhaps later times, as a 
quantity of charcoal was found at two points at distances of from 20 to 24 feet from 
the entrance. Several well-worked flint flakes were found at different points in this 
cayern, in association with bones of the mammoth, rhinoceros, &c. Dr. Evans 
recognised them as of the type of the wrought flakes found in Kent’s Cavern, They 
also, like those found in Kent’s Cayern, are white and porcellanous, and all show 
indications of haying been used, but not rolled by water action. Worked bones 
and others broken by man were also found. The bones, which were exceedingly 
plentiful in the cavern, were found to have been gnawed freely, and evidently 
when in a fresh condition, hence showing clearly that they had been conveyed into 
the cavern soon after the animals had died. Some albwm grecum was also found 
in each of the caverns, therefore the eyidence points clearly to their having been 
dens occupied by the beasts of prey. I think we are quite justified also in sup- 
posing, from the positions of the flakes and worked bones, that the caverns were 
occupied by man, or at least that the district was inhabited by man when the 
mammoth, rhinoceros, reindeer, hyzena, &c., roamed about the area. 

The bones found in this cavern belonged to the following animals, viz., lion, 
wild cat, hysena, bear, wolf, fox, wild boar, great Irish deer, reindeer, red deer, roe- 
buck, bos, mammoth, rhinoceros, and horse. The remains were much more plentiful 
in the Fynnon Beuno than in the Cae Gwyn Caye. Among the specimens found 
in the two, there were over 80 jaws belonging to various animals, and more than 
1,300 loose teeth, including about 400 rhinoceros, 15 mammoth, 180 hyena, and 
500 horse teeth. Other bones and fragments of bones occurred also in very great 
abundance. 

As these caverns are about 400 feet above present sea level, and nearly 300 feet 
above the river Clwyd (the hei¢ht given in my paper to the Geologists’ Association 
was understated), it is clear that great physical changes must have taken place in 
this area since the time that the marine sand was conveyed into these caverns. 
The broken stalagmite floor, sometimes 10 to 12 inches in thickness, and the 
broken stalactites 6 to 8 inches across, show that the water action must have been 
also of a violent nature. The position of the bones in some places under still 
adherent parts of this stalagmite, and the presence of marine sand in the hollow 
parts of the bones, show that the bones must have been in the caverns before the 
sea finally receded from them. The presence also of a material, in every respect 
like the boulder clay of the district filling up the cayerns, points to the probability 
that the so-called Upper Boulder clays of this district were deposited for the most 
part at the time, or subsequent to the infilling of these caverns. Along the hill- 
sides in the ravine in which the caverns are situated, sands and clays similar to 
those found in the caverns, and containing marine shells, are found at about the 
same horizon and in the hills to the 8.E. at much greater elevations. Cae Gwyn 
Cave is over 60 feet, and Fynnon Beuno 42 feet above the level of the little stream, 
a tributary of the Clwyd in the ravine in which they are situated. These facts 
suggest the following as the probable changes indicated by the deposits in the 
caverns :—The lowest deposit in the caverns, consisting almost entirely of local 
materials, was introduced into them by the river which then flowed in the valley 
at a very much higher Jevel than at present. As time went on the valley deepened, 
and the caverns were above the reach of the floods. They then became the abode 
of hysenas and other beasts of prey. Subsequently there was a period of great, 
submergence, and when the caverns were on a level with the sea, they were filled 
with sandy materials and the bones were embedded in it, The following are the 
results which have to be accounted for: (a) The infilling of the caverns by local 
grayels; (b) the occupation of the caverns by beasts of prey; (c) the formation 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1023 


of the stalagmite; (d) the breaking up of the stalagmite floor and the introduction 
of the boulder clay. The position of the caverns almost at the crest of a ridge of 
carboniferous rocks makes it clear that the boulder clay could not have been intro- 
duced by streams, therefore the only ccnclusion I can arrive at is that during a 
period of great submergence, either during or subsequent to the glacial epoch, the 
material was introduced by marine action. 


10. Note on Specimens of Fish from the Lower Old Red Sandstone of 
FPorfarshire. By the Rey. Hucu MircHett. 


The author stated that at the meeting of the Association in 1859 he exhibited 
specimens of fish which were afterwards described by Sir P. Egerton in the Tenth 
Decade of the Geological Survey. With these specimens was a beautiful spine, the 
relations of which were unknown, but of which other portions have since been found. 
The author submitted descriptions which he regarded as sutlicient to justify the 
founding of three new species. The specimens were from Farnell and Turin. 


SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 12. 
The following Papers and Report were read :— 
1. The Elgin Sandstones. By J. Gordon PuIuuirs. 


The question of the age of the reptiliferous sandstones of Elgin is not yet 
settled. Murchison and Sedgwick decided on stratigraphical grounds that they 
belong to the Old Red formation, which was afterwards confirmed by Paleontology. 
Later discoveries, however, of reptilian remains (Stagonolepis, Telerpeton, and 
Hyperodapedon), raised the question of the age, one party maintaining that the 
reptiles were of Triassic origin, and the other, of the upper beds of the Old Red. The 
opinions of the supporters of the Triassic theory were gradually accepted, owing to 
paleontological discoveries, and, indeed, so sure were paleeontologists they were 
right, that one said if the sandstones turned out to be Old Red, he would give up 
geology altogether, and another said he would not believe they were Old Red until 
he saw a reptile with a Holoptychius in its mouth. There were a few geologists 
who still clung to the old belief, among them being Dr. Gordon of Birnie and the 
late Professor Nicol. The question, however, has again been opened by the dis- 
covery of reptilian remains and of Holoptychian remains in the same quarry, the 
latter underlying the former, but there is a bed of conglomerate, five feet thick or 
thereabouts, between the two deposits. This bed has died out in the meantime, 
and it is doubtful if it will reappear ; the Old Red may be found passing under the 
reptiliferous in natural order right on the coast.1_ Indeed there is evidence of the 
existence of Holvptychius a little west of Stotfield,in ground which has hitherto 
been deemed purely reptilian, which tends to confirm that idea. This quarry is 
situated on the ridge which runs south-west by west to north-east by east in the 
immediate vicinity of Elgin, and called Cutties Hillock. In Professor Judd’s 
admirable paper on the ‘Secondary Rocks of Scotland,’ published in 1873, he has 
the two systems faulted against each other above Findrassie, but the fact of 
reptiles and a Holoptychius nobilissimus having been found in this quarry in 
deposits apparently conformable shows there is no such powerful fault. But 
when Professor Judd’s paper was written no other conclusion could be arrived at. 
He knew that reptilian remains had been got immediately to the north of the 


1 Since the above was written the workmen have, on the north side of the quarry, 
gone down into sandstone, which I regard as being identical with that containing 
Aoloptychius, and, in my opinion, the two deposits are lying apparently perfectly 
conformable, with no conglomerate between. It seems to me to have died out alto- 
gether, only an occasional pebble appearing, 


1024 REPORT—1885. 


ridge at Findrassie, and he also knew that at least one Old Red fish had keen got 
at its southern base at Laverock Loch, so that it was the most probable explanation 
to indicate the presence of a fault. And indeed, at the east end of the ridge near 
Bishopmill, there is evidence of disturbance, though it in no way affects the quarry 
at Cutties Hillock. After the quarry (Cutties Hillock) was opened, the lessees, 
for the purpose of finding out the building qualities of the stone, sank a pit through 
the bed of conglomerate, mentioned above, a distance of about 22 feet, and in this 
pit was found a Holoptychius. The pit was subsequently filled up, as the stone was 
not found suitable for building purposes. This necessitated the cutting of a trench 
again into the Holoptychian sandstone, to see if the overlying beds are conform- 
able or unconformable, which is now being proceeded with.1. In the quarry there 
is also a sand dyke dividing it, but reptilian remains have been found on both sides. 
What these reptiles are has not yet been determined, though Huxley is understood 
to have said that he believed one of them to be Dinosawrian. All these reptilian 
remains, with the exception of one, were found about the same level in the quarry, 
indeed so much is this the case that the workmen call it ‘the fossil joint.’ The 
texture of the Holoptychian sandstones and the reptiliferous sandstones is different. 
The former is fine, and the laminz are well marked, while in the other it is more 
rough and angular, but they appear to have been both drawn from the same sources 
of granite waste. We have not made microscopic sections, but have examined the 
sand of which the two deposits are formed, and there is little apparent difference. 
They are composed of quartz, felspar, and mica, the reptiliferous being, if anything, 
a little more felspathic in character. Such a case, so far as we know, is unique. 
Reptile-bearing beds have never before been found lying on the Old Red and 
apparently conformable. The question is, are the reptiliferous beds Triassic or 
Upper Old Red? Looking at the matter from an Old Red point of view, it is diffi- 
cult to understand why reptiles could not have existed in the Upper Old Red if the 
conditions of life were favourable, and we feel no assurance that the conditions af 
life should not have been favourable when the Elgin sandstones were deposited. 
If they are Triassic, what has become of the vast periods which lie between the 
two systems, and why should these reptiles be confined to a few miles of north- 
eastern Scotland in the vicinity of Elgin? The paleontologist would answer that 
some of these reptiles have been found in the Trias in other parts of the world 
(England, Africa, and India), and that Old Red fishes and reptiles had never been 
found associated together in the same beds. All that we ask is that the question 
may be kept open for a time, so that all possible evidence may be obtained. We 
acknowledge the full weight of paleontological evidence, and all that geologists 
owe to that great science, but it is possible that in some cases it may be stretched 
too far. All that we wish to ascertain is the truth, and with present light we 
cannot say that it has been reached. We want more proof. 


2. Preliminary Note on a new Fossil Reptile recently discovered at New 
Spynie, near Elgin. By Dr. R. H. Traquair, F.R.S. 


Of this most important fossil the author had as yet only seen a photograph, sub- 
mitted to him by Professor Judd, F.R.S., the President of the Section. This 
photograph represents pretty nearly a vertical longitudinal section of a reptilian 
skull, of which one very prominent feature is the presence in the upper jaw of a 
large conical tusk projecting downwards and forwards, immediately behind the pre- 
maxillary part ofthe cranium. This tusk is seen only in impression, but the cast of 
the internal cavity, which is well shown, indicates that it grew from a permanent 
pulp. No evidence of any other teeth is visible, and the whole appearance of the 
skull as seen in the photograph, with the position and shape of the tusk, indicate 
that the reptile here represented, if not actually belonging to the genus Dieynodon, 


’ This trench, when finished, was examined by Professor Bonney, Professor Judd, 
and myself. There was the appearance of a very slight unconformity in my opinion, 
but such appearances frequently occur in the Elgin Sandstones caused by false bedding. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1025 


is certainly a member of the group of Dicynodontia. Geologists will not underrate 
the value of this discovery in its bearing on the question of the age of the reptili- 
ferous sandstone of Elgin, 


3. Report on the Fossil Plants of the Tertiary and Secondary Beds of the 
United Kingdom.—See Reports, p. 396. 


MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14. 
The following Papers were read :— 


‘lL. The Highland Controversy in British Geology: its Causes, Course, and 
Consequences. By Professor Cartes Lapwortu, LL.D., F.G.S. 


Part I. 


The author gave a réswmé of the views of the earlier geologists respecting the 
geological age and possible mode of formation of the Highland Metamorphic rocks, 
and sketched in brief the rise and progress of the controversy between Sir R. 
Murchison and his followers on the one hand, and Professor Nicol of Aberdeen on 
the other, till its temporary close in 1855 by the publication of the Highland 
Memoir of Murchison and Geikie. He then reviewed the re-opening of the 
controversy by Dr. Hicks in 1877, and the work of the Archzan geologists, up to 
the date of publication of Dr. C. Callaway’s paper in 1883, in which Nicol’s view 
of the great physical break between the Paleozoic rocks and the Eastern or Upper 
Gneissic series was shown to be correct ; but the so-called Eastern Gneiss was pro- 
visionally erected into a new Archwan system, having the Arnaboll Gneiss as its 
lower member. 

The author next gave a summary of his own views, as deduced from his personal 
study of the Durness-Eriboll district in 1882 and 1883, illustrating them by 
coloured maps and sections. He held that (exception being made of the local 
Torridon sandstone) the only rock-formations in the Durness-Eriboll area are, as 
Nicol originally contended,—(1) the Archwan or Hebridean gneiss,and (2) the 
Palzozoic quartzites, fucoid beds, and limestones. 

There isno conformable ascending succession from the Palzozoie rocks into the 
Eastern Metamorphic series. The line of contact is, generally speaking, a plane of 
dislocation, and where this is wanting the Paleozoic rocks rest unconformably upon 
one of the members of the Eastern Gneiss. The present physical relations of the 
Eastern Metamorphic series are the effect of lateral crust-creep, by which the 
Eastern Metamorphic rocks have been forced over the Paleozoic rocks to the west, 
often for many miles. This Eastern Metamorphic series is composed of two 
petrological members, the Arnaboll gneiss to the west, and the Sutherland schists 
and gneiss to the east, having between them a series of variegated schists possess- 
ing characters common to both. The Arnaboll gneiss is simply the easterly 
extension of the Hebridean of the west. The remaining gneisses and schists of the 
Eastern Metamorphic series are mainly composed of remetamorphosed Hebridean, “ 
with included patches of igneous and Paleozoic material. The planes of schistosity 
which divide the layers of the Upper Gneissic series are not planes of bedding, but 
planes of dislocation. The present dip, strike, and mineralogical characteristics 
of these rocks haye been given to them since Silurian times, by the agency of the 
great earth movements. In some instances the original structures of the rocks are 
still recognisable ; frequently, however, they are more or less obliterated, the old 
minerals have disappeared as such, and new minerals have been developed. The 
Eastern Gneissic series of this area has thus no pretension whatever to the title of 
a sedimentary rock-system. It isa petrological rock-massif, a metamorphic com- 
pound, composed of local elements of different geological ages, In all their essentials 


1885. 30 


1026 REPORT—-1885. 


these views appear to agree with those worked out independently by Messrs, Peach 
and Horne in 1884. 
Part IT, 


In the second part of his paper the author gave a summary of the work accom- 
plished among the metamorphic rocks of the Alps and Eastern Germany by Heim 
and Lehmann, and described the several types of rock metamorphism found in the 
Eriboll district, as worked out by himself. 

The Arnaboll (Hebridean gneiss), can be traced stage by stage from spots where 
it retains its original strike and petrological characters, to others where it acquires 
the normal strike and mineralogical features of the ordinary Sutherland schists. 
The old planes of schistosity become obliterated and new ones are formed; the 
original crystals are crushed and spread out, and new secondary minerals (mica 
and quartz) are developed. The most intense mechanical metamorphism occurs 
along the grand dislocation (thrust) planes. The gneisses and pegmatites resting 
on that plane are crushed, dragged, and ground out into a finely laminated 
schist (mylonite; Gr. mylon, a mill), composed of shattered fragments of the 
original crystals of the rock, set in a polarising cement of secondary quartz, the 
lamination being defined by minute inosculating lines (fluxion lines) of kaolin or 
chloritic material, with secondary crystals of a micaceous mineral. Whatever rock 
rests immediately upon the thrust-plane, whether Archean, Igneous, or Paleozoic, 
&c., is similarly treated, the resulting mylonite varying in colour and composition 
according to the material from which it is formed. 

The variegated schists, which form the transitional zones hetween the Arnaboll 
gneiss and Sutherland mica-schists, are all essentially mylonites in origin and 
structure, and appear to have been formed along great dislocation planes, some of 
which still show between them patches of recognisable Archean and Paleozoic 
rocks. These variegated schists (phyllites or mylonites), differ locally in composi- 
tion according to the material from which they have been derived, and in petrolo~ 
gical character according to the special physical accidents to which they have heen 
subjected since their date of origin, forming frilled schists, veined schists, glazed 
schists, &e. &e. 

The more highly crystalline flaggy mica-schists &c. which le immediately to 
the east of the zones of the variegated schists, appear to have been made out of 
similar materials to those of the variegated schists, but to have been formed under 
somewhat different conditions. ‘They show the fluxion-structure of the mylonites, 
but while the differential motion of the component particles seems to have been 
much less, the chemical change was much greater. In some of these crystalline 
schists (the augen-schists), the larger crystals of the original rock from which the 
schist was formed are still individually recognisable, while the matrix now con- 
taining them is a secondary crystalline matrix of quartz and mica arranged in the 
fluxion-planes. While the mylonites may he described as microscopic pressure- 
breccias with fluxion-structure, in which the interstitial siliceous and kaolinitic 
paste has only crystallised in part; the augen-schists may be described as pressure- 
breccias with fluxion-structure, in which the whole of the interstitial paste has 
crystallised out. The mylonites were formed along the thrust-planes, where the 
two superposed rock-systems moved over each other as solid masses, the augen- 
schists were probably formed in the more central parts of the moving system, 
where the all-surrounding pressure forced the rock to yield somewhat like a plastic 
body. Between these augen-schists there appears to be every gradation, on the 
one hand to the mylonites, and on the other to the typical mica-schists composed 
of quartz and mica. 

Like the mylonites, the crystalline augenites and micalites present us with 
local differences in chemical composition (calcareous, hornblendic, quartzose, &c.) 
They also show corresponding structural varieties due to secondary changes (frilled, 
veined, glazed, &c.), as well as others due to the presence of special minerals 
(garnet, actinolite, &c. &c.). 


ee 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1027 


2. The Geology of Durness and Eriboll, with special reference to the High- 
land Controversy. By B.N. Pracu, I’.2.S.E., and J. Horne, FERS LE. 


With the permission of the Director General of the Geological Survey, the 
authors gave an outline of the geological structure of the Durness-Eriboll region, 
illustrated by a series of horizontal sections. They showed that the Silurian strata 
of Durness are arranged in the form of a basin bounded on the east side by power- 
ful faults disconnecting them from the same series in Eriboll. The order of 
succession in the two areas is identical from the basal quartzites to the horizon of 
the Eilean Dubh limestone group. On the west side of Loch Eriboll the basal 
quartzites rest unconformably on the Archean gneiss, but on the eastern shore 
there is conclusive evidence of the repetition of various members of the Silurian 
series by a remarkable system of reversed faults culminating in a great dislocation 
which has thrust the Archean gneiss over the truncated edges of the quartzites, 
fucoid beds, serpulite grits, and basal limestone. Reference was made to the effect 
of these mechanical movements on the Silurian rocks and to the development of 
new planes of schistosity in the gneiss above the thrust plane. At intervals, small 
patches of the basal quartzites are met with throughout this mass of Archean 
gneiss, which are abruptly truncated by great reversed faults, but in the district 
between Eriboll and Assynt the whole Silurian succession from the basal breccia 
to the lowest limestone occurs repeatedly above the first great thrust plane, separated 
by wedges of highly sheared gneiss. It was shown that the alteration produced by 
each successive displacement gradually becomes more pronounced as the observer 
passed eastwards across the area. ‘The old north-west strike of the Archaan 
gneiss gave place to a new foliation running more or less parallel with the strike 
of the thrust planes; the felspathic basal quartzites and the ‘ pipe-rock’ pass 
into quartz schists and mica schists, and the Silurian limestone is felted with the 
crushed Archean gneiss. Reference was next made to the outcrop of the great 
thrust plane extending from the Whitten Head Coast far to the south, which 
ushers in a highly schistose series with a N.N.E. and 8.S.W. strike. After de- 
scribing the lithological characters and order of succession of the eastern schists, the 
authors stated that the new planes of foliation had been superinduced by the 
mechanical movements that took place between Lower Silurian and Old Red 
Sandstone time, and that along these new planes a rearrangement and recrystal- 
lisation of mineral constituents took place, resulting in the production of crystalline 
schists. Applying the knowledge thus obtained from the study of the eastern schists 
to the undisturbed Archean masses, they had found conclusive evidence of similar 
mechanical movements in Pre-Cambrian time. ach plane of schistosity exhibits 
the parallel lineation like slickensides trending in the same direction over a vast 
area, while the minerals were oriented along these lines. From a consideration of 
these phenomena the authors inferred that regional metamorphism need not neces- 
sarily be confined to any particular geological period, and further that the planes 
of foliation or schistosity in those areas which had been subjected to regional 
metamorphism were evidently due to enormous mechanical movements which had 
induced molecular changes in crystalline and clastic rocks. 


3. Preliminary Note on some Traverses of the Orystalline District of the 
Central Alps. By Professor T. G. Bonney, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., 
Pres.G.8. 


During the past four years I have made several traverses of the Central Alps 
from north to south, and venture to lay before the Section the general results as 
bearing in some respect on the geology of the Highlands. nok 

1. The ordinary rules of stratigraphy as learnt from most lowland districts 
are commonly quite inapplicable to the Alps. ‘The most highly crystalline and the 
older beds often form the higher parts of a mountain region, the newer the lower, 
The newer beds frequently appear to underlie and dip regularly beneath the older. 
Gigantic folds, overturns, and oyerthrust faults abound, The true stratigraphy of 

3 u 2 


1028 REPORT—1885. 


a district can only be worked out by the exercise of patient and cautious induction 
from observations extended over a wide area. 

2, The non-crystalline rocks of the Alps are of various ages. There are some 
of Carboniferous age, but the great period of continuous deposition generally begins 
with some part of the Trias. The conglomerates, which often occur at the base of 
the non-crystalline deposits, indicate that the principal metamorphism of the erys- 
talline series was anterior to both these epochs. There is at present no reason to 
suppose that either in the Central Alps or for some distance on each side there 
are any representatives of the earlier Paleozoics. I believe that the conglomerates 
at the base of the Carboniferous contain fragments of the later crystalline rocks of 
the Alps as well as of some of the earlier—though I do not assert that these crys- 
talline rocks have undergone no modifications since Carboniferous times. 

3. In the heart of the principal Alpine chains, and apparently at the base of 
everything, are coarsely crystalline gneisses. These differ little from granites, 
except that they generally—almost always—exhibit a certain foliation, and 
occasionally seem to be interbedded with thin seams of micaceous schists or flagg 
fine-grained beds, 

4, On examining these latter we find reason to believe that they are generally due 
to crushing. Their strike agrees with that of the apparent foliation in these older 
rocks, and with that of a foliation which is also present in the newer crystalline 
rocks, This corresponds with the strike of the main physical features of the dis- 
trict, and with the cleavage in the included troughs of sedimentary rock. It runs 
for great distances with remarkable uniformity, e.g., from the Maderanerthal to 
the upper part of the Lukmanier Pass the strike of this foliation does not materially 
vary from W.S.W.-E.N.E. 

5. This apparent foliation is due to the development of extremely thin films of 
@ micaceous mineral, In many cases it causes the rock to bear the aspect of a 
highly micaceous schist; yet, on examining a transverse section, it is seen dis- 
tinctly tobe a crushed gneiss; 7.e., though so conspicuous, it isa mere varnish. As 
it thus differs materially from a true foliation, it would be convenient to give ita 
name, and I should propose to call it the ‘sheen surface” It is, in fact, a kind of 
‘cleavage foliation,’ that is, a foliation due to cleavage, and subsequent to it. But 
though from certain points of view so conspicucus, its minerals often constitute a 
very small part of the mass of the rock. 

6. The pressure which has produced this ‘sheen surface’ has in many cases 
affected the orientation of the minerals, which are present in the true ‘ foliation’ 
layers of the more distinctly foliated, 7.e., mineral-banded, rocks. It has affected 
these minerals as pressure affects the constituents of a sedimentary rock. 

7. In the crystalline schists yery commonly the ‘sheen surface’ corresponds with 
the original foliation surface, as in the slates the cleavage sometimes does with the 
bedding. This is due to the fact that the axes of the great folds often make a very 
high angle with the horizon. It may, however (like a cleavage surface), be seen 
crossing the foliation at all angles. 

8. Thus a non-foliated crystalline rock may be rendered to some extent foliated 
by pressure (followed by a certain amount of mineralisation) ; z.e., some gneisses 
may be formed by crushing from granites, some schists out of other igneous rocks. 
It may obliterate an earlier foliation, or it may intensify it, or it may produce an 
independent and more fissile foliation. 

In this sense gneiss may he said to pass into granite, because a rock which is 
now, both macroscopically and microscopically, a gneiss may prove to be a granite 
which has in some parts yielded to pressure more than in others. 

9. As we pass outwards from the great central granitoid masses we come to 
gneisses and schists where the evidence of some kind of stratification becomes more 
marked ; bands of crystalline limestone, quartzite and granulite being associated 
with mica schist of many kinds—simple, garnetiferous, staurolitic, actinolitic, and 
the like—the bands of different mineral character and composition varying from 
mere streaks to layers which are many yards in thickness. In fact, the above-named 
rocks are associated exactly as limestones, sandstones, and clays are associated in 
the ordinary sedimentaries, 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1029 


10, Although the crushing of a crystalline rock in situ, or the squeezing and 
shearing of a breccia or conglomerate of crystalline fragments, occasionally gives 
rise to local difficulties, these are on a small scale, and sedimentary beds belonging 
to the Paleeozoic or later periods of deposition are generally readily distinguishable 
from the whole of the crystalline series. Though folded and faulted in the most 
extraordinary manner, the members of the two series can generally be separated, 
and in the Alps there is no evidence of a mingling of the one with the other in the 
process of rolling out or squeezing together ; so that after patient study and micro- 
scopic examination we can generally decide without hesitation whether a particular 
set of rocks has originated from the crystalline or the sedimentary series. I do not 
say that we can always decide whether a schist or a gneiss has originated from an 
igneous rock or from an older schist or gneiss, but I think that in the Alps we can 
say that it has originated from one of these. Fortunately, intrusive rocks are very 
rare in the Paleeozoic and later deposits in this part of the Alps. 

11. Thus, although the Tertiary metamorphism of the Alpine rocks is very 
important, it is more pretentious than real, and its effects seem to have been the 
greatest where it has found a rock already crystalline to act upon. Hence I believe 
that every true gneiss and schist in the Alps is much older than the Carboniferous, 
and is probably older than any member of the Paleozoic period. 


4, Some Examples of Presswre-Fluxion in Pennsylvania, 
By Professor H. Carvin Lewis. 


The three localities in Pennsylvania described in this paper lie in an area which 
had been especially studied by the author for some years back, and had led him to 
conclusions similar to some of those recently announced as the result of studies in 
north-western Scotland, which have justly attracted widespread attention. 

1. A zone of ancient crystalline rocks extends across south-eastern Pennsyl- 
yania, near Philadelphia, which is generally believed to underlie the lowest 
Cambrian strata and to be of Archeanage. ‘This zone is about a mile wide where 
it crosses the Schuylkill river, south of Conshohocken, and it is from this point to 
Westchester, some 20 miles westward, that the present remarks especially apply. 
Although in many portions exhibiting a distinct gneissic lamination, the rocks of 
this zone are held by the author to be of purely eruptive origin, consisting of 
syenites, acid gabbros, trap granulites, and other igneous rocks, often highly meta- 
morphosed. It is the outer peripheral portion of this zone to which attention is 
here directed. 

While the rocks are massive in the centre, this outer portion has been enor- 
mously compressed, folded and faulted, with the result of producing a tough, 
banded, porphyritic fucion gneiss, identical with the ‘milonite’ of Lapworth or 
the ‘sheared gneiss’ of Peach and Horne. So perfect is the fluxion structure 
that the rock resembles a rhyolite. As in the ‘banded granulite’ of Lehmann, 
elongated felspar ‘eyes’ Jie in flowing streams of biotite grains and broken 
quartz, the streams often parting and again meeting around the porphyritic ‘ eyes.’ 
Occasional crystalline eyes of hornblende remain, but most of it has been converted 
into biotite. 

A point of especial interest is that the felspar of the ‘eyes’ is quite colour- 
less and free from inclusions, like the sanidine of recent lavas; while on the other 
hand the felspars of the inner and massive portions of the zone, out of which this 
outer portion has been reformed by pressure fluxion, are full of inclusions and have 
the ‘dusty’ appearance so common in ancient felspars. The fresh-looking :fel- 
spar eyes have therefore very possibly been subsequently formed as the result of 
a recrystallisation of the old material under the influence of pressure fluvion. In 
similar manner the biotite has been made out of the old hornblende, garnets have 
been developed, and the quartz has been granulated and optically distorted by 
pressure. 

The influence of pressure is also seen in certain Cambrian strata in the immediate 
vicinity, where a sandstone containing cylindrical casts of Scolithus linearis, 


1030 REPORT—1885. 


apparently identical with the ‘ pipe-rock’ of north-western Scotland, has, like it, 
been compressed to such a degree that the vertical casts are flattened out and 
elongated in the direction of lamination to several times their original length. In 
the same sandstone quartz pebbles have been pulled out and flattened, while sericate 
has been largely developed along the cleavage planes. ‘The pressure can be shown 
to have been directed mainly from the south-east. 

2. The second locality is in the midst of the Laurentian area of Bucks County, 
and is known as Van Artsdalen’s Quarry. A mass of crystalline limestone is here 
mingled with an eruptive diorite in such manner as to show that it had actually 
flowed like an igneous rock and had caught up inclusions. The results of extreme 
metamorphism are exhibited in the development in the limestone of graphite, 
ekebergite, and other minerals. The chemical changes and interchange of elements 
which might result from a loosening of molecular combinations under extreme 
pressure and their subsequent ‘rezelation’ into new compounds were discussed as 
among the phenomena of mechanical metamorphism. 

3. As an American instance of the conversion of an intrusive diahase dyke 
into amphibolite schist, analogous to the case recently described by Teall, a long 
narrow belt of sphene-hearing amphibolite schist in the city of Philadelphia was 
adduced. This belt, with distinctive mineralogical characters, cuts across the 
metamorphic mica schists of the region unconformably, and is believed by the 
author to be a highly metamorphosed intrusive dyke of Lower Silurian age. The 
original augite or diallage has been completely converted into fibrous hornblende, 
and the influence of pressure is shown in the perfectly laminated character of the 
schist, in the close foldings produced, and in the minute structure of the rock. 
Some interesting details of the latter having been photographed, diagrams con- 
structed from these were exhibited. These showed that the rock was traversed 
by a parallel series of slips and crushings, and that about such lines of faulting and 
crushing there was a peculiar arrangement of the lines of hornblende crystals not 
very unlike the arrangement of iron filings about the poles of a magnet, such as 
could not be satisfactorily explained by any theory of aqueous deposition, but 
pointed to a lamination by pressure. 


5. On Slaty Cleavage and allied Rock Structures, with special reference to the 
Mechanical Theories of ther Origin. By Atrren Harker, M.A., 
F.G.S.—See Reports, p. 818. 


6. On Irish Metamorphic Rocks. By G. Henry Kinanan, MR.LA. 


This paper is an epitome of what is known as to the age of the Irish meta- 
morphic rocks. The author gives ten Irish localities in which the rocks litho- 
logically are more or less identical with the Laurentian rocks of America. Of each 
locality a short description is given, and where the age of the rocks is positively 
proved it is stated, while in the other cases the probable age is suggested. He also 
points out that while in some cases lithological characters are taken as a sure test 
of Laurentian age, in other cases they are ignored, by which means many rocks 
eminently lithologically similar to some of the Canadian rocks have been excluded 
from the so-called Irish Laurentians. 


7. On Rocks of Central Caithness. By Joun Gunn. 


The term ‘Central Caithness’ is intended to embrace most of the parish of . 
Halkirk and part of the parish of Watten. 

The upper part of the parish of Halkirk is covered by drift gravel, underlying 
peat. At Loch More flagstones are presented. Below the lake may be traced the 
banks of what was once a great river. At Dirlot the rocks are sandstone, granite, 
gneiss, gneissic conglomerate, and limestone. At Dalmore the right bank of the 
Thurso is composed of boulder clay, the left of grayel. Here is seen a chain of 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1031 


moraines, composed of granitic gravel and sand. At Tormsdale a vein of some 
einder-like material occurs. The flagstones at Poll a’ Chreagan are covered with 
freestone, as also at Dale Bridge on the right bank of the river. On the left the 
flags lie exposed in great tabular masses, overlying limestone. At the top of the 
Mill Poolare the remains of a natural dam. Below this pool a band of freestone 
once crossed the bed of the river. At Dale are shifting beds of gravel, and here the 
river is continually changing its course. Below Pollihour flags again appear, and 
opposite Scots Calder are banks of boulder clay, the boulders therein being very 
distinctly striated. Great masses of flagstone block up the bed of the stream 
at Gerston. At Halkirk the cliffs are coated with red ochre. 

Granite is not visible at Dorrery, as has been stated by at least one writer, but 
it does not appear to lie at any great depth below the flags. 

At Achanarras a curious fossil Coccostews is found in a small slate quarry. 

East from Spittal the angle at which the rocks dip gradually diminishes, and 
at Lanergill reaches its nearest approach to a dead level. 

Drift gravel prevails in the neighbourhood of Halsary, and also down part of 
Strathbeg, where the banlis of the ancient river may again be traced. Here the 
Dalmore moraines are continued. 

No evidence of volcanic action can be gathered from an examination of the rocks 
of Central Caithness, but the district presents a fair field for the study of erosion by 
ice, air, and water. 

8. Onsome Rock Specimens from the Islands of the Fernando Noronha Group. 
By Professor A. Renarp, LL.D., F.G.S. 


The rock specimens described in this communication were collected by J. G, 
Buchanan, Esq., during the voyage of the ‘Challenger.’ The islands have been 
described by Darwin in his ‘Geological Observations on Volcanic Islands’ (2nd 
edit., p. 27), The author, after having explained the geological structure, gave 
lithological descriptions of the chief types of the rocks, which may he referred to 
the phonolites (St. Michael’s Mount). ‘These phonolites are composed of sanidine, 
augite, nepheline, hornblende, magnetite, nosean, and titanite. 

The rocks of Rat Island are basalts with nepheline. The constituent minerals 
are augite and olivine. The ground-mass is almost entirely composed of nepheline ; 
biotite and apatite occur as-accessory constituents. The little island known as 
Platform Island is also basaltic, with a doleritic texture. It is composed of labra- 
dorite, augite, olivine, magnetite, and biotite. This rock has undergone altera- 
tions. 


9. On the Average Density of Meteorites compared with that of the Harth.' 
By the Rev. H. Hits, M.A., F.G.8, 


The average density of the meteorites which fal] on the earth is attempted to be 
calculated. Different methods described give as results 4:55, 4°58, 4:84, 5°71; the 
last value being influenced by the size of one particularly large metallic specimen, 
‘The average density of the earth is usually regarded as 5°6. Meteorites are samples 
of the materials of space, and a mass of them would aggregate into a body of density 
not widely differing from that of the earth. The densities of the other planets are 
not inconsistent with a like origin. Consequently any theory of the genesis of the 
earth from pre-existing materials involves a probability that an important part of 
its nucleus is metallic, 


1 Geological Magazine, 1885, p. 516. 


1032 ‘ REPORT—1885. 


TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15. 
The following Papers and Reports were read :— 


1. Notes on a recent Examination of the Geology of East Central Africa. 
By Professor Henry Drummonp, F.R.S.H., F.G.S. 


The district traversed included the littoral belt at the mouths of the Zambesi 
and Quilimane rivers, the region watered by the Shiré river from its source in Lake 
Nyassa to its terminus in the Zambesi, the Shiré highlands, and the western shore 
of Lake Shirwa, the rock-basin of Lake Nyassa, and the southern portion of the 
Nyassa-Tanganyika plateau. The first geological feature, on entering the country 
from the Zambesi, was an ancient coral-reef studded with sponges, which is ex- 
posed on the Qua-qua river above Mogurrumba. A few miles further inland sedi- 
mentary rocks are reached at Mopeia. A poor section occurs in the Zambesi above 
Shupanga, the beds consisting of red and yellow sandstones with intercalated marls 
and fine conglomerate. No organic remains were discovered, but the section may 
belong to the series found in a similar relation along almost the whole coast from 
the Cape to Zanzibar and northwards. The first hills reached, at Morumballa, 
consist of a very white quartzite. A hot spring occurs here, and one or two others 
are found on Lake Nyassa. Of the coal which Livingstone mentions on the Lower 
Shiré no trace was found after repeated examination. Dark rocks, of intrusive 
origin, occur at the locality. The coal on the western shore of Lake Nyassa, dis- 
covered by Mr. Rhodes, and described by Mr. James Stewart, C.E., was visited, and 
found to be of inferior quality, and existing only in small quantity. The seven-foot 
seam described by Stewart was really composed of thin beds of alternately carbona- 
ceous and argillaceous matter. 

The whole country from the Shiré a hundred miles above its junction with the 
Zambesi, the whole Shiré highlands, the western shore of Lake Nyassa, and the 
plateau between Nyassa and Tanganyika for half its length, consisted, with 
one interruption, of granite and gneiss. The character and texture of this forma- 
tion persisted with remarkable uniformity throughout this immense region. The 
granite was an ordinary grey granite, composed of white, rarely pink, orthoclase ; 
the mica of the biotite variety. Sometimes the gneiss persists over a large area, 
sometimes the granite, while frequently the two alternate within a limited space. 
Associated minerals were rare. Intrusive dykes of dolorite occur on the southern 
border of the Shiré highlands above Katunga. The only volcanic rocks met with 
were those already described by Mr. Joseph Thomson at the north end of Lake 
Nyassa. The only break in the granitic series occurs on the north-west shore of 
Nyassa, near Karonga. On the Rukuru river is found a well-marked series of 
stratified rocks, consisting of thin beds of very fine sandstone and shales, and 
occasional beds of limestone. After considerable search these beds were found to 
contain numerous fossils, including fish, mollusc, and plant remains. These fossils. 
have not yet been examined, so that the age is uncertain, but the deposit is probably 
lacrustrine. Lake Shirwa is drying up rapidly, and there is evidence of a former 
and much larger Shirwa, which may have been confluent with Lake Nyassa. Lake 
Pomalombe is shoaling fast, and is the remains of a once greatly extended Lake 
Nyassa. Lake Nyassa lies in an immense rock-basin of granite and gneiss, the 
greatest depth being towards the high plateau on the northern end. A fter careful 
examination of this whole region no trace of glaciation, no houlder-clay, moraine, 
striation nor glaciated outline were anywhere to be detected. 


2. Report on the Rocks collected by H. W. Johnston, Esq., from the upper 
part of the Kilima-njaro Massif. By Professor T. G. Boxney, D.Sc., 
IL.D., F.R.S., Pres.G.S.—See Reports, p. 682. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1033 


3. Some Results of the Crystallographic Study of Danburite. 
By Max Scuuster. 


In studying the characters of the faces and the structure of the Danburite 
crystals found in Switzerland, the author had met with vicinal faces of a peculiar 
kind, for which he proposed the term ‘transitional faces’ (‘Tschermak Min. 
Mittheil.’ vi. 1884, p. 511). Attention was called to the fact that these faces are 
easily affected by those causes which produce an unequal development of faces 
otherwise symmetrically disposed, and an illustration was given of the way in which 
their indices are numerically related to those of the principal faces of the crystal. 


4, American Evidences of Eocene Mammals of the ‘ Plastic Clay’ Period. 
By Sir Ricuarp Owen, K.C.B., F.R.S., F.GS. 


In the year 1843 a fragment of a lower jaw with one entire molar of a mammal 
was dredged up off the Essex coast. A canine tooth of the same was found in a 
well- sinking near Camberwell, in piercing the ‘plastic clay.’ The author had 
described the above as belonging to an animal of the Lophiodont family, and pro- 
posed for it the generic name Coryphodon. Shortly afterwards De Blainville had 
noticed certain fossils as ‘probably Coryphodont,’ but had referred them to 
Lophiodon anthracotherium. Ten years later Professor Hebert had recognised two 
species of Coryphodon in the plastic clay of France. Explorations “by Leidy, 
Marsh, and Hayden, in the Mauvaises Terres of Nebraska had led to the discovery of 
a large hoofed mammal allied to Coryphodon, to which the name T%tanotherium had. 
been given; and Professor Cope has now recognised, from Eyanstown, Wyoming, 
seven species of Coryphodon. From these materials, which have been rendered 
accessible to Huropean paleontologists by the superb volume of reports recently 
issued by the United States Government, the author is enabled to give a general 
description of this family of hoofed mammals of large size, which flourished in 
early eocene times. To the details of this the major part of the paper is 
devoted. 


5. Discovery of Anurous Amphibia in the Jurassic Deposits of America. 
By Professor O. C. Manrsu. 


6. Third Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleozoic Rocks. 
See Reports, p. 326. 


7. On the Distribution of Fossil Fishes in the Estuarine Beds of the 
Carboniferous Formation. By Dr. Traquatr. 


8. Some Results of a detailed Survey of the Old Coast-lines near Trondhjem, 
Norway. By Hucu Mutter, L.G.8 


During a short visit to Norway in October 1884, it appeared to the author 
that the best way to help to a solution the vexed questions connected with the 
coast-terracing of Norway was to execute a careful survey of a few square miles of 
some suitable coast region upon a sufficiently large scale. The neighbourhood of 
Trondhjem is remarkably well suited to this purpose. The map “employ ed was 
partly a municipal chart on the scale of 7,555, and partly an enlargement of the 
Ordnance Map. The limit of all the terraces and marine deposits is the famous 
“strand line’ west of the town, a double range of old-coast cliff cut in the rock of 
the mountain side. Its upper line is 580 feet above the sea,‘ and answers 


1 R. Chambers’s measurement of the lower line in 1849 was 522 feet by level and 
staff. To this is added Professor Mohn’s estimate (58 feet) of the interval between 
the two. The latter proves to be excessive. 


1034 EEPORT—1 885. 


to the ‘marine limit’ oyer Norway generally. Numbers of level terrace-lines 
have been incised—chiefly in greenish clays, like brick-clays—all along the 
arable slopes east of the town between this rock-terrace and the sea. Above the 
Bay of Leangen, two miles east of town and river, and far beyond all erosive 
intinence of the latter, thirty of these lines were mapped one above another in the 
first 300 feet of ascent, a distance of one and a half mile. Many of these are small 
but extremely distinct, the earthy clays being well suited to retain sharp impressions 
of successive sea~margins, which these unequivocally are. The present coast-line, 
neatly etched out by the waves in Trondhjem and Leangen bays, is the key to 
these tiers of older ones. It also resembles them in having made little or no 
impression where the coast becomes rocky, the lines of incision in both cases stopping 
short at once when they reach the harder material. The old coast-lines are 
most numerous in well-sheltered positions. Thus a single pair of large terraces in 
an exposed situation east from Christiansten, where they face the open water of 
the fjord and the prevalent north-westerly storms, is represented in the recess 
aboye Leangen Bay by ten or twelve. The same fact is brought out on rising 
from this recess to the higher and more exposed ground. Thus, while thirty-three 
or thirty-four terraces are mapped below 350 feet (approximate) elevation, only nine 
or ten appear between that level and the rock-terraces of the upper marine limit, 
the numerical ayerage height of each terrace thus rising by more than a half. In 
recesses of the coast further east, but beyond the map, these upper terraces seem to 
be preserved in considerably greater numbers. The number actually mapped was 
forty-three, or with the two rock-terraces, forty-five. The largest number of 
terraces hitherto described at any one place in Norway seems to have been 
less than half that number. 

Some of the general conclusions of the author are as follows:—(1) These ter- 
races are all post-glacial, z.c. formed subsequent to the rock-elaciation of the district. 
This is confirmed by the condition of the high coast-cliff, which has been cut in ice~ 
rounded rock, but is not itself glaciated. It appears, however, from the fauna of 
the raised shell-banks of the country (as worked out by Sars and Kjerulf), in 
which recent shells do not rise above 380 feet, that the seas of the upper levels 
were still glacial ; and, though the Trondhjem fjord was free from land-ice, other 
deeper fjords and higher coasts may still have had glaciers coming into conflict 
with the sea, and producing the glaciated rock-terraces described elsewhere by 
Sexe. All the evidence obtained discountenances Sexe’s view that these rock- 
terraces were cut out by glaciers, as well as Carl Petersen’s that they were rasped 
out by floating ice coasting the shores, On the clay terraces coast-ice has left no 
more sign of its presence than the winter freezing of our British rivers leaves upon * 
our river terraces. (2) If the country was upraised by a succession of elevatory 
jerks, as supposed by most geologists from Keilhau downwards, most of these would 
seem to have been small—much smaller, at least, than is supposed by Kjerulf. It 
is improbable that even Leangen Bay was secluded enough to contain a record of 
all’the original coast-lines. The longer pauses and greater storms may have effaced 
an unknown number of them by a process of excision exemplified in all its stages 
by the map. It is hard to say, in fact, where the subdivision, if it could be fully 
traced out, would end. The smaller terraces remind the eye of the incised lines 
and little planes engrayed on the sandbanks bordering the rivers after a flood, 
where there is no periodicity in the subsidence of the waters. (3) The preservation 
or excision of the terraces thus seems to depend as much upon local circumstances 
—exposure to storms, resistance of coast-line, &c.—as upon anything else. It is 
impossible at present to predicate which of them shall in any given place remain, 
Whether elevation by jerks, therefore, be postulated or not, all hope of correlating 
these terraces throughout the country must be deferred until their heights have 
been accurately determined by level. The measurements hitherto made, not even 
excepting those of Professors Kjerulf and Mohn, are probably inadequate for the 
purpose. This observation seems to apply also to the terraces graven in rock. In 
their aneroid measurements of the upper strand-line at Trondhjem these observers 
differ by fifty-five feet. (5) On entering the mouth of the Trondhjem Valley the 
terraces come under an influence other than that of the sea-waves. The valley was 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1035 


worked out, in deposits partly levelled out by the sea, according to the laws of river 
terracing under the accelerating influences of a falling sea-level. The processes of 
automatic river terracing are beautifully exemplified within the district mapped, in 
the deep lobe-shaped curve of the river just before it enters the sea. The terraces 
have been added one after another to the point of the lobe of land thus surrounded, 
which is known as Oen. 


9. The Parallel Roads of Lochaber. By James MEtvin. 


These singular-looking lines, resembling in the distance water-races or roads 
traced along the mountain sides of three glens in Lochaber, have hitherto proved a 
puzzle to the learned and unlearned. 

The theories submitted to account for their origin are open to grave objections, 
and all of them, save that of their being the margins of lakes held in by the ice of 
glaciers which flowed down the corries from the lofty mountains, have generally 
been given up. 

This last, when carefully considered and looked at from different points of view 
in the district itself, seems open to serious objections. In the first place, it neces~ 
sitates the existence of great glaciers in the lower portions of the glens with the 
water of lakes in the higher. It further necessitates the cessation of certain of 
these glaciers in Glen Spean, over perhaps nine-tenths of the district formerly pro- 
ducing them, and their retention in one-ninth of the surface from which they had 
previously flowed. 


TASMAN VALLEY, MOUNT COOK,NEW ZEALAND. 


eh a it7 
ace em ais 
ry & Zant 

\ ICE 


o woe Se eS 
Bs MORAINE § 
Zz 
bait Ne 
eal 


SECTION AND TERRACE IN LOWER VALLEY. 


(Methed by which the Glacier forms Terraces somewhat similar, perhaps 
exactly similar, to those of the Lower Tasman Valley.—Page 200, 
Green’s ‘ High Alps of Queensland.’) 


Those corries and opener glens, such as the Gulbein, the Treig, and the Laire 
which it is said supplied the ice-barriers when the upper roads in Glen Roy were . 
being formed, issumg as they do from 100 square miles of mountain country, the 
peaks of which rise to 3,658 feet, according to the requirements of the ice-dam 
supporters, must become barren. These glaciers must shrink up, without any other 
reason being assiened than the necessity of their doing so to enable the supporters 
of the ice-dam to prove their case. 

While this large extent of previously ice-producing country ceases to furnish 
any more ice to the Spean valley, one solitary glen, the Cour, drawing a supply 
from about eleven square miles, is allowed to maintain all its original ice-producmg 


1036 REPORT— 1885. 


power, and to form the great dam stretching more than four miles across the valley 
ot the Spean, though aided on the other side of the Caledonian Canal by the ice 
from the glen. 

The country which fed this glacier of the Cour consists of about eleven square 
miles of surface, with a peak 4,000 feet high. It does not seem to possess such a 
position so that a great glacier should continue to flow from it when the other 
glens adjoining had lost their glacier-producing power. 

The drainage outlet of 700 miles of mountainous country within which the 
roads are is at Corron Ferry. It is narrow, contracted, and the ice would be 
jammed back during the intense period of glaciation, and a portion forced over the 
Col in Glen Spean into the Spey. 

The roads consist of the usual glacial stuff from the hill sides. Neither sea shore 
nor lake shingle shells, water sorted sands nor silts, are met with. Some material 
run from the hill sides before vegetation covered the surface may be seen. 

What, then, were the causes which led to the formation of those roads? The 
resting of the ice of the glaciers at certain levels after the great glaciation ceased, 
and when the ice in these glens of Gloy, Roy, and Spean found its way outward 
by the lowest level. The lateral moraines so formed when the supply of ice was 
sufficient to maintain their movement seaward are now the roads. 

Thus, in Glen Gloy, No. 1, the road and several somewhat similar terraces, as 
shown in Sir Henry James Vance’s work on the roads, would be formed by the ice 
after it had ceased to flow over the col into Glen Roy. 

No. 2, in Glen Roy, after the ice ceased to flow into the Spey. 

No. 3, after no more ice flowed into Glen Spean from Glen Roy, by the col Glen 
Glaister ; also several other shelves or terraces seen in the district. 

And No. 4, in Glens Roy and Spean, would be forming so long as the Gulbein, the 
Treig, the Laire, and the Cour supplied sufficient quantity of ice to maintain the 
glaciers in these valleys at the levels where the roads now are. 


10. Further Evidence of the Extension of the Ice in the North Sea during the 
Glacial Period. By B. N. Peacu, F.R.S.E., and J. Horne, F.R.S.£. 


The authors briefly summarised at the outset the results of their investigations 
regarding the glacial phenomena of Shetland and Orkney, which point to the 
conclusion that they were glaciated by land ice that moved from the North Sea 
towards the Atlantic, while at a later period they were subjected to a purely local 
glaciation. 

They then proceeded to call attention to certain observations of Dr. Traill, on 
the glacial phenomena of North Ronaldshay, which is situated at the extreme 
north-east corner of the Orcadian group, and, like the other isles, is composed of 
Old Red Sandstone and mainly of the characteristic flagstone series. In the red 
boulder clay an assemblage of stones foreign to Orkney was obtained, consisting 
of diorite, gabbro, granite with various kinds of metamorphic foliated rocks, 
volcanic tuff like that of the Ochils, chalk and chalk flints. With few exceptions 
these foreign blocks might have been derived from the basin of the Moray Firth 
and the surrounding high ground. Numerous smoothed and striated fragments of 
marine shells were also met with in the boulder clay. These phenomena are 
identical with those found in the boulder clay of the other Orcadian islands, and 
they point to the conclusion that the northern limits of Orkney must have been 
glaciated by ice from Scotland moving in a westerly direction. 

Reference was also made to the results obtained by Dr. John Murray while ex- 
ploring the ‘ Wyville Thomson Ridge,’ in the summers of 1880 and 1882, the 
surface of which seems to be covered with boulder clay or moraine matter. The 
stones dredged from the northern part of the ridge consist of metamorphic rocks 
and Old Red Sandstone, which might have been derived from Shetland, while more 
than half of the blocks from the south end are composed of flagstones of the 
Orlmey and Caithness flagstone series. From the distribution of the boulders, 
some of which are well striated, it is evident that the ice must have moved west- 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1037 


wards across the submerged platform of which Shetland and Orkney are the surviv- 
ing relics. 


11. Recent Advances in West Lothian Geology. 
By H. M. Cavett, B.Sc. 


Until after the discovery of the oil shales about twenty-five years ago, the rela- 
tions of the Lower Carbonilerous rocks of West Lothian were very imperfectly under- 
stood. Nothing of importance has been written on the geology of the eastern part 
ef the county since 1861, when the Explanatory Memoir accompanying the 
Geological Survey map of the district was published. Since then much new 
evidence relating to the upper part of the Calciferous Sandstone series has 
accumulated. 

The Calciferous Sandstone or Lower Carboniferous series, as developed along 
the great anticline of Midlothian, consists at the base of a series of red sandstones 
with thin shales and marls, and occasional interbedded volcanic rocks at the top. 
Above the red rocks come the white and gray sandstones of Granton and Craig- 
leith, which are in turn overlain by the black shales of Wardie, and the sandstones 
and shales of Hailes and Redhall. Each of these two great divisions has, 
according to the measurements of Mr. John Henderson, a thickness of over 
3,000 feet. 

The oil shale group, which comes next, includes the ‘Cement stone group,’ 
apparently begins with the Pumpherston shale, situated some 780 feet below the 
Burdiehouse limestone. It occupies the remainder of the Calciferous Sandstone 
series and has in West Lothian a thickness of about 3.100 feet, so that the whole 
thickness of Lower Carboniferous rocks in West Lothian probably exceeds 9,000 
feet. The Dunnet shale is the lowest member of the upper group of oil shales, and 
lies about 400 feet above the Burdiehouse or Camps limestone. About 450 feet 
higher up comes the Broxburn shale, which is perhaps the most important of the 
West Lothian oil shales. The strata intervening between the Dunnet and Pum- 
pherston shales, and including the limestone, are chiefly argillaceous shales with 
thin calcareous bands and occasional sandstones. Above the Dunnet shale they 
become more arenaceous, and thick sandstone beds are developed, one of which has 
long been quarried at Binny, near Uphall, for building and ornamental purposes. 
The Broxburn shale, which is several fathoms above the Binny sandstone, forms 
a well-marked horizon, as it underlies a group of marls and thin limestone bands 
varying in thickness from 80 to 270 feet. This calcareous zone, locally known as 
the ‘Broxburn Marl,’ passes under the Fells shale, above which comes another 
series of sandstone beds about 240 feet thick, which underlie the Houston coal. 
This is perhaps the oldest coal seam in Britain, as in the Broxburn district it is 
situated about 1,000 feet below the base of the Carboniferous Limestone series. 
The Houston coal is covered by about 200 feet of pale green and red amorphous 
marl, sometimes containing pieces of volcanic ash, and is apparently a fine volcanic 
mudstone. A thin coal seam and some oil shale occur just aboye the ‘ Houston 
marl,’ and two other oil shales have been worked still higher up, the highest of 
which—the Raeburn’s shale—is some 400 feet below the Carboniferous limestone. 

The oil shales and underlying parts of the Calciferous Sandstone series have 
no regular strike, but are bent about into troughs, domes, and anticlines, and are 
dislocated by large faults, besides which there is great irregularity in the thickness 
and character of the rocks, so that to work out the geological structure of the 
ground without the aid of mining information would be an impossible task. 

The oil shales are simply fine clay shales impregnated with hydrocarbon, and 
when distilled yield on an average 30 gallons of crude oil per ton, and enough 
‘ammonia to yield from 10 to 45 lbs. ammonia sulphate. They have evidently been 
deposited extremely slowly in a large gradually-subsiding estuarine or fresh water 
area, inhabited by numerous fishes, lamellibranchs, and small crustaceans, whose 
remains, along with those of plants, were constantly being deposited on the sea 


1 Communicated by permission of the Director-General of the Geological Survey. 


1038 REPORT—1885. 


floor along with a comparatively small proportion of muddy sediment. Oil shale is 
easily recognised in the field by its resistance tothe disintegrating action of the 
weather, and by the facility with which it can be cut and curled up with the point 
of a knife. 

The Carboniferous Limestone series, whose thickness is about 2,000 feet, is 
divisible into three main groups: a basal group with sandstone shales, thin limestones, 
and one coal seam at the bottom; a central group with coal seams and no lime- 
stones; and an upper group with three limestones, sandstones, and a few thin coal 
seams. At Bo'ness, on the Firth of Forth, north of Linlithgow, the coal-bearing 
group has a thickness of about 900 feet, and is subdivided by a central zone of 
interbedded basalt rocks 530 feet in thickness, into an upper and a lower series, 
each containing four workable seams of coal and a seam of ironstone. 

The oldest member of the interesting volcanic series of West Lothian seems to 
be a bed of tuff resting on the Houston coal near Queensferry, from the denudation 
of which the Houston marl here situated a few fathoms higher up, may have been 
derived. Volcanic activity was rife during almost the whole of the Carboniferous 
limestone period, especially in the district south of Linlithgow, where the great 
bank of interbedded basalt rocks forming the Bathgate and Torphichen Hills was 
poured forth. These old lavas extend from beneath the lowest marine limestone 
in almost uninterrupted succession to near the top of the limestone series, and have 
a total thickness of more than 2,000 feet. On each side the volcanic rocks thin 
out and become replaced by sedimentary strata and coal seams in the Bo'ness and 
Bathgate coalfields. ‘Necks’ of diabase and basalt tuff, piercing the lower parts 
of the Carboniferous Limestone and the Calciferous Sandstone strata to the east of 
Linlithgow are numerous, and have probably been connected with interbedded rocks 
on higher horizons now removed by denudation. The largest, forming the Tor Hill at 
Keclesmachan, has a major diameter of about 600 yards, and cuts through the 
Houston coal and underlying shales. 


12. Barium Sulphate as a Cementing Material in Sandstone. 
By Professor Frank Crowes, D.Sc. 


Bischof mentions instances of foreign sandstones in which the material which 
cements the sand grains together is barium sulphate; but it appears that up to the 
present time no such sandstone has been discovered in the United Kingdom. 
Having learned from my colleague, Professor Blake, that opinions of geologists 
differ regarding the calcareous nature of certain sandstone beds in the neighbourhood 
of Nottingham, I undertook to ascertain the chemical composition of this sand- 
stone. At the spot in question the sandstone appears as two conical hills known as 
Stapleford and Bramcote Hills, and as a pillar of rock about twenty feet in height 
known as the Hemlock Stone. The Hemlock Stone stands in the space intervening 
between the hills,and is capped so as to be somewhat mushroom shaped. In 
company with Professor Blake I procured specimens of the sandstone at different 
levels of the hills and of the stone. One of the specimens was subjected to careful 
chemical analysis by two senior students in my laboratory at the University College, 
Nottingham; they find the very high amount of 30 per cent. of barium sulphate in 
the sandstone, I have also recently detected the presence of much barium sulphate 
in all the sandstone specimens from both the hills and the Hemlock Stone, while 
some of the lower beds also contain calcium carbonate. The percentage proportion 
of barium sulphate present in the samples is at present being determined with care. 

The results of the chemical examination of this sandstone thus far show that 
geologists who took samples from the lower part of the Hemlock Stone would 
consider the sandstone to be calcareous after applying the usual acid test, whilst 
others who examined the cap of the stone would find no calcareous matter, and. 
would fail to detect the barium sulphate which is the true cementing material. It 
seems probable that the protective cap of the pillar owes its comparative permanence 
against weathering action to the presence of this almost insoluble sulphate in large 
proportions, 


et 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1039 


In some of the sandstones which have been examined the barium sulphate is very 
unequally distributed, forming either a network or a series of small patches more 
or less spherical in shape. In such sandstone the sand grains which are uncemented 
by the sulphate are loose and readily separated from one another. Hence, when 
subjected to weathering, it presents a honeyecombed or mammillated appearance. 
In one bed which caps the Bramcote Hill, and which is usually described as the 
pebble bed, the removal of the intervening loose sand leaves little cemented masses 
about the size of a hazel-nut: these, however, are not pebbles in the ordinary sense 
of the word, but are merely sand grains cemented by the sulphate. 

I have attempted to trace some evidence of the way in which the barium ° 
sulphate has been introduced into the sand bed. It may have been deposited 
originaliy with the sand grains; but if this is its origin it has undergone physical 
change, since it now presents a compact crystallised mass. It seems certain, there- 
fore, that it has either heen originally deposited from solution, or has been rendered 
crystalline by the slow percolation of a solyent liquid through the sedimentary 
deposit. A third method seems possible. Bischof carried out experimentally the 
conversion of barium carbonate into sulphate by the action upon it of calcium 
sulphate solution; this double decomposition would produce barium sulphate 
together with calcium carbonate, and precisely such a mixture is found in the lower 
beds of the Hemlock Stone. 

As regards the possibility of barium sulphate existing in solution, as was supposed 
in an earlier part of this communication, I have yecently examined a stalactite 
which consists almost wholly of barium sulphate; and specimens of little sand 
masses hound together by barium sulphate in large crystals have also come into my 
hands. A solvent has in any case been present at some time, to cause the barium 
sulphate of these sandstones to assume the crystalline condition, since Bischof shows 
that the sulphate cannot be crystallised by fusion. 


13. Notes on Fuller’s Earth and its applications. By A. C. G. Campron. 


The author in this paper describes Fuller’s earth, its properties, and varieties. 
In its more concrete signification Fuller’s earth is the name applied to the red 
leamy stratum overlying the Inferior Oolite in the south of England. But its 
more general application is of economic and not of geological significance. He 
mentions that that dug from near the base of the Bedfordshire Greensand is of 
superior quality, and characterises it as a purifier of water. Fuller's earth in 
general is mentioned as a fine clay, less used now than formerly for cloth dressing. 
Considerable quantities are, however, still dug from the Lower Greensand and Oolites 
of the south of England for fulling and general cleansing purposes. Aspley Heath, 


on the brow of the Greensand escarpment, Woburn, Bedfordshire, is described as 


the locality where operations are presently gomg on for the purpose of procuring 
varieties of Fuller’s earth. Cylindrical holes, called ‘earth wells,’ are dug deep in 
the soft yellow sands, sometimes rocky with ferruginous lumps and thin carstone, 
in order to reach the Fuller's earth, which lies far down as a tabular and nearly 
horizontal mass, separated by not many feet of sand from the Oxford clay. Nearly 
two hundred years ago the pits were at Wavendon, an outlier of the Greensand, 
amongst the Oxford clay. A description of the beds is given as presently existing. 
Although superficially considered as all one earth, the substance is of three distinct 
kinds, which are mentioned, and their local names given. Allusions are made to 
substances dug in Warwickshire, the Isle of Skye, and Maxton Roxburghshire, as 
substitutes for Fuller’s earth, and a letter is quoted from a resident in Maxton 
bearing on this subject. The action of Fuller’s earth on peaty or otherwise dis- 
coloured water is described, with special allusion to, and description of, the 
‘Natural Mineral Water’ at Flitwick, Bedfordshire. Conflicting opinions as to 
this mineral water are given, with analysis supplied by Drs. Piesse and Johnstone, 
public analysts, London, and one published by a Professor White. Results of 
various experiments are stated, showing the efficacy of Bedfordshire Fuller’s earth 
as a filtering medium. The author is not prepared to say whether these filtra- 


1040 REPORT—1885. 


tions are mechanical, or are due partly to chemical action, as this question is still 
undetermined. THe suggests that Fuller's earth might be advantageously placed 
with other materials in filter beds, or otherwise used as a water purifier on a 
large scale. 


WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16. 
The following Papers and Report were read :— 


1. On the Glacial Deposits at Montrose. By Dr. Hownen. 


These consist in order of age, first, of the non-fossiliferous boulder clay, derived 
chiefly from the denudation of the great conglomerate. Second, a glacial marine 
clay, containing the remains of the Arctic seal (Phaa hirta), Arctic birds, fishes, 
star-fishes, mollusca, and foraminifera, besides pieces of ice borne chalk, flint, coal, 
and other rocks foreign to the district. Third, deposits of peat, in which are found . 
remains of the reindeer, trees, and bog plants, including the buckbean; a grain of 
the common barley was also got in this peat. Fourth, a thick bed of estuary, or 
scrobicularia silt, containing shells of species found living in the present estuary 
basin of the South Ksk. In this deposit at the Redfield Railway cutting, nine feet 
below the surface, the skull of an ox, Bos longifrons, was found beneath an un- 
disturbed deposit of sand and coarse clay. Fifth, a bed of apparently glacial 
eoarse clay. These deposits terminate on a great ridge or storm beach consisting 
of pebbles and small boulders derived from the boulder clay. This ridge divides 
the town of Montrose into two halves, known to builders as the clay half and the 
sand half. In the sand half, slightly above the level of the present sea beach, 
marine shells are found of species now living on the coast, but a much larger size. 
The diagrams and specimens exhibited indicated repeated alternation of climate and 
level since the earlier glacial period. 


2. Notes on the Rocks of St. Kilda. By Auuxanvrr Ross, F.G.S,. 


On a visit to St. Kilda in 1884 I collected a few specimens of the rocks of 
which the island is composed, and which are now presented for inspection to the 
members of the British Association. 

The island has been described as being in the form of the letter H, the northern 
limb being represented by Connacher and Oschival, and the southern by the 
Mullach More. These limbs are connected by a ridge which forms the cross bar of 
the H, and divides the north from the south bay. The latter bay is nearly circular, 
the hills sloping in all directions and forming an almost perfect amphitheatre. 

The land rises to a considerable height on the west side of the island, which is 
bounded by cliffs from 800 to 1,000 feet high. 

The island is composed of granite and gabbros, which meet in a line running 
from the west side of the village at the south bay to the centre of the glen at 
north bay. ‘The portion to the north of this line is composed entirely of cream- 
coloured granite, while that to the south consists of greenstones and gabbros. 

In the course of a walk extending from the landing-place on the north side, 
along the summit of Oschival and Connacher down into the valley at north bay, 
and along the north shoulder of Mullach More back to the south bay, I picked up 
the specimens now exhibited. 

Passing along the top of the ridge between Oschival and Connacher and over the 
top of the latter, I found as I began to descend towards the line of junction the 
granites becoming finer grained and more compact. Along the line of junction the 
change is very marked, and on crossing it, we come on the gabbros and greenstones, 
on the southern side of the glen. Some of the specimens illustrate this walk, 


-_ 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION C. 1041 


Specimens were also taken from the bare slopes and precipices near the sea, 
where the junction can be more clearly seen. 

The specimens picked up along the line of junction consisted of granite studded 
throughout with angular fragments of basalt, which fact appears to indicate the 
posteriority of the granite. 

Taken by themselves these specimens would seem to point to the conclusion that 
the granite had been erupted at a later date than the gabbros, and that the molten 
granite had included the shattered fragments of an older rock in it. 

The main question which the specimens would appear to suggest is —‘ What 
are the respective ages of the granites and gabbros?’ 

The specimens in my opinion appear to point to the posteriority of the granite, 
and one specimen shows a vein of granite piercing the basalt. 


3. Eleventh Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Per- 
meable Tormations of England and Wales, and the Quantity and 
Character of the Water supplied to various Towns and Districts from 
these Formations.—See Reports, p. 380. 


4. On Deep Borings at Chatham: a Contribution to the Deep-seated Geology 
of the London Basin. By W. Wuiraker, B.A., F.G.S., Assoc.Inst.C.E. 


A few years ago the Admiralty made a boring in the Chatham Dockyard 
Extension, to the depth of 9034 feet, just reaching the Lower Greensand, and in 
1883-84 followed this by another boring, near by, to increase the supply, which 
has led to an unexpected result. After passing through 27 feet of Alluvium and 
Tertiary beds, 682 of Chalk, and 193 of Gault, the Lower Greensand was again 
reached ; but, on continuing the boring, was found to be only 41 feet thick, when 
it was succeeded by a stiff clay, which, from its fossils, is found to be Oxford Clay, 
a formation not before known to occur in Kent. 

At its outcrop, about seven miles to the south, the Lower Greensand is 200 
feet thick, and is succeeded, a little further south, by the Weald Clay, there 600 feet 
thick. Not only, however, has this 600 feet of clay wholly disappeared, but also 
the whole of the next underlying set of deposits, the Hastings Beds, which crop 
out everywhere from beneath the Weald Clay, and are also some hundreds of feet 
thick. 

More than this, the Purbeck Beds, which underlie the Hastings Beds near Battle, 
are absent, and also the Portlandian, Kimmeridge Clay, Corallian, &c., beds which 
have been proved above Oxford Clay in the Subwealden Boring, to the great thick- 
ness of over 1,600 feet. 

We are therefore faced with a great northerly thinning of the beds below the 
Gault, a fact agreeing in the main with the evidence given of late years by various 
deep wells in and near London. 

Three other deep borings have been made or are being made near Chatham, all 
of which have passed through the Chalk into the Gault, and one has gained a supply 
from the sand beneath, 

The practical bearing of the Chatham section is, however, to enforce the danger 
of counting on getting large supplies of water in the London Basin from the Lower 
Greensand, by means of deep borings at any great distance from its outcrop. 

Even if Lower Greensand occur at all in such places, it will probably be in re- 
duced thickness, and therefore with reduced water-capacity. 


5. On the Waterworks at Goldstone Road, Brighton. 
By W. Wuitaknr, B.A., F.G.8., Assoc.Inst.0.E. 


Notes of a visit underground in December 1884, when the water was pumped 
down for extending the galleries. 

These works are perhaps the best example of the right way of getting a very 

1885. 3X 


1% 
qs 
5 


1042 REPORT—1885. 


large supply of water from the Chalk, galleries being driven (in one case to the 
length of 800 feet) at about low-water level, so as to cut the fissures and intercept 
the water on its way to the sea. 

The whole of the works (shafts and galleries) are in the White Chalk, with but 
few flints in the bedding-planes, but with many oblique layers along joint-planes. 
The supply comes chiefly from a few powerful springs, and, though small contribu- 
tions issue between these, it is noteworthy how far a tunnel has sometimes been 
driven before reaching a fissure of large yield. Under these circumstances borings, 
or even shafts, might have failed to yield a large supply. 

The roof of the north-eastern gallery is throughout of one bed, rarely needing 
support, a thin brittle layer of flint at its base being cleared away. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1043 


Section D.—BIOLOGY. 


PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—Professor W. C. McIntosu, M.D., LL.D., 
F.R.S.L. & E., F.L.S. 


THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. 


The PRresmEnt delivered the following Address :— 


I HAVE selected the subject of the phosphorescence of marine animals for a few 
remarks on the present occasion—the theme, perhaps, being the more appropriate 
from its congenial local surroundings ; for, like St. Andrews, Aberdeen is an 


‘old University town 
Looking out on the cold North sea,’ 


A phenomenon so striking as the emission of light by marine organisms could 
not fail to have attracted notice from very early times, both in the case of 
navigators and those who gave their attention in a more systematic manner to the 
study of nature. Accordingly we find that the literature of the subject is both 
varied and extensive—so much so, indeed, that it is impossible on the present 
occasion to give more than a very brief outline of its leading features. This is a 
subject of less moment, however, since the great microscopist, Ehrenberg, in his 
treatise, ‘Das Leuchten des Meeres,’ published by the Berlin Academy in 1835, 
has given a very full account of the early literature on phosphorescence, both in 
marine and terrestrial animals, no less than 436 authors being quoted. The 
limitation just mentioned is therefore sufficiently warranted. 

Though it is in the warmer seas of the globe that phosphorescence is observed 
in its most remarkable forms—as for instance the sheets of white light caused by 
Noctiluca, and the vividly luminous bars of Pyrosoma—yet it is a feature which the 
British zoologist need not leave his native waters to see both in beauty and perfec- 
tion. Many luminous animals occur between tide-marks, and even the stunted 
seaweeds near the line of high-water everywhere sparkle with a multitude of 
brilliant points. Asa ship or boat passes through the calm surface of the sea in 
summer and autumn, the wavelets gleam with phosphorescent points, or are crested 
with light; while the observer, leaning over the stern, can watch the long trail of 
luminous water behind the ship, from the brightly sparkling and seething mass at 
the screw to the faint glimmer in the distance. On the southern and western shores, 
again, every stroke of the oar causes a luminous eddy, and some of the smaller 
forms are lifted by the blade and scintillate brightly as they roll into the water. 
The dredge and trawl likewise produce, both in the shallower and deeper parts of 
our seas, many luminous types of great interest and beauty. 

I shall, in the first instance, glance at the various groups of marine animals which 
possess the property of phosphorescence, and thereafter make some general remarks 
on the subject. It is found then that this feature is possessed by certain members of 
the Protozoa, and by the following groups of the Metazoa, viz.: Ccelenterates, 
Echinoderms, Worms, Rotifers, Crustaceans, Molluscoids, Mollusks, and Fishes. 

About the middle of last century Baster found that at least three species of 


8x2 


1044 REPORT—1885. 


what he called microscopic animalcula,' apparently Infusoria, were phosphorescent; 
and fully half a century later Pfaff noticed that the luminosity of the sea at Kiel 
was due to certain members of the group just mentioned. Subsequently both 
Michaelis and Ehrenberg met with phosphorescent Infusoria in the Baltic, the 
latter describing them as species of Peridintwm (now Ceratium), and Prorocentrum. 
The same fact, associated with the absence of Nocttluca at Kiel, has again more 
recently been brought forward by Stein. In our own seas I have been especially 
struck with this feature in July and August, the whole surface of the sea along 
the eastern shores of England and Scotland teeming with Ceratiwm and 
Peridinium, besides other Infusoria, which form a greenish scum on the interior of 
tow-nets in inshore water, and for many miles seaward. As the waves curl from 
the sides of the boat in quiet water, the crest of each sparkles with multitudes of 
luminous points, which gleam for a moment as the ripple stretches outward and 
then disappear ; or still more vividly when the plunging vessel sends the sparkling 
spray all around the bow. If on removing the tow-net from such water at night 
it is suddenly jerked, the whole interior is beautifully lit up with a luminous 
lining, which glows brightly for a few seconds and then fades. I have been 
unable, nevertheless, to satisfy myself as to the phosphorescence of isolated examples 
of Ceratium, and Mr. Murray (who is inclined to follow Klebs in considering 
them Alez) tells me that he has not been more successful. 

The most conspicuous member of the first group (viz., the Protozoa), how- 
ever, is Noctiluca, which for a long time has been associated with luminosity in 
many seas. The minute size of this little transparent gelatinous sphere, which 
ranges from 3 to 4 ofa millimétre, probably gave origin to some of the ancient views 
that the phosphorescence of the sea originated from the water, and not from any 
visible organisms, Amongst the first who clearly made known the relationship of 
this minute body to the phenomenon we are examining, was M. Rigaut, a French 
nayal surgeon, who examined it off various parts of the French coast as well as off 
the Antilles, and pointed out in a memoir communicated to the Academy, that the 
luminosity of the sea was caused by an immense number of what he termed little 
spherical polyps, about a quarter of a line in diameter.” The observations of this 
acute French surgeon were followed up by many subsequent authors, amongst 
whom may be mentioned Baker, Martin Slabber, Abbé Dicquemare, Suriray, 
Macartney, and Baird; while in more recent times Verhaege, De Quatrefages, and 
Giglioli have specially studied the phosphorescence of the sea caused by Noctiduca. 
The light given out by this form is occasionally spread over a large area, and is 
often evident along the margin of the beach, where the broad belts of Noctiluce 
gleam in the broken water. It is not uncommon in summer on the southern 
shores of Britain, while it is rare in the northern; but it stretches into most of the 
great oceans, and is the cause of that diffused and silvery phosphorescence so well 
known to voyagers in the warmer seas. At Ostend, Verhaege found the maximum 
number in a given quantity of water in the warm months, few or none appearing 
in the winter. The observations of De Quatrefages® were made on the shores of 
France as well as those of Sicily, for he accompanied the distinguished Professor 
Henri Milne-Edwards (whose loss science has had so recently to deplore) on his 
celebrated ‘ Voyage en Sicile,’ and they were more extensive than those of the 
previous author. He attributes the emission of the clear bluish light in quiet 
water, or the white light with greenish or bluish touches in broken water, to any 
physical agent which produces contraction, the scintillations arising from the 
rupture and rapid contraction of the protoplasmic filaments in the interior. Thus, 
like Verhaege and others, he found no special luminous organ. Moreover, Khren- 
berg and De Quatrefages observed that the light emitted by Noctiluca, though 
apparently uniform under alens, was broken up into a number of minute scintilla- 
tions when highly magnified. _Mr. Sorby, in examining the light of this form, 


1 Opuscula Subseciva, vol. i. p. 31. tab. iv. fig. 1. 
2 Journal des Savants, tom. xiii. Feb. 1770, pp. 554-561. 
8 «Observations sur les Noctiluques,’ Ann. des sc. nat. 3° Série, Zool., tom. xiv. 


p. 226. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1045 


has been unable to obtain satisfactory spectroscopic results, apparently from its 
feebleness. 

Besides Noctiluca, which was chiefly met with in inshore water, Mr. Murray, of 
the ‘ Challenger, describes various species of Pyrocystis,! a closely allied form, and 
indeed some of which have been thought to be identical with the former. They 
abound in the open sea, and are the chief causes of its phosphorescence in the 
tropical and subtropical oceans. The light is stated to proceed from the nucleus, 
and in this respect it diverges from that observed by De Quatrefages in Noctdluca, 
When shaken in a glass, they give out, Sir Wyville Thomson observes,’ the 
uniform soft light of an illuminated ground-glass globe. 

Dr. Giglioli, during the voyage of the Italian frigate ‘Magenta,’ mentions * 
that another division of the Protozoa, viz., the Radiolaria, show phosphorescent pro- 
perties. In the Pacific the genera Thalassicolla, Collozoum, and Spherozoum, 
shone with an intermittent greenish light. It is possible that Dr. Baird,* in his 
earlier paper, refers to the same group when describing an unknown phosphores- 
cent pelagic organism. 

No group of marine animals is more prominent in regard to phosphorescence 
than the Czlenterates. The Hydroida are familiar examples,’ and, as Mr. Hincks 
observes, none excels the common Obelia geniculata, which forms pigmy forests 
on the broad blades of Laminariz all round our shores. In the fresh specimen a 
touch during summer causes a large number of luminous points to appear on the 
zoophytes, the stems most irritated emitting beautiful flashes, which glitter like 
faintly-dotted lines of fire, the points not being harshly separated, but blending 
into each other, while the shock imparted by the instrument detaches the minute 
medusoids, which scintillate upward from the parent stem to the summit of the 
water. Mere blowing on the surface in July, where Laminariz abound, suffices to 
produce the-emission of light from the pelagic buds. Moreover, these minute 
bodies, along with the various species of Ceratiwm and minute larval forms of 
diverse kinds, are sometimes swept by the gales landward, and cause phosphores- 
cence where least expected. In the same manner Vaughan Thompson ° found 
luminous patches on the masts and windward yard-arms on board ship, and they 
gradually mounted upward as the gale increased. Many of the free gonosomes of 
the Hydroids are as luminous as the polypites, and indeed have been described by 
some of the older naturalists as one of the main causes of the luminosity of the 
ocean. The light in these (e.g., Thawmantias) gleams round the margin and along 
the four radii. 

The Ascraspedote Meduse have also been signalised as factors in producing the 
eerie of the sea, such forms as Pelagia noctiluca and Pelagia cyanella 

eing especially prominent. Spallanzani, indeed, made an elaborate series of 
experiments on the luminosity of the Meduse in his voyage to the Two Sicilies. 
Some of these, as Dactylometra (Pelagia) quinquecirra, Agassiz, are nocturnal in their 
habits. They are only occasionally found floating at the surface during the day, 
while at night, in the same localities, the bottom swarms with these large masses 
of dull phosphorescence, moving about with the greatest rapidity.” Species of 
Rhizostoma were likewise observed by Giglioli to have a pale bluish luminosity. 
The two most abundant Meduse of our eastern shores, viz., Aurelia aurita and 
Cyanea capillata (both in its young purple and adult brown condition), so far as I 
can make out, exhibit no luminosity. This agrees with the views expressed long 
ago by Ehrenberg. 

The oceanic “Hydrozoa (Siphonophora) are likewise characterised by their 


1 Proc. Roy. Soc. vol. xxiv. p. 553, pl. xxi; and Narrative, Zool., vols. i., and ii. 
p. 935-38. 

2 Atlantic, vol. ii. p. 87. 

* Atti della R. Accad. delle Sc. di Torino, vol. v. 1869-70, p. 492. 

4 Loudon’s Mag. Nat. Hist. vol. iii. p. 312, fig. 81, ¢, d. 

5 Even after many days and in impure water some of these retain this property, a 
shock to the stem sending off a crowd of luminous points from the tropbosome. 

® Zoological Researches, vol. i. part i. mem. iii. p. 48. 1829. 

7 Agassiz, North American Acalephe, p. 49. Cambridge, 1865. 


1046 : REPORT—1885. 


phosphorescence. Thus Giglioli met with luminosity in Abyla, Diphyes, Eudoxta, 
Praya and Aglaismoides. Dr. Bennett! has also observed luminosity amongst the 
Coralligenous Actinozoa; the grazing of a boat on a coral reef causing a vivid 
stream of phosphoric light. Similar observations were made on Madrepores by 
Giglioli,? the light in this case being bright greenish and enduring some minutes. 

Amongst the Alcyonarians the luminosity of the common Sea-Pen (Pennatula 
phosphorea) has been long known, and was studied by Gesner, Bartholin, Adler, 
and others. In the earlier part of this century Grant gave the oft-quoted descrip- 
tion,* in which he pictures a Pennatula ‘with all its delicate transparent polypi ex- 
panded and emitting their usual brilliant phosphorescent light, sailing through the 
still and dark abysses by the regular and synchronous pulsations of the minute 
fringed arms of the whole polypi.’ But it ought to be balanced by his concluding 
statement, that the sea-pens are probably stationary, or ‘lie at the bottom, and 
move languidly like Spatangi, Asterize or Actinie.’* Edward Forbes again observed 
that the light proceeded from the irritated point to the extremity of the polypiferous 
portion, and never in the opposite direction. As Dr. George Johnston tells us, 
Forbes induced Dr. George Wilson to test, along with Professor Swan, the polyps 
during phosphorescence by a delicate galvanometer, but without result. He 
thought the luminosity was due to a spontaneously inflammable substance. 

More recently a series of interesting observations were made by Panceri on the 
structure and physiology of the luminous organs of this form. His conclusions 
are (1) that the light emanates from the polyps and zoids; (2) that the 
phosphorescent organs are the eight white cords adhering to the outer surface 
of the stomach, and that these are chiefly composed of cells containing a substance 
of a fatty nature, the oxidation of which causes the light. Panceri’s conclusions 
further considerably modify Forbes’s views about the direction of the waves or 
points of light. He supposes that the elements which stand in the place of nerves 
are capable of producing in the luminous batteries of the polyps a momentary oxida- 
tion—more rapid and more intense—accompanied by phosphorescence. Like those 
examined by Professor Milnes Marshall,? the specimens at St.. Andrews, after 
irritation, show a series of brilliant coruscations which flash along the rows of 
polyps in a somewhat irregular manner. 

Two other Alcyonarians, Funiculina and Umbellularia, are equally phosphores- 
eent. Though the former is familiar enough to some of the long liners of the 
outer Hebrides and west coast, it is rare that either is procured for scientific 
investigation. Fwniculina quadrangularis, according to Forbes,‘ gives out a vivid 
bluish light, which comes from the bases of the polyps, and appears to be connected 
with the reproductive system. Sir Wyville Thomson? describes the specimens pro- 
cured in the ‘ Porcupine’ as resplendent with a steady pale lilac phosphorescence 
like the flame of cyanogen; and always sutfliciently bright to make every portion 
of a stem caught in the tangles distinctly visible. The same zoologist mentions 
that the stem and polyps of Umbellularia are so brightly phosphorescent, that 
Captain Maclear found it easy to determine the character of the light by the 
prey wie It gave a restricted spectrum sharply included between the lines 6 
and D. 

Besides the foregoing Alcyonarians, Jsis and Gorgonia have been indicated as 
likewise phosphorescent. Dr. Merle Norman and Dr. Gwyn Jeffreys (whose death 
since the last meeting of the British Association is a serious loss to science) 
mention a beautifully luminous Js’s on board the French ship * Le Travailleur ’ ; 
and Sir Wyville Thomson,’ with the facile and genial pen which characterised the 


1 Gatherings of a Naturalist, p. 69. 1860. 

* Atti della R. Accad. d. Se. di Torino, vol. v. p. 502. 

* Brewster's Edin. Journ. vol. vii. p. 330. 1827. 

* Certainly the specimens in the St. Andrews Marine Laboratory were very 
helpless. 

° Report on the Oban Pennatulide, p. 49. Birmingham, 1882. 

® Johnston’s Brit. Zooph. vol. i. p. 166. 

7 Depths of the Sea, p. 149. 

8 Atlantic, vol. i. p. 151. 9 Ibid. vol. i. p. 119. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1047 


lamented naturalist, gives a fascinating picture of. a long, delicate, simple 
Gorgonian which came up in immense numbers in the trawl from 600 fathoms 
off the Spanish coast. He conjures up this Gorgonian forest as an animated corn- 
field waving gently in the slow tidal current, and glowing with a soft diffused 
phosphorescence, scintillating and sparkling on the slightest touch, and now and 
again breaking into long avenues of vivid light, indicating the paths of fishes or 
other wandering denizens of these enchanted regions. Professor Moseley thinks 
that this brilliant phosphorescence of the Alcyonarians may be regarded as an 
accidental production, but that it may be of occasional service. Further, that the 
deep sea is at any rate lighted up by these Alcyonarians, which would thus form 
luminous oases round which animals with eyes might possibly congregate.1 

The last group of the Ccelenterates, the Ctenophora, are even more conspicuous 
than the foregoing in regard to luminosity. It is indeed long since the Abbé 
Dicquemare descanted on Cydippe (Plewrobrachia) and Suriray on Beroé, while 
subsequent authors have made it clear that the majority of this group are phos- 
phorescent. In our own seas, as Professor Allman observes, Beroé at various 
stages is one of the most prominent luminous forms during certain seasons, Their 
enormous numbers make their effects more striking, though the intensity of 
the phosphorescence is less than that of the Medusz. Quiet seas like Bressay 
Sound and the Firth of Forth are occasionally covered by a dense layer of 
these animals, Professor Allman found that Zeroé did not phosphoresce if 
suddenly taken from light into darkness, but that after they had remained about 
twenty minutes in obscurity they became luminous. Considerable variety exists in 
this respect at St. Andrews, some emitting light at once, others showing none. It 
is probable that this uncertainty is connected with the hygienic condition of the 
individuals. 

In foreign seas many brightly luminous species are met with. Thus Professor 
A, Agassiz? describes Mnemiopsis Letdyi as ‘exceedingly phosphorescent, and 
when passing through shoals of these Medusze, varying in size from a pin’s head 
to several inches in length, the whole water becomes so brilliantly luminous that 
an oar dipped up to the handle can plainly be seen on dark nights by the light so 
produced; the seat of the phosphorescence is confined to the locomotive rows, and 
so exceedingly sensitive are they that the slightest shock is sufficient to make them 
plainly visible by the light emitted from the eight phosphorescent ambulacra.’ 
The same author* mentions that Leswewria has a very peculiar bluish light of an 
exceedingly pale steel colour, but very intense. Giglioli, again, found that the 
beautiful riband-like Cestus shone with a reddish yellow light, but in Hucharis 
the latter was intensely blue.* 

While many of the preceding group are pelagic at all periods of their existence, 
the luminous star-fishes are in their adult condition members of the bottom fauna, 
The larval stages of the brittle-stars, however, are passed at the surface of the 
water, where it is probable they add their quota to swell the ranks of the phos- 

horescent types. Amongst the first to note this property in the brittle-stars was 

rofessor Viviani, who found on the shores of Genoa a little brittle-star which he 
termed <Asterias noctiluca, and which probably is identical with the Amphiura 
elegans of Leach. Péron likewise mentions the phosphorescence of his Ophiwra 
phosphorea. Sir Wyville Thomson observed in the ‘ Porcupine’ that the light from 
Ophiacantha spinulosa was of a brilliant green, coruscating from the centre of the 
disk along the rays and illuminating the whole outline of the starfish. More 
recently, Professor Panceri of Naples has re-examined the phosphorescence of the 
species described by Viviani, and he finds that though with the first momentary 
glow the whole ray is lit up with a greenish light, the luminous points corre- 


1 Notes of a Naturalist on the ‘Challenger, p. 590. 

2 North American Acalephe, p. 20. Cambridge, 1865. 

3 Op. cit. p. 24. 4 Op. cit. p. 495-96. 

5 Phosphorescentia Maris, Genoa, 1805, p. 5, tab. i. figs. 1-2. He observes : 
“Speciem hanc radiate instar stelle scintillas in marinis aquis excitasse, quas 
electrico fluido adscripserunt, admodum probabile est.’ 

5 Depths of the Sea, p. 98. 


1048 REPORT—1885. 


spond with the bases of the pedicels and are ranged in pairs along the arms. In 
deep water (between 20 and 40 fathoms) off our eastern shores, Ophiothrix gleams 
all over the trawl-net with a pale greenish light; but the adults of same form he- 
tween tide marks give no trace of luminosity. 

The older authors were familiar with certain luminous annelids which they 
termed Nereides, such as Nereis phosphorans. Ehrenberg paid considerable atten- 
tion to this group, specially referring to Polynoé fulgurans from the North Sea, 
Nereis noctiluca* and Nereis (Photocharis) cirrigera, the latter species having a 
photogenic structure in its cirri like the electric organ of the Torpedo. This form 
is probably related to the ubiquitous Lusyliis, which, under various names, has been 
noticed by many observers. Thus very likely it is the same species that is men- 
tioned by Harmer, in Baker’s ‘Employment for the Microscope,’* as having been 
found on oyster shells; and also by Vianelli, who describes it as a caterpillar-like 
form amongst seaweeds. Indeed the Syllideans have been conspicuous in the 
literature of phosphorescence from the time of De la Voie,* and Vianelli,> to the 
recent period of Claparéde® and Panceri.’ The structure of the cirri of the phos- 
phorescent forms, however, gives no support to the opinion of Ehrenberg that 
they possess a special photogenic structure. 

The luminous annelids group themselves under five families, viz., the Polynoide, 
Syllide, Cheetopteridz, Terebellidee, and Tomopteride, and the number may yet 
be extended to include other pelagic types. 

In the first family one of the most abundant is Harmothoé imbricata, which 
lives both between tide-marks and in deep water, and is cosmopolitan in geographical 
distribution. It discharges bright greenish scintillations from the point of attach- 
ment of each dorsal scale; and thus, under irritation, the flashes are arranged in 
pairs along the body, or in a double moniliform line. If severely pinched the worm 
wriggles through the water, emitting sparks of green light from the bases of the 
feet. The separated scales also continue to gleam for some time, chiefly at the sur- 
faces of attachment (scars), near which, in each, a ganglion exists. The same 
phenomenon is readily produced in a fragment either of the anterior or posterior 
end of the body. No mucous secretion is emitted, but the light is clearly produced 
by the will of the animal, and by the agency of its nervous system. A recent. 
writer, Dr. Jourdan,’ has endeayoured to prove that this luminosity in another 
member of the Polynoide (viz., Polynoé torquata) is produced by cells secreting a 
phosphorescent mucus, but this view is by no means applicable in all cases. 

Besides the species mentioned, various other forms in this family are equally 
luminous, such as Polynoé scolopendrina, Achloé astericola, Polynoé lunulata, and a 
Zetlandic Eunoa. 

As an example of the Syllide, the common Zusyllis, so often mentioned by pre- 
vious authors, may be taken. Under irritation a fine green light is emitted from 
the ventral aspect of each foot, and the scintillations seem to issue from many 
points at each space, flash along both sides of the worm posterior to the point of 
stimulation, and then disappear. Under severe irritation the animal remains luminous 
behind the injured part for nearly half a minute, while the surface of granular light 
on each segment is larger than usual, and in some instances those of opposite sides 
are connected on the ventral aspect by a few phosphorescent points. The body 
behind the irritated region has a paler pinkish hue immediately after the emission 
of light, showing that the luminosity is diffused. 

In the Cheetopteridz the phosphorescence is remarkably beautiful, bright flashes 
being emitted from the posterior feet ; but the most vivid luminosity is at a point 
on the dorsum between the lateral wings of the tenth segment. Here the abundant 


1 Atti della R. Accad. d. Se. Fisiche e Mathem. di Napoli, 1875, p. 17, pl. iv. fig.1-3. 
? Supposed by some to refer to Noctiluca miliaris. 

* Page 400. 

4 1666, fide Panceri. 

5 Nuove Scoperte intorno le Luci dell? Acqua Marina. Venezia, 1749. 

& Glanures Zootomiques, p. 95. 

7 Op. cit. p. 8. 

® Zoologischer Anzeiger, 2 March, 1885, No. 189, p. 133. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1049 


mucus exuded by the animal can be drawn out as bluish-purple fire of great in- 
tensity, which, besides, now and then gleams along the edges of the wing-like 
processes, and illuminates the surrounding water. A very characteristic odour, 
somewhat resembling that produced by phosphorus in combustiou, is given out 
by the animal during such experiments. In this connection it may be observed that 
Quoy and Gaimard mention that an odour similar to that around an electric 
machine is given out by luminous marine annelids. 

Amongst the Terebellide, as first shown by Grube, none excel the genus Polycirrus 
in the brightress of the phosphorescence and the ease with which it is elicited. 
Mere blowing on the water of the dissecting-trough suffices to cause in the British 
Polycirrus the most vivid pale bluish luminosity, which gleams for a moment along 
every one of the remarkably mobile tentacles. Long before Grube, however, had 
discovered the phosphorescence of Polycirrus, our patient and laborious countryman, 
Sir J. Graham Dalyell,! had noticed it in the group, for he mentions that when 
irritated Terebella jigulus gives out the most copious blue refulgence, intermingled 
with a reddish flame. Another member of this family, viz., Thelepus, is only 
faintly phosphorescent in life, but when decomposition has made progress it gleams. 
in the vessel with a pale lambent light, somewhat like phosphorus in air. 

In the pelagic Tomopteride certain peculiar structures on the parapodia, 
formerly supposed by some to be eyes, and by others simply glandular organs, were 
lately found by Professor Greeff? to be luminous organs, which, though glandular, 
have a considerable nervous supply, including a ganglion. 

Panceri’s observations on the luminous annelids of Naples and the peculiar 
type Balanoglossus (Enteropneusta) have recently added considerably to our know- 
ledge of the subject. He specially describes, in Chetopterus, the structure of the 
phosphorescent glands in the great pinnules and other parts, which produce the 
luminous mucus. With some reason, he concludes that two kinds of phosphor- 
escence are present in annelids, viz.,one which is the result of purely nervous 
action, and another which is due to this plus a luminous secretion. 

A Turbellarian, viz., Planaria retusa, was mentioned by Viviani*? as luminous, 
but this feature appears to be rare in the group; and the same may be observed of 
phosphorescent Rotifers, one of which (Syncheta baltica) was described by 
Ehrenberg.* Giglioli,® again, records a Sagitta which showed a feeble luminosity 
in the posterior region of the body. 

The minute forms amongst the Crustacea (chiefly Copepoda) were recognised as 
phosphorescent by Athanasius Kircher in 1640, and have been mentioned by most 
authors who have alluded to the subject since that date.° Thus Viviani gives seven 
species from the shores of Genoa, and Tilesius no less than nineteen luminous crus- 
taceans from Krusenstern’s voyage. Dr. Baird describes the light given out by 
those met with in his cruises as brilliant in the extreme, and Vaughan Thompson 
added considerably to our knowledge of Sapphirina and of the luminous schizopods, 
an example of which had been discovered by Sir Joseph Banks, and described by 
Macartney.7’ Most authors agree that the minute forms, such as the Copepods, give 
a sparkling appearance to the surface of the water. The light in these, according 
to Lesson, proceeds from glands placed on the sides of the thorax; while Giglioli 
found the luminous organ of the cosmopolitan Sapphirina in the anterior part of the 
thorax. On the other hand, Captain Chimmo ® thought it was decomposing food 
in the stomach, and Professor Moseley ® in certain cases entertained a similar 
opinion. The phosphorescence of the Kuphausiidee was a prominent feature in the 
voyage of the ‘Challenger,’ brilliant flashes being emitted on capture from a series 
of spots along the trunk and tail. Mr. Murray also met with a diffused light in 
the Farée channel when dredging in the ‘Triton,’ and he attributed this to the 


1 Powers of the Creator, vol. ii. p. 210. 
2 Zoologischer Anzeiger, 1882, p. 384-87. 3 Op. cit. p. 13. 
4 Op. cit. p. 128. ® Op. cit. p. 498. 
® Professor G. S. Brady has recently observed phosphorescence in some Pontelline. 
7 Phil. Trans. 1810, as ‘ Cancer fulgens,’ 
' ® Huplectella, &c. 1878. 
° Op. cit. p. 574. (Naturalist on the * Challenger.’) 


1050 REPORT—1885. 


phosphorescent organs of Nyctiphanes norvegica, M. Sars, one of the same group. 
Professor G. O. Sars describes these organs as composed of a series of coloured 
elobules, the lens-like body of which acts as a condenser, and thus enables the 
animal to produce at will a bright flash of light in a given direction.? 

Marine phosphorescence has some of its most striking examples amongst the 
Tunicates. One of the best known instances is that of Pyrosoma, the light from 
which has been so graphically described by M. Péron, Professor Huxley, and other 
naturalists who have had an opportunity of observing it. It proceeds in each 
member of the compound organism from two small patches of cells at the base of 
each inhalent tube. These cells contain a substance resembling fat. Salpa has 
frequently been mentioned as a luminous form by many authors, but Delle Chiaje 
found that in the Mediterranean Salpa pinnata was not phosphorescent; and 
amongst the multitudes of Salpze which for some weeks abounded at Lochmaddy 
in North Uist, neither the former nor the Salpa spinosa of Otto exhibited this pro- 
perty, though a spark was occasionally seen in the nucleus in some specimens, pro- 
bably from the food. Giglioli likewise is doubtful concerning them, but in one 
instance a brilliant rose-coloured light appeared in the nucleus. Doliolwm,* on the 
other hand, shone with a greenish tint, while examples of Appendicularia which he 
encountered in various seas were chameleon-like in their luminosity, and often 
gleamed with great brightness. 

Various mollusks exhibit the property of phosphorescence. Fabricius ab Aqua- 
pendente mentions Sepra, Panceri Eledone, Adler Chama and ‘ Dactylus.’ The hest 
known is Pholas dactylus, which possesses two wavy bands and triangular organs 
of ciliated epithelium on the inner surface of the mantle. These secrete a lumi- 
nous substance, soluble in ether and alcohol, which illumines the excurrent 
water. The light is also maintained for along time during putrefaction, as in the 
ease of Thelepus. Panceri found that carbonic acid extinguished the light, but that 
air re-illuminated it, just as Johannes Miiller had previously observed in a vacuum 
and in air. The light is monochromatic, the bands having a constant place in con- 
nection with the solar spectrum (from line E to line F). 

Several Pteropods likewise contribute to the phosphorescence of the sea. Thus 
Giglioli noticed that a Cleodora gave out a vivid reddish light, while a Crises and 
a Hyalea were luminous at the base of the shell. He mentions also a large un- 
known Heteropod* in the Indian Ocean, which glowed with a reddish phosphor- 
escence. Amongst the Dermatobranchs, Phylirrhoé has the same property. 
Giglioli further found that Loligo sagittatus and a small Octopus gleamed all over 
with a whitish luminosity. 

Phosphorescence in living fishes appears to have been accurately observed 
within a comparatively recent date, though the luminosity of dead fishes has been 
known from very early times, and has been the subject of many interesting experi- 
ments such as those of Robert Boyle on dead whitings,* and Dr. Hulme on 
herrings.° Ido not mean to say that the literature of the so-called phosphorescent 
fishes is scanty, for it extends from the days of Aristotle and Pliny to modern 
times, but that the writers have had little reliable evidence in regard to living 
fishes to bring forward. Thus of upwards of fifty fishes entered by Ehrenberg in 
his list it is hard to say that one is really luminous during life. In many cases it 
is probable that the supposed phosphorescence of large forms, such as sword-fishes 
and sharks, has arisen from the presence of multitudes of minute phosphorescent 
animals in the water, just as the herring causes a gleam when it darts from the 
side of a ship. Professor Moseley, for instance, observed in the ‘ Challenger’ that 
when large fishes, porpoises, and penguins dashed through phosphorescent water, 
it was brilliantly lit up, and their track marked by a trail of light. The same 
feature is observed in hooked fishes, and it is known that fishermen are doubtful of 


1 <Challenger’ Narrative, Zoology, I. part ii. pp. 740-43. 

2 Vide also Mr. Murray’s observations in Prof. Herdman’s ‘ Report on the Tuni- 
cata of the “ Triton,”’ Trans. RS.L., vol. xxxii. p. 112. 

3 Op. cit. p. 497. 4 Phil. Trans. 1667, pp. 591-93. 5 Ibid. 1800, p. 161. 


~ 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1051 


success when the sea is very phosphorescent, for the presence of the net in the 
water excites the luminosity and scares the herring. Little is known with regard 
to the luminosity of the ‘ Pearl-sides’ of our own shores, though from its wide 
distribution this lack of information seems to be remediable. 

One of the most striking instances of phosphorescence in living fishes is that of 
the luminous shark (Squalus fulgens) found by Dr. Bennett. This is a small dark- 
coloured shark, which was captured on two or three occasions at the surface of the 
sea, It emitted without irritation a vivid greenish luminosity as it swam about at 
night and it shone for some hours after death. The phosphorescence appears to be 
due to a peculiar secretion of the skin. The eyes of the shark were more prominent 
than usual in such forms,” 

In recent times phosphorescence has generally been associated with deep-sea 
fishes. Thus in a narrative of the early part of the voyage of the ‘ Challenger’ % 
Sir Wyville Thomson mentions ranges of spots or glands producing a phosphorescent 
secretion on the body of a fish pertaining to the Sternoptychide a species of 
which (Argyropelecus hemigymnus Cocco) is included by Mr. Francis Day in his 
history of British fishes. In a new Echiostoma (one of the Stomiatide) also the 
two rows of probably phosphorescent dots along the body were red, surrounded by 
a circle of pale violet. Dr. Giinther® observes that many deep-sea fishes have 
round, shining, mother-of-pearl bodies embedded in the skin. These are supposed 
to be producers of light, and they haye been observed to be phosphorescent in two 
species of Sternoptychide. He further states that the whole muciferous system is 
dilated in deep-sea fishes, that is, fishes inhabiting 1,000 fathoms or more, and that 
the entire body seems to be covered with a layer of mucus, the physiological use 
of which is unknown ; it has been noticed to have phosphorescent properties in 
perfectly fresh specimens. 

Having thus briefly reviewed the leading features of phosphorescence in marine 
animals, a glance may now be taken at the supposed causes and purposes of this 
provision. 

I do not deem it necessary to go into detail with regard to the numerous views 
which have been advanced to account for the phosphorescence of marine organisms, 
for these range over a very wide area—from its production by electricity, the 
constant agitation of the water, by putrefaction, by luminous imbibition, to its 
manifestation as a vital action in the animals, or a secretion of a phosphorescent 
substance. Ehrenberg considered it a vital act similar to the development of 
electricity, and sometimes accompanied by the secretion of a mucilaginous humour 
which is diffused around; while others, such as Meyen, thought it only a superficial 
oxidation of the mucous coat, or a luminous secretion from certain glands. Some 
believed that a liquid containing phosphorus was secreted, and that this underwent 
slow combustion ; while others explained that it was a nervous fluid modified by 
certain organs to appear as light. Coldstream thought it was due to an im- 
ponderable agent, and that phosphorus or an analogous substance might enter into 
the organs producing it. De Quatrefages, again, affirms that it is produced 
in two ways: (1) by the secretion of a peculiar substance exuding from the entire 
body or a special organ; and (2) by a vital action independent of all material 
secretion. Panceri was strongly impressed with the importance of fatty matter in 
the forms he examined—such as Pennatula, the Meduse, Beroides, Pholades, 
Chetopteri and Noctiluce—the phosphorescence arising from the slow oxidation of 
this substance ; the nervous system of the living animal, however, being capable of 
pee a momentary oxidation more rapid and more intense, accompanied by 
ight. 

2 It will be observed that in the Protozoa the structure of the minute but 
often very abundant animals which furnish the luminosity clearly proves that 


1 Maurolicus pennantii, Cuv. and Val. : 

* The Danish naturalist Reinwardt describes a phosphorescent fish (Hemiramphus 
Jucens) from the Moluccas. ide Giglioli, op. cit. p. 503. 

3. Nature, August 28, 1873. 

* * Challenger’ Narrative, Zoology, I. part ii. p. 521. 

§ Ibid. I. vol. ii. p. 905. 


1052 REPORT—=1885. 


the presence of a well-defined nervous system is not required for its manifestation, 
the protoplasm of their bodies alone sufficing for its development. There are 
no glands for secreting it, and in some apparently no fatty matter for slow 
combustion. In the Ccelenterates the phenomena appear to be more nearly 
related to nervous manifestations, though in certain cases the luminous matter 
possesses inherent properties of its own. While in some annelids, such as 
Chetopterus and Polywrrus, there are glands which may be charged with the 
secretion of a luminous substance, it is otherwise with certain Polynoide, in which 
the emission of light appears to be an inherent property of the nervous system. 
The irritability in the phosphorescent examples of the latter family, however, 
varies considerably, some, e.g., Polynoé scolopendrina, being sluggish, while others, 
like Harmothoé, are extremely irritable. In the Crustaceans the luminosity seems 
to have the nature of a secretion, probably under the control of the nervous system. 
In Pyrosoma and Pholas dactylus a luminous secretion is also a prominent feature, 
and in both the latter and the annelids decay excites its appearance, as also is the 
case, to a limited extent, in fishes. 

It is evident, therefore, that the causation of phosphorescence is complex. In 
the one group of animals it is due to the production of a substance which can be 
left behind as a luminous trail. The ease, for instance, with which in Pennatula 
and other Ccelenterates the phosphorescence can be repeatedly produced by friction 
on a surface haying a minute trace of the material, clearly points to other causes 
than nervous agency. On the other hand again, as in certain annelids, it is purely 
a nervous action, probably resembling that which gives rise to heat. The action, 
moreover, evidently affects the organic chemical affinities of the tissues engaged. 

With the exception of such as Macartney, the older authors, who in some 
cases took an imaginative view of the question, connected the emission of light 
with the special economy of the deep sea. The speculations to this effect are 
fairly summarised in ‘ Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopedia,’ published in 1830," 
Thus it is supposed that total darkness exists at the depth of 1,000 feet, and that 
the phosphorescence of marine animals is a substitute for the light of the sun, 
Moreover, that by these lights the animals on the one hand are guided for attack, 
and on the other their power of extinguishing them enables them to escape 
destruction. Fishes are known to prey chiefly at night, and the writer supposes 
that the phosphorescence of their prey guides them; for, he says, this luminosity 
is particularly brilliant in those inferior animals which from their astonishing 
powers of reproduction, and from a state cf feeling little superior to that of 
vegetables, appear to have been in a great measure created for the food of the 
more perfect kinds. Dr, Coldstream at a later period (1847) reproduced the same 
views in his article on animal luminosity.* 

The same notion was brought forward in the ‘ Report of the Cruise of the 
“Porcupine.” ’* and special reference was made to the young of certain starfishes, 
which are stated to be more luminous than the adults, that being part of the general 
plan which provides an excess of the young of many species, apparently as a 
supply of food, their wholesale destruction being necessary for the due restriction 
of the multiplication of the species, while the parent individuals, on the other 
hand, are provided with special appliances for escape or defence. Thus phosphor- 
escence, it is further asserted,* in very young Ophiacanthe just rid of their plutei, 
in a sea swarming with predaceous crustaceans, such as Dorynchus and Munida, 
with great bright eyes, must be a fatal gift. Some naturalists still appear to 
hold a similar, though perhaps modified, view. Much caution, however, is neces- 
sary in theorising on this head. 

In the first place, phosphorescent animals do not appear to be more abundant 
in the depths of the sea than between tide-marks or on the surface, the latter 
perhaps presenting the maximum development of those exhibiting this phenomenon. 


! Chiefly the views of Dr. Macculloch. 
? Todd’s Cyclop. of Anat. and Phys. 

3 Proc. Roy. Soc, No. 121, 1870, p. 432. 
* Depths of the Sea, p. 149. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1053 


Very many of the young that have been indicated as so brilliantly luminous become 
surface-forms soon after leaving the egg, and thus at their several stages more or 
less affect the three recions—of surface, mid-water, and bottom. 

A survey of the life-histories of the several phosphorescent groups affords at 
present no reliable data for the foundation of a theory as to the functions of 
luminosity, especially in relation to food. No phosphorescent form is more generally 
devoured by fishes or other animals than that which is not; and, on the other 
hand, the possessor of luminosity, if otherwise palatable, does not seem to escape 
capture, An examination of the stomachs of fishes makes this clear, except perhaps 
in the case of the herring, which, however, is chiefly a surface-fish. Further, it is 
not evident that such animals are luminous at all times, for it is only under 
stimulation that many exhibit the phenomenon. 

Moreover, the irregularity of its occurrence in animals possessing the same 
structure and habits in every respect, strengthens the view just expressed. Thus, 
while Pholas dactylus has been known from the days of Pliny to be luminous, the 
common Pholas crispata is not so endowed. Two annelids (Harmothoé imbricata 
and Polynoé floccosa), abound between tide-marks and closely resemble each 
other in habits and appearance ; yet one is brightly luminous, while the other 
shows no trace. Instead of luring animals for prey, or affording facilities for being 
easily preyed upon, the possessors of phosphorescence in the annelids are often the 
inhabitants of tubes, or are commensalistic on starfishes. Indeed, every variety of 
condition accompanies the presence of phosphorescence in the several groups, so 
that the greatest care is necessary in making deductions, especially if these are 
to have a wide application. 

In the foregoing brief outline of the remarkable phenomenon of phosphorescence 
as it affects marine animals, it is apparent that, though a considerable increase in 
our knowledge has taken place during the last quarter of a century, much more yet 
remains to be done. I, however, confidently look forward for further advances, in 
this as well as in other departments, to the marine laboratories of the country—I 
mean such institutions as those now in working order at Granton, St. Andrews and 
Tarbert, as well as the larger establishment proposed to be erected by the Biological 
Association at Plymouth. These laboratories, it is true, have been tardily instituted, 
but it is satisfactory to think that at last the zeal and methods of the workers have, 
and will have, a better field for their exercise than formerly, and that the zoology 
of the fisheries will obtain that attention which its importance to the country 
necessitates. 


The following Papers and Reports were read :— 


1. On the Tay Whale (Megaptera longimana) and other Whales recently 
obtained in the district. By Professor Srrurners, M.D., DL.D. 


1. Megaptera longimana. Male, 40 feet long. January 1884. Wounded near 
Dundee. Brought ashore dead at Stonehaven, near Aberdeen. Presented the usual 
external characters of this species. Pectoral fin 12 feet long, but finger muscles 
only about half as well developed as in B. musculus. Femur entirely cartilaginous, 
conical form, right 5} inches, left 4 inches in length. ‘The skeleton was 
exhibited to the Section, and its chief characters commented on. 

2. Balenoptera musculus. Male, 50 feet long. Stranded at Nairn, December 
1884; exhibited and dissected at Aberdeen. Presented the usual external 
characters of B. musculus. Finger muscles, the same arrangement as described by 
the author in B. musculus, at the 1871 meeting of the Association. Femur 
cartilaginous, oval form, about an inch in length. The skeleton was exhibited to 
the Section, 

3. Balenoptera borealis. Male, 36 feet long. Killed at Widewall Bay, Orkney, 
December 1884, Whalebone fringe presented soft character since noticed by 
Guldberg. Femur absent. Finger-muscles nearly the same as in B. musculus, 
Skeleton exhibited to the Section, and the osteological characters which further 
distinguish it from B, musculus commented on, especially stylo-hyal, nasal, cervical 


1054 REPORT—1885. 


vertebre, and orbital plate of frontal bone. Ribs, fourteen pairs, the first pair 
double-headed. 

4, Beluga. Killed at Wick, 1884. Skeleton and photograph showing natural 
form, exhibited to the Section. 


2. Is the Commissural Theory of the Corpus Callosum correct ? 
By Professor D. J. Hammron, MB. 


The results recorded by the author were obtained by certain special methods of 
preparation. They went to prove that the corpus callosum is not an interhemi- 
spherical commissure, as is generally supposed, but that it is in reality the decussation 
of a particular system of fibres on their way downwards to join the inner and 
outer capsules. ‘These fibres are not to be confounded with the motor and other 
direct fibres derived from the cerebral cortex which decussate at some point lower 
down. 

The facts bearing upon the above were briefly as follows :—(1) The fibres cax 
be seen with the naked eye turning down to join the two capsules, after issuing at 
each side from the tectorial part of the corpus callosum. 

(2) They can be traced with the microscope from the corpus callosum con- 
tinuously down to the two capsules. 

(38) The mass of fibres thus turning downwards forms an arch, varying in 
shape in different localities, but corresponding in extent to the position of the 
corpus callosum. This arched system of fibres (‘the crossed callosal tract’) can be 
exposed by dissecting off the superjacent cortex and medullary substance, Their 
curved course can then be distinctly seen with the naked eye, 

(4) In young embryos of mammals, and more especially in the human embryo 
of from three to four months, the callosal system of fibres is much more developed 
than any other, and hence it appears to be more differentiated than in the adult, 
where it is obscured by the other systems of fibres around it. The course of the 
fibres in the embryo is exactly similar to that described in the adult. After leaving 
the corpus callosum they curve downwards in a ribbon-like band to join the two 
capsules. 

(5) The brain of a woman fifty-three years of age was shown, in which the 
right first and second frontal convolutions had been destroyed probably in infancy. 
Corresponding with this the tectorial part of the corpus callosum was extremely 
small, and the opposite inner and outer capsules ‘were almost wanting, while those 
on the same side were comparatively well developed. The basal ganglia on the 
opposite side were also extremely small. 

(6) The ultimate destinations of those callosal fibres entering the inner capsule 
are probably the caudate nucleus, the thalamus opticus, the grey matter of the 
pons, the cerebellum (?), the ganglionic masses in the medulla oblongata, and 
possibly the spinal cord. Of those entering the outer capsule the following points 
of attachment had been made out :—the olfactory tract, the optic tract, the inner 
capsule (a few fibres), and the temporo-sphenoidal lobe. 

(7) The callosal fibres derived from the frontal and occipital regions follow 
essentially the same course as those arising from the vertex. 


3. The Evidence of Comparative Anatomy with regard to Localisation of 
Function in the Cortex of the Brain. By Avex. Hin, M.A., M.B., 
M.R.C.S. 


The central nervous system is formed as an inyoluted tube of epiblast, from the 
cells composing which the nerve fibres grow out. Throughout the greater part of 
the system the cells form the inner, the fibres the outer portion of the tube’s wall. 
In its anterior part, where the tube is dilated into the cerebral vesicles, a layer of 
cells is also disposed outside the white fibre tube. Throughout the central grey 
tube the cells are arranged in groups, from which spring the nerve fibres for each 
metamer, the cells in each group being distinguishable into those which are con- 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1055 


nected with sensory, those which are connected with motor, and those which are 
connected. with visceral fibres. The central grey tube includes the optic thalamus, 
and the key to its constitution is to be found in its segmentation. 

The object of this investigation is to determine the relation borne by the 
several parts of the peripheral grey tube (the cortex mantle) to the segments of 
the central grey tube, and indirectly, therefore, to the several body nerves. It may 
be that the processes of the cells of the central grey tube, the commissural nerves, as 
they may be called, are woven, as it were, when they reach the cortex into a colour- 
less web, or, on the other hand, they may retain and impart to separate regions of the 
cortex the tone which they have received from sense organ and motor mechanism. 
The latter of these suppositions is supported by experimental research, for stimula- 
tion of particular regions of the cortex indicates the occupation of those regions 
by the cerebral centres of particular nerves. On such evidence is based the theory 
of ‘localisation of function.’ Eventually, however, this theory must be sub- 
mitted to a comparative test. Animals differ from one another widely in their 
sensory and motor endowments. Such differences are clearly indicated by the 
varying cross-sections of their several nerves, and if particular regions of the cortex 
are in functional relation with particular nerves, the extent of their development 
will vary with the size of the nerves. To the superticial regional development of 
the cortex the fissures are the only possible guides. It is, therefore, of the hichest 
importance to determine their homological value ; that they may he safely accepted 
as boundary-lines is shown by the constancy of their arrangement in animals of any 
one type, the uniformity of their development and progressive extension, and the fact 
that the first to appear are the most constant in the animal series and the deepest in 
the individual. ‘To reduce the matter to statistics, the superficial areas of regions 
bounded by certain fissures should be compared with the cross-sections of their 
correlated nerves. As yet no system of mensuration has been devised for the 
cortex. In the more divergent animals, however, the proportional development of 
the various regions of the cerebrum is obvious to the eye. 

In herbivora, which depend for safety upon sight and upon repeated simple 
movements of the limbs, the internal part of the occipital lobe, as shown by the 
deflection of the lateral fissure, is large, the sigmoid gyrus small. In carnivora, 
which depend for their food upon the sense of smell and the complexity of their 
muscular system, the temporo-sphenoidal lobe and the sigmoid gyrus are both con- 
spicuous for their development. That these great differences do not depend upon 
the distance apart of the animals phylogenetically is shown by the fact that in the 
pig, which seeks its food with its nose, the brain approaches the carnivorous rather 
than the herbivorous type. Amongst carnivora the otter is conspicuous for the 
small deyelopment of its olfactory apparatus; the temporo-sphenoidal lobe is cor- 
respondingly small. In this animal the fifth nerve is very large, which accounts 
apparently for the large size of the convolution which lies in front of the fissure of 
Sylvius. Cats are remarkable tor the uniform development of their senses. With 
this uniformity is associated a remarkable symmetry of brain. Hearing, however, 
is in these animals particularly acute ; the cortical localisation of this sense appears 
to be above the processus acuminis of the fissure of Sylvius. In the main these results 
are confirmatory of those obtained by Ferrier and other experimental physiologists. 
The order in which the centres are situate on the cortex indicates that the cerebrum 
has undergone a rotation backwards into a single turn of a spiral coil. 


4. Report of the Committee for the Exploration of Kilima-njaro and the 
adjoining Mountains of Hastern Equatorial Africa.—See Reports, p. 681. 


5. Report of the Committee for arranging for the occupation of a Table at 
the Zoological Station at Naples.—See Reports, p. 466. 


1056 REPORT—1885. 


6. Report of the Committee for promoting the establishment of Marine 
Biological Stations on the coast of the United Kingdom.—See Reports, 
p. 480. 


?. Report of the Committee for promoting the establishment of a Marine 
Biological Station at Granton—See Reports, p. 474. 


8. Report on recent Polyzoa.—See Reports, p. 481. 
9. Report on the Record of Zoological Literature. 


10. Report on the Bibliography of certain Groups of Invertebrata. 


FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11. 


The following Papers were read :— 


1. Recent Observations on the Habits and Instincts of Ants and Bees. 
By Sir Joun Lussock, Bart., F.R.S. 


2. On the Carpal Bones in various Cetaceans. By Professor StrurHERs, 
M.D., LL.D. 


Dissections exhibited of the carpal bones and cartilages in Hyperoodon, Beluga, 
Globicephalus, Narwhal, Balenoptera musculus, B. borealis, B. rostrata, Megaptera 
Zongimana, and Balena mysticetus, The various carpal cartilages, more or less 
ossified, shown to be mapped out by fibrous and occasionally by partially synovial 
articulations. The general conclusion of the author is, a diminution in the number 
of the second carpal row from Hyperoodon to Mysticetus. In Mysticetus, second 
row reduced to one cartilage or bone, partially ossified in a 35 feet-long male, 
entirely cartilaginous in a full-grown female. Sections display these facts fully. 
The pisiform varies in its development. In some it appears as if partially con- 
tinuous with the cartilaginous epiphysis of the ulna. In B. borealis the trapezoid 
is wanting, in contrast with B. musculus. 


3. Account of the Dissection of the Rudimentary Hind-limb of 
Balenoptera musculus, By Professor Srrurners, M.D., LL.D. 


A careful dissection was made of the anatomical relations of the femur, &c., in the 
whale from Nairn, and full-sized drawings were made as the dissection proceeded. 
The femur is imbedded in fibrous tissue, belonging to transverse and longitudinal 
aponeuroses. Only a small part of a superficial muscle is attached to it. It is 
loosely held to the pelvic bone by ligaments. No synovial membrane, but an 
acetabular cartilage is present, concealed by the periosteum. The terminal fibrous 
band from the femur expands in fascia some inches forwards. The author’s con- 
clusion is, that the femur in B. musculus is to be regarded as entirely a rudimentary 
structure. The paper embraced an account of the formation of the pelvic cavity, and 
of the muscles and fibrous structures connected with the pelvic bones. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1057 


4, Some points in the Anatomy of Sowerby’s Whale (Mesoplodon bidens).' 
By Professor W. Turner, M.B., F.R.S. 


5. On the use of Graphic Representations of Life-histories in the teaching of 
Botany. By Professor F. O. Bower. 


The object of this paper was to bring before the notice of teachers of botany 
such diagrammatic representations of life-historiés of plants as had previously 
been published by the author in the Journal of the Linnean Society, in a paper 
‘On Apospory in Ferns,’ and with this object the author had prepared a series of 
figures, of which those relating to the ferns were similar in their main points to 
those published in the paper above referred to: the series was, however, further 
extended to the higher forms. It was clearly laid down that in the opinion of the 
author, and according to his constant practice, these figures are only to be used 
after the chief characters of the plants in question, and their processes of develop- 
ment and reproduction, have been described in detail by the teacher: in fact, that 
they are intended to serve only as a simple recapitulation of the main facts, from 
which comparative conclusions may be the more easily drawn by the teacher, and 
presented forcibly to the mind of the student. If used in any other way, there is 
great danger of the graphic method being a stumbling-block and hindrance to 
true progress. After describing the proposed diagrams in detail, and giving inci- 
dentally a description of the newly-discovered and interesting phenomenon of 
apospory in ferns, the author proposed the following questions for discussion by 
the teachers present : 

1, Are such diagrams as these to be used at all? 

2. Is it judicious to load them with further details ? 

3. How far may their use be extended to the lower forms ? 


SupPpLEMENTARY Mrrtinc.—PHYSIOLOGY. 


1. On the Direct Action of Anesthetics on the Frog-heart. 
By J. McGrzcor-Rosertson, M.A., MB. 


This was an investigation into the action of anesthetics on the excised heart 
of the frog. The heart was bound to the Kronecker canule, and connected with 
the frog-heart apparatus of Ludwig. The recording point of the mercury mano- 
meter traced the characters ‘of the contractions on the recording surface of the 
cylinder of a kymographion. 

At intervals nourishing fluid (consisting of defibrinated rabbit’s blood, one 
part, and ‘6 per cent. salt solution, two parts) was passed through the heart, the 
arrangement of the apparatus permitting the nourishing fluid containing a per- 
centage of the drug experimented with being supplied to the heart instead. ‘The 
aneesthetics used were found to vary in their action according to the dose. A 
small percentage stimulating the heart, and increasing the rapidity of the move- 
ment, a greater percentage lessening both the force and frequency, and a third 
completely paralysing the heart, and stopping all movement, so that even me- 
chanical stimulation failed to arouse the heart. In all cases, however, a few cubic 
centimetres of normal fluid restored the heart to its former vigour. The recovering 
heart passed backwards through the various stages of the action of increasing doses 
of the anesthetics. 

It was shown with ether that a dose sufficient to stimulate at a low temperature 
caused complete standstill at a higher temperature (35° C.), and that a dose which 


* Published in extenso in the Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, October, 1885. 
1885. 3Y 


1058 REPORT—1885. 


caused standstill at the ordinary temperature failed to do so at a reduced tempera- 
ture (5° C.). A heart reduced to standstill by a 1° per cent. solution of ether at 
a temperature of 35° C. recommenced beating on lowering the temperature." 

A marked quantitative difference was shown between the different anesthetics, 
as shown in the following table, where the percentage of the drug required to 
stimulate, to reduce, or to entirely stop the contraction of the heart, is shown :— 


Paralysing 


_ Stimulating Reducing 
Ether . , 2 -| 1 percent. | 1:5 percent. | 2 per cent. | 
Ethidene dichloride ./| z;th ,, ,, ath 4, 5 Athi yaseipay dh | 
Bromide of ethyl ! goth Fs Blt'yp th didulas ath vie 
Chloroform . ‘ ad Hgeth oy hosy ath », Fath « s.'libace et 


A qualitative difference was also shown. Ether and ethidene very much re- 
sembled one another. The relaxation after each contraction was complete. With 
chloroform and bromide of ethyl, however, a marked difference was observed. 
The heart showed a great tendency to contract spasmodically round the canule. 
So marked was this, that it was difficult to pass the nourishing fluid through the 
heart, in order to wash out the drugged fluid. This action was’ never observed 
with ether and ethidene when the heart had been fairly under their influence. It 
was noticed in more than one case, however, that the heart became spasmodically 
contracted round the canule immediately on receiving the first stimulating dose of 
the drug. This occurred with ether as well as with chloroform. With ether, 
however, it rapidly passed off, and did not recur after the full influence of 
the anesthetic was felt. It did not so readily pass off with chloroform. The 
author suggested that such an action on the human heart micht account for some 
deaths from chloroform before any quantity of the drug had been given. 

The heart recovered speedily from the influence of ether, but slowly from 
chloroform. Ether was found not to be cumulative ; but this could hardly be said 
so decidedly of chloroform. 

The mixture of chloroform, alcohol, and ether (called the A.C.E. mixture) was 
tried. It seemed to paralyse the heart even more rapidly than chloroform alone, 
and none of the evil effects of chloroform seemed to be diminished. [Tracings 
were shown, and a demonstration of the action of ether on the frog-heart was given. | 


2. On the Action of Cold on Microphytes.” 
By Joun G. McKenpricx, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 


3. On the Action of Ozonised Air upon Micro-Organisms and Albumen in 
Solution. By J. J. Coreman, F.C.S. 


The author described a number of experiments conducted by him in conjunction 
with Professor McKendrick, F.R.S., being supplementary to their joint investigation 
upon the influence of cold upon microphytes. Air artificially impregnated with 
ozone by means of a Ruhmkorff coil, so as to contain a much larger percentage of 
ozone than any natural atmospheric air, was passed continuously through a 1 per 
cent. solution of white of eg placed in a glass flask, the inlet and outlet tubes of 
which were carefully plugged with cotton wool previous to commencing and during 
the experiments. 

It was found from various experiments that a stream of air passed through 
100 c.c. of the liquid for 30 hours containing an amount of ozone equal in 


1 Details as regards Ether only found in a paper, ‘ Ueber die Wirkung des Ethers 
auf das Frosch-Herz.’ Du Bois-Reymond’s Archiv fiir 1881. 

? See Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain and Proceedings of 
the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 1884-85. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1059 


weight to the albumen in solution failed in producing the slightest trace of 
oxidation, and that the ozonised air passed through the liquid quite unaltered. 

During the course of the experiments, and for six days following, the develop- 
ment of micro-organisms ceased; but at the end of that time, and notwith- 
standing the cotton wool plugs, the liquid became slightly turbid from the 
presence of organisms. 

As dilute hydrogen peroxide is without action upon albumen, the conclusion 
seems inevitable that albumen is practically indestructible by any atmospheric 
agency without previous splitting up by micro-organisms, and further that whilst 
micro-organisms cannot develop, and are probably killed in an ozonised atmosphere, 
their spores are not easily destroyed by its agency. 

These results confirm the surmise of the late Dr. Angus Smith, that putre- 
faction is a necessary preliminary to oxidation in all cases of natural river 
purification. 


4. A new Theory of the Sense of Taste. 
By Professor J. Berry Hayorarr. 


The author showed that ‘ quality’ in this sense depends upon the nature of the 
atoms found in the sapid molecule. A study of the periodic law demonstrates that 
similar tastes are produced by combinations which contain elements, such as 
lithium, sodium, and potassium, which show a periodic recurrence of ordinary 
physical properties. Among the carbon compounds, those which produce similar 
tastes are found to contain a common group of elements. Thus organic acids con- 
tain the group CO, OH ; the sweet substances CH,,OH. There is no relation be- 
tween quality of taste and gross molecular weight, except that substances either of 
very small or very great molecular weight are not tasted at all. 


SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 12. 


The following Papers were read :— 


1. On a Model of the Whale. By Captain Gray. 


2. On the Hybridisation of Salmonide at Howietoun. By Francis Day, C.L.E. 


Among the papers on the fishes of the British Isles, which have from time to 
time appeared in the ‘ Proceedings of the British Association,’ are several respecting 
the Salmonide. Most of these communications have been restricted to investiga- 
tions into species and their distribution, or questions as to their artificial propaga- 
tion, but none to hybridisation. 

During the last eleven years, Sir J. R. Gibson-Maitland, at Howietoun, near 
Stirling, has devoted much attention to this subject, and gone to great expense in 
order to efficiently carry out the many experiments he has instituted, while he has 
likewise afforded me facilities for personally watching many of them, and furnished 
me with data as well as with specimens. This subject, which is among the most 
interesting problems of fish life, I have selected for communication to this meeting ; 
for, although only some conclusions have been arrived at, I cannot resist feeling 
that such important Scottish experiments ought to be recorded, so far as they 
have gone, in the ‘ Proceedings’ of this Association, now that itis holding a meeting 
in the country were they are being carried out. 

Willoghby and Ray, as early as 1686, alluded to hybrid fishes, and Pennant 
(edition 1812) observed ‘hybrid fish, for that such exist those persons who have 
paid most attention to the subject in ichthyology have not a doubt.’ 

When we consider that the ova of teleostean or bony fishes have, as a rule, to 

3x2 


1060 REPORT—1885. 


be fertilised by the milt of the males diffused in the surrounding water, it is not 
difficult to believe that this fluid from the male of one genus might come into 
contact with the eggs from fish of another species, genus, or even family, and a 
hybrid offspring be thus occasioned. But the size of the micropyle of the ovum 
and that of the spermatozooid of the milt must be of conforming capacities or 
fertilisation would be a physical impossibility. 

Fraisse alludes to a hybrid offspring between a brook-trout and a burbolt, or 
between fishes belonging to two distinct families; and in the ‘ Bulletin of the 
United States Fish Commission’ in 1882 is an account of a hybrid between a fish 
pertaining to the herring family, Clwpeide, and the striped bass, Roccus lineatus, a 
percoid which supplied the milt. 

Livingston Stone observed in 1869 that he had crossed the yellow perch, Perca 

flavescens, with the glass-eyed perch, Zucioperca, when the embryos continued to 
develop until the seventh day, and then ceased to do so. Crosses have also been 
effected between the golden tench, Tinca vulgaris, and the common carp, Cyprinus 
carpio ; the rudd, Leuciseus erythrophthalmus, and the gold carp, Carrassius auratus ; 
the roach, Leuciscus rutilus, and the bream, Adramis brama; between the rudd and 
the bream ; the chub, Leuczscus cephalus, and the bleak, Alburnus lucidus, &e. 

Restricting ourselves to the recorded instances respecting hybridisation among 
the Salmonide in Great Britain, we find it observed upon by Willughby in 1686, 
when it was remarked that he was persuaded that the salmon and the various 
forms of trout interbreed; and many authors in this country have erroneously 
asserted that par were hybrids, until this question was set at rest by the fish 
culturists. Mr. Shaw, in-1841, observed that his ‘experiments with the ova of the 
common trout and salmon had been quite successful;’ that ‘those produced 
between the salmon and the salmon-trout appeared to partake more of the external 
markings, silvery coating, and elegance of form of the par than any of the others. 
Those produced between the salmon and the common trout, and between the 
common trout and the salmon-trout, had in every respect more the appearance of 
the common trout than the former.’ 

The Ashworths, in 1853, remarked upon rearing offspring from the ova of 
trout fecundated by salmon milt. Davy, in 1858, also observed that Mr. Reynolds 
mixed together the roe of the lake-trout and the fluid milt of the char, and 
in seventy days young fish were hatched. 

The ponds at Howietoun, where the breeding of the Salmonide are carried on, 
are thirty-two in number, constructed in accordance with whether they are 
intended to accommodate breeders or for rearing purposes; the whole being sur- 
rounded by a strong paling five feet high, with an iron spike six inches in length 
surmounting each post. 

The first question which seemed to require being settled was whether, if salmon 
were crossed by trout, a sterile or a fertile race of hybrids would result? If they 
were sterile, would they or would they not possess anadromous instincts? It 1s 
evident that, could a breed of fish be procured that would not migrate seawards, 
such would prove most valuable in the upper waters of rivers, as the Thames, 
which is so polluted in its lower reaches as to be practically impassable to the finny 
races, and consequently cannot be frequented by anadromous forms. 

Leuchart refers to salmon ova, in 1878, having been fertilised by trout milt- 
No mention is made of the progeny attempting to spring out of the pond in which 
they were confined, while ova and milt were procured from these hybrids when 
twenty-two months of age. 

At Howietoun some salmon eggs were hatched in March 1881, and on Novem- 
ber 29, 1883, or at thirty-two months of age, milt was procured from these fish ; but 
it was not until November 7, 1884, or when forty-four months old, that ripe eggs 
were furnished by any of these fishes. It would thus appear that the period at 
which the pure salmon breeds is at least a season later than the trout when kept 
under the same conditions. 

December 24, 1881, about 20,000 Lochleven trout ova were fertilised at 
Howietoun with salmon milt, and these hatched on March 9, 1882. From time to 
time some of these hybrids were examined, but none showed signs of breeding until 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1061 


May 1885, when they commenced springing out of the pond; and on one being 
opened it proved to be a female with the eggs developing, and had it lived it 
would evidently have bred this winter when about forty-four months of age, or at 
a similar period to the female smolt of the pure salmon. But, unfortunately, owing 
to the severe drought which the country suffered from during the last summer, 
the stream ceased to give an adequate supply, and all. but two of the 144 fish 
were found dead. Milt and roe were developing in almost all, and although this 
experiment has not been successfully completed, it so far demonstrates that 
hybrids between the male salmon and female trout are fertile at the same period 
ag are pure salmon. . 

In Leuchart’s case the trout was the male element, and his fish commenced 
breeding near the end of their second year, as is the case with trout. At Howie- 
toun, where the salmon was the male element, the hybrids would have commenced 
breeding at about the same period as in the salmon. It would therefore seem 
probable that the male elements in both cases had been prepotent, and also that 
when the male element in the hybrid has been the anadromous salmon, the young 
at the breeding season attempt to migrate seawards, and they have not lost their 
anadromous instincts. 

Some more hybrids, similar to the foregoing as regards parentage but only one 
year old, are at Howietoun, and it is hoped will in due course arrive at maturity. 

A set of experiments were likewise instituted at Howietoun into the question of 
whether the age of the male parent has any direct influence on the health of the 
hybrid progeny. On November 29, 1883, about 4,500 eggs from a Lochleven 
trout of the season of 1875 were milted from a salmon par thirty-two months old. 
The eggs hatched well, but the majority of the young were affected with dropsy of 
the yelk sac, from which nearly all succumbed before the end of the year. That 
this dropsy was owing to deficiency in vitality is rendered probable by an experi- 
ment I tried at Cheltenham in 1884-5, when out of about five hundred young 
trout only one had dropsy of the yelk sac, and theegg from which it had been 
hatched had been kept in brackish water in order to ascertain whether that 
would preclude its hatching. 

On November 11, 1884, about 12,000 eggs of Lochleven trout were milted from 
a salmon smolt a year older than in the last experiment. About 9,500 hatched on 
January 28, but many died of dropsy of the sac; and on June 19 about 5,000 
healthy young ones were turned into a rearing pond. Dropsy in this experiment 
did not set in quite so rapidly or severely, neither were so many proportionately 
affected. In this instance, again, there was evidently deficiency of vitality, 
probably due to the age of one of the parents, and if so that must have been 
the male, which was forty-three months old. 

Several other experiments were made, but with similar results, which would 
seem to demonstrate that a sickly or feeble offspring results from crossing young 
salmon, as par or smolts, with mature trout, no matter how vigorous tke latter may 
be. As a corroboration of this opinion the following experiment, also made at 
Howietoun, may be quoted. November 14, 1884, about 500 eggs, each having a 
diameter of 0°17 of an inch, were taken from a Lochleven trout not quite two 
years old. These were fertilised from another of the same race, but older. But 
only about a dozen hatched on January 28, 1885, and of these seven lived and were 
turned out into one of the rearing ponds. This is a very instructive experiment, as 
not merely demonstrating the small size of the eggs given by young mothers, but 
likewise as pointing out that such as are obtained from young parents either hatch 
indifferently or even fail to do so, simply due to deticiency of vitality on the 
mother’s side, This experiment must likewise cause one to hesitate before expect- 
ing the eggs of two-year-old hybrids to be good hatchers, another season at least 
being necessary in order to arrive at satisfactory deductions on this head. 

Intercrossings have likewise been carried on at Howietoun between trout and 
char. On November 15, 1882, about 2,000 eggs of the Lochleven trout were 
fertilised from the milt of the American char (Salmo fontinalis). About one in six 
failed to hatch, while monstrosities were numerous among the progeny. Some 
were blind with one or both eyes, others had bull-dog malformations of the snout, 


1062 REPORT—1885. 


while more or less albinoism existed in such as had the sight of both or of only one 
eye affected. The general colours of these hybrids were yellowish shot with 
purple, and reticulated with irregular black bands, spots, and markings on the 
body, but most closely spotted along the upper surface of the head and back. 
Dorsal fin yellow, with spots and bands; pectorals black-tipped ; anal with its first 
three rays white, the fin behind this being stained with dark grey; caudal dark 
edged, and having a few indistinct bars at its base. The colours of the male 
parent or of the American char predominated over those of the female or Lochleven 
trout. On November 12, 1884, some males were found to be ripe, but the females 
not quite so. In this instance, as in others, the males were most forward, while 
the age of these fish was about two years, rendering it evident that both eggs and 
milt may be expected in a hybrid between a trout and a char in its second year. 
The foregoing experiment was repeated on November 29, 1888, and about one in 
‘seventeen of the eggs failed to hatch. 

The last experiment was now reversed. November 15, 1882, 8,000 eggs of an 
American char were fertilised from a Lochleyen trout. About one in three failed 
to hatch. The young were much deformed, many had their spines crooked, and in 
some there was atrophy of their posterior portion with a deficiency of fins generally, 
especially of the caudal. The colours of these hybrids closely resembled those 
seen in the preceding experiment, or those of the female fish, the American char 
predominating over those of the male parent, the Lochleven trout. About eight 
of these fish still survive. 

The next set of intercrossing were between the British and American chars. 
November 15, 1882, about 9,000 ova of an American char were milted from a char 
from Loch Rannoch. The mortality among the eggs was nearly one in four and 
three-quarters. There were no considerable number of monstrosities or malforma- 
tions. The colours were of a beautiful iridescent purple, with thirteen transverse 
or par-bands along the sides, the whole of the body being sprinkled with light 
spots. The front edge of the dorsal, ventral, and anal fins were white, as was also 
the outer pectoral ray. There were a few dark marks along the base of the dorsal 
fin. In this experiment the colours mostly partook of those of the male parent or 
Scotch char, which largely predominated over those of the female parent or 
American char. By November 12, 1884, the majority seemed to be in a breeding 
condition. 

The final series of hybridisation experiments which I propose alluding to in this 
paper were intercrossings between the foregoing hybrid races; again, however, 
drawing attention to the fact that, as these fish were all in their second season, 
such a young age may account for unsatisfactory results, but each additional year 
will doubtless be productive of increased interesting facts. 

November 12, 1884, 146 eges were obtained from a hybrid between the British 
and American chars, and milted from another of the same breed ; only six hatched, 
and these died prior to the period for turning the young into the rearing ponds. 

December 6, 1884, 600 eges, each about 0°15 of an inch in diameter, were 
obtained from a hybrid between the British and American chars, and milted by 
one oi the same race. Only about fifty hatched on February 23, and of these a 
single one survived to be turned into a rearing pond. 

These hybrids were likewise crossed with the original parent stock. November 
12, 1884, 1,350 eees of a Lochleven trout were milted from a hybrid offspring 
from the Lochleven trout, crossed by the male American char. About twelve of 
the eggs ‘eyed,’ but only three of these embryos arrived ata full size, but even 
they failed in hatching out, dying in their shells. 

November 12, 1884, 4,500 eges taken from two Lochleven trout were milted 
from a hybrid offspring from the British and American chars. 1,292 eggs were 
picked out dead from the hatching trays, 1,568 were unimpregnated, only a little 
more than one-third hatched, and among these were many deformities and a few 
dropsies. A great mortality occurred among these young fish,and only 320 lived 
to be turned into the rearing pond. 

It would appear from the foregoing that the following conclusions may be more 
or less drawn :— : 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1063 


1. Salmon and trout, trout and char, and different species of char, may inter- 
preed and give rise to fertile hybrids. 

2. Hybrids raised from Lochleven trout eggs fertilised by salmon milt breed in 
their fourth year, similar to young femaie salmon kept under the same conditions. 

3. The anadromous instinct is not lost in these trout and salmon hybrids. 

4, Judging from the period of breeding in the foregoing hybrids, the male 
element is prepotent. 

5. In hybrids raised from Lochleven trout eggs fertilised by the milt of the 
American char, the male element would appear to be prepotent, if we judge 
simply by the colour of the offspring. 

6. In hybrids raised from American char eggs fertilised by the milt of the 
Lochleyen trout, the female element would appear to be prepotent, if we judge 
simply by the colour of the offspring. 

7. In hybrids raised from American char eggs fertilised by the milt of the - 
British char, the male element would appear to be prepotent, if we judge simply by 
the colour of the offspring. 

8. In all instances of hybridisation between different species, as between 
salmon and trout, or trout and char, numerous instances of malformation and 
great mortality occur among the offspring, but much less when two forms of char 
are intercrossed. 

9. In intercrossing hybrids both the eggs and milt were found to be fertile, but 
the malformations and mortality very great. The parents, however, at Howietoun 
are not yet of sufficient age to admit any safe deductions on this head. 

10. The age of the parent exercises great influence on the vitality of the 
offspring, for, when very young, we may expect a large percentage of malforma- 
tions, as well as dropsy and other diseases, in the offspring. 


3. On the Identification of the British Mosses by their Distinctive Characters. 
By Mrs. Farquuarson, Ff. RIS. 


Since the appearance of Dr. Braithwaite’s ‘ British Moss Flora,’ no advanced 
student of mosses can complain of the want of an adequate manual in the British 
language, yet no one who has commenced the study of this order of the Cryptogamia 
can have failed to experience some difficulty in the earlier stages of his work. 
Without wishing to depreciate the several valuable works on the subject, I have 
noticed the absence of any work which deals with the distinctive characters of 
mosses, apart from those of a general nature. I feel sure the want is much felt 
by young students, who find it difficult to classify mosses especially. The plan 
which I have found useful is to separate the essential differing characters of each 
genus in this manner :— 

Andreea.—tThe capsule splitting into valves, but adhering at its apex. 

This character alone isolates this genus from all others. It is also a help to 
have a plate or drawing near the description of each genus. 

The species in like manner. I have found it most desirable and useful to ascer- 
tain one (if not more than one) distinctive character, which can be readily carried 
in the mind’s eye, whereby a species can be recognised from its fellow in the same 
genus. 


4 On the Flora cf Caithness. By James F, Grant. 


At present there exists no published flora of Caithness, beyond the plant-list 
in ‘ Topographical Botany,’ and the various lists printed in the different reports of 
the Botanical Exchange Club and of the Botanical Record Club. The late 
Robert Dick, of Thurso, made an exhaustive examination of the flora of Caithness ; 
but he left no MS. notes, and his herbarium contains few Caithness specimens ; and 
such as there are seldom have any locality affixed. Owing to the absence of woods 
and forests, Caithness is singularly deficient in many of the more common British 
wild plants; and, as the county is generally low-lying, there is a paucity of alpine 


1064 REPORT—1885. 


forms, such as do occur frequently growing on the sea cliffs, e.g., Sausswrea 
alpina (D.C.). The most characteristic plant of the Caithness cliff-pastures is 
Primula Scotica (Hook.), which occurs very abundantly all along the east and 
north coast of the county. It flowers three times a year, and is generally 
found in conjunction with Scilla verna (Huds.), and occasionally with Oxytropis 
Hallert (Bunge). Of the flora of the moist, sandy ‘links,’ or downs, Juncus 
Balticus (Willd.), Carex incurva (Lightf.), Carex pauciflora (Lightf.), Blysmus 
rufus (Link), and Viola Curtisii (Forster), var., are typical representatives. 
Carex aquatilis (Wahl.) var. Watsonii is common to nearly all the streams of the 
county. A Carex new to Britain, viz., Carex salina (Wahl.) var. Kattegatensis 
(Fries)—the Norwegian ‘saltvands star’—was discovered last year near the 
mouth of the Wick River. It is somewhat like C. paludosa (Good.) in appearance, 
with long, aristate, and dark purple-coloured glumes, and is a native of Iceland, 
Lapland, and Scandinavia. Critical genera, such as Salix and Hieraciwm, are well 
represented in Caithness, but there are few Rose. The nature of the surface is 
not favourable to the growth of aquatic plants. Nuphar pumilum (Sm.) and several 
Potamogetons and Chars may be got on some of the lochs, There has this year 
been made out in Caithness a new British grass, Calamagrostis strigosa (Hartm.) 
—the Scandinavian ‘ stivhaaret ror’—which is somewhat like C. stricta (Nutt). It 
grows in marshy ground near Castletown. Hierochloa borealis (R. and §.), dis- 
covered by Dick, has almost disappeared from Caithness for the last twenty years, 
but this year it has been observed on the Thurso River many miles up. The 
northern and exposed position of Caithness causes slight differences of form and 
structure in many plants, compared with more southern forms, 


5. On Chinese Insect White Wax. By A. Hoste. 


The author began with a reference to the European and Chinese writers who 
mention Chinese insect white wax. He goes on to say that, although the province 
of Ssu-chuan, in Western China, where he has been stationed for the last three 
years, is the chief wax-insect and wax-producing country in the empire, insects 
and wax are found in other provinces. Mr. Hosie was called upon by the Foreign 
Office to collect for Sir Joseph Hooker specimens connected with, and all possible 
information on, the subject of this industry, and he states that the present paper is 
a revision, with additions, of a report already published in a Parliamentary paper 
in February last. He describes the insect-producing country, the tree on which 
the insects are propagated, the insects themselves, and their transit from the valley 
of Chien-chang, their breeding-ground, in the west of Ssu-chuan, across the moun- 
tains to Chia-ting Fu, the habitat of the wax tree. This tree is then described, and 
details are given of the treatment of the insects, their suspension on the trees, the 
depositing of the wax, and of a parasite on the insects. The method of removing 
the wax from the branches of the tree and of preparing it for market is then ex- 
plained. The author then detailed the result of an examination of the insects 
after the wax has been fully deposited, finally passing to the annual quantity of 
insect white wax produced, its value and uses. 


6. On the Existence of Cephalopoda in the Deep Sea. By W. EH. Hoyts. . 


Evidence of the existence of Cephalopoda in the deep sea has hitherto been 
wanting, but a certain amount seems to be now forthcoming in the case of the 
genera Cirroteuthis, Bathyteuthis and Mastigoteuthis. 

None of these forms (except one species of Czrroteuthis from the arctic seas) 
were known prior to the days of deep sea investigation, nor have any of them been 
taken by a surface net, nor by any other means than a dredge or trawl which had 
been down into deep water. 

The genus Bathyteuthis seems to present structural peculiarities fitting it for an 
abyssal existence, in certain of which it agrees with Mastiyoteuthis, although they 
differ markedly in other respects. . 


—/ 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1065 


7. On the Echinoderm Fauna of the Island of Ceylon. 
By Professor F. Jerrrey Bert, M.A., Sec.h.M.S. 


The author gives an account of the remarkable advance in our knowledge of the 
Echinoderm fauna of the island of Ceylon. ‘Till 1882 some four species were 
known from the island; forty-five are now known, and some six Holothurians 
remain to be investigated. These advances are due partly to the collection of Pro- 
fessor Haeckel, but chiefly to the industry and activity of Dr. W. C. Ondaatje. 


MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14. 
The following Report and Papers were read :— 


1. Report on the Aid given by the Dominion Government and the Govern- 
ment of the United States to the encouragement of Fisheries, and to the 
investigation of the various forms of Marine Life on the coasts and rivers 
of North America.—See Reports, p. 479. 


2. On the Size of the Brain in Extinct Animals. 
By Professor O. C. Marsu. 


The main points were the following :— 

1. All Tertiary mammals had small brains. 

2. There was a gradual increase in the size of the brain during this period. 

‘3. This increase was confined mainly to the cerebral hemispheres, or higher 
portion of the brain. 

4, In some groups, the conyolutions of the brain have gradually become more 
complex. 

_ 5. In some, the cerebellum and the olfactory lobes have even diminished in 

size. 

6. There is now evidence that the same general law of brain growth holds 
good for birds and reptiles trom the Jurassic period to the present time. 

To these may be added the following :— 

7. The brain of an animal belonging to a vigorous race fitted for a long 
survival is larger than the average brain of that period in the same group. 

8. The brain of a mammal of a declining race is smaller than the average brain 
of its contemporaries of the same group. 

This question is more fully discussed in the author's monograph on the 
‘ Dinocerata,’ just published by the United States Geological Survey. 


3. On the Systematic Position of the Chameleon, and its Affinities with the 
Dinosauria. By Professor D’Arcy W. THompson. 


4. On the Hind Limb of Ichthyosaurus, and on the Morphology of Vertebrate 
Appendages. By Professor D’Arcy W. THompson. 


A skeleton ascribed to Ichthyosaurus platyodon in the Anatomical Museum of 
Edinburgh University exhibits certain remarkable peculiarities in the hind-limb, 
which perhaps render it the most primitive limb known in vertebrates above 
fishes. 

In the first place, the femur has articulated with it three bones, identifiable as 
tibia, intermedium, and fibula, as in Marsh’s Sauranodon, and as in the limb 


1066 REPORT—1885. 


figured as Pliosaurus portlandicus by Owen (‘ Fossil Reptiles’), but ascribed to 
Plesiosaurus Manseli by Hulke (Q. J. G. 8. 1883, Suppl. p. 52). This therefore is 
an additional proof that the primary location of the intermedium is in the 
‘ propodial’ segment of the limb. 

The limb of Sauranodon contains in its next segment four bones, and so probably, 
to judge from its articular surfaces, did that of Phosaurus. That is to say, granted 
that the bones already mentioned are rightly identified, we have in the proximal 
segment of the tarsus a tibiale, a fibulare, and two centralia. In the Edinburgh 
Ichthyosaurus we have one centrale only ; and, moreover, we have.again in the next 
succeeding segment t/ee bones only, whereas we have five in the corresponding 
region of Marsh’s Sawranodon. So far then we haye three longitudinal series of 
bones, and these three rows continue distinct to the distal extremity of the limb. 
Two other longitudinal series of bones exist: one, a somewhat irregular series of 
rounded ossicles, is applied to the tibial side of the limb, commencing immediately 
distal to the tarsus, but not directly articulated with it; the other, commencing at 
the same level, is inserted between the median and external or fibular row. If 
we may consider the ground-plan of the limb apart from these last two series, we 
have here simply three longitudinal series of bones, symmetrically articulated with 
the extremity of a basal segment. While the limb of Sauranodon seemed to be 
a weighty argument in support of Gegenbaur’s theory of the primitively double 
nature of the centrale, the present example seems to me a still more potent argu- 
ment against it; for the common type of Ichthyosaurian limb is undoubtedly 
intermediate between that of the present example and the typical cheiropterygium 
of the higher vertebrates; and we pass from our present case to the typical 
Ichthyosaurus by transverse cleavage of the centrale, and the apportionment of its 
outer moiety to the interstitial digit. 

It is equally easy to pass downwards from this limb to the fin of fishes. 
Assuming the femur to represent the basipterygium, we have here three basalia, 
which by elongation and segmentation may be supposed to have given rise to the 
distal portion of the fin. And the limb has a great though not genetic resemblance 
to that of Polypterus, where the basalia are reduced to four, or as in one specimen 
which I have dissected, actually to three. It need hardly be said that this view 
is wholly incompatible with Gegenbaur’s theories; and indeed Wiedersheim has 
confessed that if the limb of Sauranodon be confirmed, it must lead to the 
complete recasting of our idea of the vertebrate limb. But it remains to be seen 
whether the Dipnoan fin is explicable on this hypothesis. In the fin of Protopterus 
the segment articulating with the pelvis, is, I take it, a true basipterygium. To 
it I find attached two small nodules of cartilage, between which is the main axis 
of the fin: here we seem to have three basalia, one only of which is elongated or 
segmented, as are all in our Ichthyosaurus. While in Ceratodus we are reduced 
to supposing that this one segmented ray has branched laterally, to give breadth 
and strength to the fin. 


5. On the Origin of the Fishes of the Sea of Galilee. 
By Professor Epwarp Hout, DL.D., F.R.S. 


When preparing a memoir for the Palestine Exploration Society on the physical 
history of Arabia Petreea and Palestine I was confronted with two biological 
problems: one, on the origin of the fauna of the Sea of Galilee (or Lake of 
Tiberias) ; the other, on the cause of the extreme dissimilarity between the faunas 
of the Red Sea and Mediterranean, notwithstanding the ascertained fact that the 
seas themselves have been physically connected within very recent times. With 
the former problem I propose here to deal as far as the fishes are concerned ; with the 
latter I shall deal presently. 

The abundance of the fishes which inhabit the waters of the Sea of Galilee is 
known both from sacred and secular history, and has been testified to by several 
recent observers. The characters and habits of these fishes have also been ably dis- 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1067 


cussed and illustrated, especially by Canon Tristram’ and Professor L. Lortet,? 
from which it has been determined that nearly one-half of the species are peculiar 
to the lake and its tributaries; while of the rest only one—namely, Blenniws lupulus— 
belongs to the ordinary Mediterranean fauna; two others—namely, Chromis Niloticus 
and Clarias macracanthus—are found in the Nile; seven other species occur in the 
rivers of South-western Asia; and ten more are found in other parts of Syria. 
Tristram considers that this assemblage points to a close affinity of the fauna of the 
Jordanic basin with that of the rivers of Tropical Africa (8thiopian) ; but what 
most strikes the observer is perhaps the number of species special to Jordanic waters, 
sixteen out of a total of thirty-six species being peculiar. This view seems to be 
borne out also by an analysis of the molluscous forms, which are for the most part 
also peculiar, for no less than sixteen species of Unio are special to Jordanic waters.* 
Assuming that the forms which are common to Jordanic and other waters have 
been distributed in a manner similar to that by which we have to account for the 
distribution of lacustrine forms in other parts of the world, we have yet to account 
for the presence of the forms which are special and peculiar. 

This leads to a consideration of the manner in which the Jordanic basin was first 
formed and afterwards modified; and without entering here into this wide question, 
which I have endeavoured to deal with in the memoir above referred to, I may be 
allowed to summarise my conclusions somewhat as follows :— 

In the first place, it must be recollected that as the whole region on both sides 
of the Jordanic valley was originally overspread by strata of the Eocene period 
(known as the Nummulitic Limestone), this region formed the floor of the ocean 
down to the close of the Eocene period ; the only possible lands in the district may 
have been those of the crystalline rocks of the Sinaitic group of mountains. 

The Geological period which succeeded, that of the Miocene, was that in which 
land first appeared in the Palestine area. The bed of the sea was locally elevated 
into dry land, but at the same time most of the leading physical features by which 
that land is now diversified were traced out and finally determined. Chief 
amongst these was the line of the great Jordan-Arabah depression—marked out 
by a line of fault or displacement of the strata, ranging from the slopes of the 
Lebanon on the north to the Gulf of Akabah on the south. It seems to me probable 
that as the land on either side of this depression was being elevated, the displace- 
ment of the strata on either side of the great fault was also proceeding, and the 
floor of the sea was subsiding along the line of the Jordan valley. An inland lake 
of considerable extent was thus formed, whose waters were first derived from those 
of the ocean itself,in which were enclosed the fishes and mollusks and other forms 
which inhabited these waters themselves. There are good grounds for believing 
that once the lake was enclosed and shut off from the outer sea by a barrier of land, 
it was never again physically connected with the outer sea. ‘he saddle of the 
Arabah valley, rising some 600 feet above the highest limit to which the waters of 
the old Jordanic lake ever ascended, would have proved an effectual barrier towards 
the south. Towards the west the barrier would have been much more elevated. 
Hence the living forms in the waters of the inland salt lake became isolated from 
those of the ocean, and had either to adapt themselves to their new conditions or 
to die out. 

We may suppose that the first to disappear would be the corals, crinoids, and 
starfishes. On the other hand, fishes, mollusks, and crustaceans, having greater 
powers of adaptation, would in many cases survive. Meanwhile the law of 
‘descent with modification ’ would now come into operation, and we may suppose 
that throughout the Miocene and Pliocene periods the process of modification in 
form, colour, and habit gradually proceeded. ‘The fittest forms would survive, and 


1 «Fauna and Flora of Palestine,’ preface, p. xii, Wem. Palestine Survey (1884). 
2 Poissons et Reptiles du Lac de Tibériade, Archives du Musée d Histoire 
Vatwrelle de Lyon, tome iii. (1883). 
8 Tristram, ibid. p. 178. The mollusks have been also recently described by M. 
A. Locard, Malacologie du Lac de Tibériade (1883). 
4 See Mount Seir, Sinai, and Western Palestine, pp. 95 and 99, &e. 


1068 REPORT—1885. 


differentiation between those of the outer and inner seas, resulting, as we have seen, 
in almost an entire specific change, was effected. 

The above view seems in accordance with recent observations regarding the 
adaptability of many marine forms to new lacustrine conditions, provided the pro- 
cess of change is sufficiently gradual. Professor Sollas, whose memoir on ‘ The 
Origin of Fresh-water Faunas ’? is very suggestive, arrives at the conclusion that, as 
the conversion of comparatively shallow continental seas into fresh-water lakes has 
taken place on a large scale several times in the history of the earth, this has been 
accompanied by the transformation of some of the marine into fresh-water forms. 
The Jordan valley lake, originally salt, has shrunk back into two or three lakes 
connected by a river. The Dead Sea alone remains salt and lifeless. The waters 
of the Sea of Galilee are fresh, and teem with life. In reply to my inquiry 
whether the above views would harmonise with his own, Professor Sollas writes : 
‘I have always regarded the curious fishes of the Sea of Galilee as evidence of a 
previous marine communication, but it never occurred to me to speculate as to the 
age of that connection. If this sea (that of Galilee) were stocked from the Eocene 
ocean it would fit in very well with the history, as I believe it, of other fresh-water 
faunas.’ It is gratifying to me to have the concurrence on this point of so able an 
authority. 1 conclude, therefore, that the special forms of fishes now inhabiting the 
Sea of Galilee are the descendants of those which lived in the Eocene ocean. 


6. On the Cause of the Rutreme Dissimilarity of the Faunas of the Red Sea 
and Mediterranean. By Professor Epwarp Hutt, LL.D., F.RB.S. 


The author pointed out that the faunas of these seas haye descended from the 
forms which lived in the Eocene Ocean. In the succeeding Miocene epoch, when 
the lands rose from the waters, the Mediterranean area was cut off from that of the 
Red Sea, and as different conditions would be thus brought about, especially in the 
ease of temperature, the faunas would develop independently in both seas. This 
process of development and differentiation went on throughout the Miocene 
period and down into the Pliocene, when the lands were again submerged to a 
depth of 220 to 250 feet, and a connection of the two seas was re-established. 
But the depth of water over the connecting strait not being greater at its minimum 
than about 200 feet, although allowing a commingling of the littoral and shaliow 
water forms, would have been insufficient to bring about a general community of 
species, especially those inhabiting the deeper waters on both sides, and when the 
land again rose, and the isthmus was established, the forms which had crossed 
from sea to sea would afterwards die out. From this it has resulted that the 
faunas of the Mediterranean and Red Seas are almost entirely dissimilar, only 
18 species, according to Professor Issel, being common. It would be an interesting 
inquiry, which of these faunas more resembles the original Eocene stock. 


7. On the Morphology of the Human Arterial System. 
By Professor A. MacAuister, F.R.S. 


8. On the Viscera of Gymnotus electricus. 
By Professor CLetanp, M.D., F-.R.S. 


Independent of its electric organs, this fish has a number of remarkable internal 
peculiarities. The curious spongy protuberances of the mucous membrane of the 
buccal cavity are well known to zoologists. The two swimming bladders are re- 
markable for their relation to the kidneys; the anterior swimming bladder being a 
small structure between their anterior extremities, and the larger posterior swim- 
ming bladder being situated altogether behind their united hinder ends, while the 
duct of the latter ascends by the left side of the renal outlet, to be joined by the 


) Scientifie Trans. Royal Dublin Society, vol. iii. (ser. I1.). 


| ee 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1069 


duct of the other bladder before entering the gullet. The pylorus also is remark- 
ably contracted. But the most striking and altogether curious arrangements are 
seen on the ventral wall of the abdomen. The intestine passes forward the whole 
length of the abdominal cavity to the vent, and on its under side is a long renal 
duct as wide as itself, and opening immediately behind the vent; while, opening 
into this duct close to its outlet, are the ducts of the two ovaries, which lie one 
on each side, their morphologically anterior extremities placed posteriorly, as if in 
process of development these organs had been pulled round from their proper sub- 
vertebral position until completely inverted. 


9. On the Spiracle of Fishes in its relation to the Head, as developed 
in the Higher Vertebrates, By Professor CLELAND, M.D., F.B.S. 


A very extraordinary mistake can be shown to be prevalent among embryo- 
logists, to the effect that the spiracle corresponds with the tympanum and external 
auditory meatus in the higher vertebrates. ‘This is not the case. The spiracle is 
pre-oral; the tympanum is post-oral. The apparent sequence of the spiracle with 
the branchial clefts occurs, as Balfour described it, in the embryo of the dog-fish ; 
but for all that, and although it has rudimentary external gills attached to its 
margins in the embryo, it is in front of the mandibular arch and above the maxil- 
lary lobe. Between the middle and lateral frontal processes is the nostril ; between 
the lateral frontal process and the mandible is the space into the upper part of 
which the eyeball projects, and from which the lachrymal duct is developed ; while 
between the first and second visceral lobes is the external ear; and it is highly 
probable that the upper part of the first branchial cleft is homologous with the 
clefts in front of and behind the lateral frontal process. Thus a certain amount of 
homology would exist between the spiracle of fishes and the lachrymal duct. 


10. On the Tail of Myxine glutinosa. By Professor Creanp, M.D., F.R.S. 


The dorsal and anal fins of Myavzne are continuous at the tail. They consist of 
numerous rays, which, when the integument is removed, are seen to be of fibrous 
structure imbedded in a thin membrane. But the inferior rays of the tail differ 
from the superior, in that the hindermost of them are supported by a triangular 
plate of cartilage about half an inch long, lying beneath the chorda dorsalis, and 
continued into about twenty-four longer or shorter processes. In front of them, at 
the anterior inferior angle of the triangle, is a smali bifurcated process, ending in 
two slight dilatations, which support the hindermost pair of mucous glands, The 
a plate is of a variety of cellular cartilage allied to the structure of the 
chorda. 


11. On the Nucleus in the Frog’s Ovum. By Grorce Tun, M.D. 


The paper describes conditions of the nucleus as observed in ova of rana tem- 
poraria, between the stages of division into four segments, and that of the end of 
segmentation when the ovum has assumed a moniliform or mulberry appearance. 
The appearances described were those observed when sections of ova hardened in 
bichromate of potash had been stained by picro-carmine. They refer exclusively 
to changes which carmine-staining shows takes place in certain unformed con- 
stituents of the nucleus. In the paper the nuclear network is left out of con- 
sideration, the methods of preparation not having brought it satisfactorily under 
observation. 

The conditions observed might be classified as follows: Ist. A tablet nucleus,* 
in which the distinctive carmine-staining was found associated with an unformed 
substance which infiltrates the yolk substance in certain parts of the segments. 


1 A literal translation of Téfelchen, the word used by Goethe. It is more appro- 
priate than such terms as ‘ yolk granules,’ ke. 


1070 REPORT—1885. 


That this is a stage of the nucleus is shown not only by the distinctive staining, 
but by the well defined nuclear area, the size of the latter and its relations to 
characteristic accumulations of pigment. In this stage the yolk tablets in the 
nuclear area are of the same size as those of the surrounding yolk substance of 
the segments, 2ndly. A diffuse granular nucleus, in which in the carmine-stained 
nuclear area there are imbedded minute yolk tablets smaller than those in the 
surrounding segment; and also frequently pigment granules. 8rdly. The homo- 
geneous nucleus in which the nuclear substance stains homogeneously in carmine, 
It has distinct boundaries and contains neither yolk tablets nor pigment. 4thly: 
The shrunk nucleus in which a crescent-shaped shrivelled homogeneous substance 
represents the nucleus. The shrunk nucleus may occupy a small part of a hole 
which equals in area the usual size of a homogeneous nucleus. 5thly. Simple 
holes are found which from their size and relations to pigment correspond to the 
position of nuclei. Near these holes one or more tablet nuclei or granular nuclei 
are found in the segment. 

Although the nuclei are generally found round, yet they are frequently found 
in various other shapes in the sections, for example, as narrow strips or as club- 
shaped and crescentic bodies, 

The nucleus is sometimes found homogeneous at one part, and in the condition 
of the tablet or diffused granular nucleus at another, the granular or tablet 
condition being on the periphery of a round, or at the extremity of a fan-shaped 
nucleus. 

The nucleus may be in direct contact with the substance of the segment, or 
may be separated from it by a perinuclear area. The perinuclear area may consist 
of minute breaking down yolk tablets, or may be constituted by a space filled 
with a homogeneous unformed substance, which does not stain in carmine, and 
which contains neither yolk tablets nor pigment. 

Division of the Nucleus—An elongated nucleus may be found divided trans- 
versely by a narrow line which is either unpigmented or contains pigment. This 
line may only partially extend through the nucleus. More frequently two nuclear 
areas are found connected by traces of carmine-stained nuclear substance sprinkled 
amongst the yolk tablets of the segment. Sometimes two tablets or granular 
nuclei, removed to a considerable distance from each other, are found linked by 
this carmine-stained substance. Frequently two such nuclear areas are found in 
an undivided segment without any such connecting link. Less frequently, two 
homogeneous nuclei are found close together in a space which is free from yolk 
substance or pigment; more than two newly formed nuclei may be found in a 
segment, three and even four being occasionally found. The nuclei may be com- 
pletely divided and removed from each other before there is any trace of division 
of the segment. 

Pigment.—There is a well-defined relation between accumulations of pigment 
and division of the nucleus. Pigment is found mixed with minute tablets in the 
granular nucleus. It may penetrate into the interior of a tablet nucleus in a fine 
line. In the other stages it is not found within the nucleus, but is found external 
to it, either in immediate apposition or separated from it by a perinuclear area. 
Pigment tracks may be traced directly from the periphery of the ovum to nuclei. 

Pigment in relation to the Segments.—Pigment is found either equally diffused 
or collected in masses, or forming distinct rings, or around holes within the seg- 
ments. Between the segments it may be found either as a single slender dividing 
line, or as a line which is split at intervals by a space, or it may traverse the 
seements in various directions in lines. ; 

If, as may be taken for granted, the pigment itself is passive in the assumption 
of these forms, then its distribution indicates currents within the segment which 
have a special relation to the nucleus. These currents it is thus shown penetrate 
from the periphery to the nuclei, and in the tablet and granular stages they 
penetrate the substance of the nucleus. The accumulation of pigment around and 
outside the perinuclear area, and its disappearance from the nucleus, indicates a 
centrifugal current. There are thus in the segments both centripetal and centri- 
fugal currents of which the nucleus is a centre. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1071 


The pigment has no causal relation in the nuclear changes, as they are found 
(more especially in the lower pole), in the absence of pigment. 

Thus although the author has been unable to trace the detailed changes of 
karyokinesis in the diyision of the nuclei in the frog’s ovum, he has observed 
appearances associated with a substance which stains in carmine, which to some 
extent harmonise with it: From a nucleus which has arrived at a certain stage a 
substance escapes into the surrounding part of the segments, and there becomes 
a centre of an area in which the yolk tablets are dissolved and a new nucleus 
forms, this nucleus passing through the various stages above described. The 
newly formed nuclei have the power of dissolving the yolk tablets, of assimilating 
the substance of the segment, of becoming the centres of currents which must 
have an influence on its nutrition, and which probably are intimately connected 
with the subsequent division of the segment that succeeds the development of the 
new nuclei. Nuclei observed in ova which were divided into four segments, and 
in those which after eighteen to twenty-four hours had developed into the monili- 
form or mulberry stage, show that the stages of development are the same in both 
instances. 


12. On the Structure and Arrangements of the St. Andrews Marine 
Laboratory. By Professor McIntoss, M.D., DL.D., F.R.S. 


The marine laboratory at St. Andrews was formerly a temporary wooden fever- 
hospital, 60 feet in length, but as it was only used for a few months some years ago, 
it was readily obtained for its present purpose. The accommodation consists of a 
tank-room, two work-rooms, a larger and smaller, an attendant’s room, and engine 
house. Sea-water is obtained from the sea, which comes within a few yards of the 
laboratory, by means of a gas-engine, vulcanite pump, and pipes. The sea-water is 
first pumped into a granolithic underground tank, then to a high-level cistern, from 
which it runs by gravitation through the tanks. The latter are at different levels, 
and various supplementary vessels are easily added as required by resting them 
over the tanks and leading the sea-water into them by india-rubber tubes. The 
situation of the laboratory, which is on a narrow tongue of sand between the 
harbour and the sea, is most favourable, since the fishing-boats supply many 
interesting specimens on the one hand, and the beach is rich in marine life, both 
amongst the rocks and in the sand. 


13. Remarks on the work at the St. Andrews Marine Laboratory during 
nine months. By Professor McIntosu, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 


Amongst mammals several porpoises were examined, one a full-grown female 
5 feet 2 inches long, recently delivered and full of milk. The rich yellow milk 
was examined by my colleague, Professor Purdie, who found in 100 parts by 
weight—water, 41:11; fat, 45°80; caseine, 11:19; milk sugar, 1-33 (?); mineral 
salts, 0:57. 

The detailed study of the development of many of the food fishes has been 
carried out by Mr. Prince. These include the cod, haddock, whiting, gurnard, 
common dab, and common flounder. The ova and development of other fishes 
were likewise examined, ey., rockling, lump-sucker, Cottus scorpius, Montagu’s 
sucker, 15-spined stickle-back, herring, bib, ling, eel, skulpin, gunnel (Yarrell’s 
blenny), wolf-fish, viviparous blenny, and glutinous hag. The young of many 
fishes from the rocks were kept under observation, and the food and parasites of 
others both in their young and adult condition received due attention. 

The reproductive organs and development of various annelids, starfishes, 
ascidians (including Pelonata corrugata), crustaceans, and mollusks (including the 
common mussel of Mr, J. Wilson), were studied more or lesscompletely. Artificial 
fecundation had to be resorted to in the case of the common mussel by Mr. 
Wilson. 


1 Chemical News, Oct. 1885. 


1072 REPORT—1885. 


14. On the Chemical Composition of the Milk of the Porpoise. 
By Professor Purpir, Ph.D., B.Sc. 


Professor McIntosh haying kindly placed at my disposal a small specimen of 
milk which he extracted from the mamma of a porpoise, I have made an analysis of 


it, the results of which are given below :— 
In 100 parts 
by weight 


Water . hi ; 5 5 ; 5 i BG he 
Fat , . ; : : 4 : . 45-80 
Albuminoids 4 ; . . , Sepedtaed ta IGS) 
Mite Suge ey meet yidter bine Koltiiset ate toy aR 
Mineral Salts : é i : A : 0-57 


The milk was of a yellow colour and thick consistency ; its specific gravity was 
almost identical with that of water. 

The most remarkable point about the chemical composition of the milk as com- 
pared with that of other mammals, is the very high percentage of fat which it 
contains, a constituent which the habit of life of the cetacean no doubt requires in 
larger proportion. The quantity of material at my disposal being very small, the 
results of the analysis cannot pretend to great accuracy, and it must be noted that 
though the analysis represents the milk as containing a small quantity of sugar, the 
presence of that substance in it is doubtful. Having no more material at my dis- 
posal, I was unable to confirm my observation. 


15. On certain processes formed by Cerapus on Tubularia indivisa. 
By Professor McInrosu, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.} 


The members of the domicolous subdivision of the amphipodous crustaceans 
are characterised by the very general habit of forming tubes of various kinds, 
which constitute dwellings as well as nests for the young. Others, again, excavate 
tunnels in tough clay or mud, like Corophium. The subject of the present remarks, 
which is apparently closely allied to Cerapus difformis, and very prettily barred 
with red on the antenne, constructs groups of flexible tubes, which vary in 
diameter according to the size of the occupant, on stems of Tubularia indivisa, very 
much as Stimpson describes in his Cerapus rubricornis on the shores of Grand 
Manan. Instead of being formed, however, as Stimpson says, of ‘ fine mud and 
some animal cement,’ those of the British species have, in addition, grains of sand, 
bristles, and spines of annelids, hairs of sea-mice, and many fine horny fibres 
apparently derived from the byssi of horse-mussels. 

On the same stems of 7'ubularia are certain remarkable processes which project 
from the ccencecium like branches. These filamentous structures are of a dull 
greyish hue (that of the mud), and are very slightly tapered distally. The basal 
region, however, is distinctly larger, especially where fixed to the zoophyte. Their 
length varies from three to four inches, and all seem to be incomplete. They are 
smoothly rounded, and resemble the fine muddy tubes secreted by certain annelids ; 
but they are quite solid, and composed of the same constituents as the tubes above- 
mentioned, though perhaps the foreign bodies such as bristles and spines are more 
conspicuous. ‘These, moreover, are neatly arranged with their long axes parallel 
to that of the process, and especially abound towards the base of the filament, 
which thus is more rigid and tougher than the distal region, into the composition 
of which mud, sand, and the secretion chiefly enter. In consequence of this 
structure, the distal region slightly curves downward in the ordinary position in 
the water, while the proximal stands stiffly outward. These processes are generally 
fixed to the main stem of the Tubularia, though occasionally they spring from the 


} This and the three following published with figures in the Ann. Nat. Hist. 
for December, 1885. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1073 


tip of a young example attached to the former, or stretch from the extremity of a 
parasitic sertularian. 

These filamentous processes are usually at some distance from the nests or tubes 
of the crustaceans which climb actively on them. Whether they give them a 
larger area for the capture of prey in comparative security, or afford a more 
extensive surface for the temporary arrest of minute larval or other forms on which 
they feed, isunknown. It is probable, however, that processes so elaborate subserve 
some useful purpose to the species, and are not the result of mere purposeless 
formation. 


16. On a new British Stawrocephalus. 
By Professor McInrosu, M.D., F.R.S. 


This form was first noticed in a small aquarium belonging to Mr. Sibert 
Saunders, at Whitstable, in 1884, and he kindly forwarded living specimens to the 
St. Andrews Marine Laboratory for examination. It is about 8 or 9 mm. in length 
by 1 mm. in breadth, including the bristles. The number of segments varies on 
each side of 30, exclusive of those without bristles. It is characterised by a 
horseshoe-shaped head furnished with a pair of short dorsal tentacles of two 
segments, and a similar pair on the ventral surface. Four eyes occur dorsally, one 
on each side behind the dorsal tentacle, and a smaller pair just in front of the 
nuchal fold. Each foot has dorsally a short cirrus, and ventrally a somewhat 
larger one, besides a long process of the setigerous region. Dorsally are long simple 
bristles, inferiorly bristles with an articulated terminal piece. The jaws consist 
superiorly of a pair of curved maxillz and about six small dental plates on each side. 
The anterior edge of these in ordinary views from above is minutely denticulated. 
The mandibles present a crown and anterior projection. This form comes nearest 
the Staurocephalus minimus of Langerhans! from Madeira. 


17. On certain remarkable Structures resembling Ova from Deep Water. 
' By Professor McIntosu, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 


When carrying out the work for Her Majesty’s Trawling Commission, an old 
willow-basket came up in the net on August 15, 1884, fifteen miles S.E. of the 
island of May. This, besides other interesting marine forms, had attached to it 
certain peculiar dull, yellowish structures resembling ova, about an eighth of an 
inch in diameter. They adhered to each other in the form of a single layer along 
the bark of one of the willows. They were nearly circular, with a short, slightly 
curved distal appendage. The capsule was yielding, but tolerably tough, and the 
contents consisted of a soft and cohesive gelatinous substance of a palecolour, The 
minute structure was explained. No change occurred, though kept for a consider- 
able time in the marine laboratory, until decomposition set in. Their relation- 
ships are at present unknown. 


18. On the Ova of Callionymus lyra, L. (the Skulpin), 
By Professor McInrosu, M.D., LL.D., F.RAS, 


So little was known about the breeding of this fish that the most recent work 
on British fishes, viz., that of Dr. Day, gives notlfing worthy of note. At St. 
Andrews it was found that the ovaries were not sufficiently advanced for reliable 
observation in regard to the condition of the eggs till the middle of June, but that 
from this date till about the middle of August several favourable examples 
occurred. The ovaries in a well-developed female form a somewhat cordate mass, 
bifid in front but connate posteriorly, and, like the spermaries, covered with a 
silvery coating of the peritoneal lining. The ova are very minute (:028 to ‘03 of an 
inch in diameter) and translucent, and are truly pelagic. In appearance they are 
characteristic. ach has a very fine hyaline zona radiata, furnished externally 


1 Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool., BA, XL. p. 257. 
1885. 32% 


1074 ' REPORT—1885. 


‘with a series of hexagonal reticulations like those of the ruminant honeycomb 
stomach. When the edge of the ovum is examined, the septa bounding the reticu- 
lations stand out prominently, and in sections made by Mr. Prince these would 
‘appear to be modifications of the outer surface of the zona radiata. Insome views 
‘the free edges of these reticulations are minutely crenate. The yolk, as in many 
-other pelagic ova, is transparent. 

So far as observed, a considerable number of ova—proportionately to the size 
-of the ovaries—seem to arrive at maturity simultaneously. 

This ground-loving fish has therefore truly pelagic eggs; but, unfortunately, 
‘this season the sexes were not simultaneously procured in a condition to carry out 
the development. 


19. On the Zoocytium or Gelatinous Matrix of Ophrydium versatile. 
By Professor ALLEN Harker, F.L.S. 


Unusual opportunities of obtaining the colonies of Ophrydium versatile in very 
large quantities during the past summer have led to my devoting some time to the 
‘study of the gelatinous matrix, in or upon which the infusorium is found. I have 
got as much as a quart measure full of the colonies in a few minutes in our canal. 
The apparently spheroidal mass is not solid, but forms an irregular hollow spheroid, 
‘and in or upon the outer surface the individual Ophrydia are situated at regular 
distances from each other. The colony is at first found attached to the submerged 
stems of Myriophyllum and Anacharis, at as much as two or three feet below the 
surface, the hollow usually containing a large bubble of gas. After a while the 
‘colony detaches itself and rises to the surface, and floats about for somedays. The 
infusoria then leave the zoocytium, which continues to float about, attracting a 
miscellaneous collection of diatoms and other alge, infusoria, worms, and arthro- 
‘podous larvee, becoming a perfect menagerie of living beings. 

In perfectly fresh slices of the colony, under a power of 300 diameters and up- 
wards, a large number of unbranched threads, regularly divided by septa, are in- 
variably to be found, and on one occasion I found one of these threads in active 
motion, suggesting a filamentous alga allied to oscillatoria. The dried gelatinous 
‘substance has by many botanists been described as a plant, and Suhr described it 
as Coccochloris pila; but Rabenhorst excludes it, and adds, ‘ Specimina omnia que 
vidi in algis meis Europeeis sic et duo in herbario Suhriano pertinent ad Ophry- 
dium versatile’ (animalculum! ). 

Wrzesniowski, in his paper on Ophrydiwm in the ‘ Zeitschrift fiir Wissenschaftl. 
Zoologie,’ 1877, figures and describes the long dichotomously branching thread- 
like pedicle of the animals, and this is recognisable in suitably mounted slices under 
¢ Obj., but, so far as has been observed, the threads I describe do not appear to be 
similar. It is just possible they may be accidental visitors in the colony, though 
they very closely resemble specimens of Aphanothece stagnalis which I have exa- 
mined, this being an Alga with a dense gelatinous exudation. 

The gelatinous mass associated with Ophrydiwm is of a very obstinate character, 
and resists the action of almost any reagents but strong sulphuric acid. 

After boiling in distilled water for half an hour the gelatinous character is 
almost unaltered, and only after prolonged boiling in weak potassium hydroxide 
‘could the solution of the jelly be obtained. After some hours’ boiling, and sub- 
sequent treatment with weak acetic acid to get rid of the carbonate of lime (whole 
minute crystals are distributed throughout the mass), the residue, a flocculent 
mass, is found to consist entirely of the threads before mentioned. These do not 
‘change colour on the addition of strong nitric acid; nor, again, do they give satis- 
factorily the celluloid reaction with iodine and sulphuric acid. Their nature re- 
mains an open question. The author adds some further notes on the animal. 
When light is allowed to fall only on a part of the colony, all the animals in a 
very short time congregate to that part of the zoocytium, and on the whole being 
freely exposed again to light they partially spread themselves over the surface, 
though a majority leave the matrix altogether. In tanks they showed no dis- 
position to form new colonies as described by Savile Kent, but collected in masses 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1075 


at the bottom. A sufficient quantity was thus obtained to extract the colouring 
matter by alcohol in suitable quantities for examination, the result being the 
separation out of chlorophyll with smaller quantities of xanthophyll, as the author 
has done in the case of Euglena. 


SuprpLpMenTARY Mertinc.—PHYSIOLOGY. 


1. On the Action of Atropine on the Secretion of the Kidney ; its Evidence 
as to the Mechanism of the Secretion. By J. McGrecor-Rosertson, 
M.A., M.B. 


The author stated that he employed atropine because of an idea that its action 
might aid in distinguishing between different parts of the process of secretion 
in the kidney. 

Assuming the filtration theory regarding the nature of the process in the 
glomerular tufts, and having regard to the elaborate researches of Wilibald 
Schmidt of Voigtland on filtration, the author did not see any good reason for 
asserting that albumen did not filter through the glomerular walls into the tubules. 
If albumen was filtered through, what became of it, was the question. It was a 
reasonable view that it might be reabsorbed by the renal epithelium. In connection 
with this view, the author was struck with the statement that atropine had no such 
effect on the urinary secretion as it had on the salivary secretion. It was known 
that atropine abolished the salivary secretion by paralysing the salivary cells, and 
that it abolished the secretion of sweat, probably by a similar action, If atropine 
acted at all on the secretion of the kidney, it might be supposed to act in a similar 
way by paralysing the renal cells. If the view that these cells reabsorbed the 
albumen were correct, paralysis would cause the appearance of albumen in the 
urine. It was these considerations that led the author to undertake the experi- 
ments. The experiments had not as yet answered the question regarding albumen. 
‘The results obtained, following the injection of atropine, were :-— 

1. A fall in the production of water, and 

2. A rise in the production of urea. 

At a later stage, when the animal was recovering from the effects of the drug, 
there were :— 

1. A rise in the production of water : 

2. A fall in the production of urea, and there was also a suspicion of albumen, 
but on this last the author did not wish, at the present stage of the inquiry, to lay 
stress, 

The experiments seemed to show clearly that the process by which water was 
separated was different from the process by which urea was separated, since 
invariably the quantity of the former fell when that of the latter rose. 

The author did not wish to commit himself to any theoretical explanation, but 
he pointed out that, accepting Heidenhain’s view regarding the separation of urea 
by the renal cells, the atropine might stimulate the cells, thus causing increased 
separation of urea and increased absorption of water, and that some degree of 
exhaustion following the stimulation would account for the fall in the separation of 
urea and the rise in the quantity of water, less of it being reabsorbed by the 
partially exhausted cells. 


2. On a Chemical Difference between Living and Dead Protoplasm. 
By Oscar Lorw, Ph.D. 


Tt has been long since a question why the manifold chemical changes going on 
in a living cell of a plant or an animal suddenly cease with the death of the cell. 
None of the hypotheses offered proved to be satisfactory. The living cell is 

322 


1076 REPORT—1885. 


undoubtedly full of a wonderful chemical energy, and the most complicated syn- 
theses are performed with ease. Think of a bacterium, that lives and multi- 
plies in acetate of ammonia solution, and forms its albumen, fat, and cellulose 
from this compound of so simple a composition! Think of the continued produc- 
tion of protoplasm that goes hand in hand with the perpetual destruction by 
respiration, and certainly a most energetic chemical activity becomes evident. 

In 1875 the first attempt was made to trace this energy back to a peculiar 
chemical constitution of the albumen that composes the protoplasm. The physio- 
logist E, Pfliiger, in Bonn, was the author of this hypothesis. He believed the 
albumen to contain cyanogen groups, which take up the elements of water, and 
thus the albumen would lose the agility of the atoms and change into another 
substance of less chemical energy—the dead albumen. 

This hypothesis hardly found the recognition it deserved. It was only Detmer,. 
Professor of Botany in Jena, who in 1880 accepted and defended similar views. 
In his opinion the chemical change of the albumen takes place by atomic displace- 
ment, and while in the living albumen a most energetic motion of the atoms leads 
to a continual dissociation, this ceases entirely in the dead or ordinary albumen.. 
Neither Detmer nor Pfliiger made any experiments whatever. 

Tt was in 1881 when, starting from my own hypothesis of the formation of 
albumen in plants, I was led to the conclusion that the albumen of the living 
protoplasm contains aldehyd groups which are lost in the albumen of the dead 
protoplasm by atomic displacement. I therefore concluded that these easily 
changeable and energetic aldehyd groups could be demonstrated by the action 
upon an alkaline silver solution. Living cells should give a reduction of the 
silver solution, dead cells should not. The first experiment succeeded, It was 
made with an alga named Spirogyra, The slides were exhibited, which under the: 
microscope demonstrate this difference very clearly, the protoplasm is perfectly 
black in one case, and not at all in the other case, where dead cells (Ixilled by a 
temperature of 50°, or by an acid) had been submitted to the silver reagent. This: 
silver reagent shows still action in a dilution of 1 part of silver to 200,000 parts 
of water. Not all objects show this reaction. Objects in which the killing process 
is performed too quickly cannot give the reaction, the silver solution itself being 
poisonous. There can also exist many obstacles that prevent the reaction, as. 
presence of chloride of sodium, existence of an impenetrable membrane, &c, ‘The 
phenomenon known as argyria is probably also founded upon the reaction of the 
active albumen of living protoplasm. In this case the metallic silver is deposited 
in different organs of the human body, when treated internally by nitrate of 
silver. 

The kidneys of frogs and caterpillars show also the reaction, young hairs of 
plants, parts of leaves, roots, and the cells in living wood. Diatoms and in- 
fusoria die altogether too quickly to give the reaction; also some algee of the: 
higher classes behave likewise, and parts of most of the animals. 

Many experiments were made to prove that this reaction is caused solely by 
the character of the albumen of the living protoplasm, It will suffice here to 
mention that I have shown by analysis that the oxygen of the reduced silver 
oxide has really entered into the molecule of the albumen. 

The supposition that the reducing atomic groups in the active albumen are 
nothing but aldehyd groups receives a strong support by the fact that hydroxyla- 
mine proves to be a poison of the most general character. We know that this 
substance acts upon all aldehyds with great readiness, even in a yery diluted and 
perfectly neutral solution. Its poisonous qualities can find no other explanation 
than that it acts upon the aldehyd groups in the living protoplasm, causing” 
disturbances that lead to disorganisation in the cells. 

While these experiments prove that the albumen of the living cell is quite a 
different substance from that of a dead cell, and thus a foundation for an explana- 
tion of the great chemical aetivity of the living cell is furnished, still I am at 
the same time far from believing that hereby all vital action can be explained. 
The cause for the divisions of cells, the nervous activity, the growth after pre- 
scribed rules, the wonderful differentiation of the various functions of a living body, 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1077 


the mechanical actions, the construction itself of the protoplasm, that appears as a 
wonderful machinery built up with molecules of active albumen—all this appears 
as mysterious as heretofore. 

[For details see ‘ Die Chemische Kraftquelle im Lebenden Protoplasma.’ I. A. 


- Finsterlin: Munich, 1882.) 


3. A Comparative View of the Albuwminous Substances contained in the 
Blood of Vertebrate and Invertebrate Animals. By W.D.Hatursurtoy, 
M.D., B.Sc., M.R.C.P. 


Introduction. General remarks on proteids; the division of blood into cor- 
puscles and blood plasma. Lymph and hemolymph. 

A. The proteids contained in the corpuscles. Hemoglobin. 

B. The proteids contained in the plasma. This comprised the greater part of 
the paper. 

lie The globulins; fibrinogen, paraglobulin, hemoglobin, heemocyanin. 

2. The albumens. ‘The varieties of serum albumen. 

The differences between these two classes of proteids, and the methods of 
separating them employed from the time of Denis to the present day. 

The part each plays in the formation of fibrin. The differences noted in these 
bodies in various classes of vertebrate and invertebrate animals. In considering 
the vertebrata, special stress will be laid on the differences observed in the serum 
albumen of warm and cold blooded animals. 

Among inyertebrata the class of Crustacea will be most fully considered. 
Heemocyanin, its composition, properties, distribution, and function. The clot in 
inyertebrata—is it a mere coalescence of cells or plasmodium, or is it due to the 
formation of fibrin as in vertebrates? Experiments in support of the latter view 
were quoted. 


4, On the Striated Muscles in the Gills of Fishes. 
By Dr. J. A. McWiuam. 


There is present in the gills of fishes a comparatively large amount of muscular 
substance, and this substance assumes a somewhat unexpected form—that of 
transversely-striated muscle instead of the non-striated tissue which one might be 
more ready to expect in such a situation. Striated muscle exists in the gills of all 
the fishes I have examined—hoth in Elasmobranchs and in Teleostean fishes, 
though the relations of the muscular structures are not identical in these two 
orders. There are two situations in which muscle exists in the gill. 

In both Elasmobranchs and Teleosteans a band of muscle entering the branchial 
arch at its dorsal attachment passes along the arch more or less parallel to its long 
axis and lying towards its pharyngeal aspect. As this muscular band approaches 
the ventral extremity of the arch, it thins off and ends, Muscular tissue exists in 
another situation in the gills—between the two rows of filaments borne by each 
branchial arch. The inner borders of these filaments are united to one another 
in Teleosteans by a considerable amount of connective tissue, and in this tissue 
lies an extensive series of muscular bundles. The muscular fibres arise from the 
cartilage of the branchial arch or from the surrounding connective tissue, and pass 
outwards between the branchial filaments to end in a slender tendon which is 
inserted into the point of junction of the sheaths of the two adjacent filaments. 

In the skate the muscular bundles arising from the branchial cartilage are not 
inserted as in the Teleosteans, e.g., salmon and eel, but pass outwards in the 
partitions which separate the branchial compartments, and finally become con- 
tinuous with the muscular tissue lying beneath the integument which lines the 
exterior of the branchial chamber. 

The gill-muscles are innervated by the vagus. Stimulation of the vagus nerve 
causes contraction of the muscles referred to; this leads to a movement of each gill 
as a whole, and also an erecting movement of the gill filaments in Teleosteans at 
least. 


1078 REPORT—1885. 


A reflex contraction of these muscles can readily be induced by stimulation of 
various parts, ¢.g., the spinal cord. 


5. On the Structure of the Intestine in the Hedgehog and the Mole. 
By Dr. J. A. McWi1t1am. 


The intestine of the hedgehog, like that of certain other mammals, shows. 
externally no division into a small and large intestine. 

I have found that there exists, however, a histological division into parts. 
corresponding to the small and large intestine of man, 

In the upper and longer portion of the hedgehog’s intestine—that corresponding 
to the human small intestine—the details of structure are for the most part similar 
to that of man, with the exception, as one might expect, of valvulz conniventes. 
The villi are large and densely set. In vertical sections they show with remark- 
able clearness the Jacteal vessels which they contain. These vessels form a rich 
plexus instead of a simple loop or a blind tube as in man; they approach the 
surface of the villus and lie in close relation with the basement membrane, 
instead of being confined to the median part of the villus and enclosed by a con- 
siderable amount of adenoid tissue as in the human villus. 

The lower portion of the hedgehog’s intestine—that corresponding to the large 
intestine of man—resembles in the chief points of its structure the human colon. 
The longitudinal muscular tissue, however, is uniformly arranged around the 
bowel instead of being collected into three bands. 

The transition from the villous part of the hedgehog’s intestine to the non-- 
villous part is abrupt, just as is the transition from the characteristic structure of 
the small intestine to that of the large intestine in man. 

The intestine of the mole presents some remarkable features. One of the most 
striking of these is the entire absence of villi. The mucous surface of the bowel 
along the greater part of its length is beset with ridges, which are elevations of the 
mucous membrane projecting into the interior of the intestine. At the lower part 
of the bowel there are no ridges; this part corresponds to the large intestine of 
man. The ridged part, on the other hand, corresponds to the small intestine of 
an The transition from the ridged to the non-ridged part is comparatively 
sudden. 

The arrangement of the ridges is strikingly different in the upper and lower 
portions of the ridged part of the mole’s intestine. In the upper part the ridges 
are so arranged as to form a pretty close network with polygonal meshes of 
various sizes on the internal surface of the bowel. In the lower portion of the 
ridged part of the intestine the ridges are, on the other hand, arranged longitudi- 
nally; they run in the long axis of the bowel, pursuing a remarkable wavy course 
and maintaining a well-marked parallelism to each other. The transition from 
this arrangement to that in the upper part of the intestine is very gradual. 

The portion of bowel which shows the network of ridges alluded to probably 
corresponds to a duodenum and jejunum, while the longitudinally ridged part is 
probably equivalent to an ileum. 

Vertical sections show that the structure of the ridges is essentially similar to. 
that of the hedgehog’s villi. The lacteals are similarly arranged, and are seen with 
remarkable plainness without the application of any process of silver nitrate 
staining or of injecting the lacteal vessels. 

The peculiar ridges of the mole’s intestine may possibly have some relation to 
the ridges which are described by Meckel as occurring in the human intestine at a 
very early stage of development. 

6. On Plant-Digestion, especially us occurring in Carica papaya. 
By Stpyey Martin, M.D., B.Sc., M_R.C.P. 


_ 1. History of the discovery of proteolytic ferments in the vegetable kingdom—— 
in the ‘insectivorous’ plants, and in the seeds, 
The two different uses of the ferments—(qa) for the assimilation of nitrogenous 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1079 


material, and (0) for the metabolism of the reserve-proteid. This second use will 
be chiefly considered. 

2. The uncertain state of knowledge of the character of vegetable proteids, with 
a résumé of the latest researches. 

Proteids in the juice of the fruit of Carica papaya. Action of the proteolytic 
ferment, papain, on animal albumen and on the proteids occurring in the juices. 

Discussion of the metabolic changes, especially as regards formation and fate of. 
peptones and crystalline nitrogenous products. Indications for future researches.! 


7. On a new kind of Colour Apparatus for Physiological Experiment. 
By JouHn AIKEN. 


8. On the Structure of Hyaline Cartilage. By Guorce Tuy, M.D. 


Y. The Preservation and Prolongation of Lije to 100 years. 
By Proraeroe Suiru, M.D? 


The accuracy and precision which mark the rapid motion of the steam-engine, 
continuing its ceaseless work apparently without deterioration, afford a type of 
what has been often observed in regard to the life of man. If the parts, or organs, 
on the normal condition of which the existence and continuance of our being 
mainly depends, in the same way, are kept in their place, and free from the friction 
of counteracting circumstances, the living human machine will also be found to 
possess macrobiotic powers far beyond what is commonly supposed. The popular 
objection to this statement consisting of the idea that the limit of natural life is 
four score years and ten, is proved to be a misconception of the authority on which 
this assumption relies. Senile decrepitude, leading to premature decay, is shown 
usually to result from derangement of those mechanical forces which in health 
sustain the body and its essential vital organs. But when restored, the ‘mens 
sana in corpore sano’ will not only be often reinstated, but life also greatly 
extended so as to warrant the answer in the aflirmative to the question, ‘Can we 
attain to the age of a hundred years, and live happily so long and even longer ? ” 
In naming certain organs and their functions as essential to healthy life, it will be 
seen how often they become deranged and interrupted in their action by the altered 
form of the bony structure of the body, resulting from advanced age or disease. 
This alteration in the bony structure is a gradual loss of the normal curvature of 
the spine, causing the back to become ultimately convev instead of concave, as in its 
natural sigmoid form, thus throwing forward the head and shoulders into a stooping 
attitude, and displacing the pelvis towards a horizontal plane instead of its natural 
trclined position. This alteration causes a compression and displacement of the 
various important organs of the body, which impede their action, and result in 
the gradually progressive deterioration of both the bodily and mental powers in senile. 
decrepitude. The stooping position of the body causes a continued strain upon 
the muscles of the back in order to support the unnatural overhanging weight in 
front, consequent on the loss of the natural balance of the body, ‘The disturbing 
cause of this change is directly attacked, and gradually removed by a simple 
mechanical appliance, which restores the spine to its natural form and the upright 
position of the body, and brings the pelvis back to its natural inclined position. 
For this purpose the ‘ Pelvic Band’ has now been used successfully by the author 
for many years, effecting this object by a gentle spring action, exerting a con-. 
tinuous pressure forwards upon the spine in the hollow of the back, and backwards 
upon the pelvis and shoulders in front, The result thus effected has been in several, 


1 For details of results, see Journal of Physiology, vol. v. 
} Published in extenso by John Avery & Co., Gallowgate, Aberdeen. 


1080 REPORT—1885. 


hundred cases a complete restoration of the natural upright position and sigmoid 
form of the body, accompanied by the recovery of good health with the enjoy- 
ment of prolonged life. 


SupPLEMENTARY Mergrtinc.—BOTANY. 


1. On the Application of the Anatomical Method to the Determination 
of the Materials of the Linnean and other Herbaria. By Professor 
L. RapiKoFEr. hat 


As I have set forth in a speech on the anatomical method, delivered before - 
the Munich Academy in 1883, a real furtherance of systematic botany may be 
looked for from the employment of anatomical and histological characters. 

It is to this application that I have given the designation Anatomical Method, 
and I have exerted myself for years to bring it to bear on systematic botany. 

For my own part, I have sought to rely upon anatomical characters in my 
labours on the Sapindaceze, and I may venture to say successfully, especially as far 
as the genus Serjania is concerned, by making use of the anomalous structure of 
the wood of these tropical climbers in defining the species. On this subject I had 
an opportunity of addressing this Association at Norwich in 1868; therefore I will 
not enlarge upon it now. 

After haying thus initiated the anatomical method and found my expectations 
therefrom fulfilled, I endeavoured to apply it to other families, such as the Acan- 
thaceze, the Sapotacez, the Capparidez, &c., as more fully detailed in the before- 
mentioned speech. 

Other botanists, I am gratified to see, have followed me in this direction, par- 
ticularly some of my pupils at the University of Munich, some of whom, like Dr. 
Hobein, I have induced to investigate isolated families in relation to their anato- 
mical peculiarities; others, Dr. Bokorny and Dr. Blenk for example, to trace 
certain anatomical characters found in several families all through these families, 
in order to determine the constancy and systematic value of such characters for 
each of these families. 

By means of the results thus obtained, and to be obtained, I think it is now 
possible, without very great difficulties, to clear up the doubts respecting the frag- 
mentary materials of the important older Herbaria. 

In the first place comes the Linnean Herbarium and the Herbarium of the 
Hortus Cliffortianus, formed by Linneus, and then the Herbaria of Linneus’s pre- 
decessors, Plukenet, Sloane, Paul Hermann, &c., upon whose plants Linneus 
founded the majority of his species. 

Thanks to the care of English botanists and English learned societies, these 
Herbaria, so important for the correct interpretation of Linnean species, have been 
faithfully preserved intact for a hundred years and more, up to the present day. 

And now at the present day is possible what formerly was impossible, namely 
an exhaustive review of the contents of these Herbaria with references to the 
writings of their former possessors—now, with the aid of the anatomical method, 
this might be attempted, and should in my opinion be attempted without further 
delay. These Herbaria should henceforth not merely be preserved ; they should, 
by the diffusion of a new light on their contents, become useful to everyone in a 
scientific sense, even to those who are unable to look through them. 

As far as the Linnean Herbarium is concerned, Sir Edward Smith in his day 
endeavoured to extract therefrom a correct conception of the Linnean species; but 
the slender scientific means ot his time enabled him to arrive at the goal in only a 
few instances. Nevertheless, his contributions to Rees’s ‘ Cyclopedia’ on this sub- 
ject are of great value, and deserve republication in a collective form, in order to 
make them generally available, as I suggested in the speech alluded to at the 
beginning. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1081 


The work begun by him should now with the help of the anatomical method 
‘be resumed and completed. 

Perhaps I may be permitted to call to mind an instance in which the sole way 
of arriving at any certainty regarding the materials in old Herbaria mentioned 
was by employing the anatomical method. I mean with regard to what is to be 
anderstood by Paullinia curassavica L. and Paullinia polyphylla L., which we 
now refer to Serjania. The same was the case with other species of these diversi- 
fied and difficult genera, the members of which, in the absence of fruit, often can- 
not be referred to the right genus, even by one well acquainted with them, except 
calling in the aid of the anatomical method. And what holds good for these 
genera holds good for numerous others. 

To mention only one more plant, Sideroxrylon mite L., which I have only been 
able to thoroughly elucidate within the last few days on having recourse to the 
Linnean Herbarium ; perhaps I may be permitted to explain how the anatomical 
method alone led to its elucidation. 

Sprengel, perceiving that certain of the characters attributed to this plant by 
Linneus did not accord well with the genus Sideroxylon, regarded it as a species 
of Myrsine and named it Myrsine mitis. Under this name, too, it was found by 
Dr. Bokorny in the Munich Herbarium, and by him recognised as an exception in 
respect of a prominent anatomical character denoting the Myrsinex, being destitute 
of the internal resin-glands which give the dotted appearance to the leaves. A 
second similar exception was offered by Myrsine marginata Hook.1 Later investi- 
gations on the systematic value of the structure of the wood in various families, 
carried out by another pupil of mine, Mr. Solereder, led to the supposition that the 
two plants in question did not belong to the Myrsinew at all. 

With regard to Myrsine marginata, fragments of the original plant of which I 
was able to examine through the kindness of Professor Oliver, an anatomical 
investigation soon brought to light that it had been wrongly placed, really belong- 
ing to the Sapotacee rather than the Myrsinew, and henceforth to be designated 
Chrysophyllum marginatum. 

And as to the Myrsine mitis Spreng., that turned out to be a species of Lex, 
the South African Ilex capensis Sond. Unfortunately this result gave no clue to 
the identity of Sideroxylon mite L., and this appeared permanently hopeless; for, 
on making inquiries, I was informed that it did not exist in the Linnean Her- 
barium. But after my arrival in England, as I was able to look for it myself, it 
was easy for the eye sharpened by the anatomical method to detect it, in spite of 
the absence of flowers and fruits, and to decide that it was nothing else than Ilex 
capensis Sond., which now, according to De Candolle’s rules of nomenclature, must 
be called Ilex mitis, 

It would seem superfluous to cite other examples in order to demonstrate the 
value of anatomical characters in systematic botany, and how much science would 
benefit from a sifting of the older herbaria by the aid of the anatomical method. 

Permit me, therefore, to conclude with an appeal to all English botanists to 
direct their attention and their influence to the accomplishment of the work which 
I have suggested ; in doing which the British Association might perhaps contribute 
substantial assistance. The thanks of botanists of all times would certainly accrue 
to England therefrom. 


2. On the Influence of Impregnation on a Plant. By E. J. Lows, F.R.S. 


Some experiments were made in 1884 and continued in 1885 in order to 
ascertain to what extent a plant was influenced by the impregnation of a flower 
{t.e.,as to whether the effect of impregnation was confined to the solitary indi- 
vidual flower or extended along the branch which produced the flower). 

A self yellow mimulus, M. Lurpus Willd. was selected for the experiment, 
and this was crossed with pollen from a copiously spotted mimulus known as 


* See Bokorny in Flora 1882, pp. 374-376. 


1082 REPORT—1885. 


M. CasHMERIANUS of Gardens. The latter being dwarf in habit, bearing some- 
what large, and exceedingly brilliant flowers. Both parents are quite hardy and 
herbaceous. 

Two specimens of M. duteus were placed in a greenhouse where there were no 
other mimuli. When the flower buds were almost ready to burst open, a portion 
of the flower was cut away in order to get at the pistil, and in this manner three 
blooms were impregnated with pollen from the M. Cashmerianus, and the small 
flower buds above them were not allowed to bloom. 

The second plant was treated in the same manner, but was crossed with pollen 
from another plant of MW. luteus. 

When the seed pods were nearly matured, three more buds on the same stem 
(and obviously above those formerly crossed) were allowed to mature, and when 
nearly ready to expand were cut open and impregnated in both plants by pollen 
from another plant of M. luteus. These experiments were therefore :— 

1. A self yellow mimulus crossed with a spotted mimulus. 

2. A self yellow mimulus crossed with a yellow mimulus. 

3. The yellow mimulus (experiment one) again crossed with a yellow mimulus. 

4, The yellow mimulus (experiment two) again crossed with a yellow 
minulus. 

More than a hundred seedlings resulted and bloomed, and every one of them 
were spotted. : 

There was no difference in the seedlings in experiments two and four, every 
plant being a copy of M. luteus, the two parents. 

In experiments one and three, every seedling was spotted and having characters 
intermediate between the two parents (a yellow flower and a spotted flower). 
Six, however, had the spots on a white ground, whilst in the remainder the ground 
colour varied in different shades of yellow. There was not a single plant with a 
self yellow flower, and there was no difference in the appearance of the flowers in 
experiments one and three. 

These experiments have been repeated with the same results, and the plants 
are now in flower. 

Thus the impregnation of the first flowers was communicated through the 
flowering branch to the buds forming higher up the stem, and produced seedlings 
identical with those from the former impregnation, and the second impregnation 
with a yellow flower was unable to alter the offspring. 

It may be mentioned that these experiments disclosed the fact that the two 
lips of the pistil of the mimulus are exceedingly sensitive, closing rapidly when 
touched by the brush, either with or without pollen. Every species of mimulus 
that has been examined showed this sensitiveness. 

From the above cross has resulted a most beautiful strain of hardy mimuli. 


3. On the Impregnation of Composite Flowers. By EH. J. Lown, F.R.S. 


A large number of experiments have been made during the last three years. 
on the impregnation of the single dahlias, the result of which may be briefly 
stated. 

If a bloom of the single dahlia be examined it will be found that the marginal 
portion of the flower-head is in a condition to be impregnated before the centre of 
the same flower-head, so that in order to impregnate every portion of the flower- 
head, it is requisite to continue the operation for several days. 

Taking advantage of this circumstance, an individual flower-head was impreg- 
nated three several times with different pollen, so that three distinct breeds of 
flowers were obtained from one flower-head. 

In one example the outer rim was impregnated with clematis-like flowers, the 
next rim with flowers having a coloured centre, whilst the centre was crossed 
with flowers haying a star-like character, the petals revolved and giving a wheel- 
like appearance. 

In saving the seeds from a ripe seed pod, those along the outer edge were kept. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1083. 


separate from those within this edge, and from those in the centre of the pod. 
(The shape of the seeds alters from the margin to the centre, but the plants 
resulting from those on the margin and the centre, if impregnated alike, do not 
vary). 

Thus in composite flowers every individual flower can be made to produce 
distinct variations on the same flower-head. 

An experiment was tried as to whether it required more than one pollen grain 
to impregnate a flower. A white-flowered dahlia was selected as the seed-bearer, 
and this was crossed with pollen from a deep red flower. When simply crossed 
this produced plants having blooms from pink to red, and three plants with white 
flowers, whilst if crossed with pollen containing four times as many grains from a 
white flower as from a red one, the result was in 172 seedlings, 79 were pure 
white, and all the others pale in colour, none being nearly as dark as the red 
flower from which the pollen had been taken. 

The plan adopted to obtain certain proportions of pollen grains was after con- 
sideration as follow :— 

Four brushes were filled with pollen from a white dahlia, and one brush from 
a red dahlia, and this was collected from these five brushes on to a larger brush, 
and this larger brush was the one used to impregnate the example selected. 

It is easy to get an approximate idea of the colours to be obtained by certain 
crosses by the mixture of moist paints or dry powders, and in the case above 
mentioned, the mixture of four times as much white as red was singularly borne: 
out, as no seedling produced flowers darker than this mixture. Those who are 
practically aware of the difficulty of raising white seedlings even from the seeds of 
a white dahlia will understand the success of these experiments, and will be con- 
vinced that a number of pollen grains are necessary in order to etfect impregnation, 
or at all events have the power of acting together, 


4. On the Occurrence of Fungi in the Roots of Orchids. By J. MacmILLan. 


It has long been known that the mycelia of fungi occur in the roots of orchids. 
Prillieux! saw them in Neottia Nidus avis, Reinke. notices their occurrence in 
Corallorhiza and Epipogon, and several other writers have noticed them. De Bary, 
in a lecture on symbiosis given at Innsbruck in 1879, also mentions the fact. 

As yet no systematic study of the phenomenon has been made. The difficulties 
attending such study are great. I propose here to record the results of my 
examination of several species of orchids, chiefly epiphytal orchids. 


Epiphytes. 


Cattleya Gaskelliana. Plant in full flower, few aerial roots, no trace of mycelia 
in aerial roots one year old, no trace in fresh shoots of this year. 

C. Mendelit. Plant not in flower, in one aerial root mycelia found. 

C. Mossie. Plant examined three months after flowering, many aerial roots 
containing mycelia. One root coming from a pseudobulb pushing out a flower 
contained abundant mycelia. 

Oncidium Forbesi. Plant in full flower; no trace in any part of any aerial 
root. 

O. Forbesi. Another plant not in flower; no trace in any aerial root. 

O. crispum. Plant not in flower, no trace of mycelia. 

O. Kramert. Plant not in flower, no trace of mycelia. 

O. fuscatum. Plant not in flower, no trace of mycelia, 

Stanhopea grandiflora. Plant in full flower, perfume of flower very powerful, 
aerial roots abundant and mycelia in these abundant. 

S. oculata, Plant examined one year after flowering, many withered aerial 
roots in which no trace, many new aerial roots with mycelia abundant. 

Odontoglossum trivmphans. Plant not in flower, numerous pseudobulbs and 
aerial roots springing from them. No trace of mycelia. 


1 Annales des Sciences Naturelles, 1856. 2 Flora, p. 145, 1873. 


1084 REPORT—1885. 


O. Alexandre. Plant in flower, no aerial roots on plant. 

O. hystrix. Plant with many pseudobulbs, few aerial roots, has not flowered 
for more than two years, no trace of mycelia. 

O. Rossii majus. Plant with many pseudobulbs, few aerial roots; examined 
five months after end of flowering period, which extended over ten weeks. No 
trace of mycelia. 

O. veaillarium. Leafy plant with pseudobulbs, few aerial roots; examined 
three weeks before flowering. No trace of mycelia. 

O. cariniferum. Plant similar to last, will flower in spring. No trace of 
mycelia. 

i Dendrobium nobile. Plant in flower, many old and a few new aerial roots. No 
‘trace of mycelia. 

D. Cambridgeanum (Cantabrigense ?). Many old and few new aerial roots, no 
trace of mycelia. Plant not in flower. 

D. Farmerit. Plant not in flower, several vigorous aerial roots. No trace of 
mycelia. 

D, tortile roseum. Plant like preceding, similar results. 

D, Faleonerit. Plant examined three months after flowering, many aerial roots 
old and new, no trace of mycelia. 

D. crassinode Barberiana. Plant not in flower, few roots. No trace. 

D. primulinum giganteum. Plant strong and vigorous, few aerial roots; no 
trace of mycelia. 

D. bigibbum. Plant has not flowered for two years, has been kept dry, a few 
new aerial roots springing from apparently withered stems. No trace. 

D. formosum giganteum. Plant with few aerial roots. No trace. 

D. aggregatum majus. No trace of mycelia one month after period of 
flowering. 

Aerides odoratum. Strong, healthy plant with many large aerial roots. No 
‘trace of mycelia, 

A, virens. No trace one month after flowering. 

A. Lobbit. Examined two months before period of flowering, many thick 
vigorous roots. No trace. 

Saccolahium ampullaceum, Plant with long, thick healthy aerial roots, ex- 
amined three months after flowering. No trace of mycelia. 

S. Llumet. Similar in growth to last. No trace. 

S. guttatum. No trace three months before period of flowering. 

Cypripedium Laurentium. Plant with thick aerial roots, examined one month 
after flowering. No trace. 

Ada aurantiaca. Examined four months after flowering. No trace of mycelia. 

Angrecum caudatum. Plant with long, thick, fleshy aerial roots, examined 
just before flowering ; no trace. 

Cypripedium Veitchi. Plant in flower ; no trace. 

C. Drewt. Plant in flower; no trace. 

Helcia sanguinolenta. Plant not in flower. No trace of mycelia. 

Dendrobium filiforme. Plant in full flower, few aerial roots. No trace of 
mycelia. 

Cattleya Laurenceiana. Plant strong and vigorous, mycelia abundant in aerial 
roots. 

C. trienne, Like last, very strong development of mycelia. 


Terrestrial Orchid. 


Disa grandiflora. Plant large, healthy, in full flower. No trace in any under- 
ground roots, No aerial roots. 

The evidence afforded by these epiphytic orchids as to the nature and function 
of the fungi growing in them is of a somewhat conflicting character. Before 
‘discussing that evidence it will be necessary to glance at the structure of an aerial 
root. 

At the growing apex of each aerial root is a glaucous bright green portion 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1085. 


varying in length in the different species, Above this, receding from the growing 
apex the epidermis is of a white colour. 

A horizontal section shows the aeriai root to consist of three concentric rings 
of tissue. 

The outer or velamen consists of a varying number of layers of cells. In 
Oncidium about ten, in Aerides two or three. These cells are polygonal, closely. 
packed together, contain no chlorophyll, man y are filled with air. These give the 
velamen its white colour and render it hygroscopic. Through these layers of the- 
velamen many spiral vessels are found. 

The middle ring is bounded by two layers of compact cells, the outer endo-- 
derm and the inner endoderm. The outer endoderm consists of a row of thick- 
walled compact cells, In this row at intervals are thin-walled cells leading from: 
the velamen to the central ring. The cells between the outer and the inner 
endoderm are large with chlorophyll granules, and contain the usual cell contents, 
The number of layers of these cells varies. I have found most in Aerides, fewest 
in Dendrobium. The central ring very clearly marked off from the middle ring is 
composed of a dense mass of fibro-vascular tissue. Next the inner endoderm the 
xylem and the phloem portions alternate. The thick-walled cells of the inner 
endoderm lie opposite the phloem portion, and the thin-walled cells opposite the 
xylem portion. These gradually merge into the large cells of the medulla, They 
do not play any important part in the investigation. 

In which of these rings are the mycelia found? In all the species I have 
examined they occur invariably in the middle ring. Only in the cells with chloro- 
phyll have I found mycelia; where the mycelia are most abundant the protoplasm 
of the cells is least. These cells are comparatively empty. Of the various rows of 
cells in the middle ring or zone the central contain most mycelia. I have never 
seen a single thread attempt to pass by means of the thin-walled cells of the 
inner endoderm to the central zone. Nor have I ever seen these threads in the act 
of penetrating the thin-walled cells of the outer endoderm. In some species of 
Cattleya, e.g. Cattleya Laurenceiana, where the development of mycelia was very 
strong—the central zone being nearly filled by them—I have never found them 
penetrating these thin-walled stoma-like cells. 

The mycelia are never found in the green terminal growing apex of the root,. 
but are first found just where the velamen with its hygroscopic cells begins. I have 
traced them from this point all through the aerial root as far as the pseudobulb. 
This they haye never entered in any plant I have examined, nor have I found any 
trace of mycelia in any other part of the plant—flower, gynandrium, or leaf, 

gain, in cells which have little or no protoplasm, the mycelia are strongest 
and most abundant, while in those cells with most protoplasm, which often gathers. 
in lumps, the mycelia are thinner and less vigorous, 


Constitution of Mycelia. 


In some cases the hyphe, for such I consider that part of the fungus which 
branches and anastomoses, are found towards the posterior portion of the root, 
while the mycelium portion with few branching threads is found nearer the 
anterior portion of the root. In Cattleya trienne the branches are large, thick, 
and with node-like swellings like the buckle-shaped swellings on the hyphe of 
Basidiomycetes. Sections of the root containing these swellings were sown in a 
suitable medium. From these swellings came only their mycelium-like threads. 
In no instance have I been so fortunate as to find any fructification, either in the 
root or arising from sections sown in a suitable nourishing medium. From the 
varied appearance of the threads, however, it may be concluded that the fungi 
belong to different families, 


Relation of the Mycelia to Cell-wall and Cell-contents. 


The appearance of the cells into which the mycelia have penetrated is not 
essentially changed by the presence of the fungus, “Near the growing apex of the 
root where the mycelia are first found the cells remain unaltered, nucleus and 


1086 REPORT—1885. 


protoplasmic bodies are unchanged. On advancing nearer the pseudobulb the cell 
is often filled with the threads; nucleus, protoplasmic bodies, starch granules 
‘seem to have disappeared, and only the fungus with a small quantity of cell sap 
appears to be left. Such a section, however, when treated with suitable reagents, 
shows the nucleus among the anastomosing filaments of the fungus without loss of 
shape or of size. 

Often the cell-sap gathers into a lump in the centre of each cell, from the 
edges of which cell threads run in and surround the lump. 

By the application of a sugar solution the plasma is drawn off from the lump 
of mucilage which once more, after the removal of the solution, swells up as 
before. From this it is evident that the protoplasmic bodies are not destroyed by 
the fungus. 

The thickness of the cell-wall, too, plays no unimportant part in the distri- 
bution of the mycelia. Where the walls are thick the threads have greater 
difficulty in penetrating, and are not so numerous and strong as in roots where 
the cell walls are thinner and therefore more easily penetrated. 

Schultze’s solution colours the cell membrane a beautiful violet colour and 
makes the threads disappear. 

The growing thread appears with its apex at the middle of the cell wall, and 
where it has penetrated there is a slight swelling, both where it enters and where 
it emerges from the cell wall. The edge of the aperture where the threads have 
penetrated is quite smooth, so that it may be concluded that the membrane has 
been dissolved at the point of penetration. 


Entrance of Mycelia into Roots. 


In what way do the fungi first enter the aerial roots? I have examined plants 
recently imported in a shrivelled condition and have found no trace of fungi. 
Two years after importation still no trace; only when the plants have become 
established and comparatively vigorous in growth do the fungi seem to enter. 
That they penetrate the outer covering is evident from the following experiment. 
A plant of Platanthera bifolia was taken whose next year’s tubers were ripe and 
already contained mycelia. These tubers were placed under a bell jar along with 
tubers not yet containing any trace of fungi. In four or five days these latter 
were infected. In their outer cells a slightly branched mycelium was found. 

Again, does the orchid thrive better with or without the fungus? The evi- 
dence for and against is conflicting. I always noticed that the strongest, healthiest 
plants, those which produced the largest spikes of flowers, contained the most 
highly developed fungi. ; i 

It may be that we have here an instance of symbiosis; it may be that the 
fungus is imprisoned by the orchid, and made to gather nourishment for it, or 
afford nourishment to it, or the fungus may be a parasite pure and simple, 

It is a noteworthy fact that orchids brought to this country in a dry withered 
condition begin to grow most vigorously when the aerial roots are entered by the 
fungi. On the other hand, these roots are not entered until they have attained a 
certain vigour. Their vigour, therefore, may be the cause of the infection, not the 
effect of it. 

Lastly, the cultivation of these fungi has never yet resulted in the production 
of any fructification, so that no clue has as yet been obtained as to the genera or 
species of the fungus. 

I hope by the examination of a much greater variety of species of foreign 
orchids and of our native orchis yet to throw some little light on this subject. 


5. Notes on Experiments as to the Formation of Starch in Plants under the 
influence of the Electric Light. By H. Marswart Warp. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1087 


6. On the Flora of Banffshire. By the Rev. W. S. Bruce. 


Banffshire contains over 600 species of flowering plants, besides a considerable 
number not considered to be truly indigenous. Of these the majority are plants 
of the British type, which are more or less diffused throughout the country. Very 
few are English, while, on the other hand, plants of the Scottish type are exceed- 
‘ingly abundant, such as Pyrola media and minor, Trientalis europea, Goodyera 
repens, &c. Of the Atlantic type, Sela verna, found at Banff and Macduff, is the 
sole representative, while plants of the Highland type are scattered abundantly 
throughout the length of the county. Many of these are found only in the 
higher glens and on the mountains at the south-west end of Banffshire, e.g., 
Alchemilla alpina, Rubus Chamemorus, Vaccinium uliginosum and V. Vitis-idea, 
Saxifraga rivularis and 8S, stellaris, Luzula spicata and L. arcuata, Carex rigida, 
Epilobium alpinum, &c. The Alpine Alchemilla is found along the banks of 
Fiddich lower down, and the Sedum Rhodiola and Polygonum viviparum grow on 
the sea-coast. 


7. On the Flora of Elgin. By James Mackenzie. 


To the west the ground is irregular, hilly, much wooded, and drained by a 
rivulet. The plants found are :— 


Conyolvulus arvensis. Parietaria officinalis. 
Myrrhis odorata. Anchusa sempervirens. 
Datura Stramonium, Berberis yulvaris. 
Polygonum Hydropiper. Polygonum Bistorta. 
Hypericum pulchrum. Papaver somniferum. 
Ulex nanus. Habenaria bifolia. 
Pinguicula vulgaris. Gymnadenia conopsea. 
Narthecium ossifragum. Drosera rotundifolia. 
Lychnis Flos-cuculi. Hydrocotyle vulgaris. 
Radiola Milleerana. Linnea borealis. 
Bromus sterilis. Mentha aquatica. 
Galium Mollugo. Helosciadium inundatum. 


The coast from the laigh of Moray to Lossiemouth is exposed to the north 
cand is rocky, the cliffs being of various formations. 
The plants are :— 


Ammophila arundinacea. Astragalus glycyphyllus. 
Asperugo procumbens. Salsola Kali. 

Carduus tenuiflorus. Parnassia palustris. 
Helianthemum vulgare. Ononis arvensis. 

Poa maritima. Elymus arenarius. 
Ligusticum scoticum. Sisymbrium Sophia. 
Scilla verna. Lepidium campestre. 
Saxifraga cranulata. Reseda luteola. 

Cakile maritima. Glaux maritima. 
Astragalus hypoglottis. Conium maculatum. 


To the north-east of Elgin, in the low lying part, there is a large tract of 
marshy ground. Evidently the Loch of Spynie had at one time covered a much 
Jarger area than it does at present. Nearer the town the soil is sandy. The 
plants are :— 


Tris Pseud-acorus. Potamogeton pusillus. 
Scirpus lacustris. Anagallis tenella. 
Blysmus rufus. Triglochin maritimum. 


Briza media. Typha latifolia. 


1088 


Sium angustifolium. 
Hyoscyamus niger, 
Melilotus officinalis. 
Goodyera repens. 
Neottia spiralis. 
Polygala vulgaris. 


Poterium Sanguisorba. 


Teesdalia nudicaulis. 
Medicago sativa. 


Trifolium procumbens. 


Rosa spinosissima. 
Hippuris vulgaris. 
Veronica Anagallis. 
Menyanthes trifoliata. 
Ranunculus Lingua. 
R. Flammula. 

R. aquatilis. 

Alisma Plantago. 
Alisma ranunculoides. 
Potamogeton natans. 
Valeriana officinalis. 
Cardamine amara. 


REPORT—1885. 


Nepeta Glechoma. 
Knautia arvensis. 
Saponaria officinalis. 
Ballota nigra. 
Verbascum Thapsus. 
Anthriscus sylvestris. 
Malva rotundifolia. 
Carduus acanthoides. 
Arum maculatum. 
Allium ursinum, 
Ranunculus Ficaria. 
R. bulbosus. 
Asperula odorata. 
Plantago Coronopus, 
Pyrola media. 
Vaccinium Vitis-ideea. 
V. Oxycoccos. 
Melampyrum sylvaticum. 
Trientalis europea. 
Alchemilla vulgaris. 
A, arvensis, 

A. alpina. 


8. On the Division and Conjugation of Spirogyra. 
By Dr. J. M. Macrarnane, F.RS_E, 


9. On a Microscopic Fungus in Fossil Wood, from Bowling. 
By Dr. J. M. Macrartane, F.R.S. EL. 


10. On a new Method of preparing the Epidermal Tissues of Pitcher Plants. 
By Dr. J. M. Macrartans, F.R.S.E. 


The author stated that the difficulty he had experienced in getting clean and 
large pieces of the epidermis from the different surfaces of pitchers induced him to 
try various methods of preparation. Maceration in caustic potash solution of 2 

wc. strength gave admirable results. The pitchers to be macerated were placed 
whole in beakers containing the solution and boiled over a Bunsen flame for from 
ten minutes to two hours. The pitchers of Nepenthes, if young and fresh, had 
both outer and inner epidermis loosened from the green cellular and fibro-vascular 
systems after about fifteen or twenty minutes boiling; old or dried pitchers required 
thirty to sixty minutes, By floating them afterwards in clean water both epi- 
dermal layers could be detached with great ease. Pitchers of Cephalotus were 
macerated after ten to twenty minutes treatment, but those of Sarracenia Heliam- 
phora and Darlingtonia, except when young and tender, required boiling for about 
two hours, with subsequent maceration for two or three weeks in water. In this 
way not only could long pieces be obtained for continuous microscopic examination 
of the surfaces, but bottled hand specimens of the entire inner epidermis of 
Nepenthes could be made, showing clearly to the naked eye the attractive, conduct- 
ing, and secreting surfaces, with associated glands. Bottled specimens and a series 
of microscopic preparations were exhibited and described, illustrating the paper. 
It was also pointed out that similar treatment of leaves for preparations of hairs, 
water and air stomata, &c., gave equally good results in many cases. 


11. On Aberdeenshire Plants as Food for Animals, 
By Witu14m Witson, Junr. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1089 


TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15. 


The following Report and Papers were read :— 


1. Report on the Migration of Birds.—See Reports, p. 685. 


2. Note on the Intelligence of the Dog. By Sir Joun Lussock, Bart., BS. 


The man and the dog have lived together in more or less intimate association for 
many thousands of years, and yet it must be confessed that they know comparatively 
little of one another. That the dog is a loyal, true, and affectionate friend must 
be gratefully admitted ; but when we come to consider the psychical nature of the 
animal, the limits of our knowledge are almost immediately reached. I have else- 
where suggested that this arises very much from the fact that hitherto we have 
tried to teach animals, rather than to learn from them: to convey our ideas to them, 
rather than to devise any language or code of signals by means of which they 
might communicate theirs to us. The former may be more important from a utili- 
tarian point of view—though even this is questionable—but psychologically it is 
far less interesting. Under these circumstances, it occurred to me that some such 
system as that followed with deaf mutes, and especially by Dr. Howe with Laura 
Bridgman, might prove instructive, if adapted to the case of dogs. 

I have tried this in a small way with a black poodle named Van, by taking two 
pieces of cardboard, about ten inches by three, and printing on ove of them in 
large letters the word ‘food, leaving the other blank. I then placed two cards 
over two saucers, and in the one under the ‘ food’ card I put a little bread and milk, 
which Van, after having his attention called to the card, was allowed to eat. This 
was repeated until, in about ten days, he began to distinguish between the two 
ecards. I then put them on the floor, and made him bring them to me, which he 
did readily enough. When he brought the plain card I simply threw it back, 
while when he brought the ‘food’ card I gave him a piece of bread, and in about 
a month he had pretty well learned to realise the difference. I then had some 
other cards printed with the words ‘ out,’ ‘ tea,’ ‘ bone,’ ‘ water,’ and a certain number 
also with words to which I did not intend him to attach any significance, such as 
«naught, ‘ plain,’ ‘ ball, &c. He soon learnt that bringing a card was a request, and to 
distinguish between the plain and printed cards ; it took him longer to realise the 
difference between words, but he gradually got to recognise several. If he were 
asked whether he would like to go out, he would joyfully pick up the ‘ out’ card, 
choosing it from several others, and would bring it to me, or run with it in evident 
triumph to the door. The cards were not always put in the same places, but were 
varied indiscriminately, and in a great variety of positions. Nor could the dog recog- 
nise them by scent, for they were all alike, and continually handled by us. Still I 
did not trust to that alone, but had a number printed for each word. When, for 
instance, he brought a card with ‘food’ on it, we did not put down the identical 
card, but another bearing the samme word; when he had brought that, a third, then 
a fourth, and so on. Fora single meal, therefore, eighteen or twenty cards would 
be used, so that he evidently was not guided by scent. 

No one who has seen him look down a row of cards and pick up the one he 
wanted, could, I think, doubt that in bringing a card he feels he is making a 
request, and that he can not only distinguish one card from another, but also 
associate the word and the object. This is, of course, only a beginning, but it is, I 
venture to think, suggestive, and might be carried further, though the limited 
wants and aspirations of the animal constitute a great difficulty, 

My wife has a collie which was often in the room when Van brought the food 
card and was rewarded with a piece of bread, but although the collie begged in the 
usual manner, it never once occurred to that dog to bring a card, of which, indeed, 
not the slightest notice was taken. 


1885. 4A 


1090 REPORT—1885. 


I then prepared six cards about ten inches by three, and coloured in pairs, 
two yellow, two blue, and two orange. I put three of them on the floor, and 
holding up one of the others, endeavoured to teach Van to bring me the duplicate: 
that is to say, if the blue was held up, he should fetch the corresponding colour 
from the floor, if yellow he should fetch the yellow, and so on. When he brought 
the wrong card he was made to return for another till he brought the right one, 
when ke was rewarded. The lessons generally lasted half an hour, during which 
he brought the right card on an average about twenty-five times. I certainly 
thought that he would soon have grasped what was expected of him, but although 
we continued the lessons for about ten weeks, at the end of the time I cannot say 
that Van appeared to have the least idea what was expected of him. It seemed a 
matter of pure accident which card he brought. 

As it was just possible that Van might be colour-blind, we then repeated the 
experiment, substituting for the coloured cards others marked respectively I., IL., 
and III. This we continued for another ten weeks, but entirely without success. 
I was rather disappointed at this; as, if it had succeeded, the plan would have 
opened out many interesting lines of inquiry. Still, in such a case one ought not 
to wish for one result more than another, as of course the object of all such experi- 
ments is merely to elicit the truth; and our result in the present case, though 
negative, is interesting. I do not, however, regard it as by any means conclusive, 
and should be glad to see it repeated. If the result proved to be the same, it 
would certainly imply very little power of combining even extremely simple ideas. 

I then endeavoured to get some insight into the arithmetical condition of the 
dog’s mind. On this subject I have been able to find but little in any of the 
standard works on the intelligence of animals. Considering, however, the very 
limited powers of savage men in this respect ; no Australian lancuage for instance, 
containing numerals even up to four; and no Australian being able to count his 
own fingers even on one hand—we cannot be surprised if other animals have made 
but little progress. 

Leroy, who, though he expresses the opinion that ‘the nature of the soul of 
animals is unimportant,’ was an excellent observer, mentions a case in which @ 
man was anxious to shoot a crow. ‘To deceive this suspicious bird the plan was 
hit upon of sending two men to the watch-house, one of whom passed on while 
the other remained; but the crow counted, and kept her distance. The next day 
three went, and again she perceived that only two retired. In fine, it was found 
necessary to send five men to the watch-house to put her out in her calcula 
tion. The crow, thinking that this number of men had passed by, lost no time in 
returning.’ From this Leroy inferred that crows could count up to four. Upon 
this point Mr. Howard Saunders has furnished me with the following note:—‘ A 
short-toed eagle ( Circaétus Gallicus), was hovering suspiciously and out of gun-shot. 
above her nest in a large cork-tree under which I and two of my Spanish cazadores 
were standing, partially, but not carefully, concealed. One was sent away, when 
the eagle, after accompanying him fora short distance, returned to her post of 
observation. After an interval I left also, when the manceuvre was repeated, but. 
no sooner had the bird watched me well off the ground than she unhesitatingly 
pitched on her nest, affording an easy shot to the third man.’ 

An interesting consideration rises with reference to the number of the victims 
allotted to each cell by the Solitary Wasps. -Ammophila considers one large cater- 
pillar of Noctua segetum enough; one species of Ewmenes supplies its young with 
five victims, another ten, fifteen, and even up to twenty-four. The number appears 
to be constant in each species. How does the insect know when her task is 
fulfilled P_ Not by the cell being filled, for if some be removed, she does not replace 
them. When she has brought her complement, she considers her task accom- 
plished, whether the victims are still there or not. How then does she know when 
she has made up the number twenty-four ? Perhaps it will be said that each species 
feels some mysterious and innate tendency to provide a certain number of victims, 
This would under no cireumstances be any explanation, but it is not in accordance 
with the facts. 

In the genus Ewmenes the males are much smaller than the females. Now in the 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1091 


hive-bees, humble-bees, wasps, and other insects, where such a difference occurs, but 
where the young are directly fed, it is, of course, obvious that the quantity can be 
proportioned to the appetite of the grub. But in insects with the habits of Zwmenes 
and Ammophila, the case is different, because the food is stored up once for all. 
Now it is evident that if a female grub was supplied with only food enough for a 
male, she would starve to death ; while if a male grub were given enough for a 
female, it would have too much. No such waste, however, occurs. In some 
mysterious manner the mother knows whether the egg will produce a male or 
female grub, and apportions the quantity of food accordingly. She does not change 
the species or size of her prey, but if the egg is male, she supplies five; if female, 
ten victims. Does she count’ Certainly this seems very like a commencement of 
arithmetic. At the same time it would be very desirable to have additional evidence 
how far the number is really constant. 

Considering how much has been written on instinct, it seems surprising that so 
little attention has been directed to this part of the subject. One would fancy 
that there ought to be no great difficulty in determining how far an animal could 
count, and whether, for instance, it could realise some very simple sum, such as 
that two and two make four. 

But when we come to consider how this is to be done, the problem ceases to 
appear so simple. We tried our dogs by putting a piece of bread before them, and 
preventing them from touching it until we had counted seven. To prevent our- 
selves from unintentionally giving any indication, we used a metronome (the in- 
strument used forgiving time when practising the pianoforte), and to make the 
beats more evident we attached a slender rod to the pendulum. It certainly seemed 
as if our dogs knew when the moment of permission had arrived ; but their move- 
ment of taking the bread was scarcely so definite as to place the matter beyond a 
doubt. Moreover dogs are so very quick in seizing any indication given them, even 
unintentionally, that, on the whole, the attempt was not satisfactory to my mind. 

I was the more discouraged from continuing the experiment in this manner by 
an account Mr. Huggins gave me of a very intelligent dog belonging to him. 
Cards were placed on the ground, numbered from 1 to 10; and a question being 


6+2-3 


then asked: the square root of 9 or 16; or such a sum as , Mr. Huggins 


pointed consecutively to the cards, and the dog backed when he came to the right 
one. Now Mr. Huggins did not consciously give the dog any sign, yet so quick 
was the dog in seizing the slightest indication, that he was able to give the correct 
answer. This observation seems to me of great interest in connection with the so- 
called ‘ thought-reading.’ No one, I suppose, will imagine that there was in this 
case any ‘ thought-reading’ in the sense in which this word is used by Mr. Bishop 
and others. Evidently the dog seized upon the slight indications unintentionally 
given by Mr. Huggins. I have brought this question before the Section in hope of 


inducing others with more leisure and opportunity to carry on similar observations, 
which I cannot but think must lead to interesting results. 


3. On the Development of the Food-fishes at the St. Andrews Marine 
Laboratory. By Epwarp E. Prince. 


After referring to the literature of the subject and the incomplete state of our 
lmowledge of the embryology of the osseous fishes of British seas, the author pro- 
ceeded to give details of the deposition of the ova in certain species. Of about 
twenty forms, deep-sea and littoral, studied in the St. Andrews Marine Laboratory, 
attention was specially directed, chiefly on account of their economic importance, 
to the six following“ species, viz., Gadus merlangus, G. morrhua, G. e@glefinus, 
Trigla gurnardus, Pleitronectes flesus, and P. limanda. Amongst these species, 
the ova of which are pelagic, differences in the manner and duration of deposition 
probably obtain. Thus the extrusion of ova in the Pleuronectidz would appear to 
be more rapid and continuous than in Trigla gurnardus and the gadoids, in which 
the act of spawning is, it would seem, intermittent and prolonged. The examina~- 

4a2 


1092 REPORT—1885. 


tion of the spermatozoa reveals no marked differences, except that of size, the usual 
enlarged head and motile filament being distinguishable in all.’ 

The ova treated of in this paper are extremely buoyant, and float, in the living 
and healthy condition, as minute transparent globes, near the surface of the water. 
Loss of buoyancy and transparency, as Professor McIntosh’s observations! have 
shown, indicate an unhealthy or non-living state. After the germinal vesicle, readily 
seen in immature intra-ovarian eggs, is no longer distinguishable, the ovum consists 
of (a) a central globular deutoplasm, destitute of oil-globules in British Gadoids aud 
flat fishes, but exhibiting in 7. gurnardus a single, pale salmon-coloured oil- 
globule like that of Brosmius americanus, a noteworthy American Gadoid ; (6) a 
cortical protoplasmic film, containing minute vesicles and granules; (¢) a thin 
external hyaline capsule, separated from the vitelline mass by a narrow space, the 
‘breathing chamber’ of Newport. The capsule is tough, structureless, slightly 
resilient, free from punctures or striations, and varies in thickness in different 
species. Thus in P. mands its thickness is ‘0001 in.; P. flesus, 000125 in.; G. 
morrhua, ‘00025 in.; and 7. gurnardus, ‘0005 in. One aperture, the micropyle, 
pierces the capsule, and in the species here treated of, it presents the usual simple 
features, being generally situated, excentrically, in the lowermost (germinal) 
segment of the ovum. After fertilisation, the ovum becomes clearer and more 
tense, and a movement of the superficial protoplasm towards the germinal pole 
commences. The surface of the deutoplasmic globe presents at this time a corru- 
gated appearance, but the areas of transference were less definite than Ryder 
indicates,” The cortical protoplasm collects as a germinal disc or cap, which seg- 
ments in the usual manner and performs a retrogressive movement spreading once 
more over the yelk, and epibolically enveloping it. Irregularity in cleavage is 
common, resulting in asymmetry of the disc. ‘his feature was especially notice- 
able in the two reniform cells of the ovum of 7. gurnardus, after the first cleavage, 
but symmetry was restored when the polycelled stages were reached, In some 
forms the blastodermic scutum presents a more acuminate central promontory than 
in others. It is acute in G. merlangus and S. fario (Oellacher), Jess so in G. 
morrhua and T. vipera (G. Brook), quite obtuse in G. eglefinus, T. gurnardus, P. 
flesus, Motella mustela (Brook), and Perea fluviatilis (Lereboullet). ‘The inwardly- 
directed point of the scutum forms the snout of the embryo, and a thickening 
extends outwards (radially) which indicates the developing trunk, The cephalic 
swelling, the neurochord, the mesoblastic muscular plates, develop in the usual 
way, and between the latter the notochord is pushed up. 

The differentiation of the notochord is coincident in many species with the 
closure of the blastopore, e.g., G. merlangus, G. morrhua, P. flesus, and P. limanda ; 
but in 7. vipera and M. mustela it precedes, while in G. eglefinus and T. gurnardus 
it succeeds the closure by an interval of one or two days. A like variation obtains 
in the time of the appearance of Kupfer’s vesicle. 

Several features were next referred to as probably diagnostic, and therefore 
worthy of note, viz., the formation of a protoplasmic reticulation upon the surface 
of the yelk in P. limanda on the eighth day; the appearance of one or more colour- 
less enucleate stellate structures, on the yelk surface beyond the lateral margin of the 
embryo, in G. merlangus on the seventh day. This latter structure assumes the form 
of a ‘ bone-corpuscle,’ and was observed in no other species studied at St. Andrews. 
T. gurnardus, previous to the act of emergence, exhibits on the yelk-surface many 
minute protoplasmic elevations from which pseudopodial processes protrude, Each 
is isolated and exhibits a nucleus and nucleoli. 

Pioment appears to have a diagnostic value in the case of Teleostean embryos, 
though the study of a very extended series of forms can alone establish the conten- 
tion that it affords a reliable means of identification. Pigment appears earliest in 
P. flesus, and as described by Professor McIntosh,® is ‘of a peculiar pale olive-brown 
(brownish-yellow by transmitted light), whereas in P. limanda it is of a more dis- 


1 Report of H.M.s Trawling Commission, 1884, pp. 31-33. 

2 United States Fish Commissioners’ Report, 1882. ‘Embryography of Osseous 
Fishes,’ Pl. I. figs. 6 and 7. 

8 Second Annual Report Scottish Fishery Board. Appendix F. p. 47. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1093 


tinctive yellow colour, in fact, a rich amber shade. In the latter species the spots 
appear on the seventh day after deposition, and rapidly extend from the dorsum 
almost to the caudal termination. In neither species, however, is the yell-surface 
pigmented. G. merlangus shows no colouration till the eighth day, when nume- 
rous pale yellow spots, having a greenish tinge, appear confined chiefly to the 
dorsum, but soon extending over the whole trunk, the embryonal fin and the 
yelk-surface. ‘The two remaining Gadoids exhibit black pigment only. It appears 
in G. morrhua on the seventh day (in a series which emerged from the ovum on 
the ninth day); but in G. eglefinus (which emerged on the twentieth day) it was 
visible on the eleventh day. The spots are at first amorphous, and numerous on 
the dorsum; but they rapidly extend over the tail, and become densely aggregated 
in the mesenteric region. The ‘shoulder,’ above the pectoral fins is also thickly 
pigmented. The embryo of 7. gurnardus exhibits scantily distributed pigment, at 
tirst of a pale sea-green tint, intermingled, two days later, with yellow corpuscles 
and minute black spots. This colouration also appears in the protoplasmic invest- 
ment of the oil-globule present in this species. 

In the development of the sense-organs, &c., no special features were observed 
in the species studied. The embryo remains quiescent in the lower segment of the 
ovum until the cardiac pulsations commence. The rhythmical movement of the 
heart, many days prior to the existence of a hemal circulation, or indeed of a 
hzmal fluid, is an interesting physiological phenomenon, and is coincident generally 
or slightly subsequent to the appearance of pigment in the epiderm. It is note- 
worthy that the first motion of the embryonic trunk (in each series of ova studied 
in the St. Andrews Marine Laboratory) took place on the day preceding liberation, 
when the tail, now free from attachment to the velk, is flexed and relaxed violently. 
These erratic movements probably assist in facilitating extrusion from the capsule. 
The newly-emerged embryos are extremely sensitive and delicate, and swim in a 
reversed position for some time. Neither mouth nor anus is developed, but 
branchial arches are indicated, though the clefts are incomplete. The Pleuronec- 
tide are even more rudimentary than the newly-hatched Gadoids, and exception 
must be taken to the statement of Mr. G. Brook! that the Gadide differ from all 
other teleosteans in the late formation of the anus. The oral aperture usually 
appears at the end of the first week, and one or two days later the proctodeum 
can be detected. The formation of large sub-epidermal spaces, especially in the 
cephalic region of the embryo, is a remarkable feature, the skin, as Ryder remarks,” 
‘is lifted off, perceptibly, from the underlying structures,’ and the interspace formed 
is filled with a transparent plasma. Young embryos a week old assume a 
very grotesque appearance on account of thisanterior enlargement. Simultaneously 
the epiderm becomes nodulate, the eyes are deeply pigmented, and a simple arterial 
and venous circulation is established. The deutoplasm continues visibly to de- 
crease, though there is no yelk-circulation in the species here considered. 

With regard to the conditions of temperature, so important in these investiga- 
tions, the attempt is made in the St. Andrews Marine Laboratory to keep the 
water in the tanks at the same temperature as the sea outside. The laboratory is 
almost completely surrounded by sea-water, and by a continuous supply from St. 
Andrews Bay, a constant circulation is maintained through the tanks, which is 
highly favourable for rearing young teleosteans. It was thus possible to keep the 
temperature at about 40° F. during March and April, rising to 48° and 50° F, in 
May and June, these being the months during which the species here considered 
were reared and studied. 


4. On the Nest and Development of Gastrosteus spinachia at the 
St. Andrews Marine Laboratory. By Epwarp E. Prince. 


This paper was chiefly a record of observations made upon the nidification and 
development of the ova of this common Teleostean in the St. Andrews Marine 


1 Linnean Society Journal, vol. xviii. p. 304. 
2 United States Fish Commissioners’ Report, 1882, p. 530. 
3 Published in extenso with figures in the Ann. Nat. Hist. for December 1885. 


1094 REPORT—1885. 


Laboratory. It was shown that the size of the nest depended upon the character 
of the materials employed and upon the number of female fishes resorting to a 
single nest; and it was pointed out that the dimensions (5-8 centimetres) named 
by Professor Mébius were often very much exceeded. If the fronds of the larger 
Algze (Fuci &c.) be chosen, the nest is pear-shaped or cylindrical, and of greater 
capacity (length 8-10 inches, and diameter, widest part, 5-6 inches) than when 
more minute seaweeds (Ceramium, Coralina, &c.) are selected. In the latter case 
the nest is more spherical, and 3-5 inches in diameter. Compactness is secured by 
binding threads upon the outside, which are often so disposed as to form a reticula- 
tion, the crossing cords enclosing lozenge-shaped spaces. The substance of the 
cords is a secretion which exudes from the epithelial cells of the sinuous urinary 
canals. The cells present (as transverse sections show), at the latter end of April 
and during May and June, a swollen appearance. The secretion is not merely a 
semi-solid plasm ; but, before reaching the spacious ureters at the external border 
of the kidney, assumes a marked funicular character. It is colourless, opalescent 
when freshly extruded, and of mucilaginous consistency. Mébius determined its 
nitrogenous composition: carmine stains it deeply, it becomes opaque in spirit, 
and after exposure to sea-water (for 2-3 days) it turns transparent grey or dirty 
white. It is thus a form of Mucin peculiarly modified, possessing extraordinary 
elasticity, and it is stored up in the urinary bladder. This structure is dispropor- 
tionately developed, pyriform, and describes a double curve, posterior to the cervix, 
before debouching behind the genital pore into a urino-genital sinus forming the 
posterior portion of the cloacal depression, into which the anus also opens. The 
weaving operation as seen in the tanks of the laboratory was referred to, and the 
structure of the cords then described. Each cord (‘0046-0051 in, in diameter) 
consists of several strands (‘0008—-00092 in. in diameter), and these constituent 
threads, again, are made up of fine homogeneous filaments adhering in parallel 
order, ‘he nest is so constructed by the male as to leave numerous irregular 
chambers, in each of which the female deposits some ova. ‘The ova are extremely 
ellipsoidal, disproportionately large, and the soft tenacious capsule assisted by an 
ovarian plasm causes them to adhere strongly together. If torn asunder facets or 
scars on the capsule mark the points of attachment to adjacent ova. The colour 
is a delicate pale green, which soon changes to the characteristic translucent amber 
tint. The hyaline capsule has a thickness of ‘0013 in., and is separable into 20 
to 30 lamelle. It is minutely punctured, the pits being arranged in parallel rows. 
A large mass of loosely aggregated oil globules occupies the vegetative pole. Two 
hours after fertilisation the cap is completed at the germinal pole, and sezmenta- 
tion presents the usual features, though it is comparatively slow. On the fourth 
day the nuclei of the periblast appear, and by the eighth day the embryonal thick- 
ening is well marked, epiboly having proceeded over two-thirds of the yelk surface. 
At the close of the same day the mesoblastic muscular plates are well-defined. 
Closure of the blastopore is effected on the twelfth day, and soon after Kupfer's 
vesicle is distinguishable. By the seventeenth day the heart assumes the campa- 
nulate shape; and the protovertebree are marked off from the otocystic region to 
the caudal plate. A heemal circulation is visible, though languid, on the nine- 
teenth day, and by simple lacunze hollowed out of the yelk-cortex spacious pas- 
sages are formed, and a yelk circulation, by the twentieth day, is in vigorous 
action. The young fish shows movement on the nineteenth day, and the first 
embryos emerge on the twenty-fifth day. The centrally-situated ova develop more 
slowly, many of these not hatching until the fortieth day. The water of the 
tanks varied from 41° F. in May to 50° or 51° F. early in June, and the general 
conditions of the laboratory being unusually favourable for the development of ova 
of marine fishes, the phenomena observed may be taken as almost normal. 


5. On the Reproduction of the Common Mussel (Mytilus edulis, L.) 
By Joan Witson. 


The common mussel is completely dicecious, and is peculiar in having the 
sexual elements developed in the mantle as well as in a wedge-shaped central 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1095 


mass. Professor McIntosh has pointed out that the mussel reaches full re- 
productive maturity in April, and that there is a gradual disappearance of the ova 
or spermatozoa during June and July, until, in the latter month, most examples are 
quite empty. The female generative organs are almost invariably redder than the 
male, and the groups of sperm-sacs are more prominent than the ovigerous masses. 
When an incision is made in the fully ripe male or female organ, a creamy fluid 
issues, holding respectively immense numbers of spermatozoa or ova. In the ovary 
the ova are surrounded by a transparent hyaline investment, and, when fully 
ripe, the germinal area and germinal spot are lost to view, the vitellus becoming 
densely granular. The genital canal is readily seen, and microscopic sections show 
it to be clothed internally with ciliated epithelium. Natural fertilisation in all 
likelihood takes place in the surrounding water. Artificial fertilisation is easily 
accomplished. A piece of tissue containing spermatozoa is minced in a watch-glass 
with sea-water, and a little of the milky liquid decanted into another glass. Into 
the latter is then poured a little liquid containing ova procured in the same way. 
The glass is kept cool, and in half an hour the milkiness is removed from the liquid 
by repeated washings, and particles of débris sucked up by a fine pipette. Hach 
ovum has now a considerable number of spermatozoa attached to it, and their 
wriggling causes it to rotate. In about four hours the clear polar or direction-cell 
appears. Decreasing vigour and changes of temperature cause conflicting results as 
to the time certain developmental stages are reached. Fertilisation so late as 
August 1 was partially successful. The writer's earliest attempt (and it was the 
most successful) was made in the beginning of June. The first segmentation takes 
place immediately after the appearance of the polar cell, resulting in a larger 
segment (macromere) and a smaller (micromere). Repeated budding of the micro- 
mere takes place, and in six or seven hours the embryo assumes its most irregular 
form. Thereafter it is gradually reduced to a more regular shape, and in ten hours 
the brownish granular contents have disappeared. In fifteen or eighteen hours the 
shape is almost spherical, and the contour is broken by the projecting part of what 
is probably the still undivided macromere. The free edge of this body is crenate. 
‘The existence of a central cavity can now be made out, the polar cell still persists 
in many cases, and the embryo rotates by means of minute cilia which seem to 
cover the greater part of its surface. Two examples (of distinct series), forty-three 
hours old, were characterised by having, besides the minute cilia, in the one case 
one strong cilium at least as long as the diameter of the embryo ; in the other by 
two cilia somewhat longer. In both forms there were features indicating approach- 
ing differentiation of structure. Embryos have been kept alive for four days, but 
not in a healthy condition. 

The very youngest forms taken by the tow-net from the surface of St. Andrews 
Bay, where, in July and August, they abound in great numbers, have the body 
wholly enveloped in a transparent shell, and the various organs are still very 
rudimentary. By the time they sink to the bottom, the foot, byssus gland, 
revolying otoliths, liver, and gill-papille are well seen. The foot, which is 
ciliated at the tip, adhesive, and extremely extensile, is the means ‘of active 
locomotion. Amongst the smallest examples of a previous season, many not more 
than one-eighth of an inch in length contained in their tissue either ova or 
spermatozoa, presenting no appreciable difference from those of the adults. They 
were probably not more than a year old. 


6. On the Modification of the Trochal Dise of the Rotifera. 
By Professor A. G. Bournz, D.Sc., F.L.S. 


It is now a generally accepted theory that this structure is the homologue of 
the ciliated bands of the larve of Echinoderms, Chetopods, Molluscs, &c., and of 
the tentaculiferous apparatus of Polyzoa and Gephyrea, and is often termed in 
common with these a ‘velum,’ This velum presents itself in various stages of 
complexity. It is found as a single cireum-oral ring (Pildiwm), as a single pree- 
oral ring (Cheetopod laryz), or as a single pre-oral ring, co-existing with one or 


1096 REPORT—1885. 


more post-oral rings (Cheetoped larve, Holothurian larve). We may here assume 
that the ancestral condition was a single circum-oral ring associated with a ter- 
minal mouth and the absence of an anus, and that the existence of other rings 
posterior to this is an expression of metameric segmentation, é.e., a repetition of 
similar parts. With the development of a prostomiate condition a certain change 
necessarily takes place in the position of this band; a portion of it comes to lie 
longitudinally, but it may still remain a single band, as in the larvee of many Echi- 
noderms. How have the other above-mentioned conditions of the velum come. 
about? How has the pre-oral band been developed? Two views have been held 
with regard to this question. According to the one view, the fact whether the 
single band is a pre-oral or a post-oral one depends upon the position in which 
the anus is about to develop. If the anus develops in such a position that 
mouth and anus lie upon one and the same side of the band, the latter becomes pree- 
oral; if, however, the anus develops so that mouth and anus lie upon opposite 
sides of the band, the band becomes post-oral. If we hold this view, we must 
consider any second band, whether pre- or post-oral, to arise as a new development. 
The other view premises that the anus always forms so as to leave the primitive ring 
or ‘architroch’ post-oral, z.e., between mouth and anus, Concurrently with the 
development of a prostomium this architroch somewhat changes its position, and 
the two lateral portions come to lie longitudinally ; these may be supposed to have: 
met in the median dorsal line, and to have coalesced, so as to leave two rings, the 
one pre-oral (a ‘cephalotroch’), the other post-oral (a ‘branchiotroch’). This 
latter may atrophy, leaving the single pre-oral ring, or it may become further 
developed and thrown into more or less elaborate folds. 

The existing condition of the trochal disc or velum in the Rotifera seems to 
the author to bear out the latter view as to the way in which the modifications of . 
the yelum may have come about; further, these results may be well compared 
with those recently obtained by Selenka in the Sipunculids. The trochal dise in 
the Rotifera in its simplest condition forms a single circum-oral ring, as in Micro- 
codon. 'This simple ring may be thrown into folds, so forming a series of processes 
standing up around the mouth; this is the condition in Stephanoceros. There are, 
however, but few forms presenting this simple condition, and it must be remembered 
that the evidence for the assumption here made is at present inconclusive. This 
band may, while remaining single and perfectly continuous, become prolonged 
around a lobe overhanging the mouth—a prostomium, This condition occurs in 
Philodina; the two sides of the post-oral ring do not meet dorsally, but are carried 
up, and are continuous with the row of cilia lining the ‘wheels.’ There is thus 
one continuous ciliated band, a portion which runs up in front of the mouth. 
This condition corresponds to that of the Auricularian larva. The folding of the 
band has become already somewhat complicated. We have only to go a slight step 
further and the prostomial portion of the band becomes separated as a distinct ring, a 
cephalotroch. We find such a stage in Lacinularia, where both cephalotroch and 
branchiotroch remain fairly simple in shape. In Melicerta the branchiotroch is 
becoming thrown into folds. Lastly, we find that in such forms as Brachionus the 
cephalotroch becomes first convoluted and then discontinuous, and further it may 
become so reduced as to be represented only by a few isolated tufts. In such a 
form as Lindia the branchiotroch has become reduced to be two small patches at 
the sides of the head. 


7. On Budding in the Oligocheta. 
By Professor A. G. Bourne, D.Sc., F.D.S. 


The author, while working at the Naidide with the view of preparing a 
monograph upon the group, has been enabled to make a series of observations upon 
the exact method of formation of the bud. The observations here described were 
made upon Nats (Stylaria) proboscidea, and there appears to be some variation in 
the process, as it occurs in different genera or species. In JN. proboscidea, when 
budding is about to commence, a slight thickening of one of the septa which 
separate one ccelomic seyment from another occurs. This thickening increases, 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1097 


the body-wall in the region thickens, and an actual budding region is here formed. 
This new region elongates and presents a solid appearance. The alimentary canal 
erows in this region, but the newly-formed portion is at first unpigmented, and 
may still be detected at a much later period by its lighter colour ; its lumen remains, 
however, all the time, and a continuous line of fsecal matter may be observed. 

This budding region divides into two portions. The anterior portion develops 
numerous sete, and gives rise to an indefinite number of segments which form the 
tail of the old worm: the posterior portion develops four pairs of ventral sete. 
This development taking place from before backwards, and subsequently at its an- 
terior region, the characteristic proboscis is developed, and the two individuals 
separate. The budding region usually forms between the 25th and 26th segments, 
so that the 26th segment of the parent worm becomes the 5th segment of the 
posterior daughter worm, the four anterior segments of this worm never presenting 
dorsal sete. This condition, moreover, obtains in all the individuals, whether 
sexual or otherwise, of Nais proboscidea, i.e., there are four anterior modified 
(cephalized) segments, The number of such segments varies in different species of 
the group. 


8. Demonstration of a new Meneron. By Professor D’Arcy W. THompson. 


9. On the Blastopore and Mesoblast of Sabella. 
By Professor D'Arcy W. Trompson. 


10. On the Annelids of the Genus Dero. By E. C. Bousrretp. 


The annelids belonging to the genus Dero are allied by most of their external 
characters to the Naides, but are distinguished from them— 

1. By the absence of eyes. 

2. By the absence of corpuscles from the perivisceral fluid. 

3. By the termination of the body ina wide membranous expansion bearing 
four branchial processes. 

This expansion, or branchial area, is essentially a prolongation and opening out 
of the posterior part of the intestine, and is covered on its non-ciliated surface by 
the general integument of the body. It is highly contractile, this property being 
due to the presence of numerous stellate muscle-cells between the respiratory and 
epidermal walls. Between these walls also run the blood-vessels, the arrangement 
of which is in this part of their course much modified from the type which 
characterises the genus Nais. The abdominal vessel runs along the middle of the 
branchial area and divides at its termination into two branches, which run round 
the area, giving off looped branches to the branchial processes (one to each) ard 
also branches which cross the area obliquely. The branches of each side unite in 
a common trunk, and the two trunks together furm the dorsal vessel. The bran- 
chial processes are elevations of the ciliated surface of the area, and as already 
stated contain a looped blood-vessel, this being surrounded by a hollow cone of 
muscular elements, by means of which the processes are lengthened or shortened 
at the will of the animal. 

Very various accounts are extant with respect to the number of the processes, 
but in no case do more than four arise from the floor of the area, and sometimes: 
two supplementary ones of much smaller size on the margin of the latter, where it 
joins the dorsal surface of the body. Wherever a greater number has been de- 
scribed than three pairs, it is due to the fact that the expanded edges of the 
branchial area, seen in profile, or perpendicularly, have been mistaken for addi- 
tional ones, and to arrive at a correct estimate it is absolutely necessary to examine 
the animal without any pressure whatever. The form of the processes varies in 
different species. It is cylindrical in D. Perrier’ and palpiyera ; flattened-cylindrical 
in Jatissima; foliate, with rounded apices, in phelippinensis, limosa, and obtusa ; 


1098 REPORT—1885. 


and in acuta the outline is that of a long isosceles triangle, with the sides about 
two to three times the length of the base. 

The chief works on the subject are as follows:—Miiller, ‘Die Wiirmen,’ &c., 
1775 (digitata) ; Roésel, ‘ Insecten-Belustigung,’ 1761 (palpigera) ; D’Udekem, 
‘Bull. Ac. Roy. Brux.’ 1855 (obtusa and digitata) ; Semper, ‘ Arbeit. Zool. Inst. 
Wurzb.’ 1877 ( philippinensis and Rodriguez-palpigera); Leidy, ‘ American Natu- 
ralist,’ 1880 (limosa); Vejdovsky, ‘System und Morphologie der Oligochaeten,’ 
1884 (the whole subject); Perrier, ‘ Arch. de Zool. Experiment, 1872 (obtusa ?). 
I have not found it possible to identify Miiller’s species as yet. His figures have 
been copied by all who have given figures of D. digitata, and no trustworthy one 
exists. Recent writers have only recorded the fact of having found it, or given 
a verbal description. Perrier’s D. obtusa is a new species, and I have named it 
D. Perriert for convenience of reference. D. latissima is described for the first 
time. D. acuta is also new. It is probably one of the ¢wo species figured as 
digitata by Miller. D. palpigera of Grebincky was first figured by Rosel (loc. cit.), 
and redescribed as D. Rodriguezii by Semper. The latter also described D. philip- 
pinensis, but did not figure it, so that the identification of it is doubtful; a remark 
which also applies to imosa, of which only a small outline figure is extant. 
Further investigation may prove that the species which I have described and 
figured under those names are new British species, in which case all the species 
included in my diagnosis, except palpigera, are British, and to be found near 
London. Their number will probably be added to as time goes on. 

The following is a complete list of known species :— 

1. Dero obtusa. The processes short, stunted, flat, four in number. 

2. Dero Perriert. Four cylindrical processes, well developed. 

3. Dero latissima. Four long flattened cylindrical processes; the branchial 
area expanded into two large wings. 

4, Dero palpigera. ‘The branchial area terminating in two long, non-ciliated 
tentacles. The branchial processes four long cylindrical, and two shorter supple- 
mentary ones. 

5. Dero limosa. Four foliate processes, of considerable length; two short 
supplementary cylindrical ones springing from the angles of dorsal lip. 

6. Dero philippinensis. Characters as imosa, but the supplementary processes 
springing from a common root. 

7. Dero digitata. The last segment terminating in two very long processes ; 
four branchial processes. 

8. Dero acuta. Characters as limosa, but the four branchial processes long and. 
triangular, and the area convex in full expansion, with everted edges. 

The foregoing descriptions apply to the asexual form; I have only seen the 
sexual form of the second and third species named. 


11. On some little known Fresh-water Annelids. By HE. C. Bousriexp. 


12. On the Coloration of the Anterior Segments in the Malanide. 
By Professor ALLEN Harker, F'.L.S. 


13. Systématique du genre Polygordius. By Juumen Frarponr. 


14. On some of our Migratory Birds, as first seen in Aberdeenshire. 
By James TAyior. 


Some notes on the first arrival of our summer visitants among birds, so as to 
give some idea of spring migratory movements. The migration of birds and its 
causes have occupied the thoughts of eminent ornithologists, It is not our purpose 
to understand the principle of instinctive movements, but sufficient to say that 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1099 


many of these may be traced to the laws which regulate the movements of animal 
economy and directed by their constitutional impulses, as one class of birds seeks 
more genial climates before the approach of winter, and where their food supplies 
can be obtained, and on the other, when the storms and frost of winter have been 
removed, those wandering world-wide citizens find fields and pastures new. It 
is only their first appearance that can be noticed and noted with care, and thus 
form an index of their certain movement, and that times and season are not 
things of chance. Although they make their appearance under different surround- 
ings, their departure is not so easily noticed because in some cases they leave one 
by one, or in small flocks, and if like the lapwings, the birds old and young gather 
from July to October into larger and larger flocks of several hundreds, and perhaps 
seen to-day and to-morrow all have left, without any apparent cause either of 
food or climatic conditions. Their spring and autumn movements are like their 
eall-notes, breeding-notes, or song-notes; they are constitutional, and manifest 
themselyes when required. We might as well say it is instinct that causes a 
flower to bloom and assume its natural and inherent colours; the impulses are 
constitutional, and manifest themselves from earliest life; they are not simple 
but compound, connected with their physical and procreative functions relating to 
each animal’s life-history and worked into their brain system, and thus become 
reproduced, in successive generations it becomes stereotyped, so that in most 
cases external influences have little or no effect, either to cause or retard these 
migratory movements. ‘True, these outward conditions may quicken or lengthen 
these movements, but they can neither stop nor arrest them, and even by their de- 
structive influence lessen their number, as under favourable conditions may increase 
them. And this is true in migratory birds in all parts of the world when their lines 
of migrations can be traced. Many years ago, when passing through these 
migratory lines in Arctic seas, we have observed them in their long journeys to their 
breeding and feeding grounds, both in spring and on their return south in autumn, 
from the small red-polled linnets, Linaria borealis. Gould, the snow bunting, Plectro- 
phanes nivalis, Linn., and the Lapland lark bunting, P. Lapponica, Seb., and also the 
large birds both land and sea, such as the peregrine falcon, the cormorant, Phala- 
crocorax carbo, Steph. It is a well-known fact that many of the smaller land birds 
are caught in the rigging of ships, and some of the larger if the storm of snow or 
rain with frost continues sufficiently long, the cause of which is frozen ice or snow 
that accumulates on their feathers so much increasing their weight that flight 
becomes impossible, and they perish and vast numbers die. Again, in aquatic 
birds the cause is different from that. During a snow storm they lose the ice-coat, 
from whatever cause they from their low mode of flight under such often travel far 
on the land, and strike against objects and thus perish, to be understood from the 
accounts of lighthouses and ships. In our temperate climate one of the chief causes 
of delay and loss of life among migratory birds is rain and wet misty fog, the 
one a storm of wind and rain, the other a long continuance of dull foggy mist when 
almost everything is invisible, the birds become weighted by the accumulation of 
water on their feathers, so that they find it impossible to continue their flight, sink 
down from exhaustion in the sea, perish on the land, die from exhaustion and want 
of food. One fact well known is, that during foggy weather the young jackdaws 
and hooded crows are caught in large numbers, because when once wetted with 
dew they cannot rise. It is often by this means that the arrival of our migratory 
birds is delayed, but at the same time it is remarkable how little difference there 
is, taking one year with another. Climatic causes tend from accident to diminish 
their number rather than affect the regularity of their visits. Another point of 
equal importance is their departure, but the means of ascertaining it is more 
difficult, because some birds move in large bodies, while others move in small 
flocks. If these remarks give any interest to the subject of the arrival and depar- 
ture of our migratory birds over the country, it in time will add much to our 
knowledge of their life-history and habits. 


1100 REPORT—1885. 


The Spring arrival of Birds in Aberdeenshire from 1855 to 1885. 


House swallow, Hirundo urbica, Linn. 


1855. May 10 1865. April 25 1876, April 28 
WSb6.) 05) gee 1866; 3, ..2) SU Case 
1857. April 22 WEGTe al ayy LS 1878. May 4 
1658. ne 1868. ,, 29 1879. April 15 
1859. 4, 20 1869. ,, 20 130; eee 
1860, May 7 Tero. 7. | 19 1881. ,, 20 
1861. April 19 feat Vega Heeb se 
1862. May 1 Ui Bey 1883) sal 
1863. , 56 See Sais, 1884. yo) p20 
1864, April 18 1875. May 1 1885. May © 8 
Chimney swallow, Hirundo rustica, Linn. 
1855. April 6 1865. May 1 1875. April 10 
L856) hes ton 1866. ,, 16 T8763) has 
1857. May 1 1867. April “i 187 7k snl 
1858. April 18 1868 i 1878. ,, 10 
1869F, 1% S10 18694,%%5, 7 1879. May 3 
1860. ,, 20 USZO Ming 27 1880. April 20 
186Lie 56 Lb NOT, 0, 5027. 1881. ,, 13 
NSGZ AME Feenli7 US72s a gs Ai 1882 5urss lO 
ISSR, 0vr4,¢r 198 1873. ,, 29 1883. 4/8 
1864. May 3 1874. ,, 23 1884, ,, 15 
Bank martin, Hirundo riparia, Linn. 

1855, April 10 1865. April 17 1875. April 24 
S56; wins LO WGO. se oe? ilSyaSw 3 

1857. May 5 dNS{CVi5 = Seed} 1877. May 4 
lich emg 1868. May 1 lksyitcnes pepe 
tegen 7 1869. 10 te7o"t! rane 
1860. ,, 22 1870. April 18 1880. April 28 
1861. ,, 20 1871. ., 30 1881. May 2 
VSG200 oF 16 1872. May 4 1882. ae 
USGas we ne Its VA8 an dew at) 1883, 10 
18645, 10 Ney ey wee le: 1884, April 27 

Common cuckoo, Cuculus canorus, Linn., first heard.! 
1855. May 12 1865, April 22 1875. May 6 
1856. -,, 10 1866, May 4 187 Gsclislarsanee 
TET sighs 6 18674: si,eait 3 177i} Seal 
ASBB. noid 1868, April 28 1878 .:050 ae 
1859, April 28 1869, May 10 1879. 5, 2 
1860. May 7 LS7Ob aries) eG LSSO0n cng, hata 
1961. +, > 5 Hiden a? ve 18Sh. sister 
1862. ,, 4 1B 7,21 10 1882, April 20 
168.4, tgyebboyth Gis, obtgeil'3 1883;\; yp sen 
1864, April 23 WS74shinly aot 1 1884,, «; ,5-f ee 
Common swift, Cypselus apus, Flem. 

1855. May 13 1858. May 16 1861. May 7 
1856. ,, 14 1859. ,, 165 1862, , 4 
Say 65 eye UY) L860! ;7""9 18630 10 


1 The cuckoo is generally heard from three to five days earlier in the more inland 
woody districts than on the coast. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1101 


1864. May 7 1871. May 11 1878. May 20 

1865, ,, 10 18725"",,° =28 NS7O4s, LZ 

HEBGGE GLA 1873. ,, 14 1880. ,, 3 

HSB7. 5) BD STA LT ISM pa ake 

EGS. 5.) ...9 Ua 33) LO MbelevEcriuet 76 

1869. ,, 10 SIGe et WS8a an elo 

1870. ,, 13 LEV Feme pie paar! 1S ease 220 

Corncrake, Crea pratensis, Bechst., first heard, 
1855. May 22 1865. May 4 1875. May 10 
1856. ,, 18 ASGGHF. 1:7 184Ghiny sa OS 
1857. , 16 BSEP! ei, 1 mS AS7Y. alt, eT LO 
1858. ,, 18 1868. April 26 1878. , 16 
#809, 135) 9 1869. May 11 IS7Onets, ee21 
SCO 15,16 PSZONs 1 MLS LS80siaes he OE 
vr; ee 1871. ,, 20 LEBB I sss 
1862. , 4 USF2 ens e: 1882510. 1,,00 22 
HBESS). 55) Seid 1873. ,, 20 18835) 95,i0t5 
1864. ,, 12 1874. ,, 10 1884. , 3 
Crested lapwing, Vanellus cristatus, Meyer. 

1855. March 2 1866. March 28 1877. March 10 
1856. , 19 1867.5 55,10 iksyfcRe ae 2 
1857. Feb. 19 i Re Som) ee mrells} 1879, April 1 
1858. March 13 W869. tas Le 1880, March 4 
1859. , 20 ISAO cas ay Lo 1881. Jan. 381 
EGOS diese tlt 1G LG 1882. March 10 
1861. Feb. 20 Lye a7 SBS Tay eel 
1862. March 10 TECH Sage!) 1884, Feb. 16 
1863. Feb. 29 1874. ,, 10 1885. March 10 
1864, March 17 TST DOR ss csheld 

SOD ce base nd TS 7Or cm (LS 


SuppLemMEenTAaRY Mertinc.—ANATOMY. 


1, On the Connection of the Os odontoidiwm with the centrum of the aais 
vertebra. By Professor D. J. Cunnincuay, F.R.S. 


2. On the Curvature of the Spine in the Fetus and Child. 
By Dr. Jounston Symineron. 


3. On the Bronchial Syrina of the Cuculide and Caprimulgide. 
By Frank E. Bepparp, I.A., F.R.S.E. 


In this paper the author called attention fo the bronchial syrinx hitherto only 
Inown in Crotophaga and Steatornis; it was found to be present in other 
cuckoos and goatsuckers, and showed a parallel series of modifications in both 


groups. 


1102 REPORT—1885. 


4. Contributions to the Structure of the Oligocheta.1 
By Frank E. Bepparp, M.A., F.R.S.E. 


The present paper is a brief abstract of certain results obtained from the study 
of a number of different genera and species of earthworms lately received from 
New Zealand, the Philippine Islands, and the Cape Colony, through the kindness 
of Professor T. J. Parker, Mr. H. E. Barwell, and the Rey. G. R. Fisk. 

(1) Nephridia.—Perrier has called attention to a remarkable inconstancy in the 
position of the nephridial pores in different genera of earthworms. In Lumbricus’ 
and other genera the external pores are placed near to the more dorsal pair of sete 
in all the segments of the body; in Anteus the nephridial pores have a similar 
relation to the ventral pair of setae ; finally in Pontodrilus the nephridial aper- 
tures alternate in position from segment to segment, sometimes being placed by 
one of the dorsal, at other times by one of the ventral pair of sete. These facts 
seem to indicate the typical presence in earthworms of two series of nephridia 
each corresponding to one of the two pairs of setee—an hypothesis originally put 
forward by Lankester. Other earthworms besides Pontodrilus present this same 
alternation in the position of the nephridial pores; in two species of Acanthodrilus 
(A. novezelandiea, n. sp., A. dissimilis, u. sp.) the same series of facts were 
observed, but in these two species the dorsal and the ventral series of nephridia 
differed not merely in their position but also in their structure, which latter fact 
perhaps tends to still further support the hypothesis referred to above. The 
hypothesis of a single nephridium to each pair of setes may be true enough for 
those earthworms where the sete are disposed in pairs, but it is not sufficient to 
account for the relations of the nephridia described by Perrier in Pontodrilus. 
Here the sete are in eight nearly equidistant longitudinal rows, other nephridial 
pores alternate not only from pair to pair of setee but from seta to seta of each 
pair, seeming to be the remnant of a series of nephridia to each one of the sete. 
That this is really the case is proved by the structure of another Acanthodrilus 
(A. multiporus, n. sp.) where the sete are similarly disposed in eight longi- 
tudinal rows of single sete, to each of which corresponds a nephridial tube and 
external orifice ; in the anterior region of the body the nephridial tubules branch 
and open by a multitude of orifices forming a continuous ring round each segment 
between the sete. The presence of more than a single pair of nephridia to each 
segment has already been noticed by Eisig in certain Capitellidz, and the ducts 
have been stated by W. Fischer to branch in the same way that has been described 
in Acanthodrilus multiporus. 

(2) Spermathece.—The spermathece of earthworms are in some species, as in 
Lumbricus, simple spherical sacs; in other species they are furnished with one or 
more diverticula. Sometimes the diverticula come to open into the exterior in- 
dependent of the spermathecee, as in certain species of Pericheta. In Microcheta, 
a large worm from the Cape Colony, there are no spermathecz like those of other 
earthworms, but a number of minute pouches in four segments of the body, vary- 
ing from one to four. These appear to correspond to the accessory pouches or 
diverticula of other species, and are placed close to the nephridia of their seg- 
ments. They have in fact much the same relation to the nephridium as the 
diverticula of Pericheta aspergillum (Perrier) have to the spermathece, which is 
a further argument in favour of regarding the spermathecze as modified nephridia. 
In Acanthodrilus multiporus, novezelandia, and dissimilis, the spermathece are 
furnished with diverticula which vary in number, but are characteristic for the 
species. In every case these diverticula differ in their minute structure from the 
spermathece ; and the fact that they are invariably packed with spermatozoa 
while the spermathecze are as invariably devoid of spermatozoa indicates that. 
their share in the process of fecundation differs from that of the spermathece. 

(8) Dorsal Blood-vessel.—Dr. Vejdovsky has recorded the fact that in Crio- 
drilus the dorsal vessel originates from two rudiments which at first form two dis- 
tinct tubes and only subsequently coalesce. In certain earthworms the (presumably) 


1 See No. 238, Proc. Roy. Soc. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION D. 1103 


embryonic condition persists throughout life. In Megascolea and Microcheta the 
anterior section of the dorsal vessel is double, the two vessels fusing together 
where they traverse the mesenterics. In Acanthodrilus novezelandie the dorsal 
vessel is double throughout the whole body, the two tubes becoming fused as 
in Megascolex at the mesenterics. In A. muléiporus the primitive condition is more 
completely retained, since there are two dorsal vessels which remain distinct as far 
as the anterior extremity, and do not fuse where they traverse the mesenterics, 


5. On the Cervical Vertebree in Balena mysticetus, Sc. 
By Professor Strutuers, M.D., LL.D. 


Hight specimens of Mysticetus showed the bodies completely consolidated, evem 
in the young state, with external indications. In some the first dorsal also united. 
Superior and inferior transverse processes slender and partially united externally. 
From his dissections of the soft parts in the Finners, the author could recognise the 
three stages of these transverse processes, the nerve-groove stage internally on the 
superior processes, externally on the inferior. The pedicles are much and variously 
atrophied. 

Numerous specimens of Globicephalus showed the stages of consolidation. The 
rudimentary bodies, though very thin, have their epiphyses. In the young the line 
between the atlas and axis is distinct. In a young specimen the change of position 
of the transverse processes in relation to the neuro-central suture between the 
8th and 10th dorsal vertebrze is well seen. 

Dissections of Beluga and Monodon (Narwhal) showed the deficient bony trans- 
verse processes to he fully represented by fibrous cords and bands completing the 
rings, 


6. On the Development of the Foot of the Horse. 
By Professor Strutuers, M.D., LL.D. 


Attention is called to the fact that the epiphysis of the rudimentary metacarpal 
and metatarsal bones is not situated at the upper or functional end, but, as in the 
case of the great metacarpal and metatarsal, at the lower end, here rudimentary. 
From this a ligament proceeds, expanding in a fascia. The position of this epiphysis 
is a significant fact, as a link in the chain of evidence of the descent of the horse. 
It had its use here in the hipparion and other forms which preceded the horse ot 
the present day. The sections of the feet of young horses exhibited by the author 
also showed that the pastern bone, or first phalanx, has an epiphysis at the distal as 
well as at the proximal end, the distal epiphysis consolidating early. In the course 
of this paper, the author showed a specimen of polydactyly in the horse, the 


additional toe about one third the size of the main toe. 


7. On the Development of the Vertebree of the Elephant. 
By Professor Srxuruers, M.D., LL.D. 


On the anterior vertebrze the neural arches meet below so as to shut out the 
bodies from forming any part of the spinal canal. The bodies are buried an inch 
deep by this mesial meeting of the neurapophyses. This diminishes backwards, 
the bodies at length rising to form part of the wall of the spinal canal. The 


“verteébre exhibited were from an elephant, said by the keeper to have been about 


thirty years of age. 


8. On the Kidneys of Gasteropoda and the Renal duct of Paludina. 
By W.B, Brennan. 


1104 REPORT—1880. 


Section E.—GEOGRAPHY. 


PRESIDENT OF THE SEcrion—General J. T. Watxemr, C.B., R.E., LL.D., F.R.S. 
[For General Walker’s Address, see p. 1106.] 


THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. 


The following Papers were read :— 


1. The Indian Forest School. By Major F. Batuey, R.E., F.2.G.S. 


Tt is only within the last twenty-five years that a special State Department has 
administered the Indian forests. ‘The staff was at first composed of men who had 
received no professional education, but they were able to do all that was then 
needed, and they accomplished work of great value. Asa result of their work the 
State became possessed of large forest areas, from which a permanent supply of pro- 
duce had to be secured, and which had therefore to be managed systematically. 
But at this time nothing was known of systematic forestry in England or in India, 
and an arrangement was made in 1866 under which candidates for the Indian 
Forest Service were trained on the Continent. The arrangement then made with 
the French Government is still in force, but it has now been decided to undertake 
the instruction in England. Great progress has been made in Indian forestry, and 
this is mainly due to the professionally-trained men with whom the Forest Depart- 
ment has been recruited; but up to 1869 nothing had been done towards the 
education of the subordinate ranks, As work requiring professional skill became 
necessary over large areas, it was found that the ‘divisions’ must be broken up 
into a number of smaller executive charges under natives of the country, and that 
they must receive a professional education. In 1869 Mr. Brandis made proposals 
to organise the subordinate grades and to train men at the Civil Engineering 
Colleges, and several other attempts were made in the same direction, but without 
marked success. 

In 1878 Mr. Brandis proposed to establish a Central Forest School, and his pro- 
posals were accepted by Government. The chief object of the school was to prepare 
natives of India for the executive charge of forest ranges, and to qualify them for 
further promotion, but it was hoped that it might ultimately be used to train 
candidates for the controlling branch. The chief forest officers of provinces were 
to select candidates and send them to be trained at the school, none but natives 
of India being admitted. A number of forests near Dehra Dun were grouped toge- 
ther as a training ground and placed under a separate conservator, who was also 
appointed director of the school; a board of inspection was also appointed, The 
first theoretical course was held in 1881, and courses have been held every year 
since then, 

The present system is that the candidates, who must be in robust health, are 
selected by conservators of forests or by the director of the school. They must 
serve in the forests for at least twelve months before entering the school. Candidates 
for the ranger’s certificate must have passed the entrance examination of an Indian 
University on the English side; candidates for the forester’s certificate must have 
‘passed a lower examination. The course of training for these two classes extends 
over eighteen and twelve months respectively. Men who gain the certificates return 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 1105 


to their provinces, and are employed there. The course of instruction for the rangers’ 
class embraces vegetable physiology, the elements of physics and chemistry, mathe- 
matics, road-making and building, surveying, sylviculture, working plans, forest 
utilisation, forest botany, the elements of mineralogy and geology, forest law 
and the elements of forest etiology. The course for foresters is much more simple. 
The preparation of manuals is in progress, and a library, museum, chemical labo- 
ratory, observatory and forest garden have been established. 

The period of probation in the forest before entry into the schoo! has a twofold 
object: firstly, to enable the theoretical course to be understood; secondly, to 
eliminate men who are unsuited to a forest life before time and money have been 
spent on their training. As a rule, the students are employés of the Forest Depart- 
ment, and they draw their salaries and maintain themselves while at the school; 
no instruction fees being charged. It would not at present be possible to get candi- 
dates whose maintenance and education are entirely paid for by their friends. 
Nine men who have left the school hold appointments worth from 125]. to 2001. a 
year, and this ought to draw eligible candidates. Conservators of forests say that 
the men trained at the school are markedly superior to their untrained comrades. 
The area of reserved forests has largely increased of late, and the prospects of the 
students are very good. During the session of 1884 there were forty-six students 
of all classes at the school, of whom eight were from Madras and seven from native 
States, the chiefs of which have been induced by the establishment of the school to 
take measures for the protection of their forests. The school has now been made 
an imperial institution, and this is a great advantage in every way. The expenses 
of the school in 1884 are said to haye been 1,9111. 


2. Brazil. By Corin Macxeyziz, F.R.G.S. 


The author gave an account of the physical geography of Brazil, of its resources 
and inhabitants. He contrasted the vast area of the country and its scant popu- 
lation, and said that if peopled as densely as Europe it would hold five hundred 
mullion souls instead of ten millions, as at present. 


3. On the Progress of African Philology. By R. Neepuam Cost, F.R.G.S. 


Taking Dr. Latham’s paper on the subject, read _at the meeting of the British 
Association at Oxford in 1847, as a starting-point, Mr. Cust showed how, during- 
the last thirty-eight years, African philology, or linguistic geography, had ex-. 
tended to a marvellous degree, and, under the impetus given to the study of African 
languages by missionaries and travellers, new additions were being made every: 
year to our knowledge. 


4. On the Changes which have taken place in Tunis since the French Pro- 
tectorate. By Lieut.-Colonel R. L. Piayratr. 


The author did not attempt to give a history of the events which led to the 
treaty of the Kasr-es-Saeed, by which the Bey lost his independence, and the actual 
government of the country became vested in the French Resident-General. After 
a few remarks on the manner in which the French are in the habit of governing 
their colonies, and the disfavour in which the foreign element is held, he bore his 
willing testimony to the important work of civilisation and improvement which is 
now being carried on in Tunis. He alluded to the fact that he had been the first 
foreigner to pass through the celebrated Khomair country in 1876, when it was 
simply a blank space on the maps then existing, and when neither private travellers 
nor Beylical officials were permitted to cross its frontiers. 

He again visited this country last year, and traversed nearly the same ground, 
but on this occasion over admirably constructed carriage roads, passing from the. 
Algerian frontier to Ain-Draham, a military station in the centre of the Khomair 
mountains, and thence down to the valley of the Medjerda through which now 


1885. 48 


1106 REPORT—1885. 


runs a railway from Souk Ahras in Algeria to Tunis. He passed several important 
Roman cities, such as Simittu Colonia at the famous quarries of Numidian marble, 
and Bulla Regia, near the station of Souk-el-Arba. He visited El Baja on both 
occasions, and found it, on the former, a picturesque but fever-stricken town, and 
on the latter, clean and healthy, with the old Byzantine citadel transformed into 
modern French barracks. 

At Tunis itself good roads are being constructed, and a modern French town 
is being built between the native city and the lake. But the picturesque Arab 
bazaars, which are a never-ending source of delight to the traveller, are quite un- 
touched. Land is being rapidly brought under cultivation, taxes are being reduced 
or abolished, and a very important measure of reform is about to be effected, based 
on the famous Torrens Act, by which real property will become as easily trans- 
ferable as a bank share. This will be done without trouble or violence, and it 
will be optional for all owners of property either to adopt the new system or to 
retain the old one. He detailed the steps which are being taken for the spread of 
public instruction both by the Government authorities and the eminent prelate 
who governs the Church in North Africa, Cardinal Lavigérie, and the means 
adopted by the Government for the archeological exploration of the Regency, still 
almost a virgin field. And lastly he gave a short summary of the daring project 
of Commandant Roudaire for the creation of an inland sea by the submersion of 
the Sahara. 


FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11. 


The PresiDENT delivered the following Address :— 


My predecessors in this chair have claimed for geography a range of science which 
may be said to be practically unlimited; for it comprehends the history of the 
earth itself, and of all the life to be met with on the surface of the earth, from the 
first beginnings of things, and through their subsequent development onwards to 
their present conditional status; it 1s associated in a greater or less degree with 
every other department of knowledge, and is a remarkable exemplification of the 
mutual interdependence and correlation of the physical sciences, for while all other 
branches of science are incomplete without some knowledge of geography, it is in- 
complete without some knowledge of each and all of them. 

Such claims on behalf of geography would, not many years ago, have been con- 
sidered extravagant and exaggerated ; a popular encyclopedia which is still of 
some note defines geography to he simply the science which describes the surface of 
the earth, and somewhat querulously complains that geographical treatises contain 
matter not unfrequently taken from statistics, natural philosophy,and history which 
it declares to be irrelevant and not properly admissible into such treatises. And in 
a popular sense geography is still commonly suggestive only of such a Imowledge of 
locality as may be acquired from maps and charts, with their graphical delineations 
of whatever exists on the surface of the earth, and of the various natural or artificial 
boundary lines of the peoples and states between whom the surface is divided. But 
the British Association and the Royal Geographical Society have successfully main- 
tained that scientific geography is not restricted in its scope to a mere Imowledge 
of locality—though that in itself is a very important factor in whatever appertains 
to the intercourse and mutual relations of mankind—but embraces all that relates 
to the structure and existing configuration of the earth, and takes cognizance of 
the varied conditions of all the life, both animal and vegetable, which is nurtured 
and supported by the earth ; it studies the side lights which the general configura- 
tion of surface throws on the character of each locality as a home and support of 
life, and it examines with special interest the influence which that character has 
exerted on the social and political conditions of different races and peoples. 

And geography does not merely devote its attention to the existing order of 
things as now displayed to our gaze ; in alliance with geology it studies the history 


eS 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 1107 


of a distant past, when the features of the earth’s surface were not precisely as now, 
and lands which we see high above our horizon lay deep beneath the ocean, and life 
existed in other forms, whose mute records we possess in the fossils—the likha-kdn, 
or written stones as they are significantly called by the people of Afghanistan— 
which, after long lying entombed among the rocks, are presented to modern sight 
as revelations of life’s early dawn; it investigates what Baron Richtofen describes 
as the reciprocal causal relations of the three kingdoms—land, water, and atmosphere; 
it seeks to determine the processes hy which in some parts of the globe continents 
were built up with their varied sculpture of mountain and valley, of highly eleyated 
plateau and low lying plain, of lakes and inland seas, and great river systems,— 
while in other parts land was depressed below the sea level, or broken up into the 
4slands which are now dotting the surface of the ocean; and it endeavours to trace 
a. process of continuous evolution of life from the primary and simplest types which 
perished in the early ages of the earth’s history, to the latest and most highly de- 
veloped types which are now flourishing around us. Going back still further it 
searches for evidence of the first beginnings of the material universe ; it looks beyond 
the orbit of the most distant planet of the solar system, and scrutinises the bound- 
jess regions of stellar space to find, in the widely scattered particles of the nebule, 
the beginnings of new solar systems and new worlds such as ours; there it may be 
said to behold as in a mirror the formation of our own planet as a fluid igneous 
mass thrown off with great velocity from its sun, and rapidly revolving, and then 
becoming spheroidal, and slowly cooling and solidifying, and finally acquiring the 
crust which was to become an abode for life, the stage whereon man was to play out 
the drama of his planetary existence, and be held all the while fast imprisoned and 
out of touch with the surrounding universe. 

More than this we would seek to know, but in vain; in passing from the early 
dawn of matter to that of life, science finds its career of wonderful achievement in 
the one direction exchanged for failure and disappointment in the other; it cannot 
discover the origin of life in any of its existing material forms, nor trace to its 
birthplace the spiritual life which exerts such an influence on what is material ; 
it cannot ascertain whether man had a prior existence as different from his present 
existence as the first beginnings of his planet home differed from its present con- 
dition ; it cannot gauge the truth of the poet’s prescient conception that 


‘ Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting ; 
The soul that rises with us, our life’s star, 
Hath had elsewhere its setting 
And cometh from afar.’ 


It whispers faint suggestions regarding the possible future of the planet ; but when 
questioned as to what is to follow the coming soul’s setting of man, the planet’s 
chief glory and dignity, it has nothing to reply, but is hopelessly dumb and 
inarticulate. 

Scientific geography embraces a wide range of subjects, wider than can be 
claimed for any other department of science. ‘Thus the President of this Section 
has a vast field from which to gather subjects for his opening address, I shall, 
however, restrict my address to the subject with which Iam most familiar, and 
give you some account of the Survey of India, and more particularly of the labours 
of the trigonometrical or geodetic branch of that survey, in which the best years 
of my life have been passed. 

I must begin by pointing out that the survey operations in India have been very 
varied in nature, and constitute a blending together of many diverse ingredients. 
Their origin was purely European, nothing in the shape of a general survey haying 
been executed under the previous Asiatic Governments; lands had been measured 
in certain localities, but merely with a view to acquiring some idea of the relative 
areas of properties, in assessing on individuals the share of the revenue levied on a 
community; but other factors than area—such as richness or poverty of soil, and 
proximity or absence of water—influenced the assessment, and often in a greater 
degree, so that very exact measurements of area were not wanted for revenue 
purposes, and no other reason then suggested itself why lands should be accurately 


43Bn2 


1108 REPORT—1885. 


measured. The value of accurate maps of individual properties, with every boundary 
clearly and exactly laid down, was not thought of in India in those days, and 
indeed has only of late years began to be recognised by even the British Govern- 
ment. The idea of a general geographical survey never suggested itself to the 
Asiatic mind. Thus when Englishmen came to settle in India, one of their first 
acts was to make surveys of the tracts of country over which their influence was: 
extending ; and as that influence increased, so the survey became developed from a 
rude and rapid primary delineation of the broad facts of general geography, to an 
elaborately executed and artistic delineation of the topography of the country, and im 
some provinces to the mapping of every field and individual property. Thus there 
have been three orders or classes of survey, and these may be respectively designated 
geographical, topographical, and cadastral; all three have frequently been carried. 
on part passu, but in different regions, demanding more or less elaborate survey 
according as they happened to be more or less under British influence. There is: 
also the Great Trigonometrical or Geodetic Survey, by which the graphical surveys 
are controlled, collated, and co-ordinated, as I will presently explain. 

Survey operations in India began along the coast-lines before the commence- 
ment of the seventeenth century, the sailors preceding the land surveyors by 
upwards of a century. The Directors of the East India Company, recognising tke 
importance of correct geographical information for their mercantile enterprises, 
appointed Richard Halluyt, Archdeacon of Westminster, their historiographer 
and custodian of the journals of East Indian voyages, in the year 1601, within a 
few weeks of the establishment of the company by Royal Charter. Hakluyt gave 
lectures to the students at Oxford, and is said by Fuller to have been the first to 
exhibit the old and imperfect maps and the new and revised maps for eomparison 
in the common schools, ‘to the singular pleasure and great contentment of his 
auditory.’ The first general map of India was published in 1752 by the celebrated 
French geographer D’Anyille, and was a meritorious compilation from the existing 
charts of coast-lines and itineraries of travellers. But the Father of Indian 
Geography, as he has been called, was Major Rennell, who landed in India as a 
midshipman of the Royal Navy in 1760, distinguished himself in the blockade of 
Pondicherry, was employed for a time in making surveys of the coast between the 
Paumben Passage and Calcutta, was appointed Surveyor of the East India 
Company’s dominions in Bengal in 1764, was one of the first officers to receive a 
commission in the Bengal Engineers on its formation, and in 1767 was raised to the 
position of Surveyor-General. Bengal was not in those days the tranquil country 
we have known it for so many years, but was infested by numerous bands of 
brigands who professed to be religious devotees, and with whom Rennell came into 
collision in the course of one of his surveying expeditions, and was desperately 
wounded; he had to be taken 300 miles in an open boat for medical assistance, 
the natives meanwhile applying onions to his wounds as a cataplasm. His labours 
in the survey of Bengal lasted over a period of nineteen years, and embraced an 
area of about 800,000 square miles, extending from the eastern boundaries cf Lower 
Bengal to Agra, and from the Himalayas to the borders of Bandelkand and Chota 
Nagpur. Ill-health then compelled him to retire from the service on a small 
pension and return to England; but not caring, as he said, to eat the bread of 
idleness, he immediately set himself|to the utilisation of the large mass of geogra- 
phical materials laid up and perishing in what was then called the India House ; 
he published numerous charts and maps, and eventually brought out his great work 
on Indian Geography, the ‘ Memoir of a map cf Hindostan,’ which went through 
several editions ; this was followed by his Geographical System of Herodotus, and 
various other works of interest and importance. His labours in England extended 
over a period of thirty-five years, and their great merits have been universally 
acknowledged. 

Rennell’s system of field-work in Bengal was a survey of routes checked and com- 
bined by astronomical determinations of the latitude and the longitude, and a similar 
system was adopted in all other parts of India until the commencement of the present 
century. But in course of time the astronomical basis was found to be inadequate 
to the requirements of a general survey of all India, as the errors in the astrono- 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 1109 


mical observations were liable materially to exceed those of the survey, if executed. 
with fairly good instruments and moderate care. Now this was no new discovery, 
for already early in the eighteenth century the French Jesuits who were making a 
survey of China—with the hope of securing the protection of the Emperor, which 
they considered necessary to favour the progress of Christianity—had deliberately 
abandoned the astronomical method and employed triangulation instead. Writing 
in the name of the missionaries who were associated with him in the survey, Pére 
Regis enters fully into the relative advantages of the two methods, and gives the 
trigonometrical the preference, as best suited to enable the work to be executed in 
2 manner worthy the trust reposed in them by a wise prince, who judged it of the 
greatest importance to his State. ‘Thus,’ he says, ‘we flatter ourselves we have 
tollowed the surest course, and even the only one practicable in prosecuting the 
greatest geographical work that was ever performed according to the rules of 
art. 

What was true in those days is true still; points whose relative positions have 
been fixed by any triangulation of moderate accuracy present a more satisfactory 
and reliabie basis for topographical survey than points fixed astronomically. 
Though the lunar theory has been greatly developed since those days by the 
labours of eminent mathematicians, and the accuracy of the lunar tables and star 
€atalogues is much increased, absolute longitudes are still not susceptible of ready 
determination with great exactitude; moreover, all astronomical observations, 
whether of latitude or longitude, are liable to other than intrinsic errors, which 
arise from deflection of the plumb-line under the influence of local attractions, 
and which of themselves materially exceed the errors that would be generated in 
any fairly executed triangulation of a not excessive length, say not exceeding 500 
miles. 

Thus at the close of the last century Major Lambton, of the 33rd Regiment, 
drew up a projert for a general triangulation of Southern India. It was strongly 
supported by his commanding officer—Colonel Wellesley, afterwards the Duke of 
Wellington—and was readily sanctioned by the Madras Government; for a large 
accession of territory in the centre of the peninsula had been recently acquired, as 
the result of the Mysore campaign, by which free communication had been opened 
between the east and west coasts, of Coromandel and Malabar; and the proposed 
triangulation would not merely furnish a basis for new surveys, but connect 
together various isolated surveys which had already been completed or were then 
in progress. The Great Trigonometrical Survey of India owes its origin as such, 
and its simuitaneous inception as a geodetic survey, to Major Lambton, who 
pointed out that the trigonometrical stations must needs have their latitudes and 
longitudes determined for future reference just as the discarded astronomical 
stations, not however by direct observation, but by processes of calculation requiring 
a knowledge of the earth's figure and dimensions. But at that time the elements of 
the earth’s figure were not known with much exactitude, for all the best geodetic 
ares had been measured in high latitudes, the single short and somewhat question- 
able arc of Peru being the only one situated in the vicinity of the equator. Thus 
additional arcs in low latitudes, as those of India, were greatly needed and might 
be furnished by Lambton. He took care to set this forth very distinctly in the 
programme which he drew up for the consideration of the Madras Government, 
remarking that there was thus something still left as a desideratum for the science 
of geodesy, which his operations might supply, and that he would rejoice indeed 
should it come within his province ‘to make observations tending to elucidate so 
sublime a subject.’ 

Lambton commenced operations by measuring a base line and a small meridional 
are near Madras, and then, casting a set of triangles over the southern peninsula, 
he converted the triangles on the central meridian into a portion of what is 
now known as the Great Arc of India, measuring its angles with extreme care, 
and checking the triangulation by base lines measured at distances of 2 to 3 degrees 
apart in latitude, His principal instruments were a steel measuring chain, a great 
theodolite, and a zenith sector, each of which had a history of its own before 
coming into his hands, The chain and zenith sector were sent from England with 


1110 REPORT—1880. 


Lord Macartney’s Embassy to the Emperor of China, as gifts for presentation to 
that potentate, who unfortunately did not appreciate their value and declined to 
accept them; they were then made over to Dr. Dinwiddie, the astronomer to the 
embassy, who took them to India for sale. The theodolite was constructed in 
England for Lambton, on the medel of one in use on the Ordnance Survey; on its 
passage to India it was captured by the French frigate, the Piemontaise, and 
landed at Mauritius, but eventually it was forwarded to its destination by the 
chivalrous French Governor, De Caen, with a complimentary letter to the Governor 
of Madras. 

Lambton was assisted for a short time by Captain Kater, whose name is now 
best known in connection with pendulum experiments and the employment of the 
seconds’ pendulum as a standard of length; but for many years afterwards he had 
no officer to assist him. At first he met with much opposition from advocates of 
the discarded astronomical method, who insisted on its being sufficiently accurate 
and more economical than the trigonometrical. But he was warmly supported by 
Maskelyne, the Astronomer-Royal in England ; and he soon had an opportunity of 
demonstrating the astronomical method to be fallacious, for its determination of the: 
breadth of the peninsula in the latitude of Madras was proved by the triangulation 
to be forty miles in error. Still, for several years he never received a word of 
sympathy, encouragement, or advice either from the Government or from the Royal 
Society. A foreign nation was the first to recognise the importance of his services 
to science, the French Institute electing him a corresponding member in 1817. 
After this, honours and applause quickly followed from his own countrymen. In 
1818 the then Governor-General of India—the Marquis of Hastings—decided that 
the survey should be withdrawn from the supervision of a local government and 
placed under the Supreme Government, with a view to its extension over all 
India, remarking at the same time that he was ‘not unaware that with minds. 
of a certain order he might lay himself open to the idle imputation of vainly 
seeking to partake the gale of public favour and applause which the labours of 
Colonel Lambton had recently attracted;’ but as the survey had reached the 
northern limits of the Madras Presidency, its transfer to the Supreme Government, 
if it was to be further extended, had become a necessity. He directed the transfer to 
be made, and the survey to be called in future the Great Trigonometrical Survey of 
India. Noticing that the intense mental and bodily labour of conducting it was being 
performed by Lambton alone, that his rank and advancing age demanded some 
relief from such severe fatigue, and farther, that it was not right that an undertaking 
of such importance should hang on the life of a single individual, the Goyernor- 
General appointed two officers to assist him—Captain Everest, as chief assistant in 
the geodetic operations; and Dr. Voysey, as surgeon and geologist. Five years 
afterwards Lambton died, at the age of 70. The happy possessor of an unusually 
robust and energetic constitution and a genial temperament, he seems to have 
scarcely known a day's illness, though he never spared himself nor shrank from 
subjecting himself to privations and exposure which even Everest thought reckless: 
and unjustifiable. These he accepted as a matter of course, saying little about 
them, and devoting his life calmly and unostentatiously to the interests of science 
and the service of his country. 

Everest’s career in the survey commenced disastrously. He was deputed by 
Lambton to carry a triangulation from Hydrabad, in the Nizam’s territory, eas‘— 
wards to the coast, crossing the forest-clad and fever-haunted basin of the Godavery 
river, a region which he described as ‘a dreadful wilderness, than which no part 
of the earth was more dreary, desolate, and fatal.’ Indignant at being taken there, 
his escort, a detachment of the Nizam’s troops, mutinied, and soon afterwards he 
and his assistants, and almost all the men of his native establishment, were stricken 
down by a malignant fever; many died on the spot, and the survivors had to be 
carried into Hydrabad, whence litters and vehicles of all descriptions, and the 
whole of the public elephants, were despatched to their succour. To recover his 
health Everest was compelled to leave India for a while and proceed to the Cape 
of Good Hope, where he remained for three years. He availed himself of the 
opportunity to inspect Lacaille’s meridional arc, which, when compared with the 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. Wh! 


ares north of the equator, indicated that the opposite hemispheres of the globe were 
seemingly of different ellipticities. He succeeded in tracing this anomaly to an 
error in the astronomical amplitude of the arc, which had been caused by detlection 
of the plumb-line at the ends of the arc, under the influence of the attraction of 
neighbouring mountains. Thus he became aware of the necessity of placing the 
astronomical stations of the Indian ares at points where the plumb-line would not 
be liable to material deflection by the attraction of neighbouring mountain ranges. 
Shortly after his return to India Lambton died, and Everest succeeded him, and 
immediately concentrated his energies on the extension of the Great Arc northwards. 
He soon came to the conclusion that his instrumental equipment, though good for 
the time when it was procured, and amply sufficient for ordinary geographical 
purposes, was inadequate for the requirements of geodesy, and generally inferior to 
the equipments of the geodetic surveys then in progress in Europe. He therefore 
proceeded to Europe to study the procedure of the English and French surveys, 
and also to obtain a supply of new instruments of the latest and most improved 
forms. The Court of Directors of the Honourable East India Company accorded a 
most liberal assent to all his proposals, and gave him carte blanche to provide 
himself with whatever he considered desirable to satisfy all the requirements of 
science. 

Eyerest returned to India with his new instrumental equipment in 1880, a 
year that marks the transition of the character of the operations from an order of 
accuracy which was suiflicient as a basis for the graphical delineation of a 
comparatively small portion of the earth’s surface, to the higher precision and 
refinement which modern geodesists have deemed essentially necessary for the 
determination of the figure and dimensions of the earth as a whole. He imme- 
diately introduced an important modification of the general design of the principal 
triangulation, which up to that time had been thrown as a network over the country 
on either side of the Great Arc, as in the English survey and many others; but 
he abandoned this method, and, adopting that of the French survey instead, he 
devised a system of meridional chains, to be carried at intervals of about 1° apart, 
and tied together by longitudinal chains at intervals of about 5°, the whole 
forming, from its resemblance to the homely culinary utensil with which we are all 
familiar, what has been called the gridiron system in contradistinction to the net- 
work, The entire triangulation was to rest on base-lines to be measured with the 
new Colby apparatus of compensation bars and microscopes which had been con- 
structed to supersede the measuring chain the Emperor of China had rejected; the 
base-lines were to be placed at the intersections of the longitudinal chains of 
triangles with the central meridional or axial chain, and also at the further angles 
of the gridirons on each side. Latitudes were to be measured at certain of the 
stations of the central chain, with new astronomical circles in place of the old 
zenith sector, to give the required meridional arcs of amplitude. Two radical 
improvements on all previous procedure were introduced in the measurement of 
the principal angles, one affecting the observations, the other the objects observed. 
The great theodolites were manipulated in such a manner as not merely to reduce 
the effects of accidental errors by numerous repetitions in the usual way, but 
absolutely to eliminate all periodic errors of graduation by systematic changes of 
the position of the azimuthal circle relatively to the telescope, in the course of the 
complete series of measures of every angle. The objects formerly observed had 
been cairns of stones or other opaque signals; for these Everest substituted luminous 
signals, lamps by night, and, by day, heliotropes which were manipulated to reflect 
the sun’s rays through diaphragms of small aperture, in pencils appearing like 
bright stars and capable of penetrating a dense atmosphere through which distant 
opaque objects could not be seen. 

Everest’s programme of procedure furnished the guiding principles on which the 
operations were carried out during the period of half a century which intervened 
between their commencement under his superintendence and the completion of the 
principal triangulation under myself. The externai chains have necessarily been 
taken along the winding course of the frontier and coast lines instead of the direct 
and more symmetrical lines of the meridians and the parallels of latitude. The 


Ty) We REPORT— 188). 


number of the internal meridional chains has latterly been diminished by widening 
the spaces between them, and in two instances a principal chain has been dispensed 
with because, before it could be taken in hand, a good secondary triangulation had 
been carried over the area for which it was intended to provide. But these are 
departures from the letter rather than the spirit of Everest’s programme, which has 
been faithfully followed throughout, first by his immediate successor, Sir Andrew 
Waugh, and afterwards by myself, thus attording an instance of the impress of a 
single mind on the work of half a century which is probably unique in the annals 
of India; for there, as is well known, changes of personal administration are 
frequent, and are not uncommonly followed by changes of procedure. 

The physical features of a country necessarily exercise a considerable influence 
on the operations of any survey that may be carried over it, and more particularly 
on those of a geodetic survey, of which no portion is allowed to fall below a certain 
standard of precision. very variety of feature, of scenery, and of climate that is 
to be met with anywhere on the earth’s surface between the equator and the arctic 
regions has its analogue between the highlands of Central Asia aad the ocean, 
which define the limits of the area covered by the Indian survey. Thus in some parts 
the operations were accomplished with ease, celerity, and enjoyment, while in others 
they were very difficult and slow of progress, always entailing great exposure, and 
at times very deadly. In an open country, dotted with hills and commanding 
eminences, they advanced as on velvet; in close country, forest-clad or covered 
with other obstacles to distant vision, they were greatly retarded, for there it 
became necessary either to raise the stations to a suflicient height to overlook all 
surrounding obstacles, or to render them mutually visible by clearing the lines 
between them; and both these processes are more or less tedious and costly. 
There are many tracts of forest and jungle which greatly impeded the operations, 
not merely because of the physical difficulties they presented, but because they 
teemed with malaria, and were very deadly during the greater portion of the year, 
and more particularly immediately after the rainy seasons, when the atmosphere is 
usually clearest and most favourable for distant observations. At first tracts of 
forest, covering extensive plains, were considered impracticable; thus Lambton 
carried his network over the open country, and stopped it whenever it reached a 
great plain covered with forest and devoid of hills; but Everest’s system would 
not permit of any break of continuity, nor the abandonment of any chain which 
was required to complete a gridiron; it has been carried out in all its integrity, 
often with much sacrifice of life, but never with any shrinking on the part of the 
survey officers from carrying out what it had become a point of honour with them 
to accomplish, and the accomplishment of which the Government had come to re- 
gard as a matter of course. We have already seen how the progress of Everest’s 
first chain of triangles was suddenly arrested, because he and all his people were 
struck down by malaria in the pestilential regions of the Godavery basin. That 
chain remained untouched for fifty years; it was then resumed and completed, 
but with the loss of the executive oflicer, Mr. George Shelverton, who succumbed 
when he had not yet reached, but was within sight of, the east coast line, the goal 
towards which his labours were directed. Many regions, as the basin of the Maha- 
naddi, the valley of Assam, the hill ranges of Tipperah, Chittagong, Arracan, and 
Burma, and those to the east of Moulmein and Tennasserim, which form the 
boundary between the British and the Siamese territories, are covered with dense 
forest, up to the summits of the peaks which had to be adopted as the sites of the 
survey stations. Asarule the peaks were far from the nearest habitation, and they 
could not be reached until pathways to them had been cut through forests tangled 
with a dense undergrowth of tropical jungle; not unfrequently large areas had to 
be cleared on the summits to open out the view of the surrounding country. Here 
the physical difficulties to be overcome were very considerable, and they were in- 
creased by the necessity that arose, in almost every instance, of importing labourers 
from a great distance to perform the necessary clearances. But the broad belt of 
forest tract Inown as the Terai, which is situated in the plains at the foot of the 
Nepalese Himalayas, was the most formidable region of all, because the climate 
was very deadly for a great portion of the year, and more particularly during the 


—— 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. Tits 


season when the atmosphere was most favourable for the observations, though the 
physical difficulties were not so great as in the hill tracts just mentioned, and 
labour was more easily procurable. Lying on the British frontier, at the northern 
extremities of no less than ten of the meridional chains of triangles, it had neces- 
sarily to be operated in to some extent, and Everest wished to carry the several 
chains across it, on to the outer Himalayan range, and then to connect them 
together by a longitudinal chain running along the range from east to west, com- 
pleting the gridiron in this quarter. But the range was a portion of the Nepalese 
territories, and all Europeans—excepting those attached to the British embassy at 
Khatmandu—were debarred from entering any part of Nepal, by treaty with the 
British Government. Everest hoped that the rulers of Nepal might make an ex- 
ception in his favour for the prosecution of a scientific survey ; and when he found 
they would not, he urged the Government to compel them to give his surveyors 
access, at least, to their outlying hills; but he urged in vain, for the Government 
would not run the risk of embarking in a war with Nepal for purely scientific interests. 
Thus the connecting chain of triangles—now known as the N.E. Longitudinal Series 
—had to be carried through the whole length of the Terai, a distance of about 500 
miles, which involved the construction of over 100 towers—raised to a height of 
about 30 feet to overlook the earth’s curvature—and the clearance of about 2,000 
miles of line through forest and jungle to render the towers mutually visible. It 
required no small courage on Everest’s part to plunge his surveyors into this region ; 
he endeavoured to minimise the risks as much as possible by taking up the longi- 
tudinal chain in sections, bit by bit, on the completion of the successive meridional 
chains, and thus apportioning it between several survey parties, each operating in 
the Terai for a short time, instead of assigning it to a single party to execute con- 
tinuously from end to end, as all the other chains of triangles. But notwithstand- 
ing these precautions, the peril was great, and the mortality among both officers 
and men was very considerable; greater than in many a famous battle, says Mr. 
Clements Markham, in an eloquent passage in his Memoir of the Indian Surveys, 
in which he claims for the surveyors who were employed on these operations—with 
no hope of reward other than the favourable notice of their immediate chief and 
colleagues—merit for more perilous and honourable achievement than much of the 
a service which is plentifully rewarded by the praises of men and prizes of 
a 8. 

Everest retired in 1848, and was succeeded by Waugh, who applied himself 
energetically to the completion of the several chains of triangles exterior to the 
Great Arc, for which he obtained a substantial addition to the existing equipment 
of great theodolites. It was under him that the formidable longitudinal series 
through the Terai, which had been begun by Everest, was chiefly carriedout. He 
personally initiated the determination of the positions and heights of the principal 
snow peaks of the Himalayan ranges; and he did much for the advancement of the 
general topography of India, which had somewhat languished under his predecessor, 
who had devoted himself chiefly to the geodetic operations. He retired in 1861, 
and I succeeded to the charge of the Great Trigonometrical Survey. The last 
chain of the principal triangulation was completed in 1882, shortly before my own 
retirement. 

Of the general character of the operations, it may be asserted without hesitation 
that a decree of accuracy and precision has been attained which has been reached 
by few and surpassed by none of the great national surveys carried out in other 
parts of the world, and which leaves nothing to be desired even for the require- 
ments of geodesy ; a very considerable majority of the principal angles have been 
measured with the great 24-inch and 36-inch theodolite, and their theoretical pro- 
bable error averages about a quarter of a second; of the linear measurements the 
probable error, so far as calculable, may be taken as not exceeding the two- 
millionth part of any measured Jength. And as regards the extent of the triangulation, 
if we ignore the primary network in Southern India, and all secondary triangula- 
tion, however valuable for geographical purposes, we still have a number of prin- 
cipal chains—meridional, longitudinal, and oblique—of which the aggregate length 
is 17,300 miles, which contain 9,280 first-class angles all observed, and rest on eleven 


bar: REPORT—1885. 


base-lines measured with the Colby apparatus of compensation bars and microscopes. 
This prodigious amount of field-work furnishes an enormous mass of interdependent 
angular and linear measures; and each of these is fallible in some degree, for, great 
as was the accuracy and care with which they had severally been executed, perfect 
accuracy of measurement is as yet beyond human achievement ; thus every circuit 
of triangles, every chain closing on a base-line, and even every single triangle, 
presented discrepancies the magnitude of which was greater or less according as 
derived from a combination of many, or only of a few, of the fallible facts of obser- 
vation. Thus, when the field operations were approaching their termination, the 
question arose as to how these facts were to be harmonised and rendered consistent 
throughout, which was a very serious matter considering their great number. The 
strict application of mathematical theory to a problem of this nature requires the 
adjustment to he effected by the application of a correction to every fact of obser- 
vation, not arbitrarily, but in such a manner as to give it its proper weight, neither 
more nor less, in the final investigation, and in this the whole of the facts must be 
treated simultaneously. That would have involved the simultaneous solution of 
upwards of 4,000 equations between 9,280 unknown quantities, by what is called 
the method of minimum squares, and I need scarcely say that it is practically 
impossible to solye such a number of equations between so many unknown quan- 
tities by any method at all. Thus a compromise had to be made between the 
theoretically desirable and the practically possible. It would be out of place here 
to attempt to describe the method of treatment which was eventually adopted, after 
much thought and deliberation ; I willmerely say that the bulk of the triangulation 
was divided into five sections, each of which was treated in succession with as close 
approximation to the mathematically rigorous method as was practically possible ; 
but even then the mass of simultaneous interdependent calculation to be performed 
in each instance was enormous, I believe greatly exceeding anything of the kind as 
yet attempted in any other survey. But the happy result of all this labour was 
that the final corrections of the angles were for the most part very minute, less than 
the theoretical probable errors of the angles, and thus fairly applicable without 
taking any liberties with the facts of observation. If the attribute of beauty may 
ever be bestowed on such things as small numerical quantities, it may surely be 
accorded to these notable results of very laborious calculations, which, while in 
themselves so small, were so admirably effective in introducing harmony and precision 
throughout the entire triangulation. 

If now we turn once more to what Lambton calls ‘ the sublime science of geodesy,’ 
which was held in such high regard by both him and Everest, we shall find that 
the great meridional are between Cape Comorin and the Himalayas, on which they 
laboured with so much energy and devotion, is not the only contribution to that 
science to which the Indian triangulation is subservient, but every chain of triangles 
—teridional, longitudinal, or oblique—may be made to throw light either on 
geodesy, the science of the figure of the earth, or on geognosy, the science of the 
earth’s interior structure, when combined with corresponding astronomical ares of 
amplitude. Thus each of the several meridional chains of triangles may be utilised 
in this way, as their prototype has been, by having latitude observations taken at 
certain of their stations to give meridional arcs; and the several longitudinal 
chains of triangles may also be utilised—in combination with the main lines of 
telegraph—hby electro-telegraphic determinations of differential longitudes to give 
arcs of parallel. When the stations of the triangulation which are resorted to for 
the astronomical observations are situated in localities where the normal to the 
surface ‘coincides fairly with the corresponding normal to the earth’s figure, the 
result is yaluable as a contribution to geodesy ; when the normal to the surface is 
sensibly deflected by local attraction, the result gives a measure of the deflection 
which is valuable as a contribution to geognosy. 

Having regard to these circumstances, I moved the Government to supply the 
Trigonometrical Survey with the necessary instruments for the measurement of the 
supplemental astronomical arcs; and as officers became available on the gradual 
completion of the successive chains of triangles, [ employed some of them in the 
required determinations of latitude and differential longitude. It so happened that 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 1115 


about the same time geodesists in Europe began to recognise the advantages to 
science to be acquired by connecting the triangulations of the different nationalities 
together, and supplementing them with ares of amplitude. The ‘International 
Geodetic Association for the Measurement of Degrees in Europe’ was formed in 
consequence, and it has been, and is still, actively employed in carrying out this 
object ; in India, however, the triangulation was complete and connected through- 
out, so that only the astronomical amplitudes were wanting. They are still in 
progress, but already meridional chains, aggregating 1,840 miles im length, and 
lying to the west of the Great Arc, have been converted into meridional arcs; and 
the three longitudinal chains, from Madras to Mangalore, from Bombay to Vizaga- 
patam, and from Kurrachee vid Calcutta to Chittagong, of which the aggregate 
length is 2,600 miles, have been converted into ares of parallel. In the former the 
operations follow the meridional course of the chains of triangles; in the latter 
they follow the principal lines of the electric telegraph, which sometimes diverge 
greatly from the direction of the longitudinal chains of triangles, the two only 
intersecting at occasional points; the astronomical stations are therefore placed at 
the trigonometrical points which may happen to be nearest the telegraph lines, 
whether on the meridional or on the longitudinal chains, and their positions are 
invariably so selected as to form self-verificatory circuits which are usually of a 
triangular form, presenting three differential arcs of longitude; each of these arcs 
is measured independently as regards the astronomical work—though for the 
third arc there is usually no independent telegraph line, but only a coupling of 
the lines for the first and second arcs—and this has been proved to give such an 
excellent check on the accuracy of the operations, that it is not too much to say 
that no telegraphic longitude operations are entirely reliable which have not been 
verified in some such manner. 

Through the courtesy of Colonel Stotherd, Director-General of the Ordnance. 
Survey, I am enabled to exhibit two charts, one of the triangulation of India, the 
other of that of Europe, which have recently been enlarged to the same scale in the 
Ordnance Survey Office at Southampton for purposes of comparison. The first is 
taken from the official chart of the Indian survey, and shows the great meridional 
and longitudinal chains and Lambton’s network of principal triangles, the positions 
of the base-lines measured with the Colby apparatus, the latitude and the differential 
longitude stations, the triangular circuits of the longitudinal arcs, the stations cf the 
pendulum and the tidal operations which will be noticed presently, and the 
secondary triangulations to fix the peaks of the Himalayan and Sulimani ranges, 
and the positions of Bangkok in Siam and Kandahar in Afghanistan, the extreme 
eastern and western points yet reached. The chart of the European triangulation 
has been enlarged from one published by the International Geodetic Association of 
Europe; in it special prominence is given to the Russian meridional are, which 
extends from the Danube to the Arctic Ocean, and is 25° 20’ in length, and to the 
combined English and French meridional arc, 22° 10’ in length, which extends 
from the Balearic Island of Formentera in the Mediterranean, to Saxavord in the 
Shetland Islands. The aggregate length of the meridional arcs already completed 
in India is about equal to that of the English, French and Russian arcs combined ; 
but the longest in India is about 13° shorter than the Russian. As regards longi- 
tudinal arcs, I believe the two which were first measured in India, and were 
employed shortly afterwards by Colonel Clarke in his last investigation of the 
figure of the Earth, are the only ones which have as yet been deemed sufficiently 
accurate to be made use of in such investigations, though arcs of much greater 
length have been measured in Europe. It would be interesting, if time permitted, 
to set forth the salient points of divergence between the systems of the Indian and 
the European surveys; I will only mention that in the southern part of the 
Russian arc, for a space of about 8° from the Duna to the Dneister, a vast plain, 
covered with immense and almost impenetrable forests, presented great obstacles to 
the prosecution of the work ; the difficulty was overcome by the erection of a large 
number of lofty stations of observation, wooden scaffoldings which were 120 and 
even as much as 146 feet high, to overlook the forests. In Indian forests, as the 
Terai on the borders between British and Nepalese territories, the stations were 


1116 nerort—1885. 


rarely raised to a greater height than 30 feet, or just sufficient to overtop the 
curvature, and all trees and other obstacles were cleared away on the lines between 
‘them ; this was found the most expeditious and economical process. The stations 

were very substantial, with a central masonry pillar, for the support of a great 
theodolite, which was isolated from the surrounding platform for the support of 
the observer. The lofty Russian scaffoldings only sufficed for small theodolites, and 
they were so liable to shake and vibration that the theodolites had to be fitted with 
‘two telescopes to be pointed simultaneously by two observers at the pair of stations, 
the angle between which was being measured. 

All the modern geodetic data of the Indian survey that were available up to 
the year 1880 were utilised by Colonel A. R. Clarke, C.B., of the Ordnance Survey, 
‘in the last of the very valuable investigations of the Figure of the Earth which he 
has undertaken from time to time. It will be obvious that new data tend to modify 
in some degree the conclusions derived from previous data, for the figure of so large 
-a globe as our earth is not to be exactly determined from measurements carried 
over a few narrow belts of its supertficies. Thus thirty years ago it was inferred 
that the equator was sensibly elliptic—and not circular, as had been generally 
assumed—with its major axis in longitude 15° 34’ east of Greenwich ; but later in- 
vestigations indicate a far smaller ellipticity, and place the major axis in west lon- 
gitude 8° 15’. More significant evidence of the influence of new facts of observation 
in modifying previous conclusions is furnished by the French national standard of 
length, the métre, which was fixed at the ten-millionth part of the length of the 
arth’s meridional quadrant, as deduced from the best geodetic data available up to 
the end of the last century; but it is now found to be nearly =.th part less than 
the magnitude which it is supposed to represent, the difference being about a hun- 
dred times greater than what would now be considered an allowable error in an 
important national standard of measure, 

The Indian survey has also made valuable contributions to geodesy and geo- 
gnosy in an elaborate series of pendulum observations for determining variations of 
gravity, which throws light both on the grand variation from the poles to the 
equator that governs the ellipticity, and on the local and irregular variations depend- 
ing on the constitution of the interior of the earth’s crust. “They were commenced 
in 1865 by Captain J. P. Basevi, on the recommendation of General Sabine and 
the Council of the Royal Society, with two pendulums, one of which the General 
had swung in his notable operations which extend from a little below the equator 
to within 10° of the pole. Captain Basevi had nearly completed the operations in 
India, and had taken swings at a number of the stations of the Great Are and at 
various other pots near mountain ranges and coast lines, when he died of exposure 
in 1871 at a station on the high table lands of the Himalayas, while investigating 
the force of gravity under mountain ranges. Major Heaviside swung the pendulums 
at the remaining Indian stations, then at Aden and Ismailia on the way back to 
England, and finally at the base station, the Kew Observatory. Afterwards 
they and a third pendulum were swung at Kew and Greenwich by Lieutenant- 
Oolonel Herschel, who took all three to America, swung them at Washington, 
and then handed them over to officers of the United States Coast Survey, by whom 
they have been swung at San Francisco, Auckland, Sydney, Singapore, and in 
Japan. 

"The pendulum operations in India have been successful in removing from the 
geodetic operations the reproach which had latterly been cast on them, that their 
‘value has become much diminished since the discovery that the attraction of the 
Himalayan mountains is so much greater than had previously been suspected, that 
it may have materially deflected the plumb-line at a large number of the astronomi- 
eal stations of the Great Arc, and injuriously influenced the observations. Everest 
considered the effects of the Himalayan attraction to be immaterial at any distance 
exceeding sixty miles from the foot of the mountains; but in his days the full 
extent and elevation of the mountain masses was unknown, and their magnitude 
was greatly underestimated. Afterwards, when the magnitude became better 
known, Archdeacon Pratt of Calcutta, a mathematician of great eminence, calculated 
that they would materially attract the plumb-line at points many hundred miles 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. RZ 


distant ; he also found that everywhere between the Himalayas and the ocean, the 
excess of density of the land of the continent as compared with the water of the 
ocean would combine with the Himalayan attraction and increase the deflection of 
the plumb-line northwards, towards the great mountain ranges, and that under the 
joint influence of the Himalayas and the ocean the level of the sea at Kurrachee 
would be raised 560 feet above the level at Cape Comorin. 

But as a matter of fact the Indian are gave a value of the earth's ellipticity 
which agreed sufficiently closely with the values derived from the arcs measured in 
all other quarters of the globe, to show that it could not have been largely distorted 
by deflections of the plumb-line ; thus itappeared that whereas Everest might have 
slightly underestimated the Himalayan attraction, Pratt must have greatly over-- 
estimated it. His calculations were however based on reliable data, and were in- 
dubitably correct. For some time the contradiction remained unexplained, but 
eventually Sir George Airy put forward the hypothesis that the influence of the 
Himalayan masses must be counteracted by some compensatory disposition of the 
matter of the earth’s crust immediately below them, and in which they are rooted ; 
he suggested that the bases of the mountains had sunk to some depth into a fluid 
lava which he conceived to exist below the earth’s crust, and that the sinking had 
caused a displacement of dense matter by lighter matter below, which would tend 
to compensate for the excess of matter above. Now Pratt's calculations had 
reference only to the visible mountain and oceanic masses, and their attractive in- 
fluences—the former positive, the latter negative—in a horizontal direction ; he had 
no data for investigating the density of the crust of the earth below either the 
mountains on the one hand, or the bed of the ocean on the other. The pendulum 
observations furnished the first direct measures of the vertical force of gravity 
in different localities which were obtained, and these measures revealed two broad 
facts regarding the disposition of the invisible matter below ; first, that the force of 
gravity diminishes as the mountains are approached, and is very much less on the 
summit of the highly elevated Himalayan table lands than can be accounted for 
otherwise than by a deficiency of matter below ; secondly, that it increases as the 
ocean is approached, and is greater on islands than can be accounted for otherwise 
than by an excess of matter below. Assuming gravity to be normal on the coast 
lines, the mean observed increase at the island stations was such as to cause a 
seconds’ pendulum to gain three seconds daily, and the mean observed decrease in 
the interior of the Continent would have caused the pendulum to lose 24 seconds 
daily at stations averaging 1,200 feet above the sea level, 5 seconds at 3,800 feet, 
and about 22 seconds at 15,4U0 feet—the highest elevation reached—in excess of 
the normal loss of rate due to height above the sea. 

Pratt was strongly opposed to the hypothesis of a substratum, or magma, of 
fluid igneous rock beneath the mountains; he assumed the earth to he solid 
throughout, and regarded the mountains as an expansion of the inyisible matter 
below, which thus becomes attenuated and lighter than it is under regions of less 
elevation, and more particularly in the depressions and contractions below the bed 
of the ocean. And certainly we seem to have more reason to conclude that the 
mountains emanate from the subjacent matter of the earth’s crust than that they 
are as wholly independent of it as if they were formed of stuff shot from passing 
meteors and asteroids; any severance of continuity and association between the 
visible above and the invisible below appears, on the face of it, to be decidedly 
improbable. 

The hypothesis of sub-continental attenuation and sub-oceanic condensation of 
matter is supported by the two ares of longitude on the parallels of Madras and 
Bombay ; for at the extreme points of these arcs, which are situated on the opposite 
coast lines, the horizontal attraction has been found to be not landwards, as might 
have been anticipated, but seawards, showing that the deficient density of the sea 
as compared with the land is more than compensated by the greater density of the 
matter under the ocean than of that under the land. 

While on the subject of the constitution of the earth’s crust, I may draw 
attention to the circumstance that the tidal observations which haye been carried 
on at a number of points on the coasts of India, as a part of the operations of the 


1118 REPORT—1885. 


Survey, tend to show that the earth is solid to its core, and that the geological 
hypothesis of a fluid interior is untenable. They have been analysed by Professor G. 
H. Darwin, with a view to the determination of a numerical estimate of the rigidity 
of the earth, and he has ascertained that whilst there is some evidence of a tidal 
yielding of the earth's mass, that yielding is certainly small, and the effective 
rigidity is very considerable, not so great as that of steel as was at first surmised, 
but sufficient to afford an important confirmation of the justice of Sir William 
Thomson’s conclusion as to the great rigidity. 

The Indian pendulum observations have been employed by Colonel Clarke, in 
combination with those taken in other parts of the globe, to determine the earth’s 
ellipticity. Formerly there was wont to be a material difference between the 
ellipticities which were respectively derived from pendulum observations and direct 
geodetic measurements, the former being somewhat greater than 51, the latter 
somewhat less than;%,; but as new and more exact Gata became available, the 
walues derived from these two essentially independent sources became more and 
more accordant, and they now nearly agree in the value 515. 

Asa part of the pendulum operations, a determination of the length of the 
seconds’ pendulum was made at Kew by Major Heaviside, with the pendulum 
which had been employed for the same purpose by Kater early in the present 
century, when leading men of science in England believed that in the event of the 
national standard yard being destroyed or lost, the length might be reproduced at 
any time with the aid of a reversible pendulum. In consequence of this belief an 
Act of Parliament was passed in 1824 which defined the relations between the 
imperial and the seconds’ pendulum, the length of the former being to that of the 
latter—swung in the latitude of London, in a vacuum and at the level of the sea—— 
in the proportion of 36 inches to 3971393 inches. Thus, while the French took for 
their unit of length the ten-millionth part of the earth’s meridional quadrant, the 
English took the pendulum swinging seconds in the latitude of London. In case of 
loss the yard is obviously recoverable more readily and inexpensively by reference 
to the pendulum than the metre by reference to the quadrant ; it is also recoverable 
with greater accuracy; still the accuracy is not nearly what would now be 
deemed indispensable for the determination of a national standard of length, and it 
is now generally admitted that every pendulum has certain latent defects, the 
influence of which cannot be exactly ascertained; thus the instrument cannot be 
relied on as a suitable one for determinations of absolute length; but, on the other 
hand, so long as its condition remains unaltered, it is the most reliable instrument 
yet discovered for differential determinations of the variations of gravity. In truth, 
however, the pendulum is a very wearisome instrument to employ even for this 
purpose, for it has to be swung many days and with constant care and attention to 
give a single satisfactory determination ; thus if such a thing can be invented and 
perfected as a good differential gravity meter, light and portable, with which satis- 
factory results can be obtained in a few hours instead of many days, the boon to 
science will be very great. 

The trigonometrical operations fix with extreme accuracy two of the co-ordinates 
—the latitude and longitude—which define the positions of the principal stations ; 
‘but the third co-ordinate, the height, is not susceptible of being determined by such 
operations with anything like the same degree of accuracy, because of the variations 
of refraction to which rays of light passing through the lower strata of the atmo- 
sphere are liable, as the temperature of the surface of the ground changes in the 
course of the day. In the plains the apparent height of a station ten to twelve 
miles from the observer has been found to be upwards of 100 feet greater in the 
cool of the night than in the heat of the day, the refraction being always positive 
when the lower atmospheric strata are chilled and laden with dew, and negative 
when they are rarefied by the heat radiated from the surface of the ground. At 
hill stations the rays of light usually pass high above the surface of the ground, and 
the diurnal variations of refraction are comparatively immaterial, and very good 
results are obtained by the expedient of taking the vertical observations between 
reciprocating stations at the same hour of the day, and as nearly as possible at the 
time of minimum refraction; but in the plains this expedient does not usually 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 1119 


suffice to give reliable results. The hill ranges cf central and those of northern 
India are separated by a broad belt of plains, which embraces the greater portion 
of Sind, the Punjab, Rajputana, and the valley of the Ganges, and is crossed by a 
very large number of the principal chains of triangles, on the lines where the 
chart shows stretches of comparatively small triangles, which are in most instances 
of considerable length. Thus it became necessary to run lines of spirit levels over 
these plains, from sea to sea, to check the trigonometrical heights. The oppor- 
tunity was taken advantage of to connect all the levels which had been executed for 
irrigation and other public works, and reduce them to a common datum; and 
eventually lines of level were carried along the coast and from sea to sea to con- 
nect the tidal stations. The aggregate length of the standard lines of level 
executed up to the present time is nearly 10,000 miles, and an extensive series of 
charts of the levels derived from other departments of the public service and 
reduced to the survey datum has already been published. 

The survey datum which has been adopted for all heights, whether deduced 
trigonometrically or by spirit-levelling, is the mean sea level as determined, 
either for initiation or verification, by tidal observations at several points on the 
coast lines. At first the observations were restricted to what was necessary for the 
requirements of the survey, and their duration was limited to a lunar month at each 
station. In 1872 more exact determinations were called for, to ascertain whether 

adual changes in the relative level of land and sea were taking place at the head 
of the Gulf of Cutch, as had been surmised by the geological surveyors, and observa- 
tions were taken for over a year at three tidal stations on the coasts of the gulf, to 
be repeated hereafter when a sufficient period had elapsed to permit of a measurable 
change of level having taken place. Finally, in 1875, the Government intimated 
that as ‘ the great scientific advantages of a systematic record of tidal observations 
on Indian coasts had been frequently urged and admitted, such observations should 
be taken at all the principal ports and at such points on the coast lines as were 
best suited for investigations of the laws of the tides. In accordance with these 
instructions, five years’ observations have been made at several points, and new 
stations are taken up as the operations at the first ones are completed. 

The initiation of the later and more elaborate operations is due in great measure 
to the recommendations of the Tidal Committee of the British Association, of which 
Sir William Thomson was President. The tidal observations have been treated by 
the method of harmonic analysis advocated by the Committee. The constants for 
amplitude and epoch are determined for every tidal component, both of long and of 
short periods, and with their aid tide-tables are now prepared and published 
annually for each of the principal ports ; and further, it is with them that Professor 
G. H. Darwin made the investigations of the effective rigidity of the earth, which 
I have already mentioned. The very remarkable waves which were caused by the 
earthquake on December 31, 1881, in the Bay of Bengal, and by the notable 
voleanic eruptions in the island of Krakatoa and the Straits of Sunda on August 
27 and 28, 1888, were registered at several of the tidal stations, and thus valuable 
evidence has been furnished of the velocities of both the earth-wave and the ocean- 
wave which are generated by such disturbances of the ordimarily quiescent condition 
of the earth’s crust. 

I must not close this account of the non-graphical, or more purely scientific, 
operations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India without saying something 
of the officers who were employed thereon, under the successive superintendence of 
Everest, Waugh, and myself. A considerable majority were military, from all 
branches of the army—the cavalry and infantry, as well as the corps of engineers 
and artillery ; the remainder were civilians, mostly promoted from the subordinate 
grades. Prominent shares in the operations were taken by Lieutenant Renny, 
Bengal Engineers, afterwards well known in this neighbourhood as Colonel Renny 
Tailyour, of Borrowfield in Forfarshire, of whom and his contemporary, Lieutenant 
Waugh, Everest, retiring, reported in terms of the highest commendation; by 
Reginald Walker, of the Bengal Engineers, George Logan, George Shelverton, and 
Henry Beverley, all of whom fell victims to jungle fever ; by Strange, F.R.S., of 
the Madras Cavalry, whose name is associated with the construction of the 


1120 REPORT—1 885. 


modern geodetic instruments of the Survey; by Jacob—afterwards Government 
Astronomer at Madras—Rivers, and Haig, all of the Bombay Engineers ; Tennant, 
C.LE., F.R.S., Bengal Engineers, afterwards Master of the Mint in Calcutta; 
Montgomerie, F'.R.S., of the Bengal Engineers, whose name is best remembered 
in connection with the Trans-Himalayan geographical operations; James Basevi, of 
the Bengal Engineers, who so sadly died of exposure while engaged on the pendulum 
operations in the higher Himalayas; Branfill, of the Bengal Cavalry; Thuillier, 
Carter, Campbell, Trotter, Heaviside, Rogers, Hill, and Baird, F.R.S., all engineer 
officers; also Hennessey, C.I.E., F.R.S., M.A., Herschel, F.R.S., and Cole, M.A., 
whose names are intimately associated with the collateral mathematical inyestiga- 
tions and the final reduction of the principal triangulation. 

The Trigonometrical Survey owes very much to the liberal and even generous 
support which it has invariably received from the Supreme Government, with the 
sanction and approval, first of the Directors of the East India Company, and after- 
wards of the Secretary of State for India. In times of war and financial embarrass- 
ment the scope of the operations has been curtailed, the establishments have been 
reduced, and some of the military officers sent to join the armies in the field; but 
whatever the crisis, the operations have never been wholly suspended. Even during 
the troubles of 1857-58, following the mutiny of the native army, they were 
carried on in some parts of the country though arrested in others; and the 
then Viceroy, Lord Canning, on receiving the reports of the progress of the 
operations during that eventful period, immediately acknowledged them to the 
Surveyor-General, Colonel Waugh, in a letter from which the following extract is 
taken : 

‘T cannot resist telling you at once with how much satisfaction I have seen 
these papers. It is a pleasure to turn from the troubles and anxieties with which 
India is still beset, and to find that a gigantic work, of permanent peaceful useful- 
ness, and one which will assuredly take the highest rank as a work of scientific 
labour and skill, has been steadily and rapidly progressing through all the turmoil 
of the last two years.’ 

The operations have been uninfluenced by changes of personnel in the adminis- 
tration of the Indian Empire, as Governor-Generals and Viceroys succeeded each: 
other, but have met with uniform and consistent support and encouragement. It 
may well be doubted whether any similar undertaking, in any other part of the 
world, has been equally favoured and as munificently maintained. 

In conclusion I must state that I have purposely said nothing of the graphical 
operations executed in the Trigonometrical and other branches of the Survey of 
India, because they are more generally known, their results appear in maps which 
speak for themselves, and time would not permit of my attempting to describe 
them also. They comprise, jist, the general topography of all India, mostly on 
the standard scale of 1 inch to the mile; secondly, geographical surveys and ex- 
plorations of regions beyond the British frontier, notably such as are being 
carried on at the present time on the Russo-Afghan frontier, by Major Holdich 
and other officers of the Survey; thirdly, the so-called Revenue Survey of the 
British districts in the Bengal Presidency, which is simply a topographical survey 
on an enlarged scale—4 inches to the mile—showing the boundaries and areas of 
villages for fiscal requirements; and fourthly, the Cadastral Survey of certain of 
the British districts in the Bengal Presidency, showing fields and the boundaries 
of all properties, on scales of 16 to 52 inches to the mile. There are also certain 
large scale surveys of portions of British districts in the Madras and Bombay 
Presidencies, which, though undertaken originally for purely fiscal purposes by 
yeyenue and settlement officers working independently of the professional survey, 
have latterly been required to contribute their quota to the general topography of 
the country. And of late years a survey branch has been added to the Forest 
Department, to provide it with working maps constructed for its own require- 
ments on a larger scale than the standard topographical scale, but on a trigono- 
metrical basis, and in co-operation with the Survey Department. But this brief 
capitulation gives no sort of idea of the vast amount of valuable topographical and 
other work for the requirements of the local Administrations and the public at 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 1121 


large—always toilsome, often perilous—which has been accomplished, quite apart 
from and in quantity far exceeding the non-graphical and more purely scientific 
work which I have been describing. Its magnitude and variety are such that a 
mere list of the officers who have taken prominent shares in it, from first to last, 
would be too long to read to you. Three names, however, I must mention: first, 
that of General Sir Henry Thuillier, who became Surveyor-General on the same 
day that I succeeded to the superintendence of the Great Trigonometrical Survey, 
and with whom I had the honour of co-operating for many years; under his 
administration a much larger amount of topography was executed than under any 
of his predecessors, and a great impetus was given to the lithographic, photo- 
graphic, engraving and other offices in which the maps of the survey are published; 
secondly, that of Colonel Sconce, who became Deputy Surveyor-General soon after 
my accession in 1878 to the Surveyor-Generalship, and with whom I was associated 
for some years, much to my gratification and advantage, in various matters, but 
more particularly in the establishment of cadastral surveys on a professional basis 
at a moderate cost, to render them more generally feasible, which was a matter of 
the utmost importance for the administration of the more highly populated por- 
tions of the British provinces ; and thirdly, that of Lieutenant-Colonel Waterhouse, 
who has for many years superintended the offices in which photography is em- 
ployed, in combination with zincography and lithography, for the speedy repro- 
duction en masse of the maps of the Survey, and has done much to develop the art 
of photogravure, whereby drawings in brushwork and mezzotint may be reproduced 
with a degree of excellence rivalling the best copperplate engraving, and almost as 
speedily and cheaply as drawings in pen and ink work are reproduced by photo- 
zincography. 

Mr. Clements Markham’s Memoir on the Indian Surveys gives the best account 
yet published of the several graphical surveys up to the year 1878. In that year 
the Trigonometrical, the Topographical, and the Revenue branches, which up to 
that time had constituted three separate and almost independent departments, 
were amalgamated together into what is now officially designated ‘the Survey of 
India.’ In the same year the chronicle so well commenced by Mr. Markham came 
to an end on his retirement from the India office—unfortunately, for it is a work of 
excellence in object and in execution, and most encouraging to Indian surveyors, 
who find their labours recorded in it with intelligent appreciation and kindly 
recognition. 

During the present meeting, several papers by officers of the Survey will be read 
—one by Colonel Barron, in person, on the cadastral surveys in the organization of 
which he has taken a leading share; by Major Baird, on the work of the spirit- 
levelling which he superintends conjointly with the tidal observations; by Colonel 
Godwin-Austen, on Lieutenant-Colonel Woodthorpe’s recent journey from Upper 
Assam to the Irawadi river; by Colonel Branfill, on the physical geography of 
Southern India; and by Colonel Tanner, on portions of the Himalayas and on 
recent explorations in Southern Tibet. Major Bailey will also read a paper on the 
forest surveys. 


The following Papers were read :-— 


1. The Indian Forest Survey. By Major F. Battery, R.H., F.R.G.S. 


It is only in comparatively recent times that measures have been undertaken 
to preserve what remained of the great Indian forests. The first thing to do was 
to demarcate the tracts which were to be reserved and to free them as far as 
possible from rights. The area now reserved is about 48,000 square miles, or about 

3 per cent. of the total area of British India, not including the native states. 
The tracts demarcated owe their immunity from destruction either to the fact that 
they occupy ground which was, in the absence of communications, inaccessible, or 
which is much broken, or cannot be irrigated. They are situated either in the 
plains or on the low ranges of hills rising from them, or on the lower or middle 


1885. 4c 


1122 REPORT—1885. 


slopes of the Himalayas up to an elevation of 8,000 or 9,000 feet above sea level. 
Although they include within their boundaries considerable areas which have been 
wholly or partially denuded of trees, the ground is generally speaking more or less 
densely covered with trees and jungle. 

In former years accurate forest maps were not required, but the present system 
of management renders good maps indispensable, and in 1872 measures were taken 
to provide them. The Imperial Survey Department could not conveniently under- 
take the work, and it was consequently thought desirable to organise a special 
branch of the Forest Department to act under the control of the Surveyor-General. 
This arrangement has worked most satisfactorily. The scale of the maps formed 
the subject of much discussion, but ultimately it was decided that the scale should 
usually be 4’ =1 mile for the most valuable forests, and 2’=1 mile for those of 
less value. An establishment of surveyors was then raised and trained. The first 
work undertaken was the survey of the forests of Dehra Dun, area about 573 square 
miles, the non-forest lands of the district being surveyed at the same time by the 
Imperial Survey Department, and a combined map of the whole country being thus 
produced. The next work was the survey of the Kumaon and Garhwal forests, area 
about 1,400 square miles; and the survey of an area of about 1,600 square miles in 
Haiderabad is now in progress. Altogether since 1872 about 3,000 square miles 
have been surveyed and mapped, mostly on the scale of 4”=1 mile. It will of 
course take a long time to work over the whole of the forest property, but detailed 
maps of the entire area are not urgently needed at the present time, since for 
forests in which simple protection can alone be attempted small-scale maps or 
sketch maps will suffice for some years to come. 

When the survey party takes the field, the officer in charge has command of a 
considerable number of men, with a large quantity of stores and equipment. He 
has to hire carts or camels, and march to the scene of the work. On arrival, each 
native surveyor is given a piece of work, four or five of them being grouped under 
one European surveyor, and a computing office is established in some central 
position. When sufficient work of this kind has been done, or when the season is 
too far advanced for it to be continued, the party moves back to head-quarters. If 
such work is not well controlled it is sure to show this in inferior quality, insuf- 
ficient quantity, or high cost. The procedure must be varied according to circum- 
stances, and it has to be considered how a map that will answer the purpose can 
be produced in the shortest time and at the smallest cost. The ground worked 
over by the Forest Survey Department presents exceptional difficulties, of which 
the following are the principal: the surface is much broken up, the crop of trees 
and jungle is dense, the supply of drinking water is precarious and often of bad 
quality, the forests are infested with wild animals, food is. difficult to obtain, and 
jungle fever is by nomeans uncommon. ‘The wild animals are not at all appreciated 
by the unarmed native surveyors, and many cases have occurred in which they have 
caused the most serious inconvenience, stopping the survey of certain tracts for a 
long time. The experience gained of the natives of India in the Forest Survey 
Department has shown that almost anything can be made of them. The principle 
adopted has been to stimulate them to exertion and to promote a spirit of emulation 
among them ; they were taught that accuracy was of more importance than rapidity, 
and encouraged to bring to notice all discrepancies in their work. At first only the 
most simple operations were entrusted to natives, but a few of them can now do 
excellent work of the most difficult kind. The combination of European and 
native labour has answered very well. Detailed surveys of wild and densely 
wooded ground have rarely been made before in India, and it is evident that they 
must be more expensive than similar surveys of open, cultivated country; but to 
provide them is a necessity and a distinct economy. 


at ae 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 1122 


2. Account of the Levelling Operations of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of 
India, By Major A. W. Bano, R.L., F.R.S. 


From the origin of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India until the year 
1858 all determinations of relative height were effected by the measurement of 
reciprocal vertical angles, a method which is based on the assumption that the back 
and forward angles are equally refracted, in which case the difference of height 
deduced from them should be exact. But when rays of light passing between two 
mutually observing stations traverse the lower strata of the atmosphere and graze 
the surface of the ground, the refraction is rarely identical at both stations even at 
the same moment of time, and is liable to vary greatly at different hours of the day 
and at the same hour on different days. ‘Thus determinations of the relative 
height of stations situated on extensive plains by this method are liable to con- 
siderable inaccuracies ; and as a belt of plains of great extent—in places several 
hundred miles broad—intervenes between the hill ranges of Lower and Central 
India and those of Upper India, and every principal chain of triangles has had to 
be taken over these plains for a greater or less distance, lines of spirit-levels 
were initiated, to be carried across them from sea to sea, as a check on the trigono- 
metrical determinations of height. The opportunity was availed of to connect and 
reduce to a common datum the levels executed in all parts of India for irrigation, 
railway, and other purposes. Subsequently, when systematic tidal observations 
came to be undertaken at various points on the coast, lines of level were carried 
between the tidal stations, to serve as a check on the spirit levelling, and also to 
connect the tidal stations together. 

Every line is gone over by two surveyors working independently of each other, 
with separate instruments and staves, and comparing results from time to time. 
The staves have two faces, both graduated in feet and tenths, but one with black 
divisions on a white ground reading from 0 to 10, the other with white divisions 
on a black ground reading from 5°55 to 15°55, which gives a useful check against 
accidental gross errors of reading, as the observer has no bias to repeat on the 
second face an error made in reading the first. The bulbs of the levels are fitted 
with graduated scales; the readings of the ends of the bubble are recorded, and 
corrections are applied for dislevelment, as with astronomical instruments. As 
there isa tendency to an accumulation of minute constant error in all levelling 
operations, such tendency is guarded against as far as practicable by alternating 
the order of the back and forward stafl’ readings at successive stations, aud also 
alternating the direction of operation on successive days or in successive sections 
of each line. 

The rate of progress is not, of course, as rapid as in levelling operations executed 
with less care and precision, but an average of four miles daily may generally be 
relied on. Up to the present time 9,680 miles of rigorously executed double line 
have been completed, and about 300 miles of single line to connect collateral and 
subsidiary bench marks. 

The first five lines which were executed to connect tidal stations indicated, in 
every instance, that the sea level was apparently higher at the southern than at 
the northern station. It is quite possible that the level of the surface of the sea 
may be disturbed under the influence of local attractions, and be higher at some 
points of a coast-line than at others; but the actual difference of level is only 
ascertainable approximatively by calculations based on various assumptions regard- 
ing the constitution of the earth’s crust and the surrounding elements of attraction. 
Tt cannot be measured, because the attractions have the same influence on the fluid 
in the bulbs of the levelling instruments as on the waters of the ocean, when both 
are equally exposed to their influence ; thus, when working along a line of open coast 
the instrumental would coincide with the ocean level, and a large deviation from 
the normal level of the ocean might exist without any possibility of measuring it. 
Thus it seemed that the apparent raising of the southern ends of these lines of level 
must be due not to actual variations in the height of the mean sea, but to some 
error in the levelling operations. They had been conducted with scrupulous care, 
and with every conceivable precaution to guard against either accidental gross 

4c2 


1124 REPORT—1885. 


error or systematic accumulation of minute constant error; yet a source of minute 
but cumulative error remained which, coming from an external quarter, was not 
guarded against by alternating the direction of operation or by any of the ex- 
pedients adopted for eliminating inherent cumulative errors. It lay in the admitted 
tendency there is, when levelling an instrument, to unduly depress the telescope in 
the direction of the light which illuminates the spirit-level of the instrument, thus 
making all objects viewed through the telescope, when pointed in that direction, 
appear too high. The sun was the invariable source of illumination, and it was 
always to the south of the observer, and therefore the southern ends of the lines 
of levels would have a tendency to be brought out too high. This illumination 
error is a maximum on the meridian and vanishes on the prime vertical ; however 
great its magnitude, it re-enters and is non-apparent in a circuit of levels; it would 
only be apparent on lines starting and closing at different points on the mean sea, 
which gives an independent check on the accuracy of the line of levels. It isa 
vera causa of error such as has actually been met with; but there is now some 
reason to doubt whether it really was the cause, for the two lines next measured 
from sea to sea brought the northern ends out highest, and a third line recently 
completed shows no appreciable difference between the north and south ends. The 
later results may, however, be due to the observers having been more careful to 
guard agairst illumination error. In seven lines out of the eight the discrepancies 
are small, not exceeding two inches in 100 miles of line; but there is one large 
discrepancy of 4? inches per 100 miles, accumulating to 8 ft., on the line between 
Bombay and Madras. The two weakest sections of this line have been re-levelled, 
but in each instance with results which were identical with those first obtained. If 
the observations are errorless in themselves, error must have been introduced by 
the local attractions encountered on the line which crosses the western ghats and 
the elevated plateau lying between Bombay and Madras. These attractions would 
obviously influence the levels of the contiguous instruments in a greater degree 
than the distant waters of the ocean. 


3. Notes on the Physiography of Southern India. 
By Colonel B. R. Branritt, 


The part of India to which these notes are confined lies to the south of latitude 
15°, and mostly in the Madras Presidency. Its principal characteristics are great 
diversity of feature and mildness of climate, which, though tropical, is almost 
insular, and entirely subject to the effects of the south-west and the north-east 
monsoons. It is a region of mountains and hills, elevated table-lands and low-lying 
flats, fertile plains and barren wastes, flooding rivers with beautiful waterfalls and 
innumerable artificial lakes, tropical forest, endless groves, and jungly wilderness. 

Southern India is an interesting field of observation for the naturalist, and par- 
ticularly for the physiographer, on account of the elements of change in active 
operation :—firstly, the decomposing and disintegrating power of the sun’s rays, 
vertical twice every year; secondly, the long-continued violent winds that scour 
the surface and transport immense volumes of matter to great distances in the air, 
and, by means of the ocean waves, along the shore; thirdly, the torrents of rain 
that denude the hill surfaces and score the slopes with deep channels, depositing 
the spoil on the flooded flats, the growing deltas, and the shoaling shore. 

Many other elements of change are at work, and the earthquake alone seems 
wanting. These agencies seem fully adequate to the task of converting a vast 
plateau of igneous matter, overlying a granitic base, into the subdued and diversi- 
tied area we now behold. 

For the purpose of these notes the author divides Southern India into three 
tracts. First, the mountainous region of the Ghats, including the higher table- 
lands and the great upland plains of Maistir contained between the Western and 
Eastern Ghats. Second, the lowlands of the Malabar coast: all that narrow tract 
of moist sea-board between the foot of the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. 


* Printed in the Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Socrety for November, 1885. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 1125 


Third, the comparatively dry lowland plains of the Carnatic between the Ghats and 
the Bay of Bengal. 

The year, for Southern India, is also divided into three seasons: the south-west 
monsoon, from May to September; the north-east monsoon, from October to 
February ; and the hot season of March, April, and May, between the two mon- 
goons. 

The south-west monsoon is shown to be the most important fact and factor of 
the climate of Southern India. The wind blows very strongly for four months oyer 
the Arabian Sea from the south-west. On nearing the coast of Southern India it 
becomes more of a westerly wind, and retains this direction across the country to 
the Bay of Bengal. When it strikes the west coast and mounts the bairier wall of the 
Western Ghats it drops most of its moisture in torrents of rain, by which the 
eastward-flowing rivers are flooded as well as the lowlands of Malabar. On the 
table-lands east of the Ghats it is strong, cool, and showery, but gradually becomes 
drier and warmer, and reaches the Coromandel coast as a dry and hot land wind— 
a veritable siocco. In the Bay of Bengal it regains its northward course, and the 
cause of its deflection therefrom in crossing Southern India is not quite clear. 
After a short interval the north-east wind sets in, usually bringing with it some 
heavy spells of rainy weather, and lasts with little interruption till February. The 
whole of the country east of the Western Ghats benefits from these rains, which 
fill the rivers and reservoirs and moisten the unirrigated tracts sufficiently to 
enable what is called the cold-weather crop to be grown. The hot season sets in 
in March, rapidly increasing in intensity till the return of the south-west monsoon. 
It is tempered, however, by the sea breezes, which are felt far inland. The most 
agreeable time for visiting India is from October to March ; but the naturalist, the 
physiographer, and the scientific observer need not be deterred by the fear of any 
danger incidental to a prolonged tour in Southern India, as, by taking advantage 
of the great variety and agreeable nature of the climates afforded by the high 
plateaux and hill ranges, the whole year may be spent in a comparatively cool, 
healthy, and enjoyable climate. 

The author suggests a tour which embraces some of the most noteworthy 
features in the south of India. 

Proceeding by sea to Karwar, near Goa, note about the only sheltered harbour for 
ships south of Bombay, favourably situated opposite a gap inthe W. Ghats. Land- 
ing at Hondwar, observe its fine tidal estuary and the extraordinary surf formed on 
the bar at the ebb of spring tides. Now ascend the ghdt, or pass, near here, and 
visit the splendid Gersappa Falls, where the river Sharavati leaps down at one 
bound over a sheer precipice 800 feet, in the midst of magnificent wooded moun- 
tain scenery. Observe that the Western Ghats are very steep or precipitous on their 
western face only, and can hardly be called a range of mountains, but are rather 
a line of buttresses to the Maistir highland plateau. The word ghdt simply 
signifies a pass or passage, and amongst the natives of India is restricted to that 
meaning. Proceeding eastwards, visit the high undulating plains of Maisur, called 
in the neighbourhood of the Ghats Malndd, or hill country. Bednor, in the 
Nagar Malnad, the former capital of the local chieftain, a place in ruins now, and 
almost deserted, is worth a visit to see how soon a town of 100,000 houses and 
perhaps half a million of inhabitants can be obliterated. After a glance at Maisur 
and the Kabéri Falls, the port of Mangalore is visited, to study the shifting of the 
river mouth and other points of interest, the return to the high lands being made by 
the next pass up into Kurg (Coorg), which for the beauty of its highland scenery 
and general interest may compare with any such district in the world. 

Continuing southwards, the next highland district along the brow of the 
Ghats is Wainaid, somewhat similar to the Malnad, but not so mountainous as 
Kurg. It is notable for the British coffee planting industry and the recent gold- 
mining enterprise. 

Thus far the highland districts mentioned are part and parcel of the great cen- 
tral plateau contained between the Western and the Eastern Ghats. Their general 
level varies from 2,500 to 3,500 feet above sea, with isolated peaks and masses 
Tunning up to 5,000 and 6,000 feet. Next comes the Nilgiri plateau, nearly isolated 


1126 REPORT—1885. 


from the Waindad, at a general altitude of 5,000 to 6,000 feet, and with summits 
running up to 8,000 feet and upwards. Its undulating grassy surface, splendid 
climate and scenery are noticed. 

The tour is continued to the south of the Nilgiri Mountains, where the high 
wall of the Western Ghats abruptly terminates, giving place to a wide low passage 
called the Palghat Gap, to the south of which the mountains rise again to their 
full height, and are often termed generally the Southern Ghats. They are more 
like a true mountain range, springing directly from the low country on all sides. 
They are not known to contain any large table-land or plateau on their summits, 
but are broken up into large valleys and lofty peaks, the highest point (Aneimudi), 
which is also the highest in India south of the Himalaya, attaining 8,838 feet. 

Thence the author takes us to the Palani Hills, a peninsular hilly plateau in two 
steps, somewhat resembling the Nilgiri plateau and the Wainad, then down to the 
eastern plains with their remarkable red sand-hills drifting like waves before the 
wind ; then south to Cape Comorin, the land’s end, and finally round by way of 
the east coast and Rameswaram to Trichinopoly. 


4, Ona Trip from Upper Assam into the Kampti Country and the Western 
Branch of the Irrawady River, made by Colonel R. B. Woodthorpe, R.E., 
and Major OC. R. MacGregor. By Lieut.-Colonel H. H. Gopwin- 
AustEn, F.R.S. 


Colonel Woodthorpe’s recommendation to the Chief Commissioner of Assam to 
take up again the exploration of the mountainous country in Eastern Assam, and 
to penetrate if possible beyond the water-parting, having been acceded to by the 
Indian Government, survey operations were commenced last winter in the valley of 
the Diing, or upper waters of the Noa Dihing of the plain country. While en- 
gaged on this work, Colonel Woodthorpe, accompanied by Major MacGregor and 
Messrs. Ogle, Grant, and Latouche, reached the pass of Chanken, 8,300 feet, at the 
head of the valley, and it was then decided that an effort should be made to visit 
the Kampti villages on that branch of the Irrawady visited by Wilcox sixty years 
ago, and never attempted since. It was impossible that the whole party could go, 
so the three last named returned to finish the survey of the Diing Valley, while 
Colonel Woodthorpe and Major MacGregor, who commanded the escort, went on 
alone. They travelled lightly, with only four sepoys and forty coolies, and in ex- 
tremely inclement weather, after six days, reached the stockaded village of Langni, 
and were well received. They then went on as far as the right bank of the Nam 
Kiu River, a large tributary of the Irrawady, rising in the snowy range to the 
northward ; it was here eighty yards wide, with long deep pools and rapids. Thence 
going on to Padao, they saw the chief Rajah, Lukin, of the district, who came 
from his summer residence to meet them, and he was most friendly, and begged 
them to stay a month and see all the country. The approaching rainy season 
rendered this impossible, and they had to start back at once for the Assam side, 
only doing so just in time, the swollen rivers being far more difficult to cross than 
on the outward journey. The whole expedition was well planned and carried out, 
and if the same tact and judgment can be shown in our future relations with these 
Kamptis, we shall soon know as much of the country on the head waters of the 
Trrawady as we do now of the Garo, Khasi, and Naga Hills. 

Only a very ordinary road is required, crossing some point on the Patkai range, 
to open up a future trade with these people from the Assam side. And to this 
may be added the knowledge of the geology, the zoology, and botany of this most 
interesting revion, 


5. On the complete Exploration of Lake Yamdok in Tibet. 
By TRELAWNEY SAUNDERS. 


_ 6. On Himalayan Snow Peaks. By Lieut.-Colonel H. C, B. Tanyer, 


MO aE » 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 1127 


7. Notes on recent Mountaineering in the Himalaya. 
tu By Dovetas W. FResHFIELD, F.R.G.S. 


SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 12. 


The Section did not meet. 


MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14, 
The following Papers and Reports were read :— 


1. Projected Restoration of the Reian Meris, and the Province, Lake, and 
Canals ascribed to the Patriarch Joseph. By Corr Wurrrnovse, M.A. 


The Berlin Geographical Society has published, in its Zeitschrift for May 1885 
(No, 116), the latest map of Egypt, from the Fayoum to Behnesa, and from the 
Nile to the Little Oasis. The text by Dr. Ascherson gives credit fora considerable 
area to the topographical observations presented to this society at Montreal. So 
much of the Reian basin as lies between the Qasr Qeritin and the Qasr Reian has 
not been visited by any European except the author of this paper (1882, 1885). It 
is now an accepted fact that there is a depression south of the Fayoum, not less 
than 150 feet below the level of the Mediterranean, with a superficial area at the 
level of high Nile of several hundred square miles. It is irregular in shape, 
curving like a horn from a point near Behnesa to the ridge which separates it from 
the Fayoum. In the southern part are two, and perhaps three, patches of vege- 
tation, wild palm-trees, and ruins of Roman and early Christian date, This part 
was visited by Belzoni, May 22, 1819; Calliaud, November 24, 1819; Pacho and 
Miiller, 1823-24; Sir G. Wilkinson, 1825; Mason Bey, 18703 and Ascherson, 
March 27, 1876. Dr. Ascherson determined by aneroid observations that his camp 
was 29 metres below the sea. Calliaud found ruins about +38m., or about the 
level of high Nile in the valley on the same latitude. The aneroid, theodolite,and 
other observations of March 6 and April 4, 1882, and April 1883, by the author of 
this paper, established a depth of —175to —180 English feet. The greatest depth is 
probably under the western cliffs south of the Haram Medhiret el-Berl. No pre- 
vious explorer had conceived it possible that this might have been a lake within 
historic times. The level of the ruins, as determined by Calliaud, shows that the 
ancient station of Ptolemais might have been, as represented in the text and maps 
of Claudius Ptolemy, on a horn-shaped lake about thirty-five miles long and fifteen 
wide, with a maximum depth of 300 feet, fed by a canal, partly subterranean, from 
Behnesa, as well as by a branch of the present Bahr Jisuf communicating with it 
through the Fayoum. The lower plain of the Fayoum had been, at that time, 
fully redeemed, and the present Lake of the Horn reduced to such insignificant 
dimensions as to be unnoticed. The restoration of the Reian basin of Lake Meeris 
and the drainage by evaporation of the Birket el-Qeriin would be a repetition in 
modern times of the best results reached in the Greco-Roman period, perhaps 
3,000 years after the first effort to utilise these two unique basins for storage and 
drainage. 

The feasibility of the scheme is partly based upon the Mohammedan traditions 
in regard to the original redemption of the Fayoum, the construction of the existing 
canals, and the reservoir of water which formerly filled the Wadi Reian. It had 
been stated by Sir G. Wilkinson that the Bahr Jisuf, or Canal of Joseph, owed its 
name. to a restoration under Saladin (ca, a.p, 1166), Masudi (born, Bagdad, 


1128 REPORT— 1885. 


A.D. 885 ; died, Cairo, A.D, 956) gives in chapter xxi. one of the yery numerous 
forms of the tales in which the principal engineering works of Middle Egypt are 
assigned to the patriarch Joseph. Joseph also seems to be the Souphis of the 
Greeks. 

It is a question for consideration whether the descriptions of Goshen 
and the region occupied outside of Goshen proper, and known as the land of 
Raamses, apply to this part of Middle Egypt. In a posthumous treatise of great 
critical value, Jablonski of Frankfort (1693-1767) asserted that in Egypt from 
all time men have been of the opinion that the Israelites dwelt in the present pro- 
vinees of Beni-Suef and el-Fayoum. Important finds of papyri, and the publication 
by the Dutch Academy of Sciences of a geographical papyrus of Meoeris (of 
late date, exhibited), its towns and canals, and the Labyrinth, have stimulated the 
imagination of the archeologist and the historian to a high pitch. The representa- 
tion of a stately array of cities with emblazoned arms, of fish, aquatic birds, and 
pasturages for cattle on the western shore, further serves to justify the peculiar 
admiration expressed for this region by Greek and Roman travellers, as well as by 
the Semitic historians. The Ionians, Sicilians, and Romans willingly conceded that 
its public works, in three categories, transcended in splendour and in usefulness the 
most stupendous efforts elsewhere extant. Their origin was virtually unknown. 
They were apparently not Egyptian. The Hyk-Sos or Lords of ta-She seem to have 
been Arabians, who seized upon the strategic advantages of the Fayoum and (in 
the words of the Nubian geographer, applied toa somewhat similar work in Arabia), 
made this reservoir not only for the use of the inhabitants, but to keep the indigenous 
population in greater awe by being masters of the water. Like the Moors in 
Southern Spain, their works gradually deteriorated in alien hands, and are now, 
after 4,000 years, at their lowest point. The work of restoration is comparatively 
easy. The following advantages would result :—First, the lake and morass, now 
increasing, in the Fayoum would be diminished, and a large amount of land 
redeemed ; second, the danger of an excessive rise of the Nile would be averted, 
and the labour of taking precautions against it saved; third, a considerable amount 
of abandoned land, now desert, would be irrigated; fourth, an immense reservoir 
would deliver water at a high level for navigation as well as irrigation, and even 
power; fifth, Lakes Menzaleh, Bourlos, Edkou, and Mareotis could be reclaimed, 
and those parts of the Delta would then again resemble the shores of Holland and 
the mouths of the Rhine. 


2. Report of the Committee for furthering the Scientific Examination of the 
Country in the vicinity of Mount Roraima in Guiana.—See Reports, p. 690. 


3. Mount Roraima. By Everarp m1 Tarn. 


A. Report of the Conimittee appointed for the purpose of promoting the 
Survey of Palestine-—See Reports, p. 691. 


5. The Cadastral Survey of India. By Lieut.-Colonel W. Barron. 


The surveyor in India works under various conditions as regards climate and 
country, and prepares his maps on different scales, to suit the purposes for which 
the survey is intended. 

The Cadastral Survey of India is ordinarily on the scale of 16 inches to a mile, 
though sometimes on a much longer scale; it has been undertaken to enable the 
Government to assess the land revenue, and to define the rights of landlords and 
tenants, About 224 millions of land revenue is collected yearly, and is assessed in 
different ways, under both permanent and temporary settlements. 

Former field maps were either eye-sketches, or were surveyed with varying 
degrees of accuracy by non-professional agency, acting under settlement officers, 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 1129 


and the professional survey surveyed the village lands topographically, and deter- 
mined the exact area of the village as a check on the settlement areas. In 1871 
the settlement surveys in the North-West Provinces were made over to the pro- 
fessional surveyors, and since that time various modifications and improvements 
have been introduced, with the result that the Survey now prepares all the papers 
and statistics required by the Settlement Department for assessment. 

Based on points whose data have been calculated by the Great Trigonometrical 
Survey of India, the surveyor fixes other points on the boundaries of the villages 
of a district, and from these again he works down to each individual field, which is 
the unit of survey. The areas of each village and of each field are calculated, and 
all the processes are checked and proved throughout. 

The proprietary and cultivating tenures are very complicated, and the land is 
very much cut up by subdivision among the landlords and tenants, The Survey 
prepares ‘records of rights’ and ‘rent-rolls,’ defining the rights and giving the 
castes of landlords and tenants for each field. It also collects information regarding 
the rents paid, the crops grown, the nature of the soil, and the means of irrigation, 
and prepares abstracts of these to guide the settlement officer in his assessments. 

The village maps are reproduced by photography, and are also reduced to 
smaller scales to make up district maps and the atlas of India. 

The establishment of a Cadastral Survey during the field season is very large ; 
it is reduced to an office establishment during the hot weather. The yearly out- 
ae ranges from 650 to 800 square miles, comprising sometimes over a million of 

elds. 

Great advantages are derived from the Cadastral Survey, such as stopping 
litigation about boundaries of villages and fields, defining the rights of landlords 
and tenants, enabling the Government to know the amount of land under cultiva- 
tion, and to provide for famines and for the social problems that will be developed 
in the near future by the great increase of population. 


6. The Ordnance Survey of Cyprus. By TRELAWNEY SAUNDERS. 


¢. The Rivers of the Punjab. By General Ropert Mactaaan, RL. 


The country called Punjab receives its name from the rivers which give it its 
distinctive geographical character. The name, as is well known, means ‘five 
waters,’ and they are the five great tributaries of the Indus, namely, Jhelam, 
Chinab, Ravi, Bids, and Satlaj. 

In early times it was called the land of the seven rivers, including the Indus 
itself on one side, and on the other the Saraswati, which was the eastern boundary 
of the land occupied by the Aryan immigrants from the north (about 1500 B.c.). 

The modern British province which we call Punjab—the country marked off 
for administrative purposes as the charge of the local government—is not thus 
bounded by the lines of one river system. It includes on one side the strip of 
country between the Indus and the hills, and on the other a large extent of 
cultivated plain as far as the Jamna, a river which has different geographical 
relations. 

The seven-river-land (Sapta-Sindu) of the early Aryans had distinct river 
boundaries, as then understood. The Saraswati, its eastern boundary, presents to 
us an interesting geographical problem. It is not now such a river as is described 
in the ancient writings, in which it is mentioned along with the others, and as being 
of still greater size and importance. Nor can it ever have been a river of the same 
kind, as it has its source in the low outer hills, while the others come from per- 
petual snows. Its channel is dry for great part of the year, and it never carries 
water on so far as to unite with the other rivers. The changes in the country 
through which it passes may account for a great change of the river. About the 
sixth century B.c. the Saraswati is said to sink into the earth, and to pass under- 
ground to join the Ganges and Jumna at their confluence. This seems intended 
to describe a river such as it is now. 


1130 REPORT—1885. 


As a solution of the problem it has been supposed that the Satlaj, instead of 
turning west at Riipar and joining the Bids, once ran 8.W. by the course of the 
Saraswati, and that this is the ancient river referred to in the Vedic hymns. It 
is not impossible that the Satlaj may have once taken this course, but it does not 
appear that this view can be supported as explaining the difficulty regarding the 
Saraswati. It is as likely that this river was described in early days on imperfect 
knowledge of it, perhaps on some occasions when it was seen in flood, and that 
when the people had advanced beyond it and had become more fully acquainted 
with it, it was described more appropriately in the later tradition above mentioned. 

The Satlaj, whether flowing as at present or by the line of the Saraswati, is 
the distinct eastern boundary of a great area of hill and plain country enclosed 
between it and the Indus. These two rivers have their sources within a short dis- 
tance of each other, on the opposite sides of the same mountain mass, and they 
unite in the sonth of the Punjab, the Indus having run a course of about 1,550 
miles and the Satlaj about 950. The maximum distance between them, the 
breadth of the area they enclose, is about 350 miles. The other four rivers are 
within this ring formed by the Indus and the Satlaj. All of them have certain 
characters in common, and each certain distinguishing features of its own. ‘Their 
course among the hills ismore or less similar, the Jhelam presenting one special differ- 
ence ; and their hill course, being for the most part in channels with permanent rocky 
banks and beds, varies little from year to year. In the lower and slower part of 
their course also they are generally similar, and, like all rivers travelling through 
alluvial plains, are subject to changes. 

These alterations are of two kinds—constructive and destructive. They cut 
down their banks and they build others. The destruction of high banks is, in 
floods, by the force of the stream in direct attack, and in the low season by quiet 
undercutting at the water-level. The matter thus carried off is laid down again, 
either on the low banks on the opposite side, or in the river, raising shoals and 
islands, or across the mouths of branch channels, blocking them up and laying 
them dry. All this is familiar to people in other parts of India and in other 
countries where great rivers traverse similar plains. There are long stretches of 
the Mississippi banks which exactly resemble those of the Indus, and which the 
river treats in exactly the same way. Something can be done, and is done when 
necessary, to check the erratic movements of rivers endangering property of value. 
Protective and directing works have at different times been carried out on the 
Indus, the Ravi, and the Satlaj. Besides changes of channel and destruction of 
banks when a main stream takes to oblique courses, a river keeping a straight 
course is liable in flood to cut deep furrows in its bed. Thus the Satlaj afew years 
ago brought down one pier of the railway bridge, sunk to a depth of 70 feet, by 
scooping out the bed below it. 

The changes of river channels and of the direction of the main stream are un- 
favourable to navigation. In the Punjab steam navigation has practically been 
discontinued on all the rivers except the largest, namely, the lower Indus, and the 
combined Jhelam, Chinab, and Rayi, up to Multan. River conservancy, in the sense 
of works for keeping open certain channels for navigation, is too costly for applica- 
tion ona large scale. It is found better, where steam navigation is kept up, to 
maintain local pilotage. Though they are not well suited for steam navigation, 
there is extensive boat traffic on the Punjab rivers. And on the Jhelam and 
Chinab, near the foot of the hills from which the pine timber comes, there is con- 
stant boatbuilding for the lower Indus. 

in 1841, and again in 1858, there were very striking and serious floods in the 
indus, caused by temporary obstruction of narrow gorges in the hills. In both 
eases warning came (but was not fully uaderstood) by the river at Attak falling 
when it should haye been rising. The effect, when the barrier gave way, was very 
remarkable and very destructive. In 1858 the Kabul River was driven back by 
the immense volume and force of the released Indus, which flowed up stream as 
far as the British station of Naoshera, which was inundated and destroyed. 

The Indus, when it reaches the plains, has a temperature in winter about 5° 
below that of the air. The difference in summer, when the river is being fed by 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 1131 


melting snows, is about 14°. At a great depth the difference is greater, a circum- 
_stance which is turned to practical use at Attak. 

The fall of these rivers beiag greatest in the hill portion of their course, and 
decreasing as they come down through the plains, the vertical section of their 
course is a curve terminating in a nearly horizontal line at the sea. From Attak 
to Kalabagh the fall of the Indus is 50 inches per mile, from Kalabagh to Mittan 
Kote 12, and from Mittan Kote to the sea 6, the end part being less. The result is 
a constantly increasing tendency to deposit silt and raise the bed, and by overflow 
to raise the banks. For a great part of its course the Indus flows in a channel 
slightly above the level of the land on either side. 

The local rainfall of the country through which these rivers flow in the Punjab 
diminishes gradually in quantity from their first entrance on the plains to the place of 
their junction above Mittan Kote. The Chinab issues from the hills in a region of 
51 inches annual rain, the Indus and the Jhelam 36, the Ravi and the Bids 53, 
the Satlaj 26; and their common confluence is in a tract of country which has no 
more than 6 inches rain in the year. The great floods which they all bring down 
in the rainy season are of course chiefly due to the more copious rainfall in the 
hill country from which they come. To meet in some measure the local want of 
water thus increasing southward, the rivers are made to give off part of their 
supplies in canals, which fill as the river rises. Canals, carrying water permanently 
throughout the year, are drawn off from some of the-rivers in the upper part of 
their course near the foot of the hills, and are carried along high land for the 
supply, all the way, of the country right and left. So great areas of land are 
protected against the possible eflects of their scanty and precarious rainfall. 
Where these canals and their branches flow, the level of water in the wells is 
raised, and thus more advantage can be taken of the great sheets of water at 
varying depths below the surface. In the country through which run the dry 
channels of the Saraswati, Gaggar, Markanda, &c., the depth of the wells is very 
great, but the rainfall, though small (about 18 inches), is much greater than in the 
country to the west, at the tail of the Punjab rivers. 

Besides the windings and changes of channels for short distances, with general 
maintenance of the same line, there are deviations ona larger scale, rivers forsaking 
old lines and taking an entirely new course. One well-known instance of this 
among the Punjab rivers is that of the Ravi, of which a deserted channel is trace- 
able for a long distance in the Lahore and Montgomery districts. 

The Punjab rivers are of different colours, depending on the soil through which 
they have passed and the tributaries they have received. The different colours of 
two rivers is often observable for a long distance below their confluence. The 
Indus below Attak is dull blue; its tributaries in this part of its course are red, 
except the Harro, which is light in colour and comparatively clear. The Ghana 
(Satlaj) is light but not clear where it is joined by the red Chinab, and they run 
on for a long way not mixed. 

The united rivers which join the Indus are of less volume and velocity than 
its single stream. The width of the Panjnad (the combined five) is more than 
twice that of the Indus, but its depth is smaller and the rate of its current less than 
one-half. In the low season the discharge of the Indus is 92,000 cubic feet per 
second, and of the Panjnad 69,000—in all 161,000. The flood discharge in the 
month of August below the junction has been estimated at 446,000 cubic feet. 

Such rivers are great powers, very valuable, and difficult to deal with. By 
watching their characters, and obeying while controlling the action of nature, we 
can do much to make them subservient to our purposes, and in some measure 
to illustrate man’s influence on the physical as well as political geography of a 
country. 


8. On a Clinometer to use with a Plane-Table. By Major Hut. 


9. On a supposed Periodicity of the Cyclones of the Indian Ocean, south of 
the Equator. By Cuartes Metprum, F.2.S. —See Section A, p. 925. 


1132 REPORT—1885. 
10. The Portuguese Possessions in West Africa. By H. H. Jounston. 


11. North-west Australia. By J. G. BartHoLomew. 


TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15. 
The following Papers were read :— 


1. Antarctic Research. 
By Admiral Sir Erasmus Ommanney, O.B., F.R.S., F.R.GS. 


The object of this paper was to draw attention to the neglect of the Antarctic 
region as a field for exploration. The author gave a summary of the work which 
has already been done by Cook, Bellingshausen, Weddell, Biscoe, Balleny, Wilkes, 
Dumont d’Urville, James Ross, and Nares (in the Challenger), and referred to 
a paper by Dr. Neumayer on the subject, the substance of which was repro- 
duced in ‘ Nature,’ vol. vii. The author concluded as follows :—‘ I have thus laid 
before you but a very imperfect description of these voyages; to give the details of 
the scientific results would occupy a separate paper. But I have endeavoured to 
demonstrate how large a field remains open for discovery. I think, from all we 
now know, we may infer that the South Pole is capped by an eternal glacier ; and, 
from the nature of the soundings obtained by Ross, it would appear that the 
great ice-wall along which the ships navigated was the termination of the glacier— 
the source from which the inexhaustible supply of icebergs and ice-islands are 
launched into the Southern Ocean, many of which drift to the low latitude of 
42°, The tact of finding the volcanoes of equal proportions to Etna or Mont 
Blanc creates a zest for further research regarding that awful region on which 
neither man nor quadruped ever existed. No man has ever wintered in the 
Antarctic zone. The great desideratum now before us requires that an expedition 
should pass a winter there, in order to compare the conditions and phenomena with 
our Arctic knowledge. The observations and data to be collected there through- 
out one year could not fail to produce matter of the deepest importance to all 
branches of science. I believe that such an achievement can be accowplished in 
these days with ships properly designed and fitted with the means of steam pro- 
pulsion ; nor is it chimerical to conceive a sledge party travelling over the glacier 
of Victoria Land towards the South Pole, after the example of Nordenskjéld in 
Greenland. 

‘ Another interesting matter requires investigation, from the fact that all the 
thermometers supplied for deep-sea temperatures to Ross were faulty in construc- 
tion, as they were then not adapted to register accurately beneath the weighty 
oceanic pressure. Moreover, another magnetic survey is most desirable, in order to 
determine what secular change has been made in the elements of terrestrial 
magnetism after an interval of forty years and more, when taken by Ross. In fact, 
there exists a wide field open for investigation in the unknown South Polar Sea. 
This paper will, I trust, be the prelude for others to follow in arousing geographers 
and this powerful Association in promoting further research by despatching another 
South Polar expedition, having for its object to secure a wintering station. No 
other nation is so capable of providing and carrying it out. Even in the Australian 
colonies there exists the spirit and the means for such a noble enterprise.’ And he 
also directs the public attention to the fact that the only scientific information yet 
procured in the South Polar region within the Antarctic circle is limited to the 
observations collected by the only expedition ever despatched from this nation 
expressly for scientific research. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 1133 


2. Geographical Education. By J. Scorr KE.rie. 


The author mainly confined himself to the chief points in the Report on Geo- 
graphical Exploration which he recently presented to the Royal Geographical 
Society. In this country, he stated, the position of geographical education is in a 
hopeful condition in elementary schools. The programme prescribed by the 
Education Department is satisfactory, and teachers seem to be practically getting 
into the way of carrying it out efficiently. 

In the chaotic mass of middle class schools the position is far from satisfactory. 
The previous efforts of the Society and of the Oxford and Cambridge local exami- 
nations have had a beneficial influence, and numerous teachers here and there are 
found who recognise the educational value of geography, and do their best to teach 
it adequately. But as a rule it scarcely counts at all as a subject of education. 
This partly arises from the overcrowded state of school programmes, and partly 
because teachers themselves are ignorant of the subject and have no taste for it. 
The higher we ascend in the various grades of schools, the less do we find geography 
attended to. It appeared to the author that the wretched place which geography 
holds in our schools, and the barren results which in too many cases follow its 
teaching, is largely due to the narrow conception which prevails of what is known 
as political geography. Until we got beyond this fruitless conception of the sub- 
ject, until we came to realise that political geography is really the resultant of ever 
so many factors, of the interaction not only between man and man, but between 
man and his physical surroundings, and until teachers are trained to bring the sub- 
ject in this aspect before their pupils, it will never be other than the dull barren 
task it now is. (The paper is published in full in the ‘ Scottish Geographical 
Magazine,’ October 1885.) 


3. On Overland Expeditions to the Arctic Coast of America. 
By Joun Ras, M.D., DL.D., F.RS., F.R.G.S. 


Hearne, 1771. 


There ate records as early as 1715 that information was brought to the 
Hudson’s Bay Company’s fort at Churchill, Hudson’s Bay, by the Indians, of 
there being a great river falling into the Arctic Sea many days journey to the north- 
west, the banks of which abounded in minerals, and the Indians frequently brought 
pieces of pure copper said to have been found there. 

It was to see these copper-mines, and also to get to the Arctic Sea, that Hearne 
made a very long journey with Indians, who treated him with great indignity and 
contempt, and he met with much suffering and privation, besides witnessing a 
horrible massacre of poor Eskimos by his savage companions, being unable to save 
even one poor young girl, that was stabbed to death whilst clinging to his knees 
for protection. Hearne certainly reached the Arctic Sea, but his survey was so 
inaccurate that he placed the mouth of the Coppermine River 228 geographical 
miles too far north and 110 geographical miles too far west, so that his map was 
worse than useless. 


McKenzie (AFTERWARDS Sik ALEXANDER), 1789. 


The Arctic Sea was next ‘tapped’ by McKenzie in 1789. He descended the 
magnificent river that so worthily bears his name in a bark canoe, the crew feeding 
themselves chiefly by fishing and shooting. He arrived at an island in latitude 
69° N., near the shore of which he saw many white whales (Beluga) with indi- 
cations of a rise and fall of tide, and came to the conclusion that he had reached 
the mouth of the river, in which belief he was found to be correct. In fact, all his 
positions were found to be as satisfactory as those of Hearne were the reverse. 


1 To this day all weapons and tools of the Eskimos near the Coppermine are 
made of copper. 


1134 REPORT—1885. 


FRANKLIN, RIcHARDsON, Back, AND Hoop, 1821. 


Thirty years elapsed before the Arctic coast was again visited by an overland 
Arctic expedition, one of the most disastrous and pitiable ever known, although 
commanded by one of the best and bravest of men, assisted admirably by Dr. 
Richardson, a man gifted with all kinds of scientific Inowledge and numerous 
other sterling qualities, that so peculiarly fitted him for the position of medical 
man and naturalist to the expedition. 

Leaving England in 1819, two summers’ travelling by boats and canoes through 
the Hudson’s Bay Company’s territory took the party in 1820 to winter quarters 
named Fort Enterprise, some distance north of Great Slave Lake. On opening of 
the navigation in spring 182] two canoes descended the Coppermine River and 
turned eastward, the object being to trace the coast as far as possible in that 
direction with the hope of meeting Parry, who about that date was exploring with 
two ships on the east coast of Melville peninsula, in hopes of finding a passage 
westward. 4 

For five weeks the expedition struggled gallantly on, hampered by ice, stopped 
by storms, and on ‘short commons’ for food, but making only 150 miles easting. 
Parry at the time was more than 600 miles farther east. The canoes were 
abandoned in Hood River, and two small ones (a mistake) made out of them for 
crossing streams, &c. On the last day of August they began the overland journey 
towards Fort Enterprise, which in a straight line was 170 miles distant. The suffer- 
ings and privations from cold and hunger were simply terrible ; much of their food 
was a very unpalatable lichen (tripe de roche), with short allowance of roasted 
bones and skin. The men’s loads were so heavy [ foolishly so—J. R.] that when they 
did kill large game little or none of the meat could be carried on. 

Ten of the party perished miserably, two of these being shot—the one murdered 
the other the murderer. : 

All the officers except poor Mr. Hood got back to England safe and well, after 
having been treated by the Indians—who brought them food when at death’s door 
—‘with a kindness and humanity that would have done honour to the most 
civilised of peoples.’ 

FRANKLIN AND RicHARDsON, Back, AND KernpAtt, 1826, 


This expedition was as successful as the former one (1821) was unfortunate. 
Winter quarters were at Fort Franklin, Great Bear Lake. Four boats descended 
the McKenzie in spring 1826, and separated near the mouth of the river, becoming 
actually two expeditions, Franklin and Back in two boats going to the west whilst 
Richardson and Kendall took the opposite direction, their destination being the 
Coppermine River, which they reached without difficulty, left their boats and 
walked overland to Bear Lake, where there was a boat waiting, in which they took 
passage to Fort Franklin. The western party were not so fortunate, haying been 
compelled to turn back when 160 miles short of Point Barrow, to which place the 
barge of H.M.S. ‘Blossom’? (Captain Beechey) had come from the west the same 
season. The expedition got back to England in 1827, 

Back, 1833-34, 

Tn 1832 much anxiety began to be felt for Sir J. Ross’s expedition t i 
in the little vessel Victory, which left England in 1829, and us nae 
Back was sent overland to search for them by way of the Great Fish River. Whilst 
wintering at the east end of Great Slave Lake in 1833-34 news was received that 
Sir J. Ross had got home; nevertheless, Back went down the river named after 
him, and explored more than 100 miles of the coast near its mouth, then returned 
to Fort Reliance, where another winter was spent, and returned to Eneland the 
following summer (1835). i 


Hupson’s Bay Company’s EXpepirion, UNDER DEAsE AND Srrson, 
1837, 1838, anp 1839. 
Several parts of the coast still remained untraced, and two of these gaps were 
completed in a very satisfactory manner by the above expeditions. In the first 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 1135 


year (1837) the 160 miles to the west—which Franklin could not reach—were 
traced. In the two following years, partly on foot, but chiefly in boats down the 
Coppermine, they went east, even beyond Back’s survey of the mouth of the Fish 
River, thus accomplishing a boat voyage of more than 1,400 geographical miles, 
the longest ever made in boats on the Arctic coast, on which they remained until 
September 16, a dangerously late period. Dease and Simpson's tracing of new 
ground amounted to 667 geographical miles, but to do this 800 miles of previous 
survey had to be gone over. Simpson was awarded the Royal Geographical 
Society’s Gold Medal when less than half his Arctic work was accomplished, 


Raz, 1846-47, 1850-51, anp 1853-54. 


The first and last of these expeditions were equipped in 1846 and 1853 at York 
Factory, and wintered at Repulse Bay on the Arctic circle ; the first in a stone house, 
the last in a snow-hut, which proved by far the more comfortable of the two, 
although they had no fire to give warmth in the one, nor a ‘ fire-lamp,’ such as the 
Eskimos use, in the other. In the stone house the temperature fell 15° or 20° during 
the cooking of our two meals—frequently only one—per day, as the door had to be 
kept open to allow the smoke to escape which would not go up the chimney. The 
first party consisted of Rae, ten men and two Eskimos; the last of eight persons. 
On each occasion venison and fish sufficient for eleyen or twelve months were 
obtained, nearly half the deer for winter use being shot by Rae. In 1847 the first 
long sledge journeys ever made on the Arctic shores of America were performed, 
more than 1,200 miles in distance, uniting Ross’s discoveries on Boothia with those 
of Parry on Melville peninsula, all but a few miles.!’ The cost of this expediticn 
was less than 1,400. 

In 1854 a sledge journey of about 1,100 miles, at the rate of nearly 20 miles a 
day, was made, uniting the surveys of Dease and Simpson to those of Ross, west 
of Boothia, and proving King William’s Land to be an island. The work done by 
these two expeditions was the tracing 933 miles of new land, the obtaining of the 
first information (in 1854) of the fate of the Franklin Expedition, and the making 
four voyages of 900 miles each in open boats along a dangerous coast, all at a cost 
of less than 3,000. for both. 

In 1850 Rae, whilst in charge of McKenzie River District, was asked by the 
Admiralty to go in search of the missing expedition, and to take any route he 
thought best. There was only one route open, that by Great Bear Lake and the 
Coppermine River, which could not be utilised until 1851, as small boats had to be 
built suitable for hauling overland. It was confidently stated that no wood fit 
for boatbuilding could be obtained on the east side of Great Bear Lake, yet this 
difficulty was overcome, and Indians as hunters were searched for and found. 
Two nice little boats were built by the carpenter, who, although a good workman, 
did not know the form of boat required, so Rae’s experience of many years before 
in the Orkney Islands became useful, as he not only drafted the boats to scale in 
every plank, but cut out and roped the sails, and fitted and spliced the rigging and 
other gear. 

Gt Trlede journey of more than 1,000 miles was made by Rae, two men, and 
three half-starved dogs, to the coast and along Wollaston Land, at the rate of 24 
miles a day, all the party hauling or carrying loads the whole way. The boat 
voyage to the eastward of the Coppermine was 1,350 miles, partly along the coast 
of Victoria Land, and up Victoria Strait to a higher latitude than that where 
Franklin’s ships were abandoned in 1848, near King William’s Island, on the east 
side of the strait, which was filled with immense heaps of rough ice in 1851. On 
returning to the Great Bear Lake an effort was made to get south before the closing 
of the river navigation, but the boat was frozen up in Athabasca River. From 
this place the party travelled on snowshoes 1,300 miles (at the rate of 27 miles 
aday) to Red River* where all the men were paid off except two, who accompanied 
Rae to the United States 450 miles in ten days, being aided by dogs. 


? A slight error in the chart, which was relied upon as correct, gave to Parry’s 
Survey a few more miles than was correct. 
? Gold medal of R. G. 8, awarded in 1852. 


1136 REPORT—1885. 


As the searching expeditions of Richardson and Rae, in 1848, of Rae, 1849, of 
Pullen, 1849-50, and of Anderson and Stewart, 1855, obtained no new geographical 
results, no details are given of these. 


APPROXIMATE AMOUNT OF GEOGRAPHICAL WORK DONE BY THE EXPEDITIONS 
North or Arctic CIRCLE UNDER— 


Guas G. Me, (Gs Me 
1821. Frauklin & Richardson . . onfoot. . 35 incanoes 415 450 
11826. a 5 oe fio » -fy- 40... boats s.19ab) 1045 
Total’ eye MEd O5. 
! (in boat ) F in boat ae 
1834. Back . lo reine’ oer esl a eke consti 105 225 
1837. 
21838. |Dease & Simpson (H.B.Co.) on foot. . 95 in boats . 722 817 
1839. 
1847. gale 
81851. pa a: Oe Ce bol {stedging 1,123 in boats . 369 1,492 
1853-4. ( } 


Grand total . . 4,029 


4. On the best and safest Route by which to attain a High Northern 
Latitude. By Joun Rat, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., FR.G.S. 


The plan proposed is that the route by the west shore of Spitzbergen should be 
taken by one, or perhaps two, steamers similar to the fine vessels used in sealing and 
whaling at the present time. That after forcing the ice ‘pack’ at the north-west 
end of Spitzbergen, a north-east course towards Francis Joseph Land should be 
followed. That a depét of coals should be placed at a convenient harbour in North 
Spitzbergen. Extracts are given from Parry’s ‘ Narrative,’ 1827, pp. 101 and 148, 
showing how open and small the ice was in latitude 82°45’ N. The southern 
drift of the ice that so obstructed the advance of Parry’s boats will be no great 
impediment to a powerful steamer, whilst if she gets helplessly fixed in the pack 
she will drift homewards with it. No well-equipped and powerful steamer has 
tried this route.* 


5. Oceanic Islands and Shoals. By J. Y. BucHanan. 


6. On the Depth of the permanently Frozen Stratum of Soil in British 
North America. By General Sir J. Henry Lerroy, K.C.M.G., F.R.S. 


7. On Recent Explorations in New Guinea. By Courrs Trorrer. 


The author desired to bring our knowledge of the country up to date by some 
notes on what has been done there since 1883, when he read a paper on New 
Guinea before the Association. He calls attention to the results of Mr. Chalmers’s 
journeys in the south-eastern peninsula, which have added considerably to our 
knowledge of the physical features of the region. Proofs haye been found near 
Yule island of intercourse with the inhabitants of the northern coast, and this, 
coupled with native reports, leads to the belief that a route across the country will 


1 Actually two expeditions, one east, the other west. 

2 Dease and Simpson had to pass over about 800 miles of previously traced coast 
before getting to new ground, but Franklin and Richardson were on new ground at 
once on reaching the coast. 

3 Of the coast, &c., traced by Rae, 1,123 miles were done by sledging, believed 
to be the most laborious of Arctic work. 

4 Parry found the ice floes so small in latitude 82° 45’ N, that only one piece 
could be found large enough and strong enough to haul his boats upon. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 1137 


be found in that direction. The numerous so-called ‘temples’ found near the head 
of the Gulf of Papua, with a priestly class attached to them, is remarkable, and 
argues a decided mixture of race, pointing in fact to the prevalence of Polynesian 
as opposed to Papuan religious ideas. 

After referring to the hydrographical problems suggested by the character of the 
country on the Gulf, and further west, at Onin, Mr. Trotter discusses the probable 
importance of the recent ascent of the Amberno river, an account of which, trans- 
lated from the Dutch, was contributed by him to the Royal Geographical Society’s 
Proceedings for March last. He adds some notice of surveys by the Germans of 
the territory recently annexed by them, parts of which opposite to the island of 
New Britain appear to offer a fairer prospect to settlers than any other district as 
yet discovered in New Guinea. 

The author takes an unfavourable view of the effect on the interests of the 
natives of the conflicting jurisdictions, and differing ways of treatment, to which 
they will now be subjected. This paper will be found in eatenso in the ‘Scottish 
Geographical Magazine’ for October, 1885. 


WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16, 


The following Papers were read :— 
1. On Journeyings in South-Western China. By A, Hosts. 


In the autumn of 1881 Mr. Hosie was appointed Her Majesty’s Agent in Western 
China, and reached Ch‘ung-ch‘ing, in the province of Ssii-ch‘uan, in January 1882. 
From this point he made three journeys in South-Western China. In the spring 
of 1882 he proceeded through Southern Ssii-ch‘uan and Northern Kuei-chou, the 
Chinese ‘Switzerland, to Kuei-yang Fu, the capital of the latter province, whence 
he journeyed westward in the footsteps of Margary to the capital of Yiinnan. 
From Yiinnan Fu he struck north-east through Northern Yiinnan, following for 
days here and there the routes of Garnier and the Grosvenor Mission. At last he 
descended the Nan-kuang River and reached the right bank of the Great River, 
the local name of the Upper Yangtsze, at a point below Hsii-chou Fu, an 
important city at the junction of the Min River and the Chin-sha Chiang, or 
River of Golden Sand. Here he took boat and descended the Great River to 
Ch‘ung-ch‘ing, his starting-point. 

In February 1883 Mr. Hosie again left Ch‘ung-ch‘ing, and proceeded north-west 
to Ch‘éng-tu, the capital of the province of Sst-ch‘uan, by way of the brine and 
petroleum wells of Tzi-liu-ching. From Ch‘éng-tu he journeyed west and south- 
west through the country of the Lolos, skirting the western boundary of 
Independent Lolodom. From Ning-yiian, locally called Chien-ch‘ang, and lying 
in a valley famous, among other things, as the habitat of the white-wax insect, he 
passed south-west through the mountainous Cain-du of Marco Polo, inhabited in 
great part by Mantzii tribes, and struck the left bank of the Chin-sha Chiang two 
months after leaving Ch‘ung-ch‘ing. From this point Ta-li Fu, in Western Yiinnan, 
was easily reached. From Ta-li Fu Mr. Hosie journeyed eastward to Yiinnan Fu, 
which he had visited the year before, and then struck north-east through Western 
Knuei-chou to the Yung-ning River, which he descended to the Great River. Lu 
Chou, an important city at the junction of this river with the T‘o River, was soon 
reached, and the Great River was again descended to Ch‘ung-ch‘ing. This journey 
occupied four months. 

In June 1884 Mr. Hosie again left Ch‘ung-ch‘ing, and from Ho Chou, a three 
days’ journey to the north of that city, he struck westward through a beautifully 
cultivated and fertile country to Chia-ting Fu, on the right bank of the Min at its 
junction with the T‘ung River. Chia-ting is famous as the great centre of seri- 
culture in Ssit-ch‘uan, and as the chief insect wax producing country in the Empire. 


1885. 4D 


1138 REPORT—1885. 


A day’s journey west of Chia-ting is the famous Mount O-mei, rising 11,100 feet 
above the level of the sea. This mountain, which is sacred to the worship of 
Buddha, Mr. Hosie ascended in company with crowds of pilgrims. He then 
proceeded south, skirting the eastern boundary of Independent Lolodom, to the 
River of Golden Sand, the left hank of which was struck at the town of Man-i-ssit, 
between forty and fifty miles above P‘ng-shan Hsien—the highest point reached by 
the Upper Yangtsze Expedition in 1861. From Man-i-ssii Mr. Hosie descended 
the Chin-sha Chiang and the Great River to Ch‘ung-ch‘ing. 


2. Notes on the large Southern Tributaries of the Rio Solimoes or Upper 
Amazon in Brazil, with special reference to the Rio Jutahi. By Professor 
J. W. H. Trait. 


3. The Depth and Temperature of some Scottish Lakes. 
By J. Y. BUCHANAN. 


4, On the Geographical Features of the Beauly Basin. 
By Tuo. W. Wattace. 


5. What has been done for the Geography of Scotland, and what remains to 
be done.! By H. A. Wupster. 


After explaining that he wished rather to offer a few practical suggestions for 
the future than to be the mere chronicler of the past, he gave a brief sketch of the 
various contributions made to the map of Scotland previous to the establishment 
of the Ordnance Survey, calling attention more especially to the wonderful pere- 
grinations of Timothy Pont, a reproduction of whose maps and notes in their entirety 
would be worth the attention of some of our publishing societies. He next pro- 
ceeded to point out that, admirable as the labours of the Ordnance Survey admittedly 
were (and, for one thing, they for the first time enabled the geographer to form a 
true idea of the vertical development of the country), they could not be considered 
complete until certain dacune, especially as regards altitudes, were filled up, and 
until the general results were rendered more readily available by being co-ordinated 
in an official handbook. The parochial character of the details registered in the 
area-books of the survey rendered them practically useless to the geographer. 


Even were he content to accept the parish as the unit of description (and a more ~ 


absurd one could hardly he found), it was only by a tedious arithmetical process 
he could discover how much of this area was occupied by land and how much by 
water, how much was arable and how much forest. To all such questions as, 
What is the length of this river? What is the extent of its basin? To what 
distance is it navigable? To what distance does the tide ascend? How much of 
this or that area lies between 500 and 1,000 feet? how much between 1,000 and 
1,500 feet? and so on, the maps of the Survey might be said to contain the answers, 
but in most cases they contained them, so to speak, only in solution. No accwrate 
measurement, for example, appeared to have been made of the river-basin areas ; 
and, according to Mr. Stanford’s estimate, it would cost a private person 202. to get 
the necessary operations performed. Even the accurate measurement of all the 
development lengths of the rivers would be a tedious task. But to several of the 
questions which the geographer naturally asks the Ordnance Survey maps supplied 
no answer in any form. We had the altitude of many of the lakes, but for some 
of the more important ones no precise figures were given. In some cases the area- 
books of the parishes enabled us to find the areas of the lakes; in other cases they 
did not. In regard to the depth of our lakes and rivers—and the submerged portion 
of a valley is geographically as interesting as the sub-aérial portion—absolutely no 


» Printed in extenso in The Seottish Geographical Magazine, October 1885. 


ee 


a ie 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION E. 1139 


data were supplied by the Ordance Survey. Nor, with a few individual exceptions, 
did they exist in an accurate and trustworthy form anywhere else. It was an open 
secret that, when this omission was pointed out to the Government by the Royal 
Societies of London and Edinburgh, the Lords of the Treasury refused, and again 
refused, to authorise a bathymetric lake and river survey being carried out, either 
by the officers of the Ordnance Survey or by those of the Hydrographic department. 
Such a refusal could not be permanently accepted. It was to be hoped that when 
the Government was next urged to move in the matter they would be asked for 
more, and not for less. We required not only a hydrographic survey done once 
and for all (though that was worth the doing) ; we required a systematic registra- 
tion of hydrographic facts throughout the country, in order that the true régime 
both of lakes and rivers might be known in detail and with scientific precision. The 
ignorant niggardliness of the British Government was in striking contrast to the 
conduct of those of some foreign countries. In Switzerland, for instance, there 
was a regular system of inland hydrographic observations, by which the régime of 
all the principal rivers was annually recorded and rendered easily intelligible by 
a series of graphic bulletins. In regard to a Swiss river, we could tell the volume 
at any period of the year at several important points, and could compare the facts 
of 1884, for instance, with those of any year in the last two decades. Everyone 
knew what a vast body of interesting data had for generations been accumulating 
about such rivers as the Po and the Rhone, and many~had no doubt heard of the 
system of hydrographic stations recently established by the Italian Government in 
the basin of the Tiber. Why should we not endeavour to learn something definite 
and precise about the character of our own rivers? The investigation was only the 
natural complement on the one hand of the physical structure of the country, and 
on the other hand of its meteorology. Our Scottish Meteorological Society had 
now succeeded in establishing meteorological stations throughout the country ; let 
hydrographic stations bear them company along our principal rivers. Rainfall and 
river discharge were mutually illustrative. Another matter, not so directly of 
geographic import, might be mentioned in passing—the investigation of the different 
chemical qualities of the waters of the different lakes and rivers. But, to proceed 
to a strictly geographical matter, it had been frequently pointed out that unfor- 
tunately the results of the coast surveys had not been incorporated in the seaward 
portions of the Ordnance Survey maps; nor, indeed, was the submarine portion of 
our island group sufficiently attended to in any of our physical maps. <A special 
interest attached to the hollow of the North Sea, but a good deal remained to be 
done before the demands of modern research would be satisfied. Good work was 
happily beginning to be carried on at Granton and elsewhere in regard to the 
ditterence of salinity, &c., between the water of this almost land-locked basin and 
that of the open Atlantic. 

Turning from the physical to the political or administrative geography of Scot- 
land, the reader briefly called attention to the fact that while we had elaborate 
studies of the Ptolemaic geography of the country, and attempts such as those of 
Cosmo Innes, to reconstruct the civil and ecclesiastical divisions of certain 
periods, the detailed history of the rise of the Scottish counties, and of the fixing 
of the Scottish-English border would furnish subjects for difficult but interesting 
investigation. He then referred at some length to the desirableness and possibility 
of collecting and elucidating the whole corpus of Scottish place-names. Important 
studies in this department had been already made by Dr. Skene, Captain Thomas, 
and others; but what was now wanted was a complete system of registration, and 
a co-operative system of historical and philological illustration. Of such a treat- 
ment of national place-names the Netherlands afforded a most instructive example. 
The Publications Committee of the Scottish Geographical Society was endeavouring: 
to organise a special committee in connection with the subject. In conclusion, 
though it might be said that the subject was rather sociological than geographical, 
attention was called to the necessity of a greater application of cartography to the 
rendering of statistical facts, such as those of density of population, birth and 
death rates, distribution of trade and commerce, education, &c. Augustus Peter- 
mann, at the census of i851, set an admirable example to our census authorities, 

4p2 


1140 REPORT—1885. 


but they failed to follow it. One could actually get a clearer idea of the relative 
density of the population throughout the different parts of the United Kingdom 
from Petermann’s map than from anything that had since been published. Jn this 
matter of applied cartography, Scotland (and it might be added England also) was 
deplorably behind most foreign countries—notably Germany, France, and Italy. 
To some extent this might be the fault of the cartographers, but to a larger extent 
it was due to the small attention that was bestowed on the systematic collection of 
statistical information in such a form as can be tabulated or ‘ graphicised.’ Nothing 
was more difficult in many cases than to obtain statistical facts for any smaller 
totality than the United Kingdom. It was time that an attempt should be made 
to compile, under the auspices of some authoritative institution, such as the Royal 
Society of Edinburgh, a new statistical account of Scotland: though such a work 
as Mr. Groome’s ‘ Ordnance Survey Gazetteer’ did much to supply the desideratum, 
the enterprise was too difficult for private accomplishment. 


6. On Bathy-hypsographical Maps, with special reference to a Combination 
of the Ordnance and Admiralty Surveys. By E. G. Ravensretn, F.R.G.S. 


The bathy-hypsographical map, which exhibits the vertical configuration of the 
solid surface of the earth aboye as well as below the ocean-leyel, is a product of 
modern times. It was Gerard Mercator who first inserted soundings upon a chart 
in 1585, but nearly two centuries passed away before Cruquius, in 1728, introduced 
the fathom-lines with which we areall familiar. Buache, and after him Ducarla, 
first suggested the introduction of contours upon maps, and their idea was realised 
in 1791 by Dupain-Triel on a map of France. The combination of these two 
descriptions of contoured maps we owe to modern German geographers, and more 
especially to Berghaus, von Sydow, and Ziegler. Cartographers in effecting this 
combination had hitherto quite lost sight of the fact that the heights on maps are 
referred to high or mean water, whilst the depths on charts represent soundings 
reduced to low water. This rough method gave satisfactory results when dealing 
with maps on a small scale, but a more rigid method would have to be applied when 
it was desired to combine accurate surveys like those made by the Ordnance and 
Admiralty departments. The so-called mean level of the sea was not a suitable 
datum level, and it would be necessary to carry on tidal and other scientific obser- 
vations on a far more comprehensive plan than had been done hitherto if a really 
satisfactory bathy-hypsographical map of the British islands were to become attain- 
able. These various supplementary surveys, tidal observations, &c., it was to be 
hoped, would expand into a comprehensive scientific survey of the British seas. 


( 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 1141 


Section F..—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 


PRESIDENT OF THE Section—Professor Henry Srpewick, M.A., Litt.D, 


THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. 
The following Report and Papers were read :— 


1. Report of the Committee for continuing the inquiries relating to the 
Teaching of Science in Elementary Schools—See Reports, p. 692. 


The PresipEnT delivered the following Address :— 


I HAVE chosen for the subject of the discourse, which by custom has to be 
delivered from the chair that I am called upon to occupy, the scope and method of 
economic science, and its relation to other departments of what is vaguely called 
‘social science.’ If the abstract and academic nature of the subject, together with 
my own deficiencies as an expositor, should render my remarks less interesting to 
the audience than they have a right to expect, I trust that they will give me what 
indulgence they can; but, above all, that they will not anticipate a corresponding 
remoteness from concrete fact in the discussions that are to follow. I see from the 
records of the Association that it has been the custom in this department—and it 
seems to me a good custom—to give to the annual addresses of the presidents the 
variety that naturally results when each speaker in turn applies himself unreservedly 
to that aspect of our complex and many-sided inquiry which his special studies 
and opportunities have best qualified him to treat ; and as my own connection with 
economic science has been in the way of studying, criticising, and developing 
theories, rather than collecting and systematising facts, I have thought that I 
should at any rate have a greater chance of making a useful contribution to our 
discussions if I allowed myself to deal with the subject from the point of view that 
is most familiar to me. 

I have the less scruple in adopting this course because I do not think that any 
who may listen to my remarks are likely to charge me with overrating the value 
of abstract reasoning on economic subjects, or regarding it as a substitute for an 
accurate and thorough investigation of facts instead of an indispensable instrument 
of such investigation. There is indeed a kind of political economy which flourishes 
in proud independence of facts, and undertakes to settle all practical problems 
of Governmental interference or private philanthropy by simple deduction from 
one or two general assumptions—of which the chief is the assumption of the uni- 
versally beneficent and harmonious operation of self-interest well let alone. This 
kind of political economy is sometimes called ‘ orthodox,’ though it has the charac- 
teristic unusual in orthodox doctrines of being repudiated by the majority of 
accredited teachers of the subject. But whether orthodox or not, I must be 
allowed to disclaim all connection with it; the more completely this survival of 
the a priori politics of the eighteenth century can be banished to the remotest 
available planet, the better it will be, in my opinion, for the progress of economic 


1142 REPORT—1885. 


science. Since, however, this kind of political economy is still somewhat current in 
the market-place, since the language of newspapers and public speakers still keeps 
up the impression that the professor of political economy is continually laying down 
laws which practical people are continually violating, it seems worth while to try 
to make clear the relation between the economic science which we are concerned 
to study and the principles of Governmental interference—or rather non-inter- 
ference—which are thought to have been of late so persistently and in some cases 
so successfully outraged. 

It must be admitted at once that there is considerable excuse for the popular 
misapprehension just mentioned; since for more than a century the general 
interest taken in the analysis of the phenomena of industry has been mainly due 
to the connection of this analysis with a political movement towards greater 
industrial freedom. No researches into the historical development of economic 
studies before Adam Smith can displace the great Scotchman from his position as 
the founder of modern political economy considered as an independent science, 
with a well-marked field of investigation and a definite and peculiar method of 
reasoning, And no doubt the element of Adam Smith’s treatise which makes the 
most impression on the ordinary reader is his forcible advocacy of the ‘system of 
natural liberty ;’ his exposition of the natural ‘ division of labour ’—tending, if 
left alone, to become an international division of employments—as the main cause 
of the ‘universal opulence’ of ‘ well-governed’ societies; and of the manner’ in 
which, in this distribution of employments, individual capitalists seeking their own 
advantage are led ‘by an invisible hand’ to ‘prefer that employment of their 
capital which is most advantageous to society.’ 

At the same time Adam Smith was too cool and too shrewd an observer of 
facts to be carried, even by the force and persuasiveness of his own arguments, 
into a sweeping and unqualified assertion of the universality of the tendency that 
he describes. His advocacy of natural liberty in no way blinds him to the perpetual 
and complex opposition and conflict of economic interests involved in the unfettered 
efforts of individuals to get rich. He even goes the length of saying that ‘the 
interest of the dealers in any particular branch of trade or manufacture is always 
in some respects different from, and even opposite to, that of the public.’ To take 
a particular case, he is decidedly of opinion that the natural liberty of bankers to 
issue notes may reasonably be restrained by the laws of the freest Governments. 
He is quite aware, again, that the absence of Governmental interference does not 
necessarily imply a state of free competition, since the self-interest of individuals 
may lead them, on the contrary, to restrict competition by ‘voluntary associations 
and agreements.’ He does not doubt that Governments, central or local, may find 
various ways of employing wealth—of which elementary education is one of the 
most important—which will be even economically advantageous to society, though 
they could not be remuneratively undertaken by individual capitalists. “In short, 
however fascinating the picture that Adam Smith presents to us of the continual 
and complex play of individual interests constituting and regulating the vast fabric 
of social industry, the summary conclusion drawn by some of his disciples that the 
social production of wealth will always be best promoted by leaving it altogether 
alone, that the only petition which industry should make to Government is the 
petition of Diogenes to Alexander that he would cease to stand between him and 
the sunshine, and that statesmen are therefore relieved of the necessity of examin- 
ing carefully the grounds for industrial intervention in any particular case—this 
comfortable and labour-saving conclusion finds no support in a fair survey of Adam 
Smith’s reasonings, though it has been no doubt encouraged by some of his phrases. 
To attribute to him a dogmatic theory of the natural right of the individual to 
absolute industrial independence—as some recent German writers are disposed to 
do’—is to construct the history of economic doctrines from one’s inner con- 
sciousness. 

It is true, as I have said, that among Adam Smith’s disciples there were not a 


? £g., v. Scheel, in Schénberg’s Handbuch der politischen Ochonomie, p. 89, 
speaks of ‘ Die naturrechtliche Wirthschaftstheorie oder der Smithianismus.’ 


ee 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 1143 


few who rushed to the sweeping generalisations that the master had avoided. In 
England, in particular, the influence of the more abstract and purely deductive 
method of Ricardo tended in this direction. It was natural, again, that 
in the heat of a political movement absolute and unqualified statements of 
principle should come into yogue, since the ease and simplicity with which they 
ean be enunciated and apprehended makes them more effective instruments of 
popular agitation: hence it is not surprising to find the Anti-Corn-law petitions 
declaring the ‘inalienable right of every man freely to exchange the result of his 
labour for the productions of other people,’ to be ‘one of the principles of eternal 
justice.’ But under the more philosophic guidance of J. 8. Mill, English political 
economy shook off all connexion with these antiquated metaphysics, and during the 
last generation has been generally united with a view of political principles 
more balanced, qualified, and empirical, and therefore more in harmony with the 
general tendencies of modern scientific thought. 

If, indeed, laisser-faire were—as many suppose—the one main doctrine of mo- 
dern political economy, there can be no doubt that the decisive step forward that 
founded the science ought to be attributed not to Adam Smith, but to his French 
la predecessors the ‘Physiocrats.’ It is to them—to Quesnay, De Gournay, De 
Riviére, Turgot—that the credit, whatever it may be, is due of having first 
proclaimed to the world with the utmost generality and without qualification that 
what a statesman had to do was not to make laws for industry, but merely to 
ascertain and protect from encroachment the simple, eternal, and immutable laws 
of nature, under which the production of wealth would regulate itself in the best 
possible way if men would abstain from meddling, 

This doctrine formed one part of the impetuous movement of thought against 
the existing political order which characterised French speculation during 
the forty years that preceded the great Revolution. It was, we may say, the 
counterpart and complement of the doctrine of which Rousseau was the chief 
prophet. The sect of the Economistes and the disciples of Rousseau were agreed 
that the existing political system needed radical change; and in both there was a 
tendency to believe that an ideal political order could at once be constituted. At 
this point, however, their courses diverged: the school of Rousseau held that the 
essential thing was to alter the structure of government, and to keep legislation 
effectually in the hands of the sovereign people; the Economistes thought that the 
all-important point was to limit the functions of government, holding that the 
simple duty of maintaining the natural rights of the individual to liberty and 
property could be best performed by an absolute monarch. Both movements had 
much justification ; both have had effects on the political and social life of Europe 
of which it is difficult to measure the extent; but both doctrines—attained, as 
they were, by a fallacious method—involved a large element of exaggeration, suit- 
able to the ardent and sanguine period that brought them forth, but which 
gives them a curious air of absurdity when they are resuscitated and offered for 
the acceptance of our more sober, circumspect, and empirically-minded age. In 
the most civilised countries of Europe it is now a recognised and established safe- 
guard against oppressive laws that an effective control over legislation is vested in 
the people at large: but no serious thinker would now maintain with Rousseau 
that the predominance of the will of the sovereign people has a necessary tendency 
to produce just legislation. Similarly, the doctrine of the Physiocrats has prevailed, 
in the main, as regards the internal conditions of national industry in modern 
civilised societies. The old hampering privileges, restraints, and prohibitions have 
been almost entirely swept away, to the great advantage of the community ; but 
the absolute right of the individual to unlimited industrial freedom is now only 
maintained by a scanty and dwindling handful of doctrinaires, whom the progress 
of economic science has left stranded on the crude generalisations of an earlier 
period. 

‘ There will probably always be considerable disagreement in details among 
competent persons as to the propriety of Governmental interference in particular 
eases; but, apart from questions on which economic considerations must yield to 
political, moral, or social reasons of greater importance, it is an anachronism not 


1144 REPORT —1885. 


to recognise fully and frankly the existence of cases in which the industrial interven- 
tion of Government is desirable, even with a view to the most economical produc- 
tion of wealth. Hence, I conceive, the present business of economic theory in this 
department is to give a systematic and carefully-reasoned exposition of these cases, 
which, until the constitution of human nature and society are fundamentally 
altered, must always be regarded as exceptions to a general rule of non-interference. 
The statesman’s decision on any particular case it does not belong to abstract theory 
to give; this can only be rationally arrived at after a careful examination of the 
special conditions of each practical problem at the particular time and place at 
which it presents itself. But abstract reasoning may supply a systematic view of 
the general occasions for Governmental interference, the different possible modes 
of such interference, and the general reasons for and against each of them, which 
may aid practical men both in finding and in estimating the decisive considerations 
in particular cases. Thus it may show, on the one hand, under what circumstances 
the inevitable drawbacks of Governmental management are likely to be least, and 
by what methods they may be minimised; and where, on the other hand, private 
enterprise is likely to fail in supplying a social need—as where an undertaking 
socially useful is likely for various reasons to be unremunerative to the under- 
takers—or where private interests are liable to be markedly opposed to those 
of the public, as is generally the case with businesses that tend to become 
monopolies. 

It would be tedious now to dwell at length on these generalities; but 
there is one special exception to the triumph of the system of natural liberty 
in the civilised countries of Europe which has too much historical importance 
to be passed over without a word in this connection. As we are all aware, this 
triumph has only been decided as regards the internal conditions of industry and 
trade ; the practice of imposing barriers on international exchange, with a view 
to the protection of native industry, still flourishes in the most advanced communi- 
ties, and shows no immediate tendency to come to an end. It is not, I conceive, 
reasonable to attribute this result entirely, as some Free-traders are disposed to 
do, to the incapacity of mankind to understand elementary economic truths, and 
the interested efforts of a combination of producers to prey in a comfortable and 
legal way on the resources of the confiding consumers. I do not deny that both 
these causes have operated ; but, in view of the evident ability and disinterested- 
ness of many of the writers and statesmen who have supported the cause of 
Protection on the Continent or in the United States, I cannot find in them an 
adequate explanation of the phenomenon. 

A part of the required explanation is, I think, suggested when we examine the 
arguments by which Free-trade was actually recommended to intelligent English- 
men at the time when England’s policy was taking the decisive turn in this 
direction, and imagine their effect on the mind of an intelligent foreigner. 
Suppose, for instance, that the intelligent foreigner is studying the Edinburgh 
Review in 1841, when it came forward as a vigorous and decided advocate of Free- 
trade. In the January number he would find the cosmopolitan and abstract 
argument with which we are so familiar; he would learn how, under Free-trade, 
‘every country will exert itself in the way that is most beneficial in the production 
of wealth ;’ how labour and capital will be employed in each country to produce 
those things which the varieties of climate, situation, and soil enable it to produce 
with greater advantage than other countries, so that ‘ the greatest possible amount 
of industry will be kept constantly in action, and all commodities will exist in the 
greatest abundance.’ But in the July number of the same organ he would find a 
recommendation of Free-trade from a national point of view, which, though more 
restricted in its scope, would appear to contain matter no less important for 
practical consideration. He would find that the immediate introduction of Free- 
trade was held to be essential in order to keep what remained of the manufactur- 
ing and commercial supremacy of England. He would learn that ‘the early 
progress of any nation that attempts to rival us in manufactures must be slow ;’ 
for ‘it has to contend with our great capital, our traditionary skill, our almost 
infinite division of labour, our long-established perseverance, energy, and enterprise, 


—— 


a 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 1145 


our knowledge of markets, and with the habits of those who have been bred up to 
be our customers.’ He would learn that there was ‘no reason to believe that,’ in 
the ‘absence of disturbing causes,’ we should ever lose our present command ot 
the world’s market ; that we might have preserved our superiority for centuries ; 
but that ‘if these difficulties were once surmounted, this superiority—so far at 
least as respects the commodity in which we find ourselves undersold—would he 
gone for ever,’ in consequence of ‘ the well-known law of manufacturing industry 
that, ceterts paribus, with every increase of the quantity produced, the relative cost 
of production is diminished.’ It cannot be denied that a consideration of this law, 
and of the vis irertie here attributed to an established superiority in manufactures 
and commerce, supplies an important qualification of the general argument for Free- 
trade. For, along with the tendency of industry to go where it can be most 
economically carried on, we have also to recognise a tendency for it to stay and 
develop where it has been once planted ; and the advantage of leaving this latter 
tendency undisturbed would naturally be less clear to the patriotic foreigner than 
to the patriotic Englishman. The proclamation of a free race for all, just when 
England had a start which she might probably keep ‘for centuries, would not 
seem to him a manifest realisation of eternal justice; to delay the race for a 
generation or two, and meanwhile to apply judiciously ‘ disturbing causes’ in the 
form of protective duties, would seem likely to secure a fairer start for other 
nations, and ultimately, therefore, a better organisation of the world’s industry 
even from a cosmopolitan point of view. 

Nor would it seem to him a conclusive argument against this course that pro- 
tective duties impose great present pecuniary sacrifices on the protecting nation; 
especially when he learnt, from an impartial English source, of the great sacrifices 
which private capitalists in England were in the habit of making to assist the 
tendency of free competition in their favour. He would find, for instance, in the 
Report of a Commission published in 1854,' an appeal to the working classes to 
consider ‘the immense losses which their employers voluntarily incur in bad times, 
in order to destroy foreign competition, and to gain and keep possession of foreign 
markets.’ Should the efforts ot Trade-Unionists, urges the writer, be successful for 
any length of time, they would interfere with the ‘ great accumulations of capital 
which enable a few of the most wealthy capitalists to overwhelm all foreign com- 
petition in times of great depression,’ and which thus constitute ‘the great instru- 
ments of warfare against the competing capital of foreign countries.’ If it was the 
view of shrewd English men of business that these great sacrifices of private wealth 
were needed, and were worth making, to maintain the industrial start once gained, 
the intelligent foreigner would naturally conclude that the other combatants in the 
industrial battle must be prepared to make corresponding sacrifices; that each 
nation must fight with its own weapons; and that where there were no great 
accumulations of capital in private hands, the instruments of warfare must be 
obtained by a general contribution. 

I have given these considerations, not because I agree with the practical con- 
clusion which they tend to support, but because I think that they require to be 
met by a line of argument different from that which English economists have 
usually adopted. I think it erroneous to maintain, on the ordinary economic 
grounds, that temporary Protection must always be detrimental to the protecting 
country, even if it were carried out by a perfectly wise and strong Government, 
able to resist all influences of sinister and sectarian interests, and to act solely for 
the good of the nation. The decisive argument against it is rather the political 
consideration that no actual Government is competent for this difficult and delicate 
task ; that Protection, as actually applied under the play of political forces, is sure 
to foster many weak industries that have no chance of living without artificial 
support, and to hamper industries that might thrive independently, by the artificial 
dearness of some of their materials and instruments ; so that it turns out a danger-~ 
ous and clumsy, as well as a costly, instrument of industrial competition, and is 


1 See p. 20 of Report by Mr. H. 8. Tremenheere, Commissioner appointed to 
inquire into the operation of Act 5 & 6 Vict. c. 99, and into the state of the popn- 
lation in the mining districts (Vol. XIX. of Parl. Papers for 1854). 


1146 REPORT—1885. 


not likely on the whole to bring the desired victory, though it may give a partial 
success here and there. And some such conclusion as this is, I think, now pre- 
valent even among those German economists who are most decided in their rejec- 
tion of the claims of dazsser-faie to absolute and unqualified validity. 

So far I have been speaking of the function of economic science in determining 
principles of Governmental intervention in matters of industry, because this is the 
function prominent in the popular view of political economy. But I need hardly 
say to the present audience that this is not the view that English economists gene- 
rally have taken as to their primary business. Indeed, during the last generation 
our leading economists—even those who come nearest to the so-called ¢ orthodox’ 
type—have gone even further than I should myself go in declaring that economic 
science had nothing to do with the doctrine of latsser-faire. No one (e.g.) has stated 
this more strongly than Cairnes, whom I select as a conspicuous and effective adyo- 
cate of Free-trade. ‘The maxim of laissez-faire, he says, ‘has no scientific basis 
whatever ;’ it is a‘ mere handy rule of practice,’ though ‘a rule in the main sound.’ 
According to this view, the ‘laws’ with which economic science is primarily 
concerned are the laws that determine economic quantities—the amount of 
the aggregate of wealth, its annual increase, the relative values of its different 
elements, and the shares of the economic classes that have combined to produce it— 
as they would be apart from special Governmental interference ; and not the rules for 
deciding when and how far such interference is justifiable. 

And it is the additional light that Adam Smith threw on the general deter- 
mination of such economic quantities—and not his advocacy of natural liberty 
which in the view of economists constitutes his chief claim to his place in the his- 
torical development of economic science. And I may observe that, from this point 
of view, the important predecessors of Adam Smith are not the Physiocrats only, 
but even more Cantillon, who wrote a generation before, to whom Jevons drew atten- 
tion some years ago in a remarkable essay ; nor shall we overlook his English prede- 
cessors of a still earlier age, such as Petty and Locke—the former of whom has a 
special interest for us as a pioneer in each of the two lines of investigation of which 
we here maintain the union, since he was the first in England to combine a serious 
effort to establish the general relations of economic quantities by abstract reasoning 
and analysis with patient endeavours to ascertain particular economic facts by 
statistical inquiries, When we trace the gradual evolution of the modern economic 
view as to the manner in which the play of individual self-interests tends to 
determine prices and shares—from the rude beginnings of Petty and Locke, 
through the more systematic and penetrating theory of Cantillon, the fuller analysis 
and exposition of Adam Smith, and the closer reasoning of Ricardo, down to the 
important rectifications and additions of Jevons—we see clearly that the progress 
of the theory has no necessary connection with any doctrine as to the limits of 
the industrial intervention of Government. 

And it is to be observed that neither Adam Smith nor the predecessors to whom 
I have referred had any design of maintaining that the distribution which they were 
endeavouring to analyse satisfied either the claims of ideal equity by giving each 
individual his deserts, or the claims of expediency by giving him what was most 
conducive to general happiness. Nor, since Adam Smith, has any leading English 
economist maintained the former of these propositions ; and so far as the school of 
Ricardo may have seemed to maintain the latter—so far as they certainly have 
taught that direct Governmental interference with distribution was undesirable—it 
has not been from any prevalence among them of the shallow optimism of Bastiat 
and his followers. It is pessimism rather than optimism which is to be laid to 
their charge; not a disposition to underrate or ignore the hardships that the 
‘natural’ rate of wages might entail; but a conviction that, however bad things 
might be naturally, the direct interference of Government could only make them 
worse. Iam not arguing that they did not go too far in this view; I am now 
chiefly desirous to remove a profound and widespread misunderstanding as to the 
general aim and drift of their investigations, which I find in certain German and 
other Continental critics of English political economy, and, I may add, in certain 
English critics who repeat the foreign objections. Such critics either fail to 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 1147 


see, or continually forget, that the English economist, in giving an explanation of 
the manner in which pric®s, wages, profits, &c., are determined, is not attempting 
to justify the result; he is not trying to show that in getting the market price of 
his services the labourer, capitalist, or landlord gets what he deserves. Thus 
when Senior called interest the ‘ reward of abstinence,’ he did not mean to imply 
that it was normally proportioned to the capitalist’s merit in abstaining, but merely 
that capital is increased by individuals saving instead of spending, and that they 
require the inducement given by the actual rate of interest to save to the extent to 
which they actually are saving. Whether any other rate of interest would be 


juster is a question of ideal politics to which the English economist has usually 


nothing to say so long as it is stated in this abstract form; it is only when the 
political idealist descends to practice, and proposes a scheme for realising his con- 
ception of justice, that it comes within the province of economic science to discuss 
the probable effects of this scheme on production and distribution. But it is not 
with such far-reaching proposals of change that the English economist is mainly 
concerned ; his primary business is to ascertain the causes which determine actual 
prices of products and services. 

Hence, when the most recent German school of economists—variously known as 
the ‘historical,’ ‘ethical,’ or ‘social’ school—claims to have moralised political 
economy by throwing over the assumption of egoism, which they regard as charac- 
teristic of ‘ Smithianismus,’ they usually appear to the Hnglish economist to con- 
found what is with what ought to be. The assumption that egoism ought to be 
universal—that the universal prevalence of self-interest leads necessarily to the best 
possible economic order—has never been made by leading English writers; and 
it is an assumption with which they generally conceive themselves in no way 
concerned—in that part, at least, of the science which deals with distribution. It is 
the actual prevalence of self-interest in ordinary exchanges of products and services 
which constitutes their fundamental assumption. 

But I admit that this reply does not end the controversy. The critic may 
rejoin that, if egoism is not what it ought to be, the tranquil way in which the 
economist treats it as universally predominant is objectionable, as tending to give 
dangerous encouragement to the baser side of human nature. And, secondly, he 
may deny that self-interest actually has any such predominance as English 
economists assume ; hence, he may argue, their fundamental assumption must lead 
to serious errors in the analysis and forecast of actual facts. 

The first of these points I should concede to some extent. If we regarded it as 
blameworthy that a man should, under ordinary circumstances, try to get the highest 
price for any commodity he sells, and give the lowest for what he buys, then, 
though the analysis of economic facts, as they exist in the present selfish and 
wicked world, might still be conducted on the present method, I certainly think 
its results ought to be—and would be—expounded in a different tone. I should 
say, therefore, that our economists generally do not hold to be censurable, in a 
broad and general way, the self-regard which they assume as normal. I conceive, 
however, that this view is commonly held with the following important qualifica- 
tions. 

Firstly, it is not implied that the right of free exchange ought not to be legally 
limited in respect of certain special commodities. Thus, when it is urged by 
statesmen or philanthropists that the sale of opium, or brandy, or lottery-tickets, or 
children’s labour ought to be prohibited or placed under certain restrictions, the 
political economist, as such, is not to be regarded as holding a brief on the other 
side—at most he only throws the onus probandi on those who advocate interference, 
adding perhaps a warning that the consequences of their measure may possibly be 
different from what they anticipate, owing to the play of ordinary self-regard 
working under the new conditions that they aim at imposing. 

Secondly, it is not implied that similar limitations may not be effectively im- 
posed by the force of moral opinion. It has, indeed, to be pointed out that morality, 
like law, may produce effects other than what are designed—e.g. that the discredit 
attaching to usury may cause the unhappy debtor to pay more instead of less for 
his inevitable loan, since the usurer has to be compensated for the social drawbacks 


1148 REPORT—1885. 


of his despised employment. But it does not follow that there are no cases in 
which this disadvantage has to be faced as the least of two evils. 

Thirdly, the economist does not assume that his economic man is always buying 
in the cheapest and selling in the dearest market, and never rendering services to 
his fellow-creatures on any other terms. He does not lay down that the economic 
distribution which it is his business to analyse will not be supplemented to an 
indefinite extent by a distribution prompted by other motives :—indeed, it should 
be noted that the ordinary economic man is always understood to be busily pro- 
viding for a wife and children; so that his dominant motive to industry is rather 
domestic interest than self-interest, strictly so-called. And it has never been 
supposed that outside his private business—or even in connection with itif occasion 
arises—a man will not spend labour and money for public objects, and give freely 
gratuitous services to friends, benefactors, and persons in special need or distress. 

The political economists, it is true, have often felt called upon to criticise the 
proceedings of philanthropists; but those who have assumed in enunciating these 
criticisms a grave air of giving the results of abstruse scientific reasoning are partly 
to blame, I think, for having drawn on political economy a kind of odium which 
ought to have been thrown on the broader back of plain common sense. We may 
say, indeed, with special force of a great part of economic science what Huxley 
has said of science generally—that it is only ‘ organised common sense.’ But it 
needs little organisation to show that the motives to industry and thrift are 
impaired by the indiscriminate relief of the idle and improvident; that you help 
men best by encouraging them to help themselves, by widening the opportunities 
for the display of energetic activity and enterprise, and diffusing the knowledge 
that will save it from being wasted, rather than by diminishing the inducements 
that stimulate it. To apprehend the truth of propositions like these, a man need 
not even have read a shilling handbook ; and yet these commonplaces constitute the 
greater part of the ‘hard-hearted economist’s’ criticism of sentimental philanthropy. 
If, indeed, the economist has gone on to say that therefore no efforts ought to 
be made to relieve distress, and raise those who have temporarily stumbled in the 
struggle for existence, or if he has prophesied failure to all larger attempts on the 
part of philanthropists to improve the condition of the classes at the base of the 
industrial pyramid—if, I say, an individual economist has here and there been 
found lecturing and prognosticating in this sweeping manner, he has only exemplified 
the common human tendency to dogmatise beyond the limits of his knowledge ; and 
I trust the blame will not be laid on the science whose exacter methods he has 
deserted or misapplied. 

The important question of method, then, at issue between the English economists 
and their German critics is not whether the play of the ordinary motives of self- 
interest ought to be limited and supplemented by the operation of other motives ; 
but whether these other motives actually do, or can reasonably be expected to, 
operate in such a way as to destroy the general applicability of the method of 
economic analysis which assumes that each party to any free exchange will prefer 
his own interest to that of the other party. And in speaking of the German 
historical school as antagonists on this question, I ought to say that I refer only to 
what I may call their more aggressive left wing. With the more moderate claims 
of the historical method as set forth by the distinguished leader of the school, 
William Roscher, the English economists who maintain the tradition of Adam 
Smith and Ricardo have no sort of quarrel; and Roscher expressly disclaims any 
quarrel with them. He has sought, as he says, ‘ gratefully to avail himself’ of the 
results of Ricardian analysis, and we can no less gratefully profit by the abundant 
historical researches that he has led and stimulated. It is no doubt true that our 
older economists often had an insufficient appreciation of the historical variations 
in economic conditions; and, in particular, did not adequately recognise the greater 
extent to which competition was limited or repressed by law or custom in states 
of society economically less advanced than our own. But for a generation there 
has been no serious dispute about this; nor has there ever been any fundamental 
disagreement between Ricardians and Roscherians as to the right method of 
studying the history of economic facts. The most deductive English economist has 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 1149 


never gone so far as to maintain that this can be constructed @ prior?, any more 
than any other history ; and if a generation ago he was sometimes wont to dog- 
matise with insufficient information as to the causes of industrial changes and the 
economic effects of political measures in other ages and countries, he has grown 
wiser, like other persons, through the great development of historical study—and 
of what I may call the common historic sense of educated persons—which has taken 
place in the interval. Indeed, I think the danger now is rather that we should go 
into the opposite extreme, and not give sufficient attention to the more latent and 
complicated but very effective manner in which competition is found operating 
even in states of society where the barriers of custom are strongest. 

But further, even as regards the present condition of industry in the more advanced 
countries, to which the theory of modern economic science primarily relates, there 
is, I conceive, no dispute as to the need of whatis called a ‘ realistic’ or ‘inductive ’ 
method—z.e. as to the need of accurately ascertaining particular facts when we are 
inquiring into the particular causes of particular values, or of the shares of particular 
economic classes at any given place and time. All that the deductive reasonings 
of English economists supply is a method of analysing the phenomena and a state- 
ment of the general causes that govern them, and of the manner of their operation. 
In this analysis, no doubt, the assumption is fundamental that the individuals con- 
cerned in the actual determination of the economic quantities resulting from free 
exchange will aim, ceteris paribus, at getting the most they can for what they sell 
and giving the least they can for what they buy. And when we find the legitimacy 
of this assumption, and the scientific value of the analysis based upon it, broadly 
assailed by Hildebrand,’ Knies,? and others, we are no doubt seriously con- 
cerned to meet their criticism. 

For my own part, I can only say that, having searched their works with the 
interest and respect which are due to the indefatigable research and the scientific 
fertility of the German intellect, I am quite unable to discover what other scientific 
treatment of the general theory of distribution and exchange they propose to sub- 
stitute for the treatment which they sweepingly criticise. I cannot perceive that 
their higher view of man as a moral, sympathetic, public-spirited being, habitually 
rising above the sordid huckstering considerations by which English economists 
assume him to be governed, has any material effect on their theory of the deter- 
mination of economic quantities when it comes to be actually worked out. When 
Knies, for instance, is discussing the nature and functions of capital, money, and 
credit, or when he is arguing with more subtlety than success against the Ricardian 
doctrine of rent, we find that the capitalists and landlords, the lenders and borrowers, 
whose operations are contemplated, exhibit throughout the familiar features of the 
old economic man. So, again, when, in the Encyclopedia of Political Economy * 
recently published by this school, we examine the definitions of fundamental notions, 
or the explanation of prices, or the theory of distribution, we meet, indeed, with some 
interesting variations on the old doctrines, but we find everywhere the old economic 
motives assumed and the old method unhesitatingly applied. The proof of the 
pudding, as the oe says, is in the eating ; but our historical friends make no 
attempt to set before us the new economic pudding which their large phrases 
seemed to promise. It is only the old pudding with a little more ethical sauce and 
a little more garnish of historical illustrations. 

In saying this I should be sorry to seem to underrate the debt that economic 
science owes tu the labours of the school now dominant in Germany. Much of the 
positive work that they have produced is in its way excellent; even their criticism 
of the older method has been, in my opinion, most useful; and if I complain that 
they have by no means done what they announced, with some flourish of trumpets, 


1 See two papers on ‘ Die gegenwartige Aufgabe der Wissenschaft der politischen 
Oekonomie,’ in the first volume (1863) of Hildebrand’s Jahrbuch fiir National- 
Ochonomie u. Statistik, p. 5ff. and p. 137ff.: especially his criticism of J. S. Mill 
(p. 23), quoted with approval by Schonberg in the introduction to his Handbuch. 

? See his Politische Ochkonomie vom geschichtlichen Standpunkte, iii. § 3. 

* See his Geld und Credit—in particular, Credit, pt. ii. ch. xii. § 2. 

4 See Schonberg’s Handbuch, iv. v. and xi, 


1150 REPORT—1885. 


that they were going to do, it is chiefly because their exaggerated phrases have led 
critics of a looser sort to misunderstand and misrepresent the recent progress and 
actual condition of economic thought. I fully recognise that the elaborate and 
careful study of economic facts in all departments, which the historical school has 
encouraged and carried out,is an indispensable aid to the due development of 
general economic theory. In all abstract economic reasoning which aims at quanti~ 
tative precision, there is necessarily a hypothetical element; the facts to which 
the reasonings relate are not contemplated in their actual complexity, but in an 
artificially simplified form; if, therefore, the reasoning is not accompanied and 
checked by a careful study of facts, the required simplification may easily go too 
far or be inappropriate in kind, so that the hypothetical element of the reasoning is 
increased to an extent which prevents the result from having any practical value. 
And this danger is enhanced by the great, though generally gradual, changes 
in economic facts which accompany or constitute industrial development. Thus, 
for instance, a theoretical investigation of the purchasing power of money, which 
assumes for simplicity that coin and hank-notes form the sole medium of exchange, 
might easily lead to serious practical errors in the existing condition of industry ; 
and a theory of capital which ignores the great and growing preponderance of 
auxiliary over remuneratory capital is liable to be similarly delusive. The general 
study of economic history is important as calling attention to this source of error ; 
but for effective protection against it we must look to that patient and systematic 
development of statistical enquiry, which it is one of our main functions here to 
watch and to foster. 

I must observe, however, that the historical economists are apt to insist too one- 
sidedly on the progress in economic theory attained by studying the industrial 
organisation of society in different stages of its development; they do not suffi- 
ciently recognise that other kind of progress which consists in conceiving more 
clearly, accurately, and consistently, the fundamental facts that remain without 
material change. But this latter kind of progress is very palpable to one who 
traces back the history of economic doctrines. Indeed, if our active controversy 
on principles and method has led anyone to think that political economists are 
always wrangling, and never establishing anything, he may easily correct this im- 
pression by turning to the older writers, and noting the confusions they make on 
points that are now clear to all instructed persons, and the inferences they unhe- 
sitatingly draw, which all would now admit to bein whole or in part erroneous. And 
by the ‘ older writers’ I do not mean merely those who lived before Adam Smith: 
what I have just said is no less true of the ‘ Wealth of Nations’ and its most dis- 
tinguished successors. A tiro can now see the fallacy of Adam Smith’s statement, 
that ‘labour never varying in its own value’ is a ‘ universal’ and ‘accurate standard 
of the exchangeable value of all commodities at all times and places’ ; the staunchest 
Ricardian would refuse to follow his master in maintaining that a tax on corn 
would cause labourers ‘no other inconvenience than that which they would suffer 
from any other mode of taxation’; the most faitnful disciple of J.S. Mill would 
not fall into the confusion between ‘ interest’ and ‘ profit’ which seriously impairs 
the value of important parts of his discussions. Much progress, I doubt not, still 
remains to be made, by steadily continuing that labour of reflective analysis through 
which our conception of fundamental economic facts has grown continually fuller 
and more exact; but no one who examines impartially the writings of our most 
eminent predecessors can ignore the progress that has already been made. 

I now pass to consider another old charge against political economists, which 
has been recently revived: the charge of confining their attention too much to the 
special group of phenomena with which they are primarily concerned, and neglect- 
ing the relations of these to other social facts. There have, no doubt, been 
writers—Senior is, perhaps, the most important—in whom such neglect was 
deliberate and systematic ; but their peculiar view of economic method has long 
ceased to have much influence on current thought ; and I hardly think that political 
economists are now more open to the charge of systematic narrowness than any 
other set of students who do not ‘ take all knowledge for their province,’ but accept 
the limitations which the present state of research imposes as the inevitable condi- 


rl 


y 
TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 1151 


- tion of thorough work in any department. And so far as the charge hits a real 

defect, I doubt whether vague generalities about the ‘consensus of the different 
functions of the social organism,’ and the impossibility of ‘isolating the study of 
one organ from that of the rest,’ will be found of much practical use in correcting 
the defect ; since the relations of other social phenomena to those which primarily 
concern the economist vary indefinitely in closeness and importance; so that the 
question how far it is needful to investigate them is one which has to be answered 
very differently in relation to different economic enquiries. Thus, in considering 
generally the first subject of Adam Smith’s investigation—‘the causes of the im- 
provement in the productive powers of labour ’—the importance of a healthy condi- 
tion of social morality must not be overlooked ; but it is not therefore the econo- 
mist’s duty to study in detail the doctrine or discipline of the different Christian 
churches: while any reference he may make to the history of the Fine Arts will 
obviously be still more remote and brief. If, however, we are considering histori- 
cally the causes that have affected the interest of capital, the views of Christian 
theologians with regard to usury will require careful attention; if, again, we are 
investigating the share taken by a particular community in the international organi- 
sation of industry, the higher average of artistic sensibility among its members may 
be a consideration deserving of notice—as in the case of France. 

Or again, we may illustrate the different degrees in which economic science is 
connected with different departments of social fact by comparing the chief classes of 
statistics with which this Section has concerned itself. Some of the most impor- 
tant of these—such as the statistics of taxation, trade, railways, land-tenure and 
the like, and a great part of the statistics of population—obviously supply the in- 
dispensable premisses of much of the economist’s reasoning, so far as it aims at 
being precise and particular, and the indispensable verification of many of his 
conclusions. In other cases again, as, for instance, the great departments of 
sanitary and educational statistics, the interest of the economist is more general 
and limited: for though both sanitation and education have important bearings on 
the productiveness of national labour, the details of the organisation for promoting 
either end lie in the main beyond the scope of his investigation; while he has 
manifestly still less to do with criminal statistics, military and naval statistics, and 
several other species of social facts which governmental or private agencies now 
enable us to ascertain with approximate quantitative exactness. 

At this point, however, our crities will probably say that it is not so much a 
knowledge of the separate relations of different groups of social phenomena that 
the political economist lacks, but rather a true conception of the social organism 
as a whole, and of the fundamental laws of its development ; he does not recognise 
that his study can only be legitimately or profitably pursued as a duly subordi- 
nated branch of the general science of sociology. This view was strongly urged by 
Mr. Ingram in his presidential address to this Section seven years ago in Dublin!; 
and it was enforced by pointing contemptuously to the limited function which 
well-instructed economists at the present day are careful to allot to their science in 
the settlement of practical questions. When we explain, with Cairnes, that political 
economy furnishes certain data that go towards the formation of a sound opinion 
on such questions, but does not undertake to pronounce a final judgment on them, 
we are told that this ‘systematic indifferentism amounts to an entire paralysis of 
political economy as a social power’; and that the time has come for it to make 
way for, or be absorbed into, the ‘ scientific sociology’ which is now in the field, 
and certainly seems ready to offer statesmen the dogmatic, comprehensive, and com- 
plete practical guidance which mere economic science confesses itself inadequate to 
supply. 

It appears to me that Mr. Ingram and his friends somewhat mistake the point 
that they have to prove. It is not necessary to show that if we could ascertain 
from the past history of human society the fundamental laws of social evolution as 
a whole, so that we could accurately forecast the main features of the future state 


1 It has been recently expressed again, with no less emphasis, in Mr. Ingram’s 


article on ‘Political Economy,’ in the nineteenth volume of the Encyclopedia 
Britannica. 


1152 REPORT— 1885. 


with which our present social world is pregnant—it is not needful, I say, to show 
that the science which gave this foresight would be of the highest value to astatesman, 
and would absorb or dominate our present political economy. What has to be proved 
is that this supremely important knowledge is within our grasp ; that the sociology 
which professes this prevision is really an established science. To deny this may 
perhaps seem presumptuous, in view of the voluminous works that we possess on 
the subject, which it would be quite out of place for me to attempt to criticise 
methodically on the present occasion. Fortunately, however, such methodical 
criticism is not required to justify my negative conclusion: since there are two 
simple tests of the real establishment of a science—emphatically recognised by 
Comte in his discussion of this very subject—which can be quickly and decisively 
applied to the claims of existing sociology. These tests may be characterised as 
(1) Consensus or Continuity and (2) Prevision. The former I will explain in 
Comte’s own words:—‘ When we find that recent works, instead of being the 
result and development of what has gone before, have a character as personal as 
that of their authors, and bring the most fundamental ideas into question ’—then, 
says Comte, we may be sure we are not dealing with any doctrine deserving the 
name of positive science. Now, if we compare the most elaborate and ambitious 
treatises on sociology, of which there happens to be one in each of the three lead- 
ing scientific languages—Comte’s ‘ Politique Positive,’ Spencer's ‘Sociology,’ and 
Schiffle’s ‘Bau und Leben des socialen Kérpers,’/—we see at once that they exhibit 
the most complete and conspicuous absence of agreement or continuity in their 
treatment of the fundamental questions of social evolution. 

Take, for example, the question of the future of religion. No thoughtful person 
can overlook the importance of religion as an element of man’s social existence ; 
nor do the sociologists to whom I have referred fail to recognise it. But if we 
inquire after the characteristics of the religion of which their science leads them to 
foresee the coming prevalence, they give with nearly equal confidence answers as 
divergent as can be conceived. Schiiffle cannot comprehend that the place of the 
great Christian Churches can be taken by anything but a purified form of Chris- 
tianity ; Spencer contemplates complacently the reduction of religious thought and 
sentiment to a perfectly indefinite consciousness of an Unknowable and the emotion 
that accompanies this peculiar intellectual exercise ; while Comte has no doubt that 
the whole history of religion—which, as he says, ‘should resume the entire history 
ef human development ’—has been leading up to the worship of the Great Being, 
Humanity, personified domestically for each normal male individual by his nearest 
female relatives. It would certainly seem that the science which allows these 
discrepancies in its chief expositors must he still in its infancy. And when we go 
on to ask how these divergent forecasts of the future are scientifically deduced 
from the study of the past evolution of mankind, we are irresistibly reminded of 
the old epigram as to the relation of certain theological controversialists to the 
Bible : 

Hic liber est in quo querit sua dogmata quisque, 
Invenit et pariter dogmata quisque sua. 


I do not doubt that our sociologists are sincere in setting before us their con- 
ception of the coming social state as the last term of a series of which the law has 
been discovered by patient historical study ; but when we look closely into their 
work it becomes only too evident that each philosopher has constructed on the 
basis of personal feeling and experience his ideal future in which our present social 
deficiencies are to be remedied and that the process by which history is arranged 
in steps pointing towards his Utopia bears not the faintest resemblance to a scientific 
demonstration. 

This is equally evident when we turn from religion to industry, and examine 
the forecasts of industrial development offered to the statesman in the name of 
scientific sociology as a substitute for the discarded calculations of the mere 
economist. With equal confidence, history is represented as leading up, now to 
the naive and unqualified individualism of Spencer, now to the carefully guarded 
and elaborated socialism of Schiiffle, now to Comte’s dream of securing seven-roomed 
houses for all working men—with other comforts to correspond—solely by the im- 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 1153 


pressive moral precepts of his philosophic priests. Guidance, truly, is here enough 
and to spare; but how is the bewildered statesman to select his guidance when his 
sociological doctors exhibit this portentous disagreement ? 
Nor is it only that they adopt diametrically opposite conclusions: we find that 
each adopts his conclusion with the most serene and complete indifference to the 
line of historical reasoning on which his brother sociologist relies. SchiatHe, e.g., 
appears not to have the least inkling of the array of facts which have convinced 
Spencer that the recent movement towards increased industrial intervention of 
government in Germany and England is causally connected with the contem- 
poraneous recrudescence of ‘militancy’ in the two countries. And similarly, when 
Spencer explains how, under a régime of private property and free contract, there 
is necessarily a ‘correct apportioning of reward to merit,’ so that each worker 
‘obtains as much benefit as his efforts are equivalent to—no more and no less,’ he 
exhibits a total ignorance of the crushing refutation which, according to Schafile, 
this individualistic fallacy has received at the hands of socialism, The tendency 
of: free competition to annihilate itself, and give birth to monopolies exercised 
against the common interest for the private advantage of the monopolists; the 
crushing inequality of industrial opportunities, which the legal equality and freedom 
of modern society has no apparent tendency to correct; the impossibility of re- 
munerating by private sale of commodities some most important services to the 
community ; the unforeseen fluctuations of supply and demand which a world-wide 
organisation of industry brings with it, liable to inflict, to an increasing extent, un- 
deserved economic ruin upon large groups of industrious workers ; the waste incident 
to the competitive system, through profuse and ostentatious advertisements, needless 
multiplication of middle-men, inevitable non-employment, or half-employment, of 
many competitors; the demoralisation, worse than waste, due to the reckless or 
fradulent promotion of joint-stock companies, and to the gambling rife in the great 
markets, and tending more and more to spread over the whole area of production 
—such points as these are unnoticed in the broad view which our English socio- 
logist takes of the modern industrial society gradually emancipating itself from 
militancy: it never enters his head that they can have anything to do with 
causing the movement towards socialism to which his German confrére has 
yielded.? 
_ However, whether Spencer or Schiiffle is a true prophet—whether the decay of 
war will bring us to a more complete individualism, or whether the increasing scale of 
the organisation of industry and its increasingly marked deficiencies are preparing 
the way for socialism—cannot certainly be known before a date more or less dis- 
tant. But as Comte’s sociological treatise was written a generation ago, we are 
fortunately able to bring his very definite predictions and counsels to the test of 
accomplished facts. In 1854 he announced that the transition which was to 
terminate the Western Revolution would be organised from Paris, the ‘religious 
metropolis of regenerate humanity,’ where an ‘irreversible dictatorship’ had just 
been established, within the space of a generation. In the initial phase of the 
transition, which ought to last about seven years, perfect freedom of the press 
would ‘rapidly extinguish journalism,’ owing to the ‘inability of the journal to 
compete with the placard.’ By a ‘judicious use of placards, with a few occasional 
pamphlets,’ Positivism would regenerate public opinion. The budget of the clergy, 
the University of France, the Academy of Sciences must be suppressed, and the 

roximate abolition of copyright announced. By these moderate measures Louis 

apoleon’s irreversible dictatorship might be ‘ perfected and consolidated,’ so that 
the dictator might assume complete legislative power, reducing the Representative 
Assembly—which would sit once in three years—to the purely financial function 
of voting the budget. In the second phase of the transition, which should last 
about five years, the ‘dictatorial government now unquestionably progressive,’ 
would suppresss the French army, substituting a constabulary of 80,000 gendarmes. 
This would suffice to maintain order, internal and external, as the oppressive 


1 See Schiiffle’s ‘Kritik der kayitalistischen Epoche,’ in Bau und Leben des socialen 
KGrpers, vol. iii. pp. 419-457. 
1885. 45 


1154 REPORT—1885. 


military establishments of neighbouring states would everywhere fall as soon as 
France had put down her army. The dictator would then break up France into 
seventeen separate intendancies as a step towards the ultimate Positive régime, 
under which the peoples of Western Europe are to be distributed into seventy 
republics, comprising about 300,000 families each. The third and last phase of 
the transition, which should occupy about twenty-one years, might be expected to 
be opened by the voluntary abdication of the dictator in favour of a triumvirate, 
consisting probably of a banker to manage foreign affairs, an ‘ agricultural 
patrician’ as minister of the interior, and a working man to take charge of the 
finances. Their names would be suggested by the High Priest of Humanity— 
indeed, Comte tells us that he had been ‘ working for several years at the choice 
of persons,’ in order to be ready for this momentous nomination: for the immense 
influence which Positivist doctrine ought to have gained by this time would 
enable the political direction of France to be placed completely in the hands of 
Positivists. This triumvirate would transform the seventeen intendancies into 
separate republics: the bourgeoisie would then be gradually ‘eliminated’ by the 
extinction of littératewrs, lawyers, and small capitalists, so that society would pass 
easily into the final régime.* 

I need not go on to this final régime: I have already given you more than enough 
of these extravagances ; but it seemed important to show how completely the delu- 
sive belief that he had constructed the science of sociology could transform a philo- 
sopher of remarkable power and insight into the likeness of a crazy charlatan. 
I trust that our Association will take no step calculated to foster delusions of 
this kind. There is no reason to despair of the progress of general sociology ; 
but I do not think that its development can be really promoted by shutting our 
eyes to its present very rudimentary condition. When the general science of 
society has solved the problems which it has as yet only managed to define more 
or less clearly—when for positive knowledge it can offer us something better 
than a mixture of vague and variously applied physiological analogies, imperfectly 
verified historical generalisations, and unwarranted political predictions—when it 
has succeeded in establishing on the basis of a really scientific induction its fore- 
casts of social evolution—it will not require any formal admission to the discus- 
sions of this Section; its existence will he irresistibly felt throughout the range of 
the more special inquiries into different departments of social fact to which we 
have hitherto restricted ourselves. It is our business in the meantime to carry on 
our more limited and empirical studies of society in as scientific a manner as 
possible. Of the method of statistical investigation I have not presumed to speak, 
as I have not myself done any work of this kind, but have merely availed myself 
gratefully of the labours of others. But, even so, it has been impossible for me 
not to learn that to do this work in its entirety, as it ought to be done, requires 
scientific faculties of a high order. For duly discerning the various sources of 
error that impede the quantitative ascertainment of social facts, eliminating such 
error as far as possible, and allowing for it where it cannot be eliminated—still more 
for duly analysing differences and fluctuations in the social quantities ascertained, 
and distinguishing causal from accidental variations and correspondences—there is 
needed not only industry, patience, accuracy, but a perpetually alert and circum- 
spect activity of the reasoning powers; nor is the statistician completely equipped 
for his task of discovering empirical laws unless he can effectively use the assist- 
ance of an abstract and difficult calculus of probabilities. It is satisfactory to 
think that there is every prospect of statistical investigations being carried cn, in 
an increasingly comprehensive and systematic manner, throughout an ever widening 
range of civilised countries. The results of this development cannot fail to be 
important from the statesman’s no less than the theorist’s point of view: for though 
the statistician, as such, does not profess to guide public opinion on political ques- 
tions, there can be no doubt—as Mr. Giffen has recently pointed out—that the 
knowledge attained by him tends to exercise on the general discussion of such 
questions an influence, on the whole, no less salutary than profound. 


1 These details are taken from Comte’s Syst?me de Politique Positive, vol. iv. chap. v. 


4 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F, 1155 


2. On the alleged Depression of Trade. By Professor Leone Levi, F.S.S. 


The paper criticised numerous essays upon which the author had been recently 
asked to adjudicate. The value of these essays did not consist in the discovery of 
any new method for the prevention or remedy of such depression—they did not 
expect that—but rather in their presenting a well-digested survey of the circum- 
stances which preceded and the causes which produced the depression. There was 
nothing new, indeed, in the occurrence of even a somewhat protracted depression of 
trade, Some have gone so far as to detect a connection between the solar surface 
and certain terrestrial phenomena, as between sunspots and the price of wheat. 
The causes of the present depression were variously stated by the different 
essayists. Among the causes mentioned are—the diminished production and 
consequent appreciation of gold; the heavy losses in agriculture consequent on 
several successive bad harvests, accompanied by competition of large foreign im- 
ports brought to this country at exceedingly low rates of freight ; over-production 
in manufacture, shipping, iron, coal, in fact, in production of every kind, the effect 
of improved plant and machinery, as well as of larger amount and greater 
concentration of capital; heavy Josses of national resources caused by numerous 
destructive wars, and the large war expenditure yearly incurred by the principal 
countries of Europe; extensive speculative investments utterly disappointing in 
their results ; an excessive expenditure in alcoholic beverages and the improvidence 
of the working classes; the restrictive tariffs in many States which intercept the 
free course of commerce and condemn nations to suffer, either from the exclusion of 
necessary or useful commodities or from excessive monopoly prices; the cessation of 
great discoveries, and the revolution produced by the greater speed in communica~ 
tion. Among the remedies suggested for commerce and manufacture are—the 
introduction of better machinery and improved processes in manufacture; the 
opening of new channels of trade, and greater economy both in production and 
distribution ; and for agriculture, a cheaper and safer system for the transfer of 
land, as well as greater stability of tenure. Only one essay out of fifty-eight was 
found to advocate fair-trade, and to bring forward reasons against the maintenance 
of our free-trade policy. A comparison had been made of the amount of trade in 
1873 and 1883; but 1873 was an exceptional year. For a sound view of the 
condition of trade a longer period was necessary. If they divided the last twenty 
years into four quinquennial periods, they found that, measured per head of the 
population, and comparing 1865-69 with 1880-85, the imports:show an increase of 
19°57 per cent., and the exports of British produce and manufacture show an 
increase of 11°76 per cent., while there was an increase in the total trade at the 
rate of 19°64 per cent. The total trade of the United Kingdom, which in 1865-69 
averaged 516,000,0002., rose in 1880-84 to 707,000,000/. But, while the declared 
value of imports and exports is determined by the prices, the consuming power 
of the people was best seen by the quantities received or sent out. The shipping 
returns showed that, whilst in 1865-69 the tonnage of British and foreign vessels 
cleared at ports with cargoes only to foreign countries averaged 14,614,000 tons, in 
1880-84 it averaged 27,673,000 tons. Whilst the population of the principal 
countries increased at the rate of 10 per cent. in ten years, our exports in value in- 
creased at the rate of upwards of 40 per cent., and in quantity at a still greater 
rate in twenty years. The best reason for low prices would be found in the 
increasing production of different articles, the improved facilities of communication, 
lower freight, &c. There are still a few, he trusted only a very few, who lamented 
our increasing dependence on foreign countries for the necessaries of life, and who 
contended that the excessive balance of imports over exports indicated an enormous 
indebtedness to foreign countries or an absolute loss in our exchanges. In their 
opinion, with a view to the greater employment of the labouring classes at home, 
and as a matter of simple fairness to the people of this country, we should prohibit 
or restrict the imports of manufactured and even semi-manufactured articles, 
including, for instance, wheat-flour. Nay, more, what they advocate is to do 
unto others what they do unto us, meet prohibition with prohibition, high duties 
with high duties, and bounties with countervailing duties. It should be re- 


4n2 


1156 REPORT—1885. 


membered, however, that the increasing imports of articles of food are on the one 
hand the consequence of the improved condition of the people, which enables them 
to eat and drink more than they were able to do in former years, and on the other 
hand the result of natural conditions which determine and limit the productiveness 
of the soil in the United Kingdom—a fact which we cannot remedy, and which we 
can only meet by the importation of foreign produce, We would commit the 
greatest possible error were we to attempt to benefit the working classes by the re- 
striction of the imports and by the reduction of the amount of foreign trade: any 
restraint of that character having the effect of benefiting the few at the expense of 
the many. Doubtless we must lament the prevalence of erroneous economic 
principles in several countries; financial exigencies, and more especially the 
influence of interested parties in the Government and in the Legislature, have 
retarded the practical adoption of principles admitted to be sound and unquestion- 
able. But no political economist anywhere has ever spoken a word in favour of 
either restrictive tariffs, bounties, or prohibitions. The general condition of trade 
is certainly considerably altered, and is much more precarious than it was fifteen or 
twenty years ago. First of all, an increasing competition exists at home and 
abroad, not only among producers, but among distributors. At this moment 
Chinese and Japanese merchants compete with British merchants in the trade of 
the East, just as French and German manufacturers are striving to wrest from the 
British manufacturers a share in the supply of the textile and other manufactures. 
Nor have a few capitalists any longer a monopoly of trade. By the extension of 
joint-stock companies with limited liability, hundreds of millions find their way 
into trade and public works, and these companies being content with realising a 
small percentage of profits, private merchants must consent to work on equal 
terms. By the greater vigilance of workmen, manufacturers have no longer in 
their power to maintain wages at as low a rate as possible. They are made to 
divide with the workmen in the shape of higher wages a full portion of their 
profits. And the advantages which leading merchants once possessed from their 
extensive agencies are neutralised or lost by the promptitude with which every- 
thing is communicated to the world through the press, whilst electricity and steam 
have by their speedy or instantaneous movement greatly narrowed the field of 
speculation. Monometallism, or Bimetallism, has nothing to do with the depression 
of trade. Money is plentiful. What is wanted are a greater diffusion of comforts, 
and more confidence in political and social tranquillity. Altogether ill-founded 
are the complaints made against free-trade. Deeper causes than any changes in the 
commercial policy of this or of any country have produced the depression of trade 
so much complained of. If the Royal Commission lately appointed on the depres- 
sion of trade, or any members of the same, are in any expectation that the facts 
which may be presented to them justify either the reimposition of the Corn Laws, 
or the introduction of differential duties in favour of the British Colonies and 
against foreign countries, or a prohibitive or restrictive tariff of imports, they will 
be grievously disappointed. I do not object to an inquiry. It will put an end to 
much idle talk. It will show on what foundation of sand fair-traders and pro- 
tectionists are relying. The verdict of the nation has long been pronounced, and 
the Royal Commission summoned to, if possible, reverse the same will, like Balak 
of old, not only reject the appeal, but confirm it asirrevocable. Royal Commissions 
cannot improve trade. What we require is to open and not to shut the avenues of 
wealth. We are all deeply concerned in its increase all over the world. All 
nations depend on the abundance of their harvest from year to year. Let us pray 
that their garners may be full, affording all manner of store. Commerce will ever 
be the landmark of peace. Let us rebuke the thoughtless, the suicidal mania for a 
warlike policy; let us put a check to the ruinous maintenance of enormous armies. 
Britain need not fear competition, and there is no reason why her productions 
should be inferior to those of any other nation in solidity, taste, and economy. 
She possesses a cheap and abundant supply of coal and iron—she has a climate 
most conducive to continuous labour, and plenty of workers fuliy apt, would that 
they had always the will for their work. Wages are not higher here than in other 


A 


countries, when we take into account the relative power exerted on matter. Nor — 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 1157 


are the limited hours of labour a disadvantage, for labour saved is not lost. 
Britain has more capital than any other country, and nowhere the value of money 
is lower than inthe United Kingdom. She has almost a monopoly of the carrying 
trade of the world, and she has the goodwill of a large and well-established 
custom, By all means let other nations advance in wealth and industry. There is 
room for all. Let us only trust for better times, and we may be quite sure that any 
rays of sunshine which may brighten our fellow-labourers in the field in any part 
of the world will likewise brighten and energise every branch of British industry. 


3. On the Variations of Price-Level since 1850,! 
By Micuart G. Muunatt, £.S.8. 


Hitherto all efforts to ascertain the variations in the purchasing power of gold, 
especially since the year 1850, have been futile, because economists could not agree 
on the best method of fixing a level of prices. Someadopted index numbers, others 
arbitrarily laid down classifications of merchandise of primary or secondary necessity. 
But there is only one true way, namely, to take the current market value of the 
goods that are bought or consumed among nations, and compare the aggregate sum 
with the amount which the same quantity of goods would have cost at any former 
date with which it is sought to make a comparison. 

The same quantities of products and merchandise consumed annually from 1881 
ae 1884 would have cost in previous periods, at the prices then ruling, as 

ollows :— 


Millions £ sterling 


1841-50 1851-60 1861-70 1871-80 1881-84 
on, ee 1,419 1,724 1,658 1,547 1,326 
Meat . : ; A 560 6238 661 TAT 85 
Hardware . . ; 576 525 504 593 384 
Dairy products . - 236 2€6 303 335 540 
Cotton goods. vo onal tel; 335 484 346 302 
Woollen goods . 2 263 245 280 268 223 
Timber : 5 : 428 338 338 301 273 
Coal . 5 F 224 241 241 241 189 
Leather : “ ‘ 218 202 212 188 184 
Potatoes . 3 F 115 125 154 164 181 
Wine . : é : 86 105 111 iL 130 
Raw Cotton s : 76 85 183 101 87 
Wool . z ‘ 5 160 145 125 97 83 
Books . > . P 120 115 105 87 79 
Silks . 5 4 5 68 82 104 88 73 
Linens, ce. . a 5 ra 74 78 74 70 
Sugar . : - ; 106 100 106 84 61 
Coffee . . : ; 23 30 38 50 42 
Tobacco . - : 29 44 53 38 37 
east, . { 2 16 20 24 21 16 
Ratan) Hit) bainven |eorg186 5,429 5,762 | 5,479 | 4,910 


The above twenty items comprise 90 per cent. of all human industries, as re- 
gards products or manufactures, and therefore enable us to arrive at the exact 
variations of price-level for the whole world, that is the rise or fall in the purchasing 
power of gold since 1850, The result is as follows :— 


Years Years 
1841-50 . » é 100-0 1871-80. . . 105°7 
1851-60 . & ' 104-7 1881-84 . 5 c 94-7 


1861-70 . : : dilatel 
1 See History of Prices since 1850, by the same author (Longmans & Co.), 1885. 


1158 REPORT—1885. 


We find, therefore, a fall of 54 per cent. from the price-level of the decade end- 
ing 1850, or nearly 15 per cent. from that of 1861-70. This is much less than 
people in England generally suppose, because it is the fault of Englishmen to limit 
their scope of observation to this island, when, by looking around at other nations, 
we micht be better enabled to form a correct judgment. 

It is remarkable that if we separate agricultural (including pastoral) products 
from manufactures, we find the former have risen 11 per cent., the latter fallen 25 
per cent., since 1850. The present volume of the world’s products at previous 
prices would have represented the following values :— 


Millions £ Ratio 
Years eS 
Agriculture Manufactures | Agriculture | Manufactures 
1841-50 . > 2,826 2,360 100 100 
1851-60 . ; 3,272 2,157 116 91 
1861-70 . . 3,416 2,346 121 99 
1871-80 . . i 3,293 2,186 il Wh, 92 
1881-84 . < k 8,133 Era’ 111 16) 


Therefore, fifteen shillings will now buy as much manufactures as twenty in 
the years 1841-50, but in matters of food we should require twenty-two. 

As regards the causes which led to the fall in price-level I haye nothing now to 
say, my present purpose having simply been to fix precisely the relative value of 
gold as compared with merchandise in the thirty-five years that have elapsed since 
the great discoveries of the precious metal in California and Australia. 


FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11. 
The following Papers were read :-— 


1. On the Municipalisation of the Land. 
By Sir Gzorce Campsect, K.C.S.L, MP. 


It need hardly he said that the municipalisation of the land is no new-fangled 
idea, but one of the oldest of human institutions. From the earliest times of 
which we have historical knowledge the communal tenure was universal both in 
Europe and in Asia, and in most countries it prevails to the present day, We are 
specially familiar with it in India. 

Such a tenure is by no means inconsistent with individual property ; on the 
contrary, individual possession of the arable land is one of the features of the 
system. In pastoral times tribes may have held large tracts in actual com- 
munity; but, agy soon as agriculture is introduced, there is always a partition 
for that purpose. It is true that the jealousy of inequality and unfairness 
was such that the early law of the village communes required the periodical 
redistribution of the land according to the recorded ancestral shares, but our 
experience in India is (and it is the same in Europe) that in course of time this 
also becomes obsolete; the arable land becomes permanent individual property 
subject to certain superior and reversionary rights of the community, as also do the 
sites of dwellings and the curtilages attached, while a tract of grazing and certain 
rights of wood and water, &c., remain common to the community. 

It is for want, I think, of appreciation and understanding of the true communal 
tenure that in Ireland and elsewhere it seems to be supposed'that there is an 
opposition and antagonism between what is called nationalisation of the land and 
peasant proprietorship. On the contrary, under the communal system the superior 
right of the community and the private right to individual holdings exist together, 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 1159 


and are, in fact, the complement and support of one another. . It is the old story 
of the bundle of sticks—united they are strong, separated they are weak. 

In this country the old communal system has for the most part gone, and it 
would be very difficult to replace it throughout the country, but in most self- 
governing towns it long lingered. In Scotland most of our Royal burghs had 
considerable land—the ‘common good ’—till it was alienated by the corrupt Town 
Councils of former days. And to this day in Scotland the town is usually the 
superior or ground landlord of the proper municipal area, individual sites being 
held under the town on ‘burgage’ tenure. Towns have now extended far beyond 
those old municipal limits, and can only find room by taking sites from the 
surrounding landlords, Not only is there an enormous increment of the value of 
this circumjacent land, unearned by the proprietors and due to the industry of 
the townspeople, but this land is also subjected to a monopoly value far beyond 
what it would fetch if freely thrown on the market. Land, which will in no 
other way fetch 12. or 2/. per acre, is not given for building purposes till the 
pressure is so great that 20/., 30/., or 40/. per annum is paid. Hence comes the 
deprivation of gardens, overcrowding, and many evils which haye been recently 
depicted by the Royal Commission on the Housing of the Poor. 

In Ireland and the Highlands of Scotland it will probably be found that the 
system of very small agricultural holdings requires some communal organisation 
for many purposes, but I will not enter ou that here. Admitting that in the 
greater part of Britain agriculture has reached a stage which could make agri- 
cultural municipalisation on a very large scale very difficult at present, I address 
myself now to the municipalisation of the land near towns and populous places. 
The population of this country is now so great and the supply of food from all 
quarters so enormous that very much of our land is more important from the 
point of view of health and recreation than for the raising of corn. 

Some of us may be inclined to think that no good comes out of Ireland. Yet 
I believe that nowadays some things are conceded as an indulgence to Ireland 
which are afterwards found not to be altogether inapplicable to this country, The 
< Labourers’ Dwellings (Ireland) Act’ was looked on with much suspicion. But 
now, as the result of the report of the Royal Commission on the Housing of the 
Poor, a new departure in the same direction has been taken in Britain by the Act 
for the Housing of the Working Classes, which has just passed the Legislature. 
It contains an important provision enabling town and rural authorities to take up 
lands, subdivide them, and let them out for cottages and gardens in plots not 
exceeding half an acre each. That is, I think, a first and very large step towards 
what I call the municipalisation of the land. Something might also be done to 
settle labourers on larger crofts in the country, but I leave that for the present. 

No one who has paid any attention to the subject can doubt the extreme 
importance and necessity of giving room to our working classes, both from a 
sanitary and from a moral point of view. The deprivation of gardens and back 
yards, the crowding into unhealthy tenements, not only deteriorates the race 
physically, but drives the men into the public house, the women into dirt and 
disrepute, the children into the gutter. More room is absolutely required, and 
more room means more land in decentralised positions connected with the centre 
by the facilities which modern means supply. If the rent of building land is 300. 
or 40], or more per acre, gardens and yards are impossible to the working classes ; 
and, therefore, more room is only possible with cheaper land. It would be very 
difficult, and tend towards socialism and want of self-reliance that the public 
authority should not only find the land, but build, equip, and maintain the houses 
ona large scale. What is required is such a tenure that individuals may do so 
much. At the same time, in crowded communities it is right to maintain a 
sufficient control over individuals, so as to ensure that one man may so use his 
own as not to injure others. And it is well that a public revenue should he 
derived from the land rather than from excessive taxation. 

Not only is the monopoly price of land near towns excessive, but the tenure is 
unsatisfactory. The English system of terminable building leases is one against 
which modern feeling rebels, and if there is sometimes some advantage in the 


1160 © RErORT-—1885. 


regulating power of the ground landlord, it is capricious and uncertain. In Scot- 
land the system of perpetual feus has great advantages; but even there landlords 
are in many places introducing terminable leases after the English pattern, but 
shortening their duration. More than that, it is the case not only in the High- 
lands, but beyond the Highlands, that houses are built by tenants without any 
tenure at all on mere holdings from year to year. This is especially the case in 
the great and progressive county of Aberdeen. The smaller farms and crofts with 
the buildings on them are usually held on this slender title. And great fishing 
villages all round the coast, inhabited by a very energetic, prosperous, and pro- 
gressive race, are held equally without any security. The houses are entirely built 
by the fishermen. They pay for every stick and every stone, yet they are liable to 
be turned out at the end of every year at the will of the landlord. In and about 
the prosperous sanitorium of Braemar the old houses have no better tenure, and I 
am told that on one of the two great estates there for the building of valuable 
villas no better tenure can be obtained than leases of between thirty and forty 
years. 

The papers presented to Parliament a little time ago regarding the house- 
tenure of foreign countries show that abrcad individual ownership of the occupier 
is far more common than with us, and the sites are altogether held on a better 
tenure. But then everywhere in those countries the municipalities, towns, and 
communes have a much greater control in the common interest, and exercise it 
much more actively and effectively. That, then, is the model to which I would 
look in any municipalisation of land—z.e., to vest the superior right of the ground 
landlord, as it were, in the municipality, with sufficient power of regulation and 
control, and under the municipality to let out plots for buildings and gardens on a 
title not altogether absolute, being subject to certain limitations, conditions, and 
control, but still secure and liable to interference of the public authority only, and 
not to the caprice of any individual. There would be, in fact, a new burgage 
tenure something like Scotch feus, with the municipality as superior landlord, and 
the feu rents would be payable to the municipality. 

On a system such as this, well-managed municipalities might, I think, advan- 
tageously take up a great deal of Jand in their neighbourhood, so as to allow of @ 
large extension and secure the benefit of the growing value as the town extends. 
Some pas a of a central authority may be necessary, but not so much as is 
imposed by the recent Act. The action of local bodies is there hampered by so 
many checks and counter-checks that happily the operation of the provisions which 
I have mentioned may be very limited. Still, the principle of municipalisation is 
very clearly there, and if the law were worked in a very liberal spirit, scarcely 
anything more might be required to attain such a municipalisation as I desire, if 
only the price to be paid for the land could be well settled. There is the rub. 
The fact is, that there are two prices—the price which the land will fetch when 
thrown on the market and the price which is obtained in driblets, in virtue of a 
monopoly, by closing the market and saying you shall have nothing till you pay 
an exorbitant price. The time may come when the divine right of the landlord to 
the urban increment unearned by him may be called in question. But in present 
circumstances, it is enough to claim that the price should be, not the arbitrary 
monopoly price, but the price which a willing seller would get from a willmg 
buyer at the time. Municipalities should be entitled to claim land conveniently 
situated for extension, and not specially appropriated for demesnes on those terms. 
With reasonable good management they should sustain no pecuniary loss on such 
transactions. 

If such a system were well introduced, then we may well believe that our 
crowded and unwholesome towns would expand into pleasant suburbs, with rows 
of cottages and gardens, such as we see in America and elsewhere, served by 
tramways, and the homes of an industrious and healthy people, combining their 
trades with gardens and small crofts, in which, rather than in the public houses, 
they would spend their spare time. Labour would be combined with recreation, 
intelligence, good society, and domestic virtues. We should arrive at the true 
dignity of labour, and avert many evils and many dangers. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. * L16E 


2. The Agriculture of Aberdeenshire. By Colonel Innes. 


The paper was mainly occupied by the agriculture of Aberdeenshire as a meat- 
producing industry, and as typical of the agriculture of the north-east counties of 
Aberdeenshire. 

1. It traced how the export of fat cattle and dead meat for the southern 
markets by steamer and rail became the staple product of the agriculture of Aber- 
deenshire. 

2. The change which is taking place in this product of fat cattle is, that the 
stock reared in the county is no longer sufficient to supply the store cattle for 
fattening, and that an increasing proportion of stores have to be imported. 

3. The increasing competition which the meat produced in Aberdeenshire is 
encountering in the southern markets from foreign fat cattle and dead meat. 

4, The remedy suggested. The importation of foreign store cattle to be fattened. 
The employment of imported cattle food. 

5. The anticipated advantages are, (1) that the largely increased production of 
meat within the same agricultural area will be more profitable, (2) that the supply 
of the southern markets with meat, by importation of store-cattle, and feeding at 
home, instead of by importing foreign meat, will add to the fertility of the soil by 
the consumption of large quantities of imported food ; (3) it will at the same time 
add to the resources of various industries, and to the food of the pcorer classes by 
increased supply of the hides, tallow, and offals. 


3. The Agricultural Situation} 
By Professor W. Fream, B.Sc., F.L.S., F.GS. 


During the year there has been a sharp and decisive fall in the value of all kinds 
of agricultural produce. Though this has benefited the poorer classes it has proved 
most lucrative to the retail dealers in bread and in meat, for the decrease in the 
cost of these articles to the consumer exhibits an altogether inadequate ratio to the 
decline in their value to the producer. 

The best English wheat has been sold for as little as 30s. per imperial quarter, 
which is the lowest price on record, the lowest price touched during the preceding 
thirty years having been 37s. 7d. in 1879, whereas the average price since last 
years harvest has been about 33s. The fall in the price of wheat is partly 
attributable to the abundant harvest of 1884, when the yield of wheat was so large 
that the import of foreign wheat was less than in any year since 1876, and was 
17 million ewts. less than in 1883, the shipping trade suffering severely in conse- 
quence. Jn the second week of March last barley and wheat were officially 
returned as of the same value, namely, 31s. 3d. per imperial quarter. 

Pedigree cattle have undergone a very serious depreciation in value, and in 
many cases sheep have fallen to half the price they commanded two years ago. 

Dairy farming, the last stronghold as it were of our declining agriculture, has 
been attacked in its most sensitive points, namely, the values of butter and cheese. 
Butter declined from 20 to 20 per cent. on the quotations of the previous year, and 
cheese from 2) to 40 per cent. on the preceding year's prices. In August the 
Cheshire cheese market fairly collapsed. 

British farming was probably never in a gloomier condition, for it is not one 
branch alone but all that are now experiencing depression. Farmers will this year 
incur enormous financial losses, and it is diflicult to discover how, in many cases, 
rents will be paid. 

Taking the United Kingdom as a whole, it appears that during the decade 
from 1874 to 1884, there was a falling off in the area of arable land of 1,288,413 
acres, Simultaneously, the area in permanent pasture increased by | ,936,790 acres. 
It would seem a startling statement to make that the British Isles are gradually 
going out of cultivation, and yet it appears that whereas in 1874 the areas under 


Published in extenso in the Aierdeen Journal, and in various agricultural journals. 


1162 REPORT—1885. 


arable cultivation and permanent pasture were practically equal (23,462,184 and 
23,680,416 acres respectively), in 1884 they differed by nearly 34 millions of 
acres (22,173,771 and 25,667,206 acres respectively). ‘This change has been ac- 
companied by a diminution of the rural population, though at the same time the 
total population underwent a marked increase. Thus, the census returns of 1871 
gave the number of agricultural labourers in England and Wales as 962,348; ten 
years later the number had fallen to 870,798, a decrease of 91,550, representing a 
deficit of 9°5 per cent. on the number in 1871. The number of farmers in England 
and Wales underwent at the same time a similar decrease of about 10 per cent. 
Part, perhaps much, of the decrease in the farming population may be due to the 
more extended use of machinery, for the number of proprietors of agricultural 
machines let for hire, and of the attendants upon them, increased from 55 in 1851, 
to 1,441 in 1861, to 2,160 in 1871, and to 4,260 in 1881. 

Perhaps the boldest course to take with regard to the state of agriculture is to 
look upon the depression as normal and permanent, and then to discover, if possible, 
how this new order of things may best be faced. A further fall in rents seems 
inevitable, unless landowners prefer the alternative of cultivating the land them- 
selves, It is desirable that the producer and the consumer should be brought into 
closer relationship, for the middleman is thriving well at the expense of both. A 
perfect and rigid system of quarantine is desirable for the better protection of live 
stock from imported disease. Our home dairy practice requires to be raised to a 
distinctly higher level; at present Denmark is ahead of us in butter-making, and 
Canada in cheese-making. But in each country named the Government has 
fostered these industries by the advancement of technical education; our own 
Government is quite apathetic in the matter. The losses inflicted on crops and 
live stock by the ravages of insect, fungoid, and other pests, are stupendous, but 
this country possesses no organisation by means of which farmers could be instructed, 
warned, and advised on such matters. or these and allied purposes an efliciently 
equipped Department of Agriculture would prove of incalculable value. 

After a brief description of the United States Department of Agriculture, and 
of the Department of Agriculture of Manitoba, the paper concluded by advocating 
the equipment of a Department of Agriculture for the United Kingdom, placed 
under the control of a responsible Minister of Agriculture, or of Agriculture and 
Commerce. Such a department could probably reach and influence the individual 
farmer in a manner which, for efficiency, no existing agency has been able to 
approach; it could diffuse valuable and necessary information of a simple and 
easily assimilable character, which would in time become embodied in the general 
practice of those by whom it would he received ; it could collect and rapidly digest 
information from all the agricultural districts of the United Kingdom, and then 
issue, in the form of bulletins, timely warning on many matters which in the 
absence of such warning might have led to loss; and it could, under energetic and 
intelligent management, raise the entire agricultural industry of this kingdom to a 
higher level than it has ever yet attained. In the diminution of preventible losses 
alone such a department would prove invaluable. The agricultural functions now 
variously exercised by the Board of Trade, the Science and Art Department, and 
the Veterinary (or Agricultural) Department of the Privy Council, might well be 
transferred to it, but such a department would utterly fail of its object were it 
allowed to sink to the level of a mere record office. Itshould be an active, living, 
and progressive organisation, and the results it would then achieve would probably 


in a very few years amply justify the fact of its establishment and the cost of its 
maintenance, 


4. On recent Changes in Scottish Agriculture. By Major P. G. Craicie. 


The author claimed the right of Agriculture in its present depression to what- 
ever aid science can afford. Intelligent use has been made in Scotland already of 
the teaching of scientific experiments, But before the help of any specific science 
is invoked in any new direction, it is indispensable that the facts and figures of 
the agricultural situation should be more clearly appreciated than they are by 


le 


Det oe 


pre 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 1163 


most of those who offer advice to the practical farmer in his present straits. It 
must therefore be right to discuss first of all, in this Section of Economie Science and 
Statistics, what the position is, both relatively and absolutely, before any confident 
prescription can be offered for the ils of Scottish agriculture. To obtain some 
sure footing of a statistical nature, some means of contrasting the leading features 
of the agricultural situation as it presents itself in Scotland with the position of 
matters elsewhere, and some knowledge of wherein and to what extent the use 
made of the soil differs from the previous practice, is necessary if we are even to 
attempt to offer a diagnosis of the disease from which agriculture is suffering. ‘This, 
and not any ambitious attempt to formulate hypothetical solutions of the land 
question, or to advise the Scottish farmer—proyerbially the most shrewd of agvi- 
culturists—how to conduct his business, is the limited aim of the paper. 

Partly owing to the character of the surface and partly to the form of our 
yearly returns, we know much less about the use and distribution of the soil in 
Scotland than in England. Only the proportions technically spoken of as ‘ under 
cultivation,’ z.e. under some actual crop, bare fallow, or grass other than mountain 
or heath land, are accounted for annually. In England three-fourths of the 
surface come within this category, but only one-fourth in Scotland, so that for three 
acres out of every four in the latter case we have no information. Speaking more 
accurately, the measured surface of England, excluding Wales, is 82,597,000 acres, 
whereof 24,844,000 acres are regarded as cultivated; aud the measured surface of 
Scotland is 19,467,000, whereof but 4,812,000 is in this sense cultivated. Barely 
25 out of every 100 acres is thus reported on in Scotland, whereas in England it is 
only 25 out of every 100 that fails to be reportedon. Yet it is at once evident from 
the live stock in the two countries that the official figures exclude much land used 
for the grazing of sheep, in some instances even of cattle and ponies. Our official 
tables therefore offering a contrast between the stock kept on each 100 cultivated 
acres in the two countries are misleading. It is the disregard of mountain pastures 
which makes it appear that England has of sheep 66, Wales 95, and Scotland 145 
to each hundred acres. Asa matter of fact, in the valuable statistics collected by 
the Highland and Agricultural Society in 1854, the ‘sheepwalks’ not entered in our 
annual statistics now, then covered 6,531,000 acres, or an area larger by one-third 
than all the cultivated land at present reported on. An enlargement of our statis- 
tics, which would supply information as to any changes in this branch of Scottish 
agriculture is therefore from every point of view desirable. 

Excluding these mountain pastures, the small area of permanent pasture, 
one acre for three under the plough is noted, instead of one for one as in Eng- 
land. The large use of rotation grass which balances this feature is commented 
on and explained, a third, in place of a tenth as in England, of the cultivated 
area being thus utilised. The Scotch percentage of cereals in that area is 28°6 per 
cent. against 26:8 per cent. in England, but only 5 per cent. of the land in corn is 
used for wheat, as against 38 per cent. in England, oats occupying three acres out 
of every four. 

Contrasts between the agricultural distribution of the soil thirty years ago, as 
shown by the Highland and Agricultural Society’s statistics in 1855, and the 
official figures for 1869 and 1884, were then given, and tables were compiled exhibit- 
ing the parallel changes in England and in Ireland in the same interval. These 
showed that the arable area has increased in Scotland, though largely declining in 
England in the past fifteen years, permanent grass increasing very little in the 
North, while it shows a 20 per cent. increase in the South. Wheat-growing in 
Scotland, always a microscopic fraction of the national industry, had dropped from 
191,300 acres in 1855 to 185,700 acres in 1869, and now to 68,700 acres in 1884, 
but the difference has gone in a large degree into other cereals, and it was specially 
noted that much of the decrease had occurred, net in consequence of the present 
depression, but before 1869. Tables and details showing for particular counties the 
changes over this period in greater detail were offered, and the characteristics of 
Scotch farming and the relation of the Scotch population to the small local wheat 
supply was noted. 

The paper dealt with the question of suggested decline in cereal produce per 


1164 REPORT—1885. 


acre in Scotland. Contrasting the Highland Society's statistics in 1855, with 
recent inquiries, such as that undertaken by Major Craigie himself in 1882, and 
with the latest official figures the conclusion arrived at was that where wheat is. 
still grown now, of course only on the best land, the yield is 31 or 32 bushels per 
acre against only 264 thirty years ago, barley yielding 352 against 323 at that date, 
while oats also advanced by several bushels, so that no grounds would appear to 
exist for the idea of a declining produce per acre. 

After dealing with questions of the greatly altered money value of the gross 
outcome of the several crops—wheat, which brought in over 2,000,0002. in 1855, 
now contributing 455,000/. only to the aggrevate receipts of the year, and both 
oats and barley fetching lower figures—an estimate of the acreable value at the 
present time was given. This the writer placed, taking all cereals into account, at 
4l. 16s. per acre, as against 5/. Os. Gd. thirty years ago. 

Attention was then devoted to the changes in the live stock of Scottish farms— 
both generally and in detail by means of tables, and the parallel changes in 
England and Ireland were noted. Cattle had, on the whole, increased, and sheep, 
which were more numerous in 1869 than in 1855, are but slightly under the 
higher level now. This was contrasted with the English reduction of 17 per cent. 
in the flocks of that country, This was a matter specially worthy to be noted in 
view of the assertion that deer were taking the place of sheep. There were 
apparently a million more sheep in Scotland in 1869, than in 1855, and in the 
next 15 years up to 1884, the decline was only from 6,995,000 to 6,983,000, or 
12,000 head; while in England in this period, the sheep were 38,394,000 fewer, 
and in Ireland 1,400,000 fewer. There was far less falling off in the Scottish 
flocks, than those of other European countries. 

The question was then discussed as to what was the yearly out-turn of meat which 
Scottish farmers produce, and estimates varying from 160,000 to 140,000 tons 
yearly were mentioned and explained, and the sufliciency of the scale applied to the 
United Kingdom generally for the particular features of Scotch meat production 
was discussed. Scotland was shown to be, if a largely wheat-importing country, a 
distinctly meat-exporting one, and an opinion expressed that the breeding of stock 
yet more largely in Scotland would be advisable and was perfectly practicable. 


SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 12. 
The following Papers were read :— 


1. On the International Forestry Exhibition. By Dr. Crompre Brown. 


The author said the richness and variety of the International Exhibition in 
Edinburgh, notwithstanding its deficiency, was fairly representative of British 
notions of arboriculture and forest economy; but the ignoring of sylviculture 
supplied an argument for the establishment of a National School of Forestry, in 
which might be taught and applied the advanced forest science of the day. It 
must be remembered that there was a great difference between arboriculture and 
sylviculture; and far-reaching results were to be expected from the scientific 
management of forests. ‘There was, therefore, great need for a National School of 
Forestry. The great benefits which might reasonably be expected to follow there- 
from were evident to everyone acquainted with the subject. It was chiefly the 
requirement of British colonies and lands similarly situated for the exploitation of 
forests that impressed him with the importance of having a National School of 
Forestry organised. The interest which our country had in the improvement of the 
forest economy of Great Britain supplied an equally urgent reason for such a measure 
being adopted. In every place where the British rule extended, except in India, 
there had been a ruinous neglect of forests. In South Africa alone millions of acres 
had been made desert from the destruction of the indigenous forests. This neglect 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 1165 


was a striking contrast to the interest taken in arboriculture and sylviculture in 
France, Prussia, Switzerland, and Russia. Colleges there were provided with a 
complete staff of accomplished professors, who trained youths of good birth to 
become State foresters. He did not see any immediate prospect of the establish- 
ment of a School of Forestry ; attention, however, had been called to the matter 
in Parliament; and such a school must be established sooner or later. In Edinburgh 
a movement had been set afoot by the Marquis of Lothian and other gentlemen for 
raising 10,0007. for the exhibition of many valuable objects entrusted to them, and 
the establishment of a lectureship or professorship of forestry. The 10,0002., how- 
eyer, was slow in coming in,! 


2. What is Capital? By W. Westcarrn. 


The author alluded to the wide divergencies of view upon this question amongst 
Jeading economists. On behalf of commerce and banking he challenged the correct- 
ness of these views. Capital was usually defined by economists as consisting of 
things used in production, and as beiny only that part of wealth which is applied to 
produce further wealth. The same thing may be capital and not capital, according 
to the hands itis in. Thus, a manufacturer deals with capital, but not a shop- 
keeper, the former being a producer, but the latter only a distributor. Mr. West- 
garth holds that this is only a conventional capital created in the minds of 
economists, and haying no existence elsewhere. No doubt much confusion arose 
from the free and loose use, both in and out of business, of the term capital. Thus 
we had fixed capital, liability capital, and so on; but, holding the word to mean 
now universally the ready fund of business life, we ought, for clearness’ sake, 
to avoid, in economic science, to give the term capital to anything else but this 
fund. No doubt the term capital had, originally and derivatively, the meaning 
expressed by ‘fixed capital,’ and the business fund might be viewed as an interloper 
in appropriating the name. But none the less we must accept facts. The inter- 
loper cannot now be dislodged, and we must not continue to call different things by 
one and the same name, What, then, is thiscapital fund? It is substantially the 
stocks of trading, called into existence, and maintained in existence, by the wants 
of trading or exchange. Every trader must have stock of his particular vocation, 
and this stock collectively is the society's capital. The merchandise and money and 
rolling-stock of a country’s commerce constitute its capital fund. Money is only a 
particular form of merchandise. his capital fund increases or diminishes accord- 
ing to the circumstances of the trading, as requiring more or less stock. On the 
one hand is the constant tendency to economise capital so as to save the cost 
of holding it ; on the other hand capital is ever increased by the constant effort to 
increase profit through extending the scale of business, and thus reducing relatively 
the expenses. We have thus the elements of the limitation or law of capital. 
For instance, the Suez Canal is cut in order, by the reduced time, to economise 
capital in shipping and cargo. But these economies themselves so increase the 
trading, that still more ships and cargoes than before are the result. The causes 
which economise or reduce capital are exceeded in effect by the causes which 
increase it; and thus, while increased profit is the object, increased capital is the 
concurrent result. We have here the elements of a ‘law of capital.’ 


3. On Methods of ascertaining Variations in the Rates of Birth, Death, and 
Marriage. By ¥. Y. Encewortn. 


This paper is designed as a study in that branch of statistics which may be 
described as the method of eliminating chance by means of the mathematical 
theory of errors, In illustration of the general principle, the following example is 
discussed :—Suppose that the mean age at death of a hundred (or a thousand) 
total abstainers, taken from the general population above a certain age, is greater 
by a year or so than that of the general population, what presumption is there that 


1 Printed in Forestry, November 1885. 


1166 REPORT—1885. 


this difference is not accidental? It is shown that the answer depends upon a 
certain constant, or co-efficient, which might be calculated from life-tables. This 
constant enables us to find the probability that the mean age at death of a hundred 
(or a thousand) persons taken at random, would deviate to an assigned extent 
from the mean age at death of the general population. This all-important con- 
stant may be defined as one or other of the following correlated quantities : the 
precision, the probable error, the modulus, or (as the writer proposes to call the 
square of the modulus) the fluctuation. 

Two problems in vital statistics, in the case of which the discovery of the requi- 
site constant presents peculiar difficulties, form the special subject of this study. 

I. Suppose out of a population, resident in the same place in the same year, 
there are taken at random several groups, and the death-rates calculated for each 
of those groups; according to what modulus would these figures fluctuate? It is 
required to elicit this answer from the Registrar-General’s returns, which give 
only death-rates for different years and different places. The answer to this problem 
may be used to verify inferences concerning the relative unhealthiness of different 
occupations. Buta wider utility attends the solution of the problem. The fact 
that the different methods by which it may be attacked lead to the same result is 
calculated to give us confidence in handling the mathematical instruments of 
statistics, We realise that to each class of phenomenon there appertains in 
general a tolerably constant co-efficient of fluctuation ; which, having been obtained 
by observation, we shall be able to employ this datum of past experience to test 
future statistical inductions. 

II. The second problem exemplified is to determine whether a given series of 
statistical returns indicates progress. Consider a set of figures representing the 
mortality of a certain population for several consecutive years. The theory of the 
modulus can determine whether an appearance of increase or decrease in these re- 
turns corresponds to a real difference in the conditions of life. The indications 
afforded by scientific method are apt to differ considerably from the guesswork of 
common sense.’ 


4. On the Application of Biology to Economics. By Patrick Guppes. 


Since the progress of any order of ideas proceeds mainly from within, even 
heresies arising by a reversal of former beliefs, it is not to be wondered at if 
economists of all schools, orthodox or heterodox alike, are little attracted by the 
proposal to translate the propositions they debate from the time-honoured vernacular 
into the language of scientific specialists. Yet to point to this round-about way 
of simplifying matters is the object of the present paper. Not only, however, does 
biology owe much to economics—witness such a principle as the physiological 
division of labour—but the author of the ‘ Origin of Species’ has traced its direct 
filiation to Malthus’ theory of population. 

A classic account of this relation is to be found in Mr. Spencer's well-known 
popular work ‘On the Study of Sociology,’ and the importance of the subject has 
often been insisted upon—witness Dr. Ingram’s memorable presidential address of 
1878, or his recent article ‘ Political Economy.’ But as a recent reviewer scorn- 
fully asks, what have physics or biology to do with land-tenure, with taxation, 
the depreciation of silver, the rate of wages, the thousand and one problems of the 
economist ?—hbut the reply is easy: what biology seeks to deal with are the funda- 
mental conceptions of the subject, not their application to concrete details. Thus 
the biologist, while as yet at least wholly shrinking from interference with matters 
too high for him, will in no wise be restrained from claiming what the economist 
lumps as ‘ competition’ as a form of the general struggle for existence, and seeking 
to analyse it, or, dissatisfied with the loose and popular notion of ‘ progress,’ 
endeavouring to distinguish whether it means evolution or degeneration of popu- 
lation and their surroundings in each special case. When this is done the air 
becomes clearer: we see how, for instance, the dispute preceding the passing of 


1 Printed im extenso in the Journal of the Statistical Society for January, 1886, 


a_i. 2 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 1167 


the Factory Acts was not really at all a struggle between ‘economic science’ on 
the one hand and ‘mere sentiment’ on the other, but turned upon subordinating 
the lower ideal of physical economics—that of maximum production in given time— 
to the higher ideal of biological economics—that of maintenance and evolution of 
the population. Again, in the current dispute between individualist and socialist, 
we at once see that what the former has really taken his stand upon is simply the 
law of survival of the fittest, the principle of natural selection ; while the socialist 
position has its essential base in the later but equally valid conception of the 
practicability of artificial selection. And thus for the biologist a line of research is 
clear—to unite and define these two vaguely-discerned positions, and to apply 
them to the interpretation of civilised society, as he already does not only for 
animals but for the lower races. 

Nor is the general course of practical action less evident: the biologist must 
side with the individualist against the socialist in recognising that man can never 
shake himself wholly free from the iron grip of nature, yet, undiscouraged by this, 
since recognising the vast modifiability of life through its surroundings, must yet 
encourage the socialist in every rational effort to subordinate natural to artificial 
selection, and raise the struggle into the culture of existence. 

But ‘while philosophers are disputing about the government of men, hunger 
and love are performing the task.’ From the physiological standpoint all functions 
are summed into those two—into nutrition and reproduction, into individual life 
and the reproduction of it. Thus the economist, whether taking sides for or 
against Malthus, cannot seriously deny that he has entered on a biological inquiry, 
and that one of fundamental importance to his own science. Now Malthus” 
principles are: (1) that population tends to outrun subsistence, but meets with 
checks in so doing; these checks being (2) positive, as war, famine, disease, &e. ; 
or (3) preventive or moral. But the essential work of Darwin has lain in developing 
the first of these conceptions into that of the struggle for existence, as in recasting: 
the second and third into natural and artificial selection respectively. Yet can it 
be urged that any economist has adequately applied these to theory or practice P 
Nay, more; perhaps the most valuable result of Mr. Spencer's biological labours 
lies in the demonstration of a limit law of population wider than those discerned 
by either Malthus or Darwin, namely that, other things equal, ‘ multiplication and 
individuation vary inversely’; that is to say, the rate of reproduction of all living 
beings tends to be lowered as their individual development is raised, and conversely, 
Now, the practical outcomes of these three states of the theory of population are 
very different: for the economist who reads only Malthus there is no hope of 
curing the miseries due to over-population save by preventive checks of one sort or 
other; yet if he goes on to read Darwin, the advantage to the species of this struggle 
among the individuals becomes evident, and Jatsser-faire tends to resume the 
ascendant. Here in our day the discussion rests. Yet with what reason can they 
omit taking into account the law expounded by Spencer? And if this step be 
made, if the economist once really grasps the modern rather than the early theory 
of population, practical action at once assumes a new and higher aspect. For if 
individual life and rate of multiplication do indeed vary inversely, we have here 
the secret of the connection of poverty with progress—it lies primarily in the 
department of production, not that of distribution, let reformers of the latter say 
what they will; and the practical economists who would increase the well-being 
rather than the mere number of the population, must attempt a vast proportional 
increase in the industries which elevate life over those which merely maintain it, 
must make his ideal of progress for a long time lie rather in raising quality of 
production over mere quantity of it. Without keeping this clearly in view, the 
mere cheapening of food only multiplies poverty without increasing it, and our 
modest utopia of an adequate supply of penny dinners will but lead to an appalling 
demand for farthing ones. Yet reversed, the same iron law of wages, for such it is 
under its biological form, furnishes the economic justification of morals and of 
culture, the only yet sufficient hope of a general elevation of society, 


1168 REPORT—1885. 


MONDAY, SEPTEMBER. 14. 


The following Papers were read :— 


1. On the Use of Index Numbers in the Investigation of Trade Statistics. 
Dy SterHen Bourne, L.8.S.—See Reports, p. 859. 


2. On Depression of Prices and Results of Economy of Production, and on 
the Prospect of Recovery. By Hype Crarge, FS.S. 


The author said that the expectations in 1884 of the sale of the corn crops in 
the United States and Canada had not been realised, nor were hopes of recovery 
to be built on the crops of 1885. The sale in the European market of American 
and other imported corn is limited by the fact that the consumption by human 
beings (and by animals) is itself limited by what the individual can consume, which 
is a natural maximum not dependent on price. The amount to be supplied is the 
deficiency each year on the local crops, which in most European countries meet 
their own wants, and in the eastern districts allow of export. Corn, too, cannot, 
like fibres or metals, be stocked for a long time. 

Corn, sugar, and coffee are now produced in large quantities, because all the 
best producing countries are laid open by cheap railways, and the freight to the 
ocean markets is also reduced. 

The effective cause of the great reduction in production and transport is due to 
the reduction in the cost of steel and iron, consequent on the inyentions of Bessemer, 
Siemens, Thomas, Gilchrist, and others. Whatever the quantity of gold may be, 
the former price of steel in relation to other commodities will not be regained. As 
steel or steel iron rails can be made for one-tenth of the cost of thirty years ago, 
this is an economical fact to be dealt with. Cheap railways and cheap ocean 
steamers are now making their influence felt. 

With regard to gold coinage, the effect of any supposed short supply cannot be 
measured from one year’s supply, or five, or ten years’, as the effect has to be 
calculated on the whole mass of gold coinage existing in the world, whatever that 
may be. Gold is a metal coined over and over again, sometimes for centuries, and 
the coinage of a year is in reality in a great degree recoinage. The wear and tear 
on coinage is much less in the whole world than is usually estimated, as much coin 
is hoarded, or is subject to sluggish circulation. Manufacturers of gold take new 
coins and make them into rings, chains, jewellery, and give back supplies of 
bullion to the mimt. The wear and tear of manufactured gold is also limited. 
Manufactured gold and coinage act and react on each other, but a positive pressure 
on coinage is supplied from manufactured gold. 

It is not possible to ascertain the real and effective total of gold coin in circu- 
lation in the world at any moment, and if we could ascertain that, we do not 
thereby learn the ratio of its efficiency. This is not immediately relevant to its 
quantity, but to the greater or less rapidity in its circulation or turn-over, dependent 
on sluggishness or energy of trade, panic, war, famine, hoarding, and many other 
causes. At present no practical evidence has been adduced that a diminished 
supply of gold is the cause of lower prices. 

With regard to the question of recovery, it will ultimately depend on the 
readjustment of the new economical conditions. Temporary fluctuations of price 
may be caused, as was seen this year, by war and rumours of war; also by short 
crops, or by the discovery of some new mineral commodity. The course of 
economical events is, however, in the direction of discoveries still further diminish- 
ing the amount of labour required for production. The low prices may, however, 
assist in their own readjustment. At the present moment half the population of 
the world—in India, China, and Japan, five hundred millions in number—are under 
the influence of old traditional prices, which in some cases give daily wages of 2d. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 1169 


As these rates for wages and commodities are raised to the European standard, 
and they have been rising of late years, the people will have a larger exchangeable 
surplus for the purchase of goods, and a diminished power of competitors in 
production. Indian wheat is raised with wages of 24d. per day. 


3. On Customs Tariffs. By A. E. Bateman. 


4. How its Fiscal Policy may affect the Prosperity of a Nation.! 
By ALEXANDER Forbes. 


The author said that if free trade could be universal, it would be indisputably 
better for Great Britain and all other nations; but 1t will never become so, as no 
two nations are similar, either in their position or products, and each will always 
naturally follow that fiscal policy which recommends itself most to its own 
individual interests. 

It was advantageous for nations not to have a hard and fast fiscal policy, 
because without it, they could the better maintain their bargaining powers with 
other States. 

It was this bargaining which England by her pronounced free trade had lost,. 
and the loss of which was the principal if not sole cause of our diminishing and 
ere export trade, and consequent commercial depression and agricultural 

istress. 

England had only to announce that she would treat every country in future as 
she was treated by it to have the whole world competing for her trade, and will-- 
ing to do business un the principle of reciprocity. Since 1846 we had as a nation 
followed too much the policy of studying the interests of the mere consumer, 
an extraordinary fallacy for a practical and manufacturing people. If our artisans 
had to pay 8d. for the 4b. loaf, and had a shilling to buy it with, it was surely 
better than that they should be offered for 6d. what they were through want of 
employment without the means of purchasing. 

The fiscal policy of a State should be guided by the same principles as controlled 
a business man in his own relations. The latter preferred to give his orders to such 
as were customers of his own, even although in some cases he might more 
advantageously place those orders elsewhere, and so gain an immediate partial 
benefit, at the cost of a subsequent permanent loss. 

If the customs duties imposed by other countries with whom we traded were 
swept away, the demand for goods of British manufacture would be enormously 
increased. 

If we could not induce foreign countries to trade with us on the principle of 
reciprocal free trade, let us at least place ourselves on an equality with them, and 
take advantage of the opportunities of making them share part of our heavy 
taxation by imposing customs duties on the goods they sent into our markets. 

If statesmen would not initiate legislation in this direction for fear of bringing 
disaster to their party, the day was not far distant when the working men would 
take the question of our fiscal policy into their own hands. 

It was quite evident from our experience of forty years, that through mere 
example we were powerless to induce other countries to adopt free trade principles 
as we understand them, and it was equally manifest that if we conceded to foreigners 
facilities to trade with us which they in turn refused to reciprocate, we must as a 
manufacturing and commercial nation be serious losers. 

For not only did the almost prohibitory tariffs imposed by foreign nations 
preclude our trafficking profitably with them, but, by our own fiscal policy, our 
home manufacturers did not enjoy in their own market their legitimate trade, 
through our encouraging the unfettered and ever-increasing competition of foreign 
producers, whilst we were at the same time, by not imposing customs duties on 


1 Published in extenso by John Avery & Co. (Limited), Aberdeen. 
1885. 4P 


1170 REPORT—1885. 


what they sent us, depriving our exchequer of an enormous source of revenue 
which would tend to greatly lessen our imperial taxation. 

The outcome of such a policy as Britain is at present following must ultimately 
disable her from supporting her present population, without which she cannot long 
maintain her independence, and with the loss of it, at no distant date, must follow 
all the privileges and advantages which accompany and flow from nationality and 
empire. 


5. On the Incidence of Imperial Taxation. By Dr. W. A. Hunter. 


The object of the paper, the author said, was to determine with as close an 
approximation to accuracy as our information admitted in what manner the burden 
of Imperial taxation was borne by the richer and the poorer classes of the com- 
munity. The gross income for the year ending March 1882—the census year— 
was, in round numbers, 80 millions, of which 10 millions were receipts not in 
the nature of taxation, The remaining 70 millions consisted of a sum of 434 
millions raised from tea, coffee, tobacco, and spirits, forming a burden on all classes 
of the community. It was, of course, true that a poor man who consumed none of 
these articles almost entirely escaped any share of this burden ; but the same remark 
was equally true if he was a rich man. The balance of 263 millions was raised by 
taxes that fell upon a limited class, which was nearly, but not altogether, co-ex- 
tensive with the class of persons liable to pay income-tax. These taxes compre- 
hended income-tax, house duty, some of the excise licences, railway duties, death 
duties, stamps, and wines. Some of these taxes fell to a certain extent also 
upon incomes under 150/. a year, so that the sum he had stated at least somewhat 
exaggerated the amount of the contribution made by the well-to-do classes ; but, 
in order to weight the scales as much in favour of the rich as possible, he credited 
them with the whole of the taxation. The class represented by the income-tax 
payers amounted to six millions of people, and the rest of the population to 29 
millions. The gross income of the former class he estimated at 650 millions. It 
must be remembered, however, that in the Inland Revenue returns a great many 
under estimates occurred which eluded the vigilance of tax-gathers, this being 
especially the case as regarded foreign securities. But taxation ought not to be 
based on the gross income. The deduction allowed by the Income Tax Commis- 
sioners of 120/. a year on incomes under 4007. was excessive. Mr. Giffen estimated 
121. per head as the reasonable sum that ought to be deducted before one could 
fairly assess the taxable income, He was not prepared to say that 12/. was ex- 
cessive, but he proposed to put it at the somewhat lower figure of 107. This would 
give a total of G0 millions to deduct from the 650 millions, or a total taxable income 
of 590 millions. The total sum paid in taxation by this class, including their share 
of indirect taxation, was 34 millions, which, on 590 millions, amounted to 5/. 15s. 
3d. per cent. It is not easy, Dr. Hunter went on to say, to ascertain the aggregate 
income of the 29 millions of people whose income does not bring them within 
Schedule D. ‘T'wo estimates have been made—one by Mr. Giffen, the other by 
Professor Leone Levi—of the gross earnings of the working class, a class that 
corresponds very nearly to the 29 millions. Mr. Levi puts the total at 520 millions ; 
Mr. Giffen at 620 millions—an enormous discrepancy. Mr. Giffen’s figures would 
give an average of 217. 10s. per head, or more than 100 guineas for every group of 
five persons. Such an estimate is hardly consistent with the experience of those 
who are acquainted with the condition of the working classes. I have endeavoured 
to test those figures, and have obtained a return of the wages under 1501. a year 
from the Northern Co-operative Company, paid under the following departments : 
—grocery, bakery, clothiery, butchery, boot and shoe, meal mill, coal, stable, 
watching and lighting, and counting-houses. The proportion of men employed is 
somewhat higher than the average ; the proportion of women less, and that of boys 
and girls greater than the average. Although in some occupations men may earn 
higher wages than those employed at the co-operative stores, yet, having regard to 
the lower wages paid in rural districts and to the poverty of Ireland, there can be 
no doubt that the earnings of the employés exceed the ayerage of the whole country, 


PD is 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 1171 


Correcting the returns so as to make the proportion of men, boys, girls, and women 
the same as the average proportion throughout the United Kingdom, and adding 
the due proportion of persons unemployed and maintained by the employés, I find 
that the average annual earnings per head amount to 193/. Upon this basis the 
-gross earnings of the non-income-tax-paying population would amount to 560 
millions per annum. There seems no reason to believe that this is too low an 
estimate. From this sum of 560 millions of gross income we must make a deduc- 
tion of 102, per head, as we have already done in the case of the income-tax-paying 
class, This gives us 270 millions of taxable income, of which 36 millions is paid 
in taxation, a sum equal to 13/. 6s. 8d. per cent. on the income of the poorer class, 
as compared with 5/. 15s. 3d. per cent. on the income of those who are fortunate 
enough to require the attention of the Inland Revenue Commissioners. The con- 
clusion, therefore, is that the poorer classes of the population are taxed more than 
twice as much as the richer class in proportion to their taxable income. Or the 
result may be stated thus. The poorer class, having regard to their taxable income, 
ought to contribute about 22 millions a year, whereas they are made to pay 36 
millions; and the richer class, who ought to pay 48 millions, escape with a contri- 
bution of 34 millions. In order to equalise taxation, it would be necessary to reduce 
the Customs and Excise to the extent of 15 or 16 millions a year. | These ficures, 
however, fail to give an adequate conception of the extent of the burdens actually 
thrown on the poorer classes. The amount received by the Government from the 
richer classes is about equal to that which is paid by the latter; but the amount 
paid by the poorer classes is far in excess of that which is received by the Chancellor 
of the Exchequer. It is the nature of all taxation of commodities to take more 
from the taxpayer than is received by the tax-gatherer. Dealers in articles thus 
taxed require a larger capital for their business, and the cost of the article is en- 
hanced by an inevitable allowance for interest and risk. The Chancellor of the 
Exchequer receives 36 millions from the poorer classes, but the cost of the articles 
which they purchase is enhanced by considerably more than 36 millions. This 
increase cannot be put at less than 25 per cent. The real burden of taxation is 
thus raised to 45 millions, or nearly 17 per cent. on the taxable income of those 
who make less than 150/. per annum, In the light of these facts the protest that 
is sometimes raised against graduated taxation appears somewhat out of place. We 
have graduated taxation, only instead of increasing the burden of taxation in pro- 
portion to wealth, we increase it in proportion to poverty. ‘The more able a man 
is to pay the less is he taxed; the less able heis to pay the more is he taxed. 


TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15. 


The following Papers were read :— 


1, State Guarantee of War Risks. By JOHN Corry. 


The object of this paper is to advocate the advisability of war risks at sea being 
guaranteed by the State, instead of as at present being covered by special arrange- 
ments with individual underwriters. The author, after referring to the enormous 
development of our trade, points out how largely we are dependent upon foreign 
sources both for the supply of our food and raw materials, and how helpless we 
would be, in the event of war with one or more of the Great Powers, if we were 
unable to maintain our communications abroad. He refers to instances in which 
Governments have paid compensation for losses sustained through the operations 
of war, particularly in the case of the Alabama claims, the bombardment of Alex- 
andria, and the French Indemnity of 1871. A State guarantee against war risks 
at sea would therefore be merely an extension of a principle which has been already 
admitted. One of the great dangers to be avoided is the transfer of our tonnage to 
neutral flags in consequence of the extra premiums necessary to meet war risks, 

42 


1172 REPORT—1885. 


The author is of opinion that if the volume of our trade were once diverted from its 
present channels it would be very difficult, if not impossible, to restore it. Asa great 
manufacturing country we are not only dependent upon the economic supply of raw 
materials, but also upon having sufficient outlets for our finished goods. If the raw 
materials were not forthcoming the temporary stoppage of our industries would un- 
doubtedly lead to a transference of a large portion of our trade to foreign countries, 
The author further considers that a State guarantee against war risks would tend to 
strengthen our relations with our colonies and dependencies, and might lead to a con- 
solidation of the whole empire. In order tosafeguard the great interest involved, some 
improvements would be required in our navy, but the author does not consider that 
the maintenance of a huge standing army would become a necessity for this 
country. The cost of war risks must eventually be borne by the nation at large, 
but if these risks were undertaken by the Government the author maintains that 
the expense would be vastly less than that which would be incurred through extra 
premiums and the attendant evils in the event of a great war breaking out. 

The objections to the proposal, he maintains, are more apparent than real, and 
any difficulties could be easily overcome in carrying out the details by principles of 
procedure which are already well understood. The author claims that this subject 
is not brought forward in the interest of any particular trade, but upon economic 
and national grounds. He sums up with the following propositions, which convey a 
concise statement of his views :— 

The whole question can be practically summarised in the following propo- 
sitions :— 

1st. That as the existence of this country absolutely depends on foreign supplies 
of food and materials anything that would risk the failure or enhance the cost of 
those supplies must be a national loss. 

Qnd. That as the trade and carriage ia now mainly in British hands it is all 
important that it should so continue, and not be transferred to, or get into the 
hands of, our foreign competitors. 

8rd. That the international effect of such a declaration as we have advocated 
would be highly advantageous to our commerce throughout the world, and would 
prevent neutral nations taking that selfish interest in our position which the hope 
of future gain might encourage them to show. If any nation expected to gain 
large material advantages by our being engaged in war we could not as readily 
look for its sympathy or co-operation. 

4th. That if a large amount of our tonnage was transferred to neutral flags, or 
the neutral flag was largely engaged in our carrying trade, the volume of trade 
thus once shifted would be very difficult, if not impossible, to restore. 

5th. That the cost to the consumers, if Government failed to meet the emergency 
in case of war, would be enormously enhanced directly and indirectly. 

6th. That the effect of such a declaration would tend in the strongest way to 
bind our colonies and dependencies together, and to unite them to this country. 

The products of our colonies and dependencies are now so vast and varied that 
we could soon be independent of all other sources of supply. 

7th. That as the power of machinery has so much reduced the special advan- 
tages or facilities which we as a nation have enjoyed over others in the way of 
manufacturing, any temporary disadvantage to, or disarrangement of, our trade 
micht direct it into other channels, from which it could not afterwards be re- 
covered. 

I will only add that the question of indemnity against war risks has not been 
brought forward here with the idea of benefiting any particular trade, but on 
account of its direct bearing upon the economic supply of food and rough materials, 
and the distribution of our manufactures throughout the world. 


2. On the British Slandard of Value. By Dana Horron. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 1173 


3. Sliding Scales in the Coal Industry.' By Professor J. H. C. Munro. 


There are at least eight sliding-scales in use in the coal industry, viz.: the Dur- 
ham scale of 1884; the Cumberland scale of 1884; the Northumberland scale of 
1883 ; the Monmouthshire and South Wales Association scale of 1882; the Ocean 
scale of 1882; the Ferndale scale of 1882; the Somersetshire scale of 1876; the 
Bedworth scale of 1879. 

The following scales have now been abandoned : the North Wales scale of 1880; 
the South Staffordshire scale; the West Yorkshire scale of 1880; the Shropshire 
scale. 

The number of miners in the United Kingdom is about half a million, and of 
these 125,000 have their wages governed by sliding-scales. A sliding-scale is based 
on two standards: (1) a standard price of coal, and (2) a standard of wages, the 
latter being payable when the former is realised. As the price of coal falls above 
or below the standard price, wages fall or rise above the standard wages. A certain 
agreed variation must take place in the price of coal (e.g. 4d.) before any variation 
occurs in wages; accounts being examined every three or four months in order 
to ascertain if any variation has occurred during the previous period. 

The different standard prices adopted by the existing scales are as follows:— 
Durham, 3s. 10d. and under 4s.; Cumberland, 4s. 6:19d. and under 4s. 7°69d. ; 
Northumberland, 4s. 8d. and under 4s. 10d.; Association, 7s. 8d. and under 8s. ; 
Ferndale, 8s.: Ocean, 10s. and under 10s. 44d.; Somerset, 10s.; Bedworth, 
under ds. 6d. 

The variations in pices that result in variations in wages are as follows :— 


Wages are to rise or fall 
merit For every 
rise or fall |Hewers, Engine- Other 
of men, Mechanics, eer panier 
Cokemen, aie 
and Banksmen 
s. d. Per cent. Per cent. 
Durham (Standard 3s. 10d. and under 4s.) . 0 2 1+ 1 
Between 5s. 10d. and 6s.10d.. . .| 0 2 24 2 
| Northumberland(Standard 4s.8d.& under4s.10d.) | 0 2 14 1 
At 6s., 6s. 4d., 7s. 2d., 7s. 8d., 83. 6d. & 9s. 0 2 24 2 
Hewers. 
Per cent. 
} Cumberland (Standard 4s.6d.19) . .. . 0 14 14 
Above 6s. 6d.°19 hte t 0 2 1: 
Association (Standard 7s. 8d. and under 8s.) 0 4 24 
Ocean (Standard 10s. and under 10s. 44d.) 
Under the standard . . .. . oO 4} 23 5 
Above the standard Q 43 ii 
Pmomriete re. WME EO! FEN 0 4 24 
At 1ls.4d.and11s.8d.. . . 0 4 14 
Bedworth (Standard under 5s. 6d.) . 0 3 1d. per day. 
Somerset (Standard 10s.) 
For every rise or fall in price, wages 
are to rise and fall at the rate of .| 1 0 7% per cent. 


in some districts allowances are made to the miners in addition to their wages. 
In Durham and Northumberland hewers receive a free house and firing. At the 


? Published in extenso by John Heywood & Co., London and Manchester. 


1174 REPORT—1885. 


Bedworth Collieries hewers receive a coal allowance if they are married. In 
Cumberland no allowances are made. 

The hours of labour, or ‘ shift,’ as the working day is technically called, vary 
under the different scales. 

The Somerset, Ocean, and Bedworth scales provide for a minimum wages, and 
the Somerset scale has also a maximum wages. 

The average price of coal is ascertained by accountants pledged to secrecy as to 
details. In Durham, Cumberland, and Northumberland, the price is the average 
price at the pit’s mouth. In South Wales the price is the price delivered free on 
board at the port of shipment. This latter price, therefore, evidently includes cost of 
carriage from the pit to the port—a fact that will explain why the standard price 
under the South Wales scales is so much higher than the standard prices under the 
Northern scales, The Somerset scale takes as the price the price delivered at the 
nearest railway station or wharf. 

The advantages of sliding-scales may be reduced to two heads. They give (1) 
a steadiness to trade, and (2) a steadiness to wages, in so far as disputes between 
employers and employed tend to render trade and wages unsteady. 

The sliding-scale is one more proof that wages are to be regarded as the part of 
the produce obtained by the labourer, inasmuch as the miner is paid in proportion 
to the value of the coal raised by him. 

Historically, the sliding-scales are connected with supply and demand. The 
standard wages in most instances are the wages payable at the time the scales were 
introduced, and the supply of labour as compared with the demand for it was one 
factor in forming those rates. The scarcity or abundance of labour might lead to a 
modification of a scale, but this is less likely owing to the spirit of combination that 
exists in the coal trade. 

Legally, the sliding-seale is to be regarded as a part of the contract of service 
entered into between the mine owner and the miner, prescribing what wages are to 
be payable during the time such contract continues. Only those persons are bound 
by a scale who give an express or implied assent to it, and whether such assent has 
been given in a particular instance would be a question of fact for a jury. 


4, Anomalies in the condition of Scotch Miners in contrast with other 
unskilled Labourers. By Witu1aAM SMALL. 


1. All tools requisite for the prosecution of their labour they are compelled to 
supply, z.e., picks, hammers, shovels, stemmers, drivers, wedges, &c., to the value of 
from 30s. to 40s. Other labourers—ploughmen, quarrymen, gardeners, furnacemen, 
roadsmen, surfacemen, &c.—have all these supplied from capital as part of work- 
ing plant. Why should miners be compelled to furnish their appliances from the 
result of labour? ‘The average income of miners is under that earned by any of the 
foregoing. As a true economic principle, capital should supply all appliances of 
labour, whatever conventional authority may say to the contrary. 

2. When manual power is deficient in intensity to secure success in mining, 
artificial force isa necessity. Hence powder, dynamite, lime, &c., are in demand. But 
why should the wage fund of the labourer be compelled to bear the burden? And 
here the anomalous condition of miners is again shown in bold relief. Are seamen, 
if unable with oar and sail to propel a vessel, compelled from their wage fund to 
supply steam; to shape a heavy bar, is a blacksmith called upon to bear the cost of a 
steam hammer; a quay labourer a steam crane; a quarryman blasting-powder ; or 
a husbandman, unable to thrash all the season’s crop with a flail, a steam thrasher ? 
The miners ate now beginning to think that capital should supply artificial where 
manual power is deficient. 

3. The miner is compelled to supply himself with light to pursue his oceupation 
because his factory is situated many fathoms underground ; but in no other case 
(generally known) are workmen compelled to illuminate their workshops. The 
development of electricity as a mine illuminant may ultimately remedy the anomaly, 
but from conyentional precedent employers may charge their workmen for its use. 


6 ERR 


a 


‘TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 1175 


The perfection of safety-lamps is yearly increasing the miners’ outlay, being more 
costly at purchase and more difficult and expensive to maintain. 

4. Royalties are aiso a source of annoyance, friction, and injustice to the miner ; 
the theory of royalties is meanwhile out of consideration. The case stands thus. A 
miner may be digging coal at from 73d. to 1s. Gd. per ton—but, for a case, say 10d., 
and the royalty in that seam 1s, 4d. for a week. The miner earns 20s., with deduc- 
tions 2s, 2d. ; nett earning 17s. 10d.,as against 32s. to the landlord for royalty. The 
case is a strong one, but in Lanarkshire the average royalty is 1s. per ton. The 
miners hold that, as formerly and as is still the law of Scotland, such royalty charges 
should only be exacted by the realm. The idea of forming a ‘ National Benevolent 
and Insurance I'und’ from such charges is rapidly gaining ground, following the 
precedent of France, and developing the Knapp Shaft Verein of Germany. 

5. The monetary aspect of the foregoing matters is a very serious consideration 
to working miners, demanding for tools an outlay of 30s. to 40s, ; while for weekly 
charges for oil, powder, sharpening wedges, shafts, &c., they are never under 2s, or 
2s, 6d., and thus with the royalty tax and capital exactions their labour is handi- 
capped and natural expansion hindered. 


5. The Statistics and some points in the Economies of the Scottish Fisheries. 
By Wiuu1am Wart, F.S.8. 


The author began by stating that the value of the Scottish fisheries may be 
roughly estimated at 34 millions sterling per annum, or 1/. per each unit of the 
population, of which two-thirds are derived from herring. The other sea-fishes 
yield only three-quarters of a million—haddock producing 800,000/., cod and ling 
266,000/7. (it might easily be a great deal more) ; while the yield from whitings, 
flat-fishes, and the rest is comparatively small. Shellfish reckon in the Fishery 
Board's statistics for 81,000/., and salmon for 275,000/. The greatest by far, 
as well as most expansive, of Scottish fishery industries is the ‘white cured 
herring’ trade, which in magnitude has more than doubled within the last quarter 
of a century. 


In ten years, 1855-64, there were cured yearly 625,000 barrels ; 


i 1865-74, ‘ eS. OOF 5, 
bi 1875-84 59 er 515 lg lO0,000, \,, 
But in the five years, 1880-84, 3 59 pr P eer; OO0gs «55, 


And last year, 1884, there were cured 1,700,000 __,, 


The fishermen work at a much greater distance from the land than they did a 
quarter of a century ago; they have better boats, and a great increase of netting. 
More than one-half of last year’s catch of herrings, namely, 856,000 barrels, was 
landed within a radius of fifty miles of Aberdeen. Aberdeenshire had 760,000 
barrels, equal to an item of 89,000 tons in the general food supply, of which the 
first price was about eight guineas a ton, or one penny a pound. The same county 
supplies yearly some 45,000 cattle for conversion into beef, yielding about 15,000 
tons, or possibly a little more; worth, with the offal, between.1} and 1} million 
sterling. The entire beef-production of Scotland in a year is about 110,000 tons, 
and its value, at 75/. a ton, 8} millions; add 70,000 tens of mutton, at 6? millions, 
and the animal-food produce of our Scottish fields and pastures is 180,000 tons, 
and its value 15,000,000/. The produce of the sea, exclusive of shell-fish 
and salmon, is 275,000 tons, and its value about three millions. In other words, 
Scotland's contribution of fish to the general food supply is one-third more in 
quantity and four-fifths less in prime cost than its contribution of beef and 
mutton. 

Eleven-twelfths of last year’s herring supply were cured for export, and of the 
actual exports a still higher proportion went to Germany and Russia. <A great 
change has come over the course of the trade within the last fifty years, as is 
shown by the following table of exports :— 


1176 REPORT—1 885. 


Year To Ireland To the Continent To places out of Europe 
Barrels Barrels Barrels 

1834 149,000 56,000 67,000 

1859 69,000 203,000 748 

1884 35,000 1,149,000 960 


The abolition of slavery in the West Indies nearly put an end to the exports of 
Scotch herrings to ‘ places out of Europe’; and the potato famine in Ireland led to 
the introduction of Indian corn and a partial change of dietary there, and to a 
wholesale exodus of the herring-eating population. We have now only two 
customers of any importance—Germany and Russia; and it would be more satis- 
factory if we depended less upon one or two foreign markets. The fishermen 
number just 50,000, and possess a capital, in boats, nets and lines, of 1,750,000/. 
Those of the north-eastern coast especially are an industrious, saving, and com- 
paratively wealthy class. Many of them are owners of the houses in which they 
live. They have also substantial sums of money lodged with the banks. Having 
made some inquiry into this matter, he was enabled, through the courtesy of those 
connected with banking administration, to state that of the deposit receipts out- 
standing at twelve branches, in as many of the coast towns, 21 per cent., or more 
than a fifth of the whole number, are held by fishermen. Their accumulation of 
savings is thus very considerable, and it is being added to year by year. He might 
say that one of the branches is almost wholly supported by fishermen. Forty 
years ago the fishermen of Scotland and the Isle of Man numbered 61,000, and 
their property in boats, nets, and lines was estimated as worth 1: million, as com- 
pared with 1} million held by 50,000 Scotch fishermen now. ‘The average value 
for each man and boy employed was then 20/.; it is now 352. So far as the fisher- 
men are concerned, the Scotch herring fishery is a co-operative industry in which 
capitalists and labourers are united in the same persons. The adoption of steam- 
power for fishing vessels would save much inconvenience and loss, but would 
render necessary such an increase in the size ard cost of the vessels as would 
probably. to a large extent destroy the pleasant co-operative system at present in 
vogue. 

The system of engagements between curers and fishermen with its accom- 
paniment of a large prepayment months before the fishing begins and irres- 
pective of the quantity caught, was described, and its evils were pointed out. 
“‘The brand”—a Government certificate of the quantity and quality of the goods 
contained in a barrel of cured herrings—was also briefly discussed. It is liked in 
the trade as facilitating transactions, and being optional and supported by fees, it 
is not oppressive, while the dependence of the industry upon one or two foreign 
markets renders its suppression inexpedient. The great need is access to more 
markets. 


6. On the Pauperisation of Children by the Operation of the * Scotch 
Liducation Act, 1872.’ By Marrunw Bratr. 


The object of this paper was to set forth some of the evils arising from the 
operation of the ‘Scotch Education Act, 1872,’ inasmuch as it compels poor people 
who have never received ‘parochial aid ’ to pauperise their children. 

Section 49 of the Act requires parents who cannot pay for the education of their 
children to apply to the parochial board, that the fees may be paid out of the 
poor fund. 

Section 70 provides that poor parents who cannot pay their children’s fees, and 
refuse to take poor funds for the purpose, must go to prison for fourteen days. 

In the year 1874, the number of the children of non-pauper parents who had 
their fees paid in part or whole from the poor fund was 2,377, while in 1884 the 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. LEA 


number had risen to 15,545, an increase of nearly 700 per cent., the operation of the 
Act being to undermine the independence of poor Scotchmen. 

The remedy suggested is to increase the school rate one-fourth, also to increase 
the Government grant one-fourth, which would enable Scotch school boards to 
grant free education up to the fifth standard, at which stage children can leave 
school. 


WEDNESDAY, SEPTEMBER 16. 


‘The following Papers were read :-— 


1. Agricultural Investigation and Education. By THomas JAMIESON. 


Attention was drawn in this paper to the growing tendency to speak of 
‘ Agricultural Science,’ a term directly pointing to education in such parts of what 
is called ‘ pure science’ as can be usetully applied to aid the industry of agriculture. 
The term ‘ Agriculture Science’ is welcomed as indicating a better realisation of 
the relation of science to agriculture, but a warning is given against assisting in 
forming the notion that agriculture is itself a science, and a counsel to keep in view 
that it is merely an industry intended for money-making, with aims and interests 
different from those of science, a distinction which in the interest of investigation 
it is desirable to maintain. 

It is also sought in this paper to point out the present defective provision for 
agricultural education, and that much of the education that is provided is improper 
in consequence of its consisting of assumed and unproved matter. A practical 
suggestion is also made bearing both on investigation and education. In regard to 
agricultural investigation, serious obstacles to its advance are, on the one hand, the 
unknown or desultory support that is given to it, and on the other hand, the con- 
stant reminder that the aim is mercenary, in other words, that those among whom 
the investigator has to distribute the results of his work have no interest in it 
beyond its power of seeming to increase pecuniary gain. 

The agricultural investigator cannot altogether lose sight of the fact that his 
researches are carried out with but a sordid money-making object immediately in 
view; but there is an ultimate object of a higher kind which it is desirable to look 
to; otherwise evil consequences follow, such as the alienating from the work men 
who seek knowledge for the sake of knowledge, and who are best fitted for bringing 
out truths that may aid the industry. It is, therefore, thought important to 
emphasise and realise this higher aim. To do this one has merely to separate 
the agriculturist from the ultimate object altogether, and to regard him simply as a 
means to an end, the end being increased production, more food for all, less need to 
make life a toil, and hence more leisure tu enjoy life. It is perhaps correct to say 
that, but for the element of discontent, increased production means increased 
happiness, than which perhaps no higher aim can be held out. 

After investigation comes, almost of necessity, education. Agricultural educa- 
tion is properly education in agricultural science ; for although some contradiction 
may seem to be conveyed in adding that agricultural education should consist 
not only of what is learned in the laboratory or experimental field, but also of facts 
gained by actual experience or practice on the farm, yet the attendant qualification 
is important, namely, that neither the one nor the other should be taught from the 
educational chair till the one has verified the other. On the one hand, the teaching 
of the laboratory should be confirmed, both on the experimental field and on the 
farm ; on the other hand, the teachings of the farm, should be submitted to the test 
of the laboratory and experimental field before either should form a part of education. 
So that, whether the fact has originally been found on the farm or in the laboratory, 
it would thus pass into the domain of agricultural science, that is to say of proved 
matter, before it is taught. Agricultural education ought to consist of two parts. 

1. The unlearning of what is unsupported by scientific proof, and 


1178 REPORT—1885. 


2. The learning of what has been fully proved. 

In the first branch should be taught the custom to require proof of all that is 
asserted, and to become acquainted with what constitutes proof. In the second 
branch the student should go through— 

1, The course of the lecture-room, which is best adapted for lucid explanation, 
but he should be able to go from that place to 

2. The Laboratory, in order to confirm what is comprehended, to clear up what 
he has but hazily understood, and to correct what is erroneous. 

3. He should be able to go to an agricultural museum to see the proofs of 
former trials, illustrations in actual forms, the connection of one part of agriculture 
to another, and the systems and results of cognate work in other countries. 

4, He should have an opportunity of passing to the Experimental Station to 
realise the application to plants, to see the effect of different seasons, to compare 
the influence on different plants of the same treatment and the same season, and 
finally, to learn how to question nature. 

It might be added, ‘ Let him then go to a farm to acquire a knowledge of agri- 
cultural practice.’ But this is not agricultural education ; it is agricultural training, 
by which he becomes skilled in judging cattle, judging weather, in arranging work, 
in the drying and storing of crops, &c.; this training is both assisted and fore- 
armed, as it were, by the previous education ; by it the student is enabled, that is 
to say, both to comprehend what practice merely states, without being able to ex- 
plain, and to perceive errors in practice. 

It seems hardly credible that for this, the largest industry of Britain, there are 
only four places where the desired form of education can be obtained even in a 
partial way, while none of these places have any State aid. National support is 
given only in aid of a system of education, which, no doubt, has done much good 
directly and indirectly, but which partakes of the unproved form of education just 
alluded to. Now as agricultural investigation should precede education, one might 
say that the building has been raised by State aid before the foundation has been 
laid, and, consequently, that the work must become more unstable the longer the 
system is carried on, and that unless a radical change be made it may be ultimately 
expected to fall. The work has not yet proceeded so far, perhaps, as to make it 
yet too late to support it without much interference with the machinery now in 
action, and perhaps no more useful project could be suggested by which the 
Secretary of State for Scotland should inaugurate his high post than by being the 
pioneer in instituting a simple, sensible, well-planned, and not too extensive series of 
experiments, to be carried out in every county in Scotland under scientific super- 
vision. The results of such a scheme of experiments faithfully recorded, gathered 
up, and collectively considered by competent persons, would in the course of a few 
years be, one might say, certainly productive of results of high educational and high 
national value. Repetitions and extensions of such work would ultimately form 
the basis of true education that from its very truth would exert its force, and thus 
might be expected to find its way into the daily practice of agriculture—a cireum- 
stance which has not hitherto been attained, probably from the fact that the 
education has not been based on a proper foundation, 

The object of this short paper might be summed up in a few lines. It is 
intended to draw attention to certain features that probably are tacitly recognised, 
but are liable to be lost sight of, to the hurt of agriculture, to the hindrance of 
agricultural investigation, and to loss to the nation. 

1. That the aim of agricultural vestigation is increased knowledge and in- 
creased production, and as the latter must benefit the whole nation, this aim should 
suffice both to ensure national support and to attract and encourage inves- 
tigators. : 

2. That the aim of agriculture is pecuniary gain to those actually engaged in or 
having capital engaged in that industry, and that consequently to hinge investiga- 
tion as a dependent upon it is to expose investigation to a languishing existence or 
to starvation ; for, although the agriculturist, partaking of the réle of the scientist, 
may indeed on occasion extend to it sympathy, support, or gratitude, yet it is only 
when the point has been reached of clearly pointing out a road to gain that as 


oa 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 1179 


an agriculturist he can be expected to do his part, namely, of adopting and carry- 
ing into practice the results of investigation. 

3. That agricultural education should be proceeded by and directly based upon 
agricultural investigation. It should be limited to facts scientifically proved, and 
should be associated with means of individual verification. 

4, That education that does not proceed on this basis, and is not limited to 
that line, is likely to be pernicious, as likely to perpetuate error. 

5. That as Government has undertaken the support of agricultural education, 
it might be advised to place it on a sure foundation, before it is too late, by insti- 
tuting a well-considered scheme of agricultural investigation. 


2. Policy in Tazation.! By J. B. Greic. 


The circumstances of the time lend emphasis to thedemand for reform. Ag 
Britain declines to afford adventitious aid, so it is the more bound to avoid 
interposing adventitious obstacles to the home merchant and producer. Our 
boasted moderation and caution are apt to degenerate into a hesitant, inconclusive 
attitude that secures the evils of both competing principles, but the benefit of 
neither. 

The immense gains from a concentrated population are counteracted by a heavy 
debt, cumbrous officialism, and an immobility of habit, the antithesis of adaptability 
to circumstances. Budgets are so presented as not to admit of deliberation. While 
dense population is dependent on manufacturing industry, and that on a low wages 
rate, which in turn depends on the cost of subsistence, taxes on common articles of 
diet are still maintained. Coffee and tea are taxed, the former to one-fourth, the 
latter to the amount of the import cost. 

The mode of taxing real property exempts, in effect rewards, those who waste 
or imperfectly utilise valuable natural agents committed to their care, and provides 
an inducement to employ movable capital in competition with rather than in aid of 
native industries. 

Barriers are wantonly interposed to men pursuing with free choice certain 
bread-winning occupations, without any selection by the State of the fittest. 

Again, of an obnoxious class are the stamp duties, which make demands on the 
busy in time, temper, and money, and yield no commensurate gain to the State. In 
the United States no cheque, receipt, promissory note, transfer disposition, or other 
document is subject to a revenue stamp; in Britain 15] acts are so burdened, of 
which 63 are incident to trade, 31 to men following bread-winning occupations. 

I do not object to a tax on the profits of trade, but deem a tax on the operations 
at their inception, before it is known if they will result in profit or im loss, most 
objectionable. Inthe rudest times, the seed and the tools of the husbandman were 
passed, and the increase only tithed. On the operations of trade the cheque and 
receipt stamps bear, and most heavily, on the small trader. The objections urged 
against existing taxation may be briefly summarised, some imposts being open to our 
objection, and some objectionable on various grounds. 

a. Where the loss to the taxpayer exceeds the gain to the State. The loss is 
often in the form of inconvenience, unproductive study, delay, and worry. 

b. Where the cost of services or commodities is enhanced with the result of 
prejudicing the home trade in competition. 

c. Where the tendency is to discourage the employment of movable capital in 
this country and to induce its transference to competing countries. 

d. Where qualities useful to the State are discouraged, or those injurious to 
it fostered. 

e. Where it arbitrarily restricts the choice of occupation, or the diffusion of 
trade facilities. 

f. Where it induces the use of worse, instead of better, forms of instrument, or 
the disuse of proper documents and practices. 


1 Published in extenso by W. and W. Lindsay, Aberdeen, 


1180 REPORT—1885. 


g. Where it hinders the ready transfer of property or rights to those most capable 
of utilising them. 

h. Where it ignores the just relations to the State, and znter se of taxable 
‘subjects, and levies in flagrant disproportion to the benefits conferred. 

?, Where it negatives invention in mercantile and financial documents and 
hinders adaptation to altered circumstances. 


3. A new view of the Consequences of Unpunctuality in Railway Trains. 
By Cornetivs Watrorp, F.L.A., FSS. 


I do not purpose on this occasion to enter upon any general discussion of railway 
management, further than to say that for a full generation after the introduction of 
railway travelling, the most perverse ingenuity appears to have been brought to 
bear in order to prevent the masses of the people from enjoying its advantages. 
One of the natural consequences of this policy, beyond direct loss of revenue, seems 
to have been that when the masses began to travel, in many cases the railways 
were not in a position, as to terminal accommodation, &c., to convey them with 
punta ys not in a position, in fact, to perform the conditions of their own time- 
tables. 

By means of railways, merchants, traders, professional men, clerks, and others 
having their vocations in cities and towns, are enabled to reside in the suburbs; 
but this very fact presupposes the existence of facilities of transit to and from these 
surburban homes to their business locations. 

It is only when violent outbursts of complaint arise in the public press from 
time to time, that we obtain an insight into the method in which these supposed 
conditions are fulfilled, or rather are systematically disregarded. 

It was through the medium of recently published communications—and I shall 
only rely upon those authenticated with name and address—that I gathered the 
facts upon which I am about to comment. Persons living within a ten-mile 
radius of the southern half of the metropolis spoke of from ten to twenty-five 
minutes’ delay in performing the journey either way as a chronic state of 
irregularity. 

No doubt the landing of tens of thousands of persons daily between the hours of 
8.80 and 10.30 a.m., and conveying these away again between the hours of 4. and 6 
p-m.,is attended with enormous practical difficulties. But the railway companies 
undertake to do it, and readily enter into contracts to that end. 

On the strength of these assurances people remove their homes into the 
eountry, and build or buy houses, or enter into rental engagements extending over 
terms of years. In doing so under the present state of things, other perils than 
those involved in such financial engagements await them. These it is the especial 
object of this paper to comment upon. 

I will take for my particular text the case of a systematic delay of fifteen 
minutes on the journey each way—by no means a maximum instance of delay. 
That involves in the six working days of the week a loss of three hours of direct 
time, amounting in the year of 50 working weeks to 150 hours; equal to 25 
ordinary business days of six hours, or about equivalent to one-twelfth of the city 
working year. 

This 1s as applied to one individual. But take the average number of passengers 
in each of these city trains at 300—rather below than above the number carried on 
many lines—and see what the accumulated results in wasted time reaches. Then 
again, multiply this total by the two or three hundred trains running daily into 
London alone, and the aggregate waste of time can be readily computed into 
figures almost astounding. 

Now if it were simply a matter of waste of time, that could in some 
degree be taken into account and allowed for in estimating the advantages of a 
country as against a town residence; but the greater evils of these constantly- 
recurring delays show themselves in other forms. There is the mental anxiety of 
the morning in knowing that the business of the day is being thrown back by 


— 


wa 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION F. 118} 


every unnecessary minute's delay of the journey, and a consequent struggle on the 
part of the principals and staff during the day to overtake the time so lost in 
the journey. In the afternoon the jaded powers are again placed under irritating 
influences ; the garden exercise before dinner shorn of its proportions or altogether 
lost, or the evening meal delayed or hurried, with corresponding injury to the 
system. When I hear of men giving up country residence after a few years’ trial, 
on the plea perhaps that railway travelling daily does not suit them, I wonder how 
much of the trouble arises from these conditions of unpunctual time-keeping and 
its concomitant mischiefs. 

I have not desired in this short paper in any way to overstate the case as. 
against the railway companies. No good end would be served thereby. The 
question is one capable of some elucidation by every one concerned. It may be 
that it will be found by railway companies that the purely surburban traflic does 
not pay—does not or will not pay for the terminal expenditure necessary to render 
the stations of our great cities equal to the stress entailed during certain hours of 
the day. If this be so it had better be known, and the tramways—when the 
ignorance of vestries and local boards shall be ovyercome—may be found equal to 
the emergency. 

I commend some of the reflections here offered to the careful consideration of 
our friends of the medical faculty. For some years I travelled about eighty miles 
a day up and down to business by trains that were reasonably punctual, and found 
my health benefited rather than otherwise by the repose of the journey. .~ 


4, On the Industrial Remuneration Conference. 
By the Rev. W. Cunnincuam, B.D. 


This Conference was organised under the auspices of the Statistical Society to 
carry out the wishes of an Edinburgh gentleman, who had devoted 1,000/. to the 
purpose of discussing how far the existing system for the distribution of the pro- 
ducts of industry was satisfactory, and how far capable of improvement. Many 
practical suggestions of importance had been thrown out, but it was hardly worth 
while to commence a discussion of them in detail. It was more desirable to try 
and understand how a representative Conference of this kind regarded the studies 
to which Section F was devoted. While there was a very general wish that the 
Government should collect and publish statistics of wages and prices, this was 
sought for purely practical purposes, and was no evidence of interest in statistical 
science. This was further illustrated by the attitude assumed towards statistical 
inquiries about the progress of the working classes. There was evidently a strong 
feeling among artisans that the recent inquiries were inaccurate, as no sufficient 
account was taken of the intensity of labour, or of the irregularity of employ- 
ment. Besides being inaccurate, the inquiries seemed to many to be irrelevant ; 
they dealt with the individual as isolated, while many wanted to estimate the 
improvement in the lot of the labourer relatively to the progress of society, and 
held that when the question was put in this form, there had been no progress 
among the working classes, and that the attempts to measure it were worse than 
useless. The discussions at the Conference also showed that economic science was- 
little appreciated, and much remained to be done before the public could be 
convinced that there is such a science, or cultivated men could be found to agree- 
as to its nature. The Conference also proved that the land agitation had a wider 
hold than might have been expected, and gave indications of a similar agitation in 
the immediate future against credit and banking which might be very much more: 
difficult to oppose. 


1182 REPORT—1885. 


Section G.—MECHANICAL SCIENCE. 


PRESIDENT OF THE SEcTION—B. Baker, M.Inst.C.H, 


THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. 


The PrestpEnT delivered the following Address :— 


GrnrLEMEN,—Two hundred and fifty-seven Presidential Addresses of one kind and 
another have been delivered at meetings of the British Association since the 
members last mustered at Aberdeen. I need hardly say that the candid friend who 
informed me of this interesting fact most effectually dispelled any illusion I may 
have previously entertained as to the possibility of preparing an address of 
sufficient novelty and suggestiveness to be worthy of your attention, and I can 
only hope that any shortcomings will be dealt with leniently by you. One com- 
pensating advantage obviously belongs to my late appearance in the field—I have 
two hundred and fifty-seven models of style upon which to frame my address. 
My distinguished predecessor, Sir Frederick Bramwell, has a style of his own, in 
which wit and wisdom are combined in palatable proportions; but were I to 
attempt this style I should doubtless incur the rebuke which a dramatic critic of 
Charles the Second’s time administered to a too ambitious imitator of a popular 
favourite: ‘He’s got his fiddle, but not his hands to play on’t.’ I must search 
further back than last year, therefore, for a model of style, and the search reminds 
me that I labour under a double disadvantage: firstly, that only two addresses 
intervene between the present one and that of my partner, Mr. John Fowler, 
with whom I have so long had the honour of being associated, and whose 
professional experiences, as set forth in his address, are necessarily so largely 
identical with my own; and, secondly, that within the same period I have read 
before this Section two somewhat lengthy papers on the work which is at present 
chiefly engaging the attention of Mr. Fowler and myself—the great Forth bridge. 

Although, for the reasons aforesaid, I am conscious that my address may fail in 
novelty, I cannot honestly profess to feel a difficulty in preparing an address of 
some kind, for the subjects embraced under the head of ‘ Mechanical Science’ are 
so inexhaustible that even the youngest student might safely accept the responsi- 
bility of speaking for an hour on some of them. Professor Rankine, addressing 
you thirty years ago, said it was well understood that questions of pure or abstract 
mechanics form no part of the subjects dealt with in this Section. With character- 
istic clearness of conception and precision of language, he told you what the term 
«Mechanical Science’ meant, and, after thirty years’ interval, his words may be re- 
called with advantage to everyone proposing to prepare an address or report for 
this Section, ‘Mechanical Science,’ said Professor Rankine, ‘enables its possessor 
to plan a structure or machine for a given purpose without the necessity of copying 
some existent example; to compute the theoretical limit of the strength and 
stability of a structure or the efficiency of a machine of a particular kind; to 
ascertain how far an actual structure or machine fails to attain that limit, and to 
discover the cause and the remedy of such shortcoming; to determine to what 
extent, in laying down principles for practical use, it is advantageous for the sake 
of simplicity to deviate from the exactness required by pure science ; and to judge 


. = eee ie 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 1183 


how far an existing practical rule is founded on reason, how far on custom, and how 
far on error.’ ‘There is thus an ample text for many discourses; but, as I am not 
writing a treatise on engineering, but merely delivering a brief address, I will 
confine my attention at present to a particular case of the branch of mechanical 
science referred to in the last clause of Professor Rankine’s definition, and will ask 
you to consider how far the existing practical rules respecting the strength of 
metallic bridges are ‘ founded on reason, how far on custom, and how far on error.’ 

The first question obviously is, What are the rules adopted by engineers and 
Government departments at the present time ?—and it is one not easily answered. I 
have for some time past been receiving communications from leading Continental 
and American engineers, asking me what is my practice as regards the admissible 
intensity of stress on iron and steel bridges, and in replying I have invited similar 
communications from themselves. Asa result, I am able to say that at the present 
time absolute chaos prevails. The old foundations are shaken, and engineers have 
not come to any agreement respecting the rebuilding of the structure. The 
variance in the strength of existing bridges is such as to be apparent to the 
educated eye without any calculation. If the wheels of a miniature brougham 
were fitted to a heavy cart, the incident would excite the derision even of our 
street boys, and yet equal want of reason and method is to be found in hundreds 
of bridges in all countries. It is an open secret that nearly all the large railway 
companies are strengthening their bridges, and necessarily so, for I could cite cases 
where the working stress on the iron has exceeded by 250 per cent. that considered 
admissible by leading American and German bridge builders in similar structures. 

In the case of old bridges the variance in strength is often partly due to errors 
in hypothesis and miscalculation of stresses. In the present day engineers of all 
countries are in accord as to the principles of estimating the magnitude of the 
stresses on the different members of a structure, but not so in proportioning the 
members to resist those stresses. The practical result is that a bridge which 
would be passed by the English Board of Trade would require to be strengthened 
5 per cent. in some parts and 60 per cent. in others before it would be accepted by 
the German Government or by any of the leading railway companies in America. 
This undesirable state of affairs arises from the fact that in our ownand some other 
countries many engineers still persistently ignore the fact that a bar of iron may 
be broken in two ways—namely, by the single application of a heavy stress or by 
the repeated application of a comparatively light stress. An athlete’s muscles haye 
often been likened to a bar of iron, but, if ‘ fatigue’ be in question, the simile is 
very wide of the truth. Intermittent action—the alternative pull and thrust of the 
rower, or of the labourer turning a winch—is what the muscle likes and the bar of 
iron abhors. Troopers dismount to rest their horses, but to relieve a bar of iron tem- 
porarily of load only serves to fatigue it. Half a century ago Braithwaite correctly 
attributed the failure of some girders, carrying a large brewery vat, to the vessel 
being sometimes full and sometimes empty, the repeated deflection, although im- 
perceptibly slow and wholly free from vibration, deteriorating the metal, until, in 
the course of years, the girders broke. These girders were of cast iron; but it was 
equally well known that wrought iron was similarly affected, for in 1842 Nasmyth 
called the attention of this Section to the fact that the ‘alternate strain’ in axles 
rendered them weak and brittle, and suggested annealing as a remedy, he haying 
found that an axle which would snap with one blow when worn would bear 
eighteen blows when new or after being annealed. 

So important a matter as the action of intermittent stresses could not escape 
the attention of the Royal Commissioners appointed in 1849 to consider the appli- 
cation of iron to railway structures, and some significant and sufficiently conclusive 
experiments were made by Captain Douglas Galton and others. Cast-iron bars 
3 inches square and 13 feet 6 inches span between the supports were deflected, both 
by the slow action of a cam and the percussive action of a swinging pendulum 
weight. When the deflection was that due to one-third of the breaking 
weight, about 50,000 successive bendings by the cam broke one of the bars, and 
about 1,000 blows from the pendulum another. When the deflection was increased 
from one-third to one-half, about 500 applications of the cam, and 100 blows, 


1184 REPORT—1885. 


sufficed to rupture two of the specimens. Slow-moving weights on bars and on a 
small wrought-iron box girder gave analogcus results ; and the deduction drawn by 
the experimenters at the time was that ‘iron bars scarcely bear the reiterated 
application of one-third the breaking weight without injury, hence the prudence 
of always making beams capable of bearing six times the greatest weight that 
could be laid upon them.’ 

Although these experiments were entirely confirmatory of all previous expe- 
rience, they would appear to have little influenced the practice of engineers, since 
Fairbairn, more than ten years later, in a communication to this Section, said that 
opinions were still much divided upon the question whether the continuous change 
of load which many wrought-iron structures undergo has any permanent effect upon 
their ultimate powers of resistance. To assist in settling the question he com- 
municated to the Association the results of some experiments carried out by himself 
and Professor Unwin on a little riveted ‘girder 20 feet span and 16 inches deep. 
Once more the same important but disregarded facts were enforced on the attention 
of engineers. About 5,000 applications of a load equal to four-tenths of the 
calculated breaking load fractured the beam with the small ultimate deflection of 
three-eighths of an inch, and subsequently, when repaired, the beam broke with 
one-third of the load and a deflection of but a quarter of an inch, which sufficiently 
indicated how small a margin the factor of safety of four, then currently adopted, 
allowed for defective manufacture, inferior material, and errors in calculation. 
Still nothing was done, and the general practice of engineers and the Board of 
Trade regulations continued unaltered. 

Soon after the introduction of wrought-iron bridges on railways, the testimony 
of practical working was added to that of experiments. In 1848 several girder 
bridges of unduly light proportions were erected in America, and one of 66 feet 
span broke down under the action of the rolling load in the same manner as Fair- 
bairn’s little experimental girder. Again, in early American timber bridges the 
vertical tie-rods were often subject to stresses oscillating between one ton and ten 
tons per square inch and upwards. Many of these broke, as did also the suspension 
bolts in platforms subjected to similar stresses. In my own experience, dozens of 
broken flange-plates and angle-bars, and hundreds of sheared rivets, have been the 
silent witnesses of the destructive action of a live load. Like evidence was afforded 
by early-constructed iron ships deficient in girder strength. Under the alternating 
stresses due to the action of the waves weaknesses not at first apparent would, in 
the course of time, be developed, and additional strength, in the way of stringers 
and otherwise, become imperative. 

If none of the preceding evidence had been forthcoming, the results of the 
historical series of experiments carried out by Wohler for the Prussian Ministry of 
Commerce would alone be conclusive. For the first time a truly scientific method 
of investigation was followed, and an attempt was made to determine the laws 
governing the already proved destructive action of intermittent stresses. In 
previous experiments the bar or girder was alternately fully loaded and wholly 
relieved of load. Wohler was not satisfied with this, but tested also the result of 
a partial relief of load. The striking fact was soon evidenced, on testing specimens 
under varying tensions, that the amount of the variation was as necessary to be 
considered as that of the maximum stress. Thus, an iron bar having a tensile 
strength of 24 tons per square inch broke with about 100,000 applications of a 
stress varying from nz to 21 tons, but resisted 4,000,000 applications of the 21 tons 
when the minimum stress was varied from nl to 11} tons. The alternations of 
stress in the case of some test pieces numbered no less than 132,000,000; and too 
much credit cannot be bestowed by engineers upon Wohler for the ingenuity and 
patience which characterised his researches. As a result, it is proved beyond all 
further question that any bar or beam of cast iron, wrought iron, or steel may be 
fractured by the continued repetition of comparatively small stresses, and that, as the 
differences of stress increase, themaximum stress capable of being sustained diminishes. 

Various formule based upon the preceding experiments have been proposed for 
the determination of the proper sectional area of the members of metallic structures. 
These formule differ in some essential respects, and doubtless many experiments 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 1185 


are still required before any universally accepted rules can be laiddown. Probably 
at the present time the engineers who have given the most attention to the subject 
are fairly in accord in holding that the admissible stress per square inch in a 
wrought-iron girder subject to a steady dead load would be one and a half times 
as great as that in a girder subject to a wholly live load, and three times that 
allowable in members subject to alternate tensile and compressive stresses of equal 
intensity, such as the piston-rod of a steam-engine or the central web bracing of a 
lattice girder. If the alternations of stress to be guarded against are not assumably 
infinite in number, but only occasional—as in wind bracing for hurricane pres- 
sures, or in a vessel amongst exceptionally high waves—then the aforesaid ratio 
of 3, 2, and 1 would not apply, but would more nearly approach the ratios 6, 5, 
and 4. 

Hundreds of existing railway bridges, which carry twenty trains a day with 
perfect safety, would break down quickly under twenty trains per hour. This 
fact was forced on my attention nearly twenty years ago by the fracture of a 
number of iron girders of ordinary strength under a five-minute train service. 
Similarly, when in New York last year I noticed, in the case of some hundreds of 
girders on the ‘ Elevated Railway,’ that the alternate thrust and pull on the central 
diagonals from trains passing every two or three minutes had developed weaknesses 
which necessitated the bars being replaced by stronger ones after a very short 
service. Somewhat the same thing had to be done recently in this country with a 
bridge over the Trent, but the train service being small the life of the bars was 
measured by years instead of months. If ships were always amongst great waves 
the number going to the bottom would be largely increased, for, according to 
Mr. John, late of Lloyd’s, ‘many large merchant steamers afloat are so deficient in 
longitudinal strength that they are liable under certain conditions of sea to be 
strained in the upper works to a tension of from 8 to 9 tons per square inch, and 
to a compression of from 6 to 7 tons’—stresses which the experiments already 
referred to prove would cause failure after a definite number of repetitions. 
Similarly, on taking ground or being dry-docked with a heavy cargo on board, it 
has been shown that vessels are liable to stresses of over 1] tons per square inch 
on the reyerse frames, but no permanent injury results from such high stresses, 
because the number of repetitions is necessarily very limited. 

It appears natural enough to everyone that a piece even of the toughest wire 
should a quickly broken if bent backward and forward to a sharp angle; but, 
perhaps, only to locomotive and marine engineers does it appear equally natural 
that the same result would follow in time if the bending were so small as to be 
quite imperceptible to the eye. A locomotive crank axle bends but 3, in., and a 
straight driving axle the still smaller amount of + in., under the heaviest bending 
stresses to which they are subject, and yet their life is limited. During the year 
1883 one iron axle in fifty broke in running, and one in fifteen was renewed in 
consequence of defects. Taking iron and steel axles together, the number then in 
use on the railways of the United Kingdom was 14,848, and of these, 911 required 
renewal during the year. Similarly, during the past three years no less than 228 
ocean steamers were disabled by broken shafts, the average safe life of which is 
said to be about three or four years. In other words, experience has proved that 
a very moderate stress alternating from tension to compression, if repeated about 
one hundred million times, will cause fracture as surely as a sharp bending to an 
angle repeated perhaps only ten times. 

I have myself made many experiments with a view to elucidate the laws 
affecting the strength of iron- and steel-work subject to frequent alternations of 
stress. Perhaps the most suggestive series was one in which I subjected flat steel 
bars about three feet long, in pairs, to repeated bendings until one bar broke, and 
then testing the surviving bar under direct tensile and compression stresses to 
ascertain to what extent the metal had deteriorated. It had come under my 
notice, as a practical engineer, that if the compression members of a structure were 
unduly weak the fact became quickly evident, perhaps under the test load ; but if, 
on the other hand, the tension members were weak, no evidence might appear of 
the fact until frequent repetition of stresses during several years had caused them 


1885. 4G 


1186 REPORT —1885. 


to fracture without any measurable elongation of the metal. In the case of crank- 
shafts, also, the fracture is invariably due to a tearing and not a crushing action. 
It appeared to me, therefore, eminently probably that repetition of stresses might 
be far more prejudicial to tension than to compression members, and, if so, the fact 
ought to be taken account of in proportioning a structure. 

This proved to be the case in my experiments. For example, the companion 
bars to those which had broken with 18,000 reversals of a stress less than half the 
original breaking weight behaved, when tested as columns thirty diameters in 
length, precisely the same as similar bars which had done no work at all, whereas 
when tested in tension the elongation was reduced from the original 25 per cent. to 
2:5 per cent., and the fracture appeared to indicate that the bars had been made of 
three different kinds of steel imperfectly welded together. With a stress reduced 
by one-fourth the number of bendings required to break the bars was increased to 
1,200,000. In this instance the calculated maximum working stress on the extreme 
fibres was 43 per cent. of the direct ultimate tensile resistance of the steel, and 
about 30 per cent. of the stress the bar was capable of sustaining as a beam under 
the single application of a load. Of course, the bars failed by tension, and the 
extreme fibres had thus deteriorated as regards tensile stresses to the extent 
indicated by the above percentages. Tested as a column, however, the injury the 
bar had received from the 1,200,000 bendings was inappreciable. The ductility 
was of course very largely reduced, but ductility is a quality of comparatively little 
importance when a material is in compression. There is no ductility in the slender 
Gothic stone columns of our cathedrals, which, though heavily stressed, have carried 
their loads for centuries. As I found repeated bendings raised the limit of elasti- 
city, I rather anticipated finding ar increased resistance from this cause in long 
columns. This did not prove to be the case, nor did I find any difference in short 
columns four diameters in length. 

In addition to the preceding experiments with rectangular bars, I have tested 
the endurance of many revolving shafts of cast iron, wrought iron, and steel, with 
similar results. About 5,000 reversals of a stress equal to one-half the static 
breaking weight sufficed generally to cause the snapping of a shaft of any of the 
above materials. When the stress was reduced and the number of applications 
increased, I found the relative endurance of solid beams to be more nearly pro- 
portional to the tensile strength of the metal than to the breaking weight of the 
beam, a distinction of great importance where axles, springs, and similar things 
are concerned. Many of my experiments were singularly suggestive. Thus, it 
was instructive to see a bar of cast iron loaded with a weight which, according to 
Fairbairn’s experiments, it should have carried for a long series of years, broken in 
two minutes when set gently rotating. Also to find a bar of the finest mild steel 
so changed in constitution by some months of rotation as to offer no advantages 
either in strength or toughness over a new cast-iron bar of the same section. 

Although, as already stated, many more experiments are required before uni- 
versally acceptable rules can be laid down, I have thoroughly convinced myself 
that, where stresses of varying intensity occur, tension and compression members 
should be treated on an entirely different basis. If, in the case of a tension 
member, the sectional area be increased 50 per cent. because the stress, instead of 
being constant, ranges from nz/ to the maximum, then I think 20 per cent. increase 
would be a liberal allowance in the case of a compression member. I have also 
satisfied myself that if a metallic railway bridge is to be built at a minimum first 
cost, and be free from all future charges for structural maintenance, it is essential 
to vary the working stress upon the metal within very wide limits, regard being 
had not merely to the effect of intermittent stresses, but also to the relative limits 
of elasticity in tension and compression members even under a steady load. 

Why an origivally strong and ductile metal should become weak and brittle 
under the frequent repetition of a moderate stress has not yet been explained. 
Lord Bacon touched upon the subject two or three centuries ago, but you may 
consider his explanation not wholly satisfactory. He said, ‘Of bodies, some are 
fragile, and some are tough and not fragile. Of fragility, the cause is an impotency 
to be extended, and the cause of this inaptness is the small quantity of spirits.’ I 


Ce 


ae 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 1187 


-am sorry to have no better explanation to offer, but whatever may be the immediate 
-cause of fragility, no doubt exists that it is induced in metals by frequent bendings, 
‘such as a railway bridge undergoes. This fact, however, is not recognised in our 
Board of Trade regulations, which remain as they were in the dark ages, as do 
those of the Ministry of Public Works of France and other countries. With us it 
is simply provided that the stress on an iron bridge must not exceed 5 tons per 
square inch on the effective section of the metal. In France it is still worse, as 
the limiting stress of rather under 4 tons per square inch is estimated upon the 
gross section, regardless of the extent to which the plates may be perforated by 
rivet holes. In neither case is any regard had in the rules to intermittent stresses 
or the flexure of compression members. In Austria the regulations make a small 
provision for these elements; and American specifications make a large one, the 
limiting stresses, instead of being constant at 5 tons, as with us, ranging from about 
24 tons to 63 tons per square inch, according to circumstances. It is hardly 
necessary that I should say more to justify my statement that, as regards the 
admissible intensity of stress on metallic bridges, absolute chaos prevails. 
Engineers must remember that if satisfactory rules are to be framed, they, and 
not Governmental departments, must take the initiative. Informer days the British 
Association did much to direct the attention of engineers to this important matter, 
but, so far as I know, the subject has been dropped for the past twenty years, and I 
have ventured, therefore, to bring it before you again in some detail. Weare here 
avowedly for the advancement of science, and I have not been deterred by the dry- 
ness of the subject from soliciting your attention to a branch of science which is 


‘sadly in need of advancement. 


Had I been addressing a less scientific audience, I might have been tempted 
rather to boast of the achievements of engineers than to point out their shortcom- 
ings. The progress in many branches of mechanical science during the past fifty 
years has exceeded the anticipation of the most far-seeing. Fifty years ago the 
chairman of the Stockton and Darlington Railway, when asked by a Parliamentary 


committee if he thought any further improvements would be possible on railways, 


replied that he understood in future all new railways would have a high earth- 
work bank on each side to prevent engines toppling over the embankments and to 
-arrest hot ashes, which continually set fire to neighbouring stacks, but in other re- 
spects he appeared to think perfection was attained. Shortly before the introduc- 


‘tion of locomotives it was also thought perfection was attained when low trucks 


were attached to the trains to carry the horses over the portions of the line where 


descending grades prevailed, and all the newspapers announced, with a great 


flourish of trumpets, that a year’s experience showed the saving in horseflesh to be 
fully 35 per cent. 
Although these views seem childlike enough from our present standpoint, I 


‘have no doubt that as able and enterprising engineers existed prior to the age of 
‘steam and steel as exist now, and their work was as beneficial to mankind, though 
different in direction. In the important matter of water supply to towns, indeed, 


I doubt whether, having reference to facility of execution, even greater works were 
not done 2,000 years ago than now. Herodotus speaks of a tunnel 8 ft. square, 
and nearly a mile long, driven through a mountain in order to supply the city of 
Samos with water; and his statement, though long doubted, was verified in 1882 


‘through the abbot of a neighbouring cloister accidentally unearthing some stone 


slabs. The German Archeological Society sent out Ernst Fabricius to make a 
complete survey of the work and the record reads like that of a modern engineer- 
ing undertaking. Thus, from a covered reservoir in the hills proceeded an arched 
conduit about 1,000 yards long, partly driven as a tunnel and partly executed on 
the ‘cut and cover’ system adopted on the London underground railway. The 
tunnel proper, more than 1,100 yards in length, was hewn by hammer and ¢hisel 
‘through the solid limestone rock. It was driven from the two ends like the great 
Alpine tunnels, without intermediate shafts, and the engineers of 2,400 years ago 
might well be congratulated for getting only some dozen feet out of level and little 
more out of line. From the lower end of the tunnel branches were constructed to 
supply the city mains and fountains, and the explorers found ventilating shafts and 
4a2 


1188 REPORT— 18809. 


side entrances, earthenware socket pipes with cement joints, and other interesting 
details connected with the water supply of towns. 

In the matter of masonry bridges, also, as great works were undertaken some 
centuries ago as in recent times. Sir John Rennie stated, in his presidential 
address at the Institution of Civil Engineers, that the bridge across the Dee at 
Chester was the ‘largest stone arch om record.” That is not so. The Dee bridge- 
consists of a single segmental arch 200 ft. span and 42 ft. rise; but across the 
Adda, in Northern Italy, was built, in the year 1577—more than 500 years 
a similar segmental arch bridge of no less than 257 ft. span and 68 ft. rise, ae 
rario not long since published an account of this, for the period, colossal work, 
from which it would appear that its lite was but 39 years, the bridge having been 
destroyed for military reasons on December 21, 1416. I believe our American — 
cousins claim to have built the biggest existing stone arch bridge in the world, that 
across the Cabin Johns Creek, but the span, after all, is only 215 ft., or ten per cent. 
smaller than the 500-year-old bridge. n timber bridges, doubtless, the Americans. 
will ever head the list, for the bridge of 340 ft. span built across the Schuylkill 
three-quarters of a century ago will probably never be surpassed. Our ancestors 
were splendid workers in stone and timber, and, if they had been in possession of 
an unlimited supply of iron and steel, I fear there would have been little left for 
modern bridge builders to originate. 

The labours of the present generation of engineers are lightened beyond all 
estimate by labour-saving appliances. To prove how much the world is indebted, 
to students of this branch of mechanical science, and how rapid is the development 
of a really good mechanical notion, it is only necessary to refer to the numerous. 
hydraulic appliances of the kind first introduced forty years ago by a distinguished 
past-President, Sir W. G. Armstrong. Addressing you in 1854, Sir William Arm- 
strong explained that the object he had in view from the first was ‘ to provide, in 
substitution of manual labour, a method of working a multiplicity of machines, in-- 
termittent in their action and extending over a large area, by means of transmitted 
power, produced by a steam-engine and accumulated at one central point.’ The 
number of cases in which this method of working is a desideratum, or even indis-- 
pensable, would appear to be limitless. I should be sorry indeed to have anything 
to do with building the Forth bridge if hydraulic po Bere were not at hand to. 
do a giant’s work. Let me shortly deseribe to you what we are doing there at the- 
present time. More than 42,000 tons of steel plates and bars have to be bent, 
planed, drilled, and riveted together before or after erection, and hydraulic 
appliances are used throughout. The plates are handled in the shops by numerous 
little hydraulic cranes of special design, without any complication of rey = 
sheaves, the whole arm being raised with the load by a 4-in. direct-acting ram of” 
6 ft. stroke. A total length of no less than 60 mules of steel plates, ing in 
thickness from 1? in. to $ in., have to be bent to radii of from 6 ft. to 9 in., which® 
is done in heavy cast-iron dies squeezed together by four rams of 24 in. in diameter, . 
and the same stroke. With the ordinary working pressure of 1,000 Ibs. per square 
inch, the power of the press is thus about 1,750 tons. Some 3,000 pieces, shaped 
like the lid of a box, 15 in. by 12 in. wide, with a 3-in. deep rim all round, were 
required to be made of }-in. steel plate, and this was easily effected in two heats- 
by a couple of strokes of a 14-in. ram. In numberless other instances steady 
hydraulic pressure has been substituted by Mr. Arrol, cur able contractor, for the- 
usnal eutting and welding under the blacksmith’s hammer. 

Hydraulic appli are also an indispensable part of the scheme for erecting” 
the great 1,700 ft. spans. Massive girders will be put together at a low level, 
and be hoisted as high as the top of St. Paul's Cathedral by hydraulic power. 
Continuous girders, nearly a third of a mile in length, will be similarly raised. 
Not only the girders, but workmen, their sheds, cranes, and appliances, will be~ 
carried up steadily and imperceptibly as the work of erection proceeds, on plat- 
forms weighing in some instances more than 1,000 tons. It is hardly necessary to 
say that every rivet in the bridge will be closed up by hydraulic power, 
machines being in many instances of novel design, ially adapted to the work. 
Thus the bed-plates, which in ordinary bridges are simple castings, in the 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 1189 


bridge are necessarily built up of numerous steel plates, the size of each bed-plate 
being 37 ft. long by 17 ft. 6in, wide. To grip together the 47 separate sates 
into a solid mass 3,800 rivets 1} in. in diameter with countersunk heads on both 
sides are required, and, remembering that the least dimension of the bed-plate is 
17 ft. Gin., it will be seen the ordinary ‘gap’-riveter would not be applicable. 
A special machine was therefore designed by Mr. Arrol, consisting of a pair of 
irders and a pair of rams, between which the bed-plate to be riveted together 
4. A double ram machine had for like reasons to be devised for riveting up 
the great tubular strute of the bridge. 
ot merely in the superstructure, but in the construction of the foundations, 
were hydraulic appliances of a novel character indispensable at the Forth bridge. 
Huge wrought-iron caissons or cylinders, 70 ft. diameter and 72 ft. high, were 
taken up and set down as readily as a man would handle a bucket. In sinking 
these caissons through the mud and clay of the Forth compressed air was used. 
When the boulder clay was reached the labour of excavating the extremely hard 
and tenacious materia) in the compressed air-chamber proved too exhausting, 
ickaxes were of little avail, and the Italian labourers who were chiefly employed 
lost heart over the job altogether. But a giant power was at hand, and only 
required tools fit for the work. Spades with hydraulic rams in the hollow handles 
were made, and, with the roof of the compressed air-chamber to thrust against, 
‘the workmen had merely to hold the handle vertically, turn a little tap, and down 
went the spade with a force of three tons into the hitherto impracticable clay as — 
sweetly as a knife into butter. Probably, when addressing you thirty years ago, 
Sir William Armstrong never anticipated that a number of hydraulic spades would 
be digging away in an electrically lighted chamber or diving bell, 70 ft. diameter 
and 7 ft, high, 90 ft. below the waves of the sea; but still the spades come strictly 
within the definition of the class of machines, intermittent in their action and 
extending over a large area, which it was his aim to introduce. It would be 
possible, indeed, with the appliances at the Forth bridge, to arrange that the simple 
ing of a valve should start digging at the bottom of the sea, riveting at a 
height of nearly 400 ft. above the sea, and all the multifarious operations of bend- 
ing, forging; and hoisting, extending over a site a mile and a half in length. 
It would not only be impossible to build a Forth bridge, but it would be 
equally impossible to fight a modern ironclad without the aid of hydraulic 
al Most of the Presidents of this Section have referred in the course of 
their addresses to our Navy, and certainly the subject is a tempting one, for the 
rogress of mechanical science in recent years ooald not be better illustrated than 
a description of the innumerable appliances which go to the making and work- 
‘ing of a modern ironclad. Let me quote a single passage from a pamphlet by a 
_ naval officer, which caused a great stir a few years before the Crimean war, that I 
may recall to your minds what was the speed and what the armament of our fleet 
at that comparatively recent period. ‘Conceive,’ said Captain Plunkett, R.N., ‘a 
British and French fleet issuing simultaneously from Spithead and Cherbourg; 
_ seven hours’ steaming at the rate of six miles an hour will bring them together. 
_ Asingle glance at the heavy and well-appointed tiers of a line-of-battle ship’s guns 
will satisfy anyone that they are no toys to be placed in the hande of novices. 
Formidable batteries of the heaviest ordnance are there—not a gun under a 
$2-pounder, and many 68-pounder shell guns.’ In little more than a quarter of a 
century engineers have changed all that, and advanced to 20-knot vessels and 120- 
ton guns. Archwologists tell us that our predecessors in mechanical science, of 
_ the Stone Age, were apparently a thousand or more years in finding out that the 
_ best way of fitting an axe was to slip the handle through the axe and not the axe 
through the handle. Engineers of the present day may be excused, therefore, for 
occasionally illustrating the rapidity of the advance of their science by contrasting 
the ships of thirty years ago with our modern ironclads. 
The latest type of battle-ship weighs, fully equipped, about 10,000 tons. There 
are about 3,400 tons of steel in her hull, apart from armour, which with its backing 
will weigh a further 2,800 tons. The machinery, largely of steel, is about 1,400 
tons; the armament, including ammunition, 1,100 tons; the coals, 1,100 tons; and 


1190 REPORT—1885. 


general equipment, 270 tons. A detailed description bristles with the word 
‘steel,’ and enthusiastic newspaper reporters sent down to Chatham Dockyard can 
no more ‘spin out their copy’ with Cowper's oft-quoted lines on the ‘ Launch of a 
First-Rate : ’— 
. ‘Giant oaks of bold expansion 
O’er seven hundred acres fell, 
All to build thy noble mansion, 
Where our hearts of oak do dwell.’ 


A latter-day poet might boast of 700 acres being exhausted by a single vessel, but 
it would be a coal-field and not a forest. Accepting Professor Phillips’s estimate of 
the average rate of formation of coal, it may be shown that a hard-worked American 
liner during her lifetime burns as much coal as would be produced on the area of” 
700 acres in a period of 2,000 years. We are thus with our steel ships using up 
our primeval forests at a far more extravagant rate than that at which our imme-- 
diate forefathers cleared the oak forests. Coal is the great stimulant of the modern 
engineer. Pope Pius the Second has left on record an expression of the astonish- 
ment he felt when visiting Scotland, in the fifteenth century, on seeing poor people 
in rags begging at church doors, and receiving for alms pieces of black stone, with 
which they went away contented. To such early familiarity with coal may, how- 
ever, be due the fact that Scotland has ever led the way in the development of the 
steam-engine, and that at the date of the battle of Waterloo she had built and 
registered seven steam vessels, whilst England could boast of none. 

Probably none but a poet or a painter would wish for a return to our old oak 
sailing ships. Some few people still entertain the illusion that the picturesque old 
tubs were better sea boats than our razor-ended steamers ; but, speaking of them in 
1846, Admiral Napier said, ‘The ships look very charmingly in harbour, but to 
judge of them properly you should see them in a gale of wind, when it would be 
found they would roll 45° leeward and 43° windward.’ Even our first ironclads. 
were not so bad as that, for although, according to the T%mes, when the squadron 
was on trial in the Bay of Biscay, the ships rocked wildly to the rising swell and. 
the sea broke in great hills of surf, yet the maximum roll signalled by the worst 
roller of the lot—the ‘Lord Warden ’—was but 35° leeward and 27° windward—a 
total range of 62°, as compared with 88° in the old line-of-battle ships. 

We have heard much about the state of the Navy during the past twelve months. 
A dip into the publications of the British Association—which in this, as in other 
respects, afford a fair indication of what is uppermost in people's minds—will show 
that similar discussions have recurred periodically, at any rate, since 1830. If we 
consult Hansard, as I had occasion to do recently, we find the same remark applies. 
to periods long antecedent to 1880. 

It amounts almost to a religious conviction in the mind of a Briton that Pro- 
vidence will not be on his side unless his fleet is at least equal to that of France: 
and Russia united. What would be said now of a minister who met an attack on 
the administration of the Navy by demonstrating that we had half as many line-of- 
battle ships as Russia; and yet that was literally done less than 50 years ago.. 
Speaking in the House of Commons, on March 4, 1839, the Secretary of the 
Admiralty said: ‘ For the last six months unceasing attacks have been made upon 
our naval administration, describing our Navy as in a state of the utmost decrepi- 
tude, and Tory papers say that shameful reductions have been made in the Navy 
by the present Government. It will be a consolation to my honourable friends to 
be assured that we have for years lived unharmed through dangers as great as that 
to which we are now exposed. In 1817 we had 15 sail of the line in commission, 
and Russia had 30; in 1823 we had 12, and Russia 37; in 1832 we had 11, and 
Russia 86 ; and now we have 20, and the Russians 43, having raised our ships to 
nearly half the number of those of Russia.’ 

Now as to our guns. The past twelve months is by no means the first occasion — 
on which the armament of our Navy has been attacked. Three years subsequent to 
the speech of the Secretary of the Admiralty just referred to, Sir Charles Napier 
made a statement from his place in Parliament of so extraordinary a character that 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 1191 


I make no apology for quoting his exact words, as a reminder of the past and a 
warning for the future: ‘At the end of the last war the guns were in such a bad 
state that, when fired, they would scarcely hit an enemy, and during the latter 
period of the American war a secret order was issued that British ships of war 
should not engage American frigates, because the former were in such an inefficient 
state.’ As for himself, said the plain-spoken old admiral, when he got the order he 
put it in ‘the only place fit to receive it, the quarter-gallery.’ 

Happily, from our insular position, the change which the progress of mechanical 
science has wrought in military operations has not been brought home to the people 
of this country in the same vivid manner that it has to the people of the continents 
of Europe and America. In the American war, the Franco-German war, and the 

-Russo-Turkish war the construction and equipment of railway works by engineers 
was an essential part of all great movements. The Russians, in 1877, constructed 
a railway from Bender to Galatz, 189 miles in length, in 58 working days, or at the 
rate of more than three miles per day. Altogether, in the three latter months of 
that year they laid out and built about 240 miles of railway, and purchased and 
stocked the line with 110 locomotives and 2,200 wagons. They also built 
numerous trestle bridges, together with an opening bridge and a ferry across the 
Danube. 

We have had recent experiences of the slowness of primitive modes of transport 
in the tedious advance of Lord Wolseley’s handful of men in whale-boats up the 
Nile. It was the intention of the late Khedive, partly from military and partly 
from commercial considerations, to construct a railway exactly on the line of 
advance subsequently followed by Wolseley. My partner, Mr. Fowler, had the 
railway set out in 1873, and the works were shortly after commenced. The total 
length was 550 miles, and the estimated cost, including rolling-stock and repairing- 
shops, was 4,000,000/. Owing to financial difficulties the works were abandoned, 
but the 64 miles constructed by Mr. Fowler, and the recent extensions of the same 
by the military, proved of great service to the expedition, even some of the steam 
launches being taken by railway to save delays at the cataracts. 

During the siege of Paris the German forces were dependent upon supplies 
drawn from their base, and the army requirements were fully met by one line of 
railway running twelve to fourteen trains per day. Military authorities state that 
a train load of about 250 tons is equal to two days’ rations and corn for an army 
corps of 37,000 men and 10,000 horses. The military operations in Egypt have 
proved that, even in the heart of Africa, railways, steamboats, electric lights, 
machine guns, and other offspring of mechanical science, are essential ingredients of 
success. 

Members of this Section, who visited the United States last year not for the first 
time, could hardly have failed to notice that American and European engineering 
practice are gradually presenting fewer points of difference. arly American iron 
railway bridges were little more than the ordinary type of timber bridge done into 
iron, and the characteristic features, therefore, were great depth of truss, forged 
links, pins, screw-bolts, round or rectangular struts, cast-iron junction pieces, and, 
in brief, an assemblage of a number of independent members more or less securely 
bolted together, and not, as in European bridges, a solidly riveted mass of plates 
and angle-bars. At the present moment the typical American bridge is distinctly 
derived from the grafting of German practice on the original parent stock. Pin 
connections are still generally used in bridges of any size, but the top members and 
connections are more European than American in construction, whilst for girders 
of moderate span, such as those on the many miles of elevated railway in New 
York, riveted girders of purely European type are admittedly the cheapest and 
most durable. From my conversations with leading American bridge builders, I 
am satisfied that their future practice and our own will approach still more nearly. 
We should never think of building another Victoria tubular bridge across the St. 
Lawrence, or repeat the design of the fallen Tay bridge, nor would they again 
imitate in iron an old timber bridge, or repeat the design of the fallen Ashtabula 
bridge. In one respect the practice in America tends to the production of better 
and cheaper bridges than does our own practice, and it is this: each of the great 


1192 REPORT—1885. 


bridge-building firms adopts by preference a particular type design, and the works 
are laid out to produce bridges of this kind. It is an old adage that practice 
makes perfect, and by adhering to one type, and not vaguely wandering over the 
whole field of design, details are perfected and a really good bridge is the result. 
Engineers in America therefore need only specify the span of their bridge, and 
the rolling load to be provided for, with certain limiting stresses, and they can 
make sure of obtaining a number of tenders from different makers of bridges, 
varying somewhat in design, but complying with all the requirements. With us, 
on the other hand, it is too often the privilege of a pupil to try his ’prentice hand 
on the design for a bridge, and it is no wonder, therefore, that many curious bits of 
detail meet the eye of an observant foreigner inspecting our railways. 

The magnificent steel wire rope suspension bridge of 1,600 feet span built by 
Roebling across the East River at New York well marks the advanced state of 
mechanical science in America as regards bridge building. It is worthy of note 
that, at the second meeting of the British Association, held so long back as 1832, 
there was a paper on suspension bridges, and the author entreated the attention 
of the scientific world, and particularly of civil engineers, to the serious considera- 
tion of the question: How far ought iron to be hereafter used for suspension 
bridges, since a steel bridge of equal strength and superior durability could be built 
at much less cost ? ‘I earnestly call upon the ironmasters of the United Kingdom,’ 
said he, ‘to lose no time in endeavouring to solve this question.’ In this, as in 
many other engineering matters, Americans have given us a lead. America is, 
indeed, the paradise of mechanics. When the British Association was inaugurated, 
years ago, there was, I believe, no intention to have a section for the discussion of 
mechanical science. Possibly it may have been considered too mean a branch. 
Even the usually generous Shakespeare speaks contemptuously of ‘ mechanic slaves, 
with greasy aprons, rules, and hammers;’ and our old friend Dr. Johnson’s definition 
of ‘mechanical’ is ‘ mean, servile.’ We have lived down this feeling of contempt, 
and the world admits that the ‘greasy apron’ is as honourable a badge as the 
priest’s cassock or the warrior’s coat of mail, and has played as important a part in 
the great work of civilising humanity and turning bloodthirsty savages into law- 
abiding citizens. 

As I have had occasion to refer to Canada and America in the course of my 
remarks, I cannot refrain from expressing the high appreciation which I am sure 
every member of this Section entertains of the cordiality and warmth of our recep- 
tion on the other side of the Atlantic last year. Such incidents make us forget 
that differences have ever existed between the two countries. I was amused the 
other day, on reading in Dr. Doran’s ‘ Annals of the Stage’ that, in the year 1777, 
the theatrical company from Edinburgh was captured on its voyage to Aberdeen 
by an American privateer, and taken off heaven knows where, for it did not turn 
up again. This, you will say, was a long time ago; but, if you glance through the 
speeches of our present gracious Sovereign, you will find one in which her Majesty 
speaks with ‘deep concern’ of insurrection in Lower Canada, and of hostile incur- 
sions into Upper Canada by certain ‘lawless inhabitants’ of the United States of 
North America. 

This is strange reading, after our last year’s experience. Gentlemen, I may not 
have carried you with me in some things I have said, but I think you will all agree 
with me in this: that the statesmen who should suffer any slight difference of 
Opinion to develop into a serious breach between ourselves and our brethren in 
Canada and cousins in America would, to quote the words of Burke, ‘far from 
being qualified to be directors of the great movements of this empire, be not fit 
even to turn a wheel in the machine.’ 


The following Papers were read :— 


1. The New Tay Viaduct. By Crawrorp Baruow, B.A., M.Inst.0.B. 
See Reports, p. 883. 


a 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 1193 


2. The Forth Bridge Works. By Anpruw S. Biceart, C.L. 
See Reports, p. 873. 


FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER il. 


‘The following Papers were read :— 


1. The American System of Oil Pipe Lines. By J. H. Harris. 
2. The Movement of Land in Aberdeen Bay. By W. Smiru. 


3. On Shallow-draught Screw-steamers for the Nile Expedition. 
By J. T. THornycrort, M.Inst.C.H. 


A special feature of these steamers for use in shallow waters is the form of the 
‘hull in the neighbourhood of the propellers, it being such as to maintain a volume 
-of water, like a wave, over the propellers, even though they should extend above 
the water-line of the vessel. The author demonstrated the serviceableness of such 
-a form as early as 1875. 

The second special feature is the kind of propeller used. It resembles a screw, 
but is placed in a tube having guides to direct the stream aft, and a conical body 
to contract the area of stream. 

The principal dimensions of the Nile boats are given below: 


fiz air 
Length of hull at water-line ‘ i > . 140 0 
Beam moulded : . j , 21 0 
Load draught . é < , : * : 23 
Displacement . . 3 i d é .  98°6 tons 


With a light draught of 2 feet aft, 673 tons displacement, a speed of 15-1 knots 
~was obtained, while at the load draught trial, 2 feet 3 inches, the displacement 
being 93°6 tons, a speed of 14:17 knots was obtainable with an I H.-P. of 390. 
The displacement coefficient was 150. 

The vessel is arranged to carry guns on its upper deck, which is supported on 
Aullet-proof houses. On the fore part of the upper deck is a bullet-proof conning 
tower containing a steam steering engine. 

The hull is of steel divided into water-tight compartments ; the engines are of 
“the same model as used in the torpedo-boats by the author’s firm, and the boats 
are fitted with triple rudders in order to increase the steering power for the 
“Special purposes for which they are intended. 


-4, The Sphere and Roller Friction Gear. By Professor H. S. Here Suaw. 


The author described before Section A last year the principles involved in the 
-action of the ‘sphere and roller’ mechanism, a complete investigation of which is 
being published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Since 
that time the above principles have been further applied, the results of which may 
be seen in the mathematical instrument section and in the transmission of power 
-section of the Inventions Exhibition. The object of the author in the present 
paper is to speak only of the latter application, giving the results of actual trial 
-and a description of a new arrangement which is being made on a still larger scale. 

The author, first by means of diagrams, briefly explained the principles of the 
mechanism, in which a change of the imaginary axis of revolution of the sphere is 


1194 REPORT—1885. 


effected by merely altering the position of one frame containing a set of wheels or 
rollers in contact with the sphere. The result of this change is that the relative 
velocity of two given rollers in a second or fixed frame are correspondingly altered. 
One of these latter wheels or rollers being employed as a driver, motion can be 
imparted to the sphere by frictional contact with it, and thus the second wheel or 
roller in the same frame can be employed as a follower and driven at any required 
velocity relatively to the first. After unsatisfactory experiments with a heavy 
ball, whereby force closure was substituted for pair closure, it was determined 
to return to the pair-closed arrangement, in which the necessary frictional 
contact was obtained by the pressure of suitably placed rollers, and the author’s 
brother, Mr. Edward Shaw, designed and executed a machine which it was 
calculated would, at not excessive velocities, transmit nearly 2 H.-P. This 
was given the form of a sack hoist, which has been for some time in operation 
at the Exhibition. The author then described the details of this machine by means. 
of diagrams. The action is in most respects highly satisfactory, there being almost 
perfectly silent action and an absence of all noise and vibration. By means of one 
small handle, which simply causes the movable frame to roll round on the sphere, 
and therefore is turned with scarcely any appreciable effort, not only is the hoisting 
of a small sack performed at any required speed, but the same handle when moved 
so as to cause the axis of rotation to pass between the driver and follower, instead 
of on one side of them, causes a reversal of motion and consequent lowering of the 


sack at any required speed. In the intermediate position, ie. when the axis of 


rotation of the sphere passes through the point of contact of the follower, no 
motion ensues. ‘Thus all necessity either for a starting and stopping gear or for a 
brake is avoided, and the whole operation is instantly performed by means of one: 
handle, 

Several difficulties had to be overcome, these being : 

1. The question of finding suitable material. 

2. Heating of bearings with the high speeds and pressures employed. 

3. Variable resistance which occurs in different positions of the axis of rotation. 
from want of true point contact. 

4, Twisting of the sphere on point of contact with the following roller when 
the action of rotation passes through that point, and consequent injury of the: 
surfaces in contact when the follower stops. 

Difficulties 1 and 2 were completely overcome, the first by using hard elastic 
surfaces and phosphor bronze, being successfully tried in contact, and also good 
cast-iron on cast-iron; the second by using Stauffer’s lubricators, The third 
difficulty has been partially and the fourth entirely overcome. 


5. On the Employment of the Road Engine in Construction and Maintenance- 


of Roads.' By Colonel Inyus, 


The author first dealt with the historical aspect of road-making, then with the- 


fo) 


methods which the Kincardine o’ Neil District of Aberdeenshire Road Trustees had 
in previous times adopted in maintaining the roads in that part of the country. 
They had been faced with so many difficulties that they were now applying steam 
power in the shape of an ordinary road engine. It had been in operation now for 
more than a year,and promised to be satisfactory. The method was—The employ- 
ment of an engine in working a stone breaker, which provides large quantities of 
metal ; the employment of the engine to draw waggons used in applying the metal ; 
and the adaptation of the engine and waggons to act as rollers at the same time 
as they are employed in applying the metal, thus applying the metal, rolling it 
into solidity, and leaving a thoroughly finished surface. They had to deal with 
insufficiently constructed roads, and roads having the appearance of being well 


soil was soft they gave way. The engine and waggons in applying the metal found 
out all the weak places, and the yielding surface was coated with metal until it has 


Printed in extenso in the Contract Journal, September 28, 1885. 


constructed, but when subjected to heavy locomotive engine traffic where the sub-- : 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 1195 


uniform strength with the rest of the roads. He proceeded to describe the engine, 
the stone breaker, and the working plant. The wheels of the waggons broke gauge, 
and by an adjustment of the coupling the eight wheels were made to cover a surface 
of eight feet wide, or, allowing for overlapping, would effectually roll a surface of 
from six to seven feet. The total cost of the plant was 1,104/. and this was inclu- 
sive of 309/. for the stone breaker and the van, so that the cost of the plant 
specially required was limited to the engine and waggons, or a cost of 795/. For 
a durable surface of road hand-broken metal was better, but the cost was con- 
siderably greater, being 2s. 8d. per cubic yard: while engine-broken metal cost 
Is. 10d., and this included cost of quarrymg. He concluded by saying that it 
was seldom that so entirely novel system could be set inoperation without some 
partial failures or disappointments, but this had been an exception. It worked 
even better than was anticipated, the means were seen clearly whereby some details,. 
which they left over to await experience, could be perfected, and they looked for- 
ward with confidence by means of this system to reconstructing and maintaining 
all the main lines of roads in the district, and to the increasing traffic which they 
had to carry without any additional cost to the ratepayers. And this too ina 
district where the condition of the roads was most unsatisfactory, and the prospect 
of improving them hopeless without an expenditure, which it was difficult to con- 
template providing for. 


SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 12. 
The Section did not meet. 


MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14. 
The following Papers were read :— 
1. Electric Lighting and the Law. By Dr. Lewis Epuunps. 


The author adduced evidence to show that the stagnation in the electric lighting 
industry arises, not from the fact. that electric lighting cannot prove remunerative 
as a commercial undertaking if left to its own free development, as most other 
industries have been, but because electric lighting under the conditions imposed 
by Act of Parliament is commercially impossible. The public supply of electricity 
is now regulated by the Electric Lighting Act of 1882, and so long as that Act 
remains unamended or unrepealed, there is no opportunity for great development in 
electric lighting as a matter of public supply. 

Directly the unfortunate companies sought an Act to give them the necessary 
powers there was a great outcry See monopoly, and the success of the present gas 
and water companies was held up to the public as the result of an unfair monopoly. 
Many people seemed to forget that the existing companies are the successful 
survivors of a large number, a considerable proportion of which have proved great 
losses. If there had not been some inducement to the original investors in the way 
of future profit we should probably have had many large towns still without a 
proper supply of gas and water. The Legislature seemed to forget how much we 
owe to the encouragement of private enterprise in this country, and that we are 
indebted to it for a better supply of gas and water than any other country in the 
world. 

The electric lighting companies would not have any ground for complaint if 
the conditions imposed upon them by the Act had been a reasonable guid pro quo 
for the privilege of taking up roads or footpaths for their own purposes and the 
monopoly (more or less) of supplying a district. The fault of the Act is in placing 
such stringent conditions on persons supplying electricity, and in asking so much 
of them as to deprive them of opportunity to realise an adequate return for their 
outlay. The public grant certain concessions to a company, and it is just and 


1196 REPORT—1885. 


equitable that conditions should be imposed for the proper performance of the busi- 
ness in respect of which the privileges are obtained. If the public ask too much no 
one will take the other side of the bargain, and the Legislature extinguishes what 
it meant to regulate. 

The section of the Act which has done nearly all the harm is section 27, which 
relates to compulsory purchases by the local authority of undertakings within the 
Act. 

Shortly the section amounts to this. The local authority can, after 21 years, 
or at their option, after the expiration of any subsequent period of seven years, 
purchase compulsorily the undertaking within their jurisdiction, at the fair market 
value of the lands, buildings, works, materials, and plant merely as such without 
any addition, in respect of compulsory purchase or goodwill, or any profits made 
in the past, or to be made in the future. 

If therefore the enterprise is unsuccessful it will be left on the investor’s hands. 

If successful, it will be compulsorily bought by the Local Authority for the 
mere value of the plant then in actual use, just when it has become a valuable 
property and he is beginning to reap the full advantage of his investment, which 
may be at the end of 21 years or of-any subsequent seven year period. 

By not giving the promoters any real interest in the undertaking, it would 
prevent any large expenditure on works, with a view to a permanent and lasting 
installation ; their only object would be to make the maximum profit from the 
business while it lasted without any regard to the future. 

The position stands somewhat thus :— 

Parliament does not want to give anyone but the local authority a monopoly 
for more than 21 years. 

It will not pay investors unless they get a monopoly for a much longer period. 

The local authorities are not fit persons to undertake these speculative 
oe even if they were justified in using the ratepayers’ money for doubtful 
results. 

The consequence is that, in its anxiety to prevent a monopoly, the Legislature 
has entirely deprived the general public of the comfort and security and other 
advantages which the electric light offers over all other forms of iilumination. 


2. On an Electric Safety Lamp for Miners. By J. Witson Swan, M.A. 


No mere portable electric lamp being dependent upon extraneous wire connec- 
tion, of which some exist under the name of ‘ Miners’ lamps,’ can be truly called a 
.safety-lamp. 

A hand-lamp, detached and portable, more or less like the ordinary safety-lamp, 
is an absolute necessity in order to comply with the conditions implied in the term 
‘Electric Safety-lamp,’ 

The subject of the present paper fulfils those conditions. It consists of two 
parts; the lamp proper, and the battery to feed it. The combined apparatus weighs 
only 6 Ibs. ; and the cylindrical case containing the cells measures 8 by 4 inches. 

The battery consists of seven cells, and is thus constructed :—The core is a lead 
wire surrounded by peroxide of lead. This is covered by a wrapping of cloth, out- 
side which, and filling the space between the oxide cylinder and the interior lead 
lining of the containing tube, is a packing of lead filament. The lead filament is in 
contact with the lead lining, and that with a strip of lead which forms one of the 
outward conductors ; the lead wire forming the core of the oxide cylinder being the 
other conductor, The electrolyte is dilute sulphuric acid; adhesion to the lead 
filament prevents the liquid from spilling, if the battery is inclined. 

The terminals are attached to two elastic strips of brass, and these hold the 
lamp between them with a slight end pressure, in a simple manner, so as to be 
easily removable. 

_ The lamp, of a half-candle power, probably requires less current than any lamp 
hitherto made, viz. ‘14 of an ampére; the electro-motiye force being 12 to 18 volts. 
‘The cells can store sufficient energy to sustain the lamp during ten to twelve hours. 


a 


—  — 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 1197 


Contact is made and broken within a small cavity in the switch plate containing 
a single drop of oil, Even without this precaution, there is not the slightest danger 
of ignition of explosive gas by a spark produced at the switch on opening the circuit. 

To charge, say five hundred lamps would neither be complicated nor costly ; a 
dynamo absorbing three to four H.P. would suffice. The cells would be ranged on 
benches in front of fixed wires from the dynamo; and these would be so fitted 
with coupling plugs, that the connecting of several hundred batteries would be the 
work of a very short time. 

The cost of the renewal of the electric would probably be about the same as the 
cost of filling, cleaning, and keeping in repair Davy lamps; or about 2d. per lamp 
per week. The supply of oil for ordinary safety lamps costs another 2d. per week ; 
which would fully cover the cost of charging the batteries for the electric light. 

Here, then, is a miner’s lamp, to which the appellation of ‘ Safety’ may be given 
without any reservation; and one which is free from even the suspicion of causing 
an explosion of fire-damp. [Besides its safety, there is one other advantage of 
occasional importance. Oil lamps require air more or less pure to support the 
combustion of the oil, There are, unfortunately, times, after an explosion of fire- 
damp, when the air of the pit is so foul that no oil lamp will bum init. With 
this electric lamp, which requires no air, and with a Fleuss apparatus for breathing, 
the work of exploration might be carried on, and this, it is reasonable to hope, 
would be attended with the saving of life. 


3. On the Strength of Telegraph Poles. By W. H. Preuce, F.R.S., 
M.Inst.0.L.—See Reports, p. 853. 


4. On Domestic Electric Lighting. By W. H. Prences, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.B. 


After referring to the full details of the lighting installation of his house in 
Wimbledon, given to the section, at the meeting at Montreal, Mr. Preece referred 
generally to the experiences he had gained during the past twelve months. ‘The 
secondary batteries, upon which he had mainly relied, exceeded his expectations in 
the services they rendered. They returned 70 per cent. of the energy put into 
them, without any apparent diminution whatever in their E. M. F. They showed 
no signs of deterioration and gaye no trouble whatever. He used his gas engine 
for charging only two days a week. He had experienced no fault with the wiring 
of his house. He had used only the very best materials, and had attended person- 
ally to the insulation of the system. It was periodically tested and found to be 
good. He referred in severe terms to the cheap and nasty wire, which was so fre- 
quently and ignorantly used, and feared that the prejudice against the electric light 
would increase when failures from this cause arose. None but the very best ma- 
terials should be used, and the joints should be seen to by experts. 

He had devoted considerable attention to the problem of distributing light, 
and had succeeded so far that, while his rooms were beautifully illuminated, the 
eye was not irritated by regarding a bright source of light. The lamp he used was 
a 50-volt 10-candle power glow lamp, and it was, as a rule, so fixed that the eye 
never saw it. He had arrived at the use of these lamps after careful consideration 
and many trials of other lamps. They secured greater safety in the leads, and in- 
volved less capital in batteries through the use of low E. M. F. 

He ran his lamp at an E. M. F. about two per cent less than the nominal 
E.M.F. He did this to secure long life to his lamps. The breakage had been 
very small. The E. M. F. and current which will give a lamp a normal life of 
1,000 hours and a certain candle power, should be determined by every maker. 
The sixth power of the current will give the candle power, and the twenty-fifth 
power the life with any other current. The great advantage of batteries is, that the 
proper current once determined, can never be exceeded, and thus efficiency is en- 
sured. If lamps are run too low, there is waste of power; if too high, there is 
waste of lamps. We are now gradually acquiring a thorough knowledge of the 


1198 REPORT—1885. 


number of volts which should be expended in each lamp to secure the maximum 
economic efficiency. 

He had introduced into the charging lead and into the discharging lead a 
Ferranti meter, so that he was able to record exactly the quantity of electricity 
passed through the batteries, and that passed through the lamps. This beautiful 
meter is based on Ampére’s laws, which determine the attraction and repulsion of 
currents. A small phosphor-bronze vane is immersed in a bath of mercury, 
through which the current flows radially, fixed in a magnetic field. The mercury 
rotates and carries with it the vane. The rate of rotation varies directly with the 
strength of current, and the number of rotations is recorded by a counter, which 
can be read off directly. So far, he was perfectly satisfied with its performance. 

As regards expense, excepting the first cost, he did not find much addition to 
his expenditure for illumination. His electric light was costing him about 50/. 
a year for gas, wages, oil, and lamps. It was the cheapest luxury he indulged in. 
Its great advantages were the comfort and cheerfulness it engendered; and as 
cheerfulness was the main element of health, he thought that the electric light 
would prove a serious rival to the doctor. There was no one who valued health 
and comfort who should neglect to apply the electric light to his home when it was 
brought, as it has been by the success of the secondary battery, within his means, 
It was said that he, as an expert, could make things go which would fail in ordin- 
ary hands; but he instanced several cases where coachmen, butlers, gardeners, 
and grooms had been found perfectly competent and intelligent enough to attend 
to everything. 


5. On a System of Periodic Clock Control on Telephone or Telegraph Lines. 
By Professor W. F. Barrert, F.R.S.L. 


The expense of maintaining separate lines for the sole purpose of synchronising 
the clocks in a town led the author to devise an arrangement some four years ago 
whereby telephone and telegraph lines could be utilised for clock control and also 
for burglar and fire alarm. Every subscriber to a telephone exchange is, by this 
means, enabled to have a mair clock in his house kept in true time with the standard 
clock at the Telephone Exchange. This main clock at certain times switches off 
the telephone receiver and puts into circuit the electro-magnetic arrangement 
whereby the clock is synchronised. The method adopted for this purpose is a 
modification of Ritchie’s system of hourly control, with a semaphore attached to 
indicate the true time to a fraction of a second. This main controlled clock, by a 
simple contact arrangement fitted to a disc on the arbor of the minute wheel, 
distributes time true to a minute throughout the establishment. This is accom- 
plished by an electro-magnetic minute clock of novel and very simple construction, 
which however requires a diagram to describe. The main clock also switches off 
the telephone circuit during the night, and puts in its place the fire alarum circuit 
of the house, and also the circuit passing through a safe or air tight case, which 
circuit is instantly closed whenever a burglar attempts to force the safe. In this 
way the central exchange is automatically ‘ rung up,’ and the correct house indicated 
whenever a fire breaks out or a burglar breaks in. The author stated he had had 
this system at work very satisfactorily for some time in his own laboratory. 


6. Electric Lighting at the Forth Bridge Works. 
By James N. Snootsrep, B.A., M.Inst.0.£.—See Reports, p. 879. 


7. On the Development of the Pneumatic System as applied to 
Telegraph purposes. By J. W. Wiuumor. 


It is probably not generally known by what means telegraphic messages are 
collected from the branch offices in large towns, and conveyed to the central office’ 
for transmission by wire. This service is performed by means of pneumatic tubes, 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 1199 


through which ‘carriers’ containing the actual written messages are propelled. 
The system was first introduced by Mr. L. Clark in 1854, who employed vacuum, 
‘drawing the carriers in one direction only. The first tube which came into opera- 
tion was laid for the Electric Telegraph Company between their office in Loth ury 
and their branch office at the Stock Exchange. This tube was in continuous use 
for over twenty years and was in good condition when raised, 

About the year 1866 Mr. C. F. Varley applied compressed air for propelling the 
carriers in the opposite direction from that in which they were drawn by vacuum, 
and very ingenious valves were designed by him for effecting the change from 
vacuum to pressure, 

With each of the foregoing systems it was necessary after the transmission of 
a carrier to restore the pressure in the tube to the normal atmospheric pressure 
before another carrier could be despatched. This caused considerable delay and 
loss of engine-power. 

In 1870 the author designed the double sluice valve which is now in general 
use, and by means of which carriers can be despatched continuously without 
stopping the flow of air in the tube. 

The employment of pneumatic tubes in London has been continually increasing 
until the system, which in 1854 was represented by one 6 H.P. engine working a 
single tube a few yards in length, at the present time comprises four 50 H.P. engines 
{each indicating 130 H.P.) and forty-nine tubes, the aggregate length of which 
exceeds twenty-seven miles. These figures are exclusive of over a mile in short 
lengths of house tubes also worked by the engines, as well as of over a dozen hand- 
worked tubes in various metropolitan offices. The use of pneumatic tubes, how- 
ever, has not been restricted to London alone, for in the provincial cities and towns 
there are sixty-three tubes which, with the London tubes, bring the total length 
of engine-worked tubes to upwards of thirty-nine miles. To these should be added 
ninety-five shorter hand-worked tubes. With the air-pressure employed an ap- 
proximate speed of one mile in seventy seconds is attained in tubes not exceeding 
a mile in length. The speed varies inversely as the square of the length of the 
tube. The pipes generally employed are of lead, having an internal diameter of 
22 inches. 

At Liverpool a very complete pneumatic system has lately been installed. The 
number of tubes has been increased from eight to fourteen and three 30 H.P. beam 
‘engines (each indicating up to 90 H.P.) have been erected. These engines were 
‘designed and constructed under the personal supervision of the author, and were 
made by Messrs. Easton and Anderson of Whitehall Place, London, and Erith, 
Kent. The pumps are so arranged that either set can either exhaust or compress 
air. Two engines are sufficient for the present requirements, the third being spare 
in case of breakdown. 


TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15. 
The following Report and Papers were read :— 


1. Report of the Patent Law Committee.—See Reports, p. 695. 


2. Autographic Apparatus for Machines for Testing Materials. 
By Professor W. C. Unwin, M.Inst.C.E. 


With the increasing use of steel in construction, the necessity of recular and 
systematic testing of the elastic properties of materials has become much more 
urgent. Rough bending and temper tests furnish, it is true, useful information as 
to the quality of steel. But no procedure furnishes information so reliable and 
accurate as a breaking test, carried out by means of a suitable machine ; nor can the 
quality of the material be specified in any other way so definitely, as by requiring 


1200 REPORT—1885. 


that its breaking stress and its elongation or contraction should le between 
assigned limits. 

In the ordinary testing of materials, we observe the loads successively imposed 
and the corresponding deformation of the bar. If such a series of observations is. 
plotted with the loads for ordinates and the elongations for abscissz, and the points 
so found are connected by a curve, we get a stress and strain diagram showing at a 
glance the whole of the observations and indicating by its form the character of the 
material. 

Now it is easy to see that such a diagram, like the indicator diagram ofa steam 
engine, may be drawn autographically by the machine itself, and that the auto- 
graphic diagram will have some advantages over the diagram plotted from 
discontinuous observations. It will be a continuous record at all stages of the test, 
it will be free from accidental errors of recording, and at all events it will save a 
great deal of trouble in making numerous successive observations. 

The first autographie apparatus for testing machines was probably that attached 
by Thurston to his Torsion apparatus. But a Torsion machine is not usually 
employed in engineering tests. Not long after Polmeyer constructed a testing 
machine for tension tests with an autographic arrangement attached. This the 
author saw at Dortmund in 1883, Since then, Fairbanks in America, and Wicksteed 
in this country, have constructed autographic apparatus for ordinary testing 
machines. 

The author designed an apparatus for recording tension tests in January 1883. 
That apparatus gave a diagram two feet square. Since then he has constructed 
a smaller and handier apparatus which is placed on the table. 

In the author’s testing machine the loading of the specimen is effected by a 
single weight of a ton travelling along a lever or steelyard about 20 feet long. The 
motion of the screw which drives the travelling weight is transferred exactly to a 
brass cylinder like the paper cylinder of a steam-engine indicator. The amount of 
the rotation of this is, therefore, exactly proportional to the load on the specimen. 
The pencil slides at the same time axially with a motion proportional to the exten- 
sion of the specimen. This motion is obtained from a very thin wire, attached to 
the specimen, and strained over pullies, so that the motion of the pencil is double 
the actual extension. The wire is kept strained to a given tension by a weight of 
two or three ounces. By suitable choice of position of the autographic apparatus 
on the testing machine, the small vertical movement of the specimen in testing 
has no sensible influence on the record. It appears from check measurements that 
the record of the load is exact, and that of the extension has an error of at most 
sath of an inch. 

The accuracy of the record of extension depends mainly on two arrangements, 
(1) The selection of a position for the recording apparatus such that no horizontal 
movement other than that to be recorded is communicated to the wire. (2) On 
the use of an extremely fine wire, which can be strained to straightness and kept 
free from bends by a very small weight. The form of the clips which define the 
length on which the extension is measured is also of importance. In the clips 
shown the specimen is held between a plane, a knife edge and a point, so that the 
clips are rigid as regards any tilting on the specimen, and at the same time precisely 
define the length on which the measurement is made. 


3. Notes on Mild Steel. By G. J. Gorpon. 


The first note was with reference to the corrosion of steel, which was shown 
to have now been proved by experience to be about the same as for wrought iron. 

2nd. It was pointed out that shearing thick plates had the remarkable effect of 
rendering them cold short, and that this was completely cured by either annealing 
the plates or hy planing off the rough edges left by the shears. 

5rd. It was pointed out that the tendency of users of steel was towards em- 
ploying that of higher tensile strains, and that there was no reason why this should 
not be done provided the same ductility and toughness are insisted on, as in the- 
case of the milder steel now in use. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 1201 


4th. The question of the use of thick plates for boilers was discussed, and the 
results of a series of experiments were given, which go to show that if the 
material is carefully made and tested, heated in proper furnaces, and bent without 
putting any undue strains upon them in the boiler maker's shop, it was just as safe 
to use plates for boilers from 1” to 14” thick, and weighing from 1 ton 10 cwt. to 
2 tons 10 cvt., as it is to use those from 2” to 1’ thick and weighing from 10 cwt. 
to 1 ton 10 ewt. 


4. The Diminution of Casualties at Sea. 
By Don ArttrRO DE Marcoartv. 


The author in his paper made the following proposals:—1. That vessels be 
supplied with apparatus to communicate with and to telegraph to each other and 
to the nearest coast the weather and sea encountered by them; 2. That the 
steamers give more detailed reports about the weather and sea as soon as they 
arrive on both coasts, but more especially on the American cvast, to the Navy 
Department and to the U.S. Signal Service; 3. That a special, regular, and 
permanent service be established on the American coast, supplied with the requisite 
means to receive all reports, and to transmit to Europe several warnings each day 
about the reports collected and the predictions bearing on the navigation; 4. That 
from the European coasts be communicated daily to the American coasts the state 
of the weather and sea for comparison with the predictions and for the continuous 
study of the sea and weather. 

For advancing meteorological knowledge, and in the interest of navigation, he 
recommended the establishment of two more cables—one to connect Iceland and 
the Faroes with Europe, the other to connect Azores and Bermuda with Europe 
and America; as all the submarine cables connecting North America and North 
Europe have not intermediate stations on the middle Atlantic, and the great 
extent of the ocean renders reporting impossible. 

In the charts of relative storm frequency in the Northern Hemisphere, prepared 
by the American Signal Service, and published only a few months ago, it is shown 
in the annual average of the relative storm frequency during twenty-one years, 
from 1864 to 1884, that the sea is most calm between the meridian 40° and 9° 
(near to the Iberian Peninsula), and from latitude 40° at the first meridian to 
latitude 46° at long. 1°; and stormy towards the latitudes of Newfoundland, and 
ascending from their parallels to the north of Ireland. 

The last limit of the most frequent icebergs, according to the observations 
collected by the Hydrographer of the United States Navy Department, was near 
40° latitude ; and therefore the track from the United States to Lisbon is to the 
south of the icebergs. 

Professor Graham Bell published a few months ago the results of some experi- 
ments to detect by echo the proximity of vessels and wrecks. The experiments 
were made on the River Patapsco, about seven miles from Baltimore, The apparatus 
employed consisted of a musket, to the muzzle of which a speaking-trumpet was 
attached. From this musket blank cartridges were fired when passing vessels, and 
after a longer or shorter time, according to the distance of the vessels, an echo was 
returned, 

The author called attention years ago to the great power of ice for reflecting 
sound, and believes the possibility of obtaining an echo from an iceberg, when 
in dangerous proximity to a ship, is worth a trial at sea. Both apparatus, the 
thermopiles combined with the trumpet, and the steam-whistle and siren, ought to 
be used ; but it is better to select a route away from bergs, fields, and fogs, which 
have caused the loss of so many vessels, Parry says, in the account of his Polar 
Expedition, that two men conversed distinctly at a distance of a mile and a 
quarter. 

Fires. 


To lessen the risk from fire ‘automatic sprinklers for fire extinction’ and ‘ fire 
alarms’ are required in some parts of the ship, especially in connection with 


inflammatory goods, 


1885. 44 


1202 REPORT—1 885. 


The principle of ‘ fire alarms’ and ‘ automatic sprinklers’ is well known. In the 
fire alarms a sudden rise of temperature expands a spring, which moves a screw or 
another piece to complete an electrical circuit, and the bell or alarm is sounded, 
The principle of the automatic sprinkler is a pipe of water covered or sealed by a 
metal cap secured only by soldering some alloys melting at, say, 150 degrees 
Fahrenheit. When this temperature is reached, the cover is melted, and the water 
thrown with the volume required. These automatic sprinklers are coming into 
general use in the mills of the United States. As the cost of fixing the alarm and 
the sprinkler is small, the combination of both appliances is desirable. 


CoLuisIons. 


To ayoid collision with other vessels, the International Code prescribes the use 
of the steam-whistle at intervals of not more than two minutes. 

In fog the only practical signal to-day is sound; but the existing signals must 
be improved and an international code of signals showing at once the direction of 
the approaching vessel introduced. Many telegraphic codes can be suggested for 
that purpose. 

The speed of steamers in a fog must be fixed according to the strength of the 
alarm sounds and the power of controlling the movements of the vessel. If the 
alarm is heard at lone distances and is sounded frequently, and the control of 
the vessel is easy, it is possible to proceed at greater speed than if the alarm were 
less well heard, not sounded so frequently, and the management of the ship 
difficult. 

Automatically, and at the same time that the direction of the helm is changed 
to avoid the collision, the movement must be signalled very distinctly to the other 
vessels, and the exterior of the ships and the sea must be electrically illuminated. 
Several appliances can be employed for that purpose, to avert collisions, and to give 
full light, in the event of a disaster, for rescue. 


5. On the Deep Sea Channel into Swansea Harbour.| By Ropert Capper. 


Describes the cutting of the new deep sea channel into Swansea Harbour, with- 
out piers or other protective works, about one-fifth excavated four years ago with 
hired plant, commencing to dredge in from sea from the centre of Swansea Bay 
(which did not silt up), and the remainder in the immediate past twelve months, 
the whole 7,000 feet in length, 200 feet wide at top, 150 feet at bottom, and 14 feet 
in depth below the old bed of the bay, involving the digging, lifting, and carrying 
away two million tons of material to a distance of seven miles, gives some account 
of the geological formation met with, details of the cost, and how the time was 
spent whilst the work was in hand. 

This channel opens Swansea to the largest class of shipping afloat any tide of 
the year; indeed, turning the neap tides into a blessing, and making the port 
available as a point of departure for any ship every night of the year at one given 
hour. 

Points out that, at the beginning of the present century, there was scarcely any 
town of importance in the kingdom that was distant from navigation more than 
fifteen miles, most of the canals of that period having proved very profitable 
property. Yet the money spent in docks and harbours around our shores in the last 
one hundred years to receive the commerce of the whole world, is only double that 
invested in English canals; our seaports have not kept pace with our shipping, the 
500 creeks and harbours, half managed by public bodies, have been allowed to silt 
up with very few exceptions, opening a wide field for the engineer, as it costs half 
as much to bring deep water to our doors as to go out to deep water with piers 
and quays. 

Touches upon the deepening of the rivers St. Lawrence, Tyne, Clyde, and 
Scheldt as examples, the shipping trade of the latter having increased twenty- 
fivefold in recent years, 


1 Published in extenso in Engineering. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION G. 1203 


Advocates a return to ‘pool’ harbours for those silted up, and observes that, 
although one hundred years ago London absorbed four-fifths of the English 
shipping trade, it now has only one-fourth; yet it is still the largest port in the 


_ world, Antwerp ranking second. 


6. On the Spey Bridge at Garmouth and the River Spey. By P. M. Barnerv. 


7. On a New Forin of High Speed Friction Driving Gear. 
By Professor J. A. Ewrne. 


8. On Ashton’s New Power Meter. By Professor H. S. Here Suaw. 


9. On the British Association Standard Gauge for Small Screws. 
By Epwarp Rica, M.A. 


At the suggestion of the Mechanical Section a Committee was appointed by the 
British Association at Southampton in 1882, for the purpose of determining a gauge 
for the manufacture of the various small screws used in telegraphic and electrical 
apparatus, in clockwork, and for other analogous purposes. This Committee pre- 
sented its final report at the Montreal meeting, and it will be of interest to the 
Section to know that progress has already been made towards the general adoption 
of the standard series of screws then recommended. 

They have been officially adopted by the Telegraph Department of the Post 
Office, and this step alone may be relied upon to ensure their general adoption by 
the telegraphic and electric instrument trades in the course of a few years. The 
entire series of standard taps and dies has not yet been manufactured, but such as 
have been completed are now on view at the Inventions Exhibition, where they 
have been awarded a diploma of honour by the Jury Commission, 

It will naturally be more difficult to secure their general introduction through- 
out the clock and watchmaking and other analogous industries, but important help 
may be expected in reference to these branches, from the fact that in Switzerland, 
where the system adopted by the British Association originated, an identical series 
of screws has already secured the support of the leading manufacturers, and the 
plates and finished screws will very shortly be placed on the market. 


1204 REPORT—1885. 


Section H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 


PRESIDENT OF THE SecTION—FrRancis Gatton, M.A., F.R.S., President of the 
Anthropological Institute. 


[For Mr. Galton’s Address, see p. 1,206.] 


THURSDAY, SEPTEMBER 10. 


The following Papers were read :-— 


1. The Scope of Anthropology, and its relation to the Science of Mind.' 
By AuEXxanver Bain, LL.D. 


The author first reviewed the definition and scope of anthropology, as indicated 
by the leading authorities and by the usage of the British Association. He 
endeavoured to point out that the bringing together of the six departments—named, 
respectively, man’s place in nature, the origin of man, the classification of races, the 
antiquity of man, language, and the development of civilisation—does not contribute 
to the mutual elucidation of the several topics, but merely concentrates into one 
whole the subjects connected with the higher mysteries of man’s origin and destina- 
tion. 

The remainder of the paper was occupied with a survey of the researches con- 
ducted in the Section, haying in view precise measurements of the bodily and 
mental characteristics of human beings. The author indicated various lines wherein 
these researches may be carried out so as to reflect new lights on our intellectual 
constitution. The examination for delicacy in the sense of colour is not the only 
important determination relating to vision. Equally, if not more important, is the 
testing of the sensibility to visual form and magnitude. So in hearing, both 
musical quality and articulate delicacy are susceptible of exact measurement. 
Likewise muscular discrimination is an ascertainable quantity, and of great import- 
ance in assigning the aptitude for manual skill. 

The author also adverted to the research into the conditions and the measure 
of memory, as wholly within the means of accurate experimental determination ; 
also the important intellectual function of seeing similarity in the midst of diver- 
sity, which can be reduced to more or less precision of estimate by suitable means. 
Taking along with these results the inquiries into the faculties of the lower animals, 
the author put especial stress upon the number and the delicacy of their senses, as 
the foundation of every attempt to explain the higher aptitudes. Intelligence com- 
mences with the power of discrimination, and increases as that power increases. 
The record of marvellous feats of exceptional ingenuity is of very little aid in 
revealing the secrets of the animal mind. 

In conclusion, the author urged the admission of psychology, in a more ayowed 
and systematic form, into the Anthropological Section. He would exclude the 
topics of metaphysical and ethical controversy, and welcome all the experimental 
researches into the intellectual and emotional regions of the mind. 


* Printed in extenso in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute, vol. xv. No. 
3, February 1886. 


eee 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1205 


2. The Index of the Pelvic Brim as a Basis of Classification.' 
By Professor W. Turner, M.B., F.R.S. 


That the inlet to the human pelvis presented variations in outline, and in the 
proportions of its conjugate and transverse diameters, has been recognised since the 
publication by Vrolik in 1826, and by M. J. Weber in 1880, of their important 
memoirs on the pelvis in certain races of men. In 1866, Zaaijer of Leyden, in 
his study of the pelvis in women of Java, recognised differences in form in 
women of that race. He expressed these differences numerically, taking the trans- 
verse diameter as= 100, and then multiplying the conjugate diameter by 100, and 
dividing by the transverse ; the numeral so obtained is the index of the pelvic brim 
or pelvic index. 

By applying this method to the pelvis in different races of men, a classification 
of races based on the index of the brim may be framed. In carrying out this 
method the male pelvis should especially be studied, as in women the pelvis, for 
sexual reasons, does not present such wide divergencies in the form of its inlet as 
in men. To give precision to the classification it will be advisable to employ special 
terms, and in order as far as possible to bring these terms into accordance with 
those employed in the classification of crania based on differences in the relations 
of the length to the breadth of the skull, Greek terms will be employed. Taking 
the Greek word 7éAXa as equivalent to the Latin pelvis, dolichopellie will signify 
a pelvis the conjugate diameter of which is longer than the transverse or closely 
approaching to it; platypellic—a pelvis in which the transverse diameter greatly 
exceeds the conjugate ; mesatipellic—a pelvis in which the transverse diameter is 
not so greatly in excess of the conjugate. 

Owing to the comparatively limited number of pelves in the different races of 
men which have been measured, it may not be possible to fix definitely at present 
the numerical limits of each of these three groups, but the author assumes that a 
pelvis with a brim index above 95 is dolichopellic ; one with a brim index below 
90 is platypellic; one with a brim index between 90 and 95, both inclusive, is 
mesatipellic. In classing the races of men in one or other of these groups, both 
the author’s own measurements on the pelves of various races and the published 
measurements of others have been taken. Whilst in some races the observations 
have been sufficiently numerous to enable one to speak definitely of the mean 
index of the race, in others, unfortunately, the observations are too few to permit 
one to do more than give a provisional classification. 

The detailed measurements on which this classification is based will be found 
in the ‘ Report on the Bones of the Skeleton collected during the Voyage of H.M.S. 
“ Challenger,” ’ now in the press. 


Dolichopeliic. Mesatipellic. Platypellic. 
Australians. Negros. Europeans. 

Bushmen. Tasmanians. Laplanders ? 
Hottentots. New Caledonians. Esquimaux ? 

Kafiirs. Melanesians ? Guanche ? 

Andamans. — Chinese. 

Aino P — Mongolians generally ? 
Malays. — American Indians ? 
Newzealanders ? = = 


When a pelvis has dolichopellic characters it approximates in the relations of 
its transverse and conjugate diameters to the form of the pelvic brim met with in 
mammals lower than man. In the dolichopellic Australians, Bushmen, Katffirs, 
and Andamanese the sacral length is, on the average, of greater diameter than the 
breadth, and this also is an animal character. 


1 Published in extenso in the Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, October 1885, 


1206 REPORT—18&85. 


3. A Portable Scale of Proportions of the Human Body. 
By W. ¥. Srantey, £.G.8., F. RMS. 


This instrument is a small thin scale or rule of ivory, of about three inches in 
length and three-quarters of an inchin width, It is divided on each edge of the two 
faces by lines which represent the proportions of the human body ; the male on one 
side, and the female on the other. The lines are marked with the words, crown, eye, 
chin, shoulder, teat, navel, hand, &c. ‘The scales of proportions which the lines 
represent are taken from measurements of the diagrams of the assumed perfect 
human forms given by John Marshall, F.R.S., F.R.C.S., in his work,‘ A Rule of 
Proportion for the Human Figure.’ The opposite edge to that on which the pro- 
portions are shown is divided into 100 parts in the same space as the height of the 
body, the tens being indicated by figures. 

The object aimed at by the use of this proportional scale is to compare an 
person, or statue, or photograph, with the model of perfect form given by Marshall, 
ur to divide the parts of the body in proportional decimals of the whole for 
description. The method of using the scale is to hold it up before the eye, facing 
the object at such a distance that the subtended angle from the two extreme lines 
on the scale may coincide with the crown and sole of the human form observed. 
When held in this position any intermediate part of the body may be easily com- 
pared for its position with that of of the perfect form by looking over the edge of 
the scale, or be measured off in decimal parts of the total height by looking over 
the other edge. A very little practice is sufficient to do this with considerable 
accuracy from life, or from a statue or a photograph. It is suggested that this scale 
may be very useful in giving approximately exact descriptions of the proportions 
of people of various races from observation, or of comparing individuals of races 
among themselves; also for artists and designers for giving the best proportions 
of the human figure. 


The Preswwent delivered the following Address :— 


Tue object of the Anthropologist is plain. Te seeks to learn what mankind really 
are in body and mind, how they came to be what they are, and whither their races 
are tending ; but the methods by which this definite inquiry has to be pursued are 
extremely diverse. Those of the geologist, the antiquarian, the jurist, the historian, 
the philologist, the traveller, the artist, and the statistician are all employed, and the 
Science of Man progresses through the help of specialists. Under these circumstances, 
I think it best to follow an example occasionally set by presidents of sections, by 
giving a lecture rather than an address, selecting for my subject one that has long 
been my favourite pursuit, on which I have been working with fresh data during 
many recent months, and about which I have something new to say. 

My data were the Family Records entrusted to me by persons living in all parts 
of the country, and I am now glad to think that the publication of some first-fruits 
of their analysis will show to many careful and intelligent correspondents that 
their painstaking has not been thrown away. I shall refer to only a part of the 
work already completed, which in due time will be published,! and must be satisfied if, , 
when I have finished this address, some few ideas that lie at the root of heredity 
shall have been clearly apprehended, and their wide bearings more or less dis- 
tinctly perceived. I am the more desirous of speaking on heredity, because, judging 
from private conversations and inquiries-that are often put to me, the popular 
views of what may be expected from inheritance seem neither clear nor just. 

The subject of my remarks will be Types and their Inheritance. I shall discuss 
the conditions of the stability and instability of types, and hope in doing so to 
place beyond doubt the existence of a simple and far-reaching law that governs 
hereditary transmission, and to which I once before ventured to draw attention, 
on far more slender evidence than I now possess. 


1 The data upon which the remarks in this Address are based, together with — 
copies of the illustrated diagrams suspended at the meeting, are published in the 
Journal of the Anthropological Institute, November 1885.—F. G. ; 


ns 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1207 


It is some years since I made an extensive series of experiments on the produce 
of seeds of different size but of the same species. They yielded results that 
seemed very noteworthy, and I used them as the basis of a lecture before the 
Royal Institution on February 9, 1877. It appeared from these experiments that 
the offspring did not tend to resemble their parent seeds in size, but to be always 
more mediocre than they—to be smaller than the parents, if the parents were large ; 
to be larger than the parents, if the parents were very small. The point of conver- 
gence was considerably below the average size of the seeds contained in the large 
bagful I bought at a nursery-garden, out of which I selected those that were 
sown. 

The experiments showed further that the mean filial regression towards medio- 
erity was directly proportional to the parental deviation from it. This curious 
result was based on so many plantings, conducted for me by friends living in 
yarious parts of the country, from Nairn in the north to Cornwall in the south, 
during one, two, or even three generations of the plants, that I could entertain no 
doubt of the truth of my conclusions. ‘The exact ratio of regression remained a 
little doubtful, owing to variable influences ; therefore I did not attempt to define 
it. After the lecture had been published, it occurred to me that the grounds of 
my misgivings might be urged as objections to the general conclusions. I did not 
think them of moment, but as the inquiry had been surrounded with many small 
difficulties and matters of detail, it would be scarcely. possible to give a brief and 
yet a full and adequate answer to such objections. Also, I was then blind to what 


. I now perceive to be the simple explanation of the phenomenon, so I thought it 


better to say no more upon the subject until I should obtain independent evidence. 
It was anthropological evidence that I desired, caring only for the seeds as means 
of throwing light on heredity in man. I tried in vain for a long and weary time 
to obtain it in sufficient abundance, and my failure was a cogent motive, together 
with others, in inducing me to make an offer of prizes for family records, which 
was largely responded to, and furnished me last year with what I wanted. I 
especially guarded myself against making any allusion to this particular inquiry 
in my prospectus, lest a bias should be given to the returns. I now can securely 
contemplate the possibility of the records of height having been frequently drawn 
up in a careless fashion, because no amount of unbiassed inaccuracy can account for 
the results, contrasted in their values but concurrent in their significance, that are 
derived from comparisons between different groups of the returns. 

An analysis of the records fully confirms and goes far beyond the conclusions 
I obtained from the seeds. . It gives the numerical value of the regression towards 
mediocrity as from 1 to 3 with unexpected coherence and precision, and it supplies 
me with the class of facts I wanted to investigate—the degrees of family likeness in 
different degrees of kinship, and the steps through which special family peculiarities 
become merged into the typical characteristics of the race at large. 

The subject of the inquiry on which I am about to speak was Hereditary 
Stature. My data consisted of the heights of 930 adult children and of their respec- 
tive parentages, 205 in number. In every case I transmuted the female statures 
to their corresponding male equivalents and. used them in their transmuted form, 
so that no objection grounded on the sexual difference of stature need be raised 
when I speak of averages. The factor I used was 1:08, which is equivalent to 
adding a little less than one-twelfth to each female height. It differs a very little 
from the factors employed by other anthropologists, who, moreover, differ a trifle 
between themselves; anyhow it suits my data better than 1:07 or 1:09. The final 
result is not of a kind to be affected by these minute details, for it happened 
that,owing to a mistaken direction, the computer to whom I first entrusted the 
figures used a somewhat different factor, yet the result came out closely the 
same. 

I shall explain with fulness why I chose stature for the subject of inquiry, 
because the peculiarities and points to be attended to in the investigation will 
manifest themselves best by doing so. Many of its advantages are obvious enough, 
such as the ease and frequency with which its measurement is made, its practical 
constancy during thirty-five years of middle life, its small dependence on differ- 


1208 REPORT—1885. 


ences of bringing up, and its inconsiderable influence on the rate of mortality. 
Other advantages which are not equally obvious are no less great. One of these 
lies in the fact that stature is not a simple element, but a sum of the accumulated 
lengths or thicknesses of more than a hundred bodily parts, each so distinct from 
the rest as to have earned a name by which it can be specified. The list of them 
includes about fifty separate bones, situated in the skull, the spine, the pelvis, the 
two legs, and the two ankles and feet. The bones in both the lower limbs are 
counted, because it is the average length of these two limbs that contributes to the 
general stature. The cartilages interposed between the bones, two at each joint, 
are rather more numerous than the bones themselves. The fleshy parts of the 
scalp of the head and of the soles of the feet conclude the list. Account should 
also be taken of the shape and set of many of the bones which conduce to a more 
or less arched instep, straight back, or high head. I noticed in the skeleton of 
O’Brien, the Irish giant, at the College of Surgeons, which is, I believe, the tallest 
skeleton in any museum, that his extraordinary stature of about 7 feet 7 inches 
would have been a trifle increased if the faces of his dorsal vertebrae had been more 
parallel and his back consequently straighter. 

The beautiful regularity in the statures of a population, whenever they are 
statistically marshalled in the order of their heights, is due to the number of 
variable elements of which the stature is the sum. ‘The best illustrations I have 
seen of this regularity were the curves of male and female statures that I obtained 
from the careful measurements made at my Anthropometric Laboratory in the 
International Health Exhibition last year. They were almost perfect. 

The multiplicity of elements, some derived from one progenitor, some from 
another, must be the cause of a fact that has proved very convenient in the course 
of my inquiry. It is that the stature of the children depends closely on the average 
stature of the two parents, and may be considered in practice as having nothing 
to do with their individual heights. The fact was proved as follows :—After 
transmuting the female measurements in the way already explained, I sorted the 
children of parents who severally differed 1, 2, 8, 4, and 5 or more inches into 
separate groups. Each group was then divided into similar classes, showing the 
number of cases in which the children differed 1, 2, 8, &c. inches from the com- 
mon average of the children in their respective families. I confined my inquiry 
to large families of six children and upwards, that the common average of each 
might be a trustworthy point of reference. The entries in each of the ditferent 
groups were then seen to run in the same way, except that in the last of them the 
children showed a faint tendency to fall into two sets, one taking after the tall 
parent, the other after the short one. Therefore, when dealing with the transmis- 
sion of stature from parents to children, the average height of the two parents, or, 
as I prefer to call it, the ‘mid-parental’ height, is all we need care to know about 
them. 

It must be noted that I use the word parent without specifying the sex. 
The methods of statistics permit us to employ this abstract term, because the cases 
of a tall father being married to a short mother are balanced by those of a short 
father being married to a tall mother. I use the word parent to save a complica- 
tion due to a fact brought out by these inquiries, that the height of the children 
of both sexes, but especially that of the daughters, takes after the height of the 
father more than it does after that of the mother, My present data are insufficient 
to determine the ratio satisfactorily. 

Another great merit of stature as a subject for inquiries into heredity is that 
marriage selection takes little or no account of shortness or tallness. There are 
undoubtedly sexual preferences for moderate contrast in height, but the marriage 
choice appears to be guided by so many and more important considerations that 
questions of stature exert no perceptible influence upon it. This is by no means 
my only inquiry into this subject, but, as regards the present data, my test lay in 
dividing the 205 male parents and the 205 female parents each into three groups— 
tall, medium, and short (medium being taken as 67 inches and upwards to 70 
inches), and in counting the number of marriages in each possible combination 
between them. ‘The result was that men and women of contrasted heights, short 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1209 


and tall or tall and short, married just about as frequently as men and women of 
similar heights, both tall or both short; there were 32 cases of the one to 27 of 
the other. In applying the law of probabilities to investigations into heredity of 
stature, we may regard the married folk as couples picked out of the general popu- 
lation at haphazard. 

The advantages of stature as a subject in which the simple laws of heredity may 
be studied will now be understood. It isa nearly constant value that is frequently 
measured and recorded, and its discussion is little entangled with considerations 
of nurture, of the survival of the fittest, or of marriage selection. We have only 
to consider the mid-parentage and not to trouble ourselves about the parents 
separately. The statistical variations of stature are extremely regular, so much 
so that their general conformity with the results of calculations based on the 
abstract law of frequency of error is an accepted fact by anthropologists. I have 
made much use of the properties of that law in cross-testing my various con- 
clusions, and always with success. 

The only drawback to the use of stature is its small variability. One-half of 
the population with whom I dealt varied less than 1:7 inch from the average of 
all of them, and one-half of the offspring of similar mid-parentages varied less than 
1:5 inch from the average of their own heights. On the other hand, the precision 
of my data is so small, partly due to the uncertainty in many cases whether the 
height was measured with the shoes on or off, that I find by means of an indepen- 
dent inquiry that each observation, taking one with another, is liable to an error 
that as often as not exceeds % of an inch. 

It must be clearly understood that my inquiry is primarily into the inheritance 
of different degrees of tallness and shortness. That is to say, of measurements 
made from the crown of the head to the level of mediocrity, upwards or downwards 
as the case may be, and not from the crown of the head to the ground. In the 
population with which I deal the level of mediocrity is 684 inches (without shoes). 
The same law applying with sufficient closeness both to tallness and shortness, we 
may include both under the single head of deviations, and I shall call any particular 
deviation a. ‘deviate.’ By the use of this word and that of ‘ mid-parentage’ 
we can define the law of regression very briefly. It is that the height-deviate of 
the offspring is, on the average, two-thirds of the height-deviate of its mid- 
parentage. 

If this remarkable law had been based only on experiments on the diameters 
of the seeds, it might well be distrusted until confirmed by other inquiries. If it 
were corroborated merely by the observations on human stature, of which I am 
about to speak, some hesitation might be expected before its truth could be 
recognised in opposition to the current belief that the child tends to resemble its 
parents. But more can be urged than this. It is easily to be shown that we 
ought to expect filial regression, and that it should amount to some constant frac- 
tional part of the value cf the mid-parental deviation. It is because this explana- 
tion confirms the previous observations made both on seeds and on men that I feel 
justified on the present occasion in drawing attention to this elementary law. 

The explanation of it is as follows. The child inherits partly from his parents, 
partly from his ancestry. Speaking generally, the further his genealogy goes back, 
the more numerous and varied will his ancestry become, until they cease to differ 
from any equally numerous sample taken at haphazard from the race at large. 
Their mean stature will then be the same as that of the race; in other words, it 
will be mediocre. Or, to put the same fact into another form, the most probable 
value of the mid-ancestrai deviates in any remote generation is zero. 

For the moment let us confine our attention to the remote ancestry and to the 
mid-parentages, and ignore the intermediate generations. The combination of the 
zero of the ancestry with the deviate of the mid-parentage is that of nothing with 
something, and the result resembles that of pouring a uniform proportion of pure 
water into a vessel of wine. It dilutes the wine to a constant fraction of its 
original alcoholic strength, whatever that strength may have been. 

The intermediate generations will each in their degree do the same. The mid- 
deviate of any one of them will have a value intermediate between that of the mid- 


1210 } REPORT—1883. 


parentage and the zero value of the ancestry. Its combination with the mid- 
parental deviate will be as if, not pure water, but a mixture of wine and water in 
some definite proportion had been poured into the wine. The process throughout 
is one of proportionate dilutions, and therefore the joint effect of all of them is to 
weaken the original wine in a constant ratio. 

We have no word to express the form of that ideal and composite progenitor, 
whom the offspring of similar mid-parentages most nearly resemble, and from 
whose stature their own respective heights diverge evenly, above and below. He, 
she, or it, may be styled the ‘generant’ of the group, I shall shortly explain 
what my notion of a generant is, but for the moment it is sufficient to show that 
the parents are not.identical with the generant of their own offspring. 

The average regression of the offspring to a constant fraction of their respective 
mid-parental deviations, which was first observed in the diameters of seeds, and 
then confirmed by observations on human stature, is now shown to be a perfectly 
reasonable law which might have been deductively foreseen. It is of so simple a 
character that I haye made an arrangement with one movable pulley and two 
fixed ones by which the probable average height of the children of known parents 
can be mechanically reckoned. This law tells heavily against the full hereditary 
transmission of any rare and yaluable gift, as only a few of many children would 
resemble their mid-parentage. The more exceptional the gift, the more exceptional 
will be the good fortune of a parent who has a son who equals, and still more if he 
has a son who overpasses him. The law is even-handed; it levies the same heavy 
succession-tax on the transmission of badness as well as of goodness. If it dis- 
courages the extravagant expectations of gifted parents that their children will 
inherit all their powers, it no less discountenances extravagant fears that they will 
inherit all their weaknesses and diseases. 

The converse of this law is very far from being its numerical opposite. Because 
the most probable deviate of the son is only two-thirds that of his mid-parentage, 
it does not in the least follow that the most probable deviate of the mid-parentage is 
8, or 1} that of the son. Thenumber of individuals ina population who differ little 
from mediocrity is so preponderant that it is more frequently the case that an ex- 
ceptional man is the somewhat exceptional son of rather mediocre parents, than 
the average son of very exceptional parents. It appears from the very same table 
of observations by which the value of the filial regression was determined, when it 
is read in a different way, namely, in yertical columns instead of in horizontal lines, 
that the most probable mid-parentage of a man is one that deviates only one-third 
as much as the man does. ‘here is a great difference between this value of 3 and 
the numerical converse mentioned above of 3; it is four and a half times smaller, 
since 4}, or 3, being multiplied into 4, is equal to 3. 

Let it not be supposed for a moment that these figures invalidate the general 
doctrine that the children of a gifted pair are much more likely to be gifted than 
the children of a mediocre pair. What it asserts is that the ablest child of one 
gifted pair is not likely to be as gifted as the ablest of all the children of very 
many mediocre pairs. Howeyer, as, notwithstanding this explanation, some sus- 
picion may remain of a paradox lurking in these strongly contrasted results, I 
will explain the form in which the table of data was drawn up, and give an 
anecdote connected with it. Its outline was constructed by ruling a sheet into 
squares, and writing a series of heights in inches, such as 60 and under 61,61 and 
under 62, &c., along its top, and another similar series down its side. The former 
referred to the height of offspring, the latter to that of mid-parentages. Hach square 
in the table was formed by the intersection of a vertical column with a horizontal 
one, and in each square was inserted the number of children out of the 930 who 
were of the height indicated by the heading of the vertical column, and who 
at the same time were born of mid-parentages of the height indicated at the side 
of the horizontal column. I take an entry out of the table as an example. In 
the square where the vertical column headed 1 69- is intersected by the horizontal 


1 A matter of detailis here ignored which has nothing to do with the main 
principle, and would only serve to perplex if I described it. ; 


———— NT eer. ee eee 


ey 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. LEE 


column by whose side 67— is marked, the entry 38 is found; this means that 
out of the 980 children 38 were born of mid-parentages of 69 and under 70 inches 
who also were 67 and under 68 inches in height. I found it hard at first to catch 
the full significance of the entries in the table, which had curious relations that 
were very interesting to investigate. Lines drawn through entries of the same 
value formed a series of concentric and similar ellipses. Their common centre lay 
at the intersection of the vertical and horizontal lines, that corresponded to 68 
inches. Their axes were similarly inclined. The points where each ellipse in 
succession was touched by a horizontal tangent, lay in a straight line inclined to 
the vertical in the ratio of 2; those where they were touched by a vertical tangent, 
lay in a straight line inclined to the horizontal in the ratio of 3. These ratios con- 
firm the values of average regression already obtained by a different method, of 3 
from mid-parent to offspring and of 4 from offspring to mid-parent. These and 
other relations were evidently a subject for mathematical analysis and verification. 
They were all clearly dependent on three elementary data, supposing the law 
of frequency of error to be applicable throughout ; these data being (1) the measure 
of racial variability, (2) that of co-family variability (counting the offspring 
of like mid-parentages as members of the same co-family), and (8) the average 
ratio of regression. I noted these values, and phrased the problem in abstract 
terms such as a competent mathematician could deal with, disentangled from all 
reference to heredity, and in that shape submitted it to Mr. J. Hamilton Dickson, 
of St. Peter’s College, Cambridge. I asked him kindly to investigate for me the 
surface of frequency of error that would result from these three data, and the 
various particulars of its sections, one of which would form the ellipses to which I 
have alluded. 

I may be permitted to say that I never felt such a glow of loyalty and respect 
towards the sovereignty and magnificent sway of mathematical analysis as when 
his answer reached me, confirming, by purely mathematical reasoning, my various 
and laborious statistical conclusions with far more minuteness than I had dared to 
hope, for the original data ran somewhat roughly, and I had to smooth them with 
tender caution. His calculation corrected my observed value of mid-parental re- 

: 1 6 
gression from 3 to 7 
ellipses was changed 3 per cent., their inclination was changed less than 2°. It is 
obvious, then, that the law of error holds throughout the investigation with sufli- 
cient precision to be of real service, and that the various results of my statistics 
are not casual determinations, but strictly interdependent. 

In the lecture at the Royal Institution to which I have referred, I pointed out 
the remarkable way in which one generation was succeeded by another that proved 
to be its statistical counterpart. I there had to discuss the various agencies of the 
suryival of the fittest, of relative fertility, and so forth ; but the selection of human 
stature as the subject of investigation now enables me to get rid of all these com- 
plications and to discuss this very curious question under its simplest form. How 
is it, I ask, that in each successive generation there proves to be the same number 
of men per thousand, who range between any limits of stature we please to specify, 
although the tall men are rarely descended from equally tall parents, or the short 
men from equally short? How is the balance from other sources so nicely made 
up? The answer is that the process comprises two opposite sets of actions, one 
concentrative and the other dispersive, and of such a character that they necessarily 
neutralise one another, and fall into a state of stable equilibrium. By the first set, 
a system of scattered elements is replaced by another system which is less scat- 
tered ; by the second set, each of these new elements becomes a centre whence a 
third system of elements are dispersed. The details are as follows :—In the first 
of these two stages, the units of the population group themselves, as it were by 
chance, into married couples, whence the mid-parentages are derived, and then by a 
regression of the values of the mid-parentages the true generants are derived. In 
the second stage each generant is a centre whence the offspring diverge. The 
stability of the balance between the opposed tendencies is due to the regression 
being proportionate to the deviation ; it acts like a spring against a weight. 


the relation between the major and minor axis of the 


1212 REPORT—1885. 


A simple equation connects the three data of race variability, of the ratio of 
regression, and of co-family variability, whence, if any two are given, the third 
may be found. My observations give separate measures of all three, and their 
values fit well into the equation, which is of the simple form— 


22 
oS +fP=p*, 
where v=%, p=1°7, f=1'5. 

It will therefore be understood that a complete table of mid-parental and filial 
heights may be calculated from two simple numbers. 

It will be gathered from what has been said, that a mid-parental deviate of 
one unit implies a mid-grandparental deviate of 4, a mid-ancestral unit in the next 
generation of 4, and so on. I reckon from these and other data, by methods that I 
cannot stop to explain, that the heritage derived on an average from the mid- 
parental deviate, independently of what it may imply or of what may be known 
concerning the previous ancestry, is only $3. Consequently, that similarly derived 
from a single parent is only }, and that from a single grandparent is only ;.. 

The most elementary data upon which a complete table of mid-parental and 
filial heights admits of being constructed, are (1) the ratio between the mid- 
parental and the rest of the ancestral influences, and (2) the measure of the co- 
family variability. 

I cannot now pursue the numerous branches that spring from the data I have 
given,asfromaroot, I will not speak of the continued domination of one type over 
others, nor of the persistency of unimportant characteristics, nor of the inheritance 
of disease, which is complicated in many cases by the requisite concurrence of two 
separate heritages, the one of a susceptible constitution, the other of the germs of 
the disease. Still less can I enter upon the subject of fraternal characteristics, 
which I have also worked out. It will suffice for the present to haye shown 
some of the more important conditions associated with the idea of race, and how 
the vague word type may be defined by peculiarities in hereditary transmission, at 
all events when that word is applied to any single quality, such as stature. To 
include those numerous qualities that are not strictly measurable, we must omit 
reference to number and proportion, and frame the definition thus :—‘The type 
is an ideal form towards which the children of those who deviate from it tend 
to recress,’ 

The stability of a type would, I presume, be measured by the strength of its 
tendency to regress; thus a mean regression from 1 in the mid-parents to 3 in the 
offspring would indicate only half as much stability as if it had been to 3. 

The mean regression in stature of a population is easily ascertained, but I do not 
see much use in knowing it. It has already been stated that half the population 
vary less than 1-7 inch from mediocrity, this being what is technically known as the 
‘probable’ deviation. The mean deviation is, by a well-known theory, 1:18 times 
that of the probable deviation, therefore in this case it is 1‘9 inch. The mean loss 
through regression is 4 of that amount, or a little more than 0°6 inch. That is to 
say, taking one child with another, the mean amount by which they fall short of 
their mid-parental peculiarity of stature is rather more than six-tenths of an 
inch. 

With respect to these and the other numerical estimates, I wish emphatically 
to say that I offer them only as being serviceably approximate, though they are 
mutually consistent, and with the desire that they may be reinvestigated by the 
help of more abundant and much more accurate measurements than those I have 
had at command. There are many simple and interesting relations to which I 
am still unable to assign numerical vaiues for lack of adequate material, such 
as that to which I referred some time back, of the superior influence of the father 
over the mother on the stature of their sons and daughters. 

The limits of deviation beyond which there is no regression, but a new con- 
dition of equilibrium is entered into, and a new type comes into existence, have 
still to be explored. Let us consider how much we can infer from undisputed facts 
of heredity regarding the conditions amid which any form of stable equilibrium 
such as is implied by the word type must be established, or might be disestablished 


i iat 


#4 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1213 


and superseded by another. In doing so I will follow cautiously along the same 
pate by which Darwin started to construct his provisional theory of pangenesis ; 

ut it is not in the least necessary to go so far as that theory or to entangle our- 
selves in any questioned hypothesis. 

There can be no doubt that heredity proceeds to a considerable extent, perhaps 
principally, in a piecemeal or piebald fashion, causing the person of the child to be 
to that extent a mosaic of independent ancestral heritages, one part coming with 
more or less variation from this progenitor, and another from that. To express this 
aspect of inheritance, where particle proceeds from particle, we may conveniently 
describe it as ‘ particulate.’ 

So far as the transmission of any feature may be regarded as an example of 
particulate inheritance, so far (it seems little more than a truism to assert) the 
element from which that feature was developed must have been particulate also. 
Therefore, wherever a feature in a child was not personally possessed by either 
parent, but transmitted through one of them from a more distant progenitor, the 
element whence that feature was developed must have existed in a particulate, 
though impersonal and latent form, in the body of the parent. The total heritage 
of that parent will have included a greater variety of material than was utilised 
in the formation of his own personal structure. Only a portion of it became 
developed ; the survival of at least a small part of the remainder is proved, and 
that of a larger part may be inferred by his transmitting it to the person of his 
child. Therefore the organised structure of each individual should be viewed as the 
fulfilment of only one out of an indefinite number of mutually exclusive possibilities. 
It is the development of a single sample drawn out of a group of elements. The 
conditions under which each element in the sample became selected are, of course, 
unknown, but it is reasonable to expect they would fall under one or other of the 
following agencies: first, self-selection, where each element selects its most suitable 
neighbour, as in the theory of pangenesis; secondly, general co-ordination, or the 
influence exerted on each element by many or all of the remaining ones, whether 
in its immediate neighbourhood or not; finally, a group of diverse agencies, alike 
only in the fact that they are not uniformly helpful cr harmful, that they influence 
with no constant purpose—in philosophical language, that they are not teleological; 
in popular language, that they are accidents or chances. Their inclusion renders it 
impossible to predict the peculiarities of individual children, though it does not 
prevent the prediction of average results. We now see something of the general 
character of the conditions amid which the stable equilibrium that characterises each 
race must subsist. 

Political analogies of stability and change of type abound, and are useful to fix 
the ideas, as I pointed out some years ago. Let us take that which is afforded 
by the government of a colony which has become independent. The individual 
colonists rank as particulate representatives of families or other groups in the 
parent country. The organised colonial government ranks as the personality of 
the colony, being its mouthpiece and executive. The government is evolved amid 
political strife, one element prevailing here and another there. The prominent 
victors band themselves into the nucleus of a party, additions to their number and 
revisions of it ensue, until a body of men are associated capable of conducting 
a completely organised administration. The kinship between the form of govern- 
ment of the colony and that of the parent state is far from direct, and resembles 
in a general way that which I conceive to subsist between the child and his 
mid-parentage. We should expect to find many points of resemblance between 
the two, and many instances of great dissimilarity, for our political analogy teaches 
us only too well on what slight accidents the character of the government may 


depend when parties are nearly balanced. 


The appearance of a new and useful family peculiarity is a boon to breeders, 
who by selection in mating gradually reduce the preponderance of those ancestral 
elements that endanger reversion. The appearance of a new type is due to causes 
that lie beyond our reach, so we ought to welcome every useful one as a happy 
chance, and do our best to domicile and perpetuate it. When heredity shall have 
become much better and more generally understood than now, I can believe that 


1214 REPORT—1885. 


we shall look upon a neglect to conserve any valuable form of family type as a 
wrongful waste of opportunity. The appearance of each new natural peculiarity 
is a faltering step in the upward journey of evolution, over which, in outward 
appearance, the whole living world is blindly blundering and stumbling, but whose 
general direction man has the intelligence dimly to discern, and whose progress he 
has power to facilitate. 


FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 11. 
The foliowing Papers were read :— 
1. Insular Greek Customs. By J. Turoporr Bent. 


Reasons why the islands of the Aigean Sea have retained more ancient customs 
than the mainland: (a) from not being overrun by barbarian hordes, (0) not 
blended with Italian rulers, (¢) leniently treated by Turks. 

The customs concerning birth and childhood compared with ancient ones ; fate- 
telling ; deleterious influence of Nereids on children; the Nereids compared with 
ancient myths. The customs concerning death; the poetry of death-wails; the belief 
in Charon and Hades existing still; the freight-money for the ferryman of the Styx. 
Instances of burial in the islands. The feasts for the dead ; belief in vampires; and 
other points which can be traced to a remote antiquity. 

Love of a modern Greek for personifying the mysterious ; a modern Erinnys; 
the views of an islander on the sun; the month of March. 

Parallel cases from industrial life between ancient and modern times; the feast 
of Bacchus at Seriphos; Dionysos on Naxos; the drunken St. George on Paros; 
resinated wine. 

Some instances from agricultural life of a like nature. Ceremony before the 
sowing of seed ; skins for grain; granaries in the ground ; ploughs, hoes, and other 
articles of agriculture ; also names for animals. 


2. On the Working of the Ancient Monuments Act of 1882. 
By General Pirt-Rivers, Ff. B.S. 


3. American Shell-work and its Affinities. By Miss A. W. Bucktanp. 


In this paper the attention of anthropologists is called to some remarkable 
works in shell, recently discovered in mounds in various States of North America, 
as described by Mr. W. H. Holmes in a valuable contribution to the ‘ Proceedings 
of the Bureau of Ethnology,’ Washington. These shell-works consist not only of 
beads of various forms and sizes, but also of celts, fish-hooks, clubs and other im- 
plements of war and the chase; bracelets, pins, crosses of various forms, and more 
particularly of masks and elaborately engraved gorgets, the ornamentation upon 
which seems to bear some religious or astronomical signification. Some of these 
forms are traced by Mr. Holmes to ancient Mexico, and Miss Buckland points out 
that not only are almost all the forms, both of implements and ornaments, to 
be found in islands of the Pacific, but also that some of the peculiar symbols 
engraved upon the ancient American gorgets re-appear slightly altered on shell 
gorgets in the Solomon and Admiralty Islands, and also on the great drum from 
Japan exhibited this year at South Kensington. From this, and from the record 
of a Peruvian vessel laden with merchandise haying been met far out at sea by the 
Spanish navigators, it may be inferred that a commerce existed between the 
islands of the Pacific and the American continent prior to the Spanish Conquest, 
and that to this may be traced not only the resemblances in the shell ornaments 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1215 


described, but also the similarity in the games and calendars of Mexico and Japan 
pointed out by Dr. Tylor, as well as some ethnical peculiarities observed by Mr. 
Moseley as existing in the Admiralty Islands. 


4, Note on the Redmen about Roraima. By E. F. 1m Tourn. 


After referring to his already published views as to the inter-relationship, 
origins, and classification of the various tribes of Redmen now in Guiana, the 
author dwelt specially on the places to be assigned in this classification to the 
Partamonas, Macoosis, and Arekoonas, the three tribes through whose territory he 
passed on his way to Roraima. Next he briefly detailed the route followed by 
him on that journey, with special reference to the anthropological facts noted by 
the way. This was followed by remarks on various special anthropological points ; 
on the curious isolation of the one tribe from the other, and even in some cases of 
one part from another part of the same tribe; on certain survivals which he 
noticed of habits of the stone age, such as the persistent manufacture of stone im- 
plements and the retention, to some small extent, of the art of engraving pictures 
on rocks, Finally, a detailed account was given of certain games or dances which 
had been performed by the Macoosis for the amusement of the author, chiefly 
rudely dramatic representations of the doings of various animals and birds, together 
with a few representing impressive events which happen, but happen only rarely, 
in the lives of the players, 


do. A Game with a History. By J. W. Cromer, M.A. 


As children in their play generally imitate something they have observed to be 
done by their elders, and a game once introduced is handed down from generation 
to generation of children long after its original has ceased to exist, many innocent- 
looking children’s games conceal strange records of past ages and pagan times ; 
hence the importance of the study of this apparently frivolous subject is now fully 
recognised by anthropologists. 

The game of ‘Hop-Scotch’ is one of great antiquity, having been known 
in England for more than two centuries, and is played all over Europe under 
different names. Signor Pitré’s solar explanation of its origin appears improbable, 
for it would require the original number of divisions in the figure to have been 
twelve, whereas a considerable body of evidence can be adduced to show that it 
was seven. 

It would seem more probable that the game at one time represented the progress 
of the soul from earth to heaven through various intermediate states, the name 
given to the last court being most frequently Paradise or an equivalent, such as 
Crown or Glory, while Purgatory, Limbo Rest, &c., occur as names of the other 
courts, which corresponds with the eschatological ideas prevalent in the early days 
of Christianity. Some such game existed prior to Christianity, and the author 
considers that it has been derived from several ancient games; possibly the strange 
myths of the labyrinths may have had something to do with ‘ Hop-Scotch,’ and a 
variety of the game is played in England and France, upon a figure almost identical 
with that of a game described by Pliny as being played by the boys of his day. 

The author believes that the early Christians adopted the general idea of the 
ancient game, but they not only conyerted it into an allegory of heaven, with 
Christian beliefs and Christian names, they Christianised the figure also; aban- 
doning the heathen labyrinth they replaced it by the form of the Basilicon, 
the early Christian church, dividing it into seven parts, as they believed heaven to 
be divided, and placing Paradise, the inner sanctum of heaven, in the position of 
the altar, the inner sanctum of their earthly church. 


6. The Rule of the Road from an Anthropological poiné of view. 
By Sir Grorce Campsett, K.C.8.I. 


1216 REPORT—1885. 


7. On the Modes of Grinding and Drying Corn in old times. 
By Miss Jeanie M. Larne. 


In the lands of Tillyfour, in Aberdeenshire, are the ruins of an old hamlet, with 
straw kiln attached. Those kilns were used for drying corn before sending it to 
the mill. The kiln was conical in shape, joists called cabers were laid across, some 
distance from the ground. Above these were roughly hewn saplings called 
simmers. On top of these was spread straw, and on the straw was laid the corn. 
A fire was kindled on the ground, and the heat ascending, dried the corn. A stone 
called a sparker was placed above the fire, to catch the sparks. In spite of this 
precaution, the kiln sometimes took fire. When dry, the corn was put into a 
place called a ‘dry corn bed.’ When quite cool it was ‘riddled’ and sent to the 
mill. At an earlier period corn was ground between two millstones, with an iron 
rod by way ofa handle, This primitive ‘ mill’ was called a quern, and was gene- 
rally turned by two females, as in Eastern lands, In later times querns were used 
for grinding malt. Straw kilns have not been in use in Aberdeenshire for nearly 
a century. 


8. The Flint-knappers’ Art in Albania. By A. J. Evans. 


The author exhibited some Albanian gun-flints and strike-a-lights, partially cased 
in ornamental lead sheaths studded with glass gems, and described the method now 
adopted by the Albanian flint-knappers for producing these highly finished imple- 
ments. The flints were obtained from a range of hills distant about two hours 
from Joannina, and were mostly of tabular shape, scattered in profusion about the 
summit of a limestone plateau, but there were no signs of their having been used 
for manufacture in ancient times, nor have any flint implements of prehistoric 
date been found either in Epirus or Albania, though several polished stone axes of 
diorite and other materials have come to light. At present the chief site of flint- 
knapping industry is Valona and its neighbourhood, and in this case the flints are 
collected on the Acroceraunian mountains. 


9. The Discovery of Naukratis. By W.M. Frtnvers Perrier. 


The work of the Egypt Exploration Fund which I have carried on in the first 
half of this year has brought to light the remains of the city of Naukratis, the great 
emporium of the archaic Greeks in Egypt. Though often sought for by travellers, 
no proof of its position had been obtained until I visited the mounds of Nebireh, 
about five miles from Teh el Barid station on the Cairo and Alexandria Railway. 
No archeologist had seen the place before, and I only heard of it by inquiring of 
Arab dealers, Here I found a decree of the city of Naukratis, a coin of that city 
of an unknown type, and innumerable remains of the archaic period which agree 
closely with the historical accounts of the place. 

Omitting all questions which relate only to art and architecture, we will briefly 
note the results which are of more general and scientific interest. 

Naukratis was essentially a commercial and manufacturing centre of the 
Mediterranean trade during the early Greek period. The commerce is repeatedly 
mentioned by historians, and is amply proved by the great number of ancient 
weights of the different standards that are found: in six months my collection of 
weights rose to four times the whole number of Egyptian weights yet known and 
published, and double the number of Babylonian, while the Attic weights are 
about half the number yet known from Greece and other countries, The manu- 
facturing importance of the place is shown by the various trades of which the 
remains were found. Ironworks flourished here as early as the middle of the 
sixth century B.c.—quantities of ore, of slag, and of finished tools of various 
kinds show this. Copper was also worked, the ore, slag, and finished objects 
remaining here. A silversmith’s store of dumps of melted silver and early Greek 
coins yet unmelted was also found. Potteries existed on a large scale; the kilns 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1217 


still remain, the thick strata of burnt earth thrown away in clearing them, and a 
great amount of pottery of a style not known elsewhere. Glazed ware was also 
made here, and large quantities of Greek imitations of Egyptian scarabzi and the 
moulds employed in making them ; such scarabeei were exported to Greece, and 
are often found in early Greek tombs. Shell-wcrking was also practised, and it 
is probably to Naukratis that we should attribute the carving of the Oriental 
Tridacna shells, usually attributed to the Phcenicians. Of the trade in later times, 
after Alexander, the immense quantity of amphora handles with names from 
Rhodes, Knidos, &c., are good witnesses. 

On the history of Greek writing light is also obtained, and we see that as early 
as the beginning of the sixth century B.c. writing was almost universal on the 
hundreds of bowls and vases dedicated in the temples, fragments of more than 
two hundred such inscriptions having been found in clearing the rubbish-hole of 
the archaic temple of Apollo; among them one by the traitor Phanes which can 
be dated within a few years of 540 B.c. The majority, however, are earlier than 
this. 

The history of Greek ornament is also illustrated, and we may trace the lotus 
pattern of Egypt, serving as the basis on which the Greeks developed their honey- 
suckle ornament with the aid of the Assyrian tree pattern. 

In short, we see here the Greeks, with a versatile and highly plastic nature, 
rapidly developing their arts and manufactures upon the models of the old civili- 
sation of Egypt. 

Another, and very different, interest is afforded by the illustration of Egyptian 
ceremonial at the foundation of their great buildings. For the first time the series 
of ceremonial deposits has been found, and we see the models of the vases for the 
libations, the cups for offerings, and the sacrificial instruments of the ceremony ; 
the models of the tools used on the building—the hoe, mortar-rake, adze, chisel, 
hatchet, trowel, and marking-pegs; the samples of all the materials—mud-brick, 
glazed pottery, agate, jasper, lapis-lazuli, turquoise, and obsidian; the metals— 
gold, silver, lead, copper, and iron ; and the founder’s name—Ptolemy II.—engrayed 
on lapis-lazuli. A model mortar and pair of corn-rubbers accompanied these 
deposits, and may refer to some unknown ceremony, or to the purpose of the 
building. 

The large collection of objects found will be distributed among public collec- 
tions, the most important going to the British Museum. 


SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 12. 


The Section did not meet. 


MONDAY, SEPTEMBER 14. 
The following Papers and Report were read :— 
1. On Ancient Tombs in the Greek Islands. By J. Tueopore Bent. 


The study of tombs in the Greek islands is conducive to a knowledge of ancient 
and forgotten lines of commerce. There are two periods in which the islands seem 
to have been especially used as depéts for trade: 

1. The prehistoric period. Tombs at Antiparos; why this island is especially 
favourable for this study ; nature of the tombs ; the marble ; obsidian pottery and 
jewellery finds ; speculative remarks as to the date of this race which first peopled 
these islands. 


- 1885. 45 


1218 REPORT—1885. 


2. The historic period. Rock-cut tombs on Karpathos ; the commercial town of 
Bourgounta and its favourable situation for commerce; the various descriptions of 
rock-cut tombs to be found there, and the class of things found in them. 


2. A New Cave Man of Mentone. By Tuomas WItson. 


In February 1884 there was discovered in one of the famous caverns at Men- 
tone in the Alpes Maritimes, France, a skeleton of one of the ancient and original 
inhabitants, believed to have belonged to the paleolithic age. It is the purpose of 
this paper to give some of the details of the discovery, and offer some suggestions 
concerning the epoch to which the man belonged. 

The caverns at Mentone are nine in number. They are nearly alike in their 
form, general character, and appearance. They are all in the same rock, with the 
same exposure or outlook, at the same level, belong to the same age, and were 
doubtless occupied at the same time. They form together a sort of prehistoric 
village, and their characteristics and evidence are not to be taken separately and 
isolated, but together and as a whole, making an aggregate testimony which gains 
momentum with each discovery. 

The New Cave Man of Mentone.—Monsieur Riviére’s discovery, and the name, 
‘Vhomme de Menton,’ by which it has been known, induces me to give this name 
to this discovery. 

The excavations were made during the winter of 1883-4 by Monsieur Louis 
Julien, of Marseilles, and at his expense, aided by the advice of Monsieur Bonfils, 
Curator of the Museum at Mentone. 

He employed four or five men continuously during the entire winter. 

This cavern is marked on Monsieur Riviére’s chart as No. 5, but is known in 
the neighbourhood as No. 4—‘la quatriéme grotte. 

It had been searched many times before, and about 9 or 10 feet in depth had 
been removed from the original surface, which, however, was plainly marked by a 
large piece of bréche which still adhered to the perpendicular side wall. 

The formation of the floor of the cavern and the process of its filling up 
presented all the usual evidences of human occupation and industry: charcoal, 

urnt earth and ashes, hearthstones, split and broken bones of animals (estimated 
to the number of 15,000 pieces), flint instruments, chips, nuclei, &c., &c., were 
found in sufficient number, quantity, and distribution, to indicate an indefinitely 
long occupation. 

No morsel of pottery was found, nor were any of the stone implements polished. 

At the depth (from the original surface) of 8 métres 40 centimétres was found 
the skeleton of this ‘new cave man of Mentone.’ He was laid on his back with his 
limbs extended, and had for funeral equipments three large chips of flint (éclats de 
silex) 6 or 7 inches long and 23 inches broad, in the form of the largest scrapers, 
placed one on each shouider, like epaulettes, and one on the brow. Jt appeared to be 
an interment. 

This became more evident when it was found that the body was placed in a sort 
of natural vault or tomb, formed on one side by the wall of the cavern, and on the 

other by an immense block of stone with an overhanging edge, which reached to a 
line perpendicularly over the centre of the skeleton. This placing of the body 
required an excavation between these rocks of 3 or 4 feet in depth. 

The skull was broken into sixty fragments by the pick of the workman ; it 
was carefully taken up and put together by Monsieur Bonfils, and is now exposed 
in the Museum at Mentone. This was a fortunate accident, for while the rest of the 
skeleton was being exhumed a quarrel broke out as to the ownership, which ended 
in the theft and utter destruction of all that remained. 

Observations—Differences in the reports of the depth at which Monsieur 
Riviére’s skeleton was found may be reconciled by suggesting the misapplication 
or misunderstanding of métres and feet. He has reported the depth at 6 métres 
and a fraction, It has been reported in English 6 feet and a fraction. Its 


——— 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1219 


depth from the original floor was without much doubt about 6 métres (20 or 
more feet). 

Professor Boyd Dawkins believes these caverns to be of ‘ doubtful antiquity.’ I 
suppose he means their occupation by man to be of doubtful antiquity. He 
asserts there is nothing to show that the earth has not been disturbed down to the 
layer at which the skeletons were found; and Monsieur Mortillet classes Monsieur 
Riviére’s homme de Menton as neolithic, because of the interment and of the 
bone potncon and shell beads found with him. 

The new discovery dissipates all idea of disturbance, for while disturbance 
might exist for one or two, or eyen five or six feet, to the depth of twenty or 
thirty feet it would be impossible. 

It must be conceded that the human industry, as manifested by the objects 
found in these caverns, indicates their occupation during the paleolithic age, for of 
the thousands found all bear the impress of that age, while none denote particularly 
the age of polished stone. 

To say that the interment belongs to an occupation subsequent to that indicated 
by the implements found in the cavern, means an interment made by a subsequent 
race, and consequently made from the then surface or floor of the cavern. This 
would require a grave to be dug by the neolithic man with his fingers, his 
stone hatchet, or his deer-horn pick, to a depth of from 6 to 9 métres, or 20 to 
30 feet. This, in earth packed hard and solid, filled with sharp stones, flint chips 
and implements, and bone splinters, may be regarded as improbable, if not im- 

ossible. 
; Tt took Messieurs Riviére and Julien, with a full corps of trained and paid 
workmen, working under an overseer, and armed with all modern implements, steel 
picks and shovels, barrows, &c., from one to three months’ steady work to arrive at 
the same depth. 

That there was an interment would seem to be undoubted, but it was made from 
a reasonable depth, and was sufficient to serve the purposes of protection and safety 
of the body. A ‘reasonable depth’ say from three to eight feet for this purpose 
would seem to indicate the occupation and industry of that people to which the 
deceased in his lifetime belonged. This is clearly paleolithic, and not neolithie— 
is, in fact, the Madélienne époque of Monsieur de Mortillet, if not earlier, and 
approaching the Moustérienne. 

The occupation of this country by prehistoric man would seem to be divided 
into three zones or belts: 

1. On the border of the sea, by the paleolithic man. Possibly the glaciers 
prevented his occupation farther inland, or destroyed the evidence of it, if any 
existed. 

2. On the heights, and inland for a few miles, by the neolithic man, where are 
to be found pottery, flint, and in some places bronze. 

3, All that country farther inland and among the mountains, in which, as yet, 
none or very few prehistoric remains of any age have been found. 


3. Happaway Cavern, Torquay. By Wit11AM PencELty, F.R.S., F.G.S. 


Happaway Cavern occupies the south-western slope of a Devonian limestone 
hill bounding the principal street of Torquay, and is about 200 feet above the sea. 
Tt was discovered in October 1862 by quarrymen breaking into it in the ordinary 
course of their work, and, at the request of the late Lord Haldon, the proprietor, 
the author undertook its exploration in June 1863, when he performed the manual 
labour with his own hands in order to eliminate all possibility of doubt respecting 
the genuineness, as well as the exact positions and associations, of such objects of 
interest as might be found. 

The cavern, when completely emptied in 1866, proved to be about 46 feet long, 
from 10 to 15 feet broad, and 10 feet high. There was no stalagmitic floor, nor 


412 


1220 REPORT— 1885. 


any satisfactory indication that there ever had been one. The deposit was usually 
divisible into three zones :— 

First, or uppermost.—Fine friabie earth, of light chocolate colour, rather dry, 
containing bones and bits of charred wood, but very few stones. Extending from 
the surface to about six inches below it. 

Second.—Moist tenacious earth, of dark colour, containing bones and bits of 
charred wood, stones lying at all angles, and commonly angular but occasionally 
rounded. From 6 to 24 inches below the surface. 

Third, or lowermost.—Coarse earth, of somewhat bright red, and rather sandy, 
differing from the higher zones by the presence of larger and more numerous stones, 
with occasional blocks of limestone and pieces of stalagmite, while charred wood 
and bones were less plentiful. 

The objects of interest met with were a few marine shells, numerous terrestrial 
shells, one joint of the vertebral column of a fish, a few bones of birds, bones of 
badger (very numerous), deer, fox, pig, sheep, hare, rabbit, small rodents, bat, two 
teeth of bear, parts of two teeth of rhinoceros, one tooth of hyena, a lower human 
jaw, and parts of two human skulls. 

There were also a few human industrial remains, including charred wood, an 
infra-human skull artificially divided, about fifty flint flakes and chips, and two 
groups of miscellaneous objects taken in by rats or other small animals, and in- 
cluding scraps of paper—many of them printed, bits of cord, very fine wood- 
shavings, and pieces of ribbon. 


4. On the Human Remains found in Happaway Cavern, Torquay. 
By J. G. Garson, M.D. 


Dr. Garson stated that the bones submitted to him by Mr. Pengelly from 
Happaway Cavern consisted of the greater part of a cranium, a mandible, and 
some fragments of the cranium of a child. The bones afforded no indication of 
being of great age. The cranium was mesaticephalic, and was distinctly different 
from either the Long or Round Barrow types, indeed, it presented mixed characters, 
and was such as might be found in any modern graveyard. 


5. On Three Stone Circles in Cumberland, with some further observations 


on the relation of Stone Circles to adjacent hills and outlying stones. 
By A. L. Lewis, M.A.I. 


The author referred to a paper read by him at the York meeting, in which he 
had shown that in eighteen circles in England and Wales there was a marked pre- 
onderance of outlying stones or prominent hills towards the N.E., and that the 
fins S.W. to N.E. was specially characteristic of circles, in opposition to the line 
N.W. to S.E., which was most usual in stone chambers. He then described three 
circles in Cumberland, bringing forward evidence as to some outlying stones not, so 
far as he knew, previously noticed, and showed that these circles conformed to the 
rule already laid down, and that, whereas the Egyptians and the Babylonians 
followed different rules of orientation, the circle builders followed the Babylonians 
rather than the Egyptians—a fact which might ultimately be found to have some 
anthropological importance. After mentioning various facts bearing upon the sub- 
ject generally, and giving a notable instance of a connection between the temple of 
another religion and a hill at some distance from it, Mr. Lewis said that in the 
relation between stone circles and adjacent hills and outlying stones suggestions 
might be found not only of sun worship, but of mountain worship and phallic 
worship, not all of which would, however, necessarily have been obvious to every 
worshipper in the circles. 


Ee A! tn oe 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION It. 1221 


6. The Archceological Importance of ancient British Lake-dwellings and their 
relation to analogous remains in Europe.’ By R. Munro, M.A., M.D. 


Dr. Munro commences by giving a short introductory notice of the discovery 
and investigation of the crannogs of Ireland and the lake-dwellings of Central 
Europe. He then gives a réswmé of the more recent explorations made among the 
crannogs of Scotland and the remarkable objects recovered from them. From a 
comparative examination of these relics with other collateral antiquities of the Celts, 
he arrives at the conclusion that the lake-dwellings of Scotland were essentially the 

roduct of Celtic genius, that they were constructed for defensive purposes, and 
that those in the south-west parts of the country attained their greatest develop- 
ment in post-Roman times, after Roman protection was withdrawn from the pro- 
vincial inhabitants, and they were left single-handed to contend against the Angles 
on the east and the Picts and Scots on the north. Having established the Celtic 
origin of the crannogs of Ireland and Scotland, Dr. Munro proceeds to inquire if 
there is any ancestral relationship between them and the lake-dwellings of Central 
Europe. Taking into account the recent discovery of lacustrine abodes in the 
Holderness, and the few previous records of their existence in Wales and other 
parts of England, together with the statement of Cesar that the Britons were in 
the habit of making use of wooden piles and marshes in their defensive works, he 
thinks that such indications are not merely solitary instances, but the outliers of a 
widely distributed custom which prevailed in the southern parts of Britain at an 
earlier date than that assigned to the crannogs of Scotland. Hence he suggests 
the theory that the British Celts were an offshoot of the founders of the Swiss 
lake-dwellings, who emigrated into Britain when these lacustrine abodes were in 
full vogue, and so retained a knowledge of the custom long after it had fallen into 
desuetude in Europe. On this hypothesis it would follow that subsequent immi- 
grants into Britain, such as the Belge, Angles, &c., being no longer acquainted 
with the subject, would cultivate new and perhaps improyed methods of defensive 
warfare ; whilst the first Celtic invaders, still retaining their primary notions of 
civilisation, when obliged to act on the defensive would naturally have recourse to 
their inherited system of protection. 

. In support of this hypothesis the author points out that the geographical dis- 
tribution of lake-dwellings, so far as they are known in Europe, closely corresponds 
with the area formerly occupied by the Celts; that no lake-dwellings have been 
yet found either in the northern or southern parts of Europe, though the topo- 
graphical and hydrographical conditions of these regions are not unfavourable for 
such structures; that the fascine dwellings in Europe were identical in structure 
with the crannogs; and that, though the pile-dwellings were not largely used in 
the British Isles, the principles on which they were built were not unknown, 
their disuse being due to topographical and other considerations. Finally, he 
argues that the wideness in the chronological gap which is supposed to separate the 
erannogs from the lake-dwellings of Europe is more apparent than real, as the 
latter existed during the Roman occupation of Gaul, and in one instance at least 
the custom survived to about the tenth century. 


7. The Stone Circles in Aberdeenshire, with special reference to those in the 
more Lowland parts of the County, their Extent and Arrangement, singly 
or in groups, with General Observations. By the Rey. JAMES PETER, 
F.S.A. Scot. 


The main object in this paper is to draw attention to and put on record the 
existence of so many interesting remains of a remote antiquity in this part of 
Scotland, and chronicle any information which may be deemed important as 
throwing light on a subject admittedly dark and obscure. 


1 See by the author, Ancient Scottish Lake Divellings (or Crannogs), with a supple- 
mentary chapter on Lake Dwellings in England; Edinburgh, David Douglas. Also 
Journal of Anthropological Institute for 1886. 


1222 REPORT—1885. 


The stone circles of Aberdeenshire, over thirty in all extant, are spread across 
the county, but the author's observatiors are confined mainly to the group in the 
parish of Deer. 

They extend over a wide area, appearing now singly, now in groups. For 
long there would appear to have been no disturbing cause affecting their removal, 
but since the impulse given to agriculture some sixty to seventy years ago, this 
destruction has been lamentably frequent. 

_ As to the arrangement: Putting aside the isolated circles, it may be stated 
that they arrange themselves generally in a group of three, as in the case of 
Newton, Lonmay, &c. The great exception to this is the large group of circles in 
the parish of Deer, or Old Deer, as it is now generally called, comprising an area of 
25,711 acres imperial, or about 40 square miles. This group consists of seven circles 
more or less complete. It occupies the centre of the large district of Buchan, or 
north-eastern division of Aberdeenshire. The circles, including those still subsisting 
in part as well as those now extinct, stretch in a line almost due north and south, 
ten miles in length, from Strichen on the north border of the parish, to the hill of 
Skelmuir on the south. They are all of the same character, with a single exception, 
and placed on the summit of one or other of the secondary knolls, not generally 
exceeding 350 feet, which diversify the surface of the parish. A certain regularity 
attaches to their position, indicating design on the part of those who erected them, 
while an examination of them singly, in reference to their contiguity, proves that 
the chain was so constructed that each link was visible from the nearest, and also 
that thus by a zigzag glance communication was established from one to the 
other. This assertion has been verified by actual and careful observation. 

As to the measurements of the circles generally: Taking seventeen of the most 
complete in the county, it is found the average diameter is 54 feet, number of stones 
that composed the circle 12, average height of the largest individual stones 7 feet, 
distance between the monoliths 133 feet. Im the case of all save three of the 
circles the altar-stone is on the south meridian, but in the exceptions it faces the 
N.E. Of the extant and comparatively complete circles, the one at Ailkybrae or 
Parkhouse, and the other at Strichen, have a similar arrangement and character. 
Both altar-stones have their top flattened with a slope towards the east, and are 
fixed in position by two stones in the shape of wedges on either side, but not. 
opposite, having an opening underneath sufficient to admit of a thong or cord being 
passed. The altar-stone in the Parkhouse one is specially mentioned by Colonel 
Forbes Leslie, and its size given as length 144 feet, breadth 54, and depth 43 feet, 
its gross weight exceeding 21 tons. A third circle, that known as the Loudon- 
wood circle, differs from the Parkhouse one, 24 miles distant, in the matter of the 
altar-stone and side altar-stones, though not in the enclosing stones. The altar- 
stone is not flat but ridgy, while each of the side-stones seen in profile towards it 
presents a very perfect crescent or curve, which, extended on both ends until they 
met, would form a pretty perfect circle with its centre in the middle of the altar- 
stone. It is evident that this was no haphazard arrangement, but one of purpose, 
be that purpose what it may. There is one other circle in the group so different 
from the others that it demands special notice, viz., the White Cow circle. Here 
there is no recumbent or altar-stone, but the circle is formed of small irregular 
stones placed close together and in most cases half buried in heath. In the centre, 
or rather on the corner of the N.E. quadrant, if we divide the circle by lines from 
N, to 8. and E. to W. passing through the centre, is placed a dolmen, the table 
stone of which, once supported by five stones, one on the E., two on the N., with 
two on the S., has been lowered at the open end by the forcible remoyal of one of 
its northern supports. As the direction of the table-stone seemed not to be 
towards any cardinal point of the compass, I resolved to ascertain its actual 
position, and careful observation has brought out the important fact that a line 
drawn along the centre lengthwise from W. to E., and projected to the horizon, 
would strike it as near as may be at 47° north of E., or at the rising of the sun on 
Midsummer Day. The latitude of Deer being 57° 34’ N., sunrise on Midsummer 
Day would occur at about 47° 41’ north of E. ; 

The multiplication of these stone circles, and specially in the north-eastern part 


we 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1223 


of Aberdeenshire, as at Deer, may be assumed as pointing to the existence of a 
considerable population in early times, and if colonisation came from the east, and 
possibly Scandinavia, the most easterly point of Scotland would naturally be one 
of the earliest objective points. Leaving the inhospitable shore, where now stands 
the flourishing port of Peterhead, the new comers would move on up the valley of 
the Ugie in search of shelter, where they would find it in a disirict protected from 
the cold north by moderately high rounded hills, clothed as tradition asserts, and 
the mosses prove, by the friendly oak and hazel. That a large population must at 
an early period have here existed is attested by the numerous cairns and tumuli 
that extend on either side the river towards the west, while scarcely a height but 
retains the remains of some rath or circle within which dwelt the inhabitants with 
the Maormohr or chief. 


8. Stone Circles in Aberdeenshire. By JoHN Mitne, M.A. 


Biffie circle in Deer is a good example. It is 50 feet in diameter and is made 
up of one large horizontal block and ten erect pillars, some now fallen, connected 
by a low wall. The largest stones, as usual in such circles, are placed on the south 
side and the smaller on the north. The best stones at command were always 
taken, but any stone, though not a foot in height, served when better could not be 
got; they are mere place-markers. What would these stones tell us if we could 
understand their language, for they are evidently speaking to us? They were not 
places for defence. Some are on hill-tops, but others on hill-sides commanded by 
higher ground. Nor for worship; they are numerous in some places and not found 
at all in other places; no sanctity attached to them for long. One may be seen en- 
croaching on another whose pillars are still standing. Probably they were places 
of sepulture prepared by kings and chiefs during their lifetime, to be occupied by 
them after death. One circle had inside the outer row of pillars a large closed 
chamber filled with gravel, and on the centre of the floor was an urn. On the 
death of the builder his ashes had been carried into the chamber by a low covered 
way, and then gravel had been poured in by an aperture atthe top. It is not to be 
wondered at that urns and bones are seldom found in them. Ancient graves in 
Aberdeenshire are usually shallow, often not a foot deep, merely a small hole into 
which the ashes of a body burned beside it had been put, with a few small stones 
for a covering. The graves in the circles had probably been rifled long ago, and 
had also been subsequently examined repeatedly in search of valuables. The round 
tower of Mousa, in Shetland, had heen perhaps a tomb; it is not suited for defence. 
The great group of circles in Nairn had probably been erected by the line of Pictish 
kings who were reigning at Inverness about the time of Columba’s visit, and the 
circles in Deer may with much probability be regarded as the tombs of the 
mormaers of Buchan, mentioned in the Book of Deer. There is a certain similarity 
between the Scottish and English circles. Like the northern circles, Stonehenge 
has the horizontal stone on the south, and round it stood the trilithons, the loftiest 
to the south. 


9. Notes on a recent Antiquarian Find in Aberdeenshire. 
By Dr. F. Marrnanp Motr. 


10. The Picts and Pre-Celtic Britain. By Hype Cuarke. 


In preparing a paper for Aberdeen, Mr. Clarke, being desirous of its having a 
local bearing, chose the question of the Picts. This he proposed to deal with in 
reference to the inquiries of himself and others as to the pre-Celtic inhabitants of 
Britain. In continuing his own investigations, he set aside the distinct Basque 
hypothesis, and treated the influences historically and topographically traceable 
as Iberian in a wider sense. The Picts have presented a difficult problem, the 
materials relating to which have been most ably dealt with by Dr. Skene, in his 
edition of the Chronicles of the Picts. His ultimate conclusion was that the Picts 


1224 REPORT—1885. 


were, in all probability, non-Celtic, and at the same conviction Professor Rhys has 
arrived, and also at the opinion they were Turanians. Dr. Skene found that the 
Pictish kings did not succeed from father to son, confirming the statement of Beda 
that there was a female succession. The male succession begins with Malcolm 
Canmore. Dr. Skene found that out of forty-two names of Pictish kings a score 
were of the types of Talarghan, Talan, Taran, &c.; about a quarter Brude, and 
about a quarter Drust. As these are non-Celtic there is a ground to seek for 
them in Iberian names, as in the names of the rivers, cities, and southern British 
kings. The names of kings have to be sought in the heroic epoch precedent to the 
adoption of Hellenic names. They are to be found in the forms Telegonus, 
Telkhines, Telkhis, &c., being of the model of Tarkon and Tarkondimotos. So Brude 
is found under similar circumstances as Proteus, Proetus, &c., and Drust as Adrastus, 
&c. In the heroic epoch these three names are found inconnection. Brude is the same 
name as the Brutus, King of Britain, of Geoffrey of Monmouth, whose fables some- 
times transmit traditions and sometimes by chance afford parallels to other 
traditions. Dr, Skene, Professor Rhys, and Mr. Grant Allen have pointed out the 
peculiar relations of the Picts to the Cymric Britons, their late acceptance of 
Christianity, their retention of a peculiar language, and their bearing towards the 
Danish invaders. These and other circumstances are explained by considering the 
Picts as representing the Iberian populations of Britannia and Hibernia, closely 
pressed by the Celtic invasion and making their last stand in Caledonia among kins- 
men. The Picts were as much reviled by the British historians, Gildas and Nennius, 
as were the Saxons, The Pictish language dying out left a readier opening for the 
spread of English in Caledonia, the adoption of which was resisted in Wales and in 
Cornwall. Dr. Skene stated that the husbands of the Pictish mothers of the kings 
must in some cases have been foreigners, and he traced the case of Eanfrid, son of a 
king of Northumbria. The advance of knowledge shows us in surviving institutions 
the nature of exogamy once more widely spread. Under this institution a man or 
Woman cannot marry into the tribe, but into another tribe, while the offspring 
are held to belong to the tribe of the mother and not of the father. In various 
historical examples this female succession or matriarchy has been disturbed by male 
succession, and constantly by Aryan influence. Thus the real explanation of the 
instance of Malcolm Canmore is that he established the male succession. Mr. 
Hyde Clarke advocated the collection andpreservation of local non-Celtic names 
in title-deeds and records as a means of affording philological materials. 


11. Report of the Committee for investigating and publishing reports on 
the physical characters, languages, and industrial and social con- 
dition of the North-western Tribes of the Dominion of Canada.—See 
Reports, p. 696. 


TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 15, 
The following Papers were read :— 


1. Notes on the opening of a Cist, in the Parish of Leslie, Aberdeenshire. 
By the Rev. Joun Russetn, M.A. 


The parish of Leslie is intersected by the Gadie. It seems to have had a large 
population at a very early date. It is rich in prehistoric remains, though in the 
course of agricultural improvements many have disappeared. In the locality are 
remains of stone circles. Flint spear and arrow heads, stone celts and hammers, 
whorls and scrapers, have been found in abundance. 

The cist to which I refer was found by a farmer in New Leslie when digging 
sand in a corner of a field. On communicating with me, we examined the place but 
did not open it up until an opportunity was given to the public to be present. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1225 


The cist was on the slope of a ridge lying to the south. The upper part was 
about three feet below the surface. The sides and cover were of stone slabs of the 
kind called Correen stone, and had the interstices filled in carefully with fine white 
clay like putty. This with the site, decomposed granite, had excluded air and 
moisture. 

The contents were a skeleton of which the large bones were complete, and also 
the skull, which contained all the teeth regular but worn flat. 

There was an earthenware urn ornamented, and below the urn two flint spear 
heads beautifully worked. 

I infer from the cist and contents that there was then a belief in a future 
state. 

(1) The act of burial shows this. 

(2) The care shown in constructing the cist and its contents. With rude 
implements the grave had been scooped out, the stunes of the sides and cover had 
been carried for about six miles. 

(3) The skeleton lay east and west, with the head looking to the east. 

(4) There was nothing inside the urn. It had probably been filled with food 
for the deceased. 

(5) The weapons. These were to be with him in the happy hunting ground to 
which it was believed he had been translated. 


2. Notes on a Cist found at Parkhill, Dyce, in October 1881. 
By W. Frreuson. 


3. On the Human Crania and other contents found in short stone Cists in 
Aberdeenshire. By Professor J. Srruruers, M.D., LL.D. 


Professor Struthers described the leading features of the bones found in eight 
short stone cists in Aberdeenshire, exhibiting the bones and giving the conclusions 
which he arrived at as to the sex, age, and stature of the bodies interred in the 
cists. Most of the bodies were those of men of good stature. Professor Struthers 
referred specially to a large-sized urn found in a farm in the parish of Fyvie, and 
which had been sent by the Rev. Mr. Leslie. The urn had been found in a 
circular hole, measuring 4} feet in diameter, which had been made in the ground, 
and a quantity of peat ashes indicated that cremation had taken place. The 
bottom on which the urn had been placed was coated over with clay to the depth 
of two inches, covered with small flat stones. The bottom of the cavity on which 
the urn rested was 2 feet 5 inches from the surface. The urn was made of clay, 
unglazed. The bones found in the urn were very much broken up. 


4. Notice of Human Bones found in 1884 in Balta Island, Shetland, by 
D. Edmonston, Esq. By Professor J. Strurners, M.D., LL.D. 


The paper stated that while Messrs. Ritchie and Downie, fish-curers, were erect- 
ing a fish-curing station in Balta Island, there was found a number of skele- 
tons. The workmen first came upon one skeleton lying at full length, the bones 
of which were in perfect preservation. The bones were those of a man over six 
feet in height. Subsequently other twelve skeletons were laid bare, all complete 
except one. All the bones were of large size and were those of men. The bodies 
had not been enclosed in coffins, and they had not been interred with any degree 
of regularity. Some had been buried on their backs, others on their sides, and two 
of them face downwards. None of the bodies were found more than eighteen 
inches below the surface. Professor Struthers said that he had received the bones, 
which were at present to be seen in the gallery in connection with the Anatomicai 
Museum. There was nothing particular about the skeletons. The bones were all 
quite fresh. Bones might be in sand hundreds of years, and remain fresh. The 
bones in question were those of strong men, adolescent and of middle age. 


1226 REPORT—1 885. 


Dr. Struthers concluded by inviting the members to view these urns and bones, 
arranged in a gallery in one of the anatomical laboratories at Marischal College, 
and also a number of interesting skulls of various races of mankind, which he had 
placed there for the occasion. He also mentioned that Aberdeen University was 
now forming at King’s College a museum of archeology, which they hoped 
would represent the prehistoric remains of man in the north-east of Scotland. As 
convener of the committee on the movement, he stated that they would be glad 
to receive all such specimens found in the district. 


5. Some important Points of Comparison between the Chimpanzee and Man. 
By Professor D. J. CunnincHam. 


Professor Cunningham exhibited some plates of frozen sections of the chim- 
panzee, which brought out several important points of comparison between it and 
man. 


6. Abnormal and Arrested Development as an Indication of Evolutionary 
History. By J. G. Garson, M.D. 


Dr. Garson began by stating that, perhaps, the most fertile source of informa- 
tion regarding the history of man’s evolution is derived from a study of his em- 
bryological development. Another source from which much valuable information 
regarding the early history of our own specialisation, and that of other animals, 
might be gleaned, is Teratology, which had for its domain the consideration of 
abnormal conditions of development. Many of the conditions included under this 
branch are of a pathological nature, and due to the effects of disease; others, 
however, are not—such, for example, as an abnormal and unusual production of 
normal structures and cases of arrested development. To a consideration of some 
conditions occurring under one or other of these categories he called attention. 
The examples which he had selected had come more especially under his own 
observation. Persons are occasionally found with abnormal development of hair 
on their bodies. The type mammal was an animal whose body was covered with 
hair. Under certain circumstances hair may more or less disappear, according to 
the conditions under which an animal lives. In man it is only feebly developed, 
except on the head ; and in the cetacea or whales it has entirely disappeared, with 
the exception of a very few bristles near the mouth. Dr. Garson proceeded to ex- 
plain how universal development of hair takes place in man. In ordinary cases 
the hair-growing apparatus in the embryo remains stationary, instead of keeping 
pace with the growth and development of the other organs of the body, with the 
result that no hairy covering such as is found in other mammals is present, but 
only short rudimentary hairs appear at intervals. But in some exceptional cases 
this stationary condition of the hair follicles does not occur, and they go on 
actively developing with the rest of the body, with the result that a hairy cover- 
ing is produced. ‘The hairless condition now normal in man has evidently been 
gradually acquired through a long period of time, as such a change could not take 
place rapidly and become such a stable condition as it is found to be otherwise. 

Abnormal development of fingers occurs sometimes in man, but must be classed 
entirely apart from such forms of abnormality as had been considered in the hair- 
growth, Supernumerary digits occurring in animals with a less number of digits 
than five indicated evolutionary changes in some cases, but in others were due to 
the same cause as their appearance in man. 

In arrested development the abnormal organ or portion of the body, instead 
of going through the various stages it usually does till it arrives at the condition 
it normally assumed in the group of animals in which it occurs, stops short at one 
or other stages. The stage at which it stops may correspond to that which is 
normal in a lower grade of animal life, and so gives direct evidence that the 
higher forms of animal life, such as man, pass through and beyond the stages at 
which the lower stop. It must not be forgotten also that in some respects an 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1227 


animal of a lower grade may possess specialisations in some structures or organs 
of a higher ground than animals much higher in the scale of life. Cases of arrested 
development give us a clue as to how these specialisations occur. It was explained 
how cases of median harelip in the human subject may correspond to a normal 
condition in the cat and rabbit, and how abnormal conditions of the nose some- 
times occurring in man, indicate how the modification in the nasal organ of the 
elephant was produced. 


7. The Symbol Pillars abounding in Central Aberdeenshire. 
By the Rev. Joun Davipson, D.D. 


The following are the principal points referred to in this paper :— 

Peculiar symbols, incised chiefly upon unhewn monoliths, found over the north- 
east parts of Scotland, but mostly in the centre valley of Aberdeenshire. 

Similar prevalence of stone circles. These traceable also along the supposed 
routes of Celtic migration from Asia. 

Relative antiquity of symbol pillars and cross-bearing slabs in the same district 
of Scotland. 

Coincidence in locality of symbol pillars and such inscriptions with ancient 
Pictish kingdom. 

Symbol sculptures not the work of Christian times, or of the Romans, or of the 
Scots who succeeded the Pictish dynasty. 

Certain particulars associating the sculptures with the Pictish people and with 
eastern Celts. 

Hypotheses as to origin and meaning of symbols, Tarly and important in- 
habitation of Central Aberdeenshire. Pictish connection. 

Remarkable finds in the district. 


8. Notes on some of the Bantu Tribes living round Lake Nyasa in Eastern 
Central Africa. By Dr. Roserr Laws. 


Lake Nyasa is 350 miles long, varying in breadth from 16 to 60 miles, with 15 
different tribes living round it, each speaking a separate language. Best known of 
these are:—At the north end, the Anachusa coming from a point farther north- 
ward. Round Bandawe are the Atonga, while at Kotakota on the west, and 
Losewa and Makanjira on the east side of the Lake, are the Swahili and Arabs. 
To the west of Cape Maclear are Awisa from Lake Bangweolo. Yao, from the 
sources of the Rovuma, conquered the Anyanja, and are masters of the south part 
of Nyasa, and the hills to the east of the Upper Chiri River. The Anyanja or 
lake people lived on the lake shore, and apparently extended far to the north. On 
the highlands west of Lake Nyasa are the Angoni or Maviti. They came from 
the banks of the River Umsunduso, and crossing the River Zambezi in 1836, con- 
quered many tribes, broke. up into sections, and settled in different places. 

The natives are generally well developed physically, but vigour of body and 
mind is affected by climate and food. Prognathism is not very marked. Umbilical 
hernia is very common at some places. In walking the natives do not turn out 
theiy toes, and the second toe is always longer than the great toe. The reputed 
keenness of vision and acuteness of hearing of uncivilised tribes is due rather to 
the contrast hetween the training of the native and the traveller than to any dif- 
ference of the organs. In endemic diseases the European constitution resists the 
onset of the disease longer, but suffers more acutely from such than the native. 

The natives depend chiefly on agriculture for subsistence. No traces of a stone 
age have been found, but there are lake dwellings to be seen. There are iron 
mines in several places, and copper also is found. The smelting furnaces for iron 
of the Atembuka are 15 feet high, with eight blast pipes, and in section similar to 
those employed at home, Canoes consist of hollowed trees. Fishing nets, made 
of ntingo bark and bwarze fibre, are of different sorts. Hunting is common in 
certain districts. Dogs are used in following rabbits; nets, pitfalls, spears and 
guns for larger game. 


1228 rEPortT-—1885. 


Clothes are made of the inner bark of a tree, but some wear skins. The 
manufacture of cotton cloth, on the Chizi, is giving way to English calico. The 
Anachusa use a mordart in dyeing. 

The architecture of the housesissimple. All houses are round, but the different 
tribes construct them differently. Pottery is the work of the women, and is done 
by hand. Some of these vessels are very neat. Grain is pounded in wocden 
mortars, and ground by rubbing between two stones. Their most common dish is 
a stiff porridge. 

Natives measure time by days, lunar months, and years; they thrust a stick into 
the earth and also use the middle finger of the hand to form rude sundials. Their 
knowledge of the facts of natural history is surprisingly accurate, and they have 
names for all the things they see. Their practice of medicine is more the use of 
charms, but they know some plants with powerful properties. Their ordeal poison 
bark, called mwave, is the Erythrophleuwm guineense, which if not vomited causes 
death. Their most deadly poison for arrows is the gall of the crocodile. They 
use several emmenagogues, and know to pierce the membranes to produce abortion. 
Obstetric practice is in the hands of old women, but if nature fails, patients are left 
to die; yet the Anachusa know how to rectify the malpresentation of a calf. In 
surgery they know how to set fractures with splints of reeds, reduce dislocations, 
and bleed by cupping, and by opening the temporal artery. Lacerated wounds 
they dress with charcoal and oil; an indolent ulcer is treated by scrubbing the 
surface with the core of a mealie cob. 

Slavery is common, but infanticide is not practised. Polygamy is the general 
custom. Among the Atonga, a girl is often betrothed before she is born. The 
Angoni give cattle to a father-in-law on marriage, and among them immorality is 
punished by death. 

Land nominally belongs to a chief, but really to a tribe ; occupation being the 
only proof of personal or family possession. For the repression of crime, murder is 
punishable by death, but blood-money is often accepted. A person attempting to 
steal, if it is dark, may be lulled, but if recognisable must not be so treated. ‘The 
ordeals in common use are by boiling water and the mwave poison. The government 
is patriarchal. The plebs have no voice init; but among the Angoni they use 
the songs sung at their martial dances to express their political feeling. 

All the tribes believe in the immortality of the soul, some in its transmigration. 
Among the Angoni ancestral worship is the only religious conception; but among 
the Anyanja there is also the idea of a deity, and among the Anachusa the idea 
of a Supreme Good and an Evil Spirit. Their folk-lore contains the common Bantu 
story of the origin of death, and among the Angoni there is a legend of a wooden 
Tower of Babel. 

The languages all belong to the Bantu family. The characteristic of this is 
the principle of euphonic or alliteral concord, by which the euphonic letter or 
syllable of the noun recurs in the depending parts of speech in the sentence, 
thus :—My big cup fell and is broken—T7shiko tshatshikuru tshanga tshinagwa 
ndimo ¢shinaswedwa, where the concord is marked by italics. The verb is very 
elaborate, the simple form having a positive and a negative conjugation of the 
active and passive voices. Secondary and tertiary derivative forms can be made 
from the simple form, and each of these passes through all the inflections of the 
simple form, A complete paradigm of the Chinyanja verb would show more than 
27,000 different examples of the third person singular. What is the meaning of 
the word ‘savage’ P 


9. Exhibition of the Skeleton of a Strandlouper from South Africa. 
By Professor A. Macatister, I’.2.S. 


10. A brief Account of the Nicobar Islanders, with special reference to the 
Inland Tribe of Great Nicobar. By E. H. May. 


In the interior of Great Nicobar there is a wild race, styling themselves ‘ Shab 
Dawa,’ of whom as yet little information has been obtainable; they are distinct 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. 1229 


from the inhabitants of the other islands and of the villages on their own sea- 
board, who are of Malay origin, and by whom they are called ‘Shom Pen’ (‘Shom’ 
denoting ‘tribe,’ and ‘ Pen’ being the tribal designation). ; 

It appears certain that they are the descendants of a very ancient aboriginal 
population of Mongolian origin. The first mention that we find of them is from 
the pen of Pastor Rosen, a Danish missionary, who, while resident at the Nicobar 
Islands between the years 1831-84, spoke of them, from hearsay, as in much the 
same degraded condition as we find them at the present day. He said that ‘ they 
wear no clothes, possess no houses, live like animals in the depths of the forests, 
and shun the sight of men, never leaving their lairs except to search for food, 
which they sometimes steal from such of the coast huts as are temporarily vacated, 
or occupied only by a few aged or infirm folk whom they are able to surprise or 
overpower.’ 

In 1876 and 1881 a few members of this tribe living near the north-east of 
Great Nicobar were seen by the late Mr. de Réepstorff, who in the latter year 
accompanied Colonel T. Cadell, V.C., Chief Commissioner of the Andamans and 
Nicobars, in a visit to their encampments. During the last eighteen months Mr. 
E. H. Man, while in charge of the Nicobar Islands, has paid six visits to Great 
Nicobar, on four of which he succeeded in seeing and photographing parties of this 
tribe, both near Ganges Harbour and on the west coast. 

On the first of these occasions (viz., February 1884) two youths, aged about 
eighteen and fourteen years respectively, were persuaded to leave their friends for 
seven days, at the end of which they were conveyed back from Nancowry in the 
settlement steamer. During their visit. to Mr. Man they proved themselves tract- 
able and timid, and submitted with a good grace to ablutions which were found 
very necessary. Although this is the first recorded instance of a Pen haying 
ventured from his savage haunts, these lads exhibited the Oriental characteristie 
absence of wonderment at all the novel surroundings and tokens of civilisation in 
the Government settlement. They were fair specimens of their race, the members 
of which are found to be usually well nourished, of good physique, and, while 
young, favoured with pleasant features. The height of the males appears to range 
between 5 feet 2 inches and 5 feet 8 inches; their skin is fairer than that of the 
generality of the coast people, who, on their part, are less dark than the Malay ; 
the hands and feet seem to be decidedly large, and bear evidence of the rough work 
of their daily lives; the hair, which is straight, is commonly worn uncut and un- 
kempt, and, as habits of cleanliness are manifestly foreign to their nature, its 
condition can better be imagined than described. 

As a result of their friendly intercourse in recent years with the coast people, 
they have acquired the habit, so universally practised among the latter, of chewing 
the betel-nut (Chavica betle) with or without quicklime, and are consequently 
beginning to be similarly disfigured with black teeth, though not yet to the hideous 
extent common among their more civilised, or, rather, less savage, neighbours. 
They likewise now imitate the latter in respect to clothing, the men adopting the 
narrow loin cloth and the women a small cloth skirt. 

Their dwellings are small, and cannot compare with those of the coast people, 
and are indeed but little, if at all, superior to those of the Negritos in Little 
Andaman, but they more nearly assimilate the former in design as well as mode of 
construction, for they are erected on posts; the floors being raised six or seven feet 
above the ground necessitate the use of ladders. : 

It is impossible within the limits of this abstract to make further mention of 
the dwellings, or to describe the peculiar sack-like cooking vessels of this strange 
race. 

It is, however, worthy of note that the Pen tribes—despite their low state of 
civilisation—are found capable of expressing high numerals; though the terms 
used are distinct, the system is apparently identical with that employed by the 
coast people. 

Mr. Man hopes before long to be able to supplement in many particulars the 
rudimentary information which has hitherto been obtainable regarding the Pen, but 
the task is one of considerable difficulty, for, apart from the dread entertained by 


1230 REPORT—1885. 


this tribe towards aliens, their frequent feuds place from time to time a temporary 
barrier to all intercourse between them and our friends on the coast, through whom 
at present all our communications have to be conducted. The nearest portion of 
Great Nicobar island is, moreover, about 60 miles distant from the Government 
settlement at Nancowry. 


11. A proposed Society for Buperimental Psychology.’ 
By Josurx Jacoss, B.A. 


Though this is the age of societies, there is no organised association in England 
devoted to the interest of the science of mind. Yet there is plenty of scope for 
such a society. Psychology has itself reached what may be termed the mono- 
graphic stage, and there are besides several sciences which are independently 
treating various branches of mental science, e.g. newro-physiology, folklore and 
analogous branches of anthropology, social statistics and Vélkerpsychologie, com- 
parative syntax, and the doctrine of insanity. There is thus plenty of work to do, 
and London University has trained a number of workers. Psychologists had a 
separate journal (Mind) ; why should they not have a separate society? This 
would offer the usual advantages of a local, library, opportunities of meeting for 
fellow-students, publication of memoirs, Jahresberichten, bibliographies, &c. It 
would have important work to do in settling the scope, terminology, and divisions 
of the science. But, above all, there was one particular function which such a 
society could perform which made its existence more desirable than in any other 
subject. The members of the society would be made to form its own laboratory : 
their minds might be utilised as materials on which to work. Full membership 
might be held to imply readiness to aid in special investigation, by answering 
queries issued by properly constituted organs of the society. Thus, any member 
desiring to study comparatively any problem in which introspection was involved, 
would state his wants to the general committee. This body, if the subject were 
thought worthy of it, would appoint a sub-committee (to which the member in 
question would act as honorary secretary) to investigate the matter, and they 
would be empowered to address specific inquiries on the subject to the members of 
the society. By this means the chief hindrance to the progress of the science, the 
subjective and personal character of the results of individual inquiry, would be 
removed, if such a scheme could be got into working order. 

Mr. Galton’s experience in his investigations on imagination had shown the 
practicability of such a method of inquiry. And with regard to the question as to 
the subjects which lent themselves to such investigations, the difficulty would 
rather be to pick out the most important from the many which would suggest 
themselves to trained psychologists. Among many others might be numbered the 
whole field of psycho-physical research, now developed into a separate branch of 
psychology by Fechner, Wundt, and others, and the observation of children bégun 
by Darwin and developed by Taine, Perez, Preyer, and others. The collection of 
actual trains of association, the extent of the field of attention, after-images, 
colour-blindness and note-deafness, will-practice, how family traits are set, and by 
whom—these and a hundred analogous topics would receive elucidation by the 
adoption of this plan. It might be hoped that we might soon be enabled to 
measure the mental qualities of individuals almost as accurately as we can now 
measure their physical ones. 

Asan instance of such an inquiry, which might even deserve the attention of a 
Psychometric Committee of the British Association, reference might be made to 
some recent investigations on verbal memory by a German author, Dr. Ebbinghaus. 
By careful examination of the conditions under which he could reproduce un- 
meaning words of various lengths, he had been able to deduce quantitative laws 
for memory. In addition to these, the author of the paper had deduced the follow- 
ing relations from Ebbinghaus’ results, There is for everyone a limited number ot 
unmeaning syllables which he can repeat after one hearing; this number the author 


1 Published in extenso, Mind. Jan 1886. 


TRANSACTIONS OF SECTION H. L230 


proposed to call ‘the threshold of memory.’ He had deduced from Ebbinghaus’ 
results that for every syllable over the threshold three repetitions of the word are 
required to ensure that it be accurately remembered, Thus, a person whose 
threshold is six syllables would Jmow Shakespeare’s longest word, Honorificabili- 
tudinitatibus, after repeating it twenty-one times ; one whose threshold value was 
eight could repeat it after fifteen repetitions; and so on. Just at present this 
curious result was based only on a single investigation. Ifa Psychological Society 
were in existence its validity would be at once tested. 

The practical utility of such inquiries would be at once evident on reflecting on 
the gain which would accrue to education if some method could be obtained by 
which children’s minds (e.g. their ‘ threshold of memory’) could be measured on 
entry into school and at various intervals afterwards. And, looking wider, if the 
art of conduct is ever to be based on scientific grounds, it will be from psychology 
that it will seek its data. The final end of the British Association itself might be 
said to be the formation of good characters, and yet such is the chaotic state of 
psychological investigation that we cannot give even a provisional account of what 
constitutes a good character, or even define accurately what are the ingredients 
of character generally. The formation of a Psychological Society on the lines 
suggested in this paper would certainly do something in advancing these ends and 
removing these obscurities. 


12. A Comparative Estimate of Jewish Ability! 
By Joseru Jacozs, B.A. 


This is a parallel investigation to that of Mr. Galton in his ‘ Hereditary Genius,’ 
based, as is well known, on an application of the law of error to the data given in 
dictionaries of contemporary biography. From these Mr. Galton had calculated 
that in every million of Englishmen over fifty there would be one man of pre- 
eminent excellence (class X), 14 of eminent ability (class G), and 238 of ability 
equal to that of an English judge (class F). By two independent methods the 
author had ascertained that almost exactly one million Jews had reached the age 
of fifty in the century 1785-1885. The problem is to find how many of these 
would be included in the above classes of ability. In all, 335 names of Jewish 
celebrities had been collected from the various dictionaries of contemporary 
biography (Cooper, Vapereau, Gubernatis). Of these, 166 were rejected as of 
fourth-class ability (E), being 10 per cent. more than were rejected in Mr. Galton’s 
investigations. Of the remaining 169, four were classed as X (B. Disraeli, H. 
Heine, F. Lassalle, F..B. Mendelssohn), 20 as G (Auerbach, Benfey, Birne, Cre- 
mieux, H, Gans, A. Geiger, H. Gratz, Halevy, Sir W. Herschel, Jacobi, Sir G. 
Jessel, Lasker, Lazarus, 8. Maimon, K. Marx, Meyerbeer, Neander, J. Oppert, Sir 
F. C. Palgrave, Rachel, Ricardo, Jules Simon, Steinschneider, Steinthal, Sylvester, 
Zunc), and 142 as F. The numbers in the first two classes were superior to the 
results for Englishmen, and would seem to imply superior ability in Jews. The 
third, however, was far below the normal value, which may be attributed to the 
restrictions under which Jews have laboured: these would tend to keep down 
third-class powers more than those of the other two classes. This explanation 
is confirmed by the numbers of celebrities before and after emancipation in various 
countries, and especially by the case of Russia, where two-thirds of European Jews 
live, and which yet contributes only nine names to the list, of whom five were 
rejected, and the remaining four only reached class F. The general result seemed 
to be that there was a considerably greater chance of finding distinguished men 
among a million Jews than among a million Englishmen. But this result has to 
be modified by the consideration that nearly all Jews live in towns, and the com- 
‘parison therefore ought to be with the Englishmen of cities. 

Turning from the numbers who reach eminence to the subjects in which 
eminence is reached, the following results were obtained. No Jews were dis- 
tinguished as agriculturists, engravers, or sailors; fewer Jews, as compared with 


1? Published in extenso, Journ. Anthrop. Inst. Feb. 1886. 


IPB REPORT— 1885. 


Englishmen, reached eminence in authorship, divinity, engineering, the army, as 
statesmen, or as travellers; while more Jews than Englishmen obtained fame as 
actors, chessplayers, doctors, merchants, metaphysicians, musicians, poets, and philo- 
logists. The percentages were about equal for antiquaries, architects, artists, 
lawyers, scientists, political economists, and sculptors. These results seem to con- 
firm popular impressions, except as regards the equal capacity of Jews for art and 
science, in which they are generally thought inferior. Among other results 
deduced from the list, were that Jews of Spanish descent showed greater ability 
than their German brethren, and that the offspring of mixed marriages showed 
greater ability than either; the most marked superiority of Jews over Englishmen 
was in philology, where they numbered ten times as many, and in music, where they 
showed sevenfold proficiency. 

What are the causes which render Jews, though hitherto so hampered in the 
struggle for fame, capable, to say the least, of holding their own when compared 
with Englishmen? ‘The following may be mentioned: the intelligence of dissenters 
generally, their life in cities, their care for education in the past and present, the 
study of Hebrew as training in linguistics, the undogmatic nature of Judaism, the 
encouragement given to young men of talent. And it must be remembered that, 
in the past, every generation has been weeded of its weak-kneed members, who 
have been tempted or forced to become Christians, so that contemporary Jews are 
the outcome of a long process of unnatural selection. 

It is perhaps unnecessary to add that the present estimate is necessarily one- 
sided, though every precaution has been taken by the author to remove subjective 
bias in dealing with this question. At any rate, the results obtained, though 
favourable to Jews, cannot be regarded as opposed to general impressions. 


13. Traces of Early Human Habitations on Deeside and Vicinity. 
By the Rev. J. G. Micuiz, A.M. 


Crrovtar Carrns:—Their structure. Their probable uses—human dwellings ; 
sepulchral purposes. Urns, chests (cists) found in connection (Migvie). 

Yerp Houses :—General structure—examples in Cromar, Glenkindy, and Kil- 
drummy. Probable uses. Generally found in the vicinity of round cairns and 
circular foundations. 

Lake Dwextrxes (Crannogs):—Island in Loch Kinnord, Loch of Leys. 
Similar to those found in Wigtonshire and Ayrshire. Dr. Stuart's ‘Scottish 
Crannogs,’ and Dr. Munroe’s ‘ Ancient Scottish Lake Dwellings.’ Relics found 
in connection—canoes, arrow-heads, celts, stone knives, and stone cups. 

Moatep Forts :—Lumphanan, Invernochty, Rothiemurchus, and ruder form at 
Loch Dayan. 

Awcrent Picrish Towns :—Character, and situation, Davan—Short descrip- 
tion of; probably the Devana of the Romans. 

‘The information conveyed under the two first headings is, in great part, new; 
but the general conclusion is not much different from that of previous writers on 
these subjects. 

‘The authorities adduced for the observations under the third heading are 
given in the Abstract. The author’s own explorations point very much in the 
direction of those of previous investigators. 

‘ Under the heading Moated Forts, the writer advocates the more extensive and 
careful exploration of these remains; and from such he anticipates important 
elucidation of our early historic period. 

‘The last heading is an abridged excerpt from the author's work: “ History of 


em) 


Loch Kinnord, D. Douglas, 1877, pp. 23, 49. 


INDEX. 


[An asterisk (*) signifies that no abstract of the communication is given.] 


BJECTS and rules of the Association, 
Xxvii. 

Places and times of meeting, with names 
of officers, from commencement, xxxvi. 

List of former Presidents and Secretaries 
of Sections, xliii. 

List of evening lectures, lvii. 

Lectures to the Operative Classes, lx. 

Officers of Sectional Committees present 
at Aberdeen, 1xi. 

Treasurer’s account, lxiii. 

Table showing the attendance and re- 
ceipts at the annual meetings, lxiv. 

Officers and Council for 1885-86, Ixvi. 

Report of the Council to the General 
Committee at Aberdeen, Ixvii. 

Recommendationsadopted by the General 
Committee at Aberdeen: involving 
grants of money, lxxi; not involving 
grants of money, lxxiv; communica- 
tions ordered to be printed in extenso, 
Ixxvii; resolutions referred to the 
Council for consideration, and action 
if desirable, ib. 

Synopsis of grants of money appropriated 
to scientific purposes, Ixix, 

Places of meeting in 1886 and 1887, 
Ibo. # 

General statement of sums which have 
been paid on account of grants for 
scientific purposes, Ixxxi. 

General meetings, xcii. 


Address by the President, the Right 
Hon. Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B., M.P., 
B_ES., 1. 


Abel (Sir F.), on patent legislation, 695. 

* Aberdeen Bay, the movement of land in, 
by W. Smith, 1193. 

Aberdeenshire, stone circles in, by J. 
Milne, 1223. 

, notes on a recent antiquarian find 
in, by Dr. F. M. Moir, 1223. 

——, the agriculture of, by Col. Innes, 
1161. 

——, the stone circles in, with special! re- 


1885. 


ference to those in the more Lowland 
parts of the county, by Rey. J. Peter, 
1221. 

*Aberdeenshire plants as food for ani- 
mals, W. Wilson, jun., on, 1088. 

Abney (Capt. W.de W.) on meteoric dust, 
34; on standards of white light, 61; on 
the best methods of recording the direct 
intensity of solar radiation, 156; on 
wave-length tables of the spectra of the 
elements and compounds, 288. 

Abnormal andarrested development as an 
indication of evolutionary history, by 
Dr. J. G. Garson, 1226. 

*Accuracy of focus necessary for sensibly 
perfect definition, Lord Rayleigh on the, 
930. 

Adams (Prof. J. C.) on the harmonic 
analysis of tidal observations, 35. 

Adams (Prof. W. G.) on standards for 
use in electrical measurements, 31; on 
standards of white light, 61. 

Africa, East Central, notes on a recent ex- 
amination of the geology of, by Prof. H. 
Drummond, 1032. 

*, , West, the Portuguese possessions 
in, by H. H. Johnston, 1132. 

African philology, the progress of, R. N. 
Cust on, 1105. 

Agricultural investigation and education, 
by T. Jamieson, 1177. 

Agricultural situation, the, by Prof. W. 
Fream, 1161. 

Agriculture, Scottish, recent changes in, 
Major P. G. Craigie on, 1162. - 

Agriculture of Aberdeenshire, the, by Col. 
Innes, 1161. 

*Aiken (J.) ona new kind of colour appa- 
ratus for physiological experiment, 1079. 

Albania, the flint-knappers’ art in, by A. 
J. Evans, 1216. 

Albuminous substances contained in the 
blood of vertebrate and invertebrate 
animals, a comparative view of the, by 
Dr. W. D. Halliburton, 1077. 

Algebraical determinants, the reduction 
of, W. H. L. Russell on, 910. 

Allen(A H.) *an apparatus for determin- 

4K 


1234 


ing the viscosity of oils, 992; *on the 
action of water on lead, 993. 

Alps, the Central, preliminary note on 
some traverses of the crystalline district 
of the, by Prof. T. G. Bonney, 1027. 

America, the arctic coast of, overland ex- 
peditions to, Dr. J. Rae on, 1133. 

*____. British North, the depth of the per- 
manently frozen stratum of soilin, Gen. 
Sir J. H. Lefroy on, 1136. 

American evidences of eocene mammals 
of the ‘plastic clay’ period, by Sir R. 
Owen, 1033. 

American shell-work and its affinities, by 
Miss A. W. Buckland, 1214. 

*American system of oil pipe lines, the, 
by J. H. Harris, 1193. 

Amyl alcohol the action of nitrous gases 
upon, by J. Williams and M. H. Smith, 
992. 

Anesthetics, the direct action of, on the 
frog-heart, by J. McGregor-Robertson, 
1057. 

Anatomical method, the application of 
the, to the determination of the ma- 
terials of Linnean and other herbaria, 
Prof. L. Radlkofer on, 1080. 

*Ancient Monuments Act of 1882, Gen. 
Pitt-Rivers on the working of the, 1214. 

Anderson (Dr. T.), the volcanoes of 
Auvergne, 1017. 

Andromeda, the bright star in the great 
nebula in, Dr. R. Copeland on, 935. 

, the spectrum of the stella nova 
visible on the great nebula in, by Dr. 
W. Huggins, 935. 

Anemometers, kitewire-suspended, some 
results of observations with, up to 1,300 
feet above ground, or 1,800 feet above 
sea-level, in 1883-85, E. D. Archibald 
on, 919. 

Anemoscope, or wind vane, a new, speci- 
ally designed for the use of meteoro- 
logists, by G. M. Whipple, 926. 

*Annelids, some little known freshwater, 
BE. C. Bousfield on, 1098. 

Annelids of the genus Dero, E. C. Bous- 
field on the, 1097. 

Antarctic research, by Adm. Sir E. 
Ommanney, 1152. : 

Anthropological Section, Address by F. 
Galton to the, 1206. 

Anthropology, the scope of, and its rela- 
tion to the science of mind, by Dr. A. 
Bain, 1204. 

* Antiquarian find in Aberdeenshire, notes 
on a recent, by Dr. F. M. Moir, 1223. 
*Ants and bees, recent observations on 
the habits and instincts of, by Sir J. 

Lubbock, 1056. 

*Anurous amphibia, discovery of, in the 
Jurassic deposits of America, by Prof. 
O. C. Marsh, 1033. 

Arabia Petrzea, notice of an outline geo- 


INDEX. 


logical map of, by Prof. E. Hull, 
1015. 

Archibald (E. D.) on some results of 
observations with kitewire-suspended 
anemometers, up to 1,300 feet above 
ground, or 1,800 feet above sea-level, 
in 1883-85, 919. 

Arctic coast of America, overland expedi- 
tions to the, Dr. J. Rae on, 1133. 

Armstrong (Prof.) on chemical nomencla- 
ture, 262; Address by, to the Chemical 
Section, 945. 

*Ashton’s new power meter, Prof. H. 8. 
H. Shaw on, 1203. 

Assam, Upper, a trip from, into the 
Kampti country and the western branch 
of the Irrawady river, Lt.-Col. H. H. 
Godwin-Austen on a, 1126. 

Aston (T.) on patent legislation, 695. 

Atchison (A. T.) on patent legislation, 
695. 

Atmospheric electricity, Prof. C. Michie 
Smith on, 899. 

Atropine, the action of, on the secretion 
of the kidney: its evidence as to 
the mechanism of secretion, by J. 
McGregor-Robertson, 1075. 

*Australia, North-west, by J. G. Bartholo- 
mew, 1132. 

Autographic apparatus for machines for 
testing materials, by Prof. W. C. Un- 
win, 1199. 

Auvergne, the volcanoes of, by Dr. T. 
Anderson, 1017. 

Ayrton (Prof.) on standards for use in 
electrical measurements, 31; on stan- 
dards of white light, 61. 


Bailey (Major F.), the Indian forest 
school, 1104; the Indian forest survey, 
1121. 

Bain (Dr. A.), the scope of anthropology, 
and its relation to the science of mind, 
1204. 

Baird (Major A. W.), account of the 
levelling operations of the Great Tri- 
gonometrical Survey of India, 1123. 

Baker (B.), Address to the Mechanical 
Section by, 1182. 

Balena mysticetus, &c., the cervical ver- 
tebrze in the, Prof. Struthers on, 1103. 

Balenoptera musculus, account of the 
dissection of the rudimentary hind- 
limb of the, by Prof. Struthers, 1056. 

Banffshire, the flora of, Rev. W. S. Bruce 
on, 1087. 

Bantu tribes living round Lake Nyasa in 
Eastern Central Africa, notes on some 
of the, by Dr. R. Laws, 1227. 

Barium sulphate as a cementing material 
in sandstone, by Prof. F. Clowes, 
1038. 

Barlow (C.), the new Tay viaduct, 883. 


Barlow (W.), a theory of the connection 


INDEX. 1235 


between the crystal form and the atom 
composition of chemical compounds, 
983. 

Barlow (W. H.) on patent legislation, 695. 
*Barnett (P. M.) on the Spey Bridge at 
Garmouth and the River Spey, 1203. 
Barrett (Prof. W. F.) on a new and 
simple form of calorimeter, 938; on a 
system of periodic clock control on 

telephone or telegraph lines, 1198. 

Barrington (R. M.) on the migration of 
birds, 685. 

Barron (Lt.-Col. W.), the Cadastral Sur- 
vey of India, 1128. 

*Bartholomew (J. G.), North-west Aus- 
tralia, 1132. 

Bass of Inverurie, the, a fragment of an 
ancient alluvial bed, by Rev. Dr. J. 
Davidson, 1018. 

Bastite-serpentine and troktolite in Aber- 
deenshire, Prof. T. G. Bonney on, 1016. 

*Bateman (A. H.) on customs tariffs, 1169, 

Bates (H. W.) on the exploration of New 
Guinea, 690; on the scientific examina- 
tion of the country in the vicinity of 
Mount Roraima in Guiana, 7d. 

Bathy-hypsographical maps, E.G. Raven- 
stein on, with special reference to a 
combination of the Ordnance and 
Admiralty surveys, 1140. 

Bauerman (H.) on the volcanic pheno- 
mena of Vesuvius, 395. d 

*Beauly basin, the geographical features 
of the, by J. Y. Buchanan, 1138. 

Becker (Miss L.) on the teaching of 
science in elementary schools, 692. 

Beddard (F. EH.) on the bronchial syrinx 
of the cuculide and caprimulgide, 
1101 ; contributions to the structure of 
the oligochzeta, 1102. 

*Bees and ants, recent observations on 
the habits and instincts of, by Sir J. 
Lubbock, 1056. 

Bell (A.), fossil tertiary polyzoa of the 
higher zones, and note on the scarcity 
of eocene polyzoa, 666. 

Bell (Prof. J. F.) on the echinoderm 
fauna of the island of Ceylon, 1065. 
Ben Nevis, meteorological observations 
on, report of the Committee for co- 
operating with the Scottish Meteoro- 

logical Society in making, 90. 

——, the meteorology of, A. Buchan on, 
917. 

——, proposed earthquake observations 
on, the measurement of the movements 
of the ground, with reference to, Prof. 
J. A. Ewing on, 920. 

*Benham (W. B.) on the kidneys of gas- 
teropoda and the renal duct of palu- 
dina, 1103. 

Bent (J. T.), insular Greek customs, 1214 ; 
‘on ancient tombs in the Greek islands, 
1217. 


Bidwell (S.) on the sensitiveness to light 
of selenium and sulphur cells, 981 ; on 
the generation of a voltaic current by a 
sulphur cell witha solid electrolyte, 982. 

Biggart (A.8.) on the Forth Bridge works, 
873. 

Biological Section, Address by Prof. W.C. 
McIntosh to the, 1043. 

Biological station, a marine, at Granton, 
Scotland, report on the establishment 
of 474. 

Biological stations, marine, on the coast 
of the United Kingdom, report of the 
Committee for promoting the establish- 
ment of, 480. 

Biology, the application of, to economics, 
P. Geddes on, 1166. 

Birds, migratory, some of our, as first 
seen in Aberdeenshire, J. Taylor on, 
1098. 

Bisulpbide of carbon prisms, the use of, 
for cases of extreme spectroscopic dis- 
persion, and their results in gaseous 
spectra, Profs. C. P. Smyth and A. 8. 
Herschel on, 942. 

Black Dog, the rock of the, note on, by 
Prof. T. G. Bonney, 1016. 

Black Rock of Kiltearn, the chasm called 
the, by W. Watson, 1018. 

Blackfoot tribes, report on the, by H. 
Hale, 696. 

Blair (M.) on the pauperisation of chil- 
dren by the operation of the ‘Scotch 
Education Act, 1872,’ 1176. 

Blanford (W. T.) on the fossil plants of 
the tertiary and secondary beds of the 
United Kingdom, 396; on the explora- 
tion of New Guinea, 690. 

Bloxam (G. W.) on the exploration of 
New Guinea, 690; on the scientific ex- 
amination of the country in the vicinity 
of Mount Roraima in Guiana, id.; on 
the North-western tribes of the Do- 
minion of Canada, 696. 

Blyth (Prof. J.) on a new form of gal- 
vanometer, 939. 

Boltzmann’s theorem, Prof. W. M. Hicks 
on, 905. 

Bonney (Prof. T. G.) on meteoric dust, 34; 
on the erratic blocks of England, Wales, 
and Ireland, 322; report on the rocks 
collected by H. H. Johnston, Esq., from 
the upper part of the Kilima-njaro 
massif, 682; on bastite-serpentine and 
troktolite in Aberdeenshire; with a 
note on the rock of the Black Dog, 
1016; preliminary note on some tra- 
verses of the crystalline district of the 
Central Alps, 1027. 

Botany, the use of graphic representa- 
tions of life-histories in the teaching of, 
Prof, F. O. Bower on, 1057. 

Bottomley (J. T.) on contact electricity 
in common air, vacuum, and different 

4K 2 


1236 


gases, 901; on a specimen of almost 
unmagnetisable steel, 903; on the 
cooling of wires in air and in vacuum, 
904. 

Bourdillon (F. W.) on the erosion of the 
sea-coast between Langney (or Lang- 
ley) Point and Beachy Head, Sussex, 
413. 

Bourne (Prof. A. G.) on the modification 
of the trochal disc of the rotifera, 
1095 ; on budding in the oligocheta, 
1096. 

Bourne (8.) on the teaching of science 
in elementary schools, 692; on the use 
of index numbers in the investigation 
of trade statistics, 859. 

Bousfield (EH. C.) on the annelids of the 
genus Dero, 1097; *on some little 
known fresh-water annelids, 1098. 

Bovey (Prof. H. T.) on promoting tidal 
observations in Canada, 33. 

Bower (Prof. F. 0.) on the use of graphic 
representations of life-histories in the 
teaching of botany, 1057. 

Brace (Dr. De W. B.) on magnetic double 
circular refraction, 931. 

Brain in extinct animals, the size of the, 
Prof. O. C. Marsh on, 1065. 

Bramwell (Sir F.) on patent legislation, 
695. 

Branfill (Col. B. R.), notes on the physio- 
graphy of Southern India, 1124. 

Brazil, by C. Mackenzie, 1105. 

Brierley (J. T.) on some new vanadium 
compounds, 968. 

Bright star, the, in the great nebula in 
Andromeda, Dr. R. Copeland on, 935. 
*Brin (Messrs.), exhibition and descrip- 
tion of the apparatus employed in ob- 
taining oxygen and nitrogen from the 
atmosphere ; description of the method 
used inconverting atmospheric nitrogen 

into ammonia, 977. 

British Association standard gauge for 
small screws, E. Rigg on the, 1203. 
*British standard of value, the, D. Horton 

on, 1172. 

Bronchial syrinx of the cuculide and 
caprimulgide, F, E. Beddard on the, 
1101. 

Brown (Prof. A. Crum) on meteorological 
observations on Ben Nevis, 90; on 
chemical nomenclature, 262; *on 
kinetic theories of matter, 904. 

Brown (Dr. C.) on the International 
Forestry Exhibition, 1164. 

Bruce (Rev. W. 8.) on the flora of Banff- 
shire, 1087. 

Brunlees (J.) on patent legislation, 695. 

Bryozoa, cyclostomatous, (polyzoa) from 
Australia, A. W. Waters on, 660. 

——, fossil cheilostomatous, from Aldinga 
and the river Murray cliffs, South 
Australia, 664, 


INDEX. 


Buchan (A.) on meteorological observa- 
tions on Ben Nevis, 90; on the meteor- 
ology of Ben Nevis, 917; the annual 
rainfall of the British Islands, 923. 

Buchanan (J. Y.), * oceanic islands and 
shoals, 1136 ; * the depth and tempera- 
ture of some Scottish lakes, 1138. 

Buckland (Miss A. W.), American shell- 
work and its affinities, 1214. 

*Burnett (C. J.) on a galvanic battery, 
916. 


Cadastral Survey of India, the, by Lt.- 
Col. W. Barron, 1128. 

Cadell (H.M.), recent advances in West 
Lothian geology, 1037. 

Cae Gwyn bone cave, North Wales, Dr. H. 
Hicks on the, 1021. 

Caithness, the flora of, J. F. Grant on, 
1063. 

——, Central, rocks of, J. Gunn on, 
1030. 

Callionymus lyra, L. (the skulpin), the 
ova of, Prof. McIntosh on, 1073. 

Calorimeter, a new and simple form of, 
Prof. W. F. Barrett on, 938. 

Cameron (A. C. G.), notes on Fuller’s 
earth and its applications, 1039. 

Campbell (Sir G.) on the municipalisa- 
tion of the land, 1158 ; *the rule of the 
road from an anthropological point of 
view, 1215. 

Canada, tidal observations in, report of 
the Committee for promoting, 33. 

Capello (Senhor) on magnetic reductions, 


Capital, what is? by W. Westgarth, 1165. 

Capper (R.) on the deep sea channel into 
Swansea harbour, 1202. 

Carbutt (E. H.) on patent legislation, 
695. 

Carey (A. E.) on the erosion of the coast 
from Newhaven to Seaford, 436. 

Carnelly (Prof. T.), the periodic law, as 
illustrated incertain physical properties 
of organic compounds, 969; suggestions 
as to the cause of the periodic law and 
the nature of the chemical elements, 
969. 

Carpal bones in various cetaceans, Prof. 
Struthers on the, 1056. 

Carpmael (A.), on patent legislation, 
695. 

Carpmael (C.) on promoting tidal obser- 
vations in Canada, 33. 

Carpmael (C. H.) on comparing and re- 
ducing magnetic observations, 65. 

Carruthers (Mr.) on the exploration of 
New Guinea, 690. 

Carver (Rev. Canon) on the scientific ex- 
amination of the country in the vicinity 
of Mount Roraima in Guiana, 690. 

Casualties at sea, the diminution of, by 
Don A. de Marcoartu, 1201. 


INDEX. 


Cephalopoda in the deepsea, W. E. Hoyle 
on the existence of, 1064. 

Cerapus, certain processes formed by, on 
Tubularia indivisa, Prof. McIntosh on, 
1072. 

Ceylon, the echinoderm fauna of the 
island of, Prof. J. F. Bell on, 1065. 

*Chameleon, the systematic position of 
the, and its affinities with the dino- 
sauria, Prof. D’A. W. Thompson on, 
1065. 

Chambers (C.) on magnetic observations, 


Chemical affinity, the determination of, 
in term of electromotive force, Dr. C. 
R. A. Wright on, 978. 

Chemical atoms, an approximate deter- 
mination of the absolute amounts of 
the weights of the, by Dr. G. J. Stoney, 
987. 

Chemical compounds, a theory of the 
connection between the crystal form 
and the atom composition of, by W. 
Barlow, 983. 

Chemical elements, the nature of the, by 
Prof. T. Carnelly, 969. 

Chemical nomenclature, third report on, 
262. 

Chemical Section, Address by Prof. H. E. 
Armstrong to the, 945. 

Cherriman (Prof. J. B.) on promoting 

. tidal observations in Canada, 33. 

Chimpanzee, the,and man, someimportant 
points of comparison between, by Prof. 
D. J. Cunningham, 1226. 

China, South-western, journeyings in, A. 
Hosie on, 1137. 

Chinese insect white wax, A. Hosie on, 
1064. 

Chlorophyli, note on some conditions of 
the development, and of the activity, of, 
by Prof. J. H. Gilbert, 970. 

*Christiansen’s experiment, an improved 
apparatus for, Lord Rayleigh on, 930. 

Christie (W. H. M.) on magnetic reduc- 
tions, 82. 

Chronological list of works on the coast- 
changes and shore deposits of England 
and Wales, by W. Whitaker, 442. 

Chrystal (Prof. G.) on standards for use 
in electrical measurements, 31; on 
comparing and reducing magnetic ob- 
servations, 65; Address by, to the 
Mathematical and Physical Section, 
889. 

Churchill (Lord A.) on the exploration of 
New Guinea, 690. 

*Cist, a, found at Parkhill, Dyce, in 
Oct. 1881, notes on, by W. Ferguson, 
1225. 

, in the parish of Leslie, Aberdeen- 
shire, notes on the opening of, by Rey. 
J. Russell, 1224. 

Clarke (Maj.-Gen. Sir A.) on the rate of 


1237 


erosion of the sea-coasts of England 
and Wales, 404. 

Clarke (Hyde) on depression of prices 
and results of economy of production, 
and on the prospect of recovery, 1168 ; 
the Picts and pree-Celtic Britain, 1223. 

Clarke (W. EB.) on the migration of birds, 
685. 

Cleland (Prof.) on the viscera of Gym- 
notus electricus, 1068; on the spiracle 
of fishes in its relation to the head, as 
developed in the higher vertebrates, 
1069; on the tail of the Myzxine glu- 
tinosa, ib. 

Climate, the supposed change of, in the 
British Isles within recent years, T. 
Heath on, 922. 

Climate of London, some of the laws 
which regulate the sequence of mean 
temperature and rainfall in the, H. C. 
Fox on, 912. 

*Clinometer, a, to use with a plane-table, 
Major Hill on, 1131. 

Clock control on telephone or telegraph 
lines, a system of periodic, Prof. W. F. 
Barrett on, 1198. 

Clowes (Prof. F.), barium sulphate as a 
cementing material in sandstone, 1038. 

Coal industry, sliding scales in the, by 
Prof. J. KE. C. Munro, 1173. 

Coast-changes and _ shore-deposits of 
England and Wales, chronological list 
of works on the, by W. Whitaker, 442. 

Colbaltous chloride, the molecular con- 
stitution of a solution of, Prof. W. J. 
Russell on, 991. 

*Coleman (J. J.) on a modification of the 
Daniell battery, using iron as electro- 
positive element, 938; on the action 
of ozonised air upon micro-organisms 
and albumen in solution, 1058. 

*Colour apparatus for physiological ex- 
periment, a new kind of, J. Aiken on, 
1079. 

Commissural theory of the corpus callo- 
sum, the, is it correct? by Prof. D. J. 
Hamilton, 1054. 

Constant gravitational instruments for 
measuring electric currents and poten- 
tials, Prof. Sir W. Thomson on, 905. 

Contact electricity in common air, va- 
cuum, and different gases, J. T. Bot- 
tomley on, 901. 

Cooling of wires in air and in vacuum, 
J. T. Bottomley on the, 904. 

Copeland (Dr. BR.) on the bright star in 
the great nebula in Andromeda, 935. 
Cordeaux (J.) on the migration of birds, 

685. 

Corn, the modes of grinding and drying 
in old times, Miss J. M. Laing on, 
1216. 

Corona of the sun, the nature of the, Dr. 
W. Huggins on, 932. 


1238 


Corresponding Societies Committee, re- 
port of the, 708. 

Corry (J.), State guarantee of war risks, 
1171. 

Craigie (Major P. G.) on recent changes 
in Scottish agriculture, 1162. 

Crombie (J. W.), a game with a history, 
1215. 

Crosskey (Dr. H. W.) on the erratic 
blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, 
322; onthe circulation of underground 
waters, 380; on the teaching of science 
in elementary schools, 692. 

Crystallised combinations of copper, zinc, 
and iron sulphates, description of some 
new, by J. Spiller, 976. 

Crystallographic study of danburite, some 
results of the, by Max Schuster, 
1033. 

Cumberland, three stone circles in, A. L. 
Lewis on, 1220. 

Cundall (J. T.) and Prof. W. Ramsay on 
the non-existence of gaseous nitrous 
anhydride, 965. 

Cunningham (Prof. D. J.) *on the con- 
nection of the Os odontoidium with the 
centrum of the axis vertebra, 1101; 
some important points of comparison 
between the chimpanzee and man, 
1226. 

Cunningham (J. T.), report on the marine 
biologicalstation at Granton, Scotland, 
ATA. 

Cunningham (Rev. W.) on the industrial 
remuneration conference, 1181. 

*Curvature of the spine in the fcetus and 
the child, Dr. J. Symington on the, 
1101. 

Cust (R. N.) on the progress of African 
philology, 1105. 

*Customs tariffs, A. E. Bateman on, 1169. 

Cyclones of the Indian Ocean south of 
the equator, a supposed periodicity of 
the, C. Meldrum on, 925. 

*Cyprus, the Ordnance Survey of, by T. 
Saunders, 1129. 


Danburite, some results of the crystallo- 
graphic study of, by Max Schuster, 
1033. ; 

*Daniell battery, a modification of the, 
using iron as electropositive element, 
J. J. Coleman on, 938. 

Darwin (Prof. G. H.) on the harmonic 
analysis of tidal observations, 35; on 
comparing and reducing magnetic ob- 
servations, 65, 75. 

Davidson (Rev. Dr. J.), the Bass of 
Inverurie, a fragment of an ancient 
alluvial bed, 1018; the symbol pillars 
abounding in central Aberdeenshire, 
1227. 

Dawkins (Prof. W. Boyd) on the erratic 
blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland 


INDEX. 


322; on the scientific examination of 
the country in the vicinity of Mount 
Roraima in Guiana, 690; on the work 
of the Corresponding Societies Com- 
mittee, 708. 

Dawson (Dr. G. M.) on the North-west- 
ern tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 
696. 

Day (F.) on the hybridisation of sal- 
monidz at Howietoun, 1059, 

Day (St. J. V.) on patent legislation, 
695. 

Deacon (G. F.) on underground tempera- 
ture, 93. 

Deane (Dr.) on the erratic blocks of 
England, Wales, and Ireland, 322. 

Deep borings at Chatham, W. Whitaker 
on, a contribution to the deep-seated 
geology of the London basin, 1041. 

Depression of prices and results of 
economy of production, Hyde Clarke 
on, and onthe prospect of recovery, 
1168. 

Depression of trade, the alleged, Prof. 
L. Levi on, 1155. 

De Rance (C. E.) on the erratic blocks of 
England, Wales, and Ireland, 322; on 
the circulation of underground waters, 
380; on the rate of erosion of the 
sea-coasts of England and Wales, 
404. 

Dero, the annelids of the genus, E. C. 
Bousfield on, 1097. 

Dewar (Prof.) on standards of white 
light, 61; on chemical nomenclature, 
262; on wave-length tables of the 
spectra of the elements and com- 
pounds, 288; *on solutions of ozone 
and the chemical actions of liquid 
oxygen, 985. 

Diatomaceous deposits (diatomite) from 
the peat of Aberdeenshire, W. I. Mac- 
adam on certain, 1017. 

Dickinson (J.) on underground tempera- 
ture, 93. 

Dilatancy of media composed of rigid 
particles in contact, Prof. O. Reynolds 
on the, 896. 

Dissipative systems, a theorem relating 
to the time-moduli of, by Lord Ray- 
leigh, 911. 

*Divers (Dr.) and T. Nakamura, an ap- 
parently new hydrocarbon distilled 
from Japanese petroleum, 975. 

Dixon (H. B.) on chemical nomenclature, 
262; the rate of explosion of hydrogen 
and oxygen, 905. 

Dog, note on the intelligence of the, by 
Sir J. Lubbock, 1089. 

Double refraction, a point in the theory 
of, R. T. Glazebrook on, 929. 

Douglas (Sir J. N.) on the rate of erosion 
of the sea-coasts of England and Wales, 
404, 


= 


INDEX. 


Dowker (G.) on the erosion of the coast 
of East Kent, 415. 

Draper (Dr. D.) on solar spectroscopy in 
the infra red, 936. 

Druce (EH. R. N.) on the erosion of the 
coast at Dover, 439. 

Drummond (Prof. H.), notes on a recent 
examination of the geology of East 
Central Africa, 1032. 

Durness and Eriboll, the geology of, with 
special reference to the Highland con- 
troversy, by B. N. Peach and J. Horne, 
1027. ; 


Early human habitations on Deeside and 
vicinity, traces of, by Rev. J. G. Michie, 
1232. 

Earth, the rotational period of the, and 
the revolution period of the moon de- 
duced from the nebular hypothesis of 
Laplace, notes upon, by W. F. Stanley, 
915. 

Earthquake phenomena of Japan, fifth 
report on the, 362. 

Earthquakes, some recent, on the Dur- 
ham coast, and their probable cause, 
Prof. G. A. Lebour on, 1013. 

Earth’s magnetic field, the measurement 
of the intensity of the horizontal com- 
ponent of, T. Gray on, 898. 

Easton (E.) on the rate of erosion of the 
sea-coasts of England and Wales, 404. 

Echinoderm fauna of the island of Ceylon, 
Prof. F. J. Bell on the, 1065. 

Economic Science and Statistics, Address 
by Prof. H. Sidgwick to the Section of, 
1141. 

Economies, the application of biology to, 
P. Geddes on, 1166. 

Edgeworth (F. Y.) on methods of ascer- 
taining variations in the rates of birth, 

. death, and marriage, 1165. 

Edmunds (Dr. L.), electric lighting and 
the law, 1195. 

Egypt, Lower, notice of an outline geolo- 

- gical map of, by Prof. E. Hull, 1015. 

Electric currents and potentials, constant 

gravitational instruments for measur- 
_ ing, Prof. Sir W. Thomson on, 905. 

Electric lighting and the law, by Dr. L. 
Edmunds, 1195. 

Electric lighting at the Forth Bridge 
works, by J. N. Shoolbred, 879. 

Electric lighting, domestic, W. H. Preece 
on, 1197. 

Electric safety lamp for miners, J. W. 
Swan on an, 1196. 

Electrical measurements, report of the 
Committee for constructing and issuing 
practical standards for use in, 31. 

Electrical theories, report on, by Prof. J. 

_ J. Thomson, 97 ; Ampére’s, 98; Grass- 
_ mann’s, 100; Stefan’s, 103 ; Korteweg’s, 
105; Gauss’s, 108; W. E. Weber's, id. ; 


1239 


Riemann’s, 109; Clausius’, ib.; F. E. 
Neumann’s, 114; C. Neumann’s, 122; 
Maxwell’s, 125; v. Helmholtz’s, 133 ; 
the experimental evidence as to the 
truth of the various theories, 142; 
Schiller’s experiments, 144. 

Electricity, atmospheric, Prof. C. M. 
Smith on, 899. 

——, contact, in common air, vacuum, 
and different gases, J. T. Bottomley 
on, 901. 

Electro-centrifugal machine, a, for la- 
boratory use, A. Watt on, 991. 

Electrolysis, Prof. O. J. Lodge on, 723. 

——, Helmholtz’s views on, Prof. Schuster 
on, 977. 

Electrolysis of gases, Prof. Schuster on 
the, 977. 

Electro-optic action of a charged Frank- 
lin’s plate, Dr. J. Kerr on, 930. 

*Elements, the essential, of plants, T. 
Jamieson on, 969. 

Elephant, the development of the vertebrae 
of the, Prof. Struthers on, 1103. 

Elgin, the flora of, J. Mackenzie on, 1087. 

Elgin sandstones, the, by J. G. Phillips, 
1023. 

Elwell (J. B.), remarkable occurrence 
during the thunderstorm of August 6, 
1885, at Albrighton, ‘24. 

*Empiric naming of organic compounds, 
a plea for the, by Prof. Odling, 972. 
Eocene mammals of the ‘plastic clay’ 
period, American evidences of, by Sir 

R. Owen, 1033. 

Epidermal tissues of pitcher plants, a 
new method of preparing the, Dr. J. 
M. Macfarlane on, 1088. 

Eriboll, the geology of Durness and, with 
special reference to the Highland con- 
troversy, by B. N. Peach and J. Horne, 
1027. 

Erosion of the sea-coasts of England and 
Wales, the rate of, and the influence of 
the artificial abstraction of shingle and 
other material in that action, report on, 
404; chronological list of works on the 
coast-changes and shore-deposits of 
England and Wales, 442. 

Erratic blocks of England, Wales, and 
Ireland, thirteenth report on the, 322. 
*Ether, exhibition of a mechanical model 
illustrating some properties of the, by 

G. F. Fitzgerald, 930. 

——,, the luminiferous, on the constitu- 
tion of, on the vortex atom theory, 
Prof. W. M. Hicks on, 930. 

Etheridge (R.) on the fossil phyllopoda 
of the paleozoic rocks, 326; on the 
earthquake phenomena of Japan, 362. 

Evans (A. J.), the flint-knappers’ art in 
Albania, 1216. 

Evans (Capt. Sir F. 0.) on comparing and 
reducing magnetic observations, 65, 


1240 


82; on the rate of erosion of the sea- 
coasts of England and Wales, 404. 

Evans (Dr. J.) on the work of the Corre- 
sponding Societies Committee, 708. 

Everett (Prof.) on standards for use in 
electrical measurements, 31 ; on under- 
ground temperature, 93. 

Evolutionary history, abnormal and 
arrested development as an indica- 
tion of, by Dr. J. G. Garson, 1226. 

Ewart (Prof. C.) on the establishment of 
a marine biological station at Granton, 
Scotland, 474. R 

Ewing (Prof. J. A.) on the measurement 
of the movements of the ground, with 
reference to proposed earthquake ob- 
servations on Ben Nevis, 920; *on a 
new form of high-speed friction driv- 
ing gear, 1203. 

Explosion of hydrogen and oxygen, the 
rate of, H. B. Dixon on, 905. 


Farquharson ( Mrs.) on the identification 
of the British mosses by their distinc- 
tive characters, 1063. 

Fauna, the echinoderm, of the island of 
Ceylon, Prof. I’. J. Bell on, 1065. 

Faunas of the Red Sea and Mediterra- 
nean, the cause of the extreme dis- 
similarity of the, Prof. E. Hull on, 
1068. 

*Ferguson (W.), notes on a cist found at 
Parkhill, Dyce, in October 1881, 1225. 
Fernando Noronha group, some rock 
specimens from the islands of the, 

Prof. A, Renard on, 1081. 

Fiscal policy, how the prosperity of a 
nation may be affected by its, by 
A. Forbes, 1169. 

Fish, specimens of, from the Lower Old 
Red Sandstone of Forfarshire, Rev. H. 
Mitchell on, 1023. 

Fisheries, report on the aid given by the 
Dominion Government and the Govern- 
ment of the United States to the en- 
couragement of, and to the investiga- 
tion of the various forms of marine life 
on the coasts and rivers of North 
America, 479. 

Fishes of the Sea of Galilee, the origin of 
the, Prof. E. Hull on, 1066. 

Fitzgerald (Prof. G. F.) on standards for 
use in electrical measurements, 31; 
*exhibition of a mechanical model 
illustrating some properties of the 
ether, 930. 

Fleming (Dr. J. A.) on standards for use 
in electrical measurements, 31. 

Flint-knappers’ art in Albania, the, by 
A. J. Evans, 1216.: 

Flora of Banffshire, Rev. W. S. Bruce on 
the, 1087. 

Flora of Caithness, J. F. Grant on the, 
1063. 


INDEX. 


Flora of Elgin, J. Mackenzie on the, 1087. 

Fluorine, the refraction of, G. Gladstone 
on, 970. 

Food-fishes, the development of the, at 
St. Andrew’s marine laboratory, E. E. 
Prince on, 1091. 

Forbes (A.), how its fiscal policy may 
affect the prosperity of a nation, 1169. 

Forbes (Prof. G.) on standards of white 
light, 61. 

Fordham (H. G.) on the erratic blocks of 
England, Wales, and Ireland, 322; on 
the work of the Corresponding Societies 
Committee, 708. 

Forth Bridge works, the, by A. 8. Biggart, 
873. 

—, electric lighting at, by J. N. Shool- 
bred, 879. 

*Fossil fishes in the estuarine beds of the 
carboniferous formation, Dr. Traquair 
on the distribution of, 1033. 

Fossil phyllopoda of the palzozoic rocks, 
third report on the, 326. 

Fossil plants of the tertiary and secondary 
beds of the United Kingdom, report on 
the, 396. 

Fossil reptile, a new, recently discovered 
at New Spynie, near Elgin, preliminary 
note on, by Dr. R. H. Traquair, 1024. 

Foster (Dr. C. Le Neve) on underground 
temperature, 93. 

Foster (Prof. G. C.) on standards for use 
in electrical measurements, 31; on 
standards of white light, 61. 

Foster (Prof. M.) on the occupation of a 
table at the zoological station at Naples, 
466. 

Fox (H. C.) on some of the laws which 
regulate the sequence of mean tempera- 
ture and rainfall in the climate of Lon- 
don, 912, 

*Fraipont (J.), systématique du genre 
Polygordius, 1098. 

Frankland (Prof.) on chemical nomen- 
clature, 262. 

Fream (Prof. W.), the agricultural situa- 
tion, 1161. 

*Freshfield (D. W.), notes on recent 
mountaineering in the Himalaya, 1127. 

Frog-heart, the direct action of anzsthe- 
tics on the, J. McGregor-Robertson on, 
1057. 

Frog’s ovum, the nucleus in the, Dr. G. 
Thin on, 1069. 

*Frozen stratum of soil,the permanently, 
in British North America, the depth of, 
Gen. Sir J. H. Lefroy on, 1136. 

Fuller’s earth and its applications, notes 
on, by A. G. C. Cameron, 1039. 

Fungi in the roots of orchids, the occur- 
rence of, J. Macmillan on, 1083. 

*Fungus, a microscopic, in fossil wood 
from Bowling, Dr. J. M. Macfarlane on, 
1088. 


INDEX. 


Fynnon Beuno bone-cave, North Wales, 
Dr. H. Hicks on the, 1021. 


Galloway (Mr.) on underground tempera- 
ture, 3. 

Galton (Capt. D.) on the circulation of 
underground waters, 380; on patent 
legislation, 695; on the work of the 
Corresponding Societies Committee, 
708. 

Galton (F.) on the exploration of New 
Guinea, 690 : on the scientific examina- 
tion of the country in the vicinity of 
Mount Roraima in Guiana, id.; on the 
work of the Corresponding Societies 
Committee, 708; Address to the An- 
thropological Section by, 1206. 

*Galvanic battery, C. J. Burnett on a, 
916. 

Galvanic polarisation, molecular dis- 
tances in, by Prof. J. Larmor, 900. 

Galvanometer, a new form of, Prof. J. 
Blyth on, 939. 

Game with a history, a, by J. W. Crombie, 
1215. 

Gardner (J. 8.) on the fossil plants of the 
tertiary and secondary beds of the 
United Kingdom, 396. 

Garnett (Prof. W.) on standards for use 
in electrical measurements, 31. 

Garnier (Lt.-Col.) on the erosion of the 
coast at Sandown Bay, 428. 

Garson (Dr. J. G.) on the work of the 
Corresponding Societies Committee, 
708; on the human remains found in 
Happaway Cavern, Torquay, 1220; ab- 
normal and arrested development as 
an indication of evolutionary history, 
1226. 

*Gasteropoda, the kidneys of the, and the 
renal duct of paludina, W. B. Benham 
on, 1103. 

Gastrosteus spinachia, the nest and deve- 
lopment of, at St. Andrews marine 
laboratory, E. E. Prince on, 1093. 

Geddes (P.) on the application of biology 
to economics, 1166. 

Geikie (Dr. A.) on underground tempera- 
ture, 93. 

Geographical education, by J. 8. Keltie, 
1133. 

Geographical Section, Address by Gen. J. 
T. Walker to the, 1106. 

Geography of Scotland, what has been 
done for the, and what remains to be 
done, by H. A. Webster, 1138. 

Geological map, an outline, of Lower 
Egypt, Arabia Petreea, and Palestine, 
notice of, by Prof. E. Hull, 1015. 

Geological Section, Address by Prof. J. 
W. Judd to the, 994. 

Geology, British, the Highland contro- 
versy in: its causes, course, and conse- 
quences, by Prof. C. Lapworth, 1025, 


1241 


Geology, West Lothian, recent advances 
in, by H. M. Cadell, 1037. 

Geology of Durness and Eriboll, the, 
with special reference to the Highland 
controversy, by B. N. Peach and J. 
Horne, 1027. 

Geology of East Central Africa, notes on 
a recent examination of, by Prof. H. 
Drummond, 1032. 

Geology of Staffordshire, Worcestershire, 
and Warwickshire, list of works on the, 
by W. Whitaker, 780. 

Gibbs (Prof. Wolcott) on wave-length 
tables of the spectra of the elements 
and compounds, 288. 

Gilbert (Prof. J. H.), note on some con- 
ditions of the development, and of the 
activity, of chlorophyll, 970. 

Glacial deposits at Montrose, Dr. Howden 
on the, 1040. 

Glacial period, further evidence of the 
extension of the ice in the North Sea 
during the, by B. N. Peach and J. 
Horne, 1036. 

Glacial period in Great Britain, a former, 
existing under similar meteorological 
conditions to those that rule at the 
present time, proposed conditions to 
account for, by W. F. Stanley, 1020. 

Glaciation, the direction of, as ascertained 
by the form of the strize, by Prof. H.C. 
Lewis, 1019. 

Gladstone (G.) on the refraction of 
fluorine, 970. 

Gladstone (Dr. J. H.) on meteoric dust, 
34; on the teaching of science in ele- 
mentary schools, 692; on the value of 
the refraction goniometer in chemical 
work, 970. 

Glaisher (J.) on underground tempera- 
ture, 93; on the circulation of under- 
ground waters, 380; on the survey of 
Palestine, 691. 

Glazebrook (R. T.) on standards for use 
in electrical measurements, 31; on 
optical theories, 157 ; the work of Mac- 
Cullagh, Neumann, Green, and Cauchy, 
ib.; modern developments of the 
elastic solid theory, 170; theories 
based on the mutual reaction between 
the ether and matter, 212; the electro- 
magnetic theory, 251; on a point in 
the theory of double refraction, 929. 

Godwin-Austen (Lt.-Col. H. H.) on the 
exploration of New Guinea, 690; on a 
trip from Upper Assam into the Kampti 
country and the western branch of the 
Trrawady river, made by Col. B. B. 
Woodthorpe, R.E., and Major C. R. 
MacGregor, 1126. 

Gooden (J. C.) on the erosion of the coast 
between Chatham and Sheerness, 442. 

Goodwin (Prof. W. L.) on the investiga- 
tion of certain physical constants of 


solution, especially the expansion of 
saline solutions, 261. 

Gordon (G. J.) notes of mild steel, 1200. 

Grant (J. F.) on the flora of Caithness, 
1063. 

Grantham (R. B.) on the rate of erosion 
of the sea-coasts of England and Wales, 
404; on the erosion of the coast be- 
tween Lyme Regis and Charmouth, 
422; at Brading Harbour, &c., 429; at 
Pagham, 432; from Worthing to Lanc- 
ing, 433; from Lancing to Shoreham, 
ib.; from St. Leonards to Hastings, 
438. 

*Gray (Capt.) on a model of the whale, 
1059. 


Gray (T.) on the earthquake phenomena 
of Japan, 362; on the measurement of 
the intensity of the horizontal compo- 
nent of the earth’s magnetic field, 898. 

Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, 
account of the levelling operations of 
the, by Major A. W. Baird, 1123. 

Greek customs, insular, by J. T. Bent, 
1214. 

Greek islands, ancient tombs in the, J. T. 
Bent on, 1217. 

Greig (J. B.), policy in taxation, 1179. 

Griffith (G.) on the formation of a pure 
spectrum by Newton, 940. 

Groves (C. E.) on chemical nomencla- 
ture, 262. 

Groves’s gas battery, some actions of a, 
Prof. W. Ramsay on, 965. 

Gunn (J.) on rocks of central Caithness, 
1030. 

Giinther (Dr.) on the exploration of 
Kilima-njaro and the adjoining moun- 
tains of Eastern Equatorial Africa, 681. 

*Guthrie (Prof.) on physical molecular 
equivalents, 985. 

Gymnotus electricus, the viscera of the, 
Prof. Cleland on, 1068. 


Haddon (Prof. A. C.) on the occupation 
of a table at the zoological station at 
Naples, 466. 

Hale (H.) on the north-western tribes of 
the Dominion of Canada, 696; on the 
Blackfoot tribes, id. 

Haliburton (R. G.) on the North-western 
tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 696. 

Halliburton (Dr. W. D.), a comparative 
view of the albuminous substances 
contained in the blood of vertebrate 
and invertebrate animals, 1077. 

Hamilton (Prof. D. J.), is the commis- 
sural theory of the corpus callosum 
correct ? 1054. 

Happaway Cavern, Torquay, by W. Pen- 
gelly, 1219. 

—, the human remains found in, Dr. 
J. G. Garson on, 1220. 

Harcourt (A. G. Vernon) on standards of 


INDEX. 


white light, 61; on chemical nomen- 
clature, 262; photometry with the 
pentane standard, 916. 

Harcourt (L. F. Vernon) on the rate of 
erosion of the sea-coasts of England 
and Wales, 404. 

Harker (Alfred) on slaty cleavage and 
allied rock-structures, with special 
reference to the mechanical theories 
of their origin, 813. 

Harker (Prof. Allen) on the zoocytium or 
gelatinous matrix of Ophrydiwm versa- 
tile, 1074; *on the coloration of the 
anterior segments in the Malanide, 
1098. 

Harmonic analysis of tidal observations, 
third report of the Committee for the, 
35. 

*Harris (J. H.), the American system of 
oil pipe lines, 1193. 

Hartley (Prof.) on the ultra-violet spark 
spectra emitted by metallic elements 
and their combinations under varying 
conditions, 276 ; on wave-length tables 
of the spectra of the elements and 
compounds, 288. 

Harvie-Brown (J. A.) on the migration of 
birds, 685. 

Haycraft (Prof. J. B,), a new theory of 
the sense of taste, 1059. 

Heath (T.) on the supposed change of 
climate in the British Isles within 
recent years, 922. 

Hedgehog, the structure of the intestine 
in the, Dr. J. A. McWilliam on, 1078. 
Heliographic latitude and longitude of 
sun-spots, determination of the, by 

Prof. A. W. Thomson, 931. 

Helmholtz’s views on electrolysis, Prof. 
Schuster on, 977. 

Hepper (Major A. C.) on the erosion of 
the coast at Deal, 440. 

Herschel (Prof. A. 8.) on meteoric dust, 
34; on underground temperature, 93. 
—— and Prof. C. P. Smith on the use of 
bisulphide of carbon prisms for cases 
of extreme spectroscopic dispersion, 
and their results in gaseous spectra, 

942. 

Heywood (J.) on the teaching of science 
in elementary schools, 692. 

Hicks (Dr. H.) on the Fynnon Beuno and 
Cae Gwyn bone caves, North ‘Wales, 
1021. 

Hicks (Prof. W. M.) *on Boltzmann’s 
theorem, 905; on the constitution of 
the luminiferous ether on the vortex 
atom theory, 930. 

*High speed friction driving gear, a new 
form of, Prof. J. A. Ewing on, 1203. 
Highland controversy, the, the geology 
of Durness and Eriboll, with special 
reference to, by B., N. Peach and J. 

Horne, 1027. 


INDEX. 


Highland controversy in British geology, 
the: its causes, course, and conse- 
quences, by Prof. C. Lapworth, 1025. 

Hill (A.), the evidence of comparative 
anatomy with regard to localisation of 
function in the cortex of the brain, 
1054. 

Hill (Rev. E.), on the average density of 
meteorites compared with that of the 
earth, 1031. 

*Hill (Major) on a clinometer to use 
with a plane-table, 1131. 

*Himalaya, notes on recent mountain- 
eering in the, by D. W. Freshfield, 
1127. 

*Himalayan snow peaks, Lt.-Col. H. C.B. 
Tanner on, 1126. 

Hicks (Rev. T.), note on Prof. G. Segu- 
enza’s list of tertiary polyzoa from 
Reggio (Calabria), 673. 

Hooker (Sir J.) on the exploration 
of Kilima-njaro and the adjoining 
mountains of Eastern Equatorial 
Africa, 681. 

Hopkinson (Dr. J.) on standards for use 
in electrical measurements, 31; on 
standards of white light, 61. 

Hopkinson (J.) on the work of the Cor- 
responding Societies Committee, 708. 

Horne (J.) and B. N. Peach, the geology 
of Durness and Eriboll, with special 
reference to the Highland controversy, 
1027 ; further evidence of the extension 
of icein the North Sea during the glacial 
period, 1036. 

Horse, the development of the foot of the, 
Prof. Struthers on, 1103. 

*Horton (D.) on the Britsh standard of 
value, 1172. 

Hosie (A.) on Chinese insect white wax, 
1064 ; on journeyings in South-western 
China, 1137. 

Howden (Dr.) on the glacial deposits at 
Montrose, 1040. 

Hoyle (W. E.), report on the occupation 
of the table at the zoological station 
at Naples, 468; on the existence of 
cephalopoda in the deep sea, 1064. 

Huggins (Dr. W.) on the nature of the 

_ corona of thesun, 932 ; on the spectrum 
of the stella nova visible on the great 
nebula in Andromeda, 935. 

Hughes (Prof. T. McK.) on the erratic 
blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland, 
322. 

Hull (Prof. E.) on underground tempera- 
ture, 93; on the circulation of under- 
ground waters, 380; notice of an out- 
line geological map of Lower Egypt, 
Arabia Petrea, and Palestine, 1015; 
on the occurrence of Lower Old Red 
Conglomerate in the promontory of the 
Fanad, North Donegal, 1016; on the 
origin of the fishes of the Sea of 


1243 


Galilee, 1066; on the cause of the ex- 
treme dissimilarity of the faunas of 
the Red Sea and Mediterranean, 1068. 

*Human arterial system, the morphology 
of the, Prof. A. MacAlister on, 1068. 

Human bones found in 1884 in Balta 
Island, Shetland, by D. Edmonston, 
Esq., notice of, by Prof. J. Struthers, 
1225. 

Human crania, the, and other contents 
found in short stone cists in Aberdeen- 
shire, Prof. J. Struthers on, 1225. 

Human remains found in Happaway 
cavern, Torquay, Dr. J. G. Garson on 
the, 1220. 

Hunter (Dr. W. A.) on the incidence of 
imperial taxation, 1170. 

Huntington (Prof.) on the ultra-violet 
spark spectra emitted by metallic 
elements and their combinations under 
varying conditions, 276. 

Hutchinson (P. 0.) on the erosion of the 
coast of Sidmouth, 417. 

Huxley (Prof.) on promoting the estab- 
lishment of marine biological stations 
on the coast of the United Kingdom, 
480. 

*Hyaline cartilage, the structure of, Dr. 
G. Thin on, 1079. 

*Hydrocarbon, an apparently new, dis- 
tilled from Japanese petroleum, by Dr. 
Divers and I’, Nakamura, 975. 

Hydrogen and oxygen, the rate of ex- 
plosion of, H. B. Dixon on, 905. 

Hygrometric observations, improved, Prof. 
C. P. Smyth on, 922. 


Ice in the North Sea during the glacial 
period, further evidence of the extension 
of the, by B. N. Peach and J. Horne, 
1036. 

Ichthyosaurus, the hind limb of the, Prof. 
D’A. W. Thompson on, and on the 
morphology of vertebrate appendages, 
1065. 

im Thurn (E.), *Mount Roraima, 1128 ; 
note on the Redmen about Roraima, 
1215. 

Imperial taxation, the incidence of, Dr. 
W. A. Hunter on, 1170. 

Impregnation, the influence of, on a plant, 
E. J. Lowe on, 1081. 

Impregnation of composite flowers, H. J. 
Lowe on the, 1082. 

Index numbers, the use of, in the investi- 
gation of trade statistics, 8. Bourne on, 
859. 

India, the Cadastral Survey of, by Lt.- 
Col. W. Barron, 1128. 

, the levelling operations of the Great 
Trigonometrical Survey of, account of, 
by Major A. W. Baird, 1123. 

——., Southern, the physiography of, notes 
on, by Col. B. R. Branfill, 1124. i 


1244 


Indian forest school, the, by Major F. 
Bailey, 1104. 

Indian forest survey, the, by Major F. 
Bailey, 1121. 

Industrial remuneration conference, Rey. 
W. Cunningham on the, 1181. 

Innes (Col.), the agriculture of Aberdeen- 
shire, 1161; on the employment of the 
road engine in construction and main- 
tenance of roads, 1194. 

Instruments graduated upon glass, a re- 
cent improvement in the construction 
of, G. M. Whipple on, 937. 

Insular Greek customs, by J. T. Bent, 
1214. 

International Forestry Exhibition, the, 
Dr. C. Brown on, 1164. 

*Invertebrata, certain groups of, the 
bibliography of, report on, 1056 

Irish metamorphic rocks, G. H. Kinahan 
on, 1030, 


Jacobs (J.), a proposed society for ex- 
perimental psychology, 1230; a com- 
parative estimate of Jewish ability, 
1231. 

Jamieson (T.) * on the essential elements 
of plants, 969; agricultural investiga- 
tion and education, 1177. 

Japan, the earthquake phenomena of, 
fifth report on, 362. 

Japp (Dr. F. R.) on chemical nomencla- 
ture, 262. 

Jewish ability, a comparative estimate of, 
by J. Jacobs, 1231. 

Johnson (Prof. A.) on promoting tidal 
observations in Canada, 33. 

*Johnston (H. H.), the Portuguese pos- 
sessions in West Africa, 1132. 

Johnston-Lavis (Dr. H. J.) on the volcanic 
phenomena of Vesuvius, 395. 

Joly (J.) on a photometer made with 
translucent prisms, 917. 

Jones (Prof. J. V.) on a form of mercury 
contact commutator of constant resist- 
ance for use in adjusting resistance 
coils by Wheatstone’s bridge, and for 
other purposes, 907; *on slide resist- 
ance coils with mercury contacts, ib. 

Jones (Prof. T. Rupert) on the fossil 
phyllopoda of the palexozoic rocks, 
326. 

Judd (Prof. J. W.), Address by, to the 
Geological Section, 994. 


Kampti country, a trip into the, and the 
western branch of the Irrawady river, 
from Upper Assam, Lt.-Col. H. H. God- 
win-Austen on, 1126. 

Keltie (J. 8.), geographical education, 
1133. 

Kerr (Dr. J.) on electro-optic action of a 
charged Franklin’s plate, 930. 

Kidney, the action of atropine on the 


INDEX. 


secretion of the: its evidence as to 
the mechanism of the secretion, J. 
McGregor-Robertson on, 1075. 

Kilima-njaroand theadjoining mountains 
of Eastern Equatorial Africa, third re- 
port on the exploration of, 681; report 
by Prof. Bonney on the rocks collected 
by H. H. Johnston, Esq., 682. 

Kiltearn, the Black Rock of, the chasm 
called, by W. Watson, 1018. 

Kinahan (G. H.) on Irish metamorphic 
rocks, 1030. 

*Kinetic theories, Prof. G. D. Liveing on, 
904. 

*Kinetic theories of matter, Prof. A Crum 
Brown on, 904. 


Laing (Miss J. M.) on the modes of grind- 
ing and drying corn in old times, 1216 
*Lake Yamdok in Tibet, the complete 
exploration of, T. Saunders on, 1126. 
Lake-dwellings, ancient British, the 
archeological importance of, and their 
relation toanalogous remains in Europe, 

by Dr. R. Munro, 1221. 

Land, the municipalisation of the, Sir G. 
Campbell on, 1158. 

Lankester (Prof. Ray) on the occupation 
of a table at the zoological station at 
Naples, 466. 

Lapworth (Prof. C.), the Highland contro- 
versy in British Geology: its causes, 
course, and consequences, 1025. 

Larmor (Prof. J.), molecular distances in 
galvanic polarisation, 900. 

Laughton (J. K.) on Mr. BE. J. Lowe’s 
project of establishing a meteorological 
observatory near Chepstow, 64. 

Lawrence (Rev. F.) on the survey of 
Palestine, 691. 

Laws (Dr. R.), notes on some of the 
Bantu tribes living round Lake Nyasa 
in Eastern Central Africa, 1227. 

*Lead, the action of water on, A. H. 
Allen on, 993. 

Lebour (Prof. G. A.) on underground 
temperature, 93; on the circulation of 
underground waters, 380; on some re- 
cent earthquakes on the Durham coast, 
and their probable cause, 1013. 

Lee (J. E.) on the erratic blocks of Eng- 
land, Wales, and Ireland, 322. 

Lefroy (Gen. SirJ. H.) on comparing and 
reducing magnetic observations, 65, 71, 
84 ; on the exploration of New Guinea, 
690; on the scientific examination of 
the country in the vicinity of Mount 
Roraima in Guiana, id.; on the North- 
western tribes of the Dominion of 
Canada, 696; *on the depth of the 
permanently frozen stratum of soil in 
British North America, 1136. 

Le Mesurier (Col.) on the erosion of the 
coast at Sheerness, 441. 


*¥ 


INDEX. 


Levelling operations of the Great Trigo- 
nometrical Survey of India, account of 
the, by Major A. W. Baird, 1123. 

Levi (Prof. L.) on the alleged depression 
of trade, 1155. 

Lewis (A. L.) on three stone circles in 
Cumberland, with some further observa- 
tions on the relation of stone circles to 
adjacent hills and outlying stones, 1220. 

Lewis (Prof. H. C.), the direction of gla- 
ciation as ascertained by the form of 
the strie, 1019; some examples of 
pressure-fluxion in Pennsylvania, 1029. 

Life, the preservation and prolongation 
of, to 100 years, by Dr. P. Smith, 1079. 

Light, white, standards of, report on, 61. 

Liveing (Prof. G. D.) on wave-length 
tables of the spectra of the elements 
and compounds, 288; *on kinetic 
theories, 904. 

Localisation of function in the cortex of 
the brain, the evidence of comparative 
anatomy with regard to, by A. Hill, 
1054. 

Lochaber, the parallel roads of, by J. 
Melvin, 1035. 

Lockyer (J. N.) on the proposed publica- 
tion by the Meteorological Society of 
the Mauritius of daily synoptic charts 
of the Indian Ocean from the year 
1861, 60; on wave-length tables of the 
spectra of the elements and com- 
pounds, 288. : 

Lodge (Dr. O. J.) on standards for use in 
electrical measurements, 31; on electro- 
lysis, 723. 

Loew (Dr. 0.) on a chemical difference 
between living and dead protoplasm, 
1075. 

London basin, W. Whitaker on deep 
borings:at Chatham, a contribution to 
the deep-seated geology of the, 1041. 

Lowe (E. J.), second report of the Com- 
mittee for co-operating with, in his 
project of establishing a meteorological 
observatory near Chepstow, 64; on the 
influence of impregnation on a plant, 
1081 ; on the impregnation of composite 
flowers, 1082. 

Lower Old Red Conglomerate, the occur- 
rence of, in the promontory of the 
Fanad, North Donegal, Prof. E. Hull 
on, 1016. . 

Lubbock (Sir J.) on the teaching of 
science in elementary schools, 692; on 
patent legislation, 695; *recent observa- 
tions on the habits and instincts of ants 
and bees, 1056 ; note on the intelligence 
of the dog, 1089. ; 

Lyte (F. M.) on the use of sodium or 
other soluble aluminates for softening 
and purifying hard and impure water 
and deodorising and precipitating sew- 
age, waste waterfrom factories, &c.,984. 


1245 


Macadam (W. I.) on certain diatomaceous 
deposits (diatomite) from the peat of 
Aberdeenshire, 1017, 

*___ and _T. Wallace, description of a 
new mineral from Loch Bhruithaich, 
Inverness-shire, 977. 

MacAlister (Prof. A.) *on the morphology 
of the human arterial system, 1068 ; 
*exhibition of the skeleton of a strand- 
louper from South Africa, 1228. 

Macfarlane (Dr. J. M.) *on the division 
and conjugation of spirogyra, 1088; 
*on a microscopic fungus in fossil wood 
from Bowling, 2b. ; on a new method of 
preparing the epidermal tissues of 
pitcher plants, id. 

MacGregor (Prof. J. G.) on promoting 
tidal observations in Canada, 33. 

McGregor-Robertson (J.) on the direct 
action of anzesthetics on the frog heart, 
1057 ; on the action of atropine on the 
secretion of the kidney: its evidence 
as to the mechanism of the secretion, 
1075. 

McIntosh (Prof.) on the establishment of 
a marine biological station at Granton, 
Scotland, 474; Address by, to the Bio- 
logical Section, 1043 ; on the structure 
and arrangements of the St. Andrews 
marine laboratory, 1071; remarks on 
the work at the St. Andrews marine 
laboratory during nine months, ib. ; on 
certain processes formed by Cerapus on 
Tubularia indivisa, 1072; on a new 
British staurocephalus, 1073; on cer- 
tain remarkable structures resembling 
ova from deep water, id.; on the ova of 
Callionymus lyra, L. (the skulpin), id. 

McKendrick (Prof. J. G.) on the establish- 
ment of a marine biological station at 
Granton, Scotland, 474 ; *on the action 
of cold on microphytes, 1058. 

Mackenzie (C.), Brazil, 1105. 

Mackenzie (J.) on the flora of Elgin, 
1087. 

Mackintosh (D.) on the erratic blocks of 
England, Wales, and Ireland, 322. 

Maclagan (Gen. R.), the rivers of the 
Punjab, 1129. 

Macmillan (J.) on the occurrence of fungi 
in the roots of orchids, 1083. 

Macromolecules (molecules of matter in 
the crystalline state as distinct from 
the chemical molecule), and determina- 
tions of some of them, Dr. G. J. Stoney 
on, 988. 

Macrory (Mr.) on patent legislation, 
695. 

McWilliam (Dr. J. A.) on the striated 
muscles in the gills of fishes, 1077; on 
the structure of the intestine in the 
hedgehog and the mole, 1078. 

Magnetic double circular refraction, Dr. 
De W. B. Brace on, 931. 


1246 


Macnetic field, the earth’s, the measure- 
ment of the intensity of the horizontal 
component of, T. Gray on, 898. 

Maonetic observations, report of the 
Committee for considering the best 
means of comparing and reducing, 65. 

Magnetic survey of Scotland, the third, 
Prof. T. E. Thorpe and A. W. Riicker 
on, 926. ' 

*Malanids, the coloration of the anterior 
segments in the, Prof. A. Harker on, 
1098. 

Malvern, queen of inland health resorts, 
Prof, C. P. Smyth on, 922. 

Man, the chimpanzee and, some important 
points of comparison between, by Prof. 
D. J. Cunningham, 1226. 

Man (E. H.), a brief account of the 
Nicobar Indians, with special reference 
to the inland tribe of Great Nicobar, 
1228. 

Mance’s method for eliminating the 
effects of polarisation, to determine 
the resistance of the human body, Dr. 
W. H. Stone on, 900. ‘ 

Marcoartu (Don A. de), the diminution 
of casualties at sea, 1201. 

Marine biological station at Granton, 
Scotland, report on the establishment 
of a, 474. 

Marine biological stations on the coast of 
the United Kingdom, report of the 
Committee for promoting the establish- 
ment of, 480. 

Marine life, the various forms of, on the 
coasts and rivers of North America, 
report on the aid given by the Dominion 
Government and the Government of 
the United States to the investigation 
of, 479. 

Marsh (Prof. 0. C.), *discovery of Anurous 
amphibia in the Jurassic deposits of 
America, 1033; on the size of the 
brain in extinct animals, 1065. 

Marshall (Prof.) on the investigation of 
certain physical constants of solution, 
especially the expansion of saline solu- 
tions, 261. ; 

Marshall (Prof. A. M.) on the occupation 
of a table at the zoological station at 
Naples, 466. . f 

Marten (E. B.) on the circulation of 
underground waters, 380. _ . 

Martin (Dr. 8.) on plant digestion, especi- 
ally as occurring in Carica papaya, 
1078. : 

Maskelyne (Prof. N. 8S.) on the teaching 
of science in elementary schools, 692. 

Masson (Dr. Orme) on sulphine salts de- 
rived from ethylene sulphide, 974. 

Mathematical and Physical Section, Ad- 
dress by Prof. G. Chrystal to the, 889. 

Measurement of the movements of the 
ground, Prof. J. A. Ewing on the, with 


INDEX. 


reference to proposed earthquake ob- 
servations on Ben Nevis, 920. 

Mechanical Section, Address by B. Baker 
to the, 1182. 

Meldola (Prof.) on the work of the Cor- 
responding Societies Committee, 708. 
Meldrum (C.), a tabular statement of the 
dates at which, and the localities where, 
pumice or volcanic dust was seen in 
the Indian Ocean in 1883-84, 773; 
*daily synoptic charts of the Indian 
Ocean, 917; on a supposed periodicity 
of the eyclones of the Indian Ocean 

south of the equator, 925. 

Melvin (J.), the parallel roads of Loch- 
aber, 1035. 

Mentone, a new cave man of, by T. 
Wilson, 1218. 

Mercury contact commutator of constant 
resistance, a form of, for use in adjust- 
ing resistance coils by Wheatstone’s 
bridge, and for other purposes, Prof. 
J. VY. Jones on, 907. 

Meteoric dust, fifth report on the prac- 
ticability of collecting and identifying, 
and on the question of undertaking 
regular observations in various locali- 
ties, 34. 

Meteorites, the average density of, com- 
pared with that of the earth, Rev. E. 
Hill on, 1031. 

Meteorological observations on Ben Nevis, 
report of the Committee for co-operat- 
ing with the Scottish Meteorological 
Society in making, 90. 

Meteorological observatory, second report 
of the Committee for co-operating with 
Mr. E. J. Lowe in his project of estab- 
lishing a, near Chepstow on a perma- 
nent and scientific basis, 64. 

Meteorology of Ben Nevis, A. Buchan on 
the, 917. 

Michie (Rev. J. G.), traces of early human 
habitations on Deeside and vicinity, 
1232. 

Micro-organisms and albumenin solution, 
the action of ozonised air upon, J. J. 
Coleman on, 1058. 

*Microphytes, the action of cold on, Dr. 
J. G. McKendrick on, 1058. 

Migration of birds, report on the, 685. 

Milk of the porpoise, the chemical com- 
position of the, Prof. Purdie on, 1072. 

Mill (H. R.) on the physical conditions of 
water in estuaries, 940. 

Miller (H.), some results of a detailed 
survey of the old coast-lines near 
Trondhjem, Norway, 1033. 

Milne (Prof. J.) on the earthquake phe- 
nomena of Japan, 362. 

Milne (J.), stone circles in Aberdeenshire, 
1223. 

Milne-Home (Mr.) on meteorological 
observations on Ben Nevis, 90. 


INDEX. 


*Minchin (Prof.), further experiments in 
photo-electricity, 940. 

*Mineral, a new, from Loch Bhruithaich, 
Inverness-shire, description of, by W. 
I. Macadam and T. Wallace, 977.5 

Mineralogy of Staffordshire, Worcester- 
shire and Warwickshire, list of works 
on the, by W. Whitaker, 780. 

Mitchell (Rev. H.) on specimens of fish 
from the Lower Old Red Sandstone of 
Forfarshire, 1023. 

*Moir (Dr. F. M.), notes on a recent anti- 
quarian find in Aberdeenshire, 1223. 
Mole, the structure of the intestine in the, 

Dr. J. A. McWilliam on, 1078. 

Molecular constitution of a solution of 
colbaltous chloride, Dr. W. J. Russell 
on the, 991. 

Molecular distances in galvanic polarisa- 
tion, by Prof. J. Larmor, 900. 

Molecular weights of solids and salts in 
solution, Prof. W. A. Tilden on the, 
990. 

Molecules, the size of, by Prof. A. W. 

. Reinold, 986. 

*Moneron, demonstration of a new, by 
Prof. D’A. W. Thompson, 1097. 

Montrose, the glacial deposits at, Dr. 
Howden on, 1040. 

Moon, the revolution period of the, and the 
rotational period of the earth deduced 
from the nebular hypothesis of Laplace, 
notes upon, by W. F. Stanley, 915. 

More (A. G.) on the migration of birds, 
685. 

*Morphology of the human arterial 

' system, Prof. A. MacAlister on the, 
1068. 

Morphology of vertebrate appendages, 
Prof, D’A. W. Thompson on the, 1065. 

Morley (Dr. H. F.) on chemical nomen- 
clature, 262. 

Morton (G. H.) on the circulation of 
underground waters, 380. 

Moseley (Prof.) on the occupation of a 
table at the zoological station at Naples, 


466 ; on the aid given by the Dominion | 


Government and the Government of the 
United States to the encouragement of 
fisheries, and to the investigation of 
the various forms of marine life on the 
coasts and rivers of North America, 
479; on promoting the establishment 
of marine biological stations on the 
coast of the United Kingdom, 480; on 
the exploration of New Guinea, 690; 
on the scientific examination of the 
country in the vicinity of Mount Ro- 
raima in Guiana, ib. 

Mosses, British, the identification of by 
their distinctive characters, Mrs. Far- 
quharson on, 1063. 

*Mount Roraima, by E. im Thurn, 1128. 

Monnt Roraima in Guiana, report of the 


1247 


Committee for furthering the scientific 
examination of the country in the vici- 
nity of, by making a grant to Mr. 
Everard F. im Thurn for the purposes 
of his expedition, 690. 

*Movement of land in Aberdeen Bay, the, 
by W. Smith, 1193. 

Movements of the ground, the measure- 
ment of the, with reference to proposed 
earthquake observations on Ben Nevis, 
Prof. J. A. Ewing on, 920. 

Muirhead (Dr. A.) on standards for use 
in electrical measurements, 31. 

Mulhall (M. G.) on the variations of 
price-level since 1850, 1157. 

Miller (Dr. H.) on chemical nomencla- 
ture, 262. 

Municipalisation ofthe land, SirG. Camp- 
bell on the, 1158. 

Munro (Prof. J. EH. C.), sliding scales in 
the coal industry, 1173. 

Munro (Dr. R.), the archeological impor- 
tance of ancient British lake-dwellings, 
and their relation to analogous remains 
in Europe, 1221. 

Murray (J.) on meteoric dust, 34; on 
meteorological observations on Ben 
Nevis, 90; on the establishment of a 
marine biological station at Granton, 
Scotland, 474. 

Mussel, the common (Mytilus edulis, L.), 
the reproduction of, J. Wilson on, 1094. 

Myxine glutinosa, the tail of, Prof. Cle- 
land on, 1069. 


*Nakamura (T.) and Dr. Divers, an ap- 
parently new hydrocarbon distilled 
from Japanese petroleum, 975. 

Naukratis, the discovery of, by W. M. F. 
Petrie, 1216. 

New cave man of Mentone, the, by T. 
Wilson, 1218. 

New Guinea, recent explorations in, 
Coutts Trotter on, 1136. 

, report of the Committee for further- 
ing the exploration of, by making a 
grant to Mr. Forbes for the purposes 
of his expedition, 690. 

Newton, the formation of a pure spectrum 
by, G. Griffith on, 940. 

Newton (Prof. A.) on the migration of 
birds, 685. 

Nicholson (Prof. A.) on the establishment 
of a marine biological station at Gran- 
ton, Scotland, 474. 

Nicobar islanders, a brief account of the, 
with special reference tothe inland tribe 
of Great Nicobar, by E. H. Man, 1228. 

Nicol (Dr. W. W. J.) on vapour pressures 
and refractive indices of salt solutions, 
284. 

Nicol prism, a simple modification of the, 
giving wider angle of field, Prof. S. P. 
Thompson on, 912. 


1248 


*Nitrogen, atmospheric, description of 
the method used in converting, into 
ammonia, by Messrs. Brin, 977. 

Nitrous anhydride, gaseous, the non- 
existence of, Prof. W. Ramsay and J. T. 
Cundall on, 965. 

Nitrous gases, the action of, upon amyl 
alcohol, by J. Williams and M. H. 
Smith, 992. 

Norris (Lieut.) on the erosion of the 
coast at Bembridge, &c., 430. 

North-western tribes of the Dominion of 
Canada, report on the physical charac- 
ters, languages, and industrial and 
social condition of the, 696. 

Nowise(W.E.C.) onthe erosion of the coast 
from Littlehampton to Brighton, 434. 

Numidian marbles, lost, in Algeria and 
Tunis, Lt.-Col. R. L. Playfair on the 
re-discovery of, 1018. 


*Oceanic islands and shoals, by J. Y. 
Buchanan, 1136. 

Odling (Prof.) on chemical nomenclature, 
262; on the ultra-violet spark spectra 
emitted by metallic elements and their 
combination under varying conditions, 
276; *a plea forthe empiric naming of 
organic compounds, 972. 

*Oil pipe lines, the American system of, 
by J. H. Harris, 1193. 

Old coast lines near Trondhjem, Norway, 
some results of a detailed survey of 
the, by H. Miller, 1033. 

Oligochzta, budding in the, Prof. A. G, 
Bourne on, 1096. 

——, contributions to the structure of 
the, by F. E. Beddard, 1102. 

Ommanney (Adm. Sir E.) on the rate of 
erosion of the sea-coasts of England 
and Wales, 404; on the aid given by 
the Dominion Government and the 
Government of the United States to 
the encouragement of fisheries, and to 
the investigation of the various forms 
of marine life on the coasts and rivers 
of North America, 479; Antarctic re- 
search, 1132. 

Ophrydium versatile, the zoocytium or 
gelatinous matrix of, Prof. A. Harker 
on, 1074. 

*Optical comparison of methods for ob- 
serving small rotations, by Lord Ray- 
leigh, 930. 

Optical theories, report on, by R. T. Glaze- 
brook, 157; the work of MacCullagh, 
Neumann, Green, and Cauchy, id,; 
modern developments of the elastic 
solid theory, 170; theories based on 
the mutual reaction between the ether 
and matter, 212; the electro-magnetic 
theory, 251. 

Orchids, the occurrence of fungi in the 
roots of, J. Macmillan on, 1083, 


INDEX. 


*Ordnance Survey of Cyprus, the, by T. 
Saunders, 1129. 

Orthoptic loci, Rev. Dr. C. Taylor on, 
909. : 

*Os odontoidium, the connection of the, 
with the centrum of the axis vertebra, 
Prof. D. J. Cunningham on, 1101. 

Overland expeditions to the Arctic coast 
of America, Dr. J. Rae on, 1133. 

Owen (Sir R.), American evidences of 
eocene mammals of the ‘plastic clay’ 
period, 1033. 

Oxygen, the rate of explosion of hydro- 
gen and, H. B. Dixon on, 905. 

*Oxygen, liquid, the chemical actions of, 
Prof. Dewar on solutions of ozone and, 
985. 

*Oxygen and nitrogen from the atmo- 
sphere, exhibition and description of 
the apparatus employed in obtaining, 
by Messrs. Brin, 977. 

*Ozone, solutions of, and the chemical 
actions of liquid oxygen, Prof. Dewar 
on, 985. 

Ozonised air, the action of, upon micro- 
organisms and albumen in solution, 
J.J. Coleman on, 1058. 


Palzontology of Staffordshire, Worcester- 
shire, and Warwickshire, list of works 
on the, by W. Whitaker, 780. 

Palestine, report of the Committee for 
promoting the survey of, 691. 

, notice of an outline geological map 
of, by Prof. E. Hull, 1015. 

*Paludina, the renal duct of the, W. B. 
Benham on, 1103. 

Parallel roads of Lochaber, the, by J. 
Melvin, 1035. 

Parker (J.) on the circulation of under- 
ground waters, 380. 

Parsons (Capt. J.) on the rate of erosion 
of the sea-coasts of England and Wales, 
404, 

Patent legislation, report on, 695. 

Pauperisation of children by the opera- 
tion of the ‘Scotch Education Act, 
1872,’ M. Blair on the, 1176. 

Peach (B. N.) and J. Horne, the geology 
of Durness and Eriboll, with special 
reference to the Highland controversy, 
1027 ; further evidence of the exten- 
sion of ice in the North Sea during the 
glacial period, 1036. 

Pelvic brim, the index of the, as a basis 
of classification, by Prof. W. Turner, 
1205. 

Pengelly (W.) on underground tempera- 
ture, 93; on the erratic blocks of Eng- 
land, Wales, and Ireland, 322; on the 
circulation of underground waters, 
380; Happaway Cavern, Torquay, 
1219. 


ty. 


INDEX. 


Pennsylvania, some examples of pressure- 
fluxion in, by Prof. H. C. Lewis, 1029. 

Periodic law, the, as illustrated by certain 
physical properties of organic com- 
pounds, by Prof. T. Carnelly, 969. 

——,, suggestions as to the cause of the, 
and the nature of the chemical ele- 
ments, by Prof, T. Carnelly, 969. 

Perry (Prof. J.) on standards for use in 
electrical measurements, 31. 

Perry (Prof. 8. J.) on comparing and 
reducing magnetic observations, 65, 
89. 

Peter (Rev. J.), the stone circles in Aber- 
deenshire, with special reference to 
those in the more Lowland parts of the 
county, their extent and arrangement, 
singly or in groups, with general obser- 
vations, 1221. 

Petrie (W. M. F.), the discovery of Nau- 
kratis, 1216. 

Phillips (J. G.), the Elgin sandstones, 
1023. 

Philology, African, the progress of, R. N. 
Cust on, 1105. 

*Photo-electricity, further experiments in, 
by Prof. Minchin, 940. 

Photometer, a, made with translucent 
prisms, J. Joly on, 917. 

Photometry with the pentane standard, 
by A. Vernon Harcourt, 916. 

Phyllopoda, the fossil, of the palzozoic 
rocks, third report on, 326. 

Physical constants of solution, report on 
the investigation of certain, especi- 
ally the expansion of saline solutions, 
261. 

*Physical molecular equivalents, Prof. 
Guthrie on, 985. 

Physical Section, the Mathematical and, 
Address by Prof. G. Chrystal to, 889. 
Physiography of Southern India, notes on 

the, by Col. B. R. Branfill, 1124. 

*Physiological experiment, a new kind 
of colour apparatus for, J. Aiken on, 
1079. 

Pickering (S. U.) on the evidence dedu- 
cible from the study of salts, 989. 

Picts, the, and pre-Celtic Britain, by 
Hyde Clarke, 1223. 

Pirie (Prof. G.) on calculating the surface 
tension of liquids by means of cylin- 
drical drops or bubbles, 898; on the 
surface tension of water which contains 
a gas dissolved in it, id. 

*Pitt-Rivers (Gen.) on the working of the 
Ancient Monuments Act of 1882, 1214 

Plant (J.) on the erratic blocks of Eng- 
land, Wales, and Ireland, 322; on the 
circulation of underground waters, 380. 

Plant-digestion, especially as occurring in 
Carica papaya, Dr. 8. Martin on, 1078. 

“Plants, the essential elements of, T. 
Jamieson on, 969. 


1885. 


1249 


Playfair (Sir L.) on the aid given by the 
Dominion Government and the Govern- 
ment of the United States to the en- 
couragement of fisheries, and to the 
investigation of the various forms of 
marine life on the coasts and rivers of 
North America, 479. 

Playfair (Lt.-Col. R. L.) on the re-dis- 
covery of lost Numidian marbles in 
Algeria and Tunis, 1018; on the 
changes which have taken place in 
Tunis since the French protectorate, 
1105. 

Pneumatic system as applied to tele- 
graph purposes, the development of 
the, J. W. Willmot on, 1198. 

*Polarised gas, thermal effusion and the 
limiting pressure in, G. J. Stoney on, 
904. 

Polariser, a new, devised by Mr. Ahrens, 
Prof. 8. P. Thompson on, 912. 

*Polygordius, systématique du genre, by 
J. Fraipont, 1098. 

Polymerisation, the spontaneous, of 
volatile hydrocarbons at the ordinary 
atmospheric temperature, Prof. Sir H. 
E. Roscoe on, 967. 

Polyzoa, eocene, note on the scarcity of, 
by A. Bell, 672. 

——, fossil tertiary, of the higher zones, 
A. Bell on, 666. 

—-—, marine, classification of, 489; geo- 
graphical and bathymetrical distribu- 
tion of, 612. 

, recent, 

graphy, 674. 

, tertiary, from Reggio (Calabria), 
Prof. G. Seguenza’s list of, note on by 
Rev. T. Hincks, 673. 

Porpoise, the chemical composition of 
the milk of the, Prof. Purdie on, 1072. 

*Portuguese possessions in West Africa, 
the, by H. H. Johnston, 1132. 

Potential, a method of multiplying, from 
a hundred to several thousand volts, 
Prof. Sir W. Thomson on, 907. 

Preece (W. H.) on standards for use in 
electrical measurements, 31; on stan- 
dards of white light, 61; onthestrength 
of telegraph poles, 853; on the relative 
merits of iron and copper wire for 
telegraph lines, 907; on domestic 
electric lighting, 1197 

Pressure-fluxion, some examples of, in 
Pennsylvania, by Prof. H. C. Lewis, 
1029. 

Prestwich (Prof.) on underground tem- 
perature, 93; on the erratic blocks of 
England, Wales, and Ireland, 322; on 
the circulation of underground waters, 
380; on the rate of erosion of the sea- 
coasts of England and Wales, 404. _ 

Price-level, the variations of, since 1850, 
M. G. Mulhall on, 1157, 

4. 


biblio- 


report on, 481; 


1250 


Prince (E. E.) on the development of the 

-  food-fishes at the St. Andrews marine 
laboratory, 1091; on the nest and de- 
velopment of Gastrosteus spinachia at 
the St. Andrews marine laboratory, 
1093. 

Proportions of the human body, a port- 
able scale of, by W. F. Stanley, 1206. 
Protoplasm, a chemical difference be- 
tween living and dead, Dr. O. Loew 

on, 1075. 

Psychology, experimental, a proposed so- 
ciety for, by J. Jacobs, 1230. 

Pumice or volcanic dust, a tabular state- 
ment of the dates at which, and the 
localities where, was seen in the Indian 
Ocean in 1883-84, by C. Meldrum, 
773. 

Punjab, the rivers of the, by Gen. R. 
Maclagan, 1129. 

Purdie (Prof.) on the action of sodium 
alcoholates on fumaric and maleic 
ethers, 972; on the chemical com- 
position of the milk of the porpoise, 
1072. 


*Radiation, a law concerning, Prof. 
Schuster on, 905. 

Radlkofer (Prof. Iu.) on the application 
of the anatomical method to the de- 
termination of the materials of the 
Linnean and other herbarla, 1080. 

Rae (Dr. J.) on overland expeditions to 
the Arctic coast of America, 1133 ; 
on the best and safest route by which 
to attain a high northern latitude, 
1136. 

Rainfall of the British Islands, the 
annual, by A. Buchan, 923. 

Ramsay (Sir A. ©.) on underground 
temperature, 93. 

Ramsay (Prof. W.) on the investigation 
of certain physical constants of solu- 
tion, especially the expansion of saline 
solutions, 261; on vapour pressures 
and refractive indices of salt solutions, 
284; on some actions of a Groves’s 
gas-battery, 965. 

and J. T. Cundall on the non-exist- 
ence of gaseous nitrous anhydride, 965, 

— and Dr. 8. Young on a means of ob- 
taining constant known temperatures, 
928; on certain facts in thermo- 
dynamics, 70. 

Rates of birth, death, and marriage, 
methods of ascertaining variations in, 
F. Y. Edgeworth on, 1165. 

Ravenstein (E. G.) on bathy-hypso- 
graphical maps, with special reference 
to a combination of the Ordnance and 
Admiralty surveys, 1140. 

Rawson (Sir R.) on the work of the 
Corresponding Societies Committee, 
708. 


INDEX. 


Rayleigh (Lord) on standards for use in ~ 
electrical measurements, 31; on stan- 
dards of white light, 61; *thermody- — 
namic efficiency of thermopiles, 898 ; . 
a theorem relating to the time-moduli 
of dissipative systems, 911; *on an 
improved apparatus for Christiansen’s 
experiment, 930; *optical comparison 
of methods for observing small rota- 
tions, ib.; *on the accuracy of focus 
necessary for sensibly perfect defini- 
tion, id. 

Redman (J. B.) on the rate of erosion of 
the sea-coasts of England and Wales, 
404; on the erosion of the south-— 
eastern coast of England, 407. 

Redmen about Roraima, note on the, by — 
E. F, im Thurn, 1215. 

Refraction, double, a point in the theory | 
of, R. T. Glazebrook on, 929. oa 

, magnetic double circular, Dr. 

W. B. Bracé on, 931. - 

Refraction goniometer, the value of the, 
in chemical work, Dr. J. H. Gladstone 
on, 970. 

Refraction of fluorine, G. Gladstone 


the, 970. 

Reian Meeris, projected restoration of 
the, and the province, lake, and canals 
ascribed to the Patriarch Joseph, by 
C. Whitehouse, 1127. 

Reinold (Prof. A. W.), the size of mole- 
cules, 986. 

Renard (Prof. A.) on some rock speci-— 
mens from the islands of the Fernandog 
Noronha group, 1031. 

Reynolds (Prof. O.) on the dilatancy of 
media composed of rigid particles in 
contact, 896. 

Rigg (E.) on the British Association 
standard gauge for small screws, 1203. 

*Rio Solimoes or Upper Amazon in 
Brazil, notes on the large southern” 
tributaries of the, with special refer-— 
ence to the Rio Jutahi, by Prof. J. W. 
H. Trail, 1138. 

Road engine, the employment of the, in 
construction and maintenance of roads, 
Col. Innes on, 1194. | 

Roberts (I.) on the circulation of under-_ 
ground waters, 380. 

Rock specimens from the islands of the 
Fernando Noronha group, Prof. Ag | 
Renard on some, 1031. 

Rocks of St. Kilda, notes on the, by A 
Ross, 1040. 

Roraima, the Redmen about, EH. F. im 
Thurn on, 1215. 

Roscoe (Prof. Sir H. E.) on meteoric 
dust, 34; on the best methods of re- 
cording the direct intensity of sol 
radiation, 156; on wave-length table 
of the spectra of the elements an 
compounds, 288; on the teaching o: 


| 


INDEX. 


"_ science in elementary schools, 692; on © 


the spontaneous polymerisation of 
volatile hydro-carbons at the ordinary 
atmospheric temperature, 967. 

Ross (A.), notes on the rocks of St. 
Kilda, 1040. 

Rotifera, the modification of the trochal 
disc of the, Prof. A. G. Bourne on, 
1095. 

Route, the best and safest, by which to 
attain a high northern latitude, Dr. 
J. Rae on, 1136. 

Riicker (A. W.) and Prof. T. E. Therpe 
on the third magnetic survey of Scot- 
land, 926. 

Rudler (F. W.) on the volcanic phe- 
nomena of Vesuvius, 395. 

*Rule of the road, the, from an anthro- 
pological point of view, by Sir G. Camp- 

° bell, 1215. 

Russell (Rev. J.), notes on the opening 
of a cist, in the parish of Leslie, Aber- 
deenshire, 1224. 

Russell (W. H. L.) on the reduction of 
algebraical determinants, 910. 

Russell (Prof. W. J.) on the molecular 
constitution of a solution of cobaltous 
chloride, 991. 


*Sabella, the blastopore and mesoblast 
of, Prof. D’A. W. Thompson on, 1097. 
St. Andrews marine laboratory, the, the 
structure and arrangements of, Prof. 

McIntosh on, 1071. 

——, remarks on the work at, during 
nine months, by Prof. McIntosh, 1071. 
——,, the development of the food-fishes 

at the, E. E. Prince on, 1091. 

— , the nest and development of Gas- 
trosteus spinachia at the, E. E. Prince 
on, 1093. 

St. Kilda, notes on the rocks of, by A. 
Ross, 1040. 

Salmonide, the hybridisation of, at 
Howietoun, F. Day on, 1059. 

Salt solutions, vapour pressures and re- 
fractive indices of, report on, 284. 

Salts, the evidence deducible from the 
study of, S. U. Pickering on, 989. 

Saunders (H.) on promoting the estab- 
lishment of marine biological stations 
on the coast of the United Kingdom, 
480; on the exploration of Kilima- 
njaro and the adjoining mountains of 
Eastern Equatorial Africa, 681. 

Saunders (T.) *on the complete explora- 
tion of Lake Yamdok in Tibet, 1126; 
*the Ordnance Survey of Cyprus, 1129. 

Schuster (Prof. A.) on standards for use 
in electrical measurements, 31 ; on me- 
teoric dust, 34; on standards of white 
light, 61; on comparing and reducing 
magnetic observations, 65, 73; on the 
best methods of recording the direct 


1251 


intensity of solar radiation, 156; on 
wave-length tables of the spectra of the 
elements and compounds, 288; *on a 
law concerning radiation, 905; on 
Helmholtz’s views on electrolysis, and 
on the electrolysis of gases, 977. 

Schuster (Max), some results of the 
crystallographic study of danburite, 
1033. 

Science in elementary schools, the teach- 
ing of, report on, 692. 

Science of mind, the relation of an- 
thropology to the, by Dr. A. Bain, 
1204. 

Sclater (P. L.) on the occupation of a 
table at the zoological station at 
Naples, 466; on the aid given by the 
Dominion Government and the Govern- 
ment of the United States to the en- 
couragement of fisheries, and to the 
investigation of the various forms of 
marine life on the coasts and rivers of 
North America, 479; on promoting the 
establishment of marine biological 
stations on the coast of the United 
Kingdom, 480; on the exploration of 
Kilima-njaro and the adjoining moun- 
tains of Eastern Equatorial Africa, 
681; on the exploration of New 
Guinea, 690 ; on the scientific examina- 
tion of the country in the vicinity of 
Mount Roraima in Guiana, 7b. 

Scotch miners, anomalies in the con- 
dition of, in contrast with other 
unskilled labourers, by W. Small, 
1174. 

Scotland, the geography of, what has 
been done for, and what remains to be 
done, by H. A. Webster, 1138. 

, the third magnetic survey of, Prof. 
T. E. Thorpe and A. W. Riicker on, 
926. 

Scott (Dr. A.), the composition of water 
by volume, 976. 

Scott (R. H.) on meteoric dust, 34; on 
the proposed publication by the 
Meteorological Society of the Mauri- 
tius of daily synoptic charts of the 
Indian Ocean from the year 1861, 60; 
on Mr. E. J. Lowe’s project of estab- 
lishing a meteorological observatory 
near Chepstow, 64. 

Scottish agriculture, recent changes in, 
Major P. G. Craigie on, 1162. 
Scottish fisheries, the statistics and some 
points in the economics of the, by W. 

Watt, 1175. 

*Scottish lakes, the depth and tempera- 
ture of some, by J. Y. Buchanan, 
1138. 

Screws, small, the British Association 
standard gauge for, E. Rigg on, 1203. 
Sea of Galilee, the origin of the tishes of 

the, Prof, E. Hull on, 1066. 
4L2 


1252 


Sedgwick (A.) on the occupation of a 
table at the zoological station at 
Naples, 466; on the aid given by the 
Dominion Government and the Govern- 

" ment of the United States to the en- 

couragement of fisheries, and to the 

investigation of the various forms of 
marine life on the coasts and rivers of 

North America, 479. 

Selenium and sulphur cells, the sensitive- 
ness of, to light, 5. Bidwell on, 981. 
Sextants, the errors of, as indicated by the 
records of the verification department 
of the Kew Observatory, Richmond, 

Surrey, by G. M. Whipple, 936. 

Shaen (W.) on the teaching of science in 
elementary schools, 692. 

Shallow-draught screw-steamers for the 
Nile expedition, J. T. Thornycroft on, 
1193. 

Shaw (Prof. H. S. H.), the sphere and 
roller friction gear, 1193 ; *on Ashton’s 
new power meter, 1203. 

Shell-work, American, and its affinities, 
by Miss A. W. Buckland, 1214. 

Shoolbred (J. N.) on reducing and tabu- 
lating tidal observations in the English 
Channel, made with the Dover tide- 
gauge, and connecting them with obser- 
vations made on the French coast, 60; 
electric lighting at the Forth Bridge 
works, 879. 

Sidgwick (Prof. H.), Address by, to the 
Section of Economic Science and Sta- 
tistics, 1141. 

Sim (Col. E. C.) on the erosion of 
the south-eastern coast of England, 
410; from Beachy Head to Hastings, 
437. 

Sladen (P.) on the occupation of a table 
at the zoological station at Naples, 
466. 

Slaty cleavage and allied rock-structures, 
Alfred Harker on, with special refer- 
ence to the mechanical theories of their 
origin, 813. 

*Slide resistance coils with mercury con- 
tacts, Prof. J. V. Jones on, 907. 

Sliding scales in the coal industry, by 
Prof, J. E. C. Munro, 1173. 

Small (W.), anomalies in the condition 
of Scotch miners in contrast with other 
unskilled labourers, 1174. 

Smith (Prof. C. M.) on atmospheric elec- 
tricity, 899. 

Smith (M. H.) and J. Williams, the 
action of nitrous gases upon amyl 
alcohol, 992. 

Smith (Dr. P.), the preservation and pro- 
longation of life to 100 years, 1079. 
*Smith (W.), the movement of land in 

Aberdeen Bay, 1193. 
Smyth (Prof. C. P.)on Malvern, queen of 


INDEX. 


inland health resorts, and on improved 
hygrometric observations, 922. 

Smyth (Prof. C. P.) and Prof. A. 8. Her- 
schel on the use of bisulphide of car- 
bon prisms for cases of extreme spec- 
troscopic dispersion, and their results 
in gaseous spectra, 942. 

Sodium or other soluble aluminates, the 
use of, for softening and purifying 
hard and impure water and deodoris- 
ing and precipitating sewage, waste 
water from factories, &c., F. M. Lyte 
on, 984. 

Sodium alcoholates, the action of, on 
fumaric and maleic ethers, Prof, Purdie 
on, 972. 

Solar radiation, second report on the best 
methods of recording the direct inten- 
sity of, 156. 

Solutions, report on the investigation of 
certain physical constants of, espe- 
cially the expansion of saline solutions, 
261. 

Sorby (Dr. H. C.) on recent polyzoa, 481. 

*Sowerby’s whale (Mesoplodon bidens), 
some points in the anatomy of, by 
Prof. W. Turner, 1057. 

Spectra of the elements and compounds, 
report on the preparation of a new 
series of wave-length tables of the, 
288. 

Spectroscopy, solar, in the infra red, Dr. 
D. Draper on, 936, 

Spectrum, a pure, the formation of, by 
Newton, G. Griffith on, 940. 

Spectrum of the stella nova visible on 
the great nebula in Andromeda, Dr. W. 
Huggins on the, 935. 

*Spey bridge at Garmouth and the River 
Spey, P. M. Barnett on the, 1203. 

Sphere and roller friction gear, the, by 
Prof. H.S. H. Shaw, 1193. 

Spiller (J.), description of some new crys- 
tallised combinations of copper, zinc, 
and iron sulphates, 976. 

Spiracle of fishes, the, in its relation to 
the head, as developed in the higher 
vertebrates, Prof. Cleland on, 1069. 

*Spirogyra, the division and conjugation 
of, Dr, J. M. Macfarlane on, 1088. 

Staffordshire, the geology, mineralogy, 
and paleontology of, list of works on, 
by W. Whitaker, 780. 

Stanley (W. F.), notes upon the rota- 
tional period of the earth and revolu- 
tion period of the moon deduced from 
the nebular hypothesis of Laplace, 915; 
proposed conditions to account for a 
former glacial period in Great Britain, 
existing under similar meteorological 
conditions to those that rule at the 
present time, 1020 ; a portable scale of 
proportions of the human body, 1206. 


INDEX. 


*Starch in plants, notes on experiments 
as to the formation of, under the in- 
fluence of the electric light, by H. M. 
Ward, 1086. 

State guarantee of war risks, by J. Corry, 
1171. 

Statistics, Economic Science and, Address 
by Prof. H. Sidgwick to the Section of, 
1141. 

Staurocephalus, a new British, Prof. 
McIntosh on, 1073. 

Steel, a specimen of almost unmagnetis- 
able, J. T. Bottomley on, 903. 

—, mild, notes on, by G. J. Gordon, 
1200. 

Stewart (Prof. Balfour) on the proposed 
publication by the Meteorological So- 
ciety of the Mauritius of daily synoptic 
charts of the Indian Ocean from the 
year 1861, 60; on Mr. E. J. Lowe’s 
project of establishing a meteorological 
-observatory near Chepstow, 64; on 
comparing and reducing magnetic ob- 
servations, 65, 68, 76; on the best 
methods of recording the direct inten- 
sity of solar radiation, 156. 

Stokes (Prof. G. G.) on the proposed pub- 
lication by the Meteorological Society 
of the Mauritius of daily synoptic 
charts of the Indian Ocean from the 
year 1861, 60; on the best methods of 
recording the direct intensity of solar 
radiation, 156. 

Stone (Dr. W. H.) on the employment of 
Mance’s method for eliminating the 
effects of polarisation, to determine 
the resistance of the human body, 
900. 

Stone circles in Aberdeenshire, by J. 
Milne, 1223. 

--—, the, with special reference to those 
in the more Lowland parts of the 
county, by Rey. J. Peter, 1221. 

Stone circles in Cumberland, three, A. 
L. Lewis on, with some further obser- 
vations on the relation of stone circles 
to adjacent hills and outlying stones, 
1220. 

Stoney (Dr. G. J.) on Mr. E. J. Lowe’s 
project of establishing a meteorological 
observatory near Chepstow, 64 ; on the 
best methods of recording the direct 
intensity of solar radiation, 156; *on 
thermal effusion and the limiting 
pressure in polarised gas, 904; an ap- 
proximate determination of the abso- 
lute amounts of the weights of the 
chemical atoms, 987; on macromole- 
cules (molecules of matter in the erys- 
talline state as distinct from the 
chemical molecule), and determina- 
tions of some of them, 988. 

Stooke (T. S.) on the circulation of un- 
. derground waters, 380. 


1253 


Strahan (A.) on underground tempera- 
ture, 93. 

*Strandlouper from South Africa, exhibi- 
tion of the skeleton of a, by Prof. A. 
Macalister, 1228. 

Strangways (Fox) on the circulation of 
underground waters, 380. 

Striated muscles in the gills of fishes, Dr. 
J. A. McWilliam on the, 1077. 

Structures, certain remarkable, resem- 
bling ova from deep water, 1073. 

Struthers (Prof. J.) on the establishment 
of a marine biological station at Gran- 
ton. Scotland, 474; on the exploration 
of New Guinea, 690; on the Tay whale 
(Magaptera longimana) and_ other 
whales recently obtained in the district, 
1053; on the carpal bones in various 
cetaceans, 1056; account of the dis- 
section of the rudimentary hind-limb 
of Balenoptera musculus, ib.; on the 
cervical vertebree in Balena mystice- 
tus, &c., 1103; on the development of 
the foot of the horse, ib.; on the de- 
velopment of the vertebre of the ele- 
phant, ib.; on the human crania and 
other contents found in short stone 
cists in Aberdeenshire, 1225; notice of 
human bones found in 1884 in Balta 
Island, Shetland, by D. Edmonston, 
Esq., ib. 

Sulphine salts derived from ethylene 
sulphide, Dr. Orme Masson cn, 974. 
Sun, the nature of the corona of the, Dr. 

W. Huggins on, 932. 

Sun-spots, determination of the helio- 
graphic latitude and longitude of, by 
Prof, A. W. Thomson, 931. 

Surface tension of liquids, calculating 
the, by means of cylindrical drops or 
bubbles, by Prof. G. Pirie, 898. 

Surface tension of water which con- 
tains a gas dissolved in it, Prof. G. 
Pirie on the, 898. 

Swan (J. W.) on an electric safety lamp 
for miners, 1196. 

Swansea harbour, the deep sea channel 
into, R. Capper on, 1202. 

Symbol pillars, the, abounding in central 
Aberdeenshire, by Rev. Dr. J. David- 
son, 1227. 

*Symington (Dr. J.) on the curvature 
of the spine in the foetus and the child, 
1101. 

Symons (G. J.) on the proposed publica- 
tion by the Meteorological Society of 
the Mauritius of daily synoptic charts 
of the Indian Ocean from the year 
1861, 60; on Mr. E. J. Lowe’s project 
of establishing a meteorological obser- 
vatory near Chepstow, 64; on under- 
ground temperature, 93; on the best 
methods of recording the direct inten- 
sity of solar radiation, 156; on the 


1254 


circulation of underground waters, 
380; on the work of the Corresponding 
Societies Committee, 708. 

*Synoptic charts, daily, of the Indian 
Ocean, by C. Meldrum, 917. 

—___, ——, from the year 1861, report of 
the Committee for co-operating with 
the Meteorological Society of the 
Mauritius in their proposed publication 
of, 60. 


Tanner (Lt.-Col. H. C. B.) on Himalayan 
snow peaks, 1126. 

Taste, a new theory of the sense of, by 
Prof. J. B. Haycraft, 1059. 

Taxation, policy in, by J. B. Greig, 1179. 

, imperial, the incidence of, Dr. W. 
A. Hunter on, 1170. 

Tay Viaduct, the new, by C. Barlow, 
883. 

Tay whale (Megaptera longimana), the, 
and other whales recently obtained in 
the district, Prof. Struthers on, 1053. 

Taylor (Rey. Dr. C.) on orthoptic loci, 
909. 

Taylor (H.) on standards for use in elec- 
trical measurements, 31. 

Taylor (J.) on some of our migratory 
birds, as first seen in Aberdeenshire, 
1098. 

Telegraph lines, the relative merits of 
iron and copper wire for, W. H. Preece 
on, 907. 

Telegraph poles, the strength of, W. H. 
Preece on, 853. 

Temperatures, constant known, a means 
of obtaining, Prof. W. Ramsay and 
Dr. 8. Young on, 928. 

Temple (Sir R.) on the teaching of 
science in elementary schools, 692. 

*Thermal effusion and the limiting pres- 
sure in polarised gas, G. J. Stoney on, 
904. 

*Thermodynamic efficiency of thermo- 
piles, by Lord Rayleigh, 898. 

Thermodynamics, certain facts in, Prof, 
W. Ramsay and Dr. 8. Young on, 928. 

Thermometers, methods of preventing 
change of zero of, by age, G. M. 
Whipple on, 938. 

*Thermopiles, thermodynamic efficiency 
of, by Lord Rayleigh, 898. 

Thin (Dr. G.) on the nucleus in the frog’s 
ovum, 1069; *on the structure of 
hyaline cartilage, 1079. 

Thiselton-Dyer (Mr.) on promoting the 
establishment of marine biological 
stations on the coast of the United 
Kingdom, 480; on the exploration of 
New Guinea, 690. 

Thompson (Prof. D’A. W.) *on the syste- 
matic position of the chamzleon, and 
its affinities with the dinosauria, 1065: 
on the hind-limb of ichthyosaurus, and 


INDEX. 


on the morphology of vertebrate ap- 
pendages, ib. ; *demonstration of anew 
moneron, 1097; *on the blastopore, and 
mesoblast of Sabella, 7d. 

Thompson (Prof. 8. P.) on anew polariser 
devised by Mr. Ahrens, 912; on a 
simple modification of the Nicol prism 
giving wider angle of field, 7d. 

Thomson (Prof. A. W.), determination of 
the heliographic latitude and longitude 
of sun-spots, 931. 

Thomson (Prof, J. J.) on electrical 
theories, 97; Ampere’s, 98; Grass- 
mann’s, 100 ; Stefan’s, 103 ; Korteweg’s, 
105 ; Gauss’s, 108; W. E. Weber’s, id. ; 
Riemann’s, 109; Clausius’, 7).; F. E. 
Neumann’s, 114; C. Neumann’s, 122; 
Maxwell’s, 125; v. Helmholtz’s, 133; 
the experimental evidence as to the 
truth of the various theories, 142; 
Schiller’s experiments, 144. 

Thomson (J. M.) on chemical nomencla- 
ture, 262. 

Thomson (Prof. Sir W.) on standards 
for use in electrical measurements, 
31; on meteoric dust, 34; on reduc- 
ing and tabulating tidal observations 
in the English Channel, made with 
the Dover tide-gauge, and connecting 
them with observations made on the 
French coast, 60; on comparing and 
reducing magnetic observations, 65; 
on underground temperature, 93; on 
patent legislation, 695; on constant 
gravitational instruments for measur- 
ing electric currents and potentials, 
905; on a method of multiplying po- 
tential from a hundred to several 
thousand volts, 907. 


Thornycroft (J. T.) on shallow-draught 


screw-steamers for the Nile expedition, 
1193. 

Thorpe (Prof. T. E.) and A. W. Riicker on 
the third magnetic survey of Scotland, 
926. 7 

Thunderstorm of Aug. 6, 1885, remarkable 
occurrence during the, at Albrighton, 
by J. B. Elwell, 924. 

Tidal observations, third report of the 
Committee for the harmonic analysis 
of, 35. 

Tidal observations in Canada, report of 
the Committee for promoting, 33. 

Tidal observations in the English Channel, 
made with the Dover tide-gauge, report 
of the Committee for reducing and 
tabulating, and for connecting them 
with observations made on the French 
coast, 60. 

Tiddeman (R. H.) on the erratic blocks 
of England, Wales, and Ireland, 322. 
Tilden (Prof. W. A.) on the investigation 
of certain physical constants of solu- 
tion, especially the expansion of saline 


solutions, 261; on vapour pressures 
and refractive indices of salt solutions, 
284; on the molecular weights of solids 
and salts in solution, 990. 

Time-moduli of dissipative systems, a 
theorem relating to the, by Lord Ray- 
leigh, 911. 

Tombs, ancient, in the Greek islands, 
J. T. Bent on, 1217. 

Tomlinson (H.) on standards for use in 
electrical measurements, 31. 

Topley (W.) on the circulation of under- 
ground waters, 380; on the rate of 
erosion of the sea-coasts of England 
and Wales, 404. 

Trade, the alleged depression of, Prof. 
L. Levi on, 1155. 

*Trail (J. W. H.), notes on the large 
southern tributaries of the Rio Solimoes 
or Upper Amazon in Brazil, with special 
reference to the Rio Jutahi, 1138. 

Traquair (Dr. R. H.), preliminary note 
on a new fossil reptile recently dis- 
covered at New Spynie, near Elgin, 
1024; *on the distribution of fossil 
fishes in the estuarine beds of the 
carboniferous formation, 1033. 

Tristram (Rey. Canon) on the survey of 
Palestine, 691. 

Trochal disc of the rotifera, the modifica- 
tion of the, Prof. A. G. Bourne on, 1095. 

Troktolite and bastite-serpentine in 
Aberdeenshire, Prof. T. G. Bonney on, 
1016. 

Trondhjem, Norway, some results of a 
detailed survey of the old coast-lines 
near, by H. Miller, 1033. 

Trotter (Coutts) on recent explorations in 
New Guinea, 1136. 

Tunis, the changes which have taken 
place in, since the French protectorate, 
Lt.-Col. R. L. Playfair on, 1105. 

*Turner (Prof. W.), some points in the 
anatomy of Sowerby’s whale (MZesoplo- 
don bidens), 1057; the index of the 
pelvic brim as a basis of classification, 

1205. 
Tylden-Wright (Mr.) on the circulation 
.of underground waters, 380. 

Tylor (Dr. E. B.) onthescientificexamina- 
tion of the country in the vicinity of 
Mount Roraima in Guiana, 690 ; on the 

. North-western tribes of the Dominion 
of Canada, 696. 


Ultra-violet spark spectra, the, emitted 
by metallic elements and their combi- 
nations under varying conditions, re- 
port on the investigation of, by means 

_of photography, 276. 

Underground temperature, seventeenth 
report on the rate of increase of, 

_ downwards in various localities of dry 
land and under water, 93. 


INDEX. 


1255 


Underground waters in the permeable © 
formations of England and Wales, 
the circulation of the, and the quan- 
tity and character of the water sup- 
plied to various towns and districts 
from these formations, eleventh report 
on, 380. 

Unmagnetisable steel, a specimen of 
almost, J. T. Bottomley on, 903. 

Unpunctuality in railway trains, a new 
view of the consequences of, by C. 
Walford, 1180. 

Unwin (Prof. W. C.), autographic appa- 
ratus for machines for testing ma- 
terials, 1199. 


Valentine (J. F.) on the rate of erosion of 
the sea-coasts of England and Wales, 
404. 

Vanadium compounds, some new, J. T. 
Brierley on, 968. 

Vapour pressures and refractive indices 
of salt solutions, report on, 284. 

Veley (V. H.) on chemical nomenclature, 
262. 

Vesuvius, the volcanic phenomena of, re- 
port on, 395. 

Vine (G. R.) on recent polyzoa, 481. 

*Viscosity of oils, an apparatus for de- 
termining the, by A. H. Allen, 992. 

Volcanic phenomena of Vesuvius, report 
on the, 395. 

Voleanoes of Auvergne, the, by Dr. T. 
Anderson, 1017. 

Voltaic current, the generation of a, by a 
sulphur cell with a solid electrolyte, S. 
Bidwell on, 982. ; 


Walford (C.), a new view of the conse- 
quences of unpunctuality in railway 
trains, 1180. 

Walker (Gen. J. T.), Address by, to the 
Geographical Section, 1106. 

*Wallace (T.) and W. I. Macadam, de- 
scription of a new mineral from Loch 
Bhruithaich, Inverness-shire, 977. 

*Wallace (T. W.) on the geographical 
features of the Beauly basin, 1138. 

War risks, State guarantee of, by J. 
Corry, 1171. 

*Ward (H. M), notes on experiments as 
to the formation of starch in plants 
under the influence of the electric 
light, 1086. 

Warwickshire, the geology, mineralogy, 
and paleontology of, list of works on, 
by W. Whitaker, 780. 

Watches, first-class, the behaviour of, 
whilst undergoing tests in the rat- 
ing department of Kew Observatory, 
Richmond, Surrey, G. M. Whipple on, 
937. 

*Water, the action of, on lead, A. H. 
Allen on, 993. ‘ 


1256 


Water, the composition of, by volume, by 
Dr. A. Scott, 976. 

Water in estuaries, the physical condi- 
tions of, H. R. Mill on, 940. 

Waters (A. W.) on cyclostamatous bryozoa 
(polyzoa) from Australia, 660 ; on fossil 
cheilostomatous bryozoa from Aldinga 
and the river Murray cliffs, South Aus- 
tralia, 664. 

Waterworks at Goldstone-road, Brighton, 
W. Whitaker on the, 1041. 

Watson (W.), the chasm called the Black 
Rock of Kiltearn, 1018. 

Watt (A.), an electro-centrifugal machine 
for laboratory use, 991. 

Watt (W.), the statistics and some points 
in the economics of the Scottish 
fisheries, 1175. 

Watts (Dr. M.) on wave-length tables of 
the spectra of the elements and com- 
pounds, 288. 

Wave-length tables of the spectra of the 
elements and compounds, report on 
the preparation of a new series of, 
288. 

Webster (H. A.), what has been done for 
the geography of Scotland, and what 
remains to be done, 1138. 

Webster (Sir R. E.) on patent legislation, 
695. 

West (Rev. G. H.) on the erosion of the 
coast from Christchurch to Poole, 
427. 

West Lothian geology, recent advances 
in, by H. M. Cadell, 1037. 

Westgarth (W.), what is capital ? 1165. 

Wethered (E.) on underground tempera- 
ture, 93; on the circulation of under- 
ground waters, 380. 

*Whale, a model of the, Capt. Gray on, 
1059. 

Wharton (Capt. W. J. L.) on the rate of 
erosion of the sea-coasts of England 
and Wales, 404. 

What is capital? by W. Westgarth, 1165. 

Whipple (G. M.) on magnetic reductions, 
83; anew wind vane or anemoscope, 
specially designed for the use of 
meteorologists, 926 ; the errors of sex- 
tants as indicated by the records of 
the verification department of the Kew 
Observatory, Richmond, Surrey, 936 ; 
on the behaviour of first-class watches 
whilst undergoing tests in the rating 
department of the Kew Observatory, 
937; on a recent improvement in the 
construction of instruments graduated 
upon glass, ib.; on methods of pre- 
venting change of zero of thermome- 
ters by age, 938. 

Whitaker (W.), on the circulation of 
underground waters, 380; on the rate 
of erosion of the sea-coasts of England 
and Wales, 404: chronological list of 


INDEX. 


works on the coast-changes and shore- 
deposits of England and Wales, 442; 
on the work of the Corresponding 
Societies Committee, 708 ; list of works 
onthe geology, mineralogy, and palzon- 
tology of Staffordshire, Worcestershire, 
and Warwickshire, 780; on deep bor- 
ings at Chatham: a contribution to the 
deep-seated geology of the London 
basin, 1041; on the waterworks at 
Goldstone Road, Brighton, 7b. 

Whitehouse (C.), projected restoration of 
the Reian Meeris, and the province, lake, 
and canals ascribed to the Patriarch 
Joseph, 1127. 

Wild (Dr. H.) on magnetic reductions, 
78 


Williams (J.) and M, H. Smith, the action 
of nitrous gases upon amyl alcohol, 
992. 

Williamson (Prof. A. W.) on chemical 
nomenclature, 262; on patent legisla- 
tion, 695; on the work of the Corre- 
sponding Societies Committee, 708. 

Willmot (J. W.) on the development of 
the pneumatic system as applied to 
telegraph purposes, 1198. 

Wilson (Dr. D.) on the North-western 
tribes of the Dominion of Canada, 696. 

Wilson (J.) on the reproduction of the 
common mussel (Mytilus edulis, L.), 
1094. 

Wilson (T.),a new cave man of Mentone, 
1218. 

*Wilson (W.,, jun.) on Aberdeenshire 
plants as food for animals, 1088. 

Wind vane or anemoscope, a new, speci- 
ally designed for the use of meteorolo- 
gists, by G. M. Whipple, 926. 

Wires, the cooling of, in air and in 
vacuum, J. T. Bottomley on, 904. 

Wood (H. T.) on patent legislation, 
695. 

Woodall (J. W.) on the rate of erosion of 
the sea-coasts of England and Wales, 
404. 

Woodward (B. H.) on the erosion of the 
coast at Weymouth, 426. 

Woodward (Dr. H.) on the fossil phyllo- 
poda of the palzozoic rocks, 326. 

Woodward (H. B.) on the erosion of the 
coast from Axmouth to Eype, 423; and 
in the neighbourhood of Bridport Har- 
bour, 425. 

Worcestershire, the geology, mineralogy, 
and paleontology of, list of works on, 
by W. Whitaker, 780. 

Wright (Dr. C. R. A.) on the determina- 
tion of chemical affinity in terms of 
electromotive force, 978. 


Young (Prof.) on the establishment of a 
marine biological station at Granton, 
Scotland, 474. 


INDEX. 


Young (Dr. 8.) and Prof. W. Ramsay on 
a means of obtaining constant known 
temperatures, 928; on certain facts in 
thermodynamics, 7b. 


Zero of thermometers, methods of pre- 
venting change of, by age, G. M. 
Whipple on, 938. 


1257 


*Zoological literature, the record of, 
report on, 1056. 

Zoological station at Naples, report of 
the Committee appointed to arrange 
for the occupation of a table at, 466 ; 
report to the Committee by W. EK. 
Hoyle, 468. 


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PROCEEDINGS or tats SEVENTH MEETING, at Liverpool, 1837, 
Published at 16s. 6d. (Out of Print.) 


CONTENTS :—Major E. Sabine, on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity ob- 
served at different points of the Earth’s Surface ;—Rev. W. Taylor, on the various 
modes of Printing for the Use of the Blind ;—J. W. Lubbock, on the Discussions of 
Observations of the Tides ;—Prof. T. Thompson, on the Difference between the Com- 
position of Cast Iron produced by the Cold and Hot Blast ;—Rev. T. R. Robinson, on 
the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by the Greenwich Observations ;— 
R. W. Fox, Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins, and the Temperature of 
Mines ;—Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section of the British 
Association, appointed to investigate the Composition of Secretions, and the Organs 
producing them ;—Dr. G. O. Rees, Report from the Committee for inquiring into the 
Analysis of the Glands, &c., of the Human Body ;—Second Report of the London 
Sub-Committee of the British Association Medical Section, on the Motions and 
Sounds of the Heart ;—Prof. Johnston, on the Present State of our Knowledge in re- 
gard to Dimorphous Bodies ;—Lieut.-Col. Sykes, on the Statistics of the four Collec- 
torates of Dukhun, under the British Government ;—E. Hodgkinson, on the relative 


1261 


Strength and other Mechanical Properties of Iron obtained from the Hot and Cold 
Blast ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Strength and other Properties of Iron obtained from 
the Hot and Cold Blast ;—Sir J. Robinson and J. S. Russell, Report of the Committee 
on Waves ;—Note by Major Sabine, being an Appendix to his Report on the Varia- 
tions of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different Points of the Earth’s Surface 
—J. Yates, on the Growth of Plants under Glass, and without any free communica- 
tion with the outward Air, on the Plan of Mr. N. J. Ward, of London. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof, Traill’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or tae EIGHTH MEETING, at Newcastle, 1838, 
Published at 15s. (Out of Print.) 


CONTENTS :—Rey. W. Whewell, Account of a Level Line, measured from the 
Bristol Channel to the English Channel, by Mr. Bunt ;—Report on the Discussions of 
Tides, prepared under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell ;—W. S. Harris, Account 
of the Progress and State of the Meteorological Observations at Plymouth ;—Major 
H. Sabine, on the Magnetic Isoclinal and Isodynamic Lines in the British Islands ; 
—Dr. Lardner, on the Determination of the Mean Numerical Values of Rail- 
way Constants ;—R. Mallet, First Report upon Experiments upon the Action of Sea 
and River Water upon Cast and Wrought Iron ;—R. Mallet, on the Action of a Heat 
of 212° Fahr., when long continued, on Inorganic and Organic Substances. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Murchison’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue NINTH MEETING, at Birmingham, 1839, 
Published at 13s. 6d. (Out of Print.) 


CONTENTS :—Rey. B. Powell, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of 
Refractive Indices, for the Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in different media; 
Report on the Application of the Sum assigned for Tide Calculations to Rey. W. 
Whewell, in a letter from T. G. Bunt, Esq. ;—H. L. Pattinson, on some Galvanic 
Experiments to determine the Existence or Non-Existence of Electrical Currents 
among Stratified Rocks, particularly those of the Mountain Limestone formation, 
constituting the Lead Measures of Alton Moor ;—Sir D. Brewster, Reports respecting 
the Two Series of Hourly Meteorological Observations kept in Scotland ;—Report on 
the subject of a series of Resolutions adopted by the British Association at their 
Meeting in August 1838, at Newcastle ;—R. Owen, Report on British Fossil Reptiles ; 
—H. Forbes, Report on the Distribution of the Pulmoniferous Mollusca in the British 
isles ;—W. 8. Harris, Third Report on the Progress of the Hourly Meteorological 
Register at Plymouth Dockyard. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt’s Ad- 
dress, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or raze TENTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 1840, 
Published at 15s. (Out of Print.) 


CONTENTS :—Rey. B. Powell, Report on the Recent Progress of discovery relative 
to Radiant Heat, supplementary to a former Report on the same subject inserted in 
the first volume of the Reports of the British Association for the Advancement of 
Science ;—J. D. Forbes, Supplementary Report on Meteorology ;—W. S. Harris, Re- 
port on Prof. Whewell’s Anemometer, now in operation at Plymouth ;—Report on 
“The Motion and Sounds of the Heart,’ by the London Committee of the British 
Association, for 1839-40;—Prof. Schénbein, an Account of Researches in Electro- 
Chemistry ;—R. Mallet, Second Report upon the Action of Air and Water, whether 
fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at various temperatures, upon Cast Iron, Wrought 
Iron, and Steel ;—R. W. Fox, Report on some Observations on Subterranean Tempe- 
rature ;—A. F. Osler, Report on the Observations recorded during the years 1837, 
1838, 1839, and 1840, by the Self-registering Anemometer erected at the Philosophical 
Institution, Birmingham ;—Sir D. Brewster, Report respecting the Two Series of 
Hourly Meteorological Observations kept at Inverness and Kingussie, from Nov. Ist, 
1838, to Noy. 1st, 1839 :—W. Thompson, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Verte- 


(1262 


brata;—C. J. B. Williams, M.D., Report of Experiments on the Physiology of the Lungs 
and Air-Tubes ;—Rev. J. S. Henslow, Report of the Committee on the Preservation 
of Animal and Vegetable Substances. 

Together with the Transactions of the. Sections, Mr. Murchison and Major E. 
Sabine’s Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or raze ELEVENTH MEETING, at Plymouth, 
1841, Published at 13s. 6d. 


CONTENTS :—Rev. P. Kelland, on the Present State of our Theoretical and Expe- 
rimental Knowledge of the Laws of Conduction of Heat ;—G. L. Roupell, M.D., Re- 
port on Poisons;—T. G. Bunt, Report on Discussions of Bristol Tides, under the 
direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;—D. Ross, Report on the Discussions of Leith 
Tide Observations, under the direction of the Rev. W. Whewell;—W. 8. Harris, 
upon the working of Whewell’s Anemometer at Plymouth during the past year ;— 
Report of a Committee appointed for the purpose of superintending the scientific 
co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Observations in 
Terrestrial Magnetism and Meteorology ;—Reports of Committees appointed to pro- 
vide Meteorological Instruments for the use of M. Agassiz and Mr. M‘Cord ;—Report of 
a Committee appointed to superintend the Reduction of Meteorological Observations ; 
—Report of a Committee for revising the Nomenclature of the Stars;—Report of a 
Committee for obtaining Instruments and Registers to record Shocks and Earthquakes 
in Scotland and Ireland ;—Report of a Committee on the Preservation of Vegetative 
Powers in Seeds ;—Dr. Hodgkin, on Inquiries into the Races of Man ;—Report of the 
Committee appointed to report how far the Desiderata in our knowledge of the Con- 
dition of the Upper Strata of the Atmosphere may be supplied by means of Ascents 
in Balloons or otherwise, to ascertain the probable expense of such Experiments, and 
to draw up Directions for Observers in such circumstances ;—-R. Owen, Report on 
British Fossil Reptiles ;—Reports on the Determination of the Mean Value of Rail- 
way Constants ;—Dr. D. Lardner, Second and concluding Report on the Determi- 
nation of the Mean Value of Railway Constants;—E. Woods, Report on Railway 
Constants ;—Report of a Committee on the Construction of a Constant Indicator for 
Steam Engines. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Whewell’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or tas TWELFTH MEETING, at Manchester, 
1842, Published at 10s. 6d. 


CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the co-operation of 
the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and Meteorological 
Observations ;—Dr. J. Richardson, Report on the present State of the Ichthyology 
of New Zealand ;—W. 8. Harris, Report on the Progress of Meteorological Observa- 
tions at Plymouth ;—Second Report of a Committee appointed to make Experiments ~ 
on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds;—C. Vignoles, Report of the Committee on 
Railway Sections ;—Report of the Committee for the Preservation of Animal and 
Vegetable Substances;—Dr. Lyon Playfair, Abstract of Prof. Liebig’s Report on 
Organic Chemistry applied to Physiology and Pathology ;—R. Owen, Report on the 
British Fossil Mammalia, Part I. ;—R. Hunt, Researches on the Influence of Light on 
the Germination of Seeds and the Growth of Plants ;—L. Agassiz, Report on the Fos- 
sil Fishes of the Devonian System or Old Red Sandstone ;—W. Fairbairn, Appendix 
to a Report on the Strength and other Properties of Cast Iron obtained from the Hot 
and Cold Blast ;—D. Milne, Report of the Committee for Registering Shocks of Earth- 
quakes in Great Britain ;—Report of a Committee on the construction of a Constant 
Indicator for Steam-Engines, and for the determination of the Velocity of the Piston 
of the Self-acting Engine at different periods of the Stroke ;—J. 8. Russell, Report of 
a Committee on the Form of Ships ;—Report of a Committee appointed ‘to consider 
of the Rules by which the Nomenclature of Zoology may be established on a uniform 
and permanent basis;’—Report of a Committee on the Vital Statistics of Large 
Towns in Scotland ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special Re- 
searches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Francis Egerton’s Address, 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


- 1263 


PROCEEDINGS or tur THIRTEENTH MEETING, at Cork, 
1848, Published at 12s. 


CONTENTS :—Robert Mallet, Third Report upon the Action of Air and Water, 
whether fresh or salt, clear or foul, and at Various Temperatures, upon Cast Iron, 
Wrought Iron, and Steel ;—Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the Co- 
operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and 
Meteorological Observations ;—Sir J. F. W. Herschel, Bart., Report of the Committee 
appointed for the Reduction of Meteorological Observations ;—Report of the Com- . 
mittee appointed for Experiments on Steam-Engines ;—Report of the Committee ap- 
pointed to continue their Experiments on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. 8. Russell, Report 
of a Series of Observations on the Tides of the Frith of Forth and the East Coast of 
Scotland ;—J. 8. Russell, Notice of a Report of the Committee on the Form of Ships ; 
—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Action of Medicines ;—Report of the Com- 
mittee on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report of the Committee for Registering the 
Shocks of Earthquakes, and making such Meteorological Observations as may appear 
to them desirable ;—Report of the Committee for conducting Experiments with Cap- 
tive Balloons ;—Prof., Wheatstone, Appendix to the Report;—Report of the Com- 
mittee for the Translation and Publication of Foreign Scientific Memoirs ;—C. W. 
Peach, on the Habits of the Marine Testacea ;—H. Forbes, Report on the Mollusca 
and Radiata of the Agean Sea, and on their distribution, considered as bearing on 
Geology ;—L. Agassiz, Synoptical Table of British Fossil Fishes, arranged in the 
order of the Geological Formations ;—R. Owen, Report on the British Fossil Mam- 
malia, Part II. ;—E. W. Binney, Report on the excavation made at the junction of 
the Lower New Red Sandstone with the Coal Measures at Collyhurst ;—W. Thomp- 
son, Report on the Fauna of Ireland: Div. Invertebrata ;—Provisional Reports, and 
Notices of Progress in Special Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Rosse’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tot FOURTEENTH MEETING, at York, 1844, 
Published at £1. 


CONTENTS :—W. B. Carpenter, on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—J. Alder 
and A. Hancock, Report on the British Nudibranchiate Mollusca;—R. Hunt, 
Researches on the Influence of Light on the Germination of Seeds and the Growth 
of Plants ;—Report of a Committee appointed by the British Association in 1840, 
for reyising the Nomenclature of the Stars ;—Lt.-Col. Sabine, on the Meteorology 
of Toronto in Canada ;—J. Blackwall, Report on some recent researches into the 
Structure, Functions, and Economy of "the Araneidea made in’Great Britain ;—EHarl 
of Rosse, on the Construction of large Reflecting Telescopes ;—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, 
Report on a Gas-furnace for Experiments on Vitrifaction and other Applications of 
High Heat in the Laboratory ;—Report of the Committee for Registering Harth- 
quake Shocks in Scotland ;—Report of a Committee for Experiments on Steam- 
Engines ;—Report of the Committee to investigate the Varieties of the Human 
Race ;—Fourth Report of a Committee appointed to continue their Experiments on 
the Vitality of Seeds ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Consumption of Fuel and the Preven- 
tion of Smoke ;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British 
Association at Kew;—Sixth Report of the Committee appointed to conduct the 
‘Co-operation of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical 
and Meteorological Observations ;—Prof. Forchhammer on the influence of Fucoidal 
Plants upon the Formations of the Earth, on Metamorphism in general, and par- 
“'ticularly the Metamorphosis of the Scandinavian Alum Slate ;—H. E. Strickland, 
* Report on the Recent Progress and Present State of Ornithology ;—T. Oldham, 
Report of Committee appointed to conduct Observations on Subterranean Tempera- 
ture in Ireland ;—Prof. Owen, Report on the Extinct Mammals of Australia, and 
descriptions of certain Fossils indicative of the former existence in that continent 
of large Marsupial Representatives of the Order Pachydermata;—W. S. Harris, 
Report on the working of Whewell and Osler’s Anemometers at Plymouth, for the 
years 1841, 1842, 1843 ;—W. R. Birt, Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—L. Agassiz, 
~ Rapport sur les Poissons Fossiles ‘de LPArgile de Londres, with translation ;—J. 8. 


1264 


Russell, Report on Waves ;—Provisional Reports, and Notices of Progress in Special 
Researches entrusted to Committees and Individuals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Dean of Ely’s Address, and 
Becommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tus FIFTEENTH MEETING, at Cambridge, 
1845, Published at 12s. ' 


ConTENTS :—Seventh Report of a Committee appointed to conduct the Co-opera- 
tion of the British Association in the System of Simultaneous Magnetical and 
Meteorological Observations ;—Lieut.-Col. Sabine, on some Points in the Meteorology 
of Bombay ;—J. Blake, Report on the Physiological Actions of Medicines ;—Dr. Von 
Boguslawski, on the Comet of 1843 ;—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—Prof. 
Schénbein, on Ozone ;—Prof. Erman, on the Influence of Friction upon Thermo- 
Electricity ;—Baron Senftenberg, on the Self-registering Meteorological Instru- 
ments employed in the Observatory at Senftenberg ;—W. R. Birt, Second Report on 
Atmospheric Waves ;—G. R. Porter, on the Progress and Present Extent of Savings’ 
Banks in the United Kingdom ;—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. Playfair, Report on the Gases 
evolved from Iron Furnaces, with reference to the Theory of Smelting of Iron ;— 
Dr. Richardson, Report on the Ichthyology of the Seas of China and Japan ;— 
Report of the Committee on the Registration of Periodical Phenomena of Animals 
and Vegetables ;—Fifth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;— 
Appendix, &e. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir J. F. W. Herschel’s Address, 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue SIXTEENTH MEETING, at Southampton, 
1846, Published at 15s. : 


ConTENTS :—G. G. Stokes, Report on Recent Researches in Hydrodynamics ;— 
Sixth Report of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds;—Dr. Schunck, on the 
Colouring Matters of Madder ;—J. Blake, on the Physiological Action of Medicines ; 
—R. Hunt, Report on the Actinograph ;—R. Hunt, Notices on the Influence of Light 
on the Growth of Plants ;—R. L. Ellis, on the Recent Progress of Analysis ;—Prof. 
Forchhammer, on Comparative Analytical Researches on Sea Water ;—A. Erman, on 
the Calculation of the Gaussian Constants for 1829;—G. R. Porter, on -the Progress, 
present Amount, and probable future Condition of the Iron Manufacture in Great 
Britain ;—W. R. Birt, Third Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—Prof. Owen, Report 
on the Archetype and Homologies of the Vertebrate Skeleton ;—J. Phillips, on 
Anemometry ;—Dr. J. Percy, Report on the Crystalline Flags ;—Addenda to Mr. 
Birt’s Report on Atmospheric Waves. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir R. I, Murchison’s Address, 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tar SEVENTEENTH MEETING, at Oxford, 
1847, Published at 18s. 


ConTENTS :—Prof. Langberg, on the Specific Gravity of Sulphuric Acid at 
different degrees of dilution, and on the relation which exists between the Develop- 
ment of Heat and the coincident contraction of Volume in Sulphuric Acid when 
mixed with Water ;—R. Hunt, Researches on the Influence of the Solar Rays on the 
Growth of Plants;—R. Mallet, on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Prof, 
Nilsson, on the Primitive Inhabitants of Scandinavia;—W. Hopkins, Report on the 
Geological Theories of Elevation and Earthquakes ;—Dr. W. B. Carpenter, Report 
on the Microscopic Structure of Shells ;—Rev. W. Whewell and Sir James C. Ross, 
Report upon the Recommendation of an Expedition for the purpose of completing 
our Knowledge of the Tides ;—Dr. Schunck, on Colouring Matters ;—Seventh Report 
of the Committee on the Vitality of Seeds ;—J. Glynn, on the Turbine or Horizontal 
Water-Wheel of France and Germany ;--Dr. R. G. Latham, on the present state and 


_  — 


1265 


recent progress of Ethnographical Philology;—Dr. J. C. Prichard, on the various 
methods of Research which contribute to the Advancement of Ethnology, and of the 
relations of that Science to other branches of Knowledge ;—Dr. C. C. J. Bunsen, on 
the results of the recent Egyptian researches in reference to Asiatic and African 
Ethnology, and the Classification of Languages ;—Dr. C. Meyer, on the Importance of 
the Study of the Celtic Language as exhibited by the Modern Celtic Dialects still 
extant ;—Dr. Max Miiller, on the Relation of the Bengali to the Aryan and Aboriginal 
Languages of India ;—W. R. Birt, Fourth Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—Prof. W. 
H. Dove, Temperature Tables, with Introductory Remarks by Lieut.-Col. E. Sabine ; 
—A. Erman and H. Petersen, Third Report on the Calculation of the Gaussian Con- 
stants for 1829. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Robert Harry Inglis’s Address, 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tor EIGHTEENTH MEETING, at Swansea, 
1848, Published at 9s. 


CONTENTS :—Rey. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous 
Meteors ;—J. Glynn, on Water-pressure Engines;—R. A. Smith, on the Air and 
Water of Towns ;—Eighth Report of Committee on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ; 
—W. R. Birt, Fifth Report on Atmospheric Waves ;—E. Schunck, on Colouring 
Matters ;—J. P. Budd, on the advantageous use made of the gaseous escape from the 
Blast Furnaces at the Ystalyfera Iron Works ;—R. Hunt, Report of progress in the 
investigation of the Action of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Plants allied to those 
of the Coal Formations ;—Prof. H. W. Dove, Supplement to the Temperature Tables 
printed in the Report of the British Association for 1847 ;—-Remarks by Prof. Dove on 
his recently constructed Maps of the Monthly Isothermal Lines of the Globe, and on 
some of the principal Conclusions in regard to Climatology deducible from them ; 
with an introductory Notice by Lieut.-Col. E. Sabine ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the progress 
of the investigation on the Influence of Carbonic Acid on the Growth of Ferns ;—J. 
Phillips, Notice of further progress in Anemometrical Researches ;—Mr. Mallet’s 
Letter to the Assistant-General Secretary;—A. Erman, Second Report on the 
Gaussian Constants ;—Report of a Committee relative to the expediency of recom- 
mending the continuance of the Toronto Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory 
until December 1850. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Marquis of Northampton’s 
Address, and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or raz NINETEENTH MEBRTING, at Birmingham, 
1849, Published at 10s. 


CONTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, A Catalogue of Observations of Luminous 
Meteors ;—Earl of Rosse, Notice of Nebulz lately observed in the Six-feet Reflector ; 
—Prof. Daubeny, on the Influence of Carbonic Acid Gas on the health of Plants, 
especially of those allied to the Fossil Remains found in the Coal Formation ;—Dr. 
Andrews, Report on the Heat of Combination ;—Report of the Committee on the 
Registration of the Periodic Phenomena of Plants and Animals ;—Ninth Report of 
Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—F. Ronalds, 
Report concerning the Observatory of the British Association at Kew, from Aug. 9, 
1848 to Sept. 12, 1849;—R. Mallet, Report on the Experimental Inquiry on Railway 
Bar Corrosion ;—W. R. Birt, Report on the Discussion of the Electrical Observations 
at Kew. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rey. T. R. Robinson’s Address, 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue TWENTIETH MEETING, at Edinburgh, 
1850, Published at 15s. (Out of Print.) 


ConTENTS:—R. Mallet, First Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;— 
Rey. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Dr. T. Williams, on the 
Structure and History of the British Annelida ;—T. C. Hunt, Results of Meteoro- 
oes Observations taken at St. Michael’s from the 1st of January, 1840, to the 31st 

5. 4M 


1266 


of December, 1849;—R. Hunt, on the present State of our Knowledge of the 
Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Tenth Report of Committee on Experi- 
ments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Major-Gen. Briggs, Report on the 
Aboriginal Tribes of India ;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the 
British Association at Kew;—E. Forbes, Report on the Investigation of British 
Marine Zoology by means of the Dredge ;—R. MacAndrew, Notes on the Distribution 
and Range in depth of Mollusca and other Marine Animals, observed on the coasts 
of Spain, Portugal, Barbary, Malta, and Southern Italy in 1849 ;—Prof. Allman, on 
the Present State of our Knowledge of the Freshwater Polyzoa ;—Registration of 
the Periodical Phenomena of Plants and Animals ;—Suggestions to Astronomers for 
the Observation of the Total Eclipse of the Sun on July 28, 1851. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir David Brewster’s Address, 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tur TWENTY-FIRST MEETING, at Ipswich, 
1851, Published at 16s. 6d. 


CONTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;— 
Eleventh Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of 
Seeds ;—Dr. J. Drew, on the Climate of Southampton ;—Dr. R. A. Smith, on the 
Air and Water of Towns: Action of Porous Strata, Water, and Organic Matter ;— 
Report of the Committee appointed to consider the probable Effects in an Econo- 
mical and Physical Point of View of the Destruction of Tropical Forests ;—A, 
Henfrey, on the Reproduction and supposed Existence of Sexual Organs in the 
Higher Cryptogamous Plants ;—Dr. Daubeny, on the Nomenclature of Organic Com- 
pounds ;—Rev. Dr. Donaldson, on two unsolved Problems in Indo-German Philology ; 
—Dr. T. Williams, Report on the British Annelida ;—R. Mallet, Second Report on 
the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;—Letter from Prof. Henry to Col. Sabine, on 
the System of Meteorological Observations proposed to be established in the United 
States ;—Col. Sabine, Report on the Kew Magnetographs ;—J. Welsh, Report on the 
Performance of his three Magnetographs during the Experimental Trial at the 
Kew Observatory ;—F. Ronalds, Report concerning the Observatory of the British 
Association at Kew, from September 12, 1850, to July 31, 1851 ;—Ordnance Survey 
of Scotland. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Airy’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or tHE TWENTY-SECOND MEETING, at Belfast, 
1852, Published at 15s. 


CONTENTS :—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena ;— 
Twelfth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds; 
—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1851-52 ;—Dr. 
Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants ; 
—A Manual of Ethnological Inquiry ;—Col. Sykes, Mean Temperature of the Day, 
and Monthly Fall of Rain at 127 Stations under the Bengal Presidency ;—Prof. J. 
D. Forbes, on Experiments on the Laws of the Conduction of Heat ;—R. Hunt, on 
the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ;—Dr. Hodges, on the Composition and 
Economy of the Flax Plant ;—W. Thompson, on the Freshwater Fishes of Ulster ;— 
W. Thompson, Supplementary Report on the Fauna of Ireland ;—W. Wills, on the 
Meteorology of Birmingham ;—J. Thomson, on the Vortex-Water-Wheel:—J. B. 
Lawes and Dr. Gilbert, on the Composition of Foods in relation to Respiration and 
the Feeding of Animals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Colonel Sabine’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or THE TWENTY-THIRD MEETING, at Hull, 
1858, Published at 10s. 6d. 


CONTENTS :—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 
1852-53 ;—James Oldham, on the Physical Features of the Humber ;—James Old- 
ham, on the Rise, Progress, and Present Position of Steam Navigation in Hull ;— 


1267 


William Fairbairn, Experimental Researches to determine the Strength of Locomo- 
tive Boilers, and the causes which lead to Explosion ;—J. J. Sylvester, Provisional 
Report on the Theory of Determinants ;—Professor Hodges, M.D., Report on the 
Gases evolved in Steeping Flax, and on the Composition and Economy of the Flax, 
Plant ;—Thirteenth Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and 
Vitality of Seeds ;—Robert Hunt, on the Chemical Action of the Solar Radiations ; 
—Dr. John P. Bell, Observations on the Character and Measurements of Degrada-. 
tion of the Yorkshire Coast ;—First Report of Committee on the Physical Character 
of the Moon’s Surface, as compared with that of the Earth ;—R. Mallet, Provisional 
Report on Earthquake Wave-Transits; and on Seismometrical Instruments ;— 
William Fairbairn, on the Mechanical Properties of Metals as derived from repeated 
Meltings, exhibiting the maximum point of strength and the causes of deterioration ; 
—Robert Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena (continued). 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Hopkins’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tas TWENTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Liver- 
pool, 1854, Published at 18s. 


CoNTENTS:—R. Mallet, Third Report on the Facts of Earthquake Phenomena 
(continued) ;—Major-General Chesney, on the Construction and General Use of 
Efficient Life-Boats ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Third Report on the present State of our 
Knowledge of Radiant Heat ;—Colonel Sabine, on some of the results obtained at 
the British Colonial Magnetic Observatories ;—Colonel Portlock, Report of the 
Committee on Earthquakes, with their proceedings respecting Seismometers ;—Dr. 
Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radiations on the Vital Powers of Plants, 
Part 2 ;—Rev. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1853_54 ; 
—Second Report of the Committee on the Physical Character of the Moon’s Surface ; 
—W. G. Armstrong, on the Application of Water-Pressure Machinery ;—J. B. Lawes 
and Dr. Gilbert, on the Equivalency of Starch and Sugar in Food ;—Archibald 
Smith, on the Deviations of the Compass in Wooden and Iron Ships ;—Fourteenth 
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Earl of Harrowby’s Address, 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or truzr TWENTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 
1855, Published at 15s. 


CONTENTS :—T. Dobson, Report on the Relation between Explosions in Coal- 
Mines and Revolving Storms ;—Dr. Gladstone, on the Influence of the Solar Radia- 
tions on the Vital Powers of Plants growing under different Atmospheric Conditions, 
Part 3;—C. Spence Bate, on the British ‘Edriophthalma ;—J. F. Bateman, on the 
present state of our knowledge on the Supply of Water to Towns ;—Fifteenth 
Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and Vitality of Seeds ;—Rev. 
Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1854-55 ;—Report of 
Committee appointed to inquire into the best means of ascertaining those properties 
of Metals and effects of various modes of treating them which are of importance 
to the durability and efficiency of Artillery ;—Rev. “Prof. Henslow, Report on Typical 
Objects in Natural History ;—A. Follett Osler, Account of the Self-registering 
Anemometer and Rain-Gauge at the Liverpool Observatory ;—Provisional Reports. 

- Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Duke of Argyll’s Address, 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tos TWENTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Chel- 
tenham, 1856, Published at 18s. 


CONTENTS :—Report from the Committee appointed to investigate and report 
upon the effects produced upon the Channels of the Mersey by the alterations which 
within the last fifty years have been made in its Banks;—J. Thomson, Interim 
Report on progress in Researches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;— 


4M 2 


1268 


Dredging Report, Frith of Clyde, 1856;—Rev. B. Powell, Report on Observations of 
Luminous Meteors, 1855-1856 ;-—Prof. Bunsen and Dr. H. E. Roscoe, Photochemical 
Researches ;—Rev. James Booth, on the Trigonometry of the Parabola, and the 
Geometrical Origin of Logarithms;—R. MacAndrew, Report on the Marine 
Testaceous Mollusca of the North-east Atlantic and neighbouring Seas, and the 
physical conditions affecting their development ;—P. P. Carpenter, Report on the 
present state of our knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of 
North America;—T. C. Eyton, Abstract of First Report on the Oyster Beds and 
Oysters of the British Shores ;—Prof. Phillips, Report on Cleavage, and Foliation in 
Rocks, and on the Theoretical Explanations of these Phenomena, Part 1;—Dr. T. 
Wright, on the Stratigraphical Distribution of the Oolitic Echinodermata ; WwW. 
Fairbairn, on the Tensile Strength of Wrought Iron at various Temperatures ;—C. 
Atherton, on Mercantile Steam Transport Economy ;—J. 8. Bowerbank, on the Vital 
Powers of the Spongiadz ;—Report of a Committee upon the Experiments con- 
ducted at Stormontfield, near Perth, for the artificial propagation of Salmon ;—Pro- 
visional Report on the Measurement of Ships for Tonnage ;—On Typical Forms of 
Minerals, Plants and Animals for Museums;—J. Thomson, Interim Report on Pro- 
gress in Researches on the Measurement of Water by Weir Boards ;—R. Mallet, on 
Observations with the Seismometer;—A. Cayley, on the Progress of Theoretical 
Dynamics ;—Report of a Committee appointed to consider the formation of a 
Catalogue of Philosophical Memoirs. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Daubeny’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tus TWENTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at 
Dublin, 1857, Published at 15s. 


ContENnts :—A. Cayley, Report on the recent progress of Theoretical Dynamics ; 
—Sixteenth and Final Report of Committee on Experiments on the Growth and 
Vitality of Seeds ;—James Oldham, C.E., continuation of Report on Steam Navigation 
at Hull ;—Report of a Committee on the Defects of the present methods of Measur- 
ing and Registering the Tonnage of Shipping, as also of Marine Engine-Power, and 
to frame more perfect rules, in order that a correct and uniform principle may be 
adopted to estimate the Actual Carrying Capabilities and Working-power of Steam 
Ships ;—Robert Were Fox, Report on the Temperature of some Deep Mines in Corn- 
—a gt 1Qt 1pt 1 
wall ;—Dr. G. Plarr, de quelques Transformations de la Somme =! pbs Caos 

le+ Iyt 4+ let41 
a étant entier négatif, et de quelques cas dans lesquels cette somme est exprimable 
par une combinaison de factorielles, la notation a‘|+!désignant le produit des 
facteurs a (a+1) (a+2) &e....(a+t -1) ;—G. Dickie, M.D., Report on the Marine 
Zoology of Strangford Lough, County Down, and corresponding part of the Irish 
Channel ;—Charles Atherton, Suggestions for Statistical Inquiry into the Extent to 
which Mercantile Steam Transport Economy is affected by the Constructive Type of 
Shipping, as respects the Proportions of Length, Breadth, and Depth ;—J. 8. Bower- 
bank, Further Report on the Vitality of the Spongiade ;—Dr. John P. Hodges, on 
Flax ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of 
Great Britain ;—Rey. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 
1856-57 ;—C. Vignoles, on the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sustain the 
passage of Railway Trains;—Prof. W. A. Miller, on Electro-Chemistry ;—John 
Simpson, Results of Thermometrical Observations made at the Plover’s Wintering- 
place, Point Barrow, latitude 71° 21’ N., long. 156° 17’ W., in 1852-54 ;—Charles 
James Hargreave, on the Algebraic Couple; and on the Equivalents of Indetermi- 
nate Expressions;—Thomas Grubb, Report on the Improvement of Telescope and 
Equatorial Mountings ;—Prof. James Buckman, Report on the Experimental Plots 
in the Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester ;—William 
Fairbairn, on the Resistance of Tubes to Collapse ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of 
the Proceedings of the Belfast Dredging Committee ;—Peter W. Barlow, on the 
Mechanical Effect of combining Girders and Suspension Chains, and a Comparison 
of the Weight of Metal in Ordinary and Suspension Girders, to produce equal de- 
flections with a given load ;—J. Park Harrison, Evidences of Lunar Influence on 
Temperature ;—Report on the Animal and Vegetable Products imported into Liver- 


1269 


pool from the year 1851 to 1855 (inclusive) ;—Andrew Henderson, Report on the Sta- 
tistics of Life-boats and Fishing-boats on the Coasts of the United Kingdom. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. H. Lloyd’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tuts TWENTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Leeds, 
September 1858, Published at 20s. 


CoNTENTS :—R. Mallet, Fourth Report upon the Facts and Theory of Earthquake 
Phenomena ;—Rey. Prof. Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1857— 
1858 ;—R. H. Meade, onsome Points inthe Anatomy of the Araneidea or true Spiders, 
especially on the internal structure of their Spinning Organs ;—W. Fairbairn, Report 
of the Committee on the Patent Laws ;—S. Eddy, on the Lead Mining Districts of 
Yorkshire ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Collapse of Glass Globes and Cylinders ;—Dr. E. 
Perceval Wright and Prof. J. Reay Greene, Report on the Marine Fauna of the South 
and West Coasts of Ireland ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on Experiments on the Measurement 
of Water by Triangular Notches in Weir Boards ;—Major-General Sabine, Report of 
the Committee on the Magnetic Survey of Great Britain ;—Michael Connel and 
William Keddie, Report on Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Substances imported 
from Foreign Countries into the Clyde (including the Ports of Glasgow, Greenock, 
and Port Glasgow) in the years 1853, 1854, 1855, 1856, and 1857;—Report of the 
Committee on Shipping Statistics ;—Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., Notice of the Instruments 
employed in the Magnetic Survey of Ireland, with some of the Results ;—Prof. J. R. 
Kinahan, Report of Dublin Dredging Committee, appointed 1857-58 ;—Prof. J. R. 
Kinahan, Report on Crustacea of Dublin District ;—Andrew Henderson, on River 
Steamers, their Form, Construction, and Fittings, with reference to the necessity for 
improving the present means of Shallow-Water Navigation on the Rivers of British 
India ;—George C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee ;—Appendix 
to Mr. Vignoles’ Paper ‘On the Adaptation of Suspension Bridges to sustain the 
passage of Railway Trains; ’—Report of the Joint Committee of the Royal Society 
and the British Association, for procuring a continuance of the Magnetic and 
Meteorological Observatories ;—R. Beckley, Description of a Self-recording Ane- 
mometer. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Owen’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tats TWENTY-NINTH MEETING, at Aberdeen; 
September 1859, Published at 15s. 


CONTENTS :—George C. Foster, Preliminary Report on the Recent Progress and 
Present State of Organic Chemistry ;—Professor Buckman, Report on the Growth of 
Plants in the Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester ;—Dr. A. Voelcker, 
Report on Field Experiments and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of 
Manures essential to Cultivated Crops;—A. Thomson, of Banchory, Report on 
the Aberdeen Industrial Feeding Schools ;—On the Upper Silurians of Lesmahagow, 
Lanarkshire ;—Alphonse Gages, Report on the Results obtained by the Mechanico- 
Chemical Examination of Rocks and Minerals ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to 
determine the Efficiency of Continuous and Self-acting Brakes for Railway Trains ;-— 
Professor J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee for 1858-59 ;— 
Rey. Baden Powell, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors for 1858-59 ;— 
Professor Owen, Report on a Series of Skulls of various Tribes of Mankind inhabiting 
Nepal, collected, and presented to the British Museum, by Bryan H. Hodgson, Esq., 
late Resident in Nepal, &c. &c. ;—Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwich, and Llewelyn, 
Report on the Present State of our Knowledge regarding the Photographic Image; — 
G. C. Hyndman, Report of the Belfast Dredging Committee for 1859 ;—James 
Oldham, Continuation of Report of the Progress of Steam Navigation at Hull ;— 
Charles Atherton, Mercantile Steam Transport Economy as affected by the Con- 
sumption of Coals ;—Warren De La Rue, Report on the present state of Celestial 
Photography in England ;—Protessor Owen, on the Orders of Fossil and Recent 
Reptilia, and their Distribution in Time ;—Balfour Stewart, on some Results of the 
“Magnetic Survey of Scotland in the years 1857 and 1858, undertaken, at the request 
of the British Association, by the late John Welsh, Esq., F.R.S.;—W. Fairbairn, The 


1270 


Patent Laws: Report of Committee on the Patent Laws ;—J. Park Harrison, Lunar 
Influence on the Temperature of the Air :—Balfour Stewart, an Account of the Con- 
struction of the Self-recording Magnetographs at present in operation at the Kew 
Observatory of the British Association ;—Professor H. J. Stephen Smith, Report on 
the Theory of Numbers, Part I.;—Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ; 
—Report of the Proceedings of the Balloon Committee of the British Association 
appointed at the Meeting at Leeds ;—Prof. William K. Sullivan, Preliminary 
Report on the Solubility of Salts at Temperatures above 100° Cent., and on the 
Mutual Action of Salts in Solution. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prince Albert’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or toe THIRTIETH MEETING, at Oxford, June 
and July 1860, Published at 15s. 


CONTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 
1859-60 ;—J. R. Kinahan, Report of Dublin Bay Dredging Committee ;—Rev. J. 
Anderson, Report on the Excavations in Dura Den;—Prof. Buckman, Report on 
the Experimental Plots in the Botanical Garden of the Royal Agricultural College, 
Cirencester ;—Rev. R. Walker, Report of the Committee on Balloon Ascents ;—Prof. 
W. Thomson, Report of Committee appointed to prepare a Self-recording Atmo- 
spheric Electrometer for Kew, and Portable Apparatus for observing Atmospheric 
Electricity ;—William Fairbairn, Experiments to determine the Effect of Vibratory 
Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wronght-iron Girders ;—R. P. 
Greg, Catalogue of Meteorites and Fireballs, from A.D. 2 to A.D. 1860;—Prof. H. J. 8. 
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part II.;—Vice-Admiral Moorsom, on the 
Performance of Steam-vessels, the Functions of the Screw, and the Relations of its 
Diameter and Pitch to the Form of the Vessel ;—Rev. W. V. Harcourt, Report on the 
Effects of long-continued Heat, illustrative of Geological Phenomena ;—Second 
Report of the Committee on Steamship Performance ;—Interim Report on the Gauging 
of Water by Triangular Notches ;—List of the British Marine Invertebrate Fauna. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Wrottesley’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or ton THIRTY-FIRST MEETING, at Manches- 
ter, September 1861, Published at £1. 


CONTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;— 
Dr. EH. Smith, Report on the Action of Prison Diet and Discipline on the Bodily 
Functions of Prisoners, Part I. ;—Charles Atherton, on Freight as affected by Differ- 
ences in the Dynamic Properties of Steamships;—Warren De La Rue, Report on the 
Progress of Celestial Photography since the Aberdeen Meeting ;—B. Stewart, on the 
Theory of Exchanges, and its recent extension ;—Drs. H. Schunck, R. Angus Smith, 
and H. E. Roscoe, on the Recent Progress and Present Condition of Manufacturing 
Chemistry in the South Lancashire District ;—Dr. J. Hunt, on Ethno-Climatology ; 
or, the Acclimatization of Man ;—Prof. J. Thomson, on Experiments on the Gauging 
of Water by Triangular Notches;—Dr. A. Voeleker, Report on Field Hxperiments 
and Laboratory Researches on the Constituents of Manures essential to cultivated 
Crops ;—Prof. H. Hennessy, Provisional Report on the Present State of our Knowledge 
respecting the Transmission of Sound-signals during Fogs at Sea ;—Dr. P. L. Sclater 
and F'. von Hochstetter, Report on the Present State of our Knowledge of the Birds 
of the Genus Apteryx living in New Zealand ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Results 
of Deep-sea Dredging in Zetland, with a Notice of several Species of Mollusca new 
to Science or to the British Isles ;—Prof. J. Phillips, Contributions to a Report on 
the Physical Aspect of the Moon ;—W. R. Birt, Contribution to a Report on the Phy- 
sical Aspect of the Moon;—Dr. Collingwood and Mr. Byerley, Preliminary Report 
of the Dredging Committee of the Mersey and Dee ;—Third Report of the Committee 
on Steamship Performance ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Preliminary Report on the Best Mode of 
preventing the Ravages of Teredo and other Animals in our Ships and Harbours ;— 
R. Mallet, Report on the Experiments made at Holyhead to ascertain the Transit- 
Velocity of Waves,analogous to Earthquake Waves, through the local Rock Formations 


1271 


—T. Dobson, on the Explosions in British Coal-Mines during the year 1859 ;—J. Old- 
ham, Continuation of Report on Steam Navigation at Hull ;—Prof. G. Dickie, Brief 
Summary of a Report on the Flora of the North of Ireland ;—Prof. Owen, on the 
Psychical and Physical Characters of the Mincopies, or Natives of the Andaman 
Islands, and on the Relations thereby indicated to other Races of Mankind ;—Colonel 
Sykes, Report of the Balloon Committee ;—Major-General Sabine, Report on the Re- 
petition of the Magnetic Survey of England ;—Interim Report of the Committee for 
Dredging on the North and East Coasts of Scotland ;—W. Fairbairn, on the Resist- 
ance of Iron Plates to Statical Pressure and the Force of Impact by Projectiles at 
High Velocities ;—W. Fairbairn, Continuation of Report to determine the effect of 
Vibratory Action and long-continued Changes of Load upon Wrought-Iron Girders ; 
—Report of the Committee on the Law of Patents;—Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, Report on 
the Theory of Numbers, Part III. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Fairbairn’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or rar THIRTY-SECOND MEETING at Cam- 
bridge, October 1862, Published at £1. 


ConTENTS :—James Glaisher, Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1861- 
62 ;—G. B. Airy, on the Strains in the Interior of Beams ;—Archibald Smith and F, 
J. Evans, Report on the three Reports of the Liverpool Compass Committee ;—Report 


on Tidal Observations on the Humber;—T. Aston, on Rifled Guns and Projectiles 


adapted for Attacking Armour-plate Defences ;—Extracts, relating to the Observa- 
tory at Kew, from a Report presented to the Portuguese Government, by Dr. J. A. 
de Souza ;—H. T. Mennell, Report on the Dredging of the Northumberland Coast 
and Dogger Bank ;—Dr. Cuthbert Collingwood, Report upon the best means of ad- 
yaneing Science through the agency of the Mercantile Marine ;—Messrs. Williamson, 
Wheatstone, Thomson, Miller, Matthiessen, and Jenkin, Provisional Report on Stan- 
dards of Electrical Resistance;—Preliminary Report of the Committee for investiga- 
ting the Chemical and Mineralogical Composition of the Granites of Donegal ;—Prof. 


H. Hennessy, on the Vertical Movements of the Atmosphere considered in connec- 


tion with Storms and Changes of Weather ;—Report of Committee on the application 
of Gauss’s General Theory of Terrestrial Magnetism to the Magnetic Variations ;—- 


-Fleeming Jenkin, on Thermo-electric Currents in Cireuits of one Metal ;—W. Fair- 


bairn, on the Mechanical Properties of Iron Projectiles at High Velocities ;—A. Cay- 
ley, Report on the Progress of the Solution of certain Special Problems of Dynamics; 
—Prof. G. G. Stokes, Report on Double Refraction ;—Fourth Report of the Committee 


‘on Steamship Performance ;—G. J. Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles 


in 1860 and 1861;—J. Ball, on Thermometric Observations in the Alps;—J. G. 
Jeffreys, Report of the Committee for Dredging on the North and East Coasts of 
Scotland ;—Report of the Committee on Technical and Scientific Evidence in Courts 
of Law;—James Glaisher, Account of Eight Balloon Ascents in 1862 ;—Prof. H. J.S. 
Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part IV. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, the Rev. Prof. R. Willis’s Address, 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or truz THIRTY-THIRD MEETING, at New- 
castle-upon-Tyne, August and September 1863, Published at £1 5s. 


CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee on the Application of Gun-cotton to War- 
like Purposes ;—A. Matthiessen, Report on the Chemical Nature of Alloys ;—Report 
of the Committee on the Chemical and Mineralogical Constitution of the Granites of 
Donegal, and on the Rocks associated withthem ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Report of the Com- 
mittee appointed for exploring the Coasts of Shetland by means of the Dredge ;— 
G. D. Gibb, Report on the Physiological Effects of the Bromide of Ammonium ;—C. K. 
Aken, on the Transmutation of Spectral Rays, Part I.;—Dr. Robinson, Report of the 
Committee on Fog Signals ;—Report of the Committee on Standards of Electrical 


Resistance ;—E. Smith, Abstract of Report by the Indian Government on the Foods 


1272 


used by the Free and Jail Populations in India ;—A. Gages, Synthetical Researches 
onthe Formation of Minerals, &c.;—R. Mallet, Preliminary Report on the Experi- 
mental Determination of the Temperatures of Volcanic Foci, and of the Temperature, 
State of Saturation, and Velocity of the issuing Gases and Vapours;—Report of the 
Committee on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fifth Report of the Committee 
on Steamship Performance ;—G. J. Allman, Report on the Present State of our Know- 
ledge of the Reproductive System in the Hydroida ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Five Bal- 
loon Ascents made in 1863 ;—P. P. Carpenter, Supplementary Report on the Present 
State of our Knowledge with regard to the Mollusca of the West Coast of North 
America ;—Prof. Airy, Report on Steam Boiler Explosions ;—C. W. Siemens, Obser- 
vations on the Electrical Resistance and Electrification of some Insulating Materials 
under Pressures up to 8300 Atmospheres ;—C. M. Palmer, on the Construction of Iron 
Ships and the Progress of Iron Shipbuilding on the Tyne, Wear, and Tees ;—Messrs. 
Richardson, Stevenson, and Clapham, on the Chemical Manufactures of the Northern 
Districts ;—Messrs. Sopwith and Richardson, on the Local Manufacture of Lead, 
Copper, Zinc, Antimony, &c. ;—Messrs. Daglish and Forster, on the Magnesian Lime- 
stone of Durham ;—I. L. Bell, on the Manufacture of Iron in connexion with the 
Northumberland and Durham Coal-field ;—T. Spencer, on the Manufacture of Steel 
in the Northern District ;—Prof. H. J.S. Smith, Report on the Theory of Numbers, 
Part V. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Armstrong’s Address, 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tue THIRTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Bath, 
September 1864, Published at 18s. 


CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee for Observations of Luminous Meteors ;— 
Report of the Committee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights 
and Measures ;—T. 8. Cobbold, Report of Experiments respecting the Development 
and Migration of the Entozoa;—B. W. Richardson, Report on the Physiological 
Action of Nitrite of Amyl;—J. Oldham, Report of the Committee on Tidal Observa- 
tions ;—G. §. Brady, Report on Deep-sea Dredging on the Coasts of Northumberland 
and Durham in 1864 ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Nine Balloon Ascents made in 1863 
and 1864 ;—J. G. Jeffreys, Further Report on Shetland Dredgings ;—Report of the 
Committee on the Distribution of the Organic Remains of the North Staffordshire 
Coal-field ;—Report of the Committee on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—G. J. 
Symons, on the Fall of Rain in the British Isles in 1862 and 1863 ;—W. Fairbairn, 
Preliminary Investigation of the Mechanical Properties of the proposed Atlantic 
Cable. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir Charles Lyell’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or raz THIRTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Birming- 
ham, September 1865, Published at £1 5s. 


ContTENTS :—J. G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Channel Isles ;—F, 
Buckland, Report on the Cultivation of Oysters by Natural and Artificial Methods ;— 
Report of the Committee for exploring Kent’s Cavern ;—Report of the Committee 
on Zoological Nomenclature ;—Report on the Distribution of the Organic Remains 
of the North Staffordshire Coal-field ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of 
the South Coast of Devon and Cornwall ;—Interim Report on the Resistance of 
Water to Floating and Immersed Bodies ;—Report on Observations of Luminous 
Meteors ;—Report on Dredging on the Coast of Aberdeenshire ;—J. Glaisher, Account 
of Three Balloon Ascents;—Interim Report on the Transmission of Sound under 
Water ;—G. J. Symons, on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—W. Fairbairn, on the 
Strength of Materials considered in relation to the Construction of Iron Ships ;— 
Report of the Gun-Cotton Committee ;—A. F. Osler, on the Horary and Diurnal 
Variations in the Direction and Motion of the Air at Wrottesley, Liverpool, and 
Birmingham ;—B. W. Richardson, Second Report on the Physiological Action of 
certain of the Amyl Compounds ;—Report on further Researches in the Lingula- 


1273 


flags of South Wales ;—Report of the Lunar Committee for Mapping the Surface of 
the Moon ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Report of the Com- 
mittee appointed to communicate with the Russian Government respecting Mag- 
netical Observations at Tiflis ;—Appendix to Reporton the Distribution of the Verte- 
brate Remains from the North Staffordshire Coal-field ;—H. Woodward, First Report 
on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Prof. H. J. 8. Smith, 
Report on the Theory of Numbers, Part VI. ;—Report on the best means of providing 
for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the interests of Science: 
—A. G. Findlay, on the Bed of the Ocean ;—Prof. A. W. Williamson, on the Com- 
position of Gases evolved by the Bath Spring called King’s Bath. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof, Phillips’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or trot THIRTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Notting- 
ham, August 1866, Published at £1 4s. 


CONTENTS :—Second Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—A,. Matthiessen, 
Preliminary Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on Observations 
of Luminous Meteors;—W. S. Mitchell, Report on the Alum Bay Leaf-bed ;— 
Report on the Resistance of Water to Floating and Immersed Bodies ;—Dr. Norris, 
Report on Muscular Irritability ;—Dr. Richardson, Report on the Physiological 
Action of certain compounds of Amyl and Ethyl ;—H. Woodward, Second Report on 
the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Second Report on 
the ‘Menevian Group,’ and the other Formations at St. David’s, Pembrokeshire ; 
—J. G. Jeffreys, Report on Dredging among the Hebrides;—Rev. A. M. Norman, 
Report on the Coasts of the Hebrides, Part II. ;—J. Alder, Notices of some Inverte- 
brata, in connexion with Mr. Jeffreys’s Report;—G. S. Brady, Report on the 
Ostracoda dredged amongst the Hebrides ;—Report on Dredging in the Moray Firth ; 
—Report on the Transmission of Sound-Signals under Water ;—Report of the Lunar 
Committee ;—Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the best means of 
providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference to the Interests 
of Science ;—J. Glaisher, Account of Three Balloon Ascents ;—Report on the Extinct 
Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;—Report on the Penetration of Ironclad Ships by 
Steel Shot ;—J. A. Wanklyn, Report on Isomerism among the Alcohols ;—Report on 
Scientific Evidence in Courts of Law ;—A. L. Adams, Second Report on Maltese 
Fossiliferous Caves, &c. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Grove’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees, 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe THIRTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at 
Dundee, September 1867, Published at £1 6s. 


CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee for Mapping the Surface of the Moon ;— 
Third Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devonshire ;—On the present State of the Manu- 
facture of Iron in Great Britain ;—Third Report on the Structure and Classification 
of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl Com- 
pounds ;—Preliminary Report on the Exploration of the Plant-Beds of North Green- 
land ;—Report of the Steamship Performance Committee ;—On the Meteorology of 
Port Louis, in the Island of Mauritius ;—On the Construction and Works of the 
Highland Railway ;—Experimental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of 
Steel ;—Report on the Marine Fauna and Flora of the South Coast of Devon and 
Cornwall ;—Supplement to a Report on the Extinct Didine Birds of the Mascarene 
Islands ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Fourth Report on Dredging 
among the Shetland Isles;—Preliminary Report on the Crustacea, &c., procured by 
the Shetland Dredging Committee in 1867 ;—Report on the Foraminifera obtained 
in the Shetland Seas ;—Second Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the 
best means of providing fora Uniformity of Weights and Measures, with reference 
to the interests of Science ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, and Recommendations of the 
Association and its Committees, 


1274 


PROCEEDINGS or tur THIRTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Nor- 
wich, August 1868, Published at £1 5s. 


CONTENTS :—Report of the Lunar Committee —Fourth Report on Kent’s Cavern, 
Devonshire ;—On Puddling Iron ;—Fourth Report on the Structure and Classifica- 
-tion of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on British Fossil Corals ;—Report on Spectro- 
scopic Investigations of. Animal Substances ;—Report of Steamship Performance 
Committee ;—Spectrum Analysis of the Heavenly Bodies ;—On Stellar Spectro- 
metry ;—Report on the Physiological Action of the Methyl and allied Compounds ;— 
Report on the Action of Mercury on the Biliary Secretion ;—Last Report on Dredg- 
ing among the Shetland Isles ;—Reports on the Crustacea, &c., and on the Annelida 
and Foraminifera from the Shetland Dredgings ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of 
Cast Iron, Part I.;—Interim Report on the Safety of Merchant Ships and their 
Passengers ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Preliminary Report 
on Mineral Veins containing Organic Remains;—Report on the Desirability of 
Explorations between India and China;—Report of Rainfall Committee ;—Re- 
port on Synthetical Researches on Organic Acids ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights 
and Measures ;—Report of the Committee on Tidal Observations ;—Report of the 
Committee on Underground Temperature ;—Changes of the Moon’s Surface ;—Re- 
port on Polyatomic Cyanides. 
Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Hooker’s Address, and Recom- 
mendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or toe THIRTY-NINTH MEETING, at Exeter, 
August 1869, Published at £1 2s. 


ConTENTS :—Report on the Plant-beds of North Greenland ;—Report on the 
existing knowledge on the Stability, Propulsion, and Seagoing qualities of Ships ; 
—Report on Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Preliminary Report on the Determination 
of the Gases existing in Solution in Well-waters;—The Pressure of Taxation on 
Real Property ;—On the Chemical Reactions of Light discovered by Prof. Tyndall ;— 
On Fossils obtained at Kiltorkan Quarry, co. Kilkenny ;—Report of the Lunar Com- 
mittee ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Report on the Marine Fauna 
and Flora of the South Coast of Devon and Cornwall ;—Report on the Practicability 
of establishing a ‘Close Time ’ for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Experi- 
mental Researches on the Mechanical Properties of Steel;—Second Report on 
British Fossil Corals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared 
Sections of Mountain-Limestone Corals for Photographing ;—Report on the Rate of 
Increase of Underground Temperature ;—Fifth Report on Kent’s Cavern, Devon- 
shire ;—Report on the Connexion between Chemical Constitution and Physiological 
Action;—On Emission, Absorption, and Reflection of Obscure Heat ;—Report on 
Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Report on Uniformity of Weights and Measures ; 
—Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Supplement to Second 
Report of the Steamship-Performance Committee ;—Report on Recent Progress in 
Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on Mineral Veins in Carboniferous 
Limestone and their Organic Contents ;—Notes on the Foraminifera of Mineral 
Veins and the Adjacent Strata ;—Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Interim Re- 
port on the Laws of the Flow and Action of Water containing Solid Matter in 
Suspension ;—Interim Report on Agricultural Machinery ;—Report on the Physio- 
logical Action of Methyl and Allied Series ;—On the Influence of Form considered 
in Relation to the Strength of Railway-axles and other portions of Machinery sub- 
jected to Rapid Alterations of Strain ;—On the Penetration of Armour-plates with 
Long Shells of Large Capacity fired obliquely ;—Report on Standards of Electrical 
Resistance. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Stokes’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


1275 


' PROCEEDINGS or rae FORTIETH MEETING, at Liverpool, 
‘September 1870, Published at 18s. 


ConTENTS :—Report on Steam-boiler Explosions ;—Report of the Committee on 
the Hematite Iron-ores of Great Britain and Ireland ;—Report on the Sedimentary 
Deposits of the River Onny ;—Report on the Chemical Nature of Cast Iron ;—Re- 
‘port on the practicability of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the protection of 
Indigenous Animals ;—Report on Standards of Electrical Resistance ;—Sixth Report 
‘on Kent's Cavern ;—Third Report on Underground Temperature ;—Second Report of 
the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections of Mountain- Limestone 
Corals ;—Second Report on the Stability, Propulsion, and Seagoing Qualities of 
Ships ;—Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report on the Treatment and Utili- 
zation of Sewage ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1869-70 ;—Report 
on Recent Progress in Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on Tidal Ob- 
servations ;—On a new Steam-power Meter ;—Report on the Action of the Methyl 
and Allied Series;—Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report on the Heat 
generated in the Blood in the Process of Arterialization ;—Report on the best 
means of providing for Uniformity of Weights and Measures. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Huxley’s Address, and Re- 
commendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or ras FORTY-FIRST MEETING, at Edinburgh, 
August 1871, Published at 16s. 


ConTEnts :—Seventh Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Fourth Report on Under- 
ground Temperature ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1870-71 ;— 
Fifth Report on the Structure and Classification of the Fossil Crustacea ;—Report 
of the Committee appointed for the purpose of urging on Her Majesty’s Government 
the expediency of arranging and tabulating the results of the approaching Census 
in the three several parts of the United Kingdom in such a manner as to admit of 
ready and effective comparison ;—Report of the Committee appointed for the purpose 
of Superintending the Publication of Abstracts of Chemical Papers ;—Report of the 
Committee for discussing Observations of Lunar Objects suspected of change ;— 
Second Provisional Report on the Thermal Conductivity of Metals ;—Report on 
the Rainfall of the British Isles;—Third Report on the British Fossil Corals ;— 
Report on the Heat generated in the Blood during the Process of Arterialization ; 


—Report of the Committee appointed to consider the subject of Physiological 
‘Experimentation ;—Report on the Physiological Action of Organic Chemical Com- 
‘pounds ;—Report of the Committee appointed to get cut and prepared Sections of 
Mountain-Limestone Corals ;—Second Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions ;—Re- 
port on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Report on promoting the Foun- 
dation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the World ;—Preliminary Report 
on the Thermal Equivalents of the Oxides of Chlorine ;— Report on the practica- 
bility of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the protection of Indigenous Animals ; 
‘—Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report on the best means of providing for 
‘a Uniformity of Weights and Measures ;—Report on Tidal Observations. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir William Thomson’s Address, 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tap FORTY-SECOND MEETING, at Brighton, 
August 1872, Published at £1 4s. 


CoNnTENTS :—Report on the Gaussian Constants for the Year 1829 ;—Second Sup- 
plementary Report on the Extinct Birds of the Mascarene Islands ;—Report of the 
Committee for Superintending the Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;— 
Report of the Committee on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of 
Weights and Measures ;—EHighth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report on promoting the 
Foundation of Zoological Stations in different parts of the World ;—Fourth Report 


1276 


on the Fauna of South Devon ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee appointed to 
Construct and Print Catalogues of Spectral Rays arranged upon a Scale of Wave- 
numbers ;—Third Report on Steam-Boiler Explosions ;—Report on Observations of 

Luminous Meteors, 1871-72 ;—Experiments on the Surface-friction experienced by — 
a Plane moving through Water ;—Report of the Committee on the Antagonism be- 
tween the Action of Active Substances ;—Fifth Report on Underground Tempera- — 
ture ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee on Siemens’s Electrical-Resistance 
Pyrometer :—Fourth Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Interim 


Report of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of Ships and — 


Currents ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Report of the Committee — 
on a Geographical Exploration of the Country of Moab;—Sur l’élimination des 
Fonctions Arbitraires ;—Report on the Discovery of Fossils in certain remote parts 
of the North-western Highlands ;—Report of the Committee on Earthquakes in 
Scotland ;—Fourth Report on Carboniferous-Limestone Corals ;—Report of the Com- 
mittee to consider the mode in which new Inventions and Claims for Reward in 
respect of adopted Inventions are examined and dealt with by the different Depart- 
ments of Government ;—Report of the Committee for discussing Observations of 
Lunar Objects suspected of change ;—Report on the Mollusca of Europe ;—Report of 
the Committee for investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties 
of Essential Oils ;—Report on the practicability of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for 
the preservation of Indigenous Animals ;—Sixth Report on the Structure and Classi- 
fication of Fossil Crustacea ;—Report of the Committee appointed to organize an Ex- 
pedition for observing the Solar Eclipse of Dec. 12, 1871 ;—Preliminary Report of 
a Committee on Terato-embryological Inquiries ;—Report on Recent Progress in 
Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on Tidal Observations ;—On the 
Brighton Waterworks ;—On Amsler’s Planimeter. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. Carpenter’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tap FORTY-THIRD MEETING, at Bradford, 
September 1878, Published at £1 5s. 


CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee on Mathematical Tables ;—Observations 
on the Application of Machinery to the Cutting of Coal in Mines ;—Concluding Re- 
port on the Maltese Fossil Elephants ;—Report of the Committee for ascertaining 
the Existence in different parts of the United Kingdom of any Erratic Blocks or 
Boulders ;—Fourth Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Ninth Report on Kent’s 
Cavern ;—On the Flint and Chert Implements found in Kent’s Cavern ;—Report of 
the Committee for Investigating the Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties 
of Essential Oils ;—Report of Inquiry into the Method of making Gold-assays ; 
—Fifth Report on the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical 
Units ;—Report of the Committee on the Labyrinthodonts of the Coal-measures ;— 
Report of the Committee appointed to construct and print Catalogues of Spectral 
Rays ;—Report of the Committee appointed to explore the Settle Caves;—Sixth Report 
on Underground Temperature ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—Seventh 
Report on Researches in Fossil Crustacea ;—Report on Recent Progress in Elliptic 
and Hyperelliptic Functions ;—Report on the desirability of establishing a ‘ Close 
Time’ for the preservation of Indigenous Animals ;—Report on Luminous Meteors ; 
-——On the Visibility of the Dark Side of Venus ;—Report of the Committee for the 
Foundation of Zoological Stationsin different parts of the World ;—Second Report of 
the Committee for collecting Fossils from North-western Scotland ;—Fifth Report 
on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Report of the Committee on Monthly 
Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—On the Bradford Waterworks ;—Report on 
the possibility of Improving the Methods of Instruction in Elementary Geometry ; 
—Interim Report of the Committee on Instruments for Measuring the Speed of 
Ships, &c.;—Report of the Committee for Determinating High Temperatures by 
means of the Refrangibility of Light evolved by Fluid or Solid Substances ;—On a 
periodicity of Cyclones and Rainfall in connexion with Sun-spot Periodicity ;—Fifth 
Report on the Structure of Carboniferous-Limestone Corals ;—Report of the Com- 
mittee on preparing and publishing brief forms of Instructions for Travellers, 
Ethnologists, &c. ;—Preliminary Note from the Committee on the Influence of Forests 


1277 


on the Rainfall ;—Report of the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee ;—Report of 
the Committee on Machinery for obtaining a Record of the Roughness of the Sea 
and Measurement of Waves near shore ;—Report on Science Lectures and Organi- 
zation ;—Second Report on Science Lectures and Organization. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. A. W. Williamson’s Address, 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tar FORTY-FOURTH MEETING, at Belfast, 
August 1874, Published at £1 5s. 


CONTENTS :—Tenth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report for investigating the 
Chemical Constitution and Optical Properties of Essential Oils ;—Second Report of 
the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee ;—On the Recent Progress and Present 
State of Systematic Botany ;—Report of the Committee for investigating the Nature 
of Intestinal Secretion ;—Report of the Committee on the Teaching of Physics in 
Schools ;—Preliminary Report for investigating Isomeric Cresols and their Deriva- 
tives ;—Third Report of the Committee for collecting Fossils from localities in 
North-western Scotland ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles ;—On the Bel- 
fast Harbour ;—Report of Inquiry into the Method of making Gold-assays ;—Report 
of a Committee on Experiments to determine the Thermal Conductivities of certain 
Rocks ;—Second Report on the Exploration of the Settle Caves ;—On the Industrial 
uses of the Upper Bann River ;—Report of the Committee on the Structure and 
Classification of the Labyrinthodonts ;—Second Report of the Committee for record- 
ing the position, height above the sea, lithological characters, size, and origin of the 
Erratic Blocks of England and Wales, &c. ;—Sixth Report on the Treatment and 
Utilization of Sewage ;—Report on the Anthropological Notes and Queries for the 
use of Travellers ;—On Cyclone and Rainfall Periodicities ;—Fifth Report on Harth- 
quakes in Scotland ;—Report of the Committee appointed to prepare and print 
Tables of Wave-numbers ;—Report of the Committee for testing the new Pyrometer 
of Mr. Siemens ;—Report to the Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty on Experi- 
ments for the Determination of the Frictional Resistance of Water on a Surface 
&c.;—Second Report for the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Elec- 
trical Units ;—On Instruments for measuring the Speed of Ships;—Report of the 
Committee on the possibility of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the Protection of 
Indigenous Animals ;—Report of the Committee to inquire into the economic effects 
of Combinations of Labourers and Capitalists ;—,Preliminary Report on Dredging on 
the Coasts of Durham and North Yorkshire ;—Report on Luminous Meteors ;—Re- 
port on the best means of providing for a Uniformity of Weights and Measures. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. John Tyndall’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or toe FORTY-FIFTH MEETING, at Bristol, 
August 1875, Published at £1 5s. ; 


CONTENTS :—Eleventh Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Seventh Report on Under- 
ground Temperature;—Report on the Zoological Station at Naples;—Report of a 
Committee appointed to inquire into the Methods employed in the Estimation of 
Potash and Phosphoric Acid in Commercial Products ;—Report on the present state 
of our Knowledge of the Crustacea;—Second Report on the Thermal Conduc- 
tivities of certain Rocks ;—Preliminary Report of the Committee for extending the 
Observations on the Specific Volumes of Liquids ;—Sixth Report on Earthquakes 
in Scotland ;—Seventh Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Re- 
port of the Committee for furthering the Palestine Explorations ;— Third Report of 
the Committee for recording the position, height above the sea, lithological 
characters, size, and origin of the Erratic Blocks of England and Wales, &c. ;— 
Report of the Rainfall Committee ;—Report of the Committee for investigating 
Isomeric Cresols and their Derivatives ;—Report of the Committee for investigating 
the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian 
Wormations of England ;—On the Steering of Screw-Steamers ;—Second Report cf 


fe 1 


the Committee on Combinations of Capital and Labour ;—Report on the Method of. 
making Gold-assays;—Eighth Report on Underground Temperature ;—Tides in the 
River Mersey ;—Sixth Report of the Committee on the Structure of Carboniferous — 
Corals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to explore the Settle Caves ;—On 
the River Avon (Bristol), its Drainage-Area, &c.;—Report of the Committee on 
the possibility of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the Protection of Indigenous. 
Animals ;—Report of the Committee appointed to superintend the Publication of 
the Monthly Reports of the Progress of Chemistry ;—Report on Dredging off the 
Coasts of Durham and North Yorkshire in 1874 ;—Report on Luminous Meteors ;—On 
the Analytical Forms called Trees ;—Report of the Committee on Mathematical 
Tables ;—Report of the Committee on Mathematical Notation and Printing ;—Second ~ 
Report of the Committee for investigating Intestinal Secretion ;—Third Report of 
the Sub-Wealden Exploration Committee. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir John Hawkshaw’s Address, — 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees, , 


PROCEEDINGS or rue FORTY-SIXTH MEETING, at Glasgow, 
September 1876, Published at £1 5s. ] 


CONTENTS :—Twelfth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report on Improving the 
Methods of Instruction in Elementary Geometry ;—Results of a Comparison of the 
British-Association Units of Electrical Resistance ;—Third Report on the Thermal 
Conductivities of certain Rocks ;—Report of the Committee on the practicability of 
adopting a Common Measure of Value in the Assessment of Direct Taxation ;— 
Report of the Committee for testing experimentally Ohm’s Law ;—Report of the 
Committee on the possibility of establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the Protection of 
Indigenous Animals ;—Report of the Committee on the Effect of Propellers on the 
Steering of Vessels ;—On the Investigation of the Steering Qualities of Ships ;— 
Seventh Report on Earthquakes in Scotland ;—Report on the present state of our 
Knowledge of the Crustacea;—Second Report of the Committee for investigating 
the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the New Red Sandstone and Permian 
Formations of England ;—Fourth Report of the Committee on the Erratic Blocks of 
England and Wales, &c.;—Fourth Report of the Committee on the Exploration of 
the Settle Caves (Victoria Cave);—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 
1875-76 ;—Report on the Rainfall of the British Isles, 1875-76;—Ninth Report on 
Underground Temperature ;—Nitrous Oxide in the Gaseous and Liquid States ;— 
Eighth Report on the Treatment and Utilization of Sewage ;—Improved Investiga- 
tions on the Flow of Water through Orifices, with Objections to the modes of treat- 
ment commonly adopted ;—Report of the Anthropometric Committee ;—On Cyclone 
and Rainfall Periodicities in connexion with the Sun-spot Periodicity ;—Report of 
the Committee for determining the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat ;—Report of the 
Committee on Tidal Observations ;—Third Report of the Committee on the Condi- 
tions of Intestinal Secretion and Movement ;—Report of the Committee for collect- 
ing and suggesting subjects for Chemical Research. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. T. Andrews’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


| 
| 


PROCEEDINGS or tas FORTY-SEVENTH MEETING, at Ply- | 
mouth, August 1877, Published at £1 As. 


CoNTENTS :—Thirteenth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Second and Third Reports — 
on the Methods employed in the estimation of Potash and Phosphoric Acid in Com- 
mercial Products ;—Report on the present state of our Knowledge of the Crustacea 
(Part IIL.) ;—Third Report on the Cireulation of the Underground Waters in the New 
Red Sandstone and Permian Formations of England ;—Fifth Report on the Erratic 
Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—Fourth Report on the Thermal Conducti- _ 
vities of certain Rocks ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors, 1876-77 ;—. 
Tenth Report on Underground Temperature ;—Report on the Effect of Propellers on 
the Steering of Vessels ;—Report on the possibility of establishing a ‘Close Time’ 
for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;--Report on some Double Compounds of 


1279 


Nickel and Cobalt ;—Fifth Report on the Exploration of the Settle Caves (Victoria 
Cave) ;—Report on the Datum Level of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain ;— 
Report on the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report of the Anthropometric Com- 
mittee ;—Report on the Conditions under which Liquid Carbonic Acid exists in 
Rocks and Minerals. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Allen Thomson’s Address, 
and Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tir FORTY-EIGHTH MEETING, at Dublin, 
August 1878, Published at £1 4s. 


CONTENTS :—Catalogue of the Oscillation-Frequencies of Solar Rays;—Report 
on Mr. Babbage’s Analytical Machine ;—Third Report of the Committee for deter- 
mining the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat ;—Report of the Committee for arrang- 
ing for the taking of certain Observations in India, and Observations on Atmospheric 
Electricity at Madeira ;—Report on the commencement of Secular Experiments upon 
the Elasticity of Wires ;—Report on the Chemistry of some of the lesser-known 
Alkaloids, especially Veratria and Bebeerine ;—Report on the best means for the 
Development of Light from Coal-Gas ;—Fourteenth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;— 
Report on the Fossils in the North-west Highlands of Scotland ;—Fifth Report on 
the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks ;—Report~on the possibility of estab- 
lishing a‘ Close Time’ for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Report on the 
occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report of the Anthro- 
pometric Committee ;—Report on Patent Legislation ;—Report on the Use of Steel 
for Structural Purposes ;—Report on the Geographical Distribution of the Chiro- 
ptera ;—Recent Improvements in the Port of Dublin;—Report on Mathematical 
Tables ;—Eleventh Report on Underground Temperature ;—Report on the Explora- 
tion of the Fermanagh Caves;—Sixth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, 
Wales, and Ireland ;—Report on the present. state of our Knowledge of the Crus- 
tacea (Part IV.) ;—Report on two Caves in the neighbourhood of Tenby ;—Report on 
the Stationary Tides in the English Channel and in the North Sea, &c. ;—Second 
Report on the Datum-level of the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain ;—Report on 
instruments for measuring the Speed of Ships ;—Report of Investigations into a 
Common Measure of Value in Direct Taxation ;—Report on Sunspots and Rainfall ; 
—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;—Sixth Report on the Exploration 
of the Settle Caves (Victoria Cave) ;—Report on the Kentish Boring Exploration ;— 
Fourth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Jurassic, New Red 
Sandstone, and Permian Formations, with an Appendix on the Filtration of Water 
through Triassic Sandstone ;—Report on the Effect of Propellers on the Steering of 
Vessels. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Mr. Spottiswoode’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


' 


PROCEEDINGS or tut FORTY-NINTH MEETING, at Sheffield, 
August 1879, Published at £1 4s. 


CONTENTS :—Report on the commencement of Secular Experiments upon the 
Elasticity of Wires ;—Fourth Report of the Committee for determining the Mechan- 
ical Equivalent of Heat ;—Report of the Committee for endeavouring to procure 
reports on the Progress of the Chief Branches of Mathematics and Physics;—Twelfth 
Report on Underground Temperature ;—Report on Mathematical Tables ;—Sixth 
Report on the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks ;—Report on Observations 
of Atmospheric Electricity at Madeira :—Report on the Calculation of Tables of the 
Fundamental Invariants of Algebraic Forms ;—Report on the Calculation of Sun- 
Heat Coefficients ;—Second Report on the Stationary Tides in the English Channel 
and in the North Sea, &c. ;—Report on Observations of Luminous Meteors ;-—Report 
on the question of Improvements in Astronomical Clocks ;—Report of the Committee 
for improving an Instrument for detecting the presence of Fire-damp in Mines ;— 
Report on the Chemistry of some of the lesser-known Alkaloids, especially Veratria 


1280 


and Beeberine ;—Seventh Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ire- 
land ;—Fifteenth Report on Kent’s Cavern ;—Report on certain Caves in Borneo ;— 
Fifth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Jurassic, Red Sand- 
stone, and Permian Formations of England ;—Report on the Tertiary (Miocene) 
Flora, &e., of the Basalt of the North of Ireland ;—Report on the possibility of 
Establishing a ‘Close Time’ for the Protection of Indigenous Animals ;—Report on 
the Marine Zoology of Devon and Cornwall ;—Report on the Occupation of a Table 
at the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report on Excavations at Portstewart and 
elsewhere in the North of Ireland ;—Report of the Anthropometric Committee ;— 
Report on the Investigation of the Natural History of Socotra ;—Report on Instru- 
ments for measuring the Speed of Ships ;—Third Report on the Datum-level of the 
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain ;—Second Report on Patent Legislation ;—On 
Self-acting Intermittent Siphons and the conditions which determine the com- 
mencement of their Action ;--On some further Evidence as to the Range of the 
Paleozoic Rocks beneath the South-east of England ;—Hydrography, Past and 
Present. 


Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Prof. Allman’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or tHe FIFTIETH MEETING, at Swansea, August 
and September 1880, Published at £1 As. 


ConTENTS :—Report on the Measurement of the Lunar Disturbance of Gravity ;— 
Thirteenth Report on Underground Temperature ;—Report of the Committee for 
devising and constructing an improved form of High Insulation Key for Electrometer 
Work ;—Report on Mathematical Tables ;—Report on the Calculation of Tables 
of the Fundamental Invariants of Algebraic Forms;—Report on Observations of 
Luminous Meteors;—Report on the question of Improvements in Astronomical 
Clocks;—Report on the commencement of Secular Experiments on the Elasticity 
of Wires ;—Sixteenth and concluding Report on Kent’s Cavern;—Report on the 
mode of reproduction of certain species of Ichthyosaurus from the Lias of England 
and Wiirtemburg ;—Report on the Carboniferous Polyzoa ;—Report on the ‘ Geological 
Record’;—Sizth Report on the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the 
Permian, New Red Sandstone, and Jurassic Formations of England, and the Quantity 
and Character of the Water supplied to towns and districts from these formations ;— 
Second Report on the Tertiary (Miocene) Flora, &c., of the Basalt of the North of 
Treland ;—Hightb Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;— 
Report on an Investigation for the purpose of fixing a Standard of White Light ;— 
Report of the Anthropometric Committee ;—Report on the Influence of Bodily Exercise 
on the Elimination of Nitrogen ;—Second Report on the Marine Zoology of South 
Devon ;—Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples; — 
Report on accessions to our knowledge of the Chiroptera during the past two years 
(1878-80) ;—Preliminary Report on the accurate measurement of the specific in- 
ductive capacity of a good Sprengel Vacuum, and the specific resistance of gases at 
different pressures ;—Comparison of Curves of the Declination Magnetographs at 
Kew, Stonyhurst, Coimbra, Lisbon, Vienna, and St. Petersburg ;—First Report on 
the Caves of the South of Ireland ;—Report.on the Investigation of the Natural 
History of Socotra ;—Report on the German and other systems of teaching the Deaf 
to speak ;—Report of the Committee for considering whether it is important that 
H.M. Inspectors of Elementary Schools should be appointed with reference to their 
ability for examining in the scientific specific subjects of the Code in addition to 
other matters ;—On the Anthracite Coal and Coalfield of South Wales ;—Report on 
the present state of our knowledge of Crustacea (Part V.) ;—Report on the best means 
for the Development of Light from Coal-gas of different qualities (Part II.) ;—Report 
on Paleontological and Zoological Researches in Mexico ;—Report on the possibility 
of establishing a ‘ Close Time ’ for Indigenous Animals ;—Report on the present state 
of our knowledge of Spectrum Analysis;—Report on Patent Legislation ;—Pre- 
liminary Report on the present Appropriation of Wages, &c. ;—Report on the present 
state of knowledge of the application of Quadratures and Interpolation to Actual 
Data ;—The French Deep-sea Exploration in the Bay of Biscay ;—Third Report on 
the Stationary Tides in the English Channel and in the North Sea, &c. ;—List of 


1281 


Works on the Geology, Mineralogy, and Paleontology of Wales (to the end of 1873) ;— 
On the recent Revival in Trade. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. A. C. Ramsay’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


PROCEEDINGS or rae FIFTY-FIRST MEETING, at York, 
August and September 1881, Published at £1 4s. 


CONTENTS :—Report on the Calculation of Tables of the Fundamental Invariants 
of Algebraic Forms;—Report on Recent Progress in Hydrodynamics (Part I.) ;— 
Report on Meteoric Dust ;—Second Report on the Calculation of Sun-heat Co- 
efficients;—Fourteenth Report on Underground Temperature;—Report on the 
Measurement of the Lunar Disturbance of Gravity;—Second Report on an In- 
vestigation for the purpose of fixing a Standard of White Light ;—Final Report on 
the Thermal Conductivities of certain Rocks ;—Report on the manner in which 
Rudimentary Science should be taught, and how Examinations should be held 
therein, in Elementary Schools ;—Third Report on the Tertiary Flora of the North 
of Ireland ;—Report on the Method of Determining the Specific Refraction of Solids 
from their Solutions ;—Fourth Report on the Stationary Tides in the English Channel 
and in the North Sea, &c.;—Second Report on Fossil Polyzoa;—Report on the 
Maintenance of the Scottish Zoological. Station ;—Report on the Occupation of a 
Table at the Zoological Station at Naples;—Report on the Migration of Birds ;— 
Report on the Natural History of Socotra;—Report on the Natural History of 
Timor-laut ;—Report on the Marine Fauna of the Southern Coast of Devon and 
Cornwall ;—Report on the Earthquake Phenomena of Japan;—Ninth Report on 
the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—Second Report on the 
Caves of the South of Ireland;—Report on Patent Legislation;—Report of the 
Anthropometric Committee ;—Report on the Appropriation of Wages, &c.;—Re- 
port on Observations of Luminous Meteors;—Report on Mathematical Tables ;— 
Seventh Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Jurassic, 
New Red Sandstone, and Permian Formations of England, and the Quality and 
Quantity of the Water supplied to Towns and Districts from these Formations — 
Report on the present state of our Knowledge of Spectrum Analysis ;—Interim Report 
of the Committee for constructing and issuing practical Standards for use in Electrical 
Measurements ;—On some new Theorems on Curves of Double Curvature ;—Observa- 
tions of Atmospheric Electricity at the Kew Observatory during 1880;—On the 
Arrestation of Infusorial Life by Solar Light ;—On the Effects of Oceanic Currents 
upon Climates ;—On Magnetic Disturbances and Earth Currents ;—On some Applica- 
tions of Electric Energy to Horticultural and Agricultural purposes ;—On the Pressure 
of Wind upon a Fixed Plane Surface ;—On the Island of Socotra ;—On some of the 
Developments of Mechanical Engineering during the last Half-Century. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Sir John Lubbock’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


REPORT or tHe FIFTY-SECOND MEETING, at Southampton, 
August 1882, Published at £1 4s. 


CONTENTS :—Report on the Calculation of Tables of Fundamental Invariants of 
Binary Quantics ;—Report (provisional) of the Committee for co-operating with the 
Meteorological Society of the Mauritius in their proposed publication of Daily 
Synoptic Charts of the Indian Ocean from the year 1861 ;—Report of the Committee 
appointed for fixing a Standard of White Light ;—Report on Recent Progress in 
Hydrodynamics (Part II.) ;—Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing 
practical Standards for use in Electrical Measurements ;—Fifteenth Report on Under- 
ground Temperature, with Summary of the Results contained in the Fifteen Reports 
of the Underground Temperature Committee ;—Report on Meteoric Dust ;—Second 
Report on the Measurement of the Lunar Disturbance of Gravity ;—Report on the 
present state of our Knowledge of Spectrum Analysis;—Report on the Investigation 
by means of Photography of the Ultra-Violet Spark Spectra emitted by Metallic 
Elements, and their combinations under varying conditions ;—Report of the Com- 
mittee for preparing a new Series of Tables of Wave-lengths of the Spectra of the 
meee ;—Report on the Methods employed in the Calibration of Mercurial Ther- 

885. AN 


1282 


mometers ;—Second Report on the Earthquake Phenomena of Japan ;—Eighth Report 
on the Circulation of the Underground Waters in the Permeable Formations of 
England, and the Quality and Quantity of the Water supplied to various Towns and 
Districts from these Formations ;—Report on the Conditions under which ordinary 
Sedimentary Materials may be converted into Metamorphic Rocks ;—Report on 
Explorations in Caves of Carboniferous Limestone in the South of Ireland ;—Report 
on the Preparation of an International Geological Map of Europe ;—Tenth Report on 
the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;—Report on Fossil Polyzoa 
(Jurassic Species—British Area only);—Preliminary Report on the Flora of the 
‘Halifax Hard Bed,’ Lower Coal Measures ;-—Report on the Influence of Bodily 
Exercise on the Elimination of Nitrogen ;—Report of the Committee appointed for 
obtaining Photographs of the Typical Races in the British Isles ;—Preliminary 
Report on the Ancient Earthwork in Epping Forest known as the Loughton Camp ; 
—Second Report on the Natural History of Timor-laut ;—Report of the Committee 
for carrying out the recommendations of the Anthropometric Committee of 1880, 
especially as regards the anthropometry of children and of females, and the more 
complete discussion of the collected facts;—Report on the Natural History of 
Socotra and the adjacent Highlands of Arabia and Somali Land ;—Report on the 
Maintenance of the Scottish Zoological Station;—Report on the Migration of 
Birds ;—Report on the Occupation of a Table at the Zoological Station at Naples ;— 
Report on the Survey of Eastern Palestine ;—Final Report on the Appropriation of 
Wages, &c. ;—Report on the workings of the revised New Code, and of other legisla- 
tion affecting the teaching of Science in Elementary Schools ;—Report on Patent 
Legislation ;—Report of the Committee for determining a Gauge for the manufacture 
of various small Screws ;—Report on the best means of ascertaining the Effective 
Wind Pressure to which buildings and structures are exposed ;—On the Boiling 
Points and Vapour Tension of Mercury, of Sulphur, and of some Compounds of 
Carbon, determined by means of the Hydrogen Thermometer ;—On the Method of 
Harmonic Analysis used in deducing the Numerical Values of the Tides of long 
period, and on a Misprint in the Tidal Report for 1872 ;—List of Works on the 
Geology and Paleontology of Oxfordshire, of Berkshire, and of Buckinghamshire ;— 
Notes on the oldest Records of the Sea-Route to China from Western Asia ;—The 
Deserts of Africa and Asia;—State of Crime in England, Scotland, and Ireland in 
1880 ;—On the Treatment of Steel for the Construction of Ordnance, and other pur- 
poses ;—The Channel Tunnel ;—The Forth Bridge. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Dr. C. W. Siemens’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


REPORT or tHe FIFTY-THIRD MEETING, at Southport, 
September 1883, Published at £1 4s. 


CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee for constructing and issuing practical 
Standards for use in Electrical Measurements ;—Sixteenth Report on Underground 
Temperature ;—Report on the best Experimental Methods that can be used in ob- 
serving Total Solar Eclipses ;—Report on the Harmonic Analysis of Tidal Observa- 
tions ;—Report of the Committee for co-operating with the Meteorological Society of 
the Mauritius in their proposed publication of Daily Synoptic Charts of the 
Indian Ocean from the year 1861 ;—Report on Mathematical Tables ;—Report of the 
Committee for co-operating with the Scottish Meteorological Society in making 
Meteorological Observations on Ben Nevis ;— Report on Meteoric Dust ;—Report of 
the Committee appointed for fixing a Standard of White Light ;—Report on Chemical 
Nomenclature ;—Report on the investigation by means of Photography of the Ultra- 
Violet Spark Spectra emitted by Metallic Elements, and their combinations under 
varying conditions ;—Report on Isomeric Naphthalene Derivatives ;—Report on 
Explorations in Caves in the Carboniferous Limestone in the South of Ireland ;— 
Report on the Exploration of Raygill Fissure, Yorkshire ;—Eleventh Report on the 
Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Jreland ;—Ninth Report on the Circulation of 
the Underground Waters in the Permeable Formations of England, and the Quality 
and Quantity of the Water supplied to various Towns and Districts from these For- 
mations ;—Report on the Fossil Plants of Halifax;—Fourth Report on Fossil 
Polyzoa ;—Fourth Report on the Tertiary Flora of the North of Ireland ;— Report on 
the Earthquake Phenomena of Japan ;—Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the 


1283 


Palzozoic Rocks ;—Third Report on the Natural History of Timor Laut ;—Report on 
the Natural History of Socotra and the adjacent Highlands of Arabia and Somali 
Land ;—Report on the Exploration of Kilima-njaro and the adjoining mountains of 
Eastern Equatorial Africa ;—Report on the Migration of Birds ;—Report on the 
Maintenance of the Scottish Zoological Station ;—Report on the Occupation of a Table 
at the Zoological Station at Naples ;—Report on the Influence of Bodily Exercise on 
the Elimination of Nitrogen;—Report on the Ancient Earthwork in Epping Forest, 
known as the ‘ Loughton’ or ‘ Cowper’s’’ Camp ;—Final Report of the Anthropometric 
Committee ;—Report of the Committee for defining the Facial Characteristics of the 
Races and Principal Crosses in the British Isles, and obtaining Illustrative Photo- 
graphs ;—Report on the Survey of Eastern Palestine ;—Report on the workings of 
the proposed revised New Code, and of other legislation affecting the teaching of 
Science in Elementary Schools ;—Report on Patent Legislation;—Report of the 
Committee for determining a Gauge for the manufacture of various small Screws ;— 
Report of the ‘ Local Scientific Societies’ Committee ;—On some results of photo- 
graphing the Solar Corona without an Eclipse ;—On Lamé’s Differential Equation ;— 
Recent Changes in the Distribution of Wealth in relation to the Incomes of the 
Labouring Classes ;—On the Mersey Tunnel ;—On Manganese Bronze ;—Nest Gearing. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Professor Cayley’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


REPORT or tue FIFTY-FOURTH MERTING, at Montreal, 
August and September, 1884, Published at 11. 4s. 


CONTENTS :—Report of the Committee for considering and advising on the best 
means for facilitating the adoption of the Metric System of Weights and Measures 
in Great Britain;—Report of the Committee for considering the best methods of 
recording the direct intensity of Solar Radiation ;—Report of the Committee for 
constructing and issuing practical Standards for use in Electrical Measurements ;— 
Report of the Committee for co-operating with the Meteorological Society of the 
Mauritius, in their proposed publication of Daily Synoptic Charts of the Indian 
Ocean from the year 1861;—Second Report on the Harmonic Analysis of Tidal 
Observations ;—Report of the Committee for co-operating with Mr. E, J. Lowe in 
his project of establishing a Meteorological Observatory near Chepstow on a per- 
manent and scientific basis;—Report of the Committee for co-operating with the 
Directors of the Ben Nevis Observatory in making Meteorological Observations on 
Ben Nevis ;—Report of the Committee for reducing and tabulating the Tidal Obser- 
vations in the English Channel, made with the Dover Tide-gauge, and for connecting 
them with Observations made on the French Coast ;—Fourth Report on Meteoric 
Dust ;—Second Report on Chemical Nomenclature ;—Report on Isomeric Naphtha- 
lene Derivatives ;—Second Report on the Fossil Phyllopoda of the Paleeozoic Rocks ;— 
Tenth Report on the Circulation of Underground Waters in the Permeable Formations 
of England and Wales, and the Quantity and Character of the Water supplied to 
various Towns and Districts from these Formations ;—Fifth and last Report on Fossil 
Polyzoa ;—Twelfth Report on the Erratic Blocks of England, Wales, and Ireland ;— 
Report upon the National Geological Surveys of Europe;—Report on the Rate of 
Erosion of the Sea-coasts of England and Wales, and the Influence of the Artificial 
Abstraction of Shingle or other material in that action ;—Report on the Exploration 
of the Raygill Fissure in Lothersdale, Yorkshire ;—Fourth Report on the Earth- 
. quake Phenomena of Japan ;—Report on the occupation of a Table at the Zoological 
Station at Naples ;—Fourth Report on the Natural History of Timor Laut ;—Report 
on the Influence of Bodily Exercise on the Elimination of Nitrogen ;—Report on the 
Migration of Birds ;—Report on the Preparation of a Bibliography of certain groups 
of Invertebrata ;—Report on the Exploration of Kilima-njaro, and the adjoining 
mountains of Eastern Equatorial Africa ;—Report on the Survey ofsEastern Pales- 
tine ;—Report of the Committee for defraying the expenses of completing the Pre- 
paration of the final Report of the Anthropometric Committee ;—Report on the 
teaching of Science in Elementary Schools;—Report of the Committee for deter- 
mining a Gauge for the manufacture of the various small Screws used in Telegraphic 
and Electrical Apparatus, in Clockwork, and for other analogous purposes ;—Report 
on Patent Legislation ;—-Report of the Committee for defining the Facial Charac- 


1284 


teristics of the Races and Principal Crosses in the British Isles, and obtaining 
‘Illustrative Photographs with a view to their publication ;—Report on the present 
state of our knowledge of Spectrum Analysis ;—Report of the Committee for pre- 
paring a new series of Wave-length Tables of the Spectra of the Elements ;—On the 
Connection between Sun-spots and Terrestrial Phenomena;—On the Seat of the 
Electromotive Forces in the Voltaic Cell ;—On the Archzan Rocks of Great Britain ; 
—On the Concordance of the Mollusca inhabiting both sides of the North Atlantic 
and the intermediate Seas ;—On the Characteristics of the North American Flora; 
On the Theory of the Steam Engine ;—Improvements in Coast Signals, with Supple- 
mentary Remarks on the New Eddystone Lighthouse ;—On American Permanent 
Way. 

Together with the Transactions of the Sections, Lord Rayleigh’s Address, and 
Recommendations of the Association and its Committees. 


——— 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


FOR 


THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 


LIST 


OF 


OFFICERS, COUNCIL, AND MEMBERS, 


CORRECTED TO APRIL 6, 1886, 


[Office of the Association :—22 Albemarle Street, London, W.] 


‘poe + ale 


breed mies 


xe ee 


OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1885-86. 


PRESIDENT. 
The Right Hon. Sir;LYON]PLAYFAIR, K.C.B., M.P., Ph.D., LLD., F.R.S. L. & EB, F.C,S, 


VICE-PRESIDENTS. 
His Grace the DUKE oF RICHMOND AND GorDON, K.G., D.C.L., Chancellor of the 
University of Aberdeen. 


The Right Hon. the Eart or ABERDEEN, 


LL.D., Lord-Lieutenant of Aberdeenshire. 


The Right Hon. the EARL oF CRAWFORD AND BALCARRES, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 
JAMES MATTHEWS, Esq., Lord Provost of the City of Aberdeen. 
Professor Sir WILLIAM THOMSON, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., FR.AS. 
ALEXANDER BAIN, Esq., M.A., LL.D., Rector of the University of Aberdeen. 
Professor W. H. Ftowmr, LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Pres. Z.S., Director of 
the Natural History Museum, London. 
Professor JOHN SrrRurHERS, M.D., LL.D. 


PRESIDENT ELECT. 
Sir Wii1AmM Dawson, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Principal of McGill College, Montreal, Canada. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT. 


The Right Hon. the EArt or BRApForD, Lord- 
Lieutenant of Shropshire. 

The Right Hon. Lorp Leren, D.C.L., Lord-Lieu- 
tenant of Warwickshire. 

The Right Hon. Lorp Norton, K.C.M.G. 

The Right Hon. Lorp Wrorrestry, Lord-Lieu- 
tenant of Staffordshire. = 


THOMAS MARTINEAU, Esq.. 
ham. 

Professor G. G. Srokrs, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., 
Pres. B.S. 

Professor W. A. TILDEN, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S. 

Rev. A. R. VARDY, M.A. 

Rev. H. W. Watson, D.Sc., F.R.S. 


Mayor of Birming- 


The Right Rey. the Lonp BisHop OF WORCESTER, 
LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE MEETING AT BIRMINGHAM: 
Rey. H. W. Crosskry, LL.D.,F.G.S. | J. BARHAM CARSLAKE, Esq. | CHARLES J. Hart, Esq. 


LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE MEETING AT BIRMINGHAM. 
J. D. GOODMAN, Esq. 


ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 
ABNEY, Capt. W. DE W., F.R.S. | HawksHaAw, J. CLARKE, Esq., F.G.S. 
BALLt, Professor R. S., F.R.S. HENRICI, Professor 0., F.R.S. 
BATEMAN, J. F. LA TROBE, Esq., F.R.S. HuGuHEs, Professor T. McK., F.G.S. 
BLANFORD, W. T. Esq., F.R.S. MARTI, J. B., Esq., F.S.S. 
BRAMWELL, Sir F. J., F.R.S. M‘LEop, Professor H., F.R.S 


Crooxes, W., Esq., F.RS. MosuLey, Professor H. N., F.R.S. 
DawEns, Professor W. BoyD, F.R.S. OMMANNEY, Admiral Sir E., O.B., F.R.S. 
Der La Rog, Dr. WARREN, F.R.S. PENGELLY, W., Esq., F.R.S. 


PERKIN, Dr. W. H., F.R.S. 

Sorsy, Dr. H. C., F.R.S. 

TEMPLE, Sir R., Bart., G.C.S.I. 
QGLAISHER, J. W. L., Esq., F.R.S. THISELTON-DyER, W. T., Esq., C.M.G., 
GopwIn-AvsTEN, Lieut.-Col. H. H., F.R.S. E.R.S. 


GENERAL SECRETARIES. 

Capt. Doueias GALTON, C.B., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 12 Chester Street, London, 8.W. 
A. G. VERNON Harcourt, Esq., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Cowley Grange, Oxford. 
SECRETARY. 

ARTHUR T. ATCHISON, Esq., M.A., 22 Albemarle Street, London, W. 


GENERAL TREASURER. 
Professor A. W. WILLIAMSON, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., University College, London, W.C. 


EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL, 
The Trustees, the President and President Elect, the Presidents of former years, the Vice-Presidents and 
Vice-Presidents Elect, the General and Assistant General Secretaries for the present and former years, 
the Secretary, the General Treasurers for the present and former years, and the Local Treasurer and 
Secretaries for the ensuing Meeting. 


Dewan, Professor J., F.R.S. 
FLOWER, Professor W. H., F.R.S. 
GLADSTONE, Dr. J. H., F.R.S. 


TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). 
Sir Joun Luspock, Bart., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres. L.S. 
The Right Hon. Lord RAYLEIGH, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec.R.S., F.R.A.S. 
The Right Hon. Sir Lyon PLAYFarr, K.C.B., M.P., Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S 


PRESIDENTS OF FORMER YEARS. 


Sir Joseph D. Hooker, K.C.S.I. Sir John Hawkshaw, F.R.S. 
Prof. Stokes, D.C.L., Pres. B.S. Prof. Allman, M.D., F.R.S. 
Prof. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. Sir A. C. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S. 
Prof. Sir Wm. Thomson, LL.D. Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S. 
Prof. Williamson, Ph.D., F.R.S. Prof. Cayley, LL.D., F.R.S. 
Prof. Tyndall, D.C.L., F.R.S. Lord Rayleigh, D.C.L., Sec.R.S. 


GENERAL OFFICERS OF FORMER YEARS. 


Dr. Michael Foster, Sec. R.S. P. L, Sclater, Esq., Ph.D., F.R.S. 
George Griffith, Esq., M.A., F.C.S. | Prof. Bonney, D.Sc., F.R.S. 


The Duke of Devonshire, K.G, 
Sir G. B. Airy, K.C.B., F.R.S. 
The Duke of Argyll, K.G., K.T. 
Sir Richard Owen, K.C.B., F.R.S. 
Sir W. G. Armstrong, C.B., LL.D. 
Sir William R, Grove, F.R.S. 


F. Galton, Esq., F.R.S. 
Dr. T. A. Hirst, F.R.S. 


AUDITORS. 
John Evans, Esq., D.C.L., F.R.S. | W. Huggins, ce D.C.L., F.R.S. | W. H. Preece, Esq., F.R.S. 
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LIST OF MEMBERS 


OF THE 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT 
OF SCIENCE. 


1885. 


* indicates Life Members entitled to the Annual Report. 
§ indicates Annual Subscribers entitled to the Annual Report. 
t indicates Subscribers not entitled to the Annual Report. 
Names without any mark before them are Life Members not entitled 
to the Annual Report. 
Names of Members of the GENERAL COMMITTEE are printed in 
SMALL CAPITALS. 
Names of Members whose addresses are incomplete or not known 
are in italics. 


Notice of changes of residence should be sent to the Secretary, 22 Albemarle 
Street, London, W. 


Year of 
Election. 


Abbatt, Richard, F.R.A.S. Marlborough House, Burgess Hill, 

Sussex. 

1881. *Abbott, R. T. G. Woodbine House, Trinity-road, Scarborough. 

1863. *Azen, Sir Freprrick Avevusrus, O.B., DCL, PRS, F.OS., 
Director of the Chemical Establishment of the War Department. 
Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. 

1856, {Abercrombie, John, M.D. 39 Welbeck-street, London, W. 

1885. *ABERDEEN, The Right Hon. the Earl of, LL.D. 37 Grosvenor- 
square, London, W. 

1885. §Aberdeen, The Countess of. 387 Grosvyenor-square, London, W. 

1885. §Abernethy, David W. Ferryhill Cottage, Aberdeen. 

1863. *ABERNErHY, James, M.Inst.C.E.,F.R.S.E. 4 Delahay-street, West- 
minster, 8. W. 

1885. §Abernethy, James W. 2 Rubislaw-place, Aberdeen. 

1873. *Apney, Captain W. vz W., R.E., F.RS., F.R.AS., F.C.S. Willeslie 
House, Wetherby-road, South Kensington, London, S.W. 

1877. §Ace, Rev. Daniel, D.D., F.R.A.S. Laughton, near Gainsborough, 
Lincolnshire. 

1884, tAchison, George. Collegiate Institute, Toronto, Canada. 

1873. tAckroyd, Samuel. Greaves-street, Little Horton, Bradford, York- 
shire. 


6 


Year of 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Election. 


1882. 
1869. 
1877. 
1873. 
1873. 


1877, 


1860, 


1884. 
1876. 


*Acland, Alfred Dyke. Oxford. 

{ Acland, Charles T. D., M.P. Sprydoncote, Exeter. 

*Acland. Francis E. Dyke, R.A. School of Gunnery, Shoeburyness. 

*Acland, Rev. H. D.,M.A. Nymet St. George, South Molton, Devon. 

*ACLAND, Sir Henry W. DY KGB, MEAG; MLD: bis "ERS, 
F.R.G.S., Radcliffe Librarian and Regius Professor of Medicine 
in the University of Oxford. Broad-street, Oxford. 

oe Bose ai Dyke, M.A. 79 Lambeth Palace-road, London, 


es ‘Sir Tuomas Dyxe, Bart., M.A., D.C. L., M.P. Sprydon- 
cote, Exeter ; and Atheneum Club, "London, S.W. 

tAdams, Frank Donovan. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada. 

tAdams, James. 9 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow. 

*Apams, Joun Coucu, M.A., LL.D., FR. S., “RRA. S., Director of 
the Observatory and Lowndean Professor of Astronomy and 
Geometry in the University of Cambridge. The Observatory, 
Cambridge. 


. §Adams, John R. 3 Queen’s-gate-terrace, London, 8.W. 

. *ApAms, Rev. THomas, M.A. Underhill, Low Fell, Gateshead. 

. tApams, Wrz1rAM. 3 Sussex-terrace, Plymouth. 

. *Apams, WILLIAM Grr its, M.A., FRS., F.G.S8.,F.C.P.S., Professor 


of Natural Philosophy and Astronomy in King’s College, London. 
43 Notting Hill-square, London, W. 


. tAdams-Acton, John. Margutta House, 103 Marylebone-road, 


London, N.W. 


. tAdamson, Robert, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Logic and Political 


Economy in ‘Owens. Collece, Manchester, 60 Parsonage-road, 
Withington, Manchester. 


. *Adie, Patrick. Broadway, Westminster, S.W. 

5. *Adlins, Henry. Northfield, near Birmingham. 

. §Adshead, Samuel. School of Science, Macclesfield. 

. tAgnew, Cornelius R. 266 Maddison-ayenue, New York, U.S.A. 
. tAikins, Dr. W.T. Jarvis-street, Toronto, Canada. 

. *Ainsworth, David. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth. 

. *Ainsworth, John Stirling. Harecroft, Cumberland. 


Ainsworth, Peter. Smithills Hall, Bolton. 


. Ainsworth, William M. The Flosh, Cleator, Carnforth. 


Atry, Sir Grorcr Bropett, K.0.B., M.A., LL.D., D.O.L., F.B.S., 
F.R.A.S. The White House, Croom’s Hill, Greenwich, 8.E. 


. §Aitken, John, F.R.S.E. Darroch, Falkirk, N.B. 


Akroyd, Edward. Bankfield, Halifax. 


. *Alabaster, H. 22 Paternoster-row, London, E.C. 
. tAtcock, Sir Rurwerrorpd, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.G.S. The Athe- 


nzeum Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W. 


. *Alcock, Thomas, M.D. Oakfield, Sale, Manchester. 


*Aldam, William. Frickley Hall, near Doncaster. 


. tAlexander, George. Kildare-street Club, Dublin. 

. tAlexander, Reginald, M.D. 18 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire. 
. t{AtExanpER, Wrnriam, M.D. Halifax. 

. TAlexander, Rey. William Lindsay, D.D.,F.R.S.E. Pinkieburn, Mus- 


selburgh, by Edinburgh. 


. §Alger, Miss Ethel. Widey Court, near Plymouth. 
. §Aleer, W. H. Widey Court, near Plymouth. 

. §Alger, Mrs. W. H. Widey Court, near Plymouth. 
. TAlison, George L. C. Dundee. 

. TAllan, Alexander. Scottish Central Railway, Perth. 
. §Allan, David. West Cults, near Aberdeen. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 7 
Year of 
Election. 
1871. {Allan, G., M.Inst.C.E. 10] Leadenhall-street, London, E.C. 


. Auten, Atrrep H., F.0.8. 1 Surrey-street, Sheffield. 

. *Allen, Rev. A. J.C. The College, Chester. 

. §Allen, Rev. George. Shaw Vicarage, Oldham. 

. tAllen, John Romilly. 5 Albert-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, 
N 


.W. 
. fAllen, Richard. Didsbury, near Manchester. 
. tAllhusen, OC. Elswick Hall, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 


*AtiLMAN, GuorcE J., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., M.R.LA., F.LS., 
Emeritus Professor of Natural History in the University of 
Edinburgh. Ardmore, Parkstone, Dorset. 


. tAmbler, John. North Park-road, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

. §Amery, John Sparke. Druid House, Ashburton, Devon. 

. §Amery, Peter Fabyan Sparke. Druid House, Ashburton, Devon. 
. tAmi, Henry. Geological Survey, Ottawa, Canada. 

. tAnderson, Alexander. 1 St. James’s-place, Hillhead, Glasgow. 
. tAnderson, Beresford. Saint Ville, Killiney. 

. §Anderson, Charles Clinton. 47 Penywern-road, London, S.W. 
. tAnderson, Charles William. Cleadon, South Shields. 

. tAnderson, Miss Constance. 17 Stonegate, York. 

. *Anderson, Hugh Kerr. Frognal Park, Hampstead, London, N.W. 
. t Anderson, John. 31 St. Bernard’s-crescent, Edinburgh. 

. tAnderson, John, J.P., F.G.S. Holywood, Belfast. 

. tAnderson, Matthew. 137 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. 

. tAnperson, Parrick. 15 King-street, Dundee. 

. *AnpeErson, Tempest, M.D., B.Sc. 17 Stonegate, York. 

. *Anderson, William, M.Inst.C.E. Lesney House, Erith, Kent. 
. §Andrew, Mrs. 126 Jamaica-street, Stepney, London, E 

. tAndrew, Thomas, F.G.S. 18 Southernhay, Exeter. 

. *Andrews, Thornton, M.Inst.C.E. Cefn Eithen, Swansea. 

. §Anelay, Miss M. Mabel. Girton College, Cambridge. 

. §AncELt, Joun, F.C.S. The Grammar School, Manchester. 

. {Anson, Frederick H. 9 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W. 


Anthony, John, M.D. 6 Greentield-crescent, Edgbaston, Birming- 


ham. 
Apgzonun, James, M.D., F.RS., F.C.S., M.R.LA., Professor of 


Chemistry in Trinity College, Dublin. 32 Baggot-street, 
Dublin. 


. tAppleby, C. J. Emerson-street, Bankside, Southwark, London, 8.E. 
. tArchbold, George. Oswego, New York, U.S.A. 

. tArcher, Francis, jun. 3 Brunswick-street, Liverpool. 

. tArcher, William, F.R.S., M.R.LA. 11 South Frederick-street, 


Dublin. 


. *Archibald,'E. Douglas. Grosvenor House, Tunbridge Wells. 
. tAreyzr, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., K.T., D.O.L., F.R.S. L. & E., 


F.G.S8. Argyll Lodge, Kensington, London, W. ; and Inverary, 
Argyleshire. 


. §Arlidge, John Thomas, M.D., B.A. The High Grove, Stoke-upon- 


Trent. 


. §Armistead, Richard. Wharncliffe House, Beaufort-road, Brooklands, 


near Manchester. 


. *Armistead, William. Wharncliffe House, Beaufort-road, Brook- 


lands, near Manchester. 


. tArmitage, William. 95 Portland-street, Manchester. 
. *Armitstead, George. Errol Park, Errol, N.B. 
. *Armstrong, Sir Alexander, K.C.B., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S, 


The Albany, London, W. 


8 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 


1878. 


1876. 
1884. 


1857. 


1870. 
1853. 
1870. 
1874. 
1884, 


1873. 
1866. 


1861. 
1875. 


1861. 
1861. 
1872. 


1858. 
1861. 
1865. 


1884. 
1863. 
1861. 
1858. 
1842. 


1881. 
1883. 
1881. 


1863. 


1884, 
1860. 


1865. 
1881. 
1877. 


§ArmstTRoNG, Henry E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Sec.C.S., Professor of 
Chemistry in the City and Guilds of London Institute Central 
Institution, Exhibition-road, London, S.W. 55 Granville 
Park, Lewisham, S8.B._ 

tArmstrong, James. Bay Ridge, Long Island, New York, U.S.A. 

tArmstrong, Robert B. Junior Carlton Club, Pall Mall, London, 
See ; 


Armstrong, Thomas. Higher Broughton, Manchester. 
*ArmstronG, Sir Witt1AmM Georez, C.B., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. 
Jesmond Dene, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 
tArnott, Thomas Reid. Bramshill, Harlesden Green, London, N. W. 
*Arthur, Rev. William, M.A. Clapham Common, London, 8.W. 
*Ash, Dr. T. Linnington. Holsworthy, North Deyon. 
tAshe, Isaac, M.B. Dundrum, Co. Dublin. 
*Asher, Asher, M.D. 18 Endsleigh-street, Tavistock-square, 
London, W.C. 
tAshton, John. Gorse Bank House, Windsor-road, Oldham. 
Ashton, Thomas. Ford Bank, Didsbury, Manchester. 
tAshwell, Henry. Mount-street, New Basford, Nottingham. 
*Ashworth, Edmund. Egerton Hall, Bolton-le-Moors. 
Ashworth, Henry. Turton, near Bolton. 
tAspland, Alfred. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne. 
*Aspland, W. Gaskell. Care of Manager, Union Bank, Chancery- 
lane, London, W.C. 
§Asquith, J. R. Infirmary-street, Leeds. 
tAston, Theodore. 11 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C. 
*Arcuison, ARTHUR T., M.A. (SECRETARY.) 22 Albemarle-street, 
London, W. 
tAtherton, Charles. Sandover, Isle of Wight. 
tAtkin, Eli. Newton Heath, Manchester. 
*Arkinson, Epmunp, Ph.D., F.C.S. Portesbery Hill, Camberley, 
Surrey. 
tAtkinson, Edward. Brookline, Massachusetts, Boston, U.S.A. 
*Atkinson, G. Clayton. 21 Windsor-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
tAtkinson, Rey. J. A. Longsight Rectory, near Manchester. 
*Atkinson, John Hastings. 12 East Parade, Leeds. 
*Atkinson, Joseph Beavington. Stratford House, 113 Abingdon-road, 
Kensington, London, W. 
tAtkinson, J. T. The Quay, Selby, Yorkshire. 
*Atkinson, Miss Maria. The Laurels, Sale, Cheshire. 
tAtkinson, Robert William. Town Hall-buildings, Newcastle-on- 
ne. 
Atldiicon,; William. Claremont, Southport. 
*ATTIFIELD, Professor J.,M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S._ 17 Bloomsbury- 
square, London, W.C. 
tAuchincloss, W. 8S. 209 Church-street, Philadelphia, U.S.A. 
*Austin-Gourlay, Rev. William E.C., M.A. The Rectory, Stanton 
St. John, near Oxford. 
*Avery, Thomas. Church-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
tAxon, W. E. A. Fern Bank, Higher Broughton, Manchester. 
*Ayrton, W. E., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Physics in the City 
and Guilds of London Institute Central Institution, Exhibition- 
road, London, 8. W. 


*Basineton, CHARLES CaRDALE, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., Pro- 
fessor of Botany in the University of Cambridge. 5 Brookside, 
Cambridge. 


Year of 
Election 


1884. 


1863. 
1883. 
1881. 


1877. 
1885, 
1883. 
1883. 


1870. 
1878. 
1865. 
1855. 


1866, 
1866. 
1878. 
1857. 


1885. 


1873, 
1885. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 9 


{Baby, Hon. G. Montreal, Canada. 
Backhouse, Edmund. Darlington. 

{Backhouse, T. W. West Hendon House, Sunderland. 

“Backhouse, W. A. St. John’s Wolsingham, near Darlington. 

{Baden-Powell, George S., O.M.G., M.A., M.P., F.R.AS., F.S.S. 
8 St. George’s-place, Hyde Park, London, 8S. W. 

tBadock, W. F. Badminton House, Clifton Park, Bristol. 

tBagrual, P. H. St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, S.W. 

tBaildon, Dr. 65 Manchester-road, Southport. 

§Bailey, Charles, F.L.S. Ashfield, College-road, Whalley Range, 
Manchester. 

§Bailey, Dr. Francis J. 51. Grove-street, Liverpool. 

{Bailey, John. 3 Blackhall-place, Dublin. 

{Bailey, Samuel, F.G.S. The Peck, Walsall. 

{Bailey, William. Horseley Fields Chemical Works, Wolver- 
hampton. 

{Baillon, Andrew. St. Mary’s Gate, Nottingham. 

{Baillon, L. St. Mary’s Gate, Nottingham. 

{Baily, Walter. 176 Haverstock-hill, London, N.W. 

{Bary, Witt1M Herre, F.L.S., F.G.S., Acting Paleontologist to 
the Geological Survey of Ireland. 14 Hume-street, Dublin. 

§Bary, Atexanprer, M.A., LL.D., Rector of the U niversity of 
Aberdeen. Ferryhill Lodge, Aberdeen. 

{Bain, Sir James. 3 Park-terrace, Glasgow. 

§Bain, William N. 7 Aytoun-road, Pollockshiels, Glasgow. 

*Bainbridge, Robert Walton. Middleton House, Middleton-in-Tees- 
dale, by Darlington. 

*Barnes, Sir Epwarp, J.P. Belgrave-mansions, Grosyenor-gardens, 
London, 8.W.; and St. Ann’s Hill, Burley, Leeds. 

[Baines Frederick. Burley, near Leeds. 

{Baines, T. Blackburn. ‘ Mercury’ Office, Leeds. 

*BAKER, Bengamin, M.Inst.C.E. 2 Queen Square-place, West- 
minster, S.W. 

{Baker, Francis B. Sherwood-street, Nottingham. 

*Baker, John. The Gables, Buxton. 

{Baker, Robert, M.D. The Retreat, York. 

{Baker, Robert L. Barham House, Leamington. 

{Baker, William. 6 Taptonville, Sheffield. 

*Baker, W. Mills. The Holmes, Stoke Bishop, Bristol. 

{Baxer, W. Procror. Brislington, Bristol. 

tBaldwin, Rev. G. W. de Courcy, M.A. Lord Mayor's Walk, 
York. 

{Balete, Professor E. Polytechnic School, Montreal, Canada. 

tBalfour, G. W. Whittinghame, Prestonkirk, Scotland. 

{Batrovr, Isaac Barter, D.Sc., M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of 
Botany in the University of Oxford. Botanic Gardens, Oxford. 

*Ball, Charles Bent, M.D. 16 Lower Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin. 

*Batt, Joun, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., MR.LA. 10 Southwell-gardens, 
South Kensineton, London, 8. W. 

*Batt, Sir Ropert Srawett, M.A., LL.D., F.RS., F.R.AAS., 
Andrews Professor of Astronomy in the University of Dublin, 
and Astronomer Royal for Ireland. The Observatory, Dunsink, 
Co. Dublin. 

{Batx, Varenring, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the Museum 
of Science and Art, Dublin. 

*Ball, W. W. Rouse, M.A, Trinity College, Cambridge. 

{ Balloch, Miss. Glasgow. 


10 


Year 


Election. 
1884. 
1869. 


1882. 
1852. 
1879. 
1870. 
1884. 
1883. 
1884. 
1866. 
1884. 
1861. 
1859. 
1855. 


1871. 
1852. 
1860. 
1876. 
1868. 
1881. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


of 


{Ballon, Dr. Naham. Sandwich, Mlinois, U.S.A. 
t{Bamber, Henry K., F.C.S. 5 Westminster-chambers,} Victoria- 
street, Westminster, S.W. 
{Bance, Major Edward. Limewood, The Avenue, Southampton. 
tBangor, Viscount. Castleward, Co. Down, Ireland. 
{Banham, H. French. Mount View, Glossop-road, Sheffield. 
{Banister, Rey. WirtramM, B.A. St. James’s Mount, Liverpool. 
{Bannatyne, Hon. A.G. Winnipeg, Canada. 
§Banning, John J. 28 Westcliffe-road, Southport. 
{Barbeau, E. J. Montreal, Canada. 
{Barber, John. Long-row, Nottingham. 
§Barber, Rev. 8S. F. Great Snoring Vicarage, Fakenham, Norfolk. 
*Barbour, George. Bankhead, Broxton, Chester. 
{Barbour, George F. 11 George-square, Edinburgh. 
{Barclay, Andrew. Kilmarnock, Scotland. 
Barclay, Charles, F.S.A. Bury Hill, Dorking. 
tBarclay, George. 17 Coates-crescent, Edinburgh. 
*Barclay, J. Gurney. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C. 
*Barclay, Robert. High Leigh, Hoddesden, Herts. 
*Barclay, Robert. 21 Park-terrace, Glasgow. 
*Barclay, W. L. 54 Lombard-street, London, E.C. 
§Barfoot, William, J.P. Whelford-place, Leicester. 


1882. {Barford, J.G. Above Bar, Southampton. 


1865. 
1860. 


1879. 
1882. 


1879 
1865 
1870 


1873 


*Barford, James Gale, F.C.S. Wellington College, Wokingham, 
Berkshire. 

*Barker, Rey. Arthur Alcock, B.D. East Bridgford Rectory, 
Nottingham. 

{Barker, Elliott. 2 High-street, Sheffield. 

*Barker, Miss J. M. Hexham House, Hexham. 

. *Barker, Rev. Philip C., M.A., LL.B, Rotherham, Yorkshire. 

. {Barker, Stephen. 30 Frederick-street, Edebaston, Birmingham. 

. {Barxty, Sir Henry, G.O.M.G., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 1 Bina- 

gardens, South Kensington, London, S.W. 
. TBarlow, Crawford, B.A. 2 Old Palace-yard, Westminster, 8. W. 


1883. {Barlow, J. J. 37 Park-street, Southport. 


1878 
1883 


. {Barlow, John, M.D., Professor of Physiology in Anderson’s Col- 
lege, Glasgow. 
. Barlow, John R. Greenthorne, near Bolton. 
Barlow, Lieut.-Col. Maurice (14th Regt. of Foot). 5 Great George- 
street, Dublin. 


1885. §Barlow, William. Hillfield, Muswell Hill, London, N. 
1873. §Bartow, Wittiam Henry, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. 2 Old Palace- 


1861 


1881, 


yard, Westminster, S. W. 


. *Barnard, Major R. Cary, F.L.S. Bartlow, Leckhampton, Chelten- 
ham. 


{Barnard, William, LL.B. Harlow, Essex. 


1868. §Barnes, Richard H. Heatherlands, Parkstone, Dorset. 


1839 
1884 


1881. 


Barnes, Thomas Addison. Brampton Collizries, near Chesterfield. 
. *Barnett, Richard, M.R.C.S. 35 Lansdowne-crescent, Great 
Malvern. 
. §Barnett, I. D. Port Hope, Ontario. 
tBarr, Archibald, B.Sc., Professor of Civil and Mechanical Fngineer- 
ing in the Yorkshire College, Leeds. 


1859. {Barr, Lieut.-General. Apsleytoun, East Grinstead, Sussex. 
1883. {Barrett, John Chalk. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport. 
1883. {Barrett, Mrs. J.C. Errismore, Birkdale, Southport. 


1860 


. {Barrett, T. B. High-street, Welshpool, Montgomery. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 11 


Year of 
Election. 


1872. 


1883. 


1874. 
1874, 


1885. 
1881. 


1866. 


1862, 
1883. 


1875. 


1881. 
1884. 
1858. 
1858. 


1884. 
1873. 


1868. 
1884, 


1852. 


1864. 


1876. 
1876. 
1866 
1884. 
1884. 
1869. 
1871. 


1848. 


1883. 
1873. 


1868. 


1842. 
1864. 
1852. 


1884. 
1851. 


1881. 


1836. 
1869. 


1863. 


1861. 


*Barrert, W. F., F.R.S.E., M.R.I.A., Professor of Physics in the 
Royal College of Science, Dublin. 

{Barrett, William Scott. Winton Lodge, Crosby, near Liverpool. 

*BarRRineton, R. M. Fassaroe, Bray, Co. Wicklow. 

§Barrington-Ward, Mark J., M.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S., H.M. Inspector 
of Schools. Thorneloe Lodge, Worcester. 

*Barron, Frederick Cadogan, M.Inst.C.E. The Priory, Bromley, 
Kent. 

§Barron, G. B., M.D. Summerseat, Southport. 

{Barron, William. Elvaston Nurseries, Borrowash, Derby. 

*BaRRy, CHARLES. 15 Pembridge-square, London, W. 

tBarry, Charles E. 15 Pembridge-square, London, W. 

tBarry, John Wolfe. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W. 

TBarry, J. W. Duncombe-place, York. 

*Barstow, Miss Frances. Garrow Hill, near York. 

*Bartholomew, Charles. Castle Hill House, Ealing, Middlesex, W. 

*Bartholomew, William Hamond. Ridgeway House,Cumberland-road, 
Headingley, Leeds. 

{Bartlett, James Herbert. 148 Mansfield-street, Montreal, Canada. 

tBartley, George C.T.,M.P. St. Margaret’s House, Victoria-street, 
London, 8.W. 

*Barton, Edward (27th Inniskillens). Clonelly, Ireland. 

{Barton, H. M. Foster-place, Dublin. 

{Barton, James. Farndree, Dundalk. 

{Bartrum, John 8. 41 Gay-street, Bath. 

*Bashforth, Rey. Francis, B.D. Minting Vicarage, near Horncastle. 

tBassano, Alexander. 12 Montagu-place, London, W. 

tBassano, Clement. Jesus College, Cambridge. 

*BassErt, Henry. 26 Belitha-villas, Barnsbury, London, N. 

*Bassnett, Thomas. Box 335, Jacksonville, Florida, U.S.A. 

{Bassnett, Mrs. Thomas. Box 335, Jacksonville, Florida, U.S.A. 

{Bastard, S.S. Summerland-place, Exeter. 

{Basrran, H. Cuarzron, M.D., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of 
Pathological Anatomy at University College, London. 20 Queen 
Anne-street, London, W. 

{Bare, C. Spence, F.R.S., F.L.S. 8 Mulgrave-place, Plymouth. 

{Bateman, A. E. Board of Trade, London, S.W. 

*Bateman, Daniel. Carpenter-street, above Broad-street, Philadelphia, 
United States. 

{Bateman, Frederick, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich. 

BarTeman, James, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Home House, 
Worthing. 

*BATEMAN, JOHN Freperic La Trosz, F.RS., F.G.S., F.R.GS., 
M.Inst.C.E. 16 Great George-street, London, S.W. 

{Barzs, Hpyry Watrer, F.R.S., F.L.S., Assist.-Sec. R.G.S. 1 Savile- 
row, London, W. 

{Bateson, Sir Robert, Bart. Belvoir Park, Belfast. 

{Bateson, William, B.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge. 

TBarn anpd Wetts, The Right Rev. Lord ArtHuR Hervey, Lord 
Bishop of. The Palace, Wells, Somerset. 

*“Bather, Francis Arthur. Red House, Roehampton, Surrey, S.W. 

{Batten, Edmund Chisholm. 25 Thurloe-square, London, 8.W. 

{Batten, John Winterbotham. 35 Palace Gardens-terrace, Kensing- 
ton, London, W. 

§Bavrerman, H., F.G.S. 41 Acre-lane, Brixton, London, S.W. 

{Baxendell, Joseph, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 14 Liverpool-road, Birkdale, 
Southport. 


12 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1867. 
1867. 
1868. 
1866. 


1875. 
1876. 
1883. 


1860, 


1882. 
1884. 
1872. 


1870. 
1883. 


1855. 
1861. 
1885. 
1871. 


1859. 
1864. 


1860. 
1885. 
1866. 
1870. 
1858. 
1878. 


1884. 
1875. 


187 


1884 


1860. 
1880. 
1879. 
1862. 
1875. 
1871. 


1883. 


{Baxter, Edward. Hazel Hall, Dundee. 

{Baxter, The Right Hon. William Edward, M.P. Ashcliffe, Dundee. 

TBayes, William, M.D. 58 Brook-street, London, W. 

TBayley, Thomas. Lenton, Nottingham. 

Bayly, John. Seven Trees, Plymouth. 

*Bayly, Robert. Torr-grove, near Plymouth. 

*Baynes, Ropert E., M.A. Christ Church, Oxford. 

*Bazley, Gardner. Hatherop Castle, Fairford, Gloucestershire. 

Bazley, Sir Thomas Sebastian, Bart., M.A. Hatherop Castle, 
Fairford, Gloucestershire. 

*Brate, Lionet 8., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of the Principles and 
Practice of Medicine in King’s College, London. 61 Grosvenor- 
street, London, W. 

§Beamish, Major A. W., R.E. Cranbury-terrace, Southampton. 

{Beamish, G. H. M. Prison, Liverpool. 

{Beanes, Edward, F.C.S. Moatlands, Paddock Wood, Brenchley, 
Kent. 

tBeard, Rey. Charles. 13 South-hill-road, Toxteth Park, Liverpool. 

tBeard, Mrs. 15 South-hill-road, Toxteth Park, Liverpool. 

*Beatson, William. Ash Mount, Rotherham. 

*Beaufort, W. Morris, F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.M.S., F.S.8. 18 Picca- 
dilly, London, W. 

*Beaumont, Rey. Thomas George. Chelmondiston Rectory, Ipswich. 

§Beaumont, W. W. 163 Strand, London, W.C. 

*Beazley, Lieut.-Colonel George G. 74 Redcliffe-square, London, 
S.W. 


*Beck, Joseph, F.R.A.S. 68 Cornhill, London, E.C. 

§Becker, Miss Lydia E. 155 Shrewsbury-street, Whalley Range, 
Manchester. 

{Becrxes, Samvet H., F.R.S., F.G.S. 9 Grand-parade, St. Leonard’s- 
on-Sea. 

§Beddard, Frank E., M.A., F.Z.S., Prosector to the Zoological 
Society of London. Society's Gardens, Regent’s Park, London, 
N.W. 

TBeddard, James. Derby-road, Nottingham. 

§BEDDOE, 4 oun, M.D., F-R.S. C lifton, Bristol. 

{tBedford, James. Woodhouse Cliff, near Leeds. 

{Bepson, P. Puittiies, D.Sc., F OS. College of Physical Science, 
Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

tBeers, W.G., M.D. 34 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada. 

{Behrens, J acob. Springfield House, North-parade, Bradford, York- 
shire. 


4, {Belcher, Richard Boswell. Blockley, Worcestershire. 
1873. 
1871. 


TBell, Asahel P. 32 St. Anne’s-street, Manchester. 

§Bell, Charles B. 6 Spring-bank, Hull. 

TBell, Charles Napier. Winnipeg, Canada. 

Bell, Frederick John. Woodlands, near Maldon, Essex. 

{Bell, Rey. George Charles, M.A. Marlborough College, Wilts. 

§Bell, Henry Oswin. 13 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth. 

{Bell, Henry S. Kenwood Bank, Sharrow, Sheffield. 

*Beitt, Sir Isaac Lowraran, Bart., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.Inst.C.E. 
Rounton Grange, Northallerton. 

{Bell, James, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S.. The Laboratory, Somerset 
House, London, W.C. 

*Bell, J. Carter, F.C.S. Bankfield, The Cliff, Higher Broughton, 
Manchester. 

*Bell, John Henry. Dalton Lees, Huddersfield. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. i3 


Year of 
Election. 


1853. 
1864. 
1876. 
1863. 
1867. 
1882. 
1842. 


1882. 


1884. 
1864. 
1885. 


1870. 


1836. 
1881. 
1883. 
1881. 


1870. 
1870. 
1852. 
1848, 
1870. 
1863. 
1885. 
1884. 
1842. 
1863. 


1876. 
1868. 


1865. 
1870. 
1862. 
1865. 
1882. 
1858. 
1883. 
1876. 
1883. 


1880. 


1859. 


1885. 
1884. 
1874. 
1865. 


{Bell, John Pearson, M.D. Waverley House, Hull. 

{Bell, R. Queen’s College, Kingston, Canada. 

}Bell, R. Bruce, M.Inst.C.E. 203 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. 

*Bell, Thomas. Palazio Vitoria, Bilbao, Spain. 

{Bell, Thomas. Belmont, Dundee. 

{Bell, W. Alexander, B.A. 3 Madeira-terrace, Kemp Town, Brighton. 
Bellhouse, Edward Taylor. Eagle Foundry, Manchester. 
Bellingham, Sir Alan. Castle Bellingham, Ireland. 

§Bellingham, William. 15 Killieser-avenue, Telford Park, Streat- 

ham Hill, London, 8.W. 

{tBemrose, Joseph. 15 Plateau-street, Montreal, Canada. 

*Bendyshe, T. 3 Sea View-terrace, Margate. 

§Brenuam, WiILtIAM Braxtand, B.Sc. 34 Belsize-road, London, 

N.W 


{Bennert, Atrrep W., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S. 6 Park Village East, 
Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 

§Bennett, Henry. Bedminster, Bristol. 

§Bennett, John R. Bedminster, Bristol. 

*Bennett, Laurence Henry. Trinity College, Oxford. 

tBennett, Rev. S. H., M.A. St. Mary’s Vicasage, Bishophill Junior, 
York. 

*Bennett, William. Heysham Tower, Lancaster. 

*Bennett, William, jun. Oak Hill Park, Old Swan, near Liverpool. 

*Bennoch, Francis, F.S.A. 5 Tavistock-square, London, W.C. 

{Benson, Starling, F.G.S. Gloucester-place, Swansea, 

{Benson, W. Alresford, Hants. 

{Benson, William. Fourstones Court, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

*Bent, J. Theodore. 13 Great Cumberland-place, London, W. 

tBentham, William. 724 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada. 

Bentley John. 2. Portland-place, London, W. 

§Benttry, Ropert, F.L.S., Professor of Botany in King’s College, 
London. 38 Penywern-road, Earl’s Court, London, S.W. 

TBergius, Walter C. 9 Loudon-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow. 

{BERKELEY, Rey. M. J., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Sibbertoft, Market 
Harborough. 

{Berkley, C. Marley Hill, Gateshead, Durham. 

{Berwick, George, M.D. 36 Fawcett-street, Sunderland. 

TBesant, William Henry, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. St. John’s College, 
Cambridge. 

*BESSEMER, Sir Henry, F.R.S. Denmark Hill, London, 8.E. 

“Bessemer, Henry, jun. Mount House, Hythe, Southampton. 

tBest, William. Leydon-terrace, Leeds. 

Bethune, Admiral, C.B., F.R.G.S. Balfour, Fifeshire. 

{Betley, Ralph, F.G.S. Mining School, Wigan. 

*Bettany, G. T., M.A., B.Sc., Lecturer on Botany at Guy’s Hospital, 
London. 2 Eckington-villas, Ashbourne-grove, East Dul- 
wich, S.E. 

{Bettany, Mrs. 2 Eckington-villas, Ashbourne-grove, East Dulwich, 
S.E. 


*Bevan, Rey. James Oliver, M.A. The Vicarage, Vowchurch, 
Hereford. 

{Beveridge, Robert, M.B. 36 King-street, Aberdeen. 

§Beveridge, R. Beath Villa, Ferryhill, Aberdeen. 

*Beverley, Michael, M.D. 52 St. Giles’-street, Norwich. 

*Bevington, James B. Merle Wood, Sevenoaks. 

{Bewick, Thomas John, F.G.S. Suffolk House, Laurence Pountney 
Hill, London, E.C. 


14 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1870. 
1885. 


1865. 
1882. 
1864. 


1884, 
1881. 
1878. 
1879. 


1880. 
1866. 
1871. 
1868. 
1883. 
1866. 
1885. 
1877. 
1884. 
1881. 


1869. 
1876. 
1884, 


1877. 
1859. 


1876. 
1855. 
1884. 
1883. 
1884, 
1878. 
1883. 
1863. 


1849. 
1883. 


1846, 
1878. 
1861. 
1881. 
1884. 
1869. 


1884, 
1869. 


*Bickerdike, Rev. John, M.A. Shireshead Vicarage, Garstang. 
tBickerton, A.W., F.C.S. Christchurch, Canterbury, New Zealand. 
*Bidwell, Shelford, M.A., LL.B. Riverstone Lodge, Southfields, 
Wandsworth, Surrey, 8. W. 
tBigger, Benjamin. Gateshead, Durham. 
§Biges, C. H. W., F.C.8. 1 Bloomfield, Bromley, Kent. 
TBiggs, Robert. 16 Green Park, Bath. 
Bilton, Rev. William, M.A., F.G.S. United University Club, Suffolk- 
street, London, S.W. 
*Bingham, John E. Electric Works, Sheffield. 
{Binnie, Alexander R., F.G.S. Town Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire. 
tBinns, J. Arthur. Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire. 
tBinns, E. Knowles, F.R.G.S. 216 Heavygate-road, Sheffield. 
Birchall, Edwin, F.L.8. Douglas, Isle of Man. 
{Bird, Henry, F.C.S. South Down, near Devonport. 
*Birkin, Richard. Aspley Hall, near Nottingham. 
*Biscnor, Gustav. 4 Hart-street, Bloomsbury, London, W.C. 
{Bishop, John. Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich. 
TBishop, John le Marchant. 100 Mosley-street, Manchester. 
TBishop, Thomas. Bramcote, Nottingham. 
§Bissett, J. P. Wyndem, Banchory, N.B. 
{BracurorD, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. Cornwood, Ivybridge. 
{Black, Francis, F.R.G.S. Edinburgh. 
§Black, William Galt, F.R.C.S.E. Caledonian United Service Club, 
Hdinburgh. 
{Blackall, Thomas. 13 Southernhay, Exeter. 
tBlackburn, Hugh, M.A. Roshven, Fort William, N.B. 
{Blackburn, Robert. New Edinburgh, Ontario, Canada. 
Blackburne, Rey. John, M.A. Yarmouth, Isle of Wight. 
Blackburne, Rey. John, jun., M.A. Rectory, Horton, near Chip- 
penham. 
{Blackie, J. Alexander. 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow. 
tBlackie, John Stewart, M.A., Professor of Greek in the University 
of Edinburgh. 
{Blackie, Robert. 7 Great Western-terrace, Glasgow. 
*Brackiz, W. G., Ph.D., F.R.G.S._ 17 Stanhope-street, Glasgow. 
tBlacklock, Frederick W. 25 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada. 
tBlacklock, Mrs. Sea View, Lord-street, Southport. 
{Blaikie, James, M.A. 14 Viewforth-place, Edinburgh. 
§Blair, Matthew. Oakshaw, Paisley. 
§Blair, Mrs. Oakshaw, Paisley. 
{Blake, C. Carter, D.Sc. Westminster Hospital School of Medi- 
cine, Broad Sanctuary, Westminster, 8. W. 
*Braxn, Henry Wottaston, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 8 Devonshire- 
place, Portland-place, London, W. 
*Braks, Rey. J. F., M.A., F.G.8., Professor of Natural Science in 
University College, Nottingham. 
*Blake, William. Bridge House, South Petherton, Somerset. 
{Blakeney, Rev. Canon, M.A., D.D. The Vicarage, Sheffield. 
§Blakiston, Matthew, F.R.G.S. Free Hills, Burledon, Hants. 
§Blamires, Thomas H. Close Hill, Lockwood, near Huddersfield. 
*Blandy, William Charles, B.A. 1 Friar-street, Reading. 
{Buanrorp, W.T., LL.D., F.R.S., Sec. G.S8., F.R.G.S. 72 Bedford- 
gardens, Campden Hill, London, W. 
*Blish, William G. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A. 
*BLOMEFIELD, Rey. Leonarp, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 19 Belmont, 
Bath, 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 15 


Year of 
Election. 


1880. §Bloxam, G. W., M.A., F.L.S. 11 Chalcot-crescent, Regent’s Park, 
London, N.W. 

1883. {Blumberg, Dr. 65 Hoghton-street, Southport. 

1870. Blundell, Thomas Weld. Ince Blundell Hall, Great Crosby, Lan- 
cashire. 

1859. {Blunt, Sir Charles, Bart. Heathfield Park, Sussex. 

1859. {Blunt, Captain Richard. Bretlands, Chertsey, Surrey. 

1885. §BrytH, James, M.A., F.R.S.E. Anderson’s College, Glasgow. 

Blyth, B. Hall. 155 George-street, Edinburgh, 

1883. {Blyth, Miss Phoebe. 3 South Mansion House-road, Edinburgh. 

1858. *Blythe, William. Holland Bank, Church, near Accrington. 

1867. {Blyth-Martin, W. Y. Blyth House, Newport, Fife. 

1870. tBoardman, Edward. Queen-street, Norwich. 

1883. {Bodman, Miss Caroline M. 45 Devonshire-street, Portland-place, 
London, W. 

1884, {Body, Rev. C. W. E.,M.A. Trinity College, Toronto, Canada. 

1871. {Bohn, Mrs. North End House, Twickenham. 

1881. {Bojanowski, Dr. Victor de, Consul-General for Germany. 27 
Finsbury-cireus, London, E.C. 

1876. {Bolton, J.C. Carbrook, Stirling. 

1866. {Bond, Banks. Low Pavement, Nottingham. 

Bond, Henry John Hayes, M.D. Cambridge. 

1883. §Bonney, Frederic, F.R.G.S. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, 

W 


1883. §Bonney, Miss 8S. 23 Denning-road, Hampstead, London, N.W. 

1871. *Bonnny, Rev. Tuomas Guorex, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., F.S.A., 
F.G.S., Professor of Geology in University College, London. 
23 Denning-road, London, N.W. 

1866. {Booker, W. H. Cromwell-terrace, Nottingham, 

1861. tBooth, James. Elmfield, Rochdale. 

1883. §Booth, James. Hazelhurst House, Turton. 

1883. {Booth, Richard. 4 Stone-buildings, Lincoln’s Inn, London, 
W.C 


1876. { Booth, Rev. William H. Yardley, Birmingham. 

1883. §Boothroyd, Benjamin. Rawlinson-road, Southport. 

1880. {Boothroyd, Samuel. Warley House, Southport. 

1861. *Borchardt, Louis, M.D. Barton Arcade, Manchester. 

1849. {Boreham, William W., F.R.A.S. The Mount, Haverhill, New- 
market. 

1876. *Borland, William. 260 West George-street, Glasgow. 

1882. {Borns, Henry, Ph.D., F.C.S. 51 Merton-road, Wimbledon, 
Surrey. 

1876. *Bosanquet, R. H. M., M.A., F.C.S., F.R.A.S. St. John’s College, 
Oxford. 

*Bossey, Francis, M.D. Mayfield, Oxford-road, Redhill, Surrey. 

1881. §Bothamley, Charles H. Yorkshire College, Leeds. 

1867. §Botly, William, F.S.A. Salisbury House, Hamlet-road, Upper 
Norwood, London, 8.E. 

1872. {Bottle, Alexander. Dover. 

1868. tBottle, J.T. 28 Nelson-road, Great Yarmouth. 

1871. *Borromtry, JAMES Tomson, M.A., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. 13 Univer- 
sity-gardens, Glasgow. 

1884. *Bottomley, Mrs. 13 University-gardens, Glasgow. 

Bottomley, William. 11 Delamere-street, London, W. 

1876. {Bottomley, William, jun. 6 Rokeley-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow. 

1870. {Boult, Swinton. 1 Dale-street, Liverpool. 

1883. §Bourdas, Isaiah. 59 Belgrave-road, London, 8.W. 


16 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 


1885. 


1866. 
1884. 


1872. 


1870. 
1881. 
1867. 
1856. 
1884. 
1880. 
1863. 


1869. 
1865. 
1884. 
1871. 
1865. 


1884. 


1872. 
1869. 


1884. 
1880. 
1857. 
1863. 


1862. 


1880. 
1864. 
1870. 
1879. 
1865. 


1872. 
1867. 
1861. 
1885. 
1852. 


1869. 


1868. 
1877. 
1882. 
1881. 
1866. 
1875. 
1884, 


{Bovrng, A. G., D.Se., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the Presidency 
College, Madras. 

§ Bourne, STEPHEN, F.S.S. Abberley, Wallington, Surrey. 

§Bovey, Henry T., M.A., Professor of Civil Engineering and Applied 
Mechanics in McGill College, Montreal. Ontario-avenue, 
Montreal, Canada. 

{Bovill, William Edward. 29 James-street, Buckingham-gate, 
London, S.W. 

tBower, Anthony. Bowersdale, Seaforth, Liverpool. 

*Bower, F.O. Elmscroft, Ripon, Yorkshire. 

t{Bower, Dr. John. Perth. 

*Bowlby, Miss F. E. 23 Lansdowne-parade, Cheltenham 

§Bowley, Edwin. Burnt Ash Hill, Lee, Kent. 

tBowly, Christopher. Cirencester. 

tBowman, R. Benson. Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

Bowman, Sir Wuittram, Bart., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.S. 
5 Clifford-street, London, W. 

{Bowring, Charles T. Elmsleigh, Prince’s-park, Liverpool. 

{Boyd, Edward Fenwick. Moor House, near Durham. 

*Boyd, M. A., M.D. 30 Merrion-square, Dublin. 

tBoyd, Thomas J. 41 Moray-place, Edinburgh. 

{Boyir, The Very Rev. G. D., M.A., Dean of Salisbury. The 
Deanery, Salisbury. ¢ 

*Boyle, R. Vicars, O.S.I. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., 55 
Parliament-street, London, 8. W. 

*Braproox, E. W., F.S.A. 28 Abingdon-street, Westminster, 8, W. 

*Braby, Frederick, F.G.S., F.C.S. Bushey Lodge, Teddington, 
Middlesex. 

*Brace, W. H., M.D. 7 Queen’s Gate-terrace, London, S.W. 

tBradford, H. Stretton House, Walters-road, Swansea. 

*Brady, Cheyne, M.R.I.A. Trinity Vicarage, West Bromwich. 

t{Brapy, Grorce S., M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Natural 
History in the College of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne 
22 Fawcett-street, Sunderland. 

{Brapy, Henry Bowman, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 6 Harley-place, 
Clifton, Bristol. 

*Brady, Rev. Nicholas, M.A. Wennington, Essex. 

§Brawam, Parii, F.C.S. Bath. 

{Braidwood, Dr. Delemere-terrace, Birkenhead. 

{Bramley, Herbert. Claremont-crescent, Sheffield. 

§BRAMWELL, Sir Freperick J., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres. Inst.C.E. 
5 Great George-street, London, S.W. 

{Bramwell, William J. 17 Prince Albert-street, Brighton. 

tBrand, William. Milnefield, Dundee. 

*Brandreth, Rev. Henry. Dickleburgh Rectory, Scole, Norfolk. 

*Bratby, W. Pott-street, Ancoats, Manchester. 

{Brazrer, James §., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in Marischal 
College and University of Aberdeen. 

*BREADALBANE, The Right Hon. the Earl of. Taymouth Castle, 
N.B.; and Carlton Club, Pall Mall, London, S.W. 

{Bremridge, Elias. 17 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C. 

tBrent, Francis. 19 Clarendon-place, Plymouth. 

*Bretherton, C. E. 6 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, London, E.C. 

*Brett, Alfred Thomas, M.D. Watford House, Watford. 

{Brettell, Thomas (Mine Agent). Dudley. 

{Briant, T. Hampton Wick, Kingston-on-Thames. 

{Bridges, C. J. Winnipeg, Canada. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 17 


Year of 
Election. 


1867. 
1870. 
1870. 


1879. 
1870. 
1866. 
1863. 


1870. 
1868. 


1884. 
1879. 


1879. 
1878. 


1884. 
1859. 
1885. 
1865. 


1884. 


1878. 
1880. 


1881. 


1855. 
1864. 
1855. 
1878. 


1863. 
1846. 
1847. 
1883. 


1885. 
1865. 


1867. 
1855. 
1871. 
1863, 
1885. 
1881. 
1885. 
1884. 
1885. 
1884. 
1885. 
1870. 


1883. 


TBripeman, Witt1AM Kencetry. 69 St. Giles’s-street, Norwich. 

*Bridson, Joseph R. Sawrey, Windermere. 

tBrierley, Joseph, C.E. New Market-street, Blackburn. 

tBrierley, Morgan. Denshaw House, Saddleworth. 

*Brice, Joun. Broomfield, Keirhley, Yorkshire. 

*Briggs, Arthur. Crage Royd, Rawdon, near Leeds. 

*Bricut, Sir CHARLES Trnston, M. Inst. CES WG. ERGs: 
F, R. A.S. 20 Bolton-gardens, London, 8. W. 

tBright, H. A., M.A., F.R.G-S. Ashfield, Knotty Ash. 

Brieur, The Right Hon. J oun, M.P. Rochdale, Lancashire. 

{Brine, Captain Lindesay, F.R.G.S. United Service Club, Pall Mall, 
London, 8. W. 

TBrisette, M. H. 424 St. Paul-street, Montreal, Canada. 

{Brittain, Frederick. Taptonville-crescent, Sheffield. 

*Brirrain, W. H. Storth Oaks, Ranmoor, Sheffield. 

{Britten, James, BES. Department of Botany, British Museum, 
London, W.C. 

*Brittle, John R., M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. Farad Villa, Vanbrugh Hill, 
Blackheath, London, 8.E. 

*Bropuurst, BERNARD Epwarp, F.R.C.8., F.L.S. 20 Grosvenor- 
street, Grosvenor-square, London, W. 

*Brodie, David, M.D. Beverly House, St. Thomas’ Hill, Canter- 
bury. 

{Broprm, Rey. Permr Berimesr, M.A., F.G.8. Rowingeton Vicar- 
age, near Warwick. 

tBrodie, William, M.D. 64 Lafayette-avenue, Detroit, Michigan, 
US.A 


*Brook, Geor; oe, F.L.S. Fernbrook, Huddersfield, Yorkshire. 

tBrook, G. B. Brynsyfi, Swansea. 

§Brook, Robert G. Rowen-street, St. Helen’s, Lancashire. 

{Brooke, Edward. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire. 

*Brooke, Rey. J. Ingham. Thornhill Rectory, Dewsbury. 

{Brooke, Peter William. Marsden House, Stockport, Cheshire. 

tBrooke, Sir Victor, Bart., F.L.S. Colebrook, Brookeborough, Co. 
Fermanagh. 

tBrooks, John Crosse. Wallsend, Neweastle-on-Tyne. 

*Brooks, Thomas. Cranshaw Hall, Rawtenstall, Manchester. 

{Broome, C. Edward, F.L.S. Elmhurst, Batheaston, near Bath. 

§Brotherton, E. A. Bolton Bridge-road, Ilkley, Leeds. 

*Browett, Alfred. 14 Dean-street, Birmingham. 

*Brown, ALEXANDER Crum, M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.C.S., Professor 
of Chemistry in the University of Edinburgh. 8 Belgraye- 
crescent, Edinburgh. 

{tBrown, Charles Gage, M.D. 88 Sloane-street, London, S.W. 

tBrown, Colin. 192 Hope-street, Glasgow. 

{tBrown, David. 93 Abbey-hill, Edinburgh. 

*Brown, Rey. Dixon. Unthank Hall, Haltwhistle, Carlisle. 

{tBrown, Mrs. Ellen F. Campbell. 27 Abercromby-square, Liverpool. 

tBrown, Frederick D. 26 St. Giles’s-street, Oxford. 

{Brown, George Dransfield. Henley Villa, Ealing, Middlesex. W. 

tBrown, Gerald Culmer. Lachute, Quebec, Canada. 

§ Brown, Mrs. H. Bientz. 50 Effingham-road, Lee, Kent. 

§Brown, Harry. University College, London, W.C. 

{Brown, Mrs. Helen. 52 Grange Loan, Edinburgh. 

§Brown, Horacr T. 47 High-street, Burton-on-Trent. 

Brown, Hugh. Broadstone, Ayrshire. 
tBrown, Miss Isabella Spring. 52 Grange Loan, Edinburgh. 
B 


18 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1870. 


1876. 
188i. 
1882. 
1859. 
1874. 
1882. 
1885. 
1865. 
1871. 


1868. 
1850. 
1865. 
1884, 
1885. 
1879. 


1866. 
1862. 
1872. 


1865. 
1865. 
1885, 
1855. 
1863. 
1865. 
1875. 


1875. 
1868. 


1878. 
1877. 
1875. 
1884. 


1859. 
1871. 


1867. 
1885. 


1881. 
1871. 
1884. 
1883. 
1864. 
1865. 
1880. 


1869. 
1884. 


*Brown, Professor J. Camppett, D.Sc., F.C.S. University College, 
Liverpool. 
§Brown, John. Edenderry House, Belfast. 
*Brown, John, M.D. 66 Bank-parade, Burnley, Lancashire. 
*Brown, John. Swiss Cottage, Park-valley, Nottingham. 
{Brown, Rey. John Crombie, LL.D., F.L.8. Haddington, N.B. 
{tBrown, John 8. Edenderry, Shaw’s Bridge, Belfast. 
*Brown, Mrs. Mary. Burnley, Lancashire. 
§Brown, Miss. Springfield House, Ilkley, Yorkshire. 
TBrown, Ralph. Lambton’s Bank, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
TBrown, Ropert, M.A., Ph.D., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Fersley, Rydal- 
road, Streatham, London, 8.W. 
{Brown, Samuel. Grafton House, Swindon, Wilts. 
TBrown, William, F.R.S.E. 25 Dublin-street, Edinburgh. 
tBrown, William. 414 New-street, Birmingham. 
§Brown, William George. Ivy, Albemarle Co., Virginia, U.S.A. 
§Brown, W. A. The Court House, Aberdeen. 
{Browne, J. Crichton, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E. 7 Cumberland- 
terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 
*Browne, Rev. J. H. Lowdham Vicarage, Nottingham. 
*Browne, Robert Clayton, jun., B.A. Browne’s Hill, Carlow, Ireland. 
{Browne, R. Mackley, F.G.S. Redcot, Bradbourne, Sevenoaks, 
Kent. 
*Browne, William, M.D. Heath Wood, Leighton Buzzard. 
{Browning, John, F.R.A.S. 63 Strand, London, W.C. 
{Browning, Oscar, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge. 
{Brownlee, James, jun. 30 Burnbank-gardens, Glaszow. 
*Brunel, H. M. 23 Delahay-street, Westminster, 8. W. 
{Brunel, J. 28 Delahay-street, Westminster, S.W. 
*BRUNLEES, JAMES, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., MInst.C.E. 5 Victoria-street, 
Westminster, S. W. 
{Brunlees, John. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W. 
tBrunton, T. Lauper, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 50 Welbeck-street, 
London, W. 
§Brutton, Joseph. Yeovil. 
tBryant, George. 82 Claverton-street, Pimlico, London, 8S. W. 
tBryant, G. Squier. 15 White Ladies’-road, Clifton, Bristol. 
tBryce, Rey. Professor George. The College, Manitoba, Canada. 
Bryce, Rey. R. J., LL.D. Fitzroy-avenue, Belfast. 
{Bryson, William Gillespie. Cullen, Aberdeen. 
§BucHan, ALEXANDER, M.A., F.R.S.E., Sec. Scottish Meteorological 
Society. 72 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh. 
fBuchan, Thomas. Strawberry Bank, Dundee. 
*Buchan, William Paton. Fairyknowe, Cambuslang, N.B. 
Buchanan, Archibald. Catrine, Ayrshire. 
Buchanan, D.C. 12 Barnard-road, Birkenhead, Cheshire. 
*Buchanan, John H., M.D. Sowerby, Thirsk. 
{Bucwanan, Joun Youne. 10 Moray-place, Edinburgh. 
{Buchanan, W. Frederick. Winnipeg, Canada. 
§Buckland, Miss A. W. 54 Doughty-street, London, W.C. 
§Bucktz, Rev. Grorez, M.A. The Rectory, Weston-super-Mare. 
*Buckley, Henry. 27 Wheeley’s-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
§Buckney, Thomas, F.R.A.S. Delhi House, Coventry Park, Streat- 
ham, S.W. 
{Bucknill, J.C., M.D., F.R.S. EE 2 Albany, London, W. 
*Buckmaster, Charles Alexander, M.A., F.C.S. Science and Art 
Department, South Kensington, London, S.W. 


Year 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 19 


of 


Election. 


1851 


. *Bucxron, GEoreE Bowoter, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.C.8S. Weycombe, 
Haslemere, Surrey. 


1875. §Budgett, Samuel. Cotham House, Bristol. 


1883. 
1871. 
1881. 
1883. 
1845. 


1865. 
1863. 


1842. 
1875. 
1869. 
1881. 


1884. 
1888. 


1876. 
1885. 
1877. 
1884. 
1883. 
1881. 
1883. 
1860. 
1877. 
1874. 
1866. 
1864. 


1855. 


1878. 
1884. 
1884. 
1884. 
1872. 
1870. 
1883. 
1868. 
1881. 
1883. 
1872. 


1854. 
1885, 
1852. 
1885. 
1875. 


1863. 


1858 
1863 


{Buick, Rev. George R., M.A. Cullybackey, Co. Antrim, Ireland. 

{Bulloch, Matthew. 4 Bothwell-street, Glasgow. 

{Bulmer, T. P. Mount-villas, York. 

{Bulpit, Rev. F. W. Crossens Rectory, Southport. 

*Bunzoury, Sir Cuartes James Fox, Bart., F.R.S., F.LS., F.GS., 
E.R.G.S. Barton Hall, Bury St. Edmunds. 

{Bunce, John Mackray. ‘ Journal’ Office, New-street, Birmingham. 

§Bunning, T. Wood. Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, 
Neweastle-on-Tyne. 

*Burd, John. 5 Gower-street, London, W.C. 

{Burder, John, M.D. 7 South-parade, Bristol. 

{Burdett-Coutts, Baroness. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, London, W. 

{Burdett-Coutts, W. L. A. B., M.P. 1 Stratton-street, Piccadilly, 
London, W. ‘ 

*Burland, Jeffrey H. 287 University-street, Montreal, Canada. 

*Burne, Colonel Sir Owen Tudor, K.C.S.L, C.LE., F.R.G.S. 57 
Sutherland-gardens, Maida Vale, London, W. 

{Burnet, John, 14 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow. 

*Burnett, W. Kendall. 1233 Union-street, Aberdeen. 

{Burns, David, C.E. Alston, Carlisle. 

§Burns, James Austin. Atlanta P.O., Box 456, Georgia, U.S.A. 

§Burr, Percy J. 20 Little Britain, London, E.C. 

§Burroughs, 8S. M. 7 Snow-hill, London, E.C. 

*Burrows, Abraham. Greenhall, Atherton, near Manchester. 

{Burrows, Montague, M.A., Professor of Modern History, Oxford. 

{Burt, J. Kendall. Kendal. 

tBurt, Rev. J. T. Broadmoor, Berks. 

*Burton, Freperick M., F.G.8S. Highfield, Gainsborough, 

tBush, W. 7 Circus, Bath. 

Bushell, Christopher. Royal Assurance-buildings, Liverpool. 

*Busk, Grorez, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 32 Harley-street, Caven- 
dish-square, London, W. 

{Burcenmr, J.G., M.A. 22 Collingham-place, London, S.W. 

*Butcher, William Deane, M.R.C.S.Eng. Clydesdale, Windsor. 

tButler, Matthew I. Napanee, Ontario, Canada. 

*Butterworth, W. Greenhill, Church-lane, Harpurhey, Manchester. 

{Buxton, Charles Louis. Cromer, Norfolk. 

tBuxton, David, Ph.D. 298 Regent-street, London, W. 

{Buxton, Miss F. M. Newnham College, Cambridge. 

{tBuxton, 8. Gurney. Catton Hall, Norwich. 

{Buxton, Sydney. 7 Grosyenor-crescent, London, S.W. 

{Buxton, Rev. Thomas, M.A. 19 Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport. 

{Buxton, Sir Thomas Fowell, Bart., F.R.G.S. Wazrlies, Waltham 
Abbey, Essex. 

{Byzrtey, Isaac, F.L.S. Seacombe, Cheshire. 

§Byres, David. 63 North Bradford, Aberdeen. 

{Byrne, Very Rev. James. Ergenagh Rectory, Omagh. 

§Byrom, John R. Mere Bank, Fairfield, near Manchester. 

tByrom, W. Ascroft, F.G.8S. 51 King-street, Wigan. 


tCail, Richard. Beaconsfield, Gateshead. 

. "Caine, Rey. William, M.A. Christ Church Rectory, Denton, near 
Manchester. 

. {Caird, Edward. Finnart, Dumbartonshire. 

B2 


20 LIST OF MEMBERS. 
Year of 
Election. 
1876. {Caird, Edward B. 8 Scotland-street, Glasgow. 
1861. *Caird, James Key. 8 Magdalene-road, Dundee. 
1855. *Caird, James Tennant. Belleaire, Greenock. 
1875. {Caldicott, Rev. J. W., D.D. The Grammar School, Bristol. 
1868. {Oaley, A. J. Norwich. 
1857. {Callan, Rev. N. J., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Maynooth 
College. 
1854. tCalver, Captain E. K., R.N., F.R.S. 23 Park-place East, Sunder- 
land, Durham. 
1884, {Cameron, Aineas. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada. 
1876. {Cameron, Charles, M.D., LL.D., M.P. 1 Huntly-gardens, Glasgow. 
1857. {Cameron, Sir Coartes A., M.D. 15 Pembroke-road, Dublin. 
1884. {Cameron, James C., M.D. 41 Belmont-park, Montreal, Canada. 
1870. {Cameron, John, M.D. 17 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 
1881. ¢{Cameron, Major-General, C.B. 3 Dritheld-terrace, York. 
1884, {Campbell, Archibald H. Toronto, Canada. 
1874. *CampBeLL, Sir Grorer, K.C.8.1, M.P., D.C.L., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. 
Southwell House, Southwell-gardens, South Kensington, 
London, 8.W.; and Edenwood, Cupar, Fife. 
1883. {Campbell, H. J. 81 Kirkstall-road, Talfourd Park, Streatham 
Hill, S.W. 
Campbell, Sir Hugh P. H., Bart. 10 Hill-street, Berkeley-square, 
London, W.; and Marchmont House, near Dunse, Berwickshire. 
1876. {Campbell, James A., LL.D., M.P. Stracathro House, Brechin, 
Campbell, John Archibald, M.D., F.R.S.E. Albyn-place, Edinburgh, 
1859. {Campbell, William. Dunmore, Argyllshire. 
CAMPBELL-J OHNSTON, ALEXANDER Roper, F.R.S. 84 St.George’s- 
square, London, 8.W. 
1876. {Campion, Frank, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. The Mount, Duffield-road, Derby. 
1862. *Campron, Rey. Wirttram M., D.D. Queen’s College, Cambridge. 
1882. {Candy, F. H. 71 High-street, Southampton. 
1880. {Capper, Robert. Westbrook, Swansea. 
1883. §Capper, Mrs. R. Westbrook, Swansea. 
1873. *Carbutt, Edward Hamer, M.P., C.E. 19 Hyde Park-gardens,. 
London, W. 
*Carew, William Henry Pole. Antony, Torpoint, Devonport. 
1888. §Carey-Hobson, Mrs. 54 Doughty-street, London, W.O. 
1877. {Carkeet, John, O.E. 3 St. Andrew’s-place, Plymouth. 
1876, {Carlile, Thomas. 5 St. James’s-terrace, Glasgow. 
CartistE, The Right Rev. Harvny Goopwiy, D.D., D.C.L., Lord 
Bishop of. Cazrlisle. 
1861. {Carlion, James. Mosley-street, Manchester. 
1867. {Carmichael, David (Engineer). Dundee. 
1867. {Carmichael, George. 11 Dudhope-terrace, Dundee. 
1876. {Carmichael, Neil, M.D. 22 South Cumberland-street, Glasgow. 
1884. {Carnegie, John. Peterborough, Ontario, Canada. 
1885. *Carnetty, THomas, D.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in University 
College, Dundee, 
1884. §Carpenter, Louis G. Agricultural College, Lansing, Michigan, 
U.S.A. 
1871. *Carprnrer, P. Wersert, D.Sc., F.R.S. Eton College, Windsor. 
1854. {Carpenter, Rev. R. Lant, B.A. Bridport. 
1872. §CarprnterR, WittraAM Lant, B.A., B.Sc., F.C.S. 386 Craven-park, 
Harlesden, London, N.W. 
1884. *Carpmael, Charles. Toronto, Canada. 
1867. {CarrutHERs, WILLIAM, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.8. British Museum, 


London, W.C. 


om 


- LIST OF MEMBERS. 21 
Year of 
Election. 
1883. §Carson, John. 51 Royal Avenue, Belfast. 


1861. 


1868. 
1866. 
1855. 
1870. 
1883. 
1883. 
1878. 
1870. 


1862. 
1884. 


1884. 
1883. 
1868. 
1866, 
1878. 


1871. 
1873. 


1874. 


1859. 
1884. 
1849. 
1860. 


*Carson, Rev. Joseph, D.D., M.RI.A. 18 Fitzwilliam-place, 
Dublin. 
tCarteighe, Michael, F.C.S. 172 New Bond-street, London, W. 
{Carter, H. H. The Park, Nottingham. 
{Carter, Richard, F.G.S. Cockerham Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire. 
tCarter, Dr. William. 62 Elizabeth-street, Liverpool. 
{Carter, W. OC. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport. 
{Carter, Mrs. Manchester and Salford Bank, Southport. 
*Cartwright, E. Henry. Magherafelt Manor, Co. Derry. 
§Cartwright, Joshua, M.Inst.C.E., Borough Surveyor. Bury, 
Laucashire. 
tCarulla, Facundo. Care of Messrs. Daglish and Co., § Harring- 
ton-street, Liverpool. 
*Carver, Rev. Canon Alfred J., D.D., F.R.G.S. Lynnhurst, Streatham 
Common, London, 8.W. 
§Carver, Mrs. Lynnhurst, Streatham Common, London, 8.W. 
§Carver, James. Garfield House, Elm-avenue, Nottingham. 
tCary, Joseph Henry. Newmuarket-road, Norwich. 
tCasella, L. P., F.R.A.S. The Lawns, Highgate, London, N. 
tCasey, John, LL.D., F.R.S., M.R.I.A., Professor of Higher Mathe-~ 
matics in the Catholic University of Ireland. 86 South 
Cireular-road, Dublin. 
{Cash, Joseph. Bird-grove, Coventry. 
*Cash, William, F.G.S. 38 Elmfield-terrace, Saville Park, Halifax. 
Castle, Charles. Clifton, Bristol. 
tCaton, Richard, M.D., Lecturer on Physiology at the Liverpool 
Medical School. 184 Abercromby-square, Liverpool. 
Catto, Robert. 44 Kine-street,Aberdeen. 
*Cave, Herbert. Christ Church, Oxford. 
tCawley, Charles Edward. The Heath, Kirsall, Manchester. 
§Caytey, Arruur, M.A., D.C.L., LUD. F.RS., V.P.R.A.S., 
Sadlerian Professor of Pure Mathematics in the University 
of Cambridge. Garden House, Cambridge. 
Cayley, Digby. Brompton, near Scarborough. 
Cayley, Edward Stillingfleet. Wydale, Malton, Yorkshire. 


. *Cecil, Lord Sackville. Hayes Common, Beckenham, Kent. 

. §Chadburn, Alfred. ‘ Brincliffe Rise, Sheffield. 

. tChadburn, C. H. Lord-street, Liverpool. 

. *Chadwick, Charles, M.D. Lynncourt, Broadwater Down, Tunbridge 


Wells. 


. {Cuapwick, Davi. The Poplars, Herne Hill, London, 8.E. 


Cuapwicxk, Epwin, 0.B. Park Cottage, East Sheen, Middlesex, S. W. 


. {Chadwick, James Percy. 51 Alexandra-road, Southport. 

. [Chadwick, Robert. Highbank, Manchester. 

. {Chalk, William. 24 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport. 

. {Chalmers, John Inclis. Aldbar, Aberdeen. 

. {Chamberlain, George, J.P. Helensholme, Birkdale Park, Southport. 
. }Chamberlain, Montague. St. John’s, New Brunswick, Canada. 

. (Chambers, Benjamin. Hawkshead-street South, Southport. 

. {CoamBers, CHARLES, F.R.S. Colaba Observatory, Bombay. 

. {Chambers, Mrs. Colaba Observatory, Bombay. 

. {Chambers, Charles, jun. The College, Cooper’s Hill, Staines. 


Chambers, George. High Green, Sheffield. 


. {Chambers, W. O. Lowestoft, Suffolk. 
. *CHAMPERNOWNE, ARTHUR, M.A., F.G.S. Dartington Hall, Totnes, 


Devon. 


22 


Year of 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Election. 


1881. 
1865. 
1865. 
1865. 
1861. 
1884, 
1877. 
1871. 


1874. 
1836. 
1874. 
1866. 


1883. 
1884, 
1867. 


1884. 
1883. 
1864. 


1874, 


1884. 
1879. 
1879. 


1865. 
1883. 
1884. 
1842. 


1863. 
1882. 
1861. 
1884. 
1875. 


1876. 
1870. 


1860. 
1881. 


1857. 
1868. 
1863. 
1869. 
1857. 


*Champney, Henry Nelson. 4 New-street, York. 
*Champney, John KE. Woodlands, Halifax. 
{Chance, A. M. Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
*Chance, James T, 51 Prince’s-gate, London, 8. W. 
{Chance, Robert Lucas. Chad Hill, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
*Chapman, Edward, M.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. Frewen Hall, Oxford. 
{Chapman, Professor. University College, Toronto, Canada. 
§Chapman, T. Algernon, M.D. Burghill, Hereford. 
then William, F.S.A. Strafford Lodge, Oatlands Park, Wey- 
ridge Station. 
t{Charles, John J ames, M.A., M.D. 11 Fisherwick-place, Belfast. 
CHARLESWORTH, EDWARD, F.G.S. 277 Strand, London, W.C. 
tCharley, William. Seymour Hill, Dunmuwry, Ireland. 
{Cuarnock, RicHarp STEPHEN, ’Ph.D., F. SA., F.R.G.S. Junior 
Garrick Club, Adelphi-terrace, London, WC. 
{Chater, Rey. John. Part-street, Southport. 
*Chatterton, George. 46 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, 8.W. 
*Chatwood, Samuel, F.R.G.S.  Irwell House, Drinkwater Park, 
Prestwich. 
{CuauveEav, The Hon. Dr. Montreal, Canada. 
{Chawner, W., M.A. Emanuel College, Cambridge. 
{Curaprn, W.B., M.A., M.D., F.R.G. 8. 2 Hyde Park-place, Cum= 
berland-gate, London, S$. W. 
*Chermside, Lieutenant H. om R.E., C.B. Care of Messrs. Cox & 
Co., Craig’s-court, Charing Cross, London, 8. W. 
{Cherriman, Professor J. B. Ottawa, Canada. 
*Chesterman, W. Broomsgrove-road, Sheffield. 
{ Cheyne, Commander J. P., RN. 1 Westgate-terrace, West Bromp- 
ton, London, S.W. 
CHICHESTER, The Right Rey. Rricwarp Durnrorp, D.D., Lord 
Bishop of. Chichester. 
*Child, Gilbert W., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. Cowley House, Oxford. 
§Chinery, Edward F. Monmouth House, Lymington. 
tChipman, W. W. L. 6 Place d’Armes, Ontario, Canada. 
*Chiswell, Thomas. 17 Lincoln-groye, Plymouth-grove, Man- 
chester. 
tCholmeley, Rev. C. H. Dinton Rectory, Salisbury. 
§Chorley, George. Midhurst, Sussex. 
{Christie, Professor R. C., M. A. 7 St. James’ s-square, Manchester. 
*Christie, William. 13 Queen’ s Park, Toronto, Canada. 
*Christopher, George, F.C.S. 8 Rectory-zrove, Clapham, odin, 
S.W 
*CHRYSTAL, Guorek, M.A., F.R.S.E., Professor of Mathematics in the 
University of Edinbur, rch. 5 Belerave-crescent, Edinbureh. © 
§Cuurcn, A. H., M.A., FO. Se Professor of Chemistry to the 
Royal ‘Academy of Arts, London. Shelsley, Ennerdale-road, 
Kew, Surrey. 
tChurch, William Selby, M.A. St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London,. 
E.C. 


{ChurchiJl, Lord Alfred Spencer. 16 Rutland-gate, London, 
S.W. 


tChurchill, F., M.D. Ardtrea BeEtony Stewartstown, Oo, Tyrone. 

tClabburn, Ww. H. Thorpe, Norwich. 

Clapham, Henry. 5 Summerhill-erove, Neweastle-on-Tyne. 

*Clapp, Frederick. Roseneath, St. James’s-road, Exeter. 

tClarendon, Frederick Villiers. 1 Belvidere-place, Mountjoy-square, 
Dublin. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 23 


Year of 
Election. 


1859. {Clark, David. Coupar Angus, Fifeshire. 
1876. {Clark, David R.,M.A. 31 Waterloo-street, Glasgow. 
1877. *Clark, F. J. Street, Somerset. 
1876. {Clark, George W. 381 Waterloo-street, Glaszow. 
Clark, G. T. 44 Berkeley-square, London, W. 
1876. {Clark, Dr. John. 138 Bath-street, Glasgow. 
1881. {Clark, J. Edmund, B.A., B.Sc., F.G.8. 20 Bootham, York. 
1861. aoe 5 Westminster-chambers, Victoria-street, London, 
W. 


1855. {Olark, Rev. William, M.A. Barrhead, near Glasgow. 
1883. {Clarke, Rev. Canon, D.D. 59 Hoghton-street, Southport. 
1865. {Clarke, Rey. Charles. Charlotte-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
1875. {Clarke, Charles 8. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol. 
Clarke, George. Mosley-street, Manchester. 
1872. *CuarkE, Hype. 32 St. George’s-square, Pimlico, London, 8.W. 
1875. {Crarke, Jonn Henry. 4 Worcester-terrace, Clifton, Bristol. 
1861. *Clarke, John Hope. 45 Nelson-street, Chorlton-on-Medlock, Man- 
chester. 
1877. {Clarke, Professor John W. University of Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A. 
1851. {Ciarxe, Josuva, F.L.S. Fairycroft, Saffron Walden. 
Clarke, Thomas, M.A. Knedlineton Manor, Howden, Yorkshire. 
1883. {Clarke, W. P., J.P. 15 Hesketh-street, Southport. 
1884. tClaxton, T. James. 461 St. Urbain-street, Montreal, Canada. 
1861. {Clay, Charles, M.D. 101 Piccadilly, Manchester. 
*Clay, Joseph Travis, F.G.S. Rastrick, near Brichouse, Yorkshire. 
1856. *Clay, Colonel William. The Slopes, Wallasea, Cheshire. 
1866. {Clayden, P. W. 15 Tavistock-square, London, W.C. 
1850. {CrzcHorN, Hueu, M.D.,F.L.S. Stravithie, St. Andrews, Scotland. 
1859. {Cleghorn, John. Wick. 
1875. {Clegram, T. W. B. Saul Lodge, near Stonehouse, Gloucestershire. 
1861. §Cxietanp, Jomn, M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in the 
University of Glasgow. 2 College, Glasgow. 
1873. §Cliff, John, F.G.S. Linnburn, Ilkley, near Leeds. 
1883. {Clift, Frederic, LL.D. Norwood, Surrey. 
1861. *Cxrirron, R. Beriamy, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Experi- 
mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Portland 
Lodge, Park Town, Oxford. 
Clonbrock, Lord Robert. Clonbrock, Galway. 
1878. §Close, Rev. Maxwell H., F.G.S. 40 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin. 
1873. {Clough, John. Bracken Bank, Keighley, Yorkshire. 
1861. *Clouston, Peter. 1 Park-terrace, Glasgow. 
1883. *CLowzs, Frank, D.Sc., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in University 
College, Nottingham. University College, Nottingham. 
1863. *Clutterbuck, Thomas. Warkworth, Acklineton. 
1881. *Clutton, William James. The Mount, York. 
1885. §Clyne James. Rubislaw Den South, Aberdeen. 
1868. {Coaks, J. B. Thorpe, Norwich. 
1855. *Coats, Sir Peter. Woodside, Paisley. 
Cobb, Edward. Falkland House, St. Ann’s, Lewes. 
1884, {Cobb, John. Lenzie, near Glasgow. 
1864. {Copsorp, T. Spencer, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany 
and Helminthology in the Royal Veterinary College, London. 
74 Portsdown-road, Maida Hill, London, W. 
1864. *Cochrane, James Henry. Elm Lodge, Prestbury, Cheltenham. 
1884. *Cockburn-Hood, J. J. Walton Hall, Kelso, N.B. 
1883, §Cockshott, J. J. 74 Belmont-street, Southport. 
1861. *Coe, Rey. Charles C., F.R.G.S. Fairfield, Heaton, Bolton 


24 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1881. 


1865. 
1884. 
1876. 
1855. 
1868. 
1879. 
1876. 


1860, 
1878. 


1854. 
1857. 
1869, 
1854. 


1861. 


1865. 
1876. 
1876. 
1884, 


1883. 
1868. 


1882. 
1884. 


1870. 
1884, 


1846. 
1884. 
1852. 
1871. 
1881. 
1876. 
1882. 


1876, 


1881. 
1868. 


1868. 
1884. 
1878. 
1881. 
1859. 


1883. 
1883. 


1865. 


§Corrin, Water Harris, F.C.S. 94 Cornwall-gardens, South 
Kensington, London, 8, W. 

tCoghill, H. Newcastle-under-Lyme. 

*Cohen, B. L. 30 Hyde Park-gardens, London, W. 

t{Colbourn, E. Rushton. 5 Marchmont-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow. 

{Colchester, William, F.G.S. Springfield House, Ipswich. 

TColchester, W. P. Bassingbourn, Royston. 

{Cole, Skelton. 387 Glossop-road, Sheffield. 

{Colebrooke, Sir T. E., Bart., M.P., F.R.G.S. 14 South-street, Park- 
lane, London, W.; and Abington House, Abington, N.B. 

{Cortemay, J. J., F.C.S. Ardarrode, Bearsden, near Glasgow. . 

{Coles, John, Curator of the Map Collection R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, 
London, W. 

*Colfox, William, B.A. Westmead, Bridport, Dorsetshire. 

tColles, William, M.D. 21 Stephen’s-green, Dublin. 

{Collier, W. F. Woodtown, Horrabridge, South Devon. 

{Cottinewoop, Curuprrt, M.A., M.B., F.L.S. 2 Gipsy Hill- 
villas, Upper Norwood, Surrey, 8.E. 

*Collingwood, J. Frederick, F.G.S. New Athenzeum Club, 3 Pall 
Mall East, London, 8. W. 

*Collins, James Tertius. Churchfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

{Cotuins, J. H., F.G.8. 64 Bickerton-road, London, N. 

{Collins, Sir William. 3 Park-terrace East, Glasgow. 

§Collins, Wiliam J., M.D., B.Sc. Althbert-terrace, Regent’s Park, 
London, N.W. 

{Collis, W. Elliott. 3 Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, London, W.C. 

*Corman, J. J..M.P. Carrow House, Norwich; and 108 Cannon- 
street, London, E.C. 

tColmer, Joseph G. Office of the High Commissioner for Canada, 
9 Victoria-chambers, London, 8. W. 

{Colomb, Capt. J. C. R., F.R.G.S. Dromquinna, Kenmare, Kerry, 
Ireland; and Junior United Service Club, London, 8. W. 

{Coltart, Robert. The Hollies, Aigburth-road, Liverpool. 

§Common, A. A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 63 Eaton-rise, Ealing, Middle- 
sex, W. 

*Compton, Lord William, M.P. 145 Piccadilly, London, W. 

§Conklin, Dr. William A. Central Park, New York, U.S.A. 

{Connal, Sir Michael. 16 Lynedock-terrace, Glasgow. 

*Connor, Charles C. Notting Hill House, Belfast. 

{Conroy, Sir Joun, Bart. Arborfield, Reading, Berks. 

tCook, James. 162 North-street, Glascow. 

{Cooxn, Major-General A. C., R.E., C.B., F.R.G.S., Director-General 
of the Ordnance Survey. Southampton. 

*Cooxr, Conrap W. 2 Victoria-mansions, Victoria-street, London, 
S.W. 

{Cooke, F. Bishophill, York. 

{Cooke, Rev. George H. Wanstead Vicarage, near Norwich. 

Cooke, J. B. Cavendish-road, Birkenhead. 

{Cooxn, M. C., M.A. 2 Grosvenor-villas, Upper Holloway, London, N. 

tCooke, R. P. Brockville, Ontario, Canada. 

tCooke, Samuel, M.A., F.G.S. Poona, Bombay. 

{tOooke, Thomas. Bishophill, York. 

*Cooke, His Honour Judge, M.A., F.S.A. 42 Wimpole-street, 
London, W.; and Rainthorpe Hall, Long Stratton. 

§Cooke-Taylor, R. Whateley. Frenchwood House, Preston. 

tCooke-Taylor, Mrs. Frenchwood House, Preston. 

{Cooksey, Joseph. West Bromwich, Birmingham. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 25 


Year of 
Election. 


1869. 
1888. 
1884, 


1883. 
1850. 
1838. 
1884, 
1879. 
1846, 


1868. 
1884. 
1878. 
1871. 
1868. 
1885. 
1881. 
1863. 
1842. 
1881, 
1883. 
1870. 


1885. 
1883. 


1857. 
1855, 
1874. 


1864. 


1869. 
1879. 
1876. 
1876. 


1874. 


1834. 
1876, 


1863. 
1863. 
1872. 


1871. 
186(1, 


1867. 
1867. 
1870. 
1882. 


tCooling, Edwin, F.R.G.S. Mile Ash, Derby. 

{Coomer, John. 53 Albert-road, Southport. 

fCoon, John 8. 604 Main-street, Cambridge Pt., Massachusetts, 
US.A. 

{Cooper, George B. 67 Great Russell-street, London, W.C. 

fCoorrr, Sir Henry, M.D. 7 Charlotte-street, Hull. 

Cooper, James. 58 Pembridge-villas, Bayswater, London, W. 

§Cooper, Mrs. M. A. West Tower, Marple, Cheshire. 

§Cooper, Thomas. Rose Hill, Rotherham, Yorkshire. 

tCooper, i White, F.R.C.S. 19 Berkeley-square, Lon- 
don, W. 

tCooper, W. J. The Old Palace, Richmond, Surrey. 

tCope, E. D. Philadelphia, U.S.A. 

tCope, Rev. S. W. Bramley, Leeds. 

{Copeland, Ralph, Ph.D., F.R.A.S. Dun Echt, Aberdeen. 

Copeman, Edward, M.D. Upper King-street, Norwich. 

§Copland, W., M.A. Tortorston, Peterhead, N.B. 

{Copperthwaite, H. Holgate Villa, Holgate-lane, York. 

{Coppin, John. North Shields. 

Corbett, Edward. Grange Avenue, Levenshulme, Manchester, 

§Cordeaux, John. Great Cotes, Uleeby, Lincolnshire. 

*Core, Thomas H. Fallowfield, Manchester. 

*CorFIeLD, W. H., M.A., M.D., F.C.S., F.G.S., Professor of Hygiéne 
and Public Health in University College. . 10 Bolton-row, 
Mayfair, London, W. 

Cory, Rev. Robert, B.D., F.C.P.S. Stanground, Peterborough. 

§Corry, John. Rosenheim, Parkhill-road, Croydon. 

tCostelloe, B. F. C., M.A., B.Sc. 33 Chancery-lane, London, W.C. 

Cottam, George. 2 Winsley-street, London, W. 

{Cottam, Samuel. Brazenose-street, Manchester. 

{Cotterill, Rey. Henry, D.D., Bishop of Edinburgh. Edinburgh. 

*Correritt, J. H., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mechanics. 
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, S.E. 

{Corron, General Freprrick C., R.E., C.S.I. 13 Longridge-road, 
Karl’s Court-road, London, S. W. 

t{Corron, Witt1aM. Pennsylvania, Exeter. 

tCottrill, Gilbert I. Shepton Mallett, Somerset. 

{Couper, James. City Glass Works, Glasgow. 

{Couper, James, jun. City Glass Works, Glasgow. 

tCourtauld, John M. Bocking Bridge, Braintree, Essex. 

Cowan, Charles. 38 West Register-street, Edinburgh. 

tCowan, J. B., M.D. Helensburgh, N.B. 

Cowan, John. Valleyfield, Pennycuick, Edinburgh. 

Cowan, John A. Blaydon Burn, Durham. 

Cowan, Joseph, jun. Blaydon, Durham. 

*Cowan, Thomas William, F.G.S. Comptons Lea, Horsham. 

Cowie, The Very Rev. Benjamin Morgan, M.A., D.D., Dean of 
Exeter. The Deanery, Exeter. 

tCowper, C. E. 3 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W. 

{Cowper, Edward Alfred, M.Inst.C.E. 6 Great Geerge-street, 
Westminster, S.W. 

*Cox, Edward. Lyndhurst, Dundee. 

*Cox, George Addison. Beechwood, Dundee. 

*Cox, James. 8 Fallmer-square, Liverpool. 

tCox, Thomas A., District Engineer of the S., P., and D. Railway. 
Lahore, Punjab. Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., Parliament- 
street, London, S. W. 


26 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1867. 
1867. 
1885. 
1884. 


1876. 
1879. 


1858. 
1884. 
1876. 
1871. 


1871. 


1883. 
1870. 
1885. 


1879. 
1876. 
1880. 


1878. 
1859. 
1857. 
1885, 
1885. 
1885. 
1885. 
1885. 
1870. 


1865. 


1879. 
1855. 
1870. 
1870. 
1870. 
1861. 
1883. 
1868. 
1867. 
1853. 
1870. 
1871. 
1866. 
1883. 
1882. 
1861. 
1883. 
1863. 
1885. 
1860. 
1859. 
1873. 


*Cox, Thomas Hunter. Duncarse, Dundee. 

{Cox, William. Foggley, Lochee, by Dundee. 

§Crabtree, William, C.E. Manchester-road, Southport. 

§Craiciz, Major P. G., F.S.S. 6 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, 
London, N.W. 

tCramb, John. Larch Villa, Helensburgh, N.B. 

§Crampton, Thomas Russell, M.Inst.0.E. 19 Ashley-place, London, 
5.W 


{Cranage, Edward, Ph.D. The Old Hall, Wellington, Shropshire. 

{Crathern, James. Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada. 

tCrawford, Chalmond. Ridemon, Crosscar. 

*Crawford, William Caldwell, M.A. 1 Lockharton-gardens, Slate- 
ford, Edinburgh. 

*CRAWFORD AND Batcarres, The Right Hon. the Earl of, LL.D., 
F.R.S,, F-R.A.S. The Observatory, Dun Echt, Aberdeen. 

*Crawshaw, Edward. 25 Tollington-park, London, N. 

*Crawshay, Mrs. Robert. Cathedine, Bwlch, Breconshire. 

§Creak, Staff Commander E. W., R.N.. F.R.S. Richmond Lodge, 
Blackheath, London, 8.E. 

{Creswick, Nathaniel. Handsworth Grange, near Sheffield. 

*Crewdson, Rev. George. St. George’s Vicarage, Kendal. 

*Crisp, Frank, B.A., LL.B., F.L.S. 5 Lansdowne-road, Notting Hill, 
London, W. 

{Croke, John O’Byrne, M.A. The French College, Blackrock, Dublin. 

tCroll, A. A. 10 Coleman-street, London, E.C. 

{Crolly, Rev. George. Maynooth College, Ireland. 

§Crombie, Charles W. 41 Carden-place, Aberdeen. 

§Crombie, John. Balgownie Lodge, Aberdeen. 

§Crombie, John, jun. Daveston, Aberdeen. 

§Cromsrg, J. W., M.A. Balgownie Lodge, Aberdeen. 

§Crombie, Theodore. 18 Albyn-place, Aberdeen. 

tCrookes, Joseph. Marlborough House, Brook Green, Hammersmith,. 
London, W. 

§Crooxes, WitrraM, F.R.S., F.C.S. 7 Kensington Park-gardens,. 
London, W. 

{Crookes, Mrs. 7 Kensington Park-gardens, London, W. 

{Cropper, Rev. John. Wareham, Dorsetshire. 

{Crosfield, C. J. 16 Alexandra-drive, Prince’s Park, Liverpool. 

*Crosfield, William, jun. 16 Alexandra-drive, Prince’s Park, Liverpool. 

tCrosfield, William, sen. Annesley, Aigburth, Liverpool. 

{Cross, Rev. John Edward, M.A. Appleby Vicarage, near Brigg. 

{Cross, Rev. Prebendary, LL.B. Part-street, Southport. 

{Crosse, Thomas William. St. Giles’s-street, Norwich. 

§Crosskey, Rey. H. W., LL.D., F.G.S. 117 Gough-road, Birmingham. 

tCrosskill, William, C.E. Beverley, Yorkshire. 

*Crossley, Edward, F.R.A.S. Bemerside, Halifax. 

{Crossley, Herbert. Broomfield, Halifax. 

*Crossley, Louis J., F.M.S. Moorside Observatory, near Halifax. 

§Crowder, Robert. Stannix, Carlisle. 

§Crowley, Frederick. Ashdell, Alton, Hampshire. 

§Crowley, Henry. Trafalgar-road, Birkdale Park, Southport. 

§Crowther, Elon. Cambridge-road, Huddersfield. 

{Cruddas, George. Elswick Engine Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

§Cruickshank, Alexander, LL.D. 20 Rose-street, Aberdeen, 

tCruickshank, John. Aberdeen. 

{Cruickshank, Provost. Macduff, Aberdeen. 

{Crust, Walter. Hall-street, Spalding. 


Oe ae 
. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 27 


Year of 
Election. 


1883. 


1883. 
1878. 
1883. 
1859. 
1874. 
1861. 
1861. 
1882. 


1877. 


1852. 
1885. 
1869. 


1883. 
1850. 
1881. 
1885. 
1884. 
1867. 


1857. 
1878. 
1884. 
1885. 
1881. 


1854, 
1883. 


1863. 
1865. 
1867. 
1870. 


1862. 


1859. 
1876. 
1849. 
1861. 


1883. 
1876. 
1884. 
1882. 


1881. 


*Cryer, Major J. H. The Grove, Manchester-road, Southport. 
Culley, Robert. Bank of Ireland, Dublin. 

*Culverwell, Edward P. 40 Trinity College, Dublin. 

tCulverwell, Joseph Pope. St. Lawrence Lodge, Sutton, Dublin. 

{Culverwell, T. J. H. Litfield House, Clifton, Bristol. 

tCumming, Sir A. P. Gordon, Bart. Altyre. 

{Cumming, Professor. 33 Wellington-place, Belfast. 

*Cunliffe, Edward Thomas. The Parsonage, Handforth, Manchester. 

*Cunliffe, Peter Gibson. Dunedin, Handforth, Manchester. 

*Cunningham, Major Allan, R.E., A.L.C.E. 9 Campden Hill-road, 
Kensington, London, W. 

*Cunningham, D. J., M.D., Professor of Anatomy in Trinity College, 
Dublin. 

{Cunningham, John. Macedon, near Belfast. 

§Cunningham, J.T. Scottish Marine Station, Granton, Edinburgh. 

{CunnineHam, Roprert O., M.D., F.L.S., Professor of Natural His- 
tory in Queen’s College, Belfast. 

*Cunningham, Rey. William, B.D., D.Sc. Trinity College, Cambridge. 

t{Cunningham, Rev. William Bruce. Prestonpans, Scotland. 

{Curley, T., C.E., F.G.S. Hereford. 

§Curphey, William 8. 268 Renfrew-street, Glasgow. 

§Currier, John McNab. Castleton, Vermont, U.S.A. 

*Cursetjee, Manockjee, F.R.G.S., Judge of Bombay. Villa-Byculla, 
Bombay. 

tCurtis, ARtaurR Hitt, LL.D. 1 Hume-street, Dublin. 

{Curtis, William. Caramore, Sutton, Co. Dublin. 

{Cushing, Frank Hamilton. Washington, U.S.A. 

{Cushing, Mrs. M. Croydon, Surrey. 

§Cushing, Thomas, F.R.A.S. India Store Depdt, Belvedere-road, 
Lambeth, London, S.W. 


{Daglish, Robert, M.Inst.C.E. Orrell Cottage, near Wigan. 

{Dihne, F. W., Consul of the German Empire. 18 Somerset-place, 
Swansea. 

{Dale, J.B. South Shields. 

{Dale, Rey..R. W. 12 Calthorpe-street, Birmingham. 

tDalgleish, W. Dundee. 

tDatuincEr, Rey. W. H., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Wesley College, 
Glossop-road, Sheffield. 

Dalmahoy, James, F.R.S.E. 9 Forres-street, Edinburgh. 
Dalton, Edward, LL.D., F.S.A. Dunkirk House, Nailsworth. 

*Dalton, Rey. J. E., B.D. Seagrave, Loughborough. 

{Dansy, T. W., M.A., F.G.S. 1 Westbourne-terrace-road, Lon- 
don, W. 

{Dancer, J. B., F.R.A.S. Old Manor House, Ardwick, Manchester. 

tDansken, John. 4 Eldon-terrace, Partickhill, Glasgow. 

*Danson, Joseph, F.C.S. Montreal, Canada. 

*DARBISHIRE, RoBERT DUKINFIELD, B.A.,F.G.S. 26 George-street, 
Manchester. 

tDarbishire, S. D., M.D. 60 High-street, Oxford. 

{Darling, G. Erskine. 247 West George-street, Glascow. 

{Darling, Thomas. 99 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada. 

tDarwsn, Francis, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Huntingdon-road, Cam- 
bridge. 

*DaRwin, GEoRGE Howarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Plumian 
Professor of Astronomy and Experimental Philosophy in the 
University of Cambridge. Newnham Grange, Cambridge. 


28 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1878. 
1882. 
1848. 
1878. 
1872. 
1880. 


1884. 
1870. 
1885. 
1871. 
1875. 
1870. 
1842, 
1873. 
1870. 
1864, 


1881. 
1882. 
1873. 
1856. 


1883. 
1883. 


1885. 
1882. 
1864. 
1857. 


1869, 
1869, 
1860. 
1864. 


1885. 


1884, 
1855. 


1859. 
1879. 
1871. 


1870. 
1861. 
1861. 
1870. 


1884, 
1866, 


1884. 


*Darwin, Horace. The Orchard, Huntingdon-road, Cambridge. 
§Darwin, W. E., F.G.S. Bassett, Southampton. 
{DaSilva, Johnson. Burntwood, Wandsworth Common, London, 8. W. 
{D’Aulmay, G. 22 Upper Leeson-street, Dublin. 
{Davenport, John T. 64 Marine Parade, Brighton. 
§Davey, Henry, M.Inst.U.E, Rupert Lodge, Grove-road, Headingley, 
Leeds. 
{David,A.J.,B.A.,LL.B. 4 Harcourt-buildings, Temple, London, E.C. 
{Davidson, Alexander, M.D. 2 Gambier-terrace, Liverpool. 
§Davidson, Charles B. Roundhay, Fonthill-road, Aberdeen. 
{Davidson, James. Newbattle, Dalkeith, N.B. 
TDavies, David. 2 Queen’s-square, Bristol. 
{Davies, Edward, F.C.S. 88 Seel-street, Liverpool. 
Davies-Colley, Dr. Thomas. Newton, near Chester. 
*Davis, Alfred. Parliament Mansions, London, 8.W. 
*Davis, A.S. 6 Paragon-buildings, Cheltenham. 
{Davis, CHartus E., F.S.A. 55 Pulteney-street, Bath. 
Davis, Rey. David, B.A. Lancaster. 
{Davis, George E. The Willows, Fallowfield, Manchester. 
§Davis, Henry C. Berry Pomeroy, Springfield-road, Brighton. 
“Davis, James W., F.G.S., F.S.A. Chevinedge, near Halifax. 
*Davis, Sir Jonn Francis, Bart., K.C.B., F.R.S., F.R.GS. Holly- 
wood, near Compton, Bristol. 
{Davis, Joseph, J.P. Park-road, Southport. 
{Davis, Robert Frederick, M.A. Earlstield, Wandsworth Common, 
London, 8.W. 
*Davis, Rudolf. Castle Howell School, Lancaster. 
tDavis, W. H. Gloucester Lodge, Portswood, Southampton. 
*Davison, Richard, Beverley-road, Great Dritiield, Yorkshire. 
fDavy, Epmunp W., M.D. Kimmage Lodge, Roundtown, near 
Dublin. 
tDaw, John. Mount Radford, Exeter, 
tDaw, R. M. Bedtord-circus, Exeter. 
*Dawes, John T., F.G.8. Blaen-y-Roe, St. Asaph, North Wales. 
{Dawkins, W. Boyp, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., Professor of 
Geology and Paleontology in the Victoria University, Owens 
College, Manchester. Woodhurst, Fallowfield, Manchester. 
*Dawson, Captain H. P., R.A. Junior United Service Club, Pall 
Mall, London, S.W. 
Dawson, John. Barley House, Exeter, 
{Dawson, Samuel. 258 University-street, Montreal, Canada. 
fDawson, Sir Witi1am, C.M.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 
Principal of M‘Gill College. (Presrpenr Exner.) M‘Gill 
College, Montreal, Canada. 
*Dawson, Captain William G. Plumstead Common, Kent. 
{Day, Francis. Kenilworth House, Cheltenham. 
}Day, Sr. Jon Vincent, MInst.C.E., F.R.S.E. 166 Buchanan- 
street, Glasgow. 
*Dzacon, G. F., M.Inst.C.E. Rock Ferry, Liverpool. 
{Deacon, Henry. Appleton House, near Warrington. 
{Dean, Henry. Colne, Lancashire. 
*Deane, Rev. George, B.A., D.Se., F.G.S. Spring Hill College, 
Moseley, near Birmingham. 
“Debenham, Frank, F.S.S. 26 Upper Hamilton-terrace, London, N. W. 
{Desus, Hewyrice, Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry 
at Guy’s Hospital, London, 8.5. 
§Deck, Arthur, F.C.S. 9 King’s-parade, Cambridge. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 29 


Year of 
Election. 


1882. *Dz CuAumont, Francots, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Hygiéne in the 
Royal Victoria Hospital, Netley. 
1878. {Delany, Rev. William, St. Stanislaus College, Tullamore. 
1854. *D—E La Rupr, Warren, M.A., D.C.L, Ph.D., F.RBS., F.CS., 
F.R.A.S. 73 Portland-place, London, W. 
1879. {De la Sala, Colonel. Sevilla House, Nayarino-road, London, N.W. 
1884. *De Laune, C. DeL. F. Sharsted Court, Sittingbourne. 
1870. {De Meschin, Thomas, M.A., LL.D. 8 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, 
London, W.C. 
Denchar, John. Morningside, Edinburgh. 
1873. {Denham, Thomas. Huddersfield. 
1884. {Denman, Thomas W. Lamb’s-buildings, Temple, London, E.C. 
1875. {Denny, William. Seven Ship-yard, Dumbarton. 
Dent, William Yerbury. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich. 
1870. *Denton, J. Bailey. 22 Whitehall-place, London, 8. W. 
1874, §De Rance, Cuartzs E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W. 
1856. *Dersy, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G., M.A., LL.D.,F.R.S., 
F.R.G.S, 23 St. James’s-square, London, 8.W.; and Knowsley, 
near Liverpool. 
1874, *Derham, Walter, M.A., LL.M., F.G.S, Henleaze Park, Westbury- 
on-Trym, Bristol. 
1878. {De Rinzy, James Harward. Khelat Survey, Sukkur, India. 
1868. {Dessé, Etheldred, M.B., F.R.C.S. 48 Kensington Gardens-square, 
Bayswater, London, W. 
Der Tastxry, GeorcE, Lord, F.Z.8.  Tabley House, Knutsford, 
Cheshire. 
1869. {Drvon, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Powderham Castle, 
near Exeter. 
*DrvonsHIRE, His Grace the Duke of, K.G., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., 
F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Chancellor of the University of Cambridge. 
Devonshire House, Piccadilly, London, W.; and Chatsworth, 
Derbyshire. 
1868. {Drwar, Jawus, M.A., F.R.S.L. & E., F.C.S., Fullerian Professor of 
Chemistry in the Royal Institution, London, and Jacksonian 
Professor of Natural Experimental Philosophy in the University 
of Cambridge. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge. 
1881. {Dewar, Mrs. 1 Scroope-terrace, Cambridge. 
1883. {Dewar, James, M.D., F.R.C.S.E. Drylaw House, Davidson’s Mains, 
Midlothian, N.B. 
1884. *Dewar, William. 6 Montpellier-grove, Cheltenham. 
1872. {Dewick, Rey. KE. 8., M.A., F.G.S8. 2 Southwick-place, Hyde Park, 
London, W. 
1884. §De Wolf, 0. C., M.D. Chicago, U.S.A. 
1873. *Dew-Surru, A. G., M.A. 7A Eaton-square, London, S.W. 
1883. §Dickinson, A. P. Fair Elms, Blackburn. 
1864, *Dickinson, F.H., F.G.S, Kingweston, Somerton, Taunton; and 121 
St. George’s-square, London, 8. W. 
1863, {Dickinson, G. T. Claremont-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1867. {Drickson, AvexanpER, M.D., Professor of Botany in the University 
of Edinburgh. 11 Royal-circus, Edinburgh. 
1884, {Dickson, Charles R., M.D. Wolfe Island, Ontario, Canada. 
1881. {Dickson, Edmund. West Cliff, Preston. 
1885. §Dickson, Patrick. Laurencekirk, Aberdeen. 
1883. {Dickson, T. A. West Cliff, Preston. 
1862. *Dinxe, The Right Hon. Sir Coartes Wexntworra, Bart., M.P., 
F.R.G.S. 76 Sloane-street, London, S. W. 
1877. §Dillon, James, M.Inst.C.E. 36 Dawson-street, Dublin. 


30 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1848. 


1872. 
1869. 
1876. 


1868, 


1884, 
1874. 
1883. 
1858. 
1879. 
1885. 
1885. 
1885, 
1860. 
1872. 


1864. 
1875. 


1870 


1851. 
1867. 
1867. 
1885. 


1882. 
1869. 
1877. 
1874. 
1861. 
1881. 
1867. 
1871. 
1865. 


1876. 
1877. 
1878. 
1884. 


1883. 
1884, 
1884. 


1884. 
1870. 
1876. 
1884, 
1878. 
1882. 
1857. 
1878. 
1865, 


}Druiwyn, Lewis Lirewrtyn, M.P., F.L.S., F.G.S.  Parkwerne, 
near Swansea. 

TDrives, Grorer. Woodside, Hersham, Walton-on-Thames. 

{Dingle, Edward. 19 King-street, Tavistock. 

tDitchtield, Arthur. 12 Taviton-street, Gordon-square, London , 
W.C. 

{Dittmar, Willam, F.R.S. L. & E., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry 
in ‘Anderson’ 8 College, Glasgow. 

§Dix, John William H. Bristol. 

*Dixon, A. E. Dunowen, Cliftonville, Belfast. 

{Dixon, Miss E. 2 Cliffterrace, Kendal. 

{Dixon, Edward. Wilton House, Southampton. 

*Drxon, Harorp B., M.A., F.C.S. Trinity College, Oxford. 

§ Dixon, ” John Henry. Inv erair, Poolewe, Ross-shire, N.B. 

§Doak, Rev. A. 15 Queen’ s-road, Aberdeen. 

§Dobbin, Leonard. The University, Edinburgh. 

*Dobbs, Archibald Edward, M.A. 34 Westbourne Park, London, W. 

*Dozson, G. E., M.A., M.B., F.R.S.,F.L.8. Royal Victoria Hospital, 
Netley, Southampton. 

*Dobson, William. Oakwood, Bathwick Hill, Bath. 

*Doewra, George, jun. Grosvenor-road, Handsworth, Birmingham. 


. *Dodd, John. 53 Cable-street, Liverpool. 
1876. 


tDodds, J. M. St. Peter’s College, Cambridge. 

Dolphin, John. Delves House, Berry Edge, near Gateshead. 

tDomvile, William C., F.Z.S. Thorn Hill, Bray, Dublin. 

Don, John. The Lodge, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee. 

{Don, William G. St. Margaret’s, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee. 

§Donaldson, James, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Regius Professor of 
Humanity in the University of Aberdeen. Old Aberdeen. 

{Donaldson, John. Tower House, Chiswick, Middlesex. 

tDonisthorpe,G. T. St. David’s Hill, Exeter. 

*Donkin, Bryan, jun. May’s Hill, Shortlands, Kent. 

tDonnell, Professor, M.A. 76 Stephen’s-green South, Dublin. 

Donnelly, Colonel, R.E. South Kensington Museum, London, W. 

tDorrington, John Edward. Lypiatt Park, Stroud. 

Dougall, Andrew Maitland, R.N. Scotscraig, Tayport, Fifeshire. 

TDougall, John, M.D. 2 Cecil-place, Paisley-road, Glasgow. 

*Douchty, Charles Montagu. Care of H. M. Doughty, Esq., 5 Stone- 
court, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C. 

*Douglas, Rev. G. C. M. 18 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow. 

*Douglass, Sir James N., M.Inst. C.E. Trinity House, London, E.C. 

tDouglass, William. 104 Baggot-street, Dublin. 

tDouglass, William Alexander. Freehold Loan and Savings Com- 
pany, Church-street, Toronto, Canada. 

§Dove, Arthur. Crown Cottage, York. 

§Dove, Miss Frances. St. Leonard’s, St. Andrews, N.B. 

TDove, P. Edward, F.R.A.S., Sec.R.Hist.Soc. 9 Argyll-street, 
Regent-street, London, W. 

tDowe, John Melnotte. 69 Sev enth-ayenue, New York, U.S.A. 

{Dowie, J. Muir. Java Lodge, Craigmore, Mull, N.B. 

tDowie, Mrs. Muir. Java Lodge, Craigmore, Mull, N.B: 

*Dowling, D. J. Bromley, Kent. 

{Dowling, Thomas. Claireville House, Terenure, Dublin. 

§Downes, Rey. W., B.A., F.G.S. Combe Raleigh Rectory, Honiton. 

{Downrna, S., LL. D. 4 The Hill, Monkstown, “Co. Dublin. 

tDowse, The Right Hon. Baron. 38 Mountjoy-square, Dublin. 

*Dowson, E. Theodore, F.R.M.S. Geldeston, near Beccles, Suffolk. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 31 


Year of 
Election. 


1881. §Dowson, Joseph Emerson, C.N. 8 Great Queen-street, London, S.W. 

1883. {Draper, William. De Grey House, St. Leonard’s, York. 

1868. {Dressrr, Huyry E., F.Z.8. 6 Tenterden-street, Hanover-square, 
London, W. 

1873. §Drew, Freperic, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Eton College, Windsor. 

1879. {Drew, Joseph, M.B. Foxgrove-road, Beckenham, Kent. 

1879. {Drew, Samuel, M.D., D.Se., F.R.S.E. 10 Laura-place, Bath. 

1870. §Drysdale, J. J., M.D. 36a Rodney-street, Liverpool. 

1884. {Du Bois, Henri. 59 Bentick-street, Glasgow. 

1856. *Ducie, The Right. Hon. Henry Jomn Reynotps Moreron, Earl 
of, F.B.S.,F.G.S. 16 Portman-square, London, W.; and Tort- 
worth Court, Wotton-under-Edge. 

1883. {Duck, A. E. Southport. 

1870. {Duckworth, Henry, F.L.S., F.G.8. Holme House, Columbia-road, 
Oxton, Birkenhead. 

1867. *Durr, The Right Hon. Moutntsrvarr ExLpursrone GRANT-, 
E.RS., F.R.G.S., Governor of Madras. Care of W. Hunter, 
Esq., 14 Adelphi-court, Union-street, Aberdeen. 

1852. {Dufferin and Clandeboye, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.P., G.O.B., 
LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., Governor-General of India. Clande- 
boye, near Belfast, Iveland. 

1877. {Duffey, George F., M.D. 30 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin. 

1875. {Dutin, W. E. L’Estrange. Waterford. 

1884, §Dugdale, James H. 9 Hyde Park-gardens, London, W. 

1883. §Duke, Frederic. Conservative Club, Hastings. 

1859. *Duncan, Alexander. 7 Prince’s-gate, London, S.W. 

1866. *Duncan, James. 71 Cromwell-road, South Kensington, London, 8.W. 

1871. {Duncan, James Matthew, M.D. 50 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh. 

Dunean, J. F., M.D. 8 Upper Mervrion-street, Dublin, 

1867. {Duncan, Prrer Martin, M.B.,F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of Geology 
in King’s College, London. 6 Grosyenor-road, Gunnersbury, 
London, W. 

1880. {Duncan, William S. 22 Delamere-terrace, Bayswater, London, W. 

1881. §Duncombe, The Hon. Cecil. Nawton Grange, York. 

-.1881. {Dunhill, Charles H. Gray’s-court, York. 

1853. *Dunlop, William Henry. Annanhill, Kilmarnock, Ayrshire. 

1865. {Dunn, David. Annet House, Skelmorlie, by Greenock, N.B. 

1876. *Dunn, James. 64 Robertson-street, Glasgow. 

1882. §Dunn,J.T.,M.S8c., F.C.S. High School for Boys, Gateshead-on-Tyne. 

1883. §Dunn, Mrs. 115 Scotswood-road, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

1876. {Dunnachie, James. 2 West Regent-street, Glasgow. 

1878. {Dunne, D. B., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Logic in the Catholic Uni- 
versity of Ireland. 4 Clanwilliam-place, Dublin. 

1884. {Dunnington, F. P. University of Virginia, Virginia, U.S.A. 

1859. {Duns, Rev. John, D.D., F.R.S.E. New College, Edinburgh. 

1885. *Dunstan, Wyndham, F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry to the Pharma- 
ceutical Society of Great Britain, 17 Bloomsbury-square, 
London, W.C. 

1866. {Duprey, Perry. Woodberry Down, Stoke Newington, London, N. 

1869. {D’Urban, W.S.M.,F.L.S. 4 Queen-terrace, Mount Radford, Exeter. 

1860. {DurHAM, ArraurR Epwarp, F.R.C.S., F.L.S., Demonstrator of 
Anatomy, Guy’s Hospital. 82 Brook-street, Grosvenor-square, 
London, W. 

1884, {Dyck, Professor Walter. The University, Munich. 

1885. *Dyer, Henry, M.A. 8 Highburgh-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow. 

Dykes, Robert. Kilmorie, Torquay, Devon. 
1869. *Dymond, Edward E. Oaklands, Aspley Guise, Woburn. 


32 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1868. 
1884. 
1861. 
1885. 
1877. 
1855. 
1874. 
1885. 
1871. 


1865. 
1876. 
1883. 
1870. 


1884. 
1861. 
1858. 
1870. 


1884. 


1859. 
1870. 
1885. 
1884. 
1883. 


1867. 
1867. 
1855. 
1884. 
1876. 
1885. 


1868. 
1863. 
1885. 
1883. 
1880. 
1861. 
1864. 
1883. 
1872. 


1879. 
1864. 


1877. 


tEade, Peter, M.D. Upper St. Giles’s-street, Norwich. 

§Eads, Captain James B. 384 Nassau-street, New York, U.S.A. 

tEadson, Richard. 13 Hyde-road, Manchester. 

{Eagar, Rev. Thomas. The Rectory, Ashton-under-Lyne, 

tEarle, Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. West Alvington, Devon. 

*EarnsHaw, Rey. Samvurt, M.A. 14 Beechhill-road, Sheffield. 

tEason, Charles. 30 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, Dublin. 

t Eastham, Silas. 50 Leyland-road, Southport. 

*Easton, Epwarp, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 11 Delahay-street, West- 
minster, S.W. 

tEaston, James. Nest House, near Gateshead, Durham. 

tEaston, John. Durie House, Abercromby-street, Helensburgh, N.B. 

§Eastwood, Miss. Littleover Grange, Derby. 

{Eaton, Richard. 1 Stafford-street, Derby. 

Ebden, Rev. James Collett, M.A, F.R.AS. Great Stukeley Vicarage, 

Huntingdonshire. 

tEckersley, W. T. Standish Hall, Wigan, Lancashire. 

tEcroyd, William Farrer. Spring Cottage, near Burnley. 

*Eddison, Francis. Syward Lodge, Dorchester. 

*Eddison, John Edwin, M.D., M.R.C.S. 29 Park-square, Leeds. 

*Eddy, James Ray, F.G.S. Carleton Grange, Skipton. 

Eden, Thomas. Talbot-road, Oxton. 

*Edegell, R. Arnold, B.A., F.C.S. Ashburnham House, Little Dean’s- 
yard, Westminster, S.W. 

tEdmond, James. Cardens Haugh, Aberdeen. 

*Edmonds, F.B. 72 Portsdown-road, London, W. 

tEdmonds, William. Wiscombe Park, Honiton, Devon. 

*Edmunds, James, M.D. 8 Grafton-street, Piccadilly, London, W. 

§Edmunds, Lewis, D.Sc., LL.B. 8 Grafton-street, Piccadilly, 
London, W. 

*Edward, Allan. Farington Hall, Dundee. 

{Edward, Charles. Chambers, 8 Bank-street, Dundee. 

*Epwarps, Professor J. Baker, Ph.D., D.C.L. Montreal, Canada. 

§Edwards, W. F. Niles, Michigan, U.S.A. 

tElder, Mrs. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow. 

*Elgar, Francis, LL.D., F.R.S.E., Professor of Naval Architecture 
and Marine Engineering in the University of Glasgow. 
17 University Gardens, Glasgow. 

tElger, Thomas Gwyn Empy, F.R.A.S. Manor Cottage, Kempston, 
Bedford. 

tEllenberger, J. L. Worksop. 

§Ellingham, Frank. Thorpe St. Andrew, Norwich. 

{Ellington, Edward Bayzand, M.Inst.C.E. Palace-chambers, Bridge- 
street, Westminster, 8. W. 

*Elliot, Colonel Charles, C.B. Hazelbank, Murraytield, Midlothian, 
N.B 


*Exxior, Sir Watrer, K.C.S.1., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. Wolfelee, 
Hawick, N.B. 

tElliott, E. B. Washington, U.S.A. 

*Exiiorr, Epwry Barrey, M.A. Queen’s College, Oxford. 

tElliott, Rev. E. B. 11 Sussex-square, Kemp Town, Brighton. 

Elliott, John Fogg. Elvet Hill, Durham. 

§Elliott, Joseph W. Post Office, Bury, Lancashire. 

*ELtis, ALEXANDER Joun, B.A., F.R.S., F.S.A. 25 Argyll-road, 
Kensington, London, W. 

{Ellis, Arthur Devonshire. School of Mines, Jermyn-street, London, 
S.W.; and Thurnscoe Hall, Rotherham, Yorkshire. 


wil ol 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 33 


Year of 
Election. 


1875. 
1883. 
1880. 
1864, 
1864, 


1884, 
1869, 


1862. 


1883. 
1870. 


1863. 


1884. 
1865. 
1858. 
1866, 
1866. 
1884, 
1853, 


1869, 


*Ellis, H. D. 67 Ladbroke Grove-road, Notting Hill, London, W. 
fEllis, John. 17 Church-street, Southport. 
*Extis, Joun Henry. New Close, Cambridge-road, Southport. 
*Ellis, Joseph. Hampton Lodge, Brizhton. 
tEllis, J. Walter. High House, Thornwaite, Ripley, Yorkshire. 
*Eilis, Rev. Robert, A.M. The Institute, St. Saviour’s Gate, York. 
tEllis, W. Hodgson. Toronto, Canada. 
Eris, Wior1am Horton. Hartwell House, Exeter. 

Ellman, Rey. E. B. Berwick Rectory, near Lewes, Sussex. 
fElphinstone, H. W., M.A., F.L.S. 2 Stone-buildings, Lincoln's Inn, 

London, W.C. 
tElwes, George Robert. Bossington, Bournemouth. 
*Ety, The Right Rev. Lord Atwyne Compton, D.D., Lord Bishop 
of. The Palace, Ely, Cambridgeshire. , 
tEmbleton, Dennis, M.D. Northumberland-street, Newcastle-on- 
Tyne. 

tines, Albert H. Stamford, Connecticut, U.S.A. 

{Emery, The Ven. Archdeacon, B.D. Ely, Cambridgeshire. 

{Empson, Christopher. Bramhope Hall, Leeds. 

tEnfield, Richard. Low Pavement, Nottingham. 

tEnfield, William. Low Pavement, Nottingham. 

{England, Luther M. Knowlton, Quebec, Canada. 

fEnglish, Edgar Wilkins. Yorkshire Banking Company, Lowgate, 
Hull. 

tEnglish, J.T, Wayfield House, Stratford-on-A von. 

EnniskittEN, The Right Hon. Wrr1i1am Writtovensy, Earl of, 
LL.D., D.C.L., F.RS., F.G.S., M.R.ILA. 65 Eaton-place, 
London, 8.W.; and Florence Court, Fermanagh, Ireland. 


. {Entwistle, James P. Beachfield, 2 Westclyffe-road, Southport. 
. *Enys, John Davis. Oare of F. G. Enys, Esq., Enys, Penryn, 


Cornwall. 


. }Erichsen, John Eric, LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Professor of Surgery 


in University College, London. 6 Cavendish-place, Lon- 
don, W. 


. *Eskrigge, R. A., F.G.S. 18 Hackins-hey, Liverpool. 
. §Esselmont, Peter. 54 Albyn-place, Aberdeen. 
. *Esson, WitiiaM, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., FLR.A.S. Merton College ; 


and 13 Bradmore-road, Oxford. 


. tEstcourt, Charles, F.C.S. 8 St. James’s-square, John Dalton-street, 


Manchester. 
Estcourt, Rev. W. J. B. Long Newton, Tetbury. 


. {Ernerres, Ropert, F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., Assistant Keeper (Geo- 


logical and Paleontological Department) Natural History 
Museum (British Museum). 14 Carlyle-square, London, S.W. 


- §Eunson, Henry J. 20 St. Giles-street, Northampton. 

. tEvans, Alfred. Exeter College, Oxford. 

. *Evans, Arthur John, F.S.A. Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead. 

. “Evans, Rey. Cuartus, M.A. The Rectory, Solihull, Birmingham. 
. §Evans, Horace L. Moreton House, Tyndall Park, Bristol. 

. “Evans, H. Saville W. Wimbledon Park House, Wimbledon, 


Surrey. 


. *Evans, Joun, D.C.L., LL.D., Treas.R.S., F.S.A., F.G.8. 65 Old 


Bailey, London, E.C.; and Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead. 


. §Evans, J.C. Nevill-street, Southport. 

. §Evans, Mrs. J.C. Neyvill-street, Southport. 

. §Evans, Lewis. Llanfyrnach R.S.O., Pembrokeshire. 

. TEvans, Mortimer, M.Inst.C.E. 97 West Regent-street, Glasgow. 


c 


34 


Year of 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Election. 


1885 


1865. 


1875. 
1866. 
1865. 
1871. 
1868, 


1880. 
1863. 
1883. 
1881. 


1874. 
1874. 
1859. 


*Evans, Percy Bagnall. The Spring, Kenilworth. 

tEvans, Supastran, M.A., LL.D. Heathfield, Alleyne Park, Lower 
Norwood, Surrey, 8.E. 

{Evans, Sparke. 3 Apsley-road, Clifton, Bristol. 

tEvans, Thomas, F.G.S. Belper, Derbyshire. 

*Evans, William. The Spring, Kenilworth, 

§Eve, H. Weston, M.A. University College, London, W.C. 

*Kyererr, J. D., MA., D.C.L., F.RS. L. & E., Professor of 
Natural Philosophy in Queen’s College, Belfast. Lennox-vale, 
Belfast. 

tEveringham, Edward. St. Helen’s-road, Swansea. 

*Hyeritt, George Allen, F.R.G.S. Knowle Hall, Warwickshire. 

tEves, Miss Florence. Uxbridge. 

JEwart, J. Cossar, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the 
University of Edinburgh. 

tEwart, William, M.P. Gleumachan, Belfast. 

tEwart, W. Quartus. Glenmachan, Belfast. 

*Ewing, Sir Archibald Orr, Bart., M.P. Ballikinrain Castle, Killearn, 
Stirlingshire. 


. *Ewrne, James ALFRED, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Engineering 


in University College, Dundee. 


. {Ewing, James L. 52 North Bridge, Edinburgh. 

. *Exley, John T., M.A. 1 Cotham-road, Bristol. 

. §Eyerman, John. Easton, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. 

. *Eyre, George Edward, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 59 Lowndes-square, 


London, 8.W.; and Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants. 
? d mt d 


. [Eyre,G. E. Briscoe. Warrens, near Lyndhurst, Hants. 


Eyton, Charles. Hendred House, Abingdon. 


. {Fairbairn, Dr. A. M._ Airedale College, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

. *Farriey, Toomas, F.R.S.E., F.C.8. 8 Newton-grove, Leeds. 

. {Fairlie, James M. Charing Cross Corner, Glasgow. 

. {Fairlie, Robert, C.E. Woodlands, Clapham Common, London, 
S.W. 


. {Fallmer, F. H. Lyncombe, Bath. 
. {Fallon, Rev. W.S. 1 St. Alban’s-terrace, Cheltenham. 
. §Faraday, F. J., F.L.S., F.S.8. College Chambers, 17 Brazenose- 


street, Manchester. 


. *Farnworth, Ernest. Swindon, near Dudley. 

. §Farnworth, Walter. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn. 

. §Farnworth, William. 86 Preston New-road, Blackburn. 

. §Farquhar, Admiral. Cuarlogie, Aberdeen. 

. {Farquharson, Robert F. O. Haughton, Aberdeen. 

. §Farquharson, Mrs. R. F. 0. Haughton, Aberdeen. 

. *Farrar, Ven. Frepprick Witiiam, M.A., D.D., F.R.S8., Arch- 


deacon of Westminster. St. Margaret's Rectory, Westminster, 
S.W. 


. {Farrell, John Arthur. Moynalty, Kells, North Ireland. 

. {Farrelly, Rev. Thomas. Royal College, Maynooth. 

. *Faulding, Joseph. Ebor Villa, Godwin-road, Clive-vale, Hastings. 
. §Faulding, Mrs. Ebor Villa, Godwin-road, Clive-vale, Hastings. 

. [Pawceus, George. -Alma-place, North Shields. 

. *Fazakerley, Miss. Ranwell Abbey, Weston-super-Mare, Somerset. 
. {Felkin, William, F.L.S. ThePark, Nottingham. 


Fell, John B. Spark’s Bridge, Ulverstone, Lancashire. 


. *Frttows, Frank P., F.S.A., F.S.S. 8 The Green, Hampstead, 


London, N.W. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 35 


Year of 
Election. 


1852. 
1883. 
1876. 
1876. 
1883. 
1859. 
1871. 


1867. 
1857. 


1854, 


1867. 
1883. 
1883. 
1862. 


1873. 


1882. 
1875. 
1868. 
1869, 


1882. 
1883. 


1883, 


1885. 
1878. 
1885. 
1884. 
1885. 


1881. 


1865. 
1851. 


1858. 


1884. 
1869. 


1875. 
1879. 
1875. 
1858. 
1885. 
1871. 


1871. 


{Fenton,S.Greame. 9 College-square ; and Keswick, near Belfast. 

tFenwick, E. H. 29 Harley-street, London, W. 

*Fergus, Andrew,M.D. 191 Bath-street, Glasgow. 

{Ferguson, Alexander A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow. 

tFerguson, Mrs. A. A. 11 Grosvenor-terrace, Glasgow. 

tFerguson, John. Cove, Nige, Inverness. 

*Ferguson, John, M.A., Professor of Chemistry in the University of 
Glasgow. : 

{Ferguson, Robert M., Ph.D., F.R.S.E. 8 Queen-street, Edinburgh. 

{Ferguson, Sir Samuel, LL.D.,Q.C. 20 Great George’s-street North, 


Dublin. 

tFerguson, William, F.L.S., F.G.S. Kinmundy, near Mintlaw, 
Aberdeenshire. 

*Fergusson, H. B. 13 Airlie-place, Dundee. 


§Fernald, H. P. Alma House, Cheltenham. 

*Fernie John. 113 South 40th Street, Philadelphia, U.S.A, 

{Frrrers, Rey. Norman MacLuop, D.D., F.R.S. Caius College 
Lodge, Cambridge. 

tFerrier, David, M.A., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Forensic Medicine 
in King’s College, 84 Cavendish-square, London, W. 

§Fewings, James, B.A., B.Sc. The Grammar School, Southampton. 

{Fiddes, Walter. Clapton Villa, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol. 

tField, Edward. Norwich. 

*Frexp, Roeurs, B.A., M.Inst.C.E. 4 Westminster-chambers, West- 
minster, 8. W. 

§Filliter, Freeland. St. Martin’s House, Wareham, Dorset. 

*Finch, Gerard B., M.A. 10 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, London, 
NW. 

tFinch, Mrs. Gerard. 10 Lyndhurst-road, Hampstead, London, 
N.W. 


Finch, John. Bridge Work, Chepstow. 
Finch, John, jun, Bridge Work, Chepstow. 
§Frypiater, JouHN. 60 Union-street, Aberdeen. 
*Findlater, William, M.-P. 22 Fitzwilliam-square, Dublin. 
§Findlay, George, M.A. 50 Victoria-street, Aberdeen. ' 
{Finlay, Samuel. Montreal, Canada. } 
§Finney, John Douglass. ‘The West Mansions, De Vere-gardens, 
Kensington, London, W. 
{Firth, Colonel Sir Charles. Heckmondwike. 
Firth, Thomas. Northwick. 
*Firth, William. Burley Wood, near Leeds. 
*Fiscuer, Professor Winrram L. F., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S. St. 
Andrews, N.B. 
{Fishbourne, Admiral E.G., R.N. 26 Hogarth-road, Earl’s Court- 
road, London, 8. W. 
*Fisher, L. C. Galveston, Texas, U.S A. 
tFisuer, Rev. Osmond, M.A., F.G.S.  Harlton Rectory, near 
Cambridge. 
§Fisher, William. Maes Fron, near Welshpool, Montgomeryshire. 
{Fisher, William. Norton Grange, near Sheffield. 
*Fisher, W. W., M.A., F.C.S. 5 St. Margaret’s-road, Oxford. 
{Fishwick, Henry. Carr-hill, Rochdale. 
§Fison, E. Herbert. Stoke House, Ipswich. 
*Fison, Freperick W., M.A., F.C.S.  Eastmoor, Ilkley, York- 
shire. : 
{Fircw, J. G.. M.A., LL.D. 5 Lancaster-terrace, Regent’s Park, 
London, N.W. 
c 2 


36 


Year of 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Election. 


1888. 
1868. 
1878. 
1878. 


1885. 
1857. 
1881. 
1865. 


1850. 
1881. 
1876. 
1876. 
1867. 
1870. 
1869. 


1862. 


1877. 
1881. 


1879. 
1879. 
1880. 


1873. 


1883. 
1885. 
1866. 


1875, 


1883. 
1867. 
1883. 
1884. 
1854. 
1877. 
1882. 
1870. 
1875. 
1865. 


1865. 
18838. 
1857. 


1881. 
1845. 
1877. 


{Fitch, Rev. J. J. Ivyholme, Southport. 

{Fitch, Robert, F.G.S., F.S.A. Norwich. 

{Fitzgerald, C. E., M.D. 27 Upper Merrion-street, Dublin. 
§Firz@ERALD, GrorGE Francis, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural 
and Experimental Philosophy. Trinity College, Dublin. 

*Fitzgerald, Professor Maurice, B.A. 387 Botanic-avenue, Belfast. 

{Fitzpatrick, Thomas, M.D. 31 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin. 

{Fitzsimmons, Henry, M.D. Minster-yard, York. 

{Fleetwood, D. J. 45 George-street, St. Paul’s, Birmingham. 

Fleetwood, Sir Peter Hesketh, Bart. Rossall Hall, Fleetwood, 
Lancashire. 

{Fleming, Professor Alexander, M.D, 121 Hagley-road, Birmingham. 

{Fleming, Rev. Canon James, B.D. The Residence, York. 

{Fleming, James Brown. Beaconsfield, Kelvinside, near Glasgow. 

{Fleming, Sandford. Ottawa, Canada. 

§FrercuEeR, ALFRED E. 57 Gordon-square, London, W.C. 

{Fletcher, B. Edgington. Norwich. 

{Frercuer, Lavrneron E., M.Inst.C.E, Alderley Edge, Cheshire. 

Fletcher, T. B. E., M.D. 7 Waterloo-street, Birmingham. 

{Frower, Wittram Henry, LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS., F.G.S., F.R.OS., 
Director of the Natural History Department, British Museum, 
South Kensington, London, 8.W. 

*Floyer, Ermest A., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Cairo. 

{Foljambe, Cecil G. S., M.-P. 2 Carlton House-terrace, Pall Mall, 
London, 8. W. 

{Foote, Charles Newth, M.D. 38 Albion-place, Sunderland. 

{Foote, Harry D’Oyley, M.D. Rotherham, Yorkshire. 

tFoote, R. Bruce. Care of Messrs. H. 8. King & Co., 65 Cornhill, 
London, F.C. 

*Forses, Grorez, M.A., F.R.S.E. 34 Great George-street, Lon- 
don, S. W. 

§Forbes, Henry O., F.Z.8. Rubislaw Den, Aberdeen. 

§Forbes, The Right Hon. Lord. Castle Forbes, Aberdeenshire. 

{Ford, William. Hartsdown Villa, Kensington Park-gardens East, 
London, W. 

*Forpuam, H, Grorer, F.G.S. Odsey Grange, Royston, Cambridge- 
shire. 

*Forrest, William Hutton. 1 Pitt-terrace, Stirling. 

§Formby, R. Formby, near Liverpool. 

+Forster, Anthony. Finlay House, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea. 

{Forsyth, A. R. University College, Liverpool. 

{Fort, George H. Lakefield, Ontario, Canada. 

*Fort, Richard. Read Hall, Whalley, Lancashire. 

{Forrescunr, The Right Hon. the Earl. Castle Hill, North Devon. 

§Forward, Henry. 3 Burr-street, London, E. 

{Forwood, Sir William B. Hopeton House, Seaforth, Liverpool. 

{Foster, A. Le Neve. 51 Cadogan-square, London, 8.W. 

tFoster, Balthazar, M.D., Professor of Medicine in Queen’s College, 
Birmingham. 16 Temple-row, Birmingham, 

*Fosrer, Clement Lz Neve, B.A., D.Se., F.G.S8. Llandudno. 

{Foster, Mrs. C. Le Neve. Llandudno. 

*Fosrer, Grorck (arry, B.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of 
Physics in University College, London. 18 Daleham-gardens, 
Hampstead, London, N.W. 

{Foster, J. L. Ogleforth, York. 

{Foster, John N. Sandy Place, Sandy, Bedfordshire. 

§Foster, Joseph B. 6 James-street, Plymouth. 


Year 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 37 


of 


Election. 
1859. *Fostrr, Micuart, M.A., M.D., Sec. R.S., F.L.S., F.C.S., Professor 


1863. 
1866. 
1868. 
1876. 
1882. 


1870. 


1884. 
1883. 
1883. 


1860. 


1883, 


1876. 
1860. 
1876. 
1881. 


1866. 
1884. 


of Physiology in the University of Cambridge. Trinity College, 
and Great Shelford, near Cambridge. 

{Foster, Robert. 30 Rye-hill, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

{Fowler, George, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Basford Hall, near Nottingham. 

Fowler, G. G. Gunton Hall, Lowestoft, Suffolk. 

*Fowler, John. 4 Kelvin Bank-terrace, Glasgow. 

}Fowrer, Sir Jonn, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 2 Queen Square-place, 
Westminster, S.W. 

*Fowler, Sir Robert Nicholas, Bart., M.A., M.P., F.R.G.S. 

50 Cornhill, London, E.C. 

§Fox, Miss A.M. Penjerrick, Falmouth. 

*Fox, Charles. 25 St. George’s-road, Tufnell Park, London, N. 

§Fox, Charles Douglas, M.Inst.C.E. 5 Delahay-street, Westminster, 


*Fox, Rev. Edward, M.A. Upper Heyford, Banbury. 

{Fox, Howard, United States Consul. Falmouth. 

*Fox, Joseph Hayland. The Cleve, Wellington, Somerset. 

{Fox, Joseph John. Lordship-terrace, Stoke Newington, London, N. 

tFox, St. G. Lane. 9 Sussex-place, London, 8.W. 

*Foxwett, Hersert S., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in 
University College, London. St. John’s College, Cambridge. 

*Francis, G. B. Inglesby House, Stoke Newington-green, London, N. 

{Francis, James B. Lowell, Massachusetts, U.S.A. 

Francis, Witi1AM, Ph.D., F.L.S., F.G.8., F-R.A.S. Red Lion-court, 
Fleet-street, London, E.C.; and Manor House, Richmond, 
Surrey. 

{FRANKLAND, Epwarp, M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D:, F.R.S., F.C.S. 
The Yews, Reigate Hill, Surrey. 

*Frankland, Rey. Marmaduke Charles. Chowhbent, near Manchester. 

{Fraser, Alexander, M.B. Royal College of Surgeons, Dublin. 

§Fraser, Aneus, M.A., M.D., F.C.S. 252 Union-street, Aberdeen. 

{Fraser, George B. 3 Airlie-place, Dundee. 

Fraser, James William. 8a Kensington Palace-gardens, London, W. 
*Frasmr, Joun, M.A., M.D. Chapel Ash, Wolverhampton. 
tFrasgr, THomas R., M.D., F.R.S.L.&E., Professor of Materia 

Medica and Clinical Medicine in the University of Edinburgh. 
37 Melville-street, Edinburgh. 


. *Frazer, Daniel. 127 Buchanan-street, Glasgow. 
. {Frazer, Evan L. R. Brunswick-terrace, Spring Bank, Hull. 
. *Frazer, Persifor, M.A., D.Se., Professor of Chemistry in the 


Franklin Institute of Pennsylvania. 917 Clinton-street, Phila- 
delphia, U.S.A. 


. *Fream, W., B.Sc., F.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Natural History in 


the College of Agriculture, Downton, Salisbury. 


. Freeborn, Richard Fernandez. 38 Broad-street, Oxford. 

. *Freeland, Humphrey William, F.G.S. West-street, Chichester. 
. §Freeman, Francis Ford. 8 Leigham-terrace, Plymouth. 

. {Freeman, James. 15 Francis-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

. {Freeman, Thomas. Brynhyfryd, Swansea. 


Freeth, Major-General 8. 30 Royal-crescent, Notting Hill, London, 
We 


_ *Fremantle, Hon. C. W.,C.B. Royal Mint, London, E. 


Frere, George Edward, F.R.S. Roydon Hall, Diss, Norfolk. 


. Frere, Rey. William Edward. The Rectory, Bilton, near Bristol. 
. *Frith, Richard Hastings, C.E,, M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.1. 48 Summer- 


hill, Dublin. 


38 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 


1883. 
1882. 
1883. 
1875. 


1875, 
1884, 
1872. 
1859. 
1869. 


1884. 
1864, 


1881. 


1857. 
1863. 
1876. 
1850, 
1861. 


1876. 
1863. 
1885. 
1861. 
1861, 
1875. 
1860. 


1860. 
1869, 
1870. 
1870. 
1872. 
1877. 
1868. 


1883. 
1882. 
1882. 


1884, 
1862. 
1866. 
1882. 
1873. 


1883. 


tFroane, William. Beech House, Birkdale, Southport. 
§Frost, Edward P., J.P. West Wratting Hall, Cambridgeshire. 
{Frost, Captain H., J.P. West Wratting, Cambridgeshire. . 
tFry, F. J. 104 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol. 
Fry, Francis. Cotham, Bristol. 
*Fry, Joseph Storrs. 2 Charlotte-street, Bristol. 
§Fryer, Joseph, J.P. Smelt House, Howden-le-Wear, Co, Durham, 
*Fuller, Rev. A. Pallant, Chichester. 
{Futxer, Frepericx, M.A. 9 Palace-road, Surbiton. 
{FuLtER, Grorer, M.Inst.C.E. 71 Lexham-gardens, Kensington, 
London, W. 
§Fuller, William. Oswestry. 
*Furneaux, Rey. Alan. St. German's Parsonage, Cornwall. 


tGabb, Rey. James, M.A. Bulmer Rectory, Welburn, York- 
shire. 

*Gadesden, Augustus William, F.S.A. Ewell Castle, Surrey. 

{tGaeus, Atpnonsz, M.R.I.A. Museum of Irish Industry, Dublin. 

*Gainsford, W. D. Aswardby Hall, Spilsby. 

{Gairdner, Charles. Broom, Newton Mearns, Renfrewshire. 

tGairdner, Professor W. T., M.D. 225 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. 

tGalbraith, Andrew. Glasgow. 
Garprarra, Rey. J. A., M.A., M.R.I.A. Trinity College, Dublin. 
tGale, James M. 23 Miller-street, Giasgow. 

tGale, Samuel, F.C.S. 225 Oxford-street, London, W. 

*Gallaway, Alexander. ‘Tighnault, Aberfeldy, N.B. 

{Galloway, Charles John. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester. 

Galloway, John, jun. Knott Mill Iron Works, Manchester. 

tGattoway, W. Cardiff. 

*Gatton, Captain Dovatas, C.B., D.O.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.LS., 
F.G.8., F.R.G.S. (Gunerat SEcrErARy.) 12 Chester-street, 
Grosvencr-place, London, S.W. 

*GaLTon, Francis, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 42 Rutland- 
gate, Knightsbridge, London, 8. W. 

tGatron, Joun C., M.A., F.L.S. 40 Great Marlborough-street, 
London, W. 

§Gamble, Lieut.-Colonel D. St. Helen’s, Lancashire. 

tGamble, J.C. St. Helen’s, Lancashire. 

*Gamble, John G., M.A. Capetown. (Care of Messrs. Ollivier and 
Brown, 37 Sackville-street, Piccadilly, London, W.) 

tGamble, William. St. Helen’s, Lancashire. 

tGamerr, Artaur, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Fullerian Professor of 
Physiology in the Royal Institution, London, 11 Warrior- 
square, St. Leonard’s-on-Sea. 

tGant, Major John Castle. St. Leonard’s. 

*Gardner, H. Dent, F.R.G.S. 25 Northbrook-road, Lee, Kent. 

ec se John Starkie, F.G.S. 7 Damer-terrace, Chelsea, London, 

iW. 


{Garman, Samuel. Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.A. 

tGarner, Ropert, F.L.S. Stoke-upon-Trent. 

tGarner, Mrs. Robert. Stoke-upon-Trent. 

{Garnett, William, M.A., Principal of the College of Physical Science, 
Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

{Garnham, John. Hazelwood, Crescent-road, St. John’s, Brockley, 
Kent, S.E. 

§Garson, J. G., M.D. Royal College of Surgeons, Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, 
London, W.C, 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 39 


Year of 
Election. 


1874. 


*Garstin, John Ribton, M.A., LL.B., M.R.LA., F.S.A. Bragans- 
town, Castlebellingham, Ireland. 


. TGarton, William. Woolston, Southampton. 

. {Gaskell, Holbrook. Woolton Wood, Liverpool. 

. *Gaskell, Holbrook, jun. Clayton Lodge, Aigburth, Liverpool. 
. *Gaskell, Samuel. Church House, Weybridge. 


Gaskell, Rev. William, M.A. Plymouth-grove, Manchester. 


. *Gatty, Charles Henry, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. Felbridge Place, East 


Grinstead, Sussex. 


. [Gavey, J. 43 Stacey-road, Routh, Cardiff. 

. TGaye, Henry 8.,M.D. Newton Abbot, Devon. 

. [Geddes, John. 9 Melville-crescent, Edinburgh. 

. §Geddes, John. 33 Portland-street, Southport. 

. §Geddes, Patrick. 814 Prince’s-street, Edinburgh. 

. TGeddes, William D., M.A., Professor of Greek in King’s College, 


Old Aberdeen. 


. {Gee, Robert, M.D. 5 Abercromby-square, Liverpool. 
. {GerKre, ARCHIBALD, LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.G.S., Director-General 


of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom. Geological 
Survey Office, Jermyn-street, London, S.W. 


. tGeikie, James, LL.D., F.R.S. L.& E., F.G.S., Murchison Professor 


of Geology and Mineralogy in the University of Edinburgh. 
10 Bright’s-crescent, Mayfield, Edinburgh. 


. {Gell, Mrs. Seedley Lodge, Pendleton, Manchester. 
. §Genese, R. W., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in University Col- 


lege, Aberystwith. 


. *George, Rev. Hereford B., M.A., F.R.G.S. New College, Oxford. 

- §Gerard, Robert. Blair-Devenick, Cults, Aberdeen. 

. *Gerrans, Henry T., B.A. Worcester College, Oxford. 

. TGerstl, R., F.CS. University College, London, W.C. 

. *Gervis, Walter 8., M.D., F.G.S. Ashburton, Devonshire. 

. {Gibb, Charles. Abbotsford, Quebec, Canada. 

. {Gibbins, William. Battery Works, Digbeth, Birmingham, 

. {Gibson, The Right Hon. Edward, Q.C., M.P. 23 Fitzwilliam- 


square, Dublin. 
*Gibson, George Alexander, M.D., D.Se., F.R.S.E. 17 Alva-street, 
Edinburzh. 


. [Gibson, Rev. James J. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada. 

. §Gibson, John, Ph.D. The University, Edinburgh. 

. [Gibson, Thomas. 51 Oxford-street, Liverpool. 

. [Gibson, Thomas, jun. 10 Parkfield-road, Princes Park, Liver- 


pool. 
. TGilbert, E. E. 245 St. Antoine-street, Montreal, Canada. 


GILBERT, JosepH Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor 
of Rural Economy in the University of Oxford. Harpenden, 
near St. Albans. 


. §Gilbert, Mrs. Harpenden, near St. Albans. 

. tGilbert, J. T., M.R.LA. Villa Nova, Blackrock, Dublin. 

. *Gilbert, Philip H. 245 St. Antoine-street, Montreal, Canada. 
3. {Gilbert, Thomas. Derby-road, Southport. 

. *GricHRist, James, M.D. Crichton House, Dumfries. 


Gilderdale, Rev. John, M.A. Walthamstow, Essex. 


. {Giles, Alfred, M.P., M.I.C.E. Cosford, Godalming. 
. Giles, Oliver. Park Side, Cromwell-road, St. Andrew’s, Bristol. 


Giles, Rev. William. Netherleigh House, near Chester. 


. {Gill, Rev. A. W. H. 44 Eaton-square, London, S.W. 
. *Gri1, Davin, LL.D., F.R.S. Royal Observatory, Cape Town. 


40 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1868. 


1864, 
1884. 


1861. 
1867. 
1876, 


1867. 


1884. 
1874. 
1884, 
1883, 
1883. 
1850. 
1883. 
1849, 


1861. 
1871. 


1883. 
1881. 
1881. 
1870. 
1867. 


1874. 
1885. 


1870. 
1872. 
1878. 
1880. 


1883. 
1852. 
1879. 


1876. 
1877. 
1881. 
1873. 
1884, 
1878. 
1852. 
1884. 
1842. 
1885. 
1865. 
1869, 
1884. 


1884. 


tGill, Joseph. Palermo, Sicily. (Care of W. H. Gill, Esq., General 
Post Office, St. Martin’s-le-Grand, E.C.) 
tGitt, THomas, 4 Sydney-place, Bath. 
ase. Henry. 79 Kast Columbia-street, Detroit, Michigan, 
SA 


*Gilroy, George. Woodlands, Parbold, near Wigan. 

tGilroy, Robert. Craigie, by Dundee. 

fGimingham, Charles H., F.C.S. 45 St. Augustine’s-road, Camden- 
square, London, N.W. 

§GinspuRe, Rey. C. D., D.C.L., LL.D. Holmlea, Virginia Water 
Station, Chertsey. 

{Girdwood, Dr. G. P. 28 Beaver Hall-terrace, Montreal, Canada, 

*Girdwood, James Kennedy. Old Park, Belfast. 

{Gisborne, Frederick Newton. Ottawa, Canada. 

*Gladstone, Miss. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W. 

*Gladstone, Miss E. A. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W. 

*Gladstone, George, F.0.S., F.R.G.S. 31 Ventnor-villas, Brighton. 

*Gladstone, Miss Isabella M. 17 Pembridge-square, London, W. 

*GrapsronE, Jonn Hart, Ph.D., F.RS., F.C.S. 17 Pembridge- 
square, London, W. 

*GLAIsHER, JAMES, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 1 Dartmouth-place, Black- 
heath, London, 8.E. 

*GuaisHEer, J. W. L., M.A., F.RS., F.R.A.S. Trinity College, 
Cambridge. 

TGlasson, L. T. 2 Roper-street, Penrith, 

*GruAzEBROOK, R. T., M.A., F.R.S. Trinity College, Cambridge. 

§Gleadow, Frederic. Brunswick House, Beverley-road, Hull. 

§Glen, David Corse, F.G.S. 14 Annfield-place, Glasgow. 

fGloag, John A. L. 10 Inverleith-place, Edinburgh. 

Glover, George. Ranelagh-road, Pimlico, London, 8S. W. 
TGlover, George T. 30 Donegall-place, Belfast. 
§Glover, John Moore. Brookfield, Lulworth-road, Southport. 
Glover, Thomas. 124 Manchester-road, Southport. 

{Glynn, Thomas R. 1 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 

tGopparp, RicHarp. 16 Booth-street, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

*Godlee, J. Lister. 3 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C. 

tGopman, F. Du Cans, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. 10 Chandos-street, 
Cayvendish-square, London, W. 

tGodson, Dr. Alfred. Cheadle, Cheshire. 

tGodwin, John. Wood House, Rostrevor, Belfast. 

tGopwiry-Avsten, Lieut.-Colonel H. H., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S. 
Shalford House, Guildford. 

tGoff, Bruce, M.D. Bothwell, Lanarkshire. 

{ Goff, James. 11 Northumberland-road, Dublin. 

tGoldschmidt, Edward. Nottingham. 

tGoldthorp, Miss R. F.C, Cleckheaton, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

tGood, Charles E. 102 St. Francois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada. 

tGood, Rey. Thomas, B.D. 51 Wellington-road, Dublin, 

tGoodbody, Jonathan. Clare, King’s County, Ireland. 

tGoodbody, Robert. Fairy Hill, Blackrock, Co, Dublin, 

*GoopMAN, Jonny, M.D. 8 Leicester-street, Southport. 

§Goopman, J. D., J.P. Peachfield, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

tGoodman, J. D. Minories, Birmingham. 

tGoodman, Neville, M.A. Peterhouse, Cambridge. 

§Goodridge, Richard E. W. Box No. 882, Post Office, Winnipeg, 
Canada. 

tGoodwin, Professor W.L. Kingston, Ontario, Canada. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 41 


Year of 
Election. 


1870. *Goodwin, Rey. Henry Albert, M.A., F.R.A.S, Lambourne Rectory, 
Romford. 

1883. tGoouch, B., B.A. 2 Oxford-road, Birkdale, Southport. 

1885. §Gordon, General the Hon. Sir Alexander Hamilton. 50 Queen’s 
Gate-gardens, London, 8S. W. 

1885. §Gordon, Rey. Cosmo, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.G.8. Chetwynd Rectory, 
Newport, Salop. 

1885. §Gordon, Rey. George, LL.D. Birnie, by Elgin, N.B. 

1871. *Gordon, Joseph Gordon, F.C.S. Queen Anne’s Mansions, West- 
minster, 8. W. 

1884. *Gordon, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.G.S. Howley Lodge, Maida 
Hill West, London, W. 

1857. {Gordon, Samuel, M.D. 11 Hume-street, Dublin 

1885. §Gordon, Rey. William. Braemar, N.B. 

1865. {Gore, George, LL.D., F.R.S. 50 Islington-row, Edgbaston, Bir- 
mingham. 

1875. *Gotch, Francis, B.A., B.Sc. Holywell Cottage, Oxford. 

*Gotch, Rey. Frederick William, LL.D. Stokes Croft, Bristol. 
*Gotch, Thomas Henry. Kettering. 

1873. §Gott, Charles, M.Inst.C.E. Parktield-road, Manningham, Bradford 
Yorkshire. 

1849. tGough, The Hon. Frederick. Perry Hall, Birmingham. 

1857. {Gough, The Right Hon. George §., Viscount, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 
St. Helen’s, Booterstown, Dublin. 

1881. {Gough, Thomas, B.Se., F.C.S. Elmfield College, York. 

1868. {Gould, Rev. George. Unthank-road, Norwich. 

18785. {Gourlay, J. McMillan. 21 St. Andrew’s-place, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

1867. tGourley, Henry (Engineer). Dundee. 

1876. {Gow, Robert. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow. 

1883. §Gow, Mrs. Cairndowan, Dowanhill, Glasgow. 

Gowland, James. London-wall, London, E.C. 

1873. §Goyder, Dr. D. Marley House, 88 Great Horton-road, Bradford, 
Yorkshire. 

1861. {Grafton, Frederick W. Park-road, Whalley Range, Manchester. 

1867. *Granam, Crrit, C.M.G., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Travellers’ Club, Pall 
Mall, London, S.W. 

1875. {GranamE, James. 12 St. Vincent-street, Glascow. 

1852. *GRAINGER, Rev. Canon Jonn, D.D.,M.R.I.A. Skerry and Rathcayan 
Rectory, Broughshane, near Ballymena, Co. Antrim. 

1870. {GRant, Colonel James A., C.B., C.S.L, F.RS., F.LS., F.R.GS. 
19 Upper Grosvenor-street, London, W. 

1855. *Grant, Ropert, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Regius Professor of 
Astronomy in the University of Glasgow. The Observatory, 
Glasgow. 

1854, {GrantHam, Ricwarp B., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Northumberland- 
chambers, Northumberland-avenue, London, W.C. 

1864, {Grantham, Richard F. Northumberland-chambers, Northumberland- 
avenue, London, W.C. 

1881. {Graves, E. 22 Trebovir-road, Earl’s Court-road, London, S. W. 

1874, {Graves, Rev. James, B.A., M.R.LA. Inisnag Glebe, Stonyford, Co. 
Kilkenny. 

1881. {Gray, Alan, LL.B. Minster-yard, York. 

1870. {Gray, C. B. 5 Rumford-place, Liverpool. 

1864, *Gray, Rev. Charles. The Vicarage, Blyth, Worksop. 

1865. {Gray, Charles. Swan-bank, Bilston. 

1876. {Gray, Dr. Newton-terrace, Glasgow. 

1881. {Gray, Edwin, LL.B. Minster-yard, York. 


42 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1864. 
1859. 
1881. 
1885. 
1873. 


1883. 
1883. 
1883. 
1866. 
1869. 
1872. 
1872. 
1879. 
1858. 
1882. 


1881. 
1884, 
1884. 
1884, 
1863. 
1875. 
1862. 


1877. 
1883. 


1849, 
1861. 


1833. 
1860, 
1868. 


1883. 
1883. 
1861. 
1881. 
1875. 


1875. 
1871. 


1859. 
1875. 


1878. 
1859. 
1870. 
1884. 
1884. 
1847. 
1879. 


1875. 


{Gray, Jonathan. Summerhill House, Bath. 

tGray, Rey. J. H. Bolsover Castle, Derbyshire. 
tGray, Thomas. 21 Haybrom-crescent, Glasgow. 
{Gray, Thomas. Spittal Hill, Morpeth. 
tGray, William, M.R.LA. 6 Mount Charles, Belfast. 
*Gray, Colonel Wittram. Farley Hall, near Reading. 

{Gray, William Lewis. 36 Gutter-lane, London, E.C. 
tGray, Mrs. W. L. 36 Gutter-lane, London, E.C, 
tGreathead, J. H. 8 Victoria-chambers, London, 8.W. 

§Greaves, Charles Augustus, M.B., LL.B. 101 Friar-gate, Derby. 

{Greaves, William. Station-street, Nottingham. 

tGreaves, William. 3 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London, W.C. 

*Grece, Clair J., LL.D. Redhill, Surrey. 

tGreen, A. F. 15 Ashwood-villas, Headingley, Leeds. 

*Greenhalgh, Thomas. Thornydikes, Sharples, near Bolton-le-Moors. 

{Greenuitt, A. G., M.A., Professor of Mathematics at the Royal 
Artillery Institution, Woolwich. Emmanuel College, Cam- 
bridge. 

§Greenhough, Edward. Matlock Bath, Derbyshire. 

{Greenish, Thomas, F.C.S. 20 New-street, Dorset-square, London, N. W. 

tGreenshields, E. B. Montreal, Canada. 

{tGreenshields, Samuel. Montreal, Canada. 

tGreenwell, G. E. Poynton, Cheshire. 

{Greenwood, Frederick. School of Medicine, Leeds. 

*Greenwood, Henry. 32 Castle-street, and the Woodlands, Anfield- 
road, Anfield, Liverpool. 

tGreenwood, Holmes. 78 King-street, Accrington. 

{Greenwoop, J. G., LL.D., Vice-Chancellor of Victoria University. 
Owens College, Manchester. 

{Greenwood, William. Stones, Todmorden. 

*Grec, Ropert Pururs, F.G.S., F.R.A.S. Coles Park, Bunting- 
ford, Herts. 

Gregg, T. H. 22 Ironmonger-lane, Cheapside, London, E.C. 
t{Grecor, Rev. Watrer, M.A. Pitsligo, Rosehearty, Aberdeenshire. 
tGregory, Charles Hutton, C.M.G. 2 Delahay-street, Westminster, 

S.W. 


tGregson, Edward, Ribble View, Preston. 

tGregson, G. E. Ribble View, Preston. 

*Gregson, Samuel Leigh. Aigburth-road, Liverpool. 

§Gregson, William. Baldersby, Thirsk. 

{Grenfell, J. Granville, B.A., F.G.S. 5 Albert-villas, Clifton, 
Bristol. 

tGrey, Mrs. Maria G. 18 Cadogan-place, London, S.W. 

*Grierson, Samuel, Medical Superintendent of the District Asylum, 
Melrose, N.B. 

t{Grrerson, THomas Borie, M.D. Thornhill, Dumfriesshire. 

tGrieve, David, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 2 Victoria-terrace, Portobello, 
Edinburgh. 

{Griffin, Robert, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin. 

*Grirritu, Groresr, M.A., F.C.S. Harrow. 

tGriffith, Rev. Henry, F.G.S. Barnet, Herts. 

§Griffiths, E. H. 12 Park-side, Cambridge. 

§Griffiths, Mrs. 12 Park-side, Cambridge. 

{Griffiths, Thomas. Bradford-street, Birmingham. 

§Griffiths, Thomas, F.C.S., F.S.S._ Heidelberg House, King’s-road, 
Clapham Park, London, 8.W. 

tGrignon, James, H.M. Consul at Riga. Riga. 


Year of 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 43 


Election. 


1870. 
1884. 
1881. 
1864. 


1869. 


18658. 
1869. 


1886. 
1867. 


1842. 
1856. 


1862. 
1885. 
1877. 


1866. 


1880. 
1868. 
1876. 
1859. 


1883. 
1857. 
1876. 


1884. 
1865. 


tGrimsdale, T. F., M.D. 29 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 

tGrinnell, Frederick. Providence, Rhode Island, U.S.A. 

tGripper, Edward. Nottingham. 

JGroom-Narrer, Cuarizs Orrry. 18 Elgin-road, St. Peter’s 
Park, London, N.W. 

§Grote, Arthur, F.L.S., F.G.S. 42 Ovington-square, London, 8.W. 

Grove, The Hon. Sir Wir1t1am Rosert, Knt., M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., 
F.R.S. 115 Harley-street, London, W. 

*Groves, Tomas B., F.C.S. 80 St. Mar y-street, Weymouth. 

tGruss, Howarp, F. B.S. F.R.A.S. 141 Leinster-road, Rathmines, 
Dublin. 

§Grundy, John. Park Drive, Nottingham. 

tGuild, John. Bayfield, West Ferry, Dundee. 

Guinness, Henry. 17 College-green, Dublin. 
Guinness, Richard Seymour. 17 College-green, Dublin. 
*Guisz, Lieut.-Colonel Sir Wirtr1am VERNON, Bart., F.G.S., F.L.S. 
Elmore Court, near Gloucester. 

{tGunn, John, M.A., F.G.S. Inrstedd Rectory, Norwich. 

§Gunn, John. Dale, Halkirk, Caithness. 

{tGunn, William, F.G.S. Office of the Geological Survey of Scot- 
land, Sheriff's Court House, Edinburgh. 

{Gtnruer, Arsert C. L. G., M.A., M.D.,-Ph.D., F.R.S., Keeper of 
the Zoological Collections in the British Museum. British 
Museum, South Kensington, 8. W. 

§Guppy, John J. Ivy-place, ‘High-street, Swansea 

*Gurney, John. Sprouston Hall, Norwich. 

tGuthrie, Francis. Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope. 

{Gururin, Frepericr, B.A., ERS. L. & E., F.G.S., Professor of 
Physicsin the Royal School of Mines. Science Schools, South 
Kensington, London, S.W. - 

{tGuthrie, Malcolm. 2 Parkfield-road, Liverpool. 

tGwynne, Rey. John. Tullyagnish, Letterkenny, Strabane, Ireland. 

+GwrytHer, R. F., M.A. Owens College, Manchester. 


tHaanel, E., Ph.D. Cobourg, Ontario, Canada. 
tHackney, William. 9 Victoria-chambers, Victoria-street, London, 
W. 


8. 
. {Hadden, Captain C. F., R.A. Woolwich. 


*Happon, ALFRED Cort, B.A., F.Z.S., Professor of Zoology in the 
Royal College of Science, Dublin. 
Haden, G. N. Trowbridge, Wiltshire. 
Hadfield, George. Victoria~park, Manchester. 


. [Hadivan, Isaac. 3 Huskisson-street, Liverpool. 
. tHadland, William Jenkins. Banbury, Oxfordshire. 
. tHaigh, George. Waterloo, Liverpool. 


*Hailstone, Edward, F.S.A. Walton Hall, Wakefield, Yorkshire. 


i EbArcRY FY, Wurson, Ph.D., F.C.S. Qucehwoud College, Hants. 

. tHale, Rev. Edward, MA. F.G.8., F.R.G.S. Eton College, Windsor. 

. Haliburton, Robert Grant. National Club, Whitehall, London, S.W. 

. tHall, Dr. Alfred. 8 Mount Ephraim, Tunbridge Wells. 

. *Hall, Ebenezer. Abbeydale Park, near Sheffield. 

. *Hall, Miss Emily. Bowdon, Cheshire. 

* {Hall, Frederick Thomas, F.R.A.S. 15 Gray’s Inn-square, London, 
W.C. 


. *Hart, Huen Frere, F.G.S. Greenheys, Wallasey, Birkenhead. 
. *Hall, Captain Marshall, F.G.S. St. John’s, Bovey Tracey, South 


"Devon. 


44 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1885. 


1884. 


1866. 
1860, 
1883. 
1873. 
1868, 


1858. 


1883. 
1885. 
1869. 
1851. 
1881. 
1878. 
1878. 


1875. 
1863. 
1850. 
1861. 


1857. 
1847, 


1876, 
1865. 
1882. 
1884. 
1859. 
1853. 


1884. 
1865. 
1869. 
1877. 
1869. 
1874. 
1872. 
1880. 


1858. 


1883 
1883 
1881 
1876 


1878 
1871 


§Hall, Samuel. 19 Aberdeen Park, Highbury, London, N. 

*Hall, Thomas B. Australia. (Care of J. P. Hall, Esq., Crane 
House, Great Yarmouth.) 

{Hall, Thomas Proctor. School of Practical Science, Toronto, 
Canada. 

*Hatt, TownsHEnND M.,F.G.S._ Pilton, Barnstaple. 

tHall, Walter. 11 Pier-road, Erith. 

*Hall, Miss Wilhelmina, The Gore, Eastbourne. 

*Hatrerr, T. G. P., M.A. Claverton Lodge, Bath. 

*Hatterr, Witi1am Henry, F.L.S. Buckingham House, Marine 
Parade, Brighton. 

Halsall, Edward. 4 Somerset-street, Kingsdown, Bristol. 

*Hambly, Charles Hambly Burbridge, F.G.S. Holmeside, Hazelwood, 
Derby. 

*Hamel, Egbert D. de. Bole Hall, Tamworth. 

§Hamilton, David James. 14 Albyn-place, Aberdeen. 

§Hamilton, Rowland. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, London, W. 

tHammond, C. C. Lower Brook-street, Ipswich. 

*Hammond, Robert. Hilldrop, Highgate, London, N. 

tHanagan, Anthony. Luckington, Dalkey. 

§Hance, Edward M., LL.B. 6 Sea Bank-avenue, Egremont, 
Cheshire. 

tHancock, C. F., M.A. 36 Blandford-square, London, N.W. 

tHancock, John. 4 St. Mary’s-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

fHancock, John, J.P. The Manor House, Lurgan, Co. Armagh. 

tHancock, Walter. 10 Upper Chadwell-street, Pentonville, Lon- 
don, N. 

tHancock, William J. 23 Synnot-place, Dublin. 

tHancock, W. Nerson, LL.D., M.R.I.A. 64 Upper Gardiner- 
street, Dublin. 

tHancock, Mrs. W, Neilson. 64 Upper Gardiner-street, Dublin. 

{ Hands, M. Coventry. 

tHankinson, R. C. Bassett, Southampton. 

§Hannaford, E. C. 1591 Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada. 

t{Hannay, John. Montcoffer House, Aberdeen. 

{ Hansell, Thomas T. 2 Charlotte-street, Sculcoates, Hull. 

*Harcovrt, A. G. Vernon, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. (Guneran 
SEcRETARY.) Cowley Grange, Oxford. 

*Hardeastle, Norman C.,M.A., LL.M. Downing College, Cambridge. 

tHarding, Charles. Harborne Heath, Birmingham. 

tHarding, Joseph. Millbrooke House, Exeter. 

{Harding, Stephen. Bower Ashton, Clifton, Bristol. 

tHarding, William D, Islington Lodge, King’s Lynn, Norfolk. 

tHardman, E. T., F.C.S. 14 Hume-street, Dublin. 

tHardwicke, Mrs. 192 Piccadilly, London, W. 

tHardy, John. 118 Embden-street, Manchester. 

*Hare, Cuartrs Jonny, M.D. Berkeley House, 15 Manchester- 
square, London, W. 

tHargrave, James. Burley, near Leeds. 

§Hargreaves, Miss H. M. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport. 

{Hargreaves, Thomas. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport. 

{Hargrove, William Wallace. St. Mary’s, Bootham, York. 

tHarker, Allen, F.L.S., Professor of Natural History in the Royal 
Agricultural College, Cirencester. 

*Harlmess, H. W. California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, 
California, U.S.A. 

§Harkness, William. Laboratory, Somerset House, London, W.O. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 45 


Year of 
Election. 


1875. 


1877. 
1883. 
1883. 
1862. 


1883. 
1862. 


1868. 
1881. 
1882. 
1872. 
1884, 


1872. 
1885. 


1871. 


1842. 
1884. 


1860. 
1885. 
1864. 
1873. 


1874. 
1858. 


1870. 
1853. 
1865. 


1883. 
1854. 


1885. 
1876. 
1881. 
1875. 


1871. 
1854. 
1870. 


1885. 
1885. 
1862. 
1884. 
1882. 
1875. 


*Harland, Rev. Albert Augustus, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.S.A. The 
Vicarage, Harefield, Middlesex. 

*Harland, Henry Seaton. Stanbridge, Staplefield, Crawley, Sussex. 

tHarland, Miss 8. 25 Acomb-street, Greenheys, Manchester. 

*Harley, Miss Clara. 96 Netherwood-road, London, W. 

*HARLEY, ao M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 25 Harley-street, Lon- 
don, W. 

*Harley, Harold. 14 Chapel-street, Bedford-row, London, W.C. 

*Harey, Rev. Ropert, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 96 Netherwood-road, 
London, W. 

*Harmer, F. W., F.G.S. Oakland House, Cringleford, Norwich. 

*Harmer, Srpney F., B.Sc. King’s College, Cambridge. 

tHarper, G. T. Bryn Hyfrydd, Portswood, Southampton. 

tHarpley, Rev. William, M.A. Clayhanger Rectory, Tiverton. 

{Harrington, B. J., B.A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry and 
Mineralogy in McGill College, Montreal. Wallbrac-place, 
Montreal, Canada. 

*Harris, Alfred. Lunefield, Kirkby-Lonsdale, Westmoreland. 

§Harris, Charles, F.R.G.S. Derwent Villa, Whalley Range, Man- 

chester. 

ne, Grorer, F.S.A. Iselipps Manor, Northolt, Southall, Mid- 
esex. 

*Harris, G. W., M.Inst.C.E. Mount Gambier, South Australia. 

§Harris, Miss Katherine E. 75 Linden-gardens, Bayswater, London, 
7 


t Harrison, Rev. Francis, M.A. Oriel College, Oxford. 

§Harrison, Sir George. 7 Whitehouse-terrace, Edinburgh. 

tHarrison, George. Barnsley, Yorkshire. 

tHarrison, George, Ph.D., F.LS., F.CS. 96, Northgate, Hudders- 

eld, 

tHarteon, G. D. B. 3 Beaufort-road, Clifton, Bristol. 

“Harrison, JAMES Park, M.A. 22 Connaught-street, Hyde Park, 
London, W. 

tHarrison, Reernatp. 51 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 

tHarrison, Robert. 386 George-street, Hull. 

fHarrison, T. E. Engineers’ Office, Central Station, Newcastle-on- 

e. 

fiaeion, Thomas. 384 Ash-street, Southport. 

tHarrowby, The Right Hon. the Earl of. 39 Grosvenor-square, 
London, W.; and Sandon Hall, Lichfield. 

§Hart, CHartes J. 28 George-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

*Hart, Thomas. Brooklands, Blackburn. 

§Hart, Thomas, F.G.S. Yewbarrow, Grange-over-Sands, Carnforth. 

tHart, W. E. Kilderry, near Londonderry. 

Hartley, James. Sunderland. 

fHartiey, Water Noegt, F.R.S.L.& BE. F.C.S., Professor of 
Chemistry in the Royal College of Science, Dublin. 

§Harrnup, JoHun, F.R.A.S. Liverpool Observatory, Bidston, 
Birkenhead. 

tHarvey, Enoch. Riversdale-road, Aigburth, Liverpool. 

Harvey, J. R., M.D. St. Patrick’s-place, Cork. 

§Harvey, Surgeon Major Robert, M.D. Calcutta. 

§Harvie-Brown, J. A. Dunipace, Larbert, N.B. 

*Harwood, John, jun. Woodside Mills, Bolton-le-Moors. 

§Haslam, Rev. George, M.A. Trinity Colleze, Toronto, Canada. 

§Haslam, George James, M.D. Owens College, Manchester. 

tHasrines, G. W., M.P. Barnard’s Green House, Malvern. 


46 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1857. 


1874. 
1872. 


1864. 


1868. 


1884, 
1865. 
1859. 
1877. 
1861. 


1858. 
1867. 
1885. 


1873. 
1869. 
1858. 
1879. 
1851. 
1869. 
1883. 
1883. 
1883. 
1863. 
1871. 
1883. 
1861. 
1883. 
1883. 
1882. 
1877. 
1865. 
1877. 
1883. 
1866. 
1863. 
1884, 
1861. 


1883. 
1865. 
1884. 


1833, 


Qrr 


1855. 


t{Haveuron, Rey. Samurt, M.A., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.RS., 
M.R.LA., F.G.8., Senior Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin. 
Dublin. 

f{Hawkins, B. Waterhouse, F.G.S. Century Club, East Fifteernth- 
atreet, New York. 

*TIawkshaw, Henry Paul. 58 Jermyn-street, St. James’s, London, 
S.W. 

*HawksHaw, Sir Jon, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S., F.G.8S., F.R.G.S. 
Hollycombe, Liphook, Petersfield; and 33 Great George-street, 
London, S.W. 

*HawksHaw, Joun Crarxe, M.A., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 50 Harring- 
ton-gardens, South Kensincton, S.W.; and 35 Great George- 
street London, S.W. 

STLAWKSLEY, THOMAS, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S., F.G.S. 30 Great George- 
street, London, S.W. 

*Haworth, Abraham. MHilston House, Altrincham. 

tHawthorn, William. The Cottage, Benwell, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

tHay, Sir Andrew Leith, Bart. Rannes, Aberdeenshire. 

{Hay, Arthur J. Lerwick, Shetland. 

*Hay, Admiral the Right Hon, Sir) Jonn , C.. Ds eBart:,, K@.B:, 
D.C.L., F.R.S. 108 St. George’s-square, London, 8. W. 

tHay, Samuel. Albion-place, Leeds. 

tHay, William. 21 Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee. 

*Haycraft, John Berry, M. Ri, B ‘Se., F.R. 8. E., Professor of Physiology 

in Mason Science C ‘ollege, Birmingham. 

*Hayes, Rey. William A., M.A. Dromore, Co. Down, Ireland. 

tHayward, J. High-street, Exeter, 

*Haywarp, Ropert Batpwiy, M.A., F.R.S. The Park, Harrow. 

*Hazlehurst, George 8. Rhyl, North Wales. 

§Heap, Jnremran, M.Inst.C.E., F.C.S. Middlesbrough, Yorkshire. 

tHead, R. T. The Briars, Alphineton, Exeter. 

{Headley, Frederick Halcombe. Manor House, Petersham, S.W. 

{Headley, Mrs. Marian. Manor House, Petersham, S.W. 

§Headley, Rev. Tanfield George. Manor House, Petersham, 8.W. 

{ Heald, Joseph. 22 Leazes-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

§Healey, George. Brantfield, Bowness, Windermere. 

*Heap, Ralph, jun. 2 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport. 

*Heape, Benjamin. Northwood, Prestwich, near Manchester. 

{tHeape, Charles. 14 Hawkshead-street, Southport. 

tHeape, Joseph R. 96 Mereland-terrace, Rochdale. 

*Heape, Walter. New Museums, Cambridge. 

{Hearder, Henry Pollington. Westwell-street, Plymouth. 

tHearder, William. Rocomhe, Torquay. 

tHearder, William Keep, F.S.A. 195 Union-street, Plymouth. 

tHeath, Dr. 46 Hoghton-street, Southport. 

tHeath, Rev. D. J. “Esher, Surrey. 

tHeath, G. Y., M.D, Westgate-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

§Heath, Thomas, B.A. Roy: al Observator y, Calton Hill, Edinburgh. 

{HEATHFIELD, W. h,, .E.CS.,.2B:G.S8.,. F.R:Sitleudl Powis- -2r0ve, 
Brighton; and Ar thur’s Club, St. James’ 8, London, 8. W. 

tHeaton, Charles. Marlborough House, Hesketh Park, Southport. 

tHeaton, Harry. Harborne House, Harborne, near Birmingham. 

§Heaviside, Rev. George, B.A., F.R.G.S. The Hollies, Stoke Green, 
Coventry. 

tHeavismpn, Rey. Canon J. W. L., M.A. The Close, Norwich. 

tHxcror, Jamus, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.8., Director of the 
Geological Survey of New Zealand. Wellington, New Zealand. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 47 


Year of 
Election. 


1867. 
1869. 
1882. 
1863. 
1867. 
1873. 
1883. 
1880. 
1876. 
1885. 
1856, 


1857. 
1873. 


1873. 


1884. 
1870. 
1855. 
1855. 


1882. 
1866. 
1871. 


1883. 
1874. 


1883. 
1865. 
1884, 
1883. 


1881. 
1882. 
1888. 


1866. 
1866. 
1879. 
1861. 
1861. 


1881. 
1875. 


1877. 


{Heddle, M. Forster, M.D., F.R.S.E. St. Andrews, N.B. 

tHedgeland, Rey. W. J. 21 Mount Radford, Exeter. 

tHedger, Philip. Cumberland-place, Southampton. 

tHedley, Thomas. Cox Lodge, near Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

{Henderson, Alexander. Dundee. 

*Henderson, A. L. 49 King William-street, London, E.C. 

§Henderson, Mrs. A. L. 49 King William-street, London, E.C. 

*Henderson, Commander W. H., R.N. Upton House, Sandwich. 

*Henderson, William, Williamfield, Irvine, N.B. 

§Henderson, William. Devanha House, Aberdeen. 

fHennussy, Huyry G., F.RS., M.RIA., Professor of Applied 
Mathematics and Mechanics in the Royal College of Science 
for Ireland. Brookvale, Donnybrook, Co. Dublin. 

tHennessy, Sir John Pope, K.C.M.G., Governor and Commander-in- 
Chief of Mauritius. 

*Heneicr, Oraus M. F. E., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Mechanics 
and Mathematics in the City and Guilds of London Institute. 
Elm Lodge, Elm Row, Hampstead, London, N.W. 

Henry, Franklin. Portland-street, Manchester. 
Henry, J. Snowdon. East Dene, Bonchurch, Isle of Wight. 
Henry, Mitchell, M.P. Stratheden House, Hyde Park, London, W. 

*Henry, Wit11Am Cuaries, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.C.S. 
Haffield, near Ledbury, Herefordshire. 

tHenshaw, George H. 43 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada. 

tHenty, William. 12 Medina-villas, Brighton. 

*Hepburn, J. Gotch, LL.B., F.C.S. Dartford, Kent. 

tHepburn, Robert. 9 Portland-place, London, W. 

Hepburn, Thomas. Clapham, London, W. 

§Herbert, The Hon. Auberon. Ashley, Arnewood Farm, Lymington. 

tHerrick, Perry. Bean Manor Park, Loughborough. 

*HERSCHEL, Professor AtmxanpEeR S., M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 
College of Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

{Herschel, Miss F. Collingwood, Hawkhurst, Kent. 

§HerscueL, Lieut.-Colonel Jonny, R.E., F.R.S., FLR.A.S. Colling- 
wood, Hawkhurst, Kent. 

{Hesketh, Colonel E. Fleetwood. Meol’s Hall, Southport. 

tHeslop, Dr. Birmingham. 

§Hewett, George Edwin. The Leasowe, Cheltenham. 

§Hewson, Thomas. Care of J. C. C. Payne, Esq., Botanic-ayenue, 
The Plains, Belfast. 

tHey, Rey. William Croser, M.A. Clifton, York. 

tHeycock, Charles T., B.A. King’s College, Cambridge. 

§Heyes, John Frederick, M.A., F.C.8., F.R.G.S. 12 Merton-street, 

Oxford. 

*Heymann, Albert. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire. 

tHeymann, L. West Bridgford, Nottinghamshire, 

tHeywood, A. Percival. Duffield Bank, Derby. 

*Heywood, Arthur Henry. Elleray, Windermere. 

*Herwoop, James, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. 26 Ken- 
sington Palace-gardens, London, W. 

*Heywood, Oliver. Claremont, Manchester. 

Heywood, Thomas Percival. Claremont, Manchester. 

§Hick, Thomas, B.A., B.Sc. 2 George’s-terrace, Harrogate. 

fHicks, Henry, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.8S. Hendon Grove, Hendon, 
Middlesex, N.W. 

§Hicks, Professor W. M., M.A., F.R.S., Principal of Firth College, 

Sheffield. Endcliffe-crescent, Sheffield. 


48 


Year 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


of 


Election. 


1884 
1864 
1861 
1875, 


1871 
1854 


1885. 


1880. 
1883. 


1872. 
1881. 
1884. 


1857. 


1871. 
1881. 
1872. 
1885. 
1876. 
1885. 


1863. 
1871. 
1858. 


1870. 
1883. 


1865. 
1863. 
1881. 
1884, 


1884. 
1858. 
1861. 


. tHickson, Joseph. Montreal, Canada. 

. *Hrern, W. P., M.A. Castle House, Barnstaple. 

. *Higgin, James. lLancaster-avenue, Fennel-street, Manchester. 

. tHiggins, Charles Hayes, M.D., M.R.C.P., F.R.O.8., F.R.S.E. Alfred 
House, Birkenhead. 

. }Hieerns, Crement, B.A., F.C.S. 103 Holland-road, Kensington, 
London, W. 

. {Hieerns, Rey. Henry H., M.A. The Asylum, Rainhill, Liverpool. 

Hildyard, Rev. James, B.D., F.C.P.S. Ingoldsby, near Grantham, 
Lincolnshire. 
*Hill, Alexander, M.A., M.B. Grantchester, near Cambridge. 
Hill, Arthur. Bruce Castle, Tottenham, Middlesex. 
{Hill, Benjamin. Cwmdwr, near Clydach, Swansea. 
§Hill, Berkeley, M.B., Professor of Clinical Surgery in University 
College, London, 66 Wimpole-street, London, W. 

§Hill, Charles, F S.A. Rockhurst, West Hoathley, East Grinstead. 

§Hint, Rev. Epwiy, M.A., F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge. 

{Hill, Rev. James Edgar, M.A., B.D. 1516 St. Catherine-street, 

Montreal, Canada. 
§Hill, John, O.E., MAR.LA., F.R.G.S.I. County Surveyor’s Office, 
Ennis, Jveland. 

THill, Lawrence. The Knowe, Greenock. 

{Hill, Pearson. 50 Belsize Park, London, N.W. 

*Hill, Rey. Canon, M.A., F.G.S. Sheering Rectory, Harlow. 

*Hill, Sidney. Langford House, Langford, Bristol. 

Hill, William H. Barlanark, Shettleston, N.B. 

*Hillhouse, William, M.A., Professor of Botany in Mason Science 
College, Birmingham. 95 Harborne-road, Edgbaston, Bir- 
mingham. 

tHills, F. C. Chemical Works, Deptford, Kent, 8.E. 

*Hills, Thomas Hyde. 225 Oxford-street, London, W. 

tHincxs, Rey. Tomas, B.A., F.R.S.  Stancliff House, Clevedon, 

Somerset. 

tHrnpg, G. J., Ph.D., F.G.S. 11 Glebe-villas, Mitcham, Surrey. 

*Hindle, James Henry. 67 Avenue-parade, Accrington. 

*Hindmarsh, Luke. Alnbank House, Alnwick. 

tHinds, James, M.D. Queen’s College, Birmingham. 

tHinds, William, M.D. Parade, Birmingham. 

tHingston, J.T. Clifton, York. 

{Hineston, Witi1am Hates, M.D., D.C.L. 37 Union Avenue, 

Montreal, Canada. 

§Hirschfilder, C. A. Toronto, Canada. 

{Hirst, John, jun. Dobcross, near Manchester. 

*Hirst, T. Arcumr, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. 7 Oxford and Cam- 

bridge Mansions, Marylebone-road, London, N.W. 

. {Hitchman, William, M.D., LL.D., F.L.S. 29 Erskine-street, 
Liverpool. 

. {Hoadrey, John Chipman. Boston, Massachusetts, U.S.A. 

Hoare, J. Gurney. Hampstead, London, N.W. 

. §Hobbes, Robert George. The Dockyard, Chatham. 

. {Hobhouse, Arthur Fane. 24 Cadogan-place, London, S.W. 

. tHobhouse, Charles Parry. 24 Cadogan-place, London, 8.W. 

. [Hobhouse, Henry William. 24 Cadogan-place, London, S.W. 

. §Hobkirk, Charles P., F.L.S. West Riding Union Bank, Dewsbury. 

. {Hobson, Rey. E. W. 55 Albert-road, Southport. 

- §Hobson, John. Tapton Elms, Sheffield. 

. {Hockin, Edward. Poughill, Stratton, Cornwall, 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 49 


Year of 
Election 


1883. 
1877. 
1876. 
1852. 


1863. 
1880. 


1873. 
1873. 
1884. 
1863. 
1863. 
1865. 


1854. 
1883. 
1873. 
1883. 
1883. 
1884. 
1879. 


1865. 
1883. 


1866. 
1875. 
1882. 


1876. 
1870. 
1875. 
1847. 


. *Hooper, John P. Coventry Park, Streatham, London, 8.W. 
. *Hooper, Rev. Samuel F., M.A. 389 Lorrimore-square, London, 


tHocking, Rev. Silas K. 21 Scarisbrick New-road, Southport. 

THodge, Rev. John Mackey, M.A. 38 Tavistock-place, Plymouth. 

Hodges, Frederick W. Queen’s College, Belfast. 

tHodges, John F., M.D., F.C.S., Professor of Agriculture in Queen’s 
College, Belfast. 

*Hopexin, Tuomas. Benwell Dene, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

§Hodgkinson, W. R. Eaton, Ph.D. Science Schools, South Kensing- 
ton Museum, London, 8. W. 

*Hodgson, George. Thornton-road, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

tHodgson, James. Oakfield, Manningham, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

tHodegson, Jonathan. Montreal, Canada. 

tHodgson, Robert. Whitburn, Sunderland. 

tHodgson, R. W. North Dene, Gateshead. 

*Hormann, Aveust WILHELM, M.D., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 
10 Dorotheen Strasse, Berlin. 

*Holcroft, George. Byron’s-court, St. Mary’s-gate, Manchester: 

tHolden, Edward. Laurel Mount, Shipley, Yorkshire. 

*Holden, Isaac, M.P. Oakworth House, near Keighley, Yorkshire. 

tHolden, James. 12 Park-avenue, Southport. 

tHolden, John J. 25 Duke-street, Southport. 

tHolden, Mrs. Mary E. Dunham Ladies’ College, Quebec, Canada. 

{Holland, Calvert Bernard. Ashdell, Broomhill, Sheffield. 

*Holland, Philip H. 38 Heath-rise, Willow-read, Hampstead, Lon 
don, N.W. 

tHolliday, William. New-street, Birmingham. 

tHollingsworth, Dr. T. S. Elford Lodge, Spring-grove, Isleworth, 
Middlesex. 

*Holmes, Charles. 59 London-road, Derby. 

THolmes, J. R. Southbrook Lodge, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

*Holmes, Thomas Vincent, F.G.S. 28 Croom’s-hill, Greenwich, 
S.E 


tHolms, Colonel William, M.P. 95 Cromwell-road, South Kensing- 
ton, London, S.W. 

tHolt, William D. 23 Edge-lane, Liverpool. 

*Hood, John. The Elms, Cotham Hill, Bristol. 

tHooxer, Sir Josep Darron, K.C.S.L, C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., 
F.R.S., V.P.LS., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. The Camp, Sunningdale. 


5.E 


. {Hooton, Jonathan. 80 Great Ducie-street, Manchester. 


Hope, Thomas Arthur. Stanton, Bebington, Cheshire. 


. *Hopkins, Edward M. 8 Upper Berkeley-street, Portman-square, 


London, W. 


. {Hopkins, J. 8. Jesmond Grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

. “Hopkinson, Charles. 29 Princess-street, Manchester. 

. *Hopkinson, Edward, D.Sc. Grove House, Oxford-road, Manchester. 
. “Hopkinson, Jonny, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. 3 Holland Villas-road, 


Kensington, London, W. 


. *Hopxrnson, Joun, F.L.S., F.G.S. 95 New Bond-street, London, W. ; 


and Wansford House, Watford. 


. {Hopkinson, Joseph, jun. Britannia Works, Huddersfield. 


Hornby, Hugh. Sandown, Liverpool. 


. §Horne, John, F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 41 Southside-road, Inverness. 
. *Horne, Robert R. 150 Hope-street, Glasgow. 
. *Horniman, F. J., F.R.G.S., F.L.S. Surrey Mount, Forest Hill, 


London, S.E. 
D 


50 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1884. 


1856. 


1884. 


1868. 
1858. 
1884. 
1883. 


1879. 
1883, 
1882. 


1883. 
1876, 
1885. 
1857. 


1868. 
1884. 
1884. 
1865. 


1863. 
1883. 
1883. 
1883. 
1870. 
1835. 
1879. 
1883. 
1867, 


1858. 
1857. 
1883. 
1871. 
1870. 
1876. 
1868, 
1865, 
1883, 


1867. 


1884, 
1878. 
1880. 


*Horsfall, Richard. Post Office-buildings, George-street, Halifax. 

tHorsley, John H. 1 Ormond-terrace, Cheltenham, 

*Hotblach, G. 8S. Prince of Wales-road, Norwich. 

tHotson, W. ©. Upper King-street, Norwich. 

{Hounsfield, James. Hemsworth, Pontefract. 

tHouston, William. Legislative Library, Toronto, Canada. 

*Hovenden, Frederick, F.L.S., F.G.S. Glenlea, Thurlow Park-road, 
West Dulwich, Surrey, 8.E. 

Hovenden, W. F., M.A. Bath. 

*Howard, D. 60 Belsize Park, London, N.W. 

§Howard, James Fielden, M.D., M.R.C.S. Randycroft, Shaw. 

tHoward, William Frederick, Assoc. Memb. Inst.C.E. 13 Cavyen- 
dish-street, Chesterfield, Derbyshire. 

t{Howarth, Richard. York-road, Birkdale, Southport. 

tHowatt, James. 146 Buchanan-street, Glasgow. 

§Howden, James C., M.D. Sunnyside, Montrose, N.B. 

t{Howell, Henry H., F.G.S., Director of the Geological Survey cf 
Scotland. Geological Survey Office, Victoria-street, Edinburgh. 

tHowett1, Rey. Canon Hinps. Drayton Rectory, near Norwich. 

tHowland, Edward P.,M.D. 211 414-street, Washington, U.S.A. 

{Howland, Oliver Aiken. Toronto, Canada. 

*Howtert, Rey. Freprrick, F.R.A.S. East Tisted Rectory, Alton, 
Hants. 

tHoworrn, H. H. Derby House, Eccles, Manchester. 

{Howorth, John, J.P. Springbank, Burnley, Lancashire. 

tHoyle, James. Blackburn. 

tHoyle, William. Claremont, Bury, Lancashire. 

tHubback, Joseph. 1 Brunswick-street, Liverpool. 

*Hupson, Henry, M.D., M.R.LA. Glenville, Fermoy, Co. Cork. 

tHudson, Robert 8., M.D. Redruth, Cornwall. 

tHudson, Rev. W.C. 58 Belmont-street, Southport. 

*Hupson, Wittram H. H., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in King’s 
College, London. 14 Geraldine-road, Wandsworth, London, 
S.W. 

*Hueeins, Wittram, D.C.L. Oxon., LL.D. Camb., F.R.S., F.R.A.S, 
Upper Tulse Hill, Brixton, London, 8.W. 

tHuggon, William. 50 Park-row, Leeds. 

{Hughes, Miss E. P. Newnham College, Cambridge. 

*Hughes, George Pringle, J.P. Middleton Hall, Wooler, Northum- 
berland. 

*Hughes, Lewis. Fenwick-court, Liverpool. 

*Hughes, Rey. Thomas Edward. Wallfield House, Reigate. 

§Hueuss, T. M‘K., M.A., F.G.S., Woodwardian Professor of Geology 
in the University of Cambridge. 

tHughes, W. R., F.L.S., Treasurer of the Borough of Birmingham. 
Birmingham. 

$Hurxs, Jonn Wairaxrsr, F.R.S., F.R.CS., F.G.S. 10 Old Bur- 
lington-street, London, W. 

§Houtt, Epwarp, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Director of the Geo- 
logical Survey of Ireland and Professor of Geology in the Royal 
College of Science. 14 Hume-street, Dublin. 

*Hulse, Sir Edward, Bart., D.C.L. 47 Portland-place, London, W. ; 
and Breamore House, Salisbury. 

*Humphreys, A. W. 45 William-street, New York, U.S.A. 

tHumphreys, H. Castle-square, Oarnarvon. 

Lee nae Noel A., F.S.S.  Ravenhurst, Hook, Kingston-on- 
Thames. 


Year 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 51 


of 


Election. 


1856 
1862 


1877. 
1865. 
1884. 


1864, 
1875. 
1868. 
1867. 
1881. 
1881. 
1884. 
1869. 


1879. 
1885. 
1863. 
1883. 
1869. 
1882. 
1861. 
1870. 


1882. 
1876. 


1868. 


1864, 


1857. 
1861. 
1852. 


1883. 
1871. 


1882, 
1879. 
1869, 


1873. 
1861, 
1884. 
1885. 
1858. 
1876. 
1871. 


1876. 
1883. 


. {Humphries, David James. 1 Keynsham-parade, Cheltenham. 

. *Humpury, Grorce Murray, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Surgery 
in the University of Cambridge. Grove Lodge, Cambridge. 

“Hunt, Artaur Roopg, M.A., F.G.8. Southwood, Torquay. 

tHunt, J. P. Gospel Oak Works, Tipton. 

{Hunz, T. Srerry, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S. 105 Union-avenue, 
Montreal, Canada. 

tHunt, W. 72 Pulteney-street, Bath. 

*Hunt, William. The Woodlands, Tyndall’s Park, Clifton, Bristol. 

{Hunter, Christopher. Alliance Insurance Office, North Shields, 

{tHunter, David. Blackness, Dundee. 

tHunter, F. W. 4 Westmoreland-road, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

{tHunter, Rev. John. 38 The Mount, York. 

*Hunter, Michael, jun. Greystones, Sheffield. 

*Hunter, Rey. Robert, LL.D., F.G.S. Forest Retreat, Staples-road, 
Loughton, Essex. 

§Huntineton, A. K., F.C.S., Professor of Metallurgy in King’s College, 
London, King’s College, London, W.C, 

§Huntly, The Right Hon. the Marquis of. Aboyne Castle, Aber- 
deenshire. 

{Huntsman, Benjamin. West Retford Hall, Retford. 

*Hurst, Charles Herbert. Owens College, Manchester. 

tHurst, George. Bedford. 

§Hurst, Walter, B.Sc. West Lodge, Todmorden. 

*Hurst, Wiliam John. Drumaness Mills, Ballynahinch, Lisburn, 
Treland. 

tHurter, Dr. Ferdinand. Appleton, Widnes, near Warrington. 

Husband, William Dalla. May Bank, Bournemouth. 

tHussey, Captain E. R., R.E. 24 Waterloo-place, Southampton, 

tHutchinson, John. 22 Hamilton Park-terrace, Glasgow. 

*Hutchison, Robert, F.R.S.E. 29 Chester-street, Edinburgh. 

Hutton, Crompton, Putney Park, Surrey, S.W. 

*Hutton, Darnton. 14 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, 
N.W. 


tHutton, Henry D. 17 Palmerston-road, Dublin. 
*Hourron, T. Maxwett. Summerhill, Dublin. 
tHuxtry, THomas Henry, Ph.D., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.L.S., 
F.G.S. 4 Marlborough-place, London, N.W. 
Hyde, Edward. Dukinfield, near Manchester. 
tHyde, George H. 23 Arbour-street, Southport. 
*Hyett, Francis A. Painswick House, Stroud, Gloucestershire. 


*T’Anson, James, F.G.S. Fairfield House, Darlington. 

TIbbotson, H. J. 26 Collegiate-crescent, Sheffield. 

{IppEsteIeH, The Right Hon. the Earl of, G.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S. 
Pynes, Exeter. 

Thne, William, Ph.D. Heidelberg. 

tn, J. I. 19 Park-place, Leeds. 

tes, The Ven. Archdeacon, M.A. The Close, Lichfield. 

§Iles, George. Windsor Hotel, Montreal, Canada. 

§im-Thurn, Everard F. British Guiana. 

tIncham, Henry. Wortley, near Leeds. 

TInglis, Anthony. Broomhill, Partick, Glasgow. 

tIveuts, The Right Hon. Jonny, D.C.L., LL.D., Lord Justice-General 
of Scotland. Edinburgh. 

fInglis, John, jun. Prince’s-terrace, Dowanhill, Glasgow. 

fIngram, Rev. D.C. Church-street, Southport. 

D2 


52 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1852. 


1885. 
1882. 


1883. 
1881. 


1870. 
1859. 
1884. 
1876. 


1883. 
1879. 
1885, 
1883. 
1883. 
1883. 
1874. 
1885. 
1866, 


1869, 
18638. 


1874. 
1865. 
1872. 
1860. 
1863. 


1884, 
1858. 
1884. 
1881. 


1885. 
1885. 
1859. 
1850. 
1870. 
1853. 


1870. 
1856. 


1855. 
1885. 
1867. 


1885. 
1852. 


1881. 
1864. 


fIneram, J. K., LL.D., M.R.LA., Librarian to the University of 
Dublin. 2 Wellington-road, Dublin. 

§Ingram, William, M.A. Gamrie, Banff. 

tIrving, Rev. A., B.A., B.Sc., F.G.S8. Wellington College, Woking- 
ham, Berks, 

tIsherwood, James. 18 York-road, Birkdale, Southport. 

fIshiguro, Isoji. Care of the Japanese Legation, 9 Cavendish-square, 
London, W. 


tJack, James. 26 Abercromby-square, Liverpool. 

{Jack, John, M.A. Belhelvie-by-Whitecairns, Aberdeenshire. 

tJack, Peter. People’s Bank, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. 

*Jack, William, LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in the University of 
Glasgow. 10 The College, Glasgow. 

§Jackson, A. H. New Bridge-street, Strangeways, Manchester. 

tJackson, Arthur, F.R.O.S. Wilkinson-street, Sheffield. 

{Jackson, Mrs. Esther. 16 East Park-terrace, Southampton. 

tJackson, Frank, 11 Park-crescent, Southport. 

*Jackson, F. J. Brooklands, Alderley Edge, Manchester. 

{Jackson, Mrs. F. J. Brooklands, Alderley Edge, Manchester. 

*Jackson, Frederick Arthur. Belmont, Lyme Regis, Dorset. 

§Jackson, Henry. 19 Golden-square, Aberdeen. 

tJackson, H. W., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 15 The Terrace, High-road, 
Lewisham, S.E. 

§Jackson, Moses. The Vale, Ramsgate. 

*Jackson-Gwilt, Mrs. H. Moonbeam Villa, The Grove, New Wim- 
bledon, Surrey. 

*Jaffe, John. Edenvale, Strandtown, near Belfast. 

*Jaffray, John. Park-grove, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

{James, Christopher. 8 Laurence Pountney-hill, London, E.C. 

tJames, Edward H. Woodside, Plymouth. 

*Jamus, Sir Warter, Bart., F.G.S. 6 Whitehall-gardens, London, 
S.W 


§James, W. Culver, M.D. 11 Marloes-road, London, W. 

tJames, William C. Woodside, Plymouth. 

§Jameson, W.C. 48 Baker-street, Portman-square, London, W. 

{Jamieson, Andrew, Principal of the College of Science and Arts, 
Glasgow. 

§Jamieson, Patrick. Peterhead, N.B. 

§Jamieson, Thomas. 140 Union-street, Aberdeen. 

*Jamieson, Thomas F., F.G.S. Ellon, Aberdeenshire. 

{Jardine, Alexander. Jardine Hall, Lockerby, Dumfriesshire. 

{Jardine, Edward. Beach Lawn, Waterloo, Liverpool. 

*Jarratt, Rev. Canon J., M.A. North Cave, near Brough, York- 
shire. 

tJarrold, John James. London-street, Norwich. 

§Jerrery, Henry M., M.A., F.R.S. 9 Dunstanville-terrace, Fal-- 
mouth. 

*Jeffray, John. Cardowan House, Millerston, Glasgow. 

{Jeffreys, Miss Gwyn. 1 The Terrace, Kensington, London, W. 

tJeffreys, Howel, M.A., F.R.A.S. Pump-court, Temple, London, 


E.C. 
§ Jeffreys, Dr. Richard Parker. Eastwood House, Chesterfield. 
{Jztterr, Rev. Joun H., D.D., M.R.I.A., Provost of Trinity College,. 
Dublin. 
§Jetiicon, C. W. A. Southampton. 
tJelly, Dr. W. Aveleanas, 11, Valencia, Spain. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 53 


Year of 
Election. 


1873. 


pee Major-General J. J. 14 St. James’s-square, London, 
ANE 


1880. *Jenxins, Sir Joun Jonzs, M.P. The Grange, Swansea. 


1852. 
1872. 
1878. 


1872. 


1884. 


1884, 
1884. 


1883. 
1883. 
1871. 


1881. 
1883. 


1865. 
1875. 
1866. 
1872. 
1861. 
1870. 
1868. 
1881. 
1883. 
1883. 
1861. 


1883. 
1859. 
1864. 


1884. 
1883. 
1884. 
1884. 
1885. 


1864. 
1864. 
1876. 
1864. 
1871. 


1881 


Jennette, Matthew. 1024 Conway-street, Birkenhead. 

{Jennings, Francis M., F.G.S., M.R.LA. Brown-street, Cork. 

{Jennings, W. 18 Victoria-street, London, 8. W. 

{Jephson, Henry L. Chief Secretary’s Office, The Castle, Dublin. 

*Jerram, Rey. 8. John, M.A. 2 Kent-avenue, Castle Hill, Ealing, 
Middlesex, W. 

{Jesson, Thomas. 7 Upper Wimpole-street, Cavendish-square, London, 
W. 


Jessop, William, jun. Butterley Hall, Derbyshire. 

{Jewell, Lieutenant Theo. F. Torpedo Station, Newport, Rhode 
Island, U.S.A. 

t{Johns, Thomas W. Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada. 

§Johnson, Alexander, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Mathematics in 
McGill College, Montreal. 5 Prince of Wales-terrace, Montreal, 
Canada. 

{Johnson, Miss Alice. Llandaff House, Cambridge. 

tJohnson, Ben. Micklegate, York. 

*Johnson, David, F.C.S., F.G.S. 52 Fitzjohn’s-avenue, South 
Hampstead, London, N.W. 

fJohnson, Major E. Cecil. Junior United Service Club, Charles- 
street, London, 8.W. 

{Johnson, Edmund Litler. 73 Albert-road, Southport. 

Johnson, Edward. 22 Talbot-street, Southport. 

*Johnson, G. J. 36 Waterloo-street, Birmingham. 

§Johnson, James Henry, F.G.S. 73 Albert-road, Southport. 

tJohnson, John G. 184 Basinghall-street, London, E.C. 

tJohnson, J. T. 27 Dale-street, Manchester. 

tJohnson, Richard. 27 Dale-street, Manchester. 

tJohnson, Richard C., F.R.A.S. 19 Catherine-street, Liverpool. 

{Johnson, R. 8. Hanwell, Fence Houses, Durham. 

{Johnson, Samuel George. Municipal Offices, Nottingham. 

t{Johnson, W. H. F. Llandaff House, Cambridge. 

tJohnson, William. Harewood, Roe-lane, Southport. 

{Johnson, William Beckett. Woodlands Bank, near Altrincham, 
Cheshire. 

tJohnston, H. H. Tudor House, Champion Hill, London, 8.E. 

tJohnston, James. Newmill, Elgin, N.B. 

{Johnston, James. Manor House, Northend, Hampstead, London, 
N.W. 

{Johnston, John L. 27 St. Peter-street, Montreal, Canada. 

§Johnston, Thomas. Broomsleigh, Seal, Sevenoaks. 

{Johnston, Walter R. Fort Qu’Appele, N.W. Territory, Canada. 

*Johnston, W. H. 11 Chapel-street, Preston. 

§Johnston-Lavis, H. J., M.D., F.G.S. Palazzo Caramanico, Chiato- 
mone, Naples. 

*Johnstone, James. Alva House, Alva, by Stirling, N.B. 

{Johnstone, John. 1 Barnard-villas, Bath. 

{Johnstone, William. 5 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow. 

tJolly, Thomas. Park View-villas, Bath. 

§Jotty, Wittram, F.RS.E., F.G.S., H.M. Inspector of Schools, 
St. Andrew’s-road, Pollokshields, Glasgow. : 

. tJones, Alfred Orlando, M.D. Belton House, Harrogate. 


1849. {Jones, Baynham. Selkirk Villa, Cheltenham. 


1856 


. Jones, C. W. 7 Grosvenor-place, Cheltenham. 


54 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1883. 
1884. 


1877. 


1888. 
1881. 


18738. 
1880. 
1860. 


1883. 
1875. 
1884. 
1875. 


1842. 
1847. 


1858. 
1879. 
1872. 


1848. 
1883. 
1848. 
1870. 


1883. 


1868. 


1857. 
1859. 


1847. 
1883. 
1884. 
1884. 
1875. 
1881. 
1878. 


1884. 
1876. 
1864. 
1885. 
1853. 
1884, 
1875. 


§Jones, George Oliver, M.A. 11 Cambridge-road, Waterloo, Liverpool. 

§Jones, Rey. Harry, M.A. Bartonmere, Bury St. Edmunds; and 
Savile Club, Piccadilly, London, W. 

tJones, Henry C., F.C.S. Normal School of Science, South Kensing- 
ton, London, S.W. 

tJones, Rev. Canon Herbert. Waterloo, Liverpool. 

§Jones, J. Viriamu, M.A., B.Sc., Principal of the University College 
of South Wales and Monmouthshire. Cardiff. 

tJones, Theodore B. 1 Finsbury-circus, London, E.C. 

tJones, Thomas. 15 Gower-street, Swansea. 

{Jonzs, THomas Rupert, F.R.S., F.G.S. 10 Uverdale-road, Kine’s- 
road, Chelsea, London, S. W. 

tJones, William. Elsinore, Birkdale, Southport. 

*Jose, J. E. 8 Queen-square, Bristol. 

tJoseph, J. H. 738 Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada. 

*Joule, Benjamin St. John B., J.P. 12 Wardle-road, Sale, near 
Manchester. 

*JouLz, JAMEs Prescorr, LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. 12 Wardle-road, 
Sale, near Manchester. 

tJowerr, Rev. B., M.A., Regius Professor of Greek in the University 
of Oxford. Balliol College, Oxford. 

{Jowett, John. Leeds. 

tJowitt, A. Hawthorn Lodge, Clarkehouse-road Sheffield. 

tJoy, Algernon. Junior United Service Club, St. James’s, London, 
S.W. 


*Joy, Rev. Charles Ashfield. Grove Parsonage, Wantage, Berkshire, 

§Joyce, Rev. A. G., B.A. St. John’s Croft, Winchester. 

*Jubb, Abraham. Halifax. 

tJupp, Joun Wester, F.R.S., Sec. G.S., Professor of Geology in the 
Royal School of Mines. Hurstleigh, Kew. 

jJustice, Philip M. 14 Southampton-buildings, Chancery-lane, 
London, W.C. 


*Kaines, Joseph, M.A., D.Sc. 8 Osborne-road, Stroud Green-road, 
London, N. 
Kang, Sir Rosrrt, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., M-R.LA., F.C.S.  Fort- 

lands, Killiney, Co. Dublin. 

tKavanagh, James W. Grenville, Rathgar, Ireland. 

tKay, David, F.R.G.S. 19 Upper Phillimore-place, Kensington, 
London, W. 

Kay, John Cunliff. Fairfield Hall, near Skipton. 

*Kay, Rey. William, D.D. Great Leghs Rectory, Chelmsford. 

{Kearne, John H. Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport. 

tKeefer, Samuel. Brockville, Ontario, Canada 

§Keefer, Thomas Alexander. Port Arthur, Ontario, Canada, 

tKeeling, George William. Tuthill, Lydney. 

{Keeping, Walter, M.A., F.G.S. The Museum, York. 

*Kelland, William Henry. 110 Jermyn-street, London, S.W.; and 
Grettans, Bow, North Devon. 

§Kelloge, J. H., M.D. Battle Creek, Michigan, U.S.A. 

tKelly, Andrew G. The Manse, Alloa, N.B. 

*Kelly, W. M., M.D. 11 The Crescent, Taunton, Somerset. 

§Keltie, J. Scott, Librarian R.G.S. 1 Savile-row, London, W. 

tKemp, Rey. Henry William, B.A. The Charter House, Hull. 

tKemper, Andrew 0. 101 Broadway, Cincinnati, U.S.A. 

{Kennepy, ALEXANDER B. W., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering 
in University College, London. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 55 


Year of 
Election. 


1884, 


1876. 
1884. 


{Kennedy, George L., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Chemistry and 
Geology in King’s College, Windsor, Nova Scotia, Canada. 

{Kennedy, Hugh. Redclyffe, Partickhill, Glasgow. 

{Kennedy, John. 113 University-street, Montreal, Canada. 


1884, §Kennedy, William. Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. 


1857. 
1855. 
1876. 
1881. 
1884, 
1883. 
1869, 
1869. 


1861. 
1883. 
1876. 
1876. 
1885. 


1865. 


1878. 
1860. 


1884. 
1875. 
1872. 


1875. 
1883. 
1871. 


1855. 
1883. 


1870. 


1883. 
1864. 


1860. 
1875. 
1870. 


1869. 
1861. 
1883. 
1876. 
1835. 
1875. 
1867. 
1867. 


1870. 


Kent, J.C. Levant Lodge, Earl’s Croome, Worcester. 

*Ker, André Allen Murray. Newbliss House, Newbliss, Ireland. 

*Ker, Robert. Dougalston, Milngavie, N.B. 

{Ker, William. 1 Windsor-terrace West, Glasgow. 

{Kermode, Philip M. C. Ramsay, Isle of Man. 

tKerr, James, M.D. Winnipeg, Canada. 

§Kerr, Dr. John. Garscadden House, near Kilpatrick, Glasgow. 

*Kesselmeyer, Charles A. 1 Peter-street, Manchester, 

*Kesselmeyer, William Johannes. Villa ‘Mon Repos,’ Altrincham, 
Cheshire. 

*Keymer, John. FParker-street, Manchester. 

*Keynes, J. N., M.A., B.Sc., F.S.S. 6 Harvey-road, Cambridge. 

{Kidston, J.B. West Regent-street, Glasgow. 

TKidston, William. Ferniegair, Helensburgh, N.B. 

*Kilgour, Alexander. Loirston House, Cove, near Aberdeen. 

*Kinahan, Edward Hudson, M.R.I.A. 11 Merrion-square North 
Dublin. 

{Kinahan, Edward Hudson, jun. 11 Merrion-square North, Dublin. 

tKivawan, G. Heyry, M.R.LA. Geological Survey of Ireland, 14 
Hume-street, Dublin. 

§Kinahan, Gerrard, A. 24 Waterloo-road, Dublin. 

*Kincu, Epwarp, F.C.S. Agricultural College, Cirencester. 

*King, Mrs. E. M. 54 Cornwall-road, Westbourne Park, London, 
W. 

*King, F. Ambrose. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol. 

*King, Francis. Rose Bank, Penrith. 

*King, Rev. Herbert Poole. Royal Thames Yacht Club, 7 Albemarle- 
street, Londou, W. 

{King, James. Levernholme, Hurlet, Glasgow. 

*King, John Godwin. Welford House, Greenhill, Hampstead, Lor- 
don, N. W. 

§King, John Thomson. 4 Clayton-square, Liverpool. 

King, Joseph. Welford House, Greenhill, Hampstead, London, 

N.W 


*King, Joseph, jun. Welford House, Greenhill, Hampstead, London, 
N. We 


§Kine, Kersurne, M.D. 6 Albion-street, and Royal Institution, 
Hull. 

*King, Mervyn Kersteman: 1 Vittoria-square, Clifton, Bristol. 

*King, Percy L. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol. 

tKing, William. 13 Adelaide-terrace, Waterloo, Liverpool. 

King, William Poole, F.G.S. Avonside, Clifton, Bristol. 

{Kingdon, K. Taddiford, Exeter. 

{Kingsley, John. Ashfield, Victoria Park, Manchester. 
{Kingston, Mrs. Sarah B. The Limes, Clewer, near Windsor. 
§Kingston, Thomas. The Limes, Clewer, near Windsor. 

Kingstone, A. John, M.A. Mosstown, Longford, Ireland. 
§Kivezerr, Cuartss T., F.C.S, Treyena, Amhurst Park, London, N. 
{Kinloch, Colonel. Kirriemuir, Logie, Scotland. 

*“KoynarrD, The Right Hon. Lord. 2 Pall Mall East, London, 
S.W.; and Rossie Priory, Inchture, Perthshire. 
{Kinsman, William R. Branch Bank of England, Liverpool. 


56 


Year of 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Election. 


1860. 


1876. 


1876. 
1883. 
1870. 
1881. 
1869. 
1883. 
1872. 


18738. 
1872. 


1870 


1875. 
1883. 
188], 


1870. 
1865. 


1882. 


1858. 
1884. 


1885. 
1870, 
1870. 
1882. 
1880. 
1877. 
1859. 
1883. 
18838. 


1884. 
1884. 
1871. 
1877. 


1888. 
1859. 
1864, 
1882. 
1870. 


{Krrxman, Rey. Tuomas P., M.A., F.R.S. Croft Rectory, near 
Warrington. 

Kirkpatrick, Rey. W. B., D.D. 48 North Great George-street, 
Dublin. 

*Kirkwood, Anderson, LL.D., F.R.S.E. 7 Melville-terrace, Stir- 
ling, N.B 


{Kirsop, John. 6 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow. 

{Kirsop, Mrs. 6 Queen’s-crescent, Glasgow. 

{Kitchener, Frank E. Newcastle, Staffordshire. 

{ Kitching, Langley. 50 Caledonian-road, Leeds. 

{Knapman, Edward. The Vineyard, Castle-street, Exeter. 

§Knight, J. R. 32 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, London, W.C. 

*Knott, George, LL.B., F.R.A.S. Knowles Lodge, Cuckfield, Hay- 
ward’s Heath, Sussex. 

*Knowles, George. Moorhead, Shipley, Yorkshire. 

}Knowles, James. The Hollies, Clapham Common, S.W. 


. {Knowles, Rey. J. L. 103 Earl’s Court-road, Kensington, Lon- 


1874. 
1883. 
18838. 
1876. 


don, W. 
Knowles, William James. Flixton-place, Ballymena, Co. Antrim. 
{Knowlys, Rev. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport. 
{Knowlys, Mrs. C. Hesketh. The Rectory, Roe-lane, Southport. 
{Knox, David N., M.A., M.B. 8 Belgrave-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow. 
ae George James. 29 Portland-terrace, Regent's Park, London, 
W 


*Knubley, Rey. E. P. Staveley Rectory, Leeds. 

{Knubley, Mrs. Staveley Rectory, Leeds. 

{Kurobe, Hiroo. Legation of Japan, 9 Cavendish-square, London, 
W 


{Kynaston, Josiah W., F.C.S. Kensington, Liverpool. 
tKynnersley, J. C. S. The Leveretts, Handsworth, Birming- 
ham 


tKyshe, ms ohn B. 19 Royal-ayenue, Sloane-square, London, 8S. W. 


tLace, Francis John, Stone Gapp Cross-hill, Leeds. 

t{Laflamme, Rey, Professor J. C, K. Laval University, Quebec, 
Canada. 

*Laing, J. Gerard. 1 Elm-court, Temple, London, E.C, 

{Laird, H.H. Birkenhead. 

§Laird, John. Grosvenor-road, Claughton, Birkenhead. 

tLake,G. A. K., M.D. East Park-terrace, Southampton. 

tLake, Samuel. ’ Milford Docks, Milford Haven. 

tLake, W. O0., M.D. Teionmouth. 

{Lalor, John J oseph, M. R.LA. City Hall, Cork Hill, Dublin. 

§Lamb, W. J. 11 Gloucester-road, Birkdale, Southport. 

§LAMBERT, Rey. Brooxr, LL.B. The Vicarage, Greenwich, Kent, 
S.E. 

{Lamborn, Robert H. Montreal, Canada. 

§Lancaster, Alfred. Manchester-road, Burnley, Lancashire. 

tLancaster, Edward. Karesforth Hall, Barnsley, Yorkshire. 

{Landon, Frederic George, M.A., F.R.AS. 8 The Circus, Green- 

wich, London, SE. 

{Lang, Rey. Gavin. Inverness. 

tLang, Rev. John Marshall, D.D. Barony, Glasgow. 

tLang, Robert. Langford Lodge, College-road, Clifton, Bristol. 

{Langstaff, Dr. Bassett, Southampton. 

{Langton, Charles. Barkhill, Aigburth, Liverpool. 

*Langton, William. Docklands, Ingatestone, Essex. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 57 


Year of 
Election. 


1865. 


1880. 


1884. 


1878. 
1885. 


1881. 


1883. 
1870. 


1870. 


1883. 
1870. 


1878. 
1862. 


1884. 
1870. 
1881. 
1875. 


1885. 
1857. 


1868. 
1855. 
1865. 
1857. 
1883. 
18838. 
1870. 


1884. 
1884. 
1847. 


1863. 
1884. 


1872. 


1884. 
18883. 
1861. 
1883. 
18538. 
1884, 
1882, 


tLanxuster, E. Ray, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Comparative 
Anatomy and Zoology in University College, London, 11 
Wellington Mansions, North Bank, London, N.W. 

*LANSDELL, Rev. Henry, D.D., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Eyre Cottage, 
The Grove, Blackheath, London, 8.E. 

Lanyon, Sir Charles. The Abbey, White Abbey, Belfast. 

tLanza, Professor G. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, 

tLapper, E.. M.D. 61 Harcourt-street, Dublin. 

§Lapworts, Cuartezs, F.G.S., Professor of Geology and Mineralogy 
in the Mason Science College, Birmingham. 93 Stirling-road, 
Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

tLarmor, Joseph, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy in Queen’s 
College, Galway. 

§Lascelles, B. P. Harrow. 

*Laruam, Batpwin, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 7 Westminster-chambers, 
Westminster, S.W, 

t{Lavenron, Joun Knox, M.A., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. Royal Naval 
College, Greenwich, 8.E. 

tLaurie, Major-General. Oakfield, Nova Scotia. 

“Law, Channel]. Sydney Villa, 36 Outram-road, Addiscombe, 
Croydon. 

tLaw, Henry, C.E. 5 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, 8.W. 

tLaw, Rev. James Edmund, M.A. Little Shelford, Cambridge- 
shire. 

§Law, Robert. Hollingsworth, Walsden, near Todmorden. 

tLawrence, Edward. Aigburth, Liverpool. 

§Lawrence, Rev. F., B.A. The Vicarage, Westow, York. 

tLawson, George, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Botany. 
Halifax, Nova Scotia. 

§Lawson, James. 8 Church-street, Huntly, N.B. 

tLawson, The Right Hon. James A., LL.D., D.C.L., M.R.LA. 
27 Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin. 

*Lawson, M. Alexander, M.A., F.L.S. Botanic Gardens, Oxford. 

tLawton, William. 5 Victoria-terrace, Derringham, Hull. 

tea, Henry. 35 Paradise-street, Birmingham. 

{Leach, Colonel R. E. Mountjoy, Pheenix Park, Dublin. 

*Leach, Charles Catterall. 18 Lord-street, Liverpool. 

§Leach, John. Haverhill House, Bolton. 

*Leaf, Charles John, F.L.S., F.G.S., F.S.A. Old Change, London, 
E.C. ; and Painshill, Cobham. 

*Leahy, John White, J.P. South Hill, Killarney, Ireland. 

tLearmont, Joseph B. 120 Mackay-street, Montreal, Canada. 

*LearHam, Epwarp AtpAmM, M.P. Whitley Hall, Huddersfield ; 
and 46 Eaton-square, London, 8. W. 

tLeavers, J. W. The Park, Nottingham. 

*Leavitt, Erasmus Darwin. 604 Main-street, Cambridgeport, Mas- 
sachusetts, U.S.A. 

tLusour, G. A., M.A., F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Col- 
lege of Physical Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

tLeckie, R. G. Springhill, Cumberland County, Nova Scotia. 

tLee, Daniel W. Halton Bank, Pendleton, near Manchester. 

{Lee, Henry, M.P. Sedgeley Park, Manchester. 

tLee, J. H. Warburton. Rossall, Fleetwood. 

*Ler, Jonn Epwarp, F.G.8., F.S.A. Villa Syracusa, Torquay. 

*Leech, Bosdin T. Oak Mount, Temperley, Cheshire. 

tLees, R. W. Moira-place, Southampton. 


58 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1859. 
1883. 


1883. 
1881. 
1872. 


1869. 
1868. 
1861. 
1856. 


1870. 
1880. 
1867. 
1870. 
1859. 
1882, 
1865. 


1867. 
1878. 
1861. 


1871. 


1874. 
1872. 
1884, 
1871. 
1883. 
1880. 
1866. 


1879, 


1870. 
1884, 
1853. 
1860, 


1876. 
1862, 


1883. 
1878. 
1881. 


{Lees, William, M.A. St. Leonard's, Morningside-place, Edinburgh. 

*Leese, Miss H. K. Hazeldene, Fallowfield, Manchester. 

*Leese, Joseph. Hazeldene, Fallowfield, Manchester, 

tLeese, Mrs. Hazeldene, Fallowfield, Manchester. 

{Ler Fevvere, J. E. Southampton. 

{Lerevre, The Right Hon. G. Suaw, F.R.G.S. 18 Bryanston- 
square, London, W. 

*Lerroy, General Sir Joun Heyry, R.A., K.C.M.G., C.B., LL.D., 
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. 82 Queen’s-gate, London, S.W. 

*Legh, Lieutenant-Colonel George Cornwall. High Legh Hall, 
Cheshire. 

tLe Grice, A. J. Trereife, Penzance. 

tLetcesrer, The Right Hon. the Earl of, K.G. Holkham, Norfolk. 

*Leigh, Henry. Moorfield, Swinton, near Manchester. 

tLeien, The Right Hon. Lord, D.C.L. 37 Portman-square, 
London, W.; and Stoneleigh Abbey, Kenilworth. 

tLeighton, Andrew. 385 High-park-street, Liverpool. 

{Leighton, William Henry, F.G.S. | 2 Merton-place, Chiswick. 

tLeishman, James. Gateacre Hall, Liverpool. 

tLeister, G. F. Gresbourn House, Liverpool. 

§Leith, Alexander. Glenkindie, Inverkindie, N.B. 

§Lemon, James, M.Inst.C.E, 11 The Avenue, Southampton. 

*Lenpy, Major AveustE Freperic, F.L.S., F.G.8. Sunbury House, 
Sunbury, Middlesex. 

tLeng, John. ‘Advertiser’ Office, Dundee. 

tLennon, Rey. Francis. The College, Maynooth, Ireland. 

tLennox, A. C. W. 7 Beaufort-gardens, Brompton, London, S.W. 

Lentaigne, Sir John, C.B., M.D. Tallaght House, Co. Dublin; and 
1 Great Denmark-street, Dublin. 
Lentaigne, Joseph. 12 Great Denmark-street, Dublin. 

tLEonarp, Hven, F.G.S., M.R.LA., F.R.G.S.L St. David’s, Mala- 
hide-road, Co. Dublin. 

{Lepper, Charles W. Laurel Lodge, Belfast. 

tLermit, Rey. Dr. School House, Dedham. 

§Lesage, Louis. City Hall, Montreal, Canada. 

tLeslie, Alexander, M.Inst.C.E. 72 George-street, Edinburgh. 

§Lester, Thomas. Fir Bank, Penrith. 

t{Lercurr, R. J. Lansdowne-terrace, Walters-road, Swansea. 

§Levi, Dr. Lxonz, F.S.A., F.S.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of Com- 
mercial Law in King’s College, London. 5 Crown Office-row, 
Temple, London, E.C. 

tLewin, Colonel, F.R.G.S. Garden Corner House, Chelsea Embank- 
ment, London, 8. W. 

{Lewis, Atrrep Lionen. 35 Colebrooke-row, Islington, London, N. 

“Lewis, W.T. The Mardy, Aberdare. 

tLiddell, George William Moore. Sutton House, near Hull. 

f{Lippett, The Very Rey. H. G., D.D., Dean of Christ Church, 
Oxford. 

{tLietke, J.O. 30 Gordon-street, Glasgow. 

{Lizrorp, The Right Hon. Lord, F.L.S. Lilford Hall, Oundle, North- 
amptonshire. 

*Liverick, The Right Rev. Cuartes Graves, Lord Bishop of, D.D., 
F.R.S., M.R.I.A. The Palace, Henry-street, Limerick. 

{Zincoln, Frank. 111 Marylebone-road, London, N. W. 

{Lincolne, William. Ely, Cambridgeshire. 

*Lindley, William, C.E., F.G.S. 10 Kidbrooke-terrace, Blackheath, 
London, 8.E. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 59 


Year of 
Election. 


1870. 
1871. 


1876. 
1883. 
1882. 
1870. 
1876. 


1881. 
1861. 


1876. 
1864, 
1880. 


1842. 
1865. 


1865. 
1877. 


1865. 


1854, 


1853. 
1867. 


1863. 
1875. 


1883. 
1883. 
1862. 
1876. 
1872. 
en. 
1851. 
1883. 
1883. 
1883. 
1866. 


1883. 


1883. 
1875. 


1871. 
1872. 
1881. 


1883. 
1861. 


*Lindsay, Charles. Ridge Park, Lanark, N.B. 

tLindsay, Thomas, F.C.S. Maryfield College, Maryhill, by Glasgow. 

tLindsay, Rev. T. M., M.A., D.D. Free Church College, Glasgow. 

Lingwood, Robert M., M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. 1 Derby-villas, Chel- 
tenham. 

§Linn, James. Geological Survey Office, India-buildings, Edinburgh. 

§Lisle, H. Claud. Nantwich. 

*Lister, Rev. Henry, B.A. Hawridge Rectory, Berkhampstead. 

§Lister, Thomas. Victoria-crescent, Barnsley, Yorkshire. 

tLittle, Thomas Evelyn. 42 Brunswick-street, Dublin. 

Littledale, Harold. Liscard Hall, Cheshire. 

tLittlewood, Rey. B. C., M.A. Holmdale, Cheltenham. 

*Lrvrrne, G. D., M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the 
University of Cambridge. Cambridge. 

*Liversidge, Archibald, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., Professor of 
Chemistry and Mineralogy in the University of Sydney, N.S.W. 
(Care of Messrs. Triibner & Co., Ludgate Hill, London, E.C.) 

§Livesay, J.G. Cromartie House, Ventnor, Isle of Wight. 

tLlewelyn, John T. D. Penllegare, Swansea. 

Lloyd, Rev. A. R. Hengold, near Oswestry. 
Lloyd, Edward. King-street, Manchester. 

{Lloyd, G. B. Edgbaston-grove, Birmingham. 

*Lloyd, George, M.D., F.G.S. Acock’s-green, near Birmingham. 

tLloyd, John. Queen’s College, Birmingham. 

Lloyd, Rev. Rees Lewis. Belper, Derbyshire. 

*Lloyd, Sampson Samuel. Moor Hall, Sutton Coldfield. 

*Lloyd, Wilson, F.R.G.S. Myrod House, Wednesbury. 

*Loptey, James Locan, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 19 Stonebridge Park, 
Willesden, N. W. 

*Locke, John. 133 Leinster-road, Dublin. 

*Locke, John. 83 Addison-road, Kensington, London, W. 

tLocxyer, J. Norman, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Science Schools, South 
Kensington, London, 8. W. 

*LopeE, Otrver J., D.Sc., Professor of Physics in University College, 
Liverpool. 26 Waverley-road, Sefton Park, Liverpool. 

tLofthouse, John. West Bank, Rochdale. 

tLondon, Rev. H. High Lee, Knutsford. 

tLong, Andrew, M.A. King’s College, Cambridge. 

tLong, H. A. Charlotte-street, Glasgow. 

tLong, Jeremiah. 50 Marine Parade, Brighton. 

*Long, John Jex. 727 Duke-street, Glasgow. 

{Long, William, F.G.S. Hurts Hall, Saxmundham, Suffolk. 

*Long, William. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington. 

tLong, Mrs. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington. 

tLong, Miss. Thelwall Heys, near Warrington. 

§Longdon, Frederick. Osmaston-road, Derby. 

{Longe, Francis D. Coddenham Lodge, Cheltenham. 

tLongmaid, William Henry. 4 Rawlinson-road, Southport. 

*Longstaff, George Blundell, M.A., M.B., F.C.S., F.8.8. Southfield 
Grange, Wandsworth, S.W. 

§Longstaff, George Dixon, M.D.,F.C.S. Butterknowle, Wandsworth, 

.W.; and 9 Upper Thames-street, London, E.C. 

*Longstaff, Llewellyn Wood, F.R.G.S.  Ridgelands, Wimbledon, 
Surrey. 

*Longstaff, Mrs. Ll. W. Ridgelands, Wimbledon, Surrey. 

§Longton, E. J., M.D. Lord-street, Southport. 

*Lord, Edward. Adamroyd, Todmorden. 


60 


Year 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 
of 


Election. 


1863 
1883 


1876. 


1883. 
1875. 
1867. 
1885. 
1885, 
1863. 


1861. 


1884, 
1870. 
1868. 
1886. 
1850. 


1881. 
1853. 


1881. 
1870. 
1878. 
1849. 
1875. 
1881. 
1867. 
1875. 
1884. 
1885. 
1866, 
1875. 
1850. 
1855. 
1883. 


18658. 
1874. 
1864, 
1871. 
1884. 
1884, 
1884. 
1874, 
1885. 
1857. 
1878. 
1862. 


1852. 
1854. 


1876. 


. {Losh, W. 8S. Wreay Syke, Carlisle. 

. *Louis, D, A., F.C.S. Harpenden. 

*Love, James, F.R.A.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. 2 Queensland-terrace, Oval- 
road, Croydon. 

§Love, James Allen. 8 Eastbourne-road West, Southport. 

*Lovett, W. Jesse. Alverthorpe-road, Wakefield. 

*Low, James F. Monifieth, by Dundee. 

§Lowdell, Sydney Poole. Baldwyn’s Hill, East Grinstead, Sussex. 

§Lowe, Arthur C. W. Gosfield Hall, Halstead, Essex. 

*Lowe, Lieut.-Colonel Arthur 8S. H., F.R.A.S. 76 Lancaster-gate, 
London, W. 

*Lowk, Epwarp Josmpu, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.L.S., F.G.8., F.R.M.S. 
Shirenewton, near Chepstow. 

{Lowe, F. J. Elm-court, Temple, London, E.C. 

jLowe, G. C. 67 Cecil-strect, Greenheys, Manchester. 

tLowe, John, M.D. King’s Lynn. 

*Lowe, John Lander. 132 Bath-row, Birmingham. 

tLowe, William Henry, M.D., F.R.S.E. Balgreen, Slateford, Edin- 
burgh. 

{Lubbock, Arthur Rolfe. High Elms, Hayes, Kent. 

*Luspock, Sir Jonny, Bart., M.P.,D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Pres. L.S., 
F.G.S. 34 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, S.W.; and High Elms, 
Hayes, Kent. 

tLubbock, John B. High Elms, Hayes, Kent. 

tLubbock, Montague, M.D. 19 Grosvenor-street, London, W. 

tLucas, Joseph. Tooting Graveney, London, 8.W. 

*Luckcock, Howard. Oak-hill, Edgbaston, Birmmgham. 

§Lucy, W. C., F.G.S. The Winstones, Brookthorpe, Gloucester. 

tLuden, C.M. 4 Bootham-terrace, York. 

*Luis, John Henry. Cidhmore, Dundee. 

tLumley, J. Hope Villa, Thornbury, near Bradford, Yorkshire. 

{Zumsden, Miss L. J. 

§Lumspen, Rosrrt. Ferryhill House, Aberdeen. 

*Lund, Charles. Ilkley, Yorkshire. 

fLund, Joseph. Ilkley, Yorkshire. 

*Lundie, Cornelius. ‘Teviot Bank, Newport-road, Cardiff. 

tLunn, William Joseph, M.D. 23 Charlotte-street, Hull. 

*Lupton, Arnold, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S., Instructor in Coal Mining in 
Yorkshire College. 4 Albion-place, Leeds. 

*Lupton, Arthur. Headingley, near Leeds. 

*Lupron, SypNpy, M.A. The Harebhills, near Leeds, 

*Lutley, John. Brockhampton Park, Worcester. 

tLyell, Leonard, F.G.S. 92 Onslow-gardens, London, S.W. 

§Lyman, A. Clarence. 84 Victoria-street, Montreal, Canada. 

tLyman, H. H. 74 McTavish-street, Montreal, Canada. 

tLyman, Roswell C. 74 McTavish-street, Montreal, Canada. 

tLynam, James. Ballinasloe, Ireland. 

§Lyon, Alexander, jun, 52 Carden-place, Aberdeen. 

TLyons, Robert D., M.B., M.R.I.A. 8 Merrion-square West, Dublin. 

{Lyte, Cecil Maxwell. Cotford, Oakhill-road, Putney, S.W. 

*Lyre, F, Maxwett, F.C.S. Cotford, Oakhill-road, Putney, S. W. 


tMcAdam, Robert. 18 College-square East, Belfast. 

*MacaDAM, Srevenson, Ph.D., F.R.S.E., F.C.S., Lecturer on 
Chemistry. Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh ; and Brighton House, 
Portobello, by Edinburgh. 

“MacapaM, WILLIAM Ivison, Surgeons’ Hall, Edinburgh. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 61 


Year of 
Election. 


1868. {Macarister, ALExanDER, M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy in 
the University of Cambridge. Strathmore House, Harvey-road, 
Cambridge. 

1878. a Donatp, M.A.,M.D., B.Sc. St. John’s College, Cam- 

ridge. 

1879. §MacAndrew, James J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon. 

1883. §MacAndrew, Mrs. J. J. Lukesland, Ivybridge, South Devon. 

1883. §MacAndrew, William. Westwood House, near Colchester. 

1866. *M‘Arthur, Alexander, M.P., F.R.G.S. Raleigh Hall, Brixton Rise, 
London, 8. W. 

1884, {Macarthur, Alexander. Winnipeg, Canada. 

1884. {Macarthur, D. Winnipeg, Canada. 

1840. Macavray, James, A.M., M.D. 25 Carlton-road, Maida Vale, 
London, N. W. 

1871. *MacBrayne, Robert. Messrs. Black and Wingate, 5 Exchange-~ 
square, Glasgow. 

1884, {McCabe, iy Chief Examiner of Patents. Patent Office, Ottawa, 

Canada. 

1866, {M‘Cattay, Rev. J. F., M.A. Basford, near Nottingham. 

1855. {M‘Cann, Rev. James, D.D., F.G.S. The Lawn, Lower Norwood, 

Surrey, 5.E. 

1884. *McCarthy, J. J.,M.D. Junior Army and Navy Club, London, 8.W. 

1884. §McCausland, Orr. Belfast. 

1876. *M‘Cretianp, A.S. 4 Crown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow. 

1868. ¢{M‘Crrrocx, Admiral Sir Francis L., R.N., F.RS., F.R.GS. 

United Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8. W. 

1872. *M‘Clure, J. H., F.R.G.S. 5 Park-row, Albert-gate, London, 8.W. 

1874, {M‘Clure, Sir Thomas, Bart. Belmont, Belfast. 

1878. *M‘Comas, Henry. Homestead, Dundrum, Co. Dublin. 

1859. *M‘Connell, David C., F.G.S. Care of Mr. H. K. Lewis, 136 Gower- 
street, London, W.C. 

1858. tM‘Connell, J. E. Woodlands, Great Missenden. 

1883. {McCrossan, James. 29 Albert-road, Southport. 

1876. {M‘Oulloch, Richard. 109 Douglas-street, Blythswood-square, Glas- 


ow. 
1884. ap area, The Right Hon. Sir Jonn ALExanpeEr, G.C.B., D.C.L., 
LL.D. Ottawa, Canada. 
1884. {MacDonald, Kenneth. Town Hall, Inverness. 
1884. *McDonald, W. C. 891 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada. 
1878. t{McDonnell, Alexander. St. John’s, Island Bridge, Dublin. 
1884. §MacDonnell, Mrs. F, H. 1433 St. Catherine-street, Montreal, Canada. 
MacDonnell, Hercules H. G. 2 Kildare-place, Dublin. 
1883. {MacDonnell, Rev. Canon J.C.,D.D. Maplewell, Loughborough. 
1878. {McDonnell, James. 32 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin. 
1878. {McDonnell, Robert, M.D., F.RS., MRA. 89 Merrion-square 
West, Dublin. 
1884. t{Macdougall, Alan. Toronto, Canada. 
1884. t{McDougall, John. 35 St. Frangois Xavier-street, Montreal, Canada. 
1878. *M‘Ewan, John. 4 Douglas-terrace, Stirling, N.B. 
1881. {Macfarlane, Alexander, D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physics in the 
University of Texas. Austin, Texas, U.S.A. 
1871. {M‘Farlane, Donald. The College Laboratory, Glasgow. 
1885. §Macfarlane, J. M., D.Sc. 3 Bellevua-terrace, Edinburgh. 
1855. *Macfarlane, Walter. 22 Park-circus, Glasgow. 
1879. tMacfarlane, Walter, jun. 12 Lynedoch-crescent, Glasgow. 
1884, {Macfie, K. N., B.A., B.C.L. Winnipeg, Canada. 
1854. *Macfie, Robert Andrew. Dreghorn, Colinton, Edinburgh. 


62 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1867. 


1855. 


1872. 
1884. 
1884. 


1878. 


1885. 
1884, 


1885. 


1876. 
1874. 
1867. 


1884. 
1854. 
1883. 
1884, 


1885, 
1873. 


1883. 
1880. 
1885. 
1884, 
1884. 
1883. 
1865. 
1872. 
1867. 
1884, 
1867. 
1865. 
1884. 
1850. 
1867. 
1872. 


1878. 
1885. 


1860, 
1864. 
1878. 
1882. 
1884. 
1884, 
1884, 
1862, 


*M‘Gavin, Robert. Ballumbie, Dundee. 

tMacGeorge, Andrew, jun. 21 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow. 

{M‘George, Mungo. Nithsdale, Laurie Park, Sydenham, S.E. 

{MacGillivray, James. 42 Catchurt-street, Montreal, Canada. 

tMacGoun, Archibald, jun., B.A., B.C.L. 19 Place d’Armes, Mont- 
real, Canada. 

tMcGowen, William Thomas. Oak-avenue, Oak Mount, Bradford, 
Yorkshire. 

§Macgregor, Alexander, M.D. 256 Union-street, Aberdeen. 

*MacGregor, James Gorpon, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.E., Professor of 
Physics in Dalhousie College, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. 

§M‘Gregor-Robertson, J., M.A., M.B. 400 Great Western-road, 
Glasgow. 

tM‘Grigor, Alexander B., LL.D. 19 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow. 

tMaclIlwaine, Rev. Canon, D.D., M.R.I.A.  Ulsterville, Belfast. 

*MIntosn, W. C., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. L. & E., F.L.S., Professor 
of Natural History in the University of St. Andrews. 2 A bbots- 
ford-crescent, St. Andrews, N.B. 

tMcIntyre, John, M.D. Odiham, Hants. 

*Maclver, Charles. 8 Abercromby-square, Liverpool. 

tMack, Isaac A. Trinity-road, Bootle. 

§Mackay, Alexander Howard. The Academy, Picton, Nova Scotia, 
Canada. 

§Mackay, John Yule, M.D. The University, Glaszow. 

{McKeznoricx, Joun G., M.D., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Phy- 
siology in the University of Glasgow. The University, 
Glasgow. 

§McKendrick, Mrs. The University, Glasgow. 

*Mackenzie, Colin. Junior Athenzeum Club, Piccadilly, London, W. 

§Mackenzie, J.T. Glenmuick, Ballater, N.B. 

§McKenzie, Stephen, M.D. 26 Finsbury-cireus, London, E.C. 

{McKenzie, Thomas, B.A. School of Science, Toronto, Canada. 

§Mackeson, Henry. Hythe, Kent. 

tMackeson, Henry B., F.G.S. Hythe, Kent. 

Mackey, J. A. 1 Westbourne-terrace, Hyde Park, London, W. 

Mackin, Samvrt Josern. 17 Howley-place, London, W. 

McKilligan, John B. 3887 Main-street, Winnipeg, Canada. 

Mackinlay, David. 6 Great Western-terrace, Hillhead, Glascow. 

Mackintosh, Daniel, F.G.S. 32 Glover-street, Birkenhead. 

Mackintosh, James B. New York, U.S.A. 

Macknight, Alexander. 20 Albany-street, Edinburgh. 

tMackson, H. G. 25 Cliffroad, Woodhouse, Leeds. 

*McLacutan, Roserrt, F.R.S., F.L.S. West View, Clarendon-road, 
Lewisham, 8.E. ; 

tMcLandsborough, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Manning- 
ham, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

*M‘Laren, The Right Hon, Lord, F.R.S.2. 46 Moray-place, Edin- 
burgh. 

iMpelanats Archibald. Summertown, Oxfordshire. 

tMacLargen, Duncan. Newington House, Kdinburgh. 

{MacLaren, Walter 8. B. Newington House, Edinburgh. 

{Maclean, Inspector-General,C.B. 1 Rockstone-terrace, Southampton. 

{McLennan, Frank. 3817 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada. 

tMcLennan, Hugh. 317 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada. 

tMcLennan, John. Lancaster, Ontario, Canada. 

tMacleod, Henry Dunning. 17 Gloucester-terrace, Campden Hill-road, 
London, W. 


+4 t+ K++ OK 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 63 


Year of 
Election. 


1868, 


1875. 
1875. 
1861. 


1883. 
1883. 


1878. 
1862. 


1884. 
1874. 
1884. 


1871. 


1870. 
1867. 
1883. 
1878. 
1883. 


1876. 
1855. 
1883. 
1883. 
1885, 
1868. 
1875. 
1878. 
1869. 
1885, 
1888. 


1881. 
1874. 
1857. 


1870. 
1884. 
1885. 
1866. 


1878. 
1864. 
1870. 
1883. 
1864, 


1863. 


§M‘Lzop, Hersert, F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in the 
Royal Indian Civil Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill, Egham. 

tMacliver, D. 1 Broad-street, Bristol. 

tMacliver, P.S. 1 Broad-street, Bristol. 

*Maclure, John William, F.R.G.S., F.S.S.. Whalley Range, Man- 
chester. 

*McMahon, Colonel C. A. 20 Nevern-square, South Kensington, 
London, 8. W. 

{MacMahon, Captain P. A., R.A., Instructor in Mathematics at the 
Royal Military Academy, Woolwich. 

*M‘Master, George, M.A., J.P. Donnybrook, Ireland. 

eeceelen, Alexander. Streatham-lane, Upper Tooting, Surrey, 


*Macmillan, Angus, M.D. Hull. 

{MacMordie, Hans, M.A. 8 Donegall-street, Belfast. 

{MecMurrick, Playfair. Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph, 
Ontario, Canada. 

{M‘Nas, Witrtram Ramsay, M.D., Professor of Botany in the 
Royal College of Science, Dublin. 4 Vernon-parade, Clontarf, 
Dublin. 

{Macnaught, John, M.D. 74 Huskisson-street, Liverpool. 

{M‘Neill, John. Balhousie House, Perth. 

{tMeNicoll, Dr. E. D. 15 Manchester-road, Southport. 

{tMacnie, George. 59 Bolton-street, Dublin. 

{Macpherson, J. 44 Frederick-street, Edinburgh. 

*Macrory, Epmunp, M.A. 2 Ilchester-gardens, Prince’s-square, 
London, W. 

*Mactrar, JAMES. 16 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow. 

tMacyvicar, Rev. Joun Greson, D.D., LL.D. Moffat, N.B. 

§McWhirter, Wiliam. 170 Kent-road, Glasgow. 

§Madden, W.H. Marlborough College, Wilts. 

§Maggs, Thomas Charles, F.G.S. Yeovil. 

tMagnay, F. A. Drayton, near Norwich. 

*Magnus, Philip. 48 Gloucester-place, Portman-square, London, W. 

{tMahony, W. A. 34 College-creen, Dublin. 

tMain, Robert. Admiralty, Whitehall, London, 8.W. 

*Maitland, Sir James R. G., Bart. Stirling, N.B. 

§Maitland, P.C. 233 East India-road, London, E. 

*Malcolm, Frederick. Morden College, Blackheath, London, S.E. 

tMalcolm, Lieut.-Colonel, R.E. 72 Nunthorpe-road, York. 

{tMalcolmson, A. B. Friends’ Institute, Belfast. 

tMallet, John William, Ph.D., M.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of 

Chemistry in the University of Virginia, U.S.A. 

tManifold, W. H. 45 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 

*Mann, F.8. W, Linton Park, Maidstone. 

§Mann, George. 72 Bon Accord-street, Aberdeen. 

§Mann, Rozert James, M.D., F.R.A.S. 5 Kingsdown-villas, Wands- 
worth Common, 8S. W. 

Manning, His Eminence Cardinal. Archbishop’s House, West- 
minster, S. W. 

§Manning, Robert. 4 Upper Ely-place, Dublin. 

tMansel-Pleydell, J.C. Whatcombe, Blandford. 

tMarcoartu, Senor Don Arturo de. Madrid. 

tMarginson, James Fleetwood. The Mount, Fleetwood, Lancashire. 

{Marxnam, Crements R., O.B., F.R.S., F.L.S., Sec.R.G.8., F.S.A. 
21 Kccleston-square, London, 8. W. 

tMarley, John. Mining Office, Darlington. 


64 


Year 


Election. 


1881 


1871. 


1857. 
1842. 
1884. 
1883. 
1870. 
1864. 
1882. 


1881. 
1881. 
1881. 
1876. 
1858. 
1849, 


1865. 
1883. 
1848. 
1878. 


1883. 


1884. 
1836. 


1865. 
1865. 
1875. 
1883. 
1878. 


1847, 


1861. 
1879. 
1868. 


1876. 
1876. 


1885. 
1883. 
1865. 
1861. 


1881. 
1885. 
1865. 
1858. 
1885. 
1885. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


of 


. *Marr, John Edward, B.A., F.G.S. St. John’s College, Cambridge. 

{Marreco, A. Frimre-. College of Physical Science, Newcastle-on- 
Tyne. 

{Marriott, William, F.C.S. Grafton-street, Huddersfield. 

Marsden, Richard. Norfolk-street, Manchester. 

*Marsden, Samuel. St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.A. 

*Marsh, Henry. Cressy House, Woodsley-road, Leeds. 

tMarsh, John. Rann Lea, Rainhill, Liverpool. 

{Marsh, Thomas Edward Miller. 37 Grosyenor-place, Bath. 

*MarswHatn, A. Mitnes, M.A., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., Professor of 
Zoology in Owens College, Manchester. 

{Marshall, D. H. Greenhill Cottage, Rothesay. 

*Marshall, John, F.R.A.S., F.G.S. Church Institute, Leeds, 

§Marshall, John Ingham Fearby. 28 St. Saviourgate, York. 

tMarshall, Peter. 6 Parkgrove-terrace, Glasgow. 

tMarshall, Reginald Dykes. Adel, near Leeds. 

*MarsHatn, Wittram P., M.Inst.C.E. 15 Augustus-road, Birming 
ham. 

§Marren, Enwarp Brypon. Pedmore, near Stourbridge. 

{Marten, Henry John. 4 Storey’s-gate, London, S.W. 

{Martin, Henry D. 4 Imperial-circus, Cheltenham. i 

tMarrin, Professor H. Newett, F.R.S. John Hopkins University, 
Baltimore, U.S.A. 

ee, Jonn Broputra, M.A., F.S.S. 17 Hyde Park-gate, London, 

.W. 
§Martin, N. H., F.L.S. 29 Moseley-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
Martin, Studley. Liverpool. 

*Martineau, Rey. James, LL.D., D.D. 35 Gordon-square, London, 
WC: 

{Martineau, R. F. Highfield-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham, 

{Martineau, Thomas. 7 Cannon-street, Birmingham. 

{Martyn, Samuel, M.D. 8 Buclkingham-villas, Clifton, Bristol. 

§Marwick, James, LL.D. Killermont, Maryhill, Glasgow. 

{Masaki, Taiso. Japanese Consulate, 84 Bishopsgate-street Within, 
London, F.C. 

{Masxetyne, Nrvit Story, M.A., M.P., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of 
Mineralogy in the University of Oxford. 59 Cornwall-gardens, 
London, W. 

*Mason, Hugh, M.P. Groby Hall, Ashton-under-Lyne. 

tMason, James, M.D. Montgomery House, Sheffield. 

{Mason, James Wood, F.G.S. The Indian Museum, Calcutta. 
(Care of Messrs. Henry 8. King & Co., 65 Cornhill, Lon- 
don, E.C.) 

§Mason, Robert. 6 Albion-crescent, Dowanhill, Glasgow. 

{Mason, Stephen. 9 Rosslyn-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow. 

Massey, Hugh, Lord. Hermitage, Castleconnel, Co. Limerick. 

§Masson, Orme, D.Sc. 58 Great King-street, Edinburgh. 

tMather, Robert V. Birkdale Lodge, Birkdale, Southport. 

*Mathews, G. 8S. 32 Augustus-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

*Marnews, Wittr1aMm, M.A., F.G.S. 60 Harborne-road, Birming- 
ham. 

{Mathwin, Henry, B.A. Bickerton House, Southport. 

{Mathwin, Mrs. 40 York-road, Birkdale, Southport. 

{Matthews, C. E. Waterloo-street, Birmingham. 

{Matthews, F.C. Mandre Works, Driffield, Yorkshire. 

§Marrnews, James. Springhill, Aberdeen. 

§Matthews, J. Duncan. Springhill, Aberdeen. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 65 


Year of 
Election. 


1863. 
1865. 


1876. 


1864. 


1883. 


1883. 
1868. 


1884, 
1835. 


1878. 
1863. 
1878. 


1884. 


1883. 


1881. 
1871. 


1879. 


1881. 


1867. 


1883. 
1879. 
1866. 


1883. 
1854. 
1881. 
1847. 


1863. 
1877. 
1862. 


{Maughan, Rev. W. Benwell Parsonage, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

*Maw, Guoren, F.LS., F.G.S., F.S.A. Benthall Hall, Broseley, 
Shropshire. 

{Maxton, John. 6 Belgraye-terrace, Glasgow. 

*Maxwell, Francis. 4 Moray-place, Edinburgh. 

*Maxwell, Robert Perceval. Finnebrogue, Downpatrick. 

§May, William, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Northfield, St. Mary Oray, 
Kent. 

{Mayall, George. Clairville, Birkdale, Southport. 

tMayall, J. E., F.C.S. Stork’s Nest, Lancing, Sussex. 

*Maybury, A. C., D.Sc. 19 Bloomsbury-square, London, W.C. 

Mayne, Edward Ellis. Rocklands, Stillorgan, Ireland. 

*Mayne, Thomas. 33 Castle-street, Dublin. 

tMease, George D. Lydney, Gloucestershire. 

§Meath, The Most Rev. C. P. Reichel, D.D., Bishop of. Meath. 

{tMecham, Arthur. 11 Newton-terrace, Glasgow. 

{Medd, John Charles, M.A. 99 Park-street, Grosvenor-square, 
London, W. 

{Meek, Sir James. Middlethorpe, York. 

{Meikie, James, F.S.S. 6 St. Andrew’s-square, Edinburgh. 

§Meiklejohn, John W.8., M.D. 105 Holland-road, London, W. 

*Metpora, Rapwast, F.R.A.S., F.C.S., F.LC., Professor of Chemistry 
in the City and Guilds of London Institute, Finsbury Technical 
Institute, 21 John-street, Bedford-row, London, W.C. 

{Metprum, Cuaries, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Port Louis, Mau- 
ritius, 

tMellis, Rev. James. 23 Park-street, Southport. 

*Mellish, Henry. Hodsock Priory, Worksop. 

{Metxo, Rey. J. M., M.A., F.G.S8. St. Thomas’s Rectory, Brampton, 
Chesterfield. 

§Mello, Mrs. J. M. St. Thomas’s Rectory, Brampton, Chesterfield. 

tMelly, Charles Pierre. 11 Rumford-street, Liverpool. 

§Melrose, James. Clifton, York. 

{Melville, Professor Alexander Gordon, M.D. Queen’s College, Gal- 
way. 

iitigis Alexander: 42 Buccleuch-place, Edinburgh. 

*Menabrea, General Count, LL.D. 14 Rue de l’Elysée, Paris. 

{MenneLL, Henry J. St. Dunstan’s-buildings, Great Tower-street, 
London, E.C. 


. [Merivale, John Herman, Professor of Mining in the College of 


Science, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

tMerivale, Walter. Engineers’ Office, North-Eastern Railway, New- 
castle-on-Tyne. 

tMerrifield, John, Ph.D., F.R.A.S. Gascoigne-place, Plymouth. 

{Merry, Alfred 8S. Bryn Heulog, Sketty, near Swansea. 

*Messent, John. 429 Strand, London, W.C. 

{Messent, P. T. 4 Northumberland-terrace, Tynemouth. 

{Mratt, Louts C., F.G.S., Professor of Biology in Yorkshire College, 
Leeds. 

{Middlemore, William. Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

*Middlesbrough, The Right Rey. Richard Lacy, D.D., Bishop of. 
Middlesbrough. 

§Middleton, Henry. St. John’s College, Cambridge. 

§Middleton, R. Morton, F.L.S., F.Z.8S. Hudworth Cottage, Castle 
Eden, Co. Durham. 

*Middleton, Robert T., M.P. 197 West George-street, Glasgow. 

§Mizes, Morris. 44 Carlton-road, Southampton. 

E 


66 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1885. 


1859. 
1865. 


1876. 
1876. 
1882. 
1876. 
1875. 
1884, 
1885. 
1861. 
1876, 
1884. 


1884. 


1876, 


1868. 


1880. 


1885. 
1882. 


1885. 
1867. 


1882. 
1880. 


1865. 
1855. 
1859. 
1876, 
1883. 


18835. 


1865, 
1875. 
1885. 
1870. 
1868. 
1885. 
1879. 


1884, 
1885. 
1864, 
1885. 
1861. 
1883. 


§Mill, Hugh Robert, B.Sc., F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Scottish Marine Station, 
Granton, Edinburgh. 
tMillar, John, J.P. Lisburn, Ireland. 
{Millar, John, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S, Bethnal House, Cambridge-road, 
London, E. 
Millar, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E, Perth. 
{Millar, William. Highfield House, Dennistoun, Glasgow. 
{Millar, W. J. 145 Hill-street, Garnethill, Glasgow. 
§Miller, A. J. High-street, Southampton. 
tMiller, Daniel. 258 St. George’s-road, Glasgow. 
{Miller, George. Brentry, near Bristol. 
§Miller, Mrs. Hugh. 51 Lauriston-place, Edinburgh. 
§Miller, John. 9 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen. 
*Miller, Robert. Cranage Hall, Holmes Chapel, Cheshire, 
*Miller, Robert. 1 Lily Bank-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow. 
*Miller, Robert Kalley, M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the Royal 
Naval College, Greenwich, London, 8.E. 
{Miller, T. F., B.Ap.Sc. Napanee, Ontario, Canada. 
{Miller, Thomas Paterson. Cairns, Cambuslang, N.B. © 
*Mitits, Epmunp J., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.8., Young Professor of 
Technical Chemistry in Anderson’s College, Glasgow. 60 John- 
street, Glasgow. 
tMills, Mansfeldt H. Tapton-grove, Chesterfield. 
Milne, Admiral Sir Alexander, Bart., G.C.B., F.R.S.E. 13 New- 
street, Spring-gardens, London, 8. W. 
§Milne, Alexander D. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen. 
*Milne, John, F.G.S., Professor of Geology in the Imperial College 
of Engineering, Tokio, Japan, 13 Clyde-road, Croydon, Surrey. 
§Milne, William. 40 Albyn-place, Aberdeen. 
*Mirnr-Home, Davin, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. 10 York- 
place, Edinburgh. 
§Milnes, Alfred, M.A., F.S.8S. 30 Almeric-road, London, 8. W. 
§Minchin, G. M., M.A. Koyal Indian Engineering College, Cooper's 
Hill, Surrey. P 
{Minton, Samuel, F.G.S. Oakham House, near Dudley. 
{Mirrlees, James Buchanan. 45 Scotland-street, Glasgow. 
tMitchell, Alexander, M.D, Old Rain, Aberdeen. 
{Mitchell, Andrew. 20 Woodside-place, Glasgow. 
{Mitchell, Charles T., M.A. 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington, 
London, W. 
{Mitchell, Mrs, Charles T, 41 Addison-gardens North, Kensington, 
London, W. 
tMitchell, C. Walker. Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
{Mitchell, Henry. Parkfield House, Bradford, Yorkshire. 
§Mitchell, Rev. J. Mitford, B.A. 6 Queen’s-terrace, Aberdeen. 
§Mitchell, John, J.P. York House, Clitheroe, Lancashire. 
{ 
§ 
i 


Mitchell, John, jun. Pole Park House, Dundee. 

Mitchell, P. Chalmers. Christ Church, Oxford. 

Mrvarr, St. Georer, M.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.Z.S., Professor of 
Biology in University College, Kensington. 71 Seymour-street, 
London, W. 

§Moat, Robert. Spring Grove, Bewdley. 

§Moffat, William. 7 Union-place, Aberdeen. 

{Mogg, John Rees. High Littleton House, near Bristol. 

§Moir, James. 25 Carden-place, Aberdeen. 

t{MorrswortH, Rev. W. Nassau, M.A. Spotland, Rochdale. 
§Mollison, W. L. Clare College, Cambridge. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 67 


Year of 
Election. 


1878. 
1877. 
1884. 
18538. 
1882. 
1872. 


1872. 
1884, 


1881. 


1866. 
1854. 


1877. 
1857. 
1877. 
1871. 


1881. 


1873. 
1885. 
1882. 
1878. 
1867. 
1885. 


1863. 
1881. 
1880. 


1883, 


1883. 
1880. 
1883. 
1880. 


1876. 
1874. 


1871. 
1865. 
1869. 
1857. 
1858. 
1871. 
1868. 


1883. 


§Molloy, Constantine. 65 Lower Leeson-street, Dublin. 

*Molloy, Rey. Gerald, D.D. 86 Stephen’s-creen, Dublin. 

§Monaghan, Patrick. Halifax (Box 379), Nova Scotia, Canada. 

{Monroe, Henry, M.D. 10 North-street, Sculcoates, Hull. 

*Montagu, Samuel, M.P. 12 Kensington Palace-gardens, London, W. 

{Montgomery, R. Mortimer. 38 Porchester-place, Edeware-road, 

London, W. 

tMoon, W., LL.D. 104 Queen’s-road, Brighton. 

§Moore, George Frederick. 25 Marlborough-road, Tue Brook, 

Liverpool. f 

§Moore, Henry. 4 Sheffield-terrace, Kensineton, London, W. 

*Moorz, Jonn Carrick, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. 113 Katon-square, 
London, 8. W.; and Corswall, Wigtonshire. 

*Moorz, Tomas, F.L.S. Botanic Gardens, Chelsea, London, 


t{Moorr, Tuomas Jonn, Cor. M.Z.S. Free Public Museum, Liver- 
ool. 

aes, W.F. The Friary, Plymouth. 

*Moore, Rey. William Prior. The Royal School, Cavan, Ireland. 

tMoore, William Vanderkemp. 15 Princess-square, Plymouth. 

tMorz, Aruxanper G., F.L.8S., M.R.ILA. 3 Botanic View, Glas- 
nevin, Dublin. 

{Morean, ALFRED. 50 West Bay-street, Jacksonville, Florida, 

U.S.A. 

tMorgan, Edward Delmar. 15 Rowland-gardens, London, W. 

§Morgan, John. 57 Thomson-street, Aberdeen. 

§Morgan, Thomas. Cross House, Southampton. 

{Morean, WitttaM, Ph.D., F.C.S. Swansea. 

tMorison, William R. Dundee. 

§Morley, Henry Forster, M.A., B.Sc., F.C.S. University Hall, 
Gordon-square, London, W.C. 

tMortey, Samvuet, M.P. 18 Wood-street, Cheapside, London, E.C. 

tMorrell, W. W. York City and County Bank, York. 

tMorris, Alfred Arthur Vennor. Wernolau, Cross Inn R.S.0., Car- 
marthenshire. 

tMorris, C. 8. Millbrook Iron Works, Landore, South Wales. 

*Morris, Rev. Francis Orpen, B.A. Nunburnholme Rectory, Hayton, 

York. 

tMorris, George Lockwood. Millbrook Iron Works, Swansea, 

§Morris, James. 6 Windsor-street, Uplands, Swansea. 

tMorris, John. 40 Wellesley-road, Liverpool. 

tMorris, M. I. E. The Lodge, Penclawdd, near Swansea. 

Morris, Samuel, M.R.D.S. Fortview, Clontarf, near Dublin. 

tMorris, Rev. 8. 8. 0., M.A., R.N., F.C.S.  HLM.S. ‘§ Garnet,’ 

S. Coast of America. 

tMorrison, G. J., M.Inst.C.E. 5 Victoria-street, Westminster, 

Sa. 

*Morrison, James Darsie. 27 Grange-road, Edinburgh. 

§Mortimer, J. R. St. John’s-villas, Driffield. 

{Mortimer, William. Bedford-circus, Exeter. 

§Morron, GrorGe H., F.G.S. 122 London-road, Liverpool. 

*Morron, Henry JosrpH. 2 Westbourne-villas, Scarborough. 

tMorton, Hugh. Belvedere House, Trinity, Edinburgh. 

{Mosgrzy, H. N., M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Linacre Professor of Human 
and Comparative Anatomy in the University of Oxford. 14 St. 
Giles’s, Oxford. 

tMoseley, Mrs. 14 St. Giles’s, Oxford. 


68 LIST OF MEMBERS. 
Year of 
Election. 
Mosley, Sir Oswald, Bart., D.C.L. Rolleston Hall, Burton-upon- 
Trent, Staffordshire. 
Moss, John. Otterspool, near Liverpool. 
1878. *Moss, Jonn Francis, F.R.G.S. Beechwood, Brincliffe, Sheffield. 
1870. {Moss, John Miles, M.A. 2 Esplanade, Waterloo, Liverpool. 
1876, §Moss, Ricwarp Jackson, F.C.S., M.R.LA. St. Aubin’s, Bally- 
brack, Co. Dublin. 
1873. *Mosse, George Staley. 13 Scarsdale-villas, Kensington, London, W. 
1864, *Mosse, J. R. Conservative Club, London, 8.W. 
1873. {Mossman, William. "Woodhall, Calverley, Leeds. 
1869. §Morr, AtBEeRtT J., F.G.S. Crickley Hill, Gloucester. 
1865. {Mott, Charles Grey. The Park, Birkenhead. 
1866. §Morr, Freprrick T., F.R.G.S. Birstall Hill, Leicester. 
1862. *Movat, Frepprick Joun, M.D., Local Government Inspector. 12 
Durham-yillas, Campden Hill, London, W. 
1856. {Mould, Rev. J. G., B.D. Fulmodeston Rectory, Dereham, Norfolk. 
1878. *Moulton, J. Fletcher, M.A., M.P., F.R.S. 74 Onslow-gardens, 
London, S.W. 
1863. {Mounsey, Edward. Sunderland. 
Mounsey, John. Sunderland. 
1861, *Mountcastle, William Robert. Bridge Farm, Ellenbrook, near 
Manchester. 
1877. {Mount-Epecumsz, The Right Hon. the Earl of, D.C.L. Mount- 
Edgcumbe, Devonport. 
1882, {Mount-Temptr, The Right Hon. Lord. Broadlands, Romsey, Hants. 
Mowbray, James. Combus, Clackmannan, Scotland, 
1850, {Mowbray, John T, 15 Albany-street, Edinburgh. 
1884. {Moyse, C. E., B.A., Professor of English Language and Literature 
in McGill College, Montreal. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, 
Canada. 
1884, {Moyse, Charles E. 802 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada. 
1876. *Muir, John. 6 Park-gardens, Glasgow. 
1874. {Muir, M. M. Pattison, M.A. F.R.S.E. Caius College, Cambridge. 
1876, §Muir, Thomas, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E. Beechcroft, Bishopton, Ren- 
frewshire. 
1884. *Muir, William Ker. Detroit, Michigan, U.S.A. 
1872. {Muirhead, Alexander, D.Sc., F.C.S. 8 Elm-court, Temple, London, 
K.C. 
1871. *MurruEap, Henry, M.D. Bushy Hill, Cambuslang, Lanarkshire. 
1876, *Muirhead, Robert Franklin, M.A., B.Sc. Meikle Cloak, Lochwinnoch, 
Renfrewshire. 
1884. §Muirhead-Paterson, Miss Mary. Laurieville, Queen’s Drive, Cross- 
hill, Glasgow. 
1883. §MurHatt, Micuart G. 19 Albion-street, Hyde-park, London, W. 
1883. §Mulhall, Mrs. Marion. 19 Albion-street, Hyde-park, London, W. 
1884, *Mititer, Hveo, Ph.D. F.RS., F.C.8. 13 Park-square East, 
Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 
1880. §Muller, Hugo M. 1 Griinanger-gasse, Vienna. 
Munby, Arthur Joseph. 6 Fig-tree-court, Temple, London, E.C, 
1866. {Munpetta, The Right Hon. A. J., M.P., F.R.S., F.R.G.S. The 
Park, Nottingham. 
1876. {Munro, Donald, ¥.C.S. The University, Glasgow. 
1885. §Munro, J. E. Crawford, LL.D., Professor of Political Economy in 
Owens College, Manchester. 
1883. *Munro, Robert. Braehead House, Kilmarnock, N.B. 
1872. *Munster, H. Sillwood Lodge, Brighton. 
1864. {Murcu, JErom. Cranwells, Bath. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 69 


Year of 
Election. 
1864, *Murchison, K. R. Brockhurst, East Grinstead. 
1855. {Murdoch, James B. Hamilton-place, Langside, Glasgow. 
1852. {Murney, Henry, M.D. 10 Chichester-street, Belfast. 
1852. {Murphy, Joseph John. Old Forge, Dunmurry, Co. Antrim. 
1884, {Murphy, Patrick. Newry, Ireland. 
1869. {Murray, Adam. Westbourne Sussex-gardens, Hyde-park, London, W. 
Murray, John, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. 50 Albemarle-street, London, W. 5 
and Newsted, Wimbledon, Surrey. 
1859. {Murray, John, M.D. Forres, Scotland. 
*Murray, John, M.Inst.C.E. Downlands, Sutton, Surrey. 
1884. §Murray, John. Challenger Expedition Office, Edinburgh. 
1884, {Murray, J. Clark, LL.D., Professor of Logic and Mental and Moral 
Philosophy in McGill College, Montreal. 111 McKay-street, 
Montreal, Canada. 
1872. tMurray, J. Jardine, F.R.C.S.E. 99 Montpellier-road, Brighton. 
1863. t{Murray, William. 34 Clayton-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1883. {Murray, W. Vaughan. 4 Westbourne-crescent, Hyde Park, 
London, W. 
1874. §Musgrave, James, J.P. Drumglass House, Belfast. 
1861. {Musgrove, John, jun. Bolton. 
1870. *Muspratt, Edward Knowles. Seaforth Hall, near Liverpool. 
1859. §Myzyz, Roperr Wiruiay, F.R.S., F.G.S., FSA. 7 Whitehall- 
place, London, 8. W. 
1842. Nadin, Joseph. Manchester. 
1876. {Napier, James S. 9 Woodside-place, Glasgow. 
1876. tNapier, John. Saughfield House, Hillhead, Glasgow. 
1876. *Napier, Captain Johnstone, C.E. Laverstock House, Salisbury. 
1872, {Nares, Captain Sir G. S., K.C.B., R.N., F.RS., FR.G.S. 28 St. 
Philip’s-road, Surbiton. 
1850. *Nasmyru, James. Penshurst, Tunbridge. 
1883. *Neild, Theodore. Dalton Hall, Manchester. 
1873. tNeill, Alexander Renton. Fieldhead House, Bradford, Yorkshire. 
1873. tNeill, Archibald. Fieldhead House, Bradford, Yorkshire. 
Neilson, Robert, J.P., D.L. Halewood, Liverpool. 
1855. tNeilson, Walter. 172 West George-street, Glasgow. 
1876. {Nelson, D. M. 11 Bothwell-street, Glasgow. 
1868. {Nevill, Rev. H. R. The Close, Norwich. 
1866. *Nevill, The Right Rev. Samuel Tarratt, D.D., F.L.S., Bishop of 
Dunedin, New Zealand. 
1857. tNeville, John, M.R.I.A. Roden-place, Dundalk, Ireland. 
1852, {Nevitie, Parke, M.Inst.C.E., MR.LA. 58 Pembroke-road, Dublin. 
1869. tNevins, John Birkbeck, M.D. 3 Abercromby-square, Liverpool. 
1842, New, Herbert. Evesham, Worcestershire. 
Newall, Henry. Hare Hill, Littleborough, Lancashire. 
*Newall, Robert Stirling, F.R.S., F.R.A.S. Ferndene, Gateshead- 
upon-Tyne. 
1879. tNewbould, John. Sharrow Bank, Sheffield. 
1866. *Newdigate, Albert L. Engineer's Office, The Harbour, Dover, 
1876. {Newhaus, Albert. 1 Prince’s-terrace, Glasgow. 
1883. {Newman, Albert Robert. 33 Lrsson-grove, Marylebone-road, London, 
NW. 
1842, *NewMan, Professor Francis Wiit1am. 15 Arundel-crescent, 
Weston-super-Mare. 
1860. *Newron, Atrrep, M.A., F.R.S., F.LS., Professor of Zoology and 


Comparative Anatomy in the University of Cambridge. Mag- 
dalene College, Cambridge. 


70 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1883. 
1872. 
1865. 


1883. 
1882. 
1867. 
1875. 
1866. 


1838. 


1871. 
1867. 


1884, 


1885. 
1881. 
1885. 
1878. 


1877. 
1874. 


1884. 
1863. 


1880. 
1879. 
1870. 
1882. 
1859. 
1868, 
1863. 


1865. 
1872. 
1885, 
1881. 
1881, 


1868. 
1861. 


1878. 
1883. 
1883. 
1883. 
1883. 


1882. 


{Newton, A. W. 74 Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport. 

tNewton, Rey. J. 125 Eastern-road, Brighton. 

tNewton, Thomas Henry Goodwin. Clopton House, near Stratford- 
on- Avon. 

{Nias, Miss Isabel. 56 Montagu-square, London, W. 

{Nias, J. B., B.A. 56 Montagu-square, London, W. 

{Nicholl, Thomas. Dundee. 

tNicholls, J. F. City Library, Bristol. 

{Nicuotson, Sir Cuartes, Bart., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.GS., 
F.R.G.S. The Grange, Totteridge, Herts. 

*Nicholson, Cornelius, F.G.S., F.S.A. Ashleigh, Ventnor, Isle of 
Wight. 

§Nicholson, E. Chambers. Herne Hill, London, S.E. 

{tNicHotson, Henry Atterne, M.D., D.Sc., F.G.S., Professor of 
Natural History in the University of Aberdeen. 

§Nicholson, Joseph 8., M.A., Professor of Political Economy in the 
University of Edinburgh. 15 Jordan-lane, Edinburgh, 

{Nicholson, Richard, J.P. Whinfield, Hesketh Park, Southport. 

§Nicholson, William R. Clifton, York. 

§Nicol, W. W. J., Ph.D. Mason Science College, Birmingham. 

tNiven, Charles, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural 
Philosophy in the University of Aberdeen. Aberdeen. 

tNiven, James, M.A. King’s College, Aberdeen. 

{Nixon, Randal C. J., M.A. Royal Academical Institution, 
Belfast. 

{Nixon, T. Alcock. 33 Harcourt-street, Dublin. 

*Nosxe, Captain AnpREw, C.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Elswick 
Works, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

{Noble, John. Rossenstein, Thornhill-road, Croydon, Surrey. 

tNoble, T. S., F.G.S. Lendal, York. 

tNolan, Joseph, M.R.I.A. 14 Hume-street, Dublin. 

§Norfolk, F. Elm Villa, Ordnance-road, Southampton. 

tNorfolk, Richard. Ladygate, Beverley. 

TNorgate, William. Newmarket-road, Norwich. 

§Norman, Rey. Atrrep Mertz, M.A., D.C.L., F.L.S. Burnmoor 
Rectory, Fence House, Co. Durham. 

Norreys, Sir Denham Jephson, Bart. Mallow Castle, Co. Cork. 
tNorris, Rrcwarp, M.D. 2 Walsall-road, Birchfield, Birmingham. 
{Norris, Thomas George. Gorphwysfa, Llanrwst, North Wales. 
*Norris, William G. Coalbrookdale, Shropshire. 

§North, Samuel William, M.R.C.S., F.G.8. 84 Micklegate, York. 
tNorth, William, B.A., F.C.S, 28 Regent’s Park-road, London, N.W. 
*Norruwick, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A. 7 Park-street, Grosvenor- 

square, London, W. 
Norton, The Right Hon. Lord, K.C.M.G. 35 Eaton-place, London, 
S.W.; and Hamshall, Birmingham. 
tNorwich, The Hon. and Right Rev. J.T. Pelham, D.D., Lord Bishop 
of. Norwich. 
tNoton, Thomas. Priory House, Oldham. 
Nowell, John. Farnley Wood, near Huddersfield. 
{ Nugent, Edward. Seel’s-buildings, Liverpool. 
{Nunnerley, John. 46 Alexandra-road, Southport. 
tNutt, Alfred. Rosendale Hall, West Dulwich, London, 8.E. 
§Nutt, Miss Lilian. Rosendale Hall, West Dulwich, London, S.E. 
§Nutt, Miss Mabel. Rosendale Hall, West Dulwich, London, S.E. 


§Obach, Eugene, Ph.D. 2 Victoria-road, Old Charlton, Kent. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 71 


Year of 
Election. 


1878. O’Brien, Murrough. 1 Willow-terrace, Blackrock, Co, Dublin. 
O'Callaghan, George. Tallas, Co. Clare. 

1878. {O’Carroll, Joseph F. 78 Rathgar-road, Dublin. 

1878. fO’Conor Don, The, M.P. Clonalis, Castlerea, Ireland. 

1883. tOdgers, William Blake, M.A., LL.D. 4 Elm-court, Temple, 
London, E.C. 

1858. *Optine, Wittiam, M.B., F.R.S., F.C.S., Waynflete Professor of 
Chemistry in the University of Oxford. 15 Norham-gardens, 
Oxford. 

1884. {Odlum, Edward, M.A. Pembroke, Ontario, Canada. 

1857. {O’Donnavan, William John. 54 Kenilworth-square, Rathgar, 
Dublin. 

1877. §Ogden, Joseph. 21 Station-road, South Norwood, London, 8.E. 

1885. §Ogilvie, Alexander, LL.D. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen. 

1876. {Ogilvie, Campbell P. Sizewell House, Leiston, Suffolk. 

1885. §Ogilvie, F. Grant, M.A., B.Sc. Gordon’s College, Aberdeen. 

1874. { Ogilvie, Thomas Robertson. Bank Top, 3 Lyle-street, Greenock, 
N.B 


*Ocinvis-Forpes, GroreE, M.D., Professor of the Institutes of 
Medicine in Marischal College, Aberdeen. Boyndlie, Fraser- 
burgh, N.B. 
1859. {Ogilvy, Rev. C. W. Norman. Baldovan House, Dundee. 
1863. {Oeitvy, Sir Jonny, Bart. Inverquharity, N.B. 
*Ocle, William, M.D., M.A. The Elms, Derby. 
1837. {O’'Hagan, John, M.A.,Q.C. 22 Upper Fitzwilliam-street, Dublin. 
1884, §O’Halloran, J. S., F.R.G.S. Royal Colonial Institute, Northum- 
berland-ayenue, London, W.C. 
1881. {Oldfield, Joseph. Lendal, York. 
1853. {OtpHAmM, Jamus, M.Inst.C.E. Cottingham, near Hull. 
1885. §Oldham, John. River Plate Telegraph Company, Monte Video. 
1863. {Oliver, Daniel, F.R.S., F.L.S., Professor of Botany in University 
College, London. Royal Gardens, Kew, Surrey. 
1883. {Oliver, J. A. Westwood. Braehead House, Lochwinnoch, Scot- 
land. 
1883. §Oliver, Samuel A. Springfield, Wigan, Lancashire. 
1882. §Olsen, O. T., F.R.A.'S., F.R.G.S. 8 St. Andrew’s-terrace, Grimsby. 
*Ommanney, Admiral Sir Erasmvs, O.B., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S. 
The Towers, Yarmouth, Isle of Wight. 
1880. *Ommanney, Rey. E. A. 123 Vassal-road, Brixton, London, 8.W. 
1872. {Onslow, D. Robert. New University Club, St. James’s, London, 
S.W 


1883. {Oppert, Gustav, Professor of Sanskrit. Madras. 

1867. {Orchar, James G. 9 William-street, Forebank, Dundee. 

1883. §Ord, Miss Maria. Fern Lea, Park-crescent, Southport. 

1883. §Ord, Miss Sarah. Fern Lea, Park-crescent, Southport. 

1880. {O’Reilly, J. P., Professor of Mining and Mineralogy in the Royal 
College of Science, Dublin. 

1842. OxmErop, Grorce Warerrne, M.A., F.G.S. Woodway, Teign- 
mouth. 

1861. {Ormerod, Henry Mere. Clarence-street, Manchester; and 11 Wood- 
land-terrace, Cheetham Hill, Manchester. 

1858. {Ormerod, T. T. Brighouse, near Halifax. 

1835. Orprn, Joun H., LL.D.,M.R.LA. 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin. 

1883. §Orpen, Miss. 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin. 

1884. *Orpen, Captain R.T., R.E.° 58 Stephen’s-green, Dublin. 

1884. *Orpen, Rev. T. H., M.A. Plas Dinas, Newnham, Cambridge. 

1838. Orr, Alexander Smith. 57 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin. 


72 


Year of 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Election. 


1873. 
1865. 


1865. 
1869. 
1884. 


1884, 


1882. 
1881. 
1882. 
1870. 


1884. 
1877. 


1885. 
1883. 
187 
1884. 
1875. 
1870. 
1883. 
1875. 
1878. 
1866. 


tOsborn, George. 47 Kingscross-street, Halifax. 

tOsborne, E. C. Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

*OstER, A. Fortert, F.R.S. South Bank, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

*Osler, Henry F. 50 Carpenter-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

*Osler, Sidney F. Chesham Lodge, Lower Norwood, Surrey, S.E. 

tOsler, William, M.D., Professor ‘of the Institutes of Medicine in 
McGill College, Montreal, Canada. 

§O’Sullivan, James, F.C.S. 71 Spring Terrace-road, Burton-on- 
Trent. 

*Oswald, T. R. New Place House, Southampton. 

*Ottewell, Alfred D, 83 Siddals-road, Derby. 

{ Owen, Rev. C. M. , M.A. Woolston Vicarage, Southampton. 

tOwen, Harold. The Brook Villa, Liverpool. 

Owen, Sir Ricwarp, K.C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., 
FG. S., Hon. F. R.S.E. Sheen’ Lodge, Mortlake, Surrey, S.W. 

§Owen, Professor Richard, M.D., LL.D. New Harmony, Indiana, 
U.S.A 


tOxland, Dr. Robert, F.C.S. 8 Portland-square, Plymouth. 


tPage, George W. Fakenham, Norfolk. 
{Page, Joseph Edward. 12 Saunders-street, Southport. 


2. *Paget, Joseph. Stuffynwood Hall, Mansfield, Nottingham. 


{Paine, Cyrus F. Rochester, New York, U.S.A. 

tPaine, William Henry, M.D., F.G.S. Stroud, Gloucestershire. 

*PacteRAvE, R. H. tvexts, F.R.S., F.S.S8. Belton, Great Yarmouth. 

{Palgrave, Mrs. R. H. Inglis. Belton, Great Yarmouth. 

tPalmer, George, M.P. The Acacias, Reading, Berks. 

*Palmer, Joseph Edward. Lyons Mills, Straffan Station, Dublin. 

§Palmer, William. Kilbourne House, Cavendish Hill, Sherwood, 
Notts. 


. *Palmer, W. R. 1 The Cloisters, Temple, E.C. 


Palmes, Rey. William Lindsay, M. A. Naburn Hall, York, 


. §Pant, F, J. van der. Clifton Lodge, Kingston- on-Thames. 

. {Panton, Professor J. Hoyes, M.D. “Guelph College, Ontario, Canada. 
. tPark, Henry. Wigan. 

. {Park, Mrs. Wigan. 

. *Parke, George Henry, F.L.S., F.G.S. Barrow-in-Furness, Lanca- 


shire. 


. {Parker, Henry. Low Elswick, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
. {Parker, Rey. Henry. Idlerton Rectory, Low Elswick, Newcastle-on- 


Tyne. 


. {Parker, Henry R., LL.D. Methodist College, Belfast. 


Parker, Richard. Dunscombe, Cork. 


). *Parker, Walter Mantel. High-street, Alton, Hants. 

. {Parker, William. Thornton-le-Moor, Lincolnshire. 

. *Parkes, Samuel Hickling, F.L.S. 6 St. Mary’s-row, Birmingham. 

. tParKkes, WILLIAM. 23 Abingdon-street, Westminster, S.W. 

. §Parkin, William, F.S.S. The Mount, Sheffield. 

. {Parkinson, Robert, Ph.D. West View, Toller-lane, Bradford, York- 


shire. 
Parnell, Edward A., F.C.S. Ashley Villa, Swansea. 


: *Parnell, John, M. A. 1The Common, Upper Clapton, London, E 


Parnell, Richard, M.D., F.R.S.E. Gattonside Villa, Melrose, N.B. 


: {Parson, Aig Cooke, M.R.C.S. Atherston House, Clifton, Bristol. 

. {Parson, T. Edgeumbe. 386 Torrington-place, Plymouth. 

. *Parsons, Charles Thomas. Norfolk-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 
. {Parsons, Hon. C. A. 10 Connaught-place, London, W. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 78 


Year of 
Election. 


1878. 
1885. 
1885. 
1875. 
1881. 
1884. 
1883. 
1884, 
1885. 
1861. 


1871. 
1884. 
1865. 
1867. 
1876. 
1874. 
1863. 
1865. 
1867. 


1864, 
1879. 
1863. 
18883. 
1863. 


1864. 
1881. 
1877. 
1881. 
1866. 
1876. 
1879. 
1885. 


1883. 
1875. 


1881. 
1882. 


1884. 
1876. 
1881. 
1883. 
1888. 
1881. 
1883. 
1872. 
1881. 
1870. 
1883. 


1863. 
1863. 


tParsons, Hon. and Rev. R. C. 10 Connaught-place, London, W. 

{Part,C. T. 5 King’s Bench-walk, Temple, London, E.C. 

{Part, Isabella. Rudleth, Watford, Herts. 

}Pass, Alfred C. Rushmere House, Durdham Down, Bristol. 

{Patchitt, Edward Cheshire. 128 Derby-road, Nottingham. 

*Paton, David. Johnstone, Scotland. 

§Paton, Henry, M.A. 15 Myrtle-terrace, Edinburgh. 

*Paton, Hugh. 992 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Uanada. 

{Paton, Rev. William. Mossfield House, New Ferry, Chester. 

eat Andrew. Deaf and Dumb School, Old Trafford, Man- 
chester. 

*Patterson, A. Henry. 3 New-square, Lincoln’s Inn, London, W.C. 

{Patterson, Edward Mortimer. Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada. 

tPatterson, H. L. Scott’s House, near Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

{Patterson, James. Kinnettles, Dundee. 

tPatterson, T. L. Belmont, Margaret-street, Greenock. 

{Patterson, W. H., M.R.I.A. 26 High-street, Belfast. 

TPattinson, John, F.C.S. 75 The Side, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

TPattinson, William. Felling, near Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

gears Samuel Rowles, F.G.S. 50 Lombard-street, London, 
E. 


{Pattison, Dr. T. H. London-street, Edinburgh. 

*Patzer, F. R. Stoke-on-Trent. 

{PauL, Benzamin H., Ph.D. 1 Victoria-street, Westminster, S.W. 

§Paul, G., F.G.S. Moortown, Leeds. 

{Pavy, Freperick Witrram, M.D., F.R.S. 35 Grosvenor-street, 
London, W. 

{Payne, Edward Turner. 3 Sydney-place, Bath. 

tPayne, J. Buxton. 15 Mosley-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

*Payne, J.C. Charles. Botanic-avenue, The Plains, Belfast. 

TPayne, Mrs. Botanic-ayvenue, The Plains, Belfast. 

tPayne, Dr. Joseph F. 78 Wimpole-street, London, W. 

TPeace, G. H. Monton Grange, Eccles, near Manchester. 

{Peace, William K. Western Bank, Sheffield. 

§Peach, B. N., F.R.S.E., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, Edin- 

burgh. 

tPeacock, Ebenezer. 8 Mandeville-place, Manchester-square, Lon- 
don, W. 

tPeacock, Thomas Francis. 12 South-square, Gray's Inn, London, 
W.C 


*Prarce, Horace, F.L.S., F.G.S. The Limes, Stourbridge. 
§Pearce, Walter, M.B., B.Sc., F.C.S. St. Mary’s Hospital, Padding- 
ton, London, W.; and Craufurd, Ray Mead, Maidenhead. 

tPearce, William. Winnipeg, Canada. 

Pearce, W. Elmpark House, Govan, Glasgow. 

tPearse, Richard Seward. Southampton. 

{Pearson, Arthur A. Colonial Office, London, 8S. W. 

§Pearson, Miss Helen KE. 69 Alexandra-road, Southport. 

{Pearson, John. Glentworth House, The Mount, York. 

§Pearson, Mrs. Glentworth House, The Mount, York. 

*Pearson, Joseph. Grove Farm, Merlin, Raleigh, Ontario, Canada. 

tPearson, Richard. 23 Bootham, York. 

}Pearson, Rev. Samuel. 48 Prince’s-road, Liverpool. 

*Pearson, Thomas H. Golborne Park, near Newton-le-Willows, 
Lancashire. 

§Pease, H. F. Brinkburn, Darlington. 

{Pease, Sir Joseph W., Bart., M.P. Hutton Hall, near Guisborough. 


74 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 
1863. {Pease, J. W. Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
1883. {Peck, John Henry. 52 Hoghton-street, Southport. 
Peckitt, Henry. Carlton Husthwaite, Thirsk, Yorkshire. 
1855. *Peckover, Alexander, F.S.A., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Bank House, 


1885. 
1884, 
1883. 
1878. 


1873. 
1881. 
1884, 
1861. 
1861. 
1878. 
1865. 
1861. 
1856, 
1881. 
1875. 


1845. 


1868. 


1884, 


1877. 
1864, 
1885. 


1879. 
1874. 


1883. 
1883, 
1870. 


1885. 
1883. 
1883. 


1871. 
1882. 


1884. 
1884. 


1863. 


Wisbech, Cambridgeshire. 

*Peckover, Algernon, F.L.S.  Sibald’s Holme, Wisbech, Cam- 
bridgeshire. 

§Peddie, W. Spring Valley Villa, Morningside-road, Edinburgh. 

tPeebles, W. E. 9 North Frederick-street, Dublin. 

tPeek, C. E. Conservative Club, London, 8. W. 

*Peek, William. 54 Woodstock-road, Bedford Park, Chiswick, 

London, W. 

*Peel, George. Soho Iron Works, Manchester. 

tPeel, Thomas. 9 Hampton-place, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

tPeggs, J. Wallace. 21 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, 8. W. 

§Pegler, Alfred. Maybush Lodge, Old Shirley, Southampton. 

*Peile, George, jun. Shotley Bridge, Co. Durham. 

*Peiser, John. Barnfield House, 491 Oxford-street, Manchester. 

tPemberton, Charles Seaton. 44 Lincoln’s Inn-fields, London, W.C. 

{Pemberton, Oliver. 18 Temple-row, Birmingham. 

*Pender, John, M.P. 18 Arlineton-street, London, 8. W. 

§PENGELLY, WILLIAM, F.R.S., F.G.S. Lamorna, Torquay. 

tPenty, W.G. Melbourne-street, York. 

{Percival, Rev. John, M.A., LL.D., President of Trinity College, 
Oxford. 

}Percy, Jonny, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., 1 Gloucester-crescent, Hyde 
Park, London, W. 

*Perigal, Frederick. Thatched House Club, St. James’s-street, 
London, 8. W. 

*Prerkin, WittrAM Hewry, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S. The Chestnuts, 
Sudbury, Harrow. 

fPerkin, William Henry, jun., Ph.D, The Chestnuts, Sudbury, 
Harrow, Middlesex. 

tPerkins, Loftus. Seatord-street, Regent-square, London, W.C. 

*Perkins, V. R. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire. 

§Perrin, Miss Emily. 31 St. John’s Wood Park, London, N.W. 

Perry, The Right Rev. Charles, M.A., D.D. 32 Avenue-road, 
Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 

tPerry, James. Roscommon. 

*PErRRY, JOHN, F.R.S., Professor of Engineering and Applied Mathe- 
matics in the Technical College, Finsbury. 10 Penywern-road, 
South Kensington, London, S.W. 

tPerry, Ottley L., F.R.G.S. Bolton-le-Moors, Lancashire. 

tPerry, Russell R. 34 Duke-street, Brighton. 

*Perry, Rey. 8. J., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.R.M.S. Stonyhurst College 
Observatory, Whalley, Blackburn. 

§Peter, Rev. James. Manse of Deer, Mintlaw, N.B. 

§Petrie, Miss Anne 8. Stone Hill, Rochdale. 

fPetrie, Miss Isabella. Stone Hill, Rochdale. 

Peyton, Abel. Oakhurst, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

*Peyton, John KE, H., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. 108 Marina, St. Leonard’s- 
on-Sea. 

tPfoundes, Charles, F.R.G.S. Spring Gardens, London, 8.W. 

§Phelps, Charles Edgar. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham. 

§Phelps, Mrs. Carisbrooke House, The Park, Nottingham. 

*Puunt, Jonn Samvet, LL.D., F.S.A., F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 5 Carlton- 
terrace, Oakley-street, London, 8. W. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 75 


Year of 
Flection. 


1870, {Philip, T. D. 51 South Castle-street, Liverpool. 

1855. *Philips, Rev. Edward. Hollington, Uttoxeter, Sta(tordshire. 

1853. *Philips, Herbert. The Oak House, Macclesfield. 

Philips, Robert N., M.P. The Park, Manchester. 

1877. §Philips, T. Wishart. 53 Tredegar-square, Bow, London, E. 

1863, {Philipson, Dr. 1 Savile-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

1883. {Phillips, Arthur G. 20 Canning-street, Liverpool. 

1862, {Phillips, Rev. George, D.D. Queen’s College, Cambridge. 

1872. {Puiiirs, J. Arruur, F.RS., F.G.S., F.C.S., M.Inst.C.E. 18 
Fopstone-road, Earl’s Court-road, London, S.W. 

1880, §Phillips, John H., Hon. Sec. Philosophical and Archeological 
Society, Scarborough. 

1883. {Phillips, Mrs. Leah R. 1 East Park-terrace, Southampton. 

1883. {Phillips, 8. Rees. Wanford House, Exeter. 

1881. {Phillips, William. 9 Bootham-terrace, York. 

1868. {Phipson, R. M., F.S.A. Surrey-street, Norwich. 

1868. oe T. L., Ph.D., F.C.S. 4 The Cedars, Putney, Surrey, 

Ww. 


1884, *Pickard, Rey. H. Adair, M.A. 5 Canterbury-road, Oxford. 

1885. *Pickard, Joseph William. Oak Bank, Lancaster. 

1885. *Pickering, Spencer U. Westfield House, Weston, Bath. 

1864, {Pickering, William. Oak View, Clevedon. 

1884, *Pickett, Thomas E., M.D. Mayville, Kentucky, U.S.A. 

1870. {Picton, J. Allanson, F.S.A. Sandyknowe, Wavertree, Liverpool. 

1871. {Pigot, Thomas F., M.R.I.A. Royal College of Science, Dublin. 

*Pike, Ebenezer. Besborough, Cork. 

i884. {Pike, L. G., M.A., F.Z.S. 4 The Grove, Highgate, London, N. 

1865, {Prxz, L.Owxnn. 201 Maida-vale, London, W. 

1873. {Pike, W. H. University College, Toronto, Canada. 

1857. {Pilkington, Henry M., LL.D., Q.C. 45 Upper Mount-street, 
Dublin. 

1883. §Pilling, R. C. The Robin’s Nest, Blackburn. 

1863, *Pim, Admiral Beprorp C. T., R.N., F.R.G.S. Leaside, Kingswood- 
road, Upper Norwood, London, 8.E. 

Pim, George, M.R.ILA. Brenanstown, Cabinteely, Co. Dublin. 

1877. {Pim, Joseph T. Greenbank, Monkstown, Co. Dublin. 

1884. §Pinart, A.G.N. L. 74 Market-street, San Francisco, U.S.A. 

1868. {Pinder, T. R. St. Andrew’s, Norwich. 

1876. {Piris, Rev. G., M.A., Professor of Mathematics in the University of 
Aberdeen. 33 College Bounds, Old Aberdeen, 

1884. {Pirz, Anthony. Long Island, New York, U.S.A. 

1875. {Pitman, John. Redcliff Hill, Bristol. 

1885, §Pitt, George Newton, M.A., M.D. 384 Ashburn-place, South 
Kensington, London, 8.W. 

1864, {Pitt, R. 5 Widcomb-terrace, Bath. 

1883. §Pitt, Sydney. 34 Ashburn-place, South Kensington, London, W. 

1868. {Pirr-Rivers, Major-General A. H. L., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.GS., 
F.S.A. 4 Grosvenor-gardens, London, 8. W. 

1872. {Plant, Mrs. H. W. 28 Evington-street, Leicester. 

1869, §PLanT, JamEs, F.G.S. 40 West-terrace, West-street, Leicester. 

1842, Purayrarr, The Right Hon. Sir Lyon, K.C.B., Ph.D., LL.D., M.P., 
FE.R.S. L. & E., F.C.S. (PREsIDENT.) 68 Onslow-gardens, South 
Kensington, London, 8. W. 

1867. {Pxrayrarr, Lieut.-Colonel R. L., H.M. Consul, Algeria. (Messrs. King 
& Co., Pall Mall, London, 8.W.) 

1884, *Playfair, W. 8., M.D., LL.D., Professor of Midwifery in King’s 
College, London. 31 George-street, Hanover-square, London, W. 


76 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1883. 
1857. 
1861. 


1881. 
1846. 


1862. 
1854. 
1868. 
1885. 
1874. 
1866, 
1883. 
1863. 
1883. 
1883. 
1857. 
1873, 


1883. 
1875. 


1867. 
1855. 
1883. 


1884, 
1884, 


1869. 


1884. 
1881. 


1884. 


1871. 
1856. 


1872. 
1882. 


1881. 


*Plimpton, R.T.,M.D. 25 Lansdowne-road, Clapham-road, London, 
S.W 


{Plunkett, Thomas. Ballybrophy House, Borris-in-Ossory, Ireland. 
*Pocatn, Henry Davis, F.C.S. Bodnant Hall, near Conway. 
§Pocklington, Henry. 20 Park-row, Leeds. 

{Porr, Wrrt1aM, Mus.Doc., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Atheneum Club, 
Pall Mall, London, 8. W. 

*Pollexfen, Rev. John Hutton, M.A. Middleton Tyas Vicarage, 
Richmond, Yorkshire. 

Pollock, A, 52 Upper Sackville-street, Dublin. 

*Polwhele, Thomas Roxburgh, M.A., F.G.S.  Polwhele, Truro, 
Cornwall. 

tPoole, Braithwaite. Birkenhead. 

{PorraLt, WynpHam 8S. Malshanger, Basingstoke. 

*Porter, Rey. C. T., LL.D. Kensington House, Southport. 

{Porter, Rey. J. Leslie, D.D., LL.D., President of Queen’s College, 
Belfast. 

§Porter, Robert. Montpelier Cottage, Beeston, Nottingham. 

{Postgate, Professor J. P., M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge. 

{Potter, D. M. Cramlington, near Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

{Potter, M. C., B.A. St. Peter's College, Cambridge. 

Potter, Richard, M.A. 10 Brookside, Cambridge. 

§Potts, John. 33 Chester-road, Macclesfield. 

*PounvEN, Captain Lonspate, F.R.G.S. Junior United Service Club, 
St. James’s-square, London, 8.W.; and Brownswood House, 
Enniscorthy, Co. Wexford. 

*Powell, Francis 8., M.P., F.R.G.S. Horton Old Hall, Yorkshire ; 
and 1 Cambridge-square, London, W. 

§Powell, John. Wannarlwydd House, near Swansea, 

{Powell, William Augustus Frederick. Norland House, Clifton, 
Bristol. 

{Powrie, James. Reswallie, Forfar. 

*Poynter, John E. Clyde Neuk, Uddingston, Scotland. 

}Poynting, J. H., M.A., Professor of Physics in the Mason College, 
Birmingham, 385 Hagley-road, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

§Prance, Courtenay C. Hatherley Court, Cheltenham. 

*Prankerd, A. A., M.A., B.C.L., Law Lecturer in the University of 
Oxford. Trinity College, Oxford. 

*PREECE, Witt1AM Henry, F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E. Gothic Lodge, 
Wimbledon Common, Surrey. 

*Premio-Real, His Excellency the Count of. Quebec, Canada. 

{Preston, Rev. Thomas Arthur, M.A. The Green, Marlborough, 

*PREstWIcH, JosepH, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.C.S., Professor of 
Geology in the University of Oxford. 35 St. Giles’s, Oxford ; 
and Shoreham, near Sevenoaks. 

*Prevost, Major L. de T. 2nd Battalion Argyll and Sutherland 
Highlanders, 

}Price, Astley Paston. 47 Lincoln’s-Inn-fields, London, W.C. 

*Pricz, Rev. Barryotomew, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Sedleian 
Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford, 
11 St. Giles’s, Oxford. 

{Price, David S8., Ph.D. 26 Great George-street, Westminster, 
S.W. 

tPrice, John E., F.S.A. 60 Albion-road, Stoke Newington, Lon- 
don, N. 

Price, J. T, Neath Abbey, Glamorganshire. 

§Price, Peter. Crockherbtown, Cardiff. 

/ 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 77 


Year of 
Election. 


1875. *Price, Rees. 1 Montague-place, Glasgow. 

1875. *Price, William Philip. Tibberton Court, Gloucester. 

1876. {Priestley, John. 174 Lloyd-street, Greenheys, Manchester. 

1875. {Prince, Thomas. 6 Marlborough-road, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

1883. §Prince, Thomas. Horsham-road, Dorking. 

1864, *Prior, R. C. A., M.D. 48 York-terrace, Regent's Park, London, 
INUWi. 

1846. *PrrrowarD, Rey. Cuartns, D.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.R.A.S., Professor 
of Astronomy in the University of Oxford. 8 Keble-terrace, 
Oxford. 

1876. *PrircHaRD, Ursan, M.D., F.R.C.S. 3 George-street, Hanover- 
square, London, W. 

1881. §Procter, Jjonn William. Ashcroft, Nunthorpe, York. 

1863. {Proctor, R.S. Summerhill-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

Proctor, William. Elmhurst, Higher Erith-road, Torquay. 

1885. §Profeit, Dr. Balmoral, N.B. 

1863. * Prosser, Thomas. 25 Harrison-place, Newcastle-on- Tyne. 

1863. {Proud, Joseph. South Hetton, Newcastle-on-Tyne, 

1884. *Proudfoot, Alexander. 2 Phillips-place, Montreal, Canada. 

1879. *Prouse, Oswald Milton, F.G.8., F.R.G.S. 4 Cambridge-villas, 
Richmond Park-road, Kingston-on-Thames. 

1865. {Prowse, Albert P. Whitchurch Villa, Mannamead, Plymouth. 

1872. *Pryor, M. Robert. Weston Manor, Stevenage, Herts. 

1871. *Puckle, Thomas John. Woodcote-grove, Carshalton, Surrey. 

1873. {Pullan, Lawrence. Bridge of Allan, N.B. 

1867. *Pullar, Robert, F.R.S.E. Tayside, Perth. 


“1883. *Pullar, Rufus D., F.C.S. Tayside, Perth. 


1842. *Pumphrey, Charles. Southfield, King’s Norton, near Birmingham. 
Punnet, Rey. John, M.A., F.C.P.S. St. Earth, Cornwall. 

1885. §Purdie, Professor Thomas. St. Andrews, N.B. 

1852. {Purdon, Thomas Henry, M.I). Belfast. 

1860. {PuRDY, FREDERICK, F.S.S., Principal of the Statistical Department of 
the Poor Law Board, Whitehall, London. Victoria-road, Ken- 
sington, London, W. 

1881. {Purey-Cust, Very Rev. Arthur Percival, M.A., Dean of York. The 
Deanery, York. 

1882. §Purrott, Charles. West End, near Southampton. 

1874. {Pursrr, FrepERicK, M.A. Rathmines, Dublin. 

1866. {PursErR, Professor Jomn, M.A., M.R.I.A. Queen’s College, Belfast. 

1878. {Purser, John Mallet. 3 Wilton-terrace, Dublin. 

1884. *Purves, W. Laidlaw. 20 Stafford-place, Oxford-street, London, W. 

1860. *Pusey, 8. E. B. Bouverie. Pusey House, Faringdon. 

1883. §Pye-Smith, Arnold. 16 Fairfield-road, Croydon. 

1883. §Pye-Smith, Mrs. 16 Fairfield-road, Croydon. 

1868. §Pyz-Smirn, P. H., M.D. 54 Harley-street, W.; and Guy’s Hos- 
pital, London, 8.E. 

1879. §Pye-Smith, R. J. 6 Surrey-street, Sheffield. 

1861. *Pyne, Joseph John. The Willows, Albert-road, Southport. 


1870, {Rabbits, W. T. Forest Hill, London, S.E. 

1870. {Radcliffe, D. R. Phoenix Safe Works, Windsor, Liverpool. 

1877. {Radford, George D. Mannamead, Plymouth. 

1879. {Radford, R. Heber. Wood Bank, Pitsmoor, Sheffield. 

1860. aaa CuariEs Brann, M.D. 25 Cavendish-square, London, 


*Radford, William, M.D. Sidmount, Sidmouth. 
1855, *Radstock, Lord. 70 Portland-place, London, W. 


78 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1878. 


1854. 
1864. 


1863, 
1845. 


1884. 
1884. 
1861. 
1884. 
1867. 
1876, 
1885. 
1885. 
1875. 


1836. 
1869. 


1860. 
1865. 
1868. 


1863. 
1861. 


1872. 


1864, 
1870. 
1870. 
1870. 
1874. 


1870. 
1866. 
1855. 
1875. 
1888. 
1868. 
1883. 
1865. 


{Raz, Jonn, M.D., LL.D., F.RS., F.RGS. 4 Addison-gardens, 
Kensington, London, W. 
{Raffles, Thomas Stamford, 13 Abercromby-square, Liverpool. 
{Rainey, James T. St. George’s Lodge, Bath. 
Rake, Joseph. Charlotte-street, Bristol. 
{Ramsay, ALEXANDER, F.G.S. 2 Cowper-road, Acton, Middlesex, W. 
t{Ramsay, Sir Anprew Cromprz, LL.D, F.RS. F.GS. 15 
Cromwell-crescent, South Kensington, London, S. W. 
tRamsay, George G., LL.D., Professor of Humanity in the University 
of Glasgow. 6 The College, Glasgow. : 
tRamsay, Mrs. G. G. 6 The College, Glasgow. 
{Ramsay, John, M.P. Kildalton, Argyleshire. 
{Ramsay, R. A. 1184 Sherbrooke-street, Montreal, Canada. 
*Ramsay, W. F., M.D. 39 Hammersmith-road, West Kensinyton,, 
London, W. 7 
*Ramsay, WILLIAM, Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry in University 
College, Bristol. i 
§Ramsay, Mrs. 10 Osborne-road, Clifton, Bristol. 
§Ramsay, Major. Straloch, N.B. 
*Ramsden, William. . Bracken Hall, Great Horton, Bradford, York- 
shire. 
*Rance, Henry. St. Andrew’s-street, Cambridge. 
*Rance, H. W. Henniker, LL.D. 10 Castletown-road, West Ken- 
sington, London, 8.W. 
+Randall, Thomas. Grandepoint House, Oxford. 
{Randel, J. 50 Vittoria-street, Birmingham. 
*Ransom, Edwin, F.R.G.S._ Ashburnham-road, Bedford. 
§Ransom, William Henry, M.D.,F.R.S. The Pavement, Nottingham, 
{Ransome, Arthur, M.A., M.D., F.R.S.  Devisdale, Bowdon, 
Manchester. : 
Ransome, Thomas. 34 Princess-street, Manchester. 
*Ranyard, Arthur Cowper, F.R.A.S. 25 Old-square, Lincoln’s Inn, 
London, W.C. 
Rashes Jonathan. 3 Cumberland-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, 
N.W. 
{Rate, Rev. John, M.A. Lapley Vicarage, Penkridge, Staffordshire. 
{Rathbone, Benson, Exchange-buildings, Liverpool. 
{Rathbone, Philip H. Greenbank Cottage, Wavertree, Liverpool. 
§Rathbone, R. R. Beechwood House, Liverpool. 
ey E. G., F.R.G.S. 29 Lambert-road, Brixton, London, 


Rawdon, William Frederick, M.D. Bootham, York. 

{Rawlins, G. W. The Hollies, Rainhall, Liverpool. 

*Rawiinson, Rey. Canon Grorer, M.A., Camden Professor of An- 
cient History in the University of Oxford, The Oaks, Precincts 
Canterbury. : 

*Rawtuyson, Major-General Sir Huyry O., K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S. 
F.R.G.S. 21 Charles-street, Berkeley-square, London, W. : 

§Rawson, Sir Rawson W., K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.G.S. 68 Corn- 
wall-gardens, Queen’s-gate, London, S.W. 

{Ray, Miss Catherine. Mount Cottage, Flask-walk, Hampstead, 
London, N.W. 

*RayteteH, The Right Hon. Lord, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Sec.R.8.,. 
F.R.A.S., F.R.G.S.  Terling Place, Witham, Essex. 

*Rayne, Charles A., M.B., B.Sc., M.R.C.S. 3 Queen-street, Lan- 
caster. 

tRead, William. Albion House, Epworth, Rawtry. 


Year of 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 79 


Election. 


1870. 
1884. 
1862. 


1852. 
1863. 


1861. 


1875. 
1881, 
1885. 
1876, 
1884. 


1850. 


1881. 
1875. 


1865. 
1865. 
1885. 
1867. 
1884. 
1883. 
1871. 


1870. 


1858. 
1883. 
1858. 
1877. 
1884, 


1877. 


1863. 


1861, 
1869. 
1868. 
1882. 
1868. 
1884. 
1884. 
1870. 
1881. 
1861. 
1876. 
1863, 
1868. 


1877. 


*Read, W. H. Rudston, M.A., F.L.S. 12 Blake-street, York. 
§REavzE, THomAs Mexiarp, F.G.S8. Blundellsands, Liverpool. 
§Readman, J. B., F.R.S.E. 9 Moray-place, Edinburgh. 

*Readwin, Thomas Allison, M.R.I.A., F.G.S. 5 Crowhurst-road, 
Brixton, London, 8.W. 

*REDFERN, Professor Prrer, M.D. 4 Lower-crescent, Belfast. 

{Redmayne, Giles. 20 New Bond-street, London, W. 

Redwood, Isaac. Cae Wern, near Neath, South Wales. 

{Reep, Sir Epwarp J., K.C.B., M.P., F.R.S. 74 Gloucester-road, 
South Kensington, London, W. 

tRees-Moge, W. Wooldridge. Cholwell House, near Bristol. 

§Reid, Arthur 8., B.A., F.G.S. Trinity College, Glenalmond, N.B. 

*REID, CLEMENT, F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, 8.W. 

tReid, James. 10 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow. 

tReid, Rev. James, B.A. Bay City, Michigan, U.S.A. 

tReid, William, M.D. Cruivie, Cupar, Fife. 

Reid, William. 193 Blake-street, York. 

§Remvorp, A. W., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Physical Science in the 
Royal Naval College, Greenwich, 8.E. 

§Renats, E. ‘Nottingham Express’ Office, Nottingham. 

{Rendel, G. Benwell, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

§Rennett, Dr. 12 Golden-square, Aberdeen. 

tRenny, W. W. 8 Douglas-terrace, Broughty Ferry, Dundee. 

{Retallack, Captain Francis. 6 Beauchamp-avenue, Leamington. 

*Reynolds, A, H. 12 Leicester-street, Southport. 

}{Reynotps, James Emerson, M.A., F.R.S., F.C.S., M.R.LA., Pro- 
fessor of Chemistry in the University of Dublin. The Laboratory, 
Trinity College, Dublin. 

*ReyNotps, Osporne, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., Professor 
of Engineering in Owens ‘College, Manchester. Fallowfield, 
Manchester. 

§ReEyNnoips, RicwarpD, F.C.S. 13 Briggate, Leeds. 

{Rhodes, Dr. James, 25 Victoria-street, Glossop. 

*Rhodes, John. 18 Albion-street, Leeds. 

*Rhodes, John. 360 Blackburn-road, Accrington, Lancashire. 

tRhodes, Lieut.-Colonel William. Quebec, Canada. 

*Riccardi, Dr. Paul, Secretary of the Society of Naturalists. Via 
Stimmate, 15, Modena, Italy. 

{Ricwarpson, Benyamin Warp, M.A., M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 25 
Manchester-square, London, W. 

{Richardson, Charles. 10 Berkeley-square, Bristol. 

*Richardson, Charles. 4 Northumberland-avenue, Putney, S.W. 

*Richardson, Edward. Warkworth, Northumberland. 

§Richardson, Rey. George, M.A. The College, Winchester. 

*Richardson, George. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham. 

*Richardson, George Straker. Heathfield House, Swansea. 

*Richardson, J. Clarke. Derwen Fawr, Swansea. 

fRichardson, Ralph, F.R.S.E. 10 Magdala-place, Edinbureh. 

{Richardson, W. B. Elm Bank, York. 

{Richardson, William. 4 Edward-street, Werneth, Oldham. 

§Richardson, William Haden. City Glass Works, Glasgow. 

{Richter, Otto, Ph.D. 407 St. Vincent-street, Glaszow. 

§Rickerts, Cartes, M.D., F.G.S. 22 Areyle-street, Birken- 
head. 

}Ricketts, James, M.D. St. Helen’s, Lancashire. 

*RIDDELL, Major-General Cuartes J. Bucnanan, O.B., R.A., F.R.S. 
Oaklands, Chudleigh, Devon. 


80 


Year 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


of 


Election. 


1861 
1885 


1872. 
1862. 
1861. 
1884. 
1865. 
1881. 
1883. 
1883. 
1883. 
1873. 


1867. 
1855. 


1867 


1869. 
1854. 
1869. 


1878. 
1859. 
1870. 
1881. 
1883. 
1879. 
1879. 
1885. 
1868. 


1885. 
1884. 
1859. 
1884. 
1871. 


1883. 
1883, 
1870. 
1876, 
1866. 
1861. 
1852. 


1873. 
1861. 
1865. 
1878. 
1876. 
1881. 
1875. 
1860. 


1884. 
1863. 


. *Riddell, Henry B. Whitefield House, Rothbury, Morpeth. 

. *Rideal, Samuel. Mayow-road, Forest-hill, Kent, 5.E. 

{Ridge, James, 98 Queen’s-road, Brighton. 

{Ridgway, Henry Ackroyd, B.A. Bank Field, Halifax. 

tRidley, John. 19 Belsize-park, Hampstead, London, N.W. 

tRidout, Thomas. Ottawa, Canada. 

*Rigby, Samuel. Fern Bank, Liverpool-road, Chester. 

*Rige, Arthur. 71 Warrington-crescent, London, W. 

*Rigg, Edward, M.A. Royal Mint, London, E. 

{Rigg, F. F., M.A. 32 Queen’s-road, Southport. 

*Rigge, Samuel Taylor. Halifax. 

{Ripley, Sir Edward, Bart. Acacia, Apperley, near Leeds. 

*Rrpon, The Most Hon. the Marquis of, K.G.,G.C.S.1., O.LE., D.O.L., 
F.R.S., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 1 Carlton-gardens, London, 8. W. 

{Ritchie, John. Fleuchar Craig, Dundee. 

tRitchie, Robert. 14 Hill-street, Edinburgh. 

{Ritchie, William. Emslea, Dundee. 

*Rivington, John. Babbicombe, near Torquay. 

{Robberds, Rev. John, B.A. Battledown Tower, Cheltenham. 

*Rossins, JOHN, F.C.S. 57 Warrington-crescent, Maida Vale, London, 
W 


tRoberts, Charles, F.R.C.S. 2 Bolton-row, London, W. 

tRoberts, George Christopher. Hull. 

*Roserts, Isaac, F.G.8. Kennessee, Maghull, Lancashire. 

§Roberts, R. D., M.A., D.Se., F.G.S. Clare College, Cambridge. 

{Roserts, Ratew A. 23 Clyde-road, Dublin. 

tRoberts, Samuel. The Towers, Sheffield. 

{Roberts, Samuel, jun. The Towers, Sheffield. 

tRoberts, William, M.D. 89 Moseley-street, Manchester. 

{Roppris-Avusren, W. Cuanpter, F.R.S., F.C.S., Chemist to the 
Royal Mint, and Professor of Metallurgy in the Royal School 
of Mines. Royal Mint, London, E. 

§Robertson, Alexander. Montreal, Canada. 

*Robertson, Andrew. Elmbank, Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada. 

tRobertson, Dr. Andrew. Indego, Aberdeen. 

{Robertson, E. Stanley, M.A. 43 Waterloo-road, Dublin. 

{Robertson, George, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S.E. 47 Albany-street, Edin- 
burgh. 

tRobertson, George H. The Nook, Gateacre, near Liverpool. 

{Robertson, Mrs. George H. The Nook, Gateacre, near Liverpool. 

*Robertson, John. 4 Albert-road, Southport. 

tRobertson, R. A. Newthorn, Ayton-road, Pollokshields, Glasgow. 

{ Robertson, William Tindal, M.D. Nottingham. 

tRobinson, Enoch. Dukinfield, Ashton-under-Lyne. 

{Robinson, Rey. George. Beech Hill, Armagh. 

* Robinson, H. Oliver. 34 Bishopsgate-strect, London, E.C. 

§Robinson, Hugh. 82 Donegall-street, Belfast. 

{Rosryson, Jonny, M.Inst.C.E. Atlas Works, Manchester. 

{Robinson, J. H. Cumberland-row, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

{Robinson, John L. 198 Great Brunswick-street, Dublin. 

}Robinson, M. E. 6 Park-circus, Glasgow. 

§Robinson, Richard Atkinson. 195 Brompton-road, London, 8, W. 

*Robinson, Robert, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 2 West-terrace, Darlington. 

tRobinson, Admiral Sir Robert Spencer, K.C.B., F.R.S. 61 Eaton- 
place, London, 8. W. 

tRobinson, Stillman. Columbus, Ohio, U.S.A. 

tRobinson, T. W. U. Houghton-le-Spring, Durham. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 81 


Year of 
Election. 


1870. 
1882. 
1870. 
1876. 
1855. 
1872. 


1885. 
1885. 
1872. 


1866. 
1860. 


1867. 
1885. 
1882. 
1870. 
1885, 
1884. 
1876. 


1866. 
1876. 


1846. 
1869. 
1872. 


1881. 
1855. 


1885. 
1885. 
1874. 
1857. 
1880, 


1872. 
1859. 
1874. 
1880. 
1869, 


1865. 
1876. 
1884. 
1861. 


1881. 
1872. 


1861. 
1888. 
1881. 


tRobinson, William. 40 Smithdown-road, Liverpool. 

§Robinson, W. Braham. Rosenheim, Westwood Park, Southampton. 

*Robson, KE. R. Palace Chambers, 9 Bridge-street Westminster, S. W. 

tRobson, Hazleton R. 14 Royal-crescent West, Glasgow. 

tRobson, Neil. 127 St. Vincent-street, Glascow. 

Sos ae oan. Marchholm, Gillsland-road, Merchiston, Edin- 

ureh. 

§Rodger, Edward. 1 Claremont-gardens, Glasgow. 

*Rodriguez, Epifanio. 12 Jokn-street, Adelphi, London, W.C. 

tRopwett, Guorce F., F.R.A.S., F.C.S. Marlborough College, 
Wiltshire. 

tRoe, Thomas. Grove-villas, Sitchurch, 

{tRoeErs, James E. THororp, M.P., Professor of Economic Science 
and Statistics in King’s College, London. Beaumont-street, 
Oxford. 

tRogers, James S. Rosemill, by Dundee. 

§Rogers, Major R. Alma House, Cheltenham. 

§ Rogers, Rev. Saltren, M.A. Gwennap, Redruth, Cornwall. 

{Rogers, T. L., M.D. Rainhill, Liverpool. 

{Rogers, Thomas Stanley, LL.B. 77 Albert-road, Southport. 

*Rogers, Walter M. Lamowa, Falmouth. 

§Rorii, Sir A. K., B.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.A.S., Hon. Fellow 
K.C.L. Thwaite House, Cottingham, Hast Yorkshire. 

t Rolph, G. F. 

{tRomaness, Grores Jonny, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S. 18 Corn- 
wall-terrace, Regent’s Park, London, N. W. 

tRonalds, Edmund, Ph.D. Stewartfield, Bonnington, Edinburgh. 

tRoper, C. H. Magdalen-street, Exeter. 

tRoper, Freeman Clarke Samuel, F.L.S., F.G.S. Palgrave House, 
Eastbourne. 

*Roper, W.O. Eadenbreck, Lancaster. 

*Roscon, Sir Henry Enrrecp, B.A., Ph.D., LL.D., M.P., F.R.S 
F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry in Owens College, Manchester. 

*Rose, J. Holland, M.A. Ventnor College, Ventnor, Isle of Wight. 

§Ross, Alexander. Riverfield, Inverness. 

tRoss, Alexander Milton, M.A., M.D., F.G.S. Toronto, Canada. 

tRoss, David, LL.D. 32 Nelson-street, Dublin. 

§Ross, Captain G. E. A., F.R.G.S. Forfar House, Cromwell-road, 
London, 8S. W. 

tRoss, James, M.D. Tenterfield House, Waterfoot, near Manchester. 

*Ross, Rey. James Coulman. Baldon Vicarage, Oxford. 

tRoss, Rev. William. Chapelhill Manse, Rothesay, Scotland. 

tRoss, Colonel William Alexander. Acton House, Acton, London, W. 

*RossE, The Right Hon. the Earl of, B.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., 
F.R.A.S., M.R.I.A. Birr Castle, Parsonstown, Ireland. 

*Rothera, George Bell. 17 Waverley-street, Nottingham. 

tRottenbureh, Paul. 13 Albion-crescent, Glascow. 

*Rouse, M.L. 343 Church-street, Toronto, Canada. 

tRours, Epwarp J., M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.R.A.S., F.G.S. St. 
Peter’s College, Cambridge. 

tRouth, Rev. William, M.A. Clifton Green, York. 

*Row, A. V. Nursing Observatory, Daba-gardens, Vizagapatam, 
India. (Care of Messrs. King § Co., 45 Pall Mall, London, 


< ) 


S.W.) 
tRowan, David. Elliot-street, Glasrow. 
tRowan, Frederick John. 134 St. Vincent-street, Glascow. 
tRowe, Rey. G. Lord Mayor’s Walk, York. 
F 


82 


Year 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


of 


Election. 


1865. 
1877. 
1855, 


1881. 
1881, 
1862. 


1876. 
1883. 


§Rowe, Rev. John, Load Vicarage, Langport, Somerset. 

§Rowg, J. Brooxine, F.L.S., F.S.A. 16 Lockyer-street, Plymouth. 

*Rownzy, THomas H., Ph.D., F.C.8., Professor of Chemistry in 
Queen’s College, Galway. Salerno, Salthill, Galway. 

*Rowntree, Joseph. 24 St. Mary’s, York. 

*RownTREE, J. 8. The Mount, York. 

f{Rowsell, Rey. Evan Edward, M.A. Hambledon Rectory, Godal- 
ming. 

t{Roxburgh, John. 7 Royal Bank-terrace, Glasgow. 

tRoy, Charles 8., M.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology in the Uni- 
versity of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge. 


1885. §Roy, John. 33 Belvidere-street, Aberdeen. 


1861. 


*Royle, Peter, M.D., L.R.C.P., M.R.C.S. 27 Lever-street, Man- 
chester. 


1875. {Ricxmr, A. W., M.A., F.R.S. Errington, Clapham Park, London, 
S.W 


1869. 
1882. 
1884. 


1847. 
1875. 


1884, 
1883, 


§Rupter, F. W.,F.G.S. The Museum, Jermyn-street, London, S.W. 

{Rumball, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E. 8 Queen Anne’s-gate, London, S.W,. 

§Runtz, John. Linton Lodge, Lordship-road, Stoke Newington, 
London, N. 

{Rusxin, Joun, M.A., F.G.8. Brantwood, Coniston, Ambleside. 

*Russell, The Hon. F. A. R. Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park, 
Surrey. 

§Russell, George. Hoe Park House, Plymouth. 

*Russell, J. W. . Merton College, Oxford. 


1865. {Russell, James, M.D. 91 Newhall-street, Birmingham. 


1876. 
1862. 


1852. 


Russell, John. 389 Mountjoy-square, Dublin. 
§Russell, R., F.G.S. 1 Sea View, St. Bees, Carnforth. 
§Russett, W. H. L., B.A., F.R.S. 3 Ridgmount-terrace, Highgate, 
London, N. 
*RussELL, Wii11AM J., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry 
in St. Bartholomew's Medical College. 34 Upper Hamilton- 
terrace, St. John’s Wood, London, N.W. 


1883. *Ruston, Joseph, M.P. Monk’s Manor, Lincoln. 


1871. 
1881. 
1879. 


1875 


§RurperrorD, Wrir1AM, M.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., Professor of the 
Institutes of Medicine in the University of Edinburgh. 

tRutson, Albert. Newby Wiske, Thirsk. 

Rutson, William. Newby Wiske, Northallerton, Yorkshire. 

tRuxton, Rear-Admiral Fitzherbert, R.N., F.R.G.S. 41 Cromwell- 
gardens, London, S8.W. 

. {Ryalls, Charles Wager, LL.D. 3 Brick-court, Temple, London, 

E.C 


1865, {Ryland, Thomas. The Redlands, Erdington, Birmingham. 


1861 


1883 
1885 


. *Ryzanps, THomas GLAzEBROOK, F.L.S., F.G.S. Highfields, Thel- 
wall, near Warrington, 


. *Sabine, Robert. 3 Great Winchester-street-buildings, London, E.C. 
. {Sadler, Robert. 7 Lulworth-road, Birkdale, Southport. 


1871. {Sadler, Samuel Champernowne. Purton Court, Purton,near Swindon, 


1885 
1866 


1881 
1857 


Wiltshire. 

. §Saint, W. Johnstone. Woodhill, Braemar, N.B. 

. *St. Albans, His Grace the Duke of. Bestwood Lodge, Arnold, near 
Nottingham. 

. {Salkeld, William. 4 Paradise-terrace, Darlington. 

. {Satmon, Rev. Grorexr, D.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Regius Pro- 
fessor of Divinity in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, 
Dublin. 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 88 


Year of 
Election. 


1883. 


1873. 
1883. 
1872. 
1861. 
1861. 
1876, 
1883. 
1878. 
1888. 
1884. 
1872. 
1883. 


1872. 


1883. 


. {Sandford, William. 9 Springfield-place, Bath. 

. {Sands, T. C. 24 Spring-gardens, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

. {Saunders, A., M.Inst.C.E King’s Lynn. 

. §Saunpers, Howarp, F.L.S., F.Z.8. 7 Radnor-place, London, W. 
3. {Saunders, Rev. J. C. Cambridge. 

. [SaunpERs, TRELAWNEY W. India Office, London, S. W. 

. {Saunders, T. W., Recorder of Bath. 1 Priory-place, Bath. 

. {Saunders, William. London, Ontario, Canada. 

. tSaunderson, C. E. 26 St. Famille-street, Montreal, Canada. 

. §Savage, W. D. Ellerslie House, Brighton. 

. [Savage, W. W. 109 St. James’s-street, Brighton. 

: §Savery, G.M., M.A. Cotlake House, Taunton. 

. *Sawyer, George David, F.R.M.S. 55 Buckingham-place, Brighton. 
. TSawyer, John ‘Robert. Gr ove-terrace, Thorpe Hamlet, Norwich. 

. TSayre, Robert H. Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. 

. *Scarborough, George. Holly Bank, Halifax, Yorkshire. 

. {Scarisbrick, Charles. 5 Palace-gate, Kensington, London, W. 

. §Scarth, William Bain. Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. 

. §Schacht, G. F. 1 Windsor-terrace, Clifton, Bristol. 

. *“Scudrmr, E. A., F.R.S., M.R.C.S., Professor of Physiology in Uni- 


‘comand Robert G. The Nook, Kingswood-road, Upper-Norwood, 


*Salomons, Sir David, Bart. Broomhill, Tunbridge Wells. 

§Salt, Shirley H., M. A. 78 Queensborough-terrace, London, W. 

{Satvry, Ospert, M.A., F.R.S., F.L.S. Hawksfold, Haslemere, 

*Samson, Henry. 6 St. ‘Peter’s-square, Manchester. 

*Sandeman, Archibald, M.A. Garry Cottage, Perth. 

{Sandeman, David. Woodlands, Lenzie, Glasgow. 

{Sandeman, E. 53 Newton-street, Greenock. 

{Sanders, Alfred, F.L.S. 2 Clarence-place, Gravesend, Kent. 

jSanders, Charles J. B. Pennsylvania, Exeter. 

{Sanders, Henry. 185 James-street, Montreal, Canada. 

{Sanders, Mrs. 8 Powis-square, Brighton. 

TSanderson, Surgeon Alfred. East ‘India United Service Club, St. 
James’s-square, London, S.W. 

tSanpeErson, J. S. Burpon, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of 
Physiology in the University of Oxford. 50 Banbury-road, 
Oxford. 

§Sanderson, Mrs. Burdon. 50 Banbury-road, Oxford. 

Sandes, Thomas, A.B. Sallow Glin, Tarbert, Co. Kerry. 


versity College, London, Boreham Wood, Elstree, Herts. 


. tSchifer, Mrs. Boreham Wood, Elstree, Herts. 
. *Schemmann, Louis Carl. Hambure. (Care of Messrs. Allen Everitt 


& Sons, Birmingham.) 
Schofield, J oseph, Stubley Hall, Littleborough, Lancashire. 


: {Schofield, William. Alma-road, ’ Birkdale, Southport. 
. §Scholes, L. 46 Cecil-street, Bury, Lancashire. 
. tSchuman, Sigismond. 7 Royal Bank-place, Glasgow. 


ScHUNCK, EpWarp, F.RS., F.C.S. Oaklands, Kersall Moor, Man- 
chester. 


. *Scuuster, Arraur, Ph.D., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Professor of Applied 


Mathematics in Owens College, Manchester. 


. *Schwabe, Edmund Salis. Ryecroft House, Cheetham Hill, Man- 


chester. 


. *Sctater, Parre Lurrey, M.A., Ph.D., F.RS., F.LS., F.GS., 


F.R.G.S., Sec.Z.S. 3 Hanover-square, London, W. 
*Sclater, William Lutley, B.A., F.Z.S. 5 Hanover-square, London, W. 
FZ 


84 


Year 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


of 


Election. 


1882 


1867 
1881 


. *ScrateR-Booru, The Right Hon. G.,M.P., F.R.S. 74 St. George’s- 
square, London, 8. W. 

. {Scorr, ALEXANDER. Clydesdale Bank, Dundee. 

. *Scott, Alexander, M.A., B.Sc. Trinity College, Cambridge. 


1882. {Scott, Colonel A.deC.,R.E. Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton. 


1878 
1881 


1876 
1871 


. {Scott, Arthur William, M.A., Professor of Mathematics and Natural 
Science in St. David’s College, Lampeter. 
. §Scott, Miss Charlotte Angus. Lancashire College, Whalley Range, 
nchester. 
. {Scott, Mx. Bailie. Glasgow. 
. {Scott, Rev. C.G. 12 Pilrig-street, Edinburgh. 


1885. §Scott, George Jamieson. Bayview House, Aberdeen. 


1857. 


*Scorr, Ropert H., M.A., F.RS., F.G.S., F.R.MLS., Secretary to 
the Council of the Meteorological Office. 6 Elm Park-gardens, 
London, 8. W. 


1861. §Scott, Rev. Robert Selkirk, D.D. 16 Victoria-crescent, Dowanhill, 
Glasgow. 
1884, *Scott, Sydney C. 39 King-street, Cheapside, London, E.C. 


1858. {Scott, William. Holbeck, near Leeds. 


1869. 
1885. 
1881. 
1883. 
1859. 


{Scott, William Bower. Chudleigh, Devon. 
§Scott-Moncrieff, W. G. The Castle, Banff. 
*Scrivener, A. P. Weston Turvill, Tring. 
tScrivener, Mrs. Weston Turvill, Tring. 
{Seaton, John Love. The Park, Hull. 


1880. {Sedgwick, Adam, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge. 


1880, 
1861. 


1855. 
1879. 


{Seebohm, Henry, F'.L.S., F.Z.8, 6 Tenterden-street, Hanover-square, 
London, W. 

*Sretzy, Harry Govier, F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.Z.S., 
Professor of Geography in King’s College, London. The Vine,. 
Sevenoaks, 

{Seligman, H. L. 27 St. Vincent-place, Glasgow. 

§Selim, Adolphus. 21 Mincing-lane, London, F.C. 


1885. §Sempie, Dr. United Service Club, Edinburgh. 


1873. 


{Semple, R. H., M.D. 8 Torrington-square, London, W.C. 


1858. *Senior, George, F.S.8. Old Whittington, Chesterfield. 


1870. *Sephton, Rey. J. 90 Huskisson-street, Liverpool. 

1883. §Seville, Miss M.A. Blythe House, Southport. 

1875. §Seville, Thomas. Blythe House, Southport. 

1873. {Sewell, Rev. L., M.A., F.GS., F.R.G.S. Ilkley College, near 
Leeds. 

1868. {Sewell, Philip E. Catton, Norwich. 

1883. {Shadwell, John Lancelot. 21 Nottingham-place, London, W. 

*Shaen, William. 15 Upper Phillimore-gardens, Kensington, Lon- 

don, W. 

1871. *Shand, James. Fullbrooks, Worcester Park, Surrey. 

1867. §Shanks, James. Dens Iron Works, Arbroath, N.B. 

1881. {Shann, George, M.D. Petergate, York. 


1869. *Shapter, Dr. Lewis, LL.D. 1 Barnfield-crescent, Exeter. 
1878. {SHarp, Davip, M.B. Bleckley, Shirley Warren, Southampton. 


1883. 
1854. 
1870. 
1865. 


Sharp, Rev. John, B.A. Horbury, Wakefield. 
*Sharp, William, M.D., F.R.S., F.G.S. Horton House, Rugby. 
pee ak William, B.A. Mareham Rectory, near Boston, Lincoln- 
shire. 
{Sharples, Charles H., F.C.S. 7 Fishergate, Preston. 
*Shaw, Charles Wright. 38 Windsor-terrace, Douglas, Isle of Man. 
tShaw, Duncan. Cordova, Spain, 
tShaw, George. Cannon-street, Birmingham. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 85 


lection. 

1881. *SHaw, H. 8. Herz, Professor of Engineering in University College, 
Liverpool. 

1870. {Shaw, John. 21 St. James’s-road, Liverpool. 

1845. {Shaw, 4 ohn, M.D., F.L.S., F.G.S. Hop House, Boston, Lincoln- 
shire. 

1883. *Shaw, W. N., M.A. Emmanuel College, Cambridge. 

1884, {Sheafer, Peter I. 

1883. {Sheard, J. 42 Hoghton-street, Southport. 

1883. §Shearer, Miss A. M. Bushy Hill, Cambuslang, Lanark. 

1883. {Shield, Robert. Wing House, near Oldham. 

1884, §Sheldon, Professor J. P. Downton College, near Salisbury. 

1878. {Shelford, W.,C.E. 354 Great George-street, Westminster, S.W. 

1881. {Shenstone, W. A. Clifton College, Bristol. 

1863. {Shepherd, A. B. 17 Great Cumberland-place, Hyde Park, London, W. 

1885. §Shepherd, Rev. Alexander. Eeclesmechen, Uphall, Edinburgh. 

1885. §Shepherd, Charles. 1 Wellington-street, Aberdeen. 

1883. {Shepherd, James. Birkdale, Southport. 

1870. §Shepherd, Joseph. 29 Everton-crescent, Liverpool. 

Sheppard, Rey. Henry W., B.A. The Parsonage, Emsworth, Hants. 

1883. §Sherlock, David. Lower Leeson-street, Dublin. ; 

1888. §Sherlock, Mrs. David. Lower Leeson-street, Dublin. 

1883. {Sherlock, Rey. Edgar. Bentham Rectory, wd Lancaster. 

1883. *Shillitoe, Buxton, F.R.C.S. 2 Frederick-place, Old Jewry, London, 
E.C. 

1866, {Shilton, Samuel Richard Parr. Sneinton House, Nottingham. 

1867, {Shinn, William C. 4 Varden’s-road, Clapham Junction, Surrey, 
S.W. 

1885. §Shirras,G. F. 16 Carden-place, Aberdeen. 

1883. {Shone, Isaac. Pentrefelin House, Wrexham. 

1870. *SHoorsrep, James N., M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 3 Westminster-chambers, 
London, 8. W. : 

1875. {Shore, Thomas W., F.0.S., F.G.S. Hartley Institution, Southamp- 
ton. 

1882. {Shore, T. W., jun., B.Sc. Uplands, Woolston, Southampton. 

1881. {Shuter. James L. 9 Steele’s-road, Haverstock Hill, London, N.W. 

1883. §Sibly, Miss Martha Aenes, Flook House, Taunton. 

1883. *Sidebotham, Edward John. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire. 

1883. *Sidebotham, James Nasmyth. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire. 

1877. *Sidebotham, Joseph Watson. Erlesdene, Bowdon, Cheshire. 

1885. *Sipewick, Henry, M.A., Litt.D., Professor of Moral Philosophy 
in the University of Cambridge. Hillside, Chesterton-road, 
Cambridge. 

1873. {Sidgwick, R. H. The Raikes, Skipton. 

Sidney, M. J. F. Cowpen, Newcastle-upon-Tyne. 

1873. *Siemens, Alexander. 12 Queen Anne’s-gate, Westminster, S.W. 

1878. {Sigerson, Professor George, M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA. 3 Clare-street, 
Dublin. 

1859. {Sim, John. Hardgate, Aberdeen. 

1871. {Sime, James. Oraigmount House, Grange, Edinburgh. 

1862. {Simms, James. 138 Fleet-street, London, E.C. 

1874, {Simms, William. The Linen Hall, Belfast. 

1876. {Simon, Frederick. 24 Sutherland-gardens, London, W. 

1847. {Simon, John, O.B., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.C.S., Consulting Surgeon to 
St. Thomas’s Hospital. 40 Kensington-square, London, W. 

1866. {Simons, George. The Park, Nottingham. 

1871. *Srwpson, ALEXANDER R., M.D., Professor of Midwifery in the Uni- 
versity of Edinburgh. 52 Queen-street, Edinburgh, 


86 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1888. 
1867. 
1859. 
1863. 
1857. 


1883. 


1884. 
1874. 
1884. 
1870. 
1864. 


1865. 
1879. 


1883. 
1885. 
1870. 


1873. 
1842. 
1884, 
1877. 
1884. 
1849. 
1849. 
1860. 
1867. 
1881. 
1885. 
1858. 
1876. 
Salevia 


1876. 
1876. 


1867. 
1857. 
1872. 


1874. 
1873. 
1865. 
1865. 
1866. 
1855. 
1885. 
1860, 


1870. 
1885. 
1871. 


§Simpson, Byron R. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport. 

tSimpson, G. B. Seafield, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee. 

TSimpson, John. Maylkirk, Kincardineshire. 

{Simpson, J. B., F.G.8. Hedgefield House, Blaydon-on-Tyne. 

tSnreson, Maxwert, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of 
Chemistry in Queen’s College, Cork. 

{Simpson, Walter M. 7 York-road, Birkdale, Southport. 

Simpson, William. Bradmore House, Hammersmith, London, W. 

*Simpson, W. J. R., M.D. Town House, Aberdeen. 

tSinclair, Thomas. Dunedin, Belfast. 

tSenclair, Vetch, M.D. 48 Albany-street, Edinburgh. 

*Sinclair, W. P. 19 Devonshire-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool. 

*Sircar, Mahendra Lal, M.D. 51 Sankaritola, Calcutta. (Care of 
Messrs. 8. Harraden & Co., 3 Hill’s-place, Oxford-street, Lon- 
don, W.) 

{Sissons, William. 92 Park-street, Hull. 

tSkertchly, Sydney B. J.,F.G.S. 3 Loughborough-terrace, Carshal-. 
ton, Surrey. 

{Skillicorne, W. N. 9 Queen’s-parade, Cheltenham. 

§Skinner, Provost. Inverurie, N.B. 

§StapEN, Warrer Percy, F.G.8S., F.L.S. Orsett House, Ewell, 
Surrey. 

{Slater, Clayton. Barnoldswick, near Leeds. 

*Slater, William. Park-lane, Higher Broughton, Manchester. 

Slattery, James W. 9 Stephen’s-green, Dublin. 

tSleeman, Rev. Philip, L.Th., F.R.A.S., F.R.M.S. Clifton, Bristol. 

{Slooten, William Venn. Nova Scotia, Canada. 

{Sloper, George Elgar. Devizes. 

tSloper, Samuel W. Devizes. 

{Sloper, 8. Elgar. Winterton, near Hythe, Southampton. 

tSmall, David. Gray House, Dundee. 

tSmallshan, John. 81 Manchester-road, Southport. 

§Smart, James. Valley Works, Brechin, N.B. 

{Smeeton, G. H. Commercial-street, Leeds. 

§Smellie, Thomas D. 215 St. Vincent-street, Glasgow. 

tSmelt, Rev. Maurice Allen, M.A., F.R.A.S. Heath Lodge, Chel- 
tenham. 

{Smieton, James. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee. 

{Smieton, John G. 8 Polworth-road, Coventry Park, Streatham, 
London, 8.W. 

{Smieton, Thomas A. Panmure Villa, Broughty Ferry, Dundee. 

{Smith, Aquilla, M.D., M.R.LA. 121 Lower Baggot-street, Dublin. 

*Smith, Basil Woodd, F.R.A.S. Branch Hill Lodge, Hampstead 
Heath, London, N. W. 

*Smith, Benjamin Leigh, F.R.G.S. 64 Gower-street, London, W.C. 

Smith, C. Sidney College, Cambridge. 

{Saore, Davin, F.R.A.S. 40 Bennett’s-hill, Birmingham. 

{Smith, Frederick. The Priory, Dudley. 

*Smith, F.C. Bank, Nottingham. 

{Smith, George. Port Dundas, Glasgow. 

§Smith, Rev. G. A., M.A. 91 Fountainhall-road, Aberdeen. 

*Smith, Heywood, M.A., M.D. 18 Harley-street, Cavendish-square, 
London, W. 

tSmith, H. L. Crabwall Hall, Cheshire. 

§Smith, Rev. James, B.D. Manse of Newhills, N.B. 

*Smith, John Alexander, M.D., F.R.S.E., F.S.A.Scot. 10 Palmer- 
ston-place, Edinburgh. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 87 


Year of 
Election. 


1876. 
1874. 


1871. 
1883. 
1860. 


1837. 
1885. 


1840, 
1870. 
1866. 
1873. 
1867. 
1867. 
1859. 


1884. 
1885. 
1852. 
1875. 
1876. 
1885. 


1883. 
1883. 
1878. 
1882. 
1874. 
1850. 


1883. 
1874, 
1878. 


1857. 


1864, 


1854. 


1883. 
1878. 
1879. 


1859, 
1879. 
1865. 
1859. 
1856. 
1863. 


*Smith, J. Guthrie. 54 West Nile-street, Glasgow. 
{Smith, John Haigh. 77 Southbank-road, Southport. 
Smith, John Peter George. Netherall, Largs, Ayrshire. 

{Smith, J. William Robertson, M.A., Lord Almoner’s Professor of 
Arabic in the University of Cambridge. 

{Smith, M. Holroyd. Fern Hill, Halifax. 

*Smith, Philip, B.A. The Bays, Parktields, Putney, 8. W. 

*Smith, Protheroe, M.D. 42 Park-street, Grosvenor-square, Lon- 
don, W. 

Smith, Richard Bryan. Villa Nova, Shrewsbury. 

§Smith, Robert H., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Engineering in the 
Mason Science College, Birmingham. 

*Smith, Robert Mackay. 4 Bellevue-crescent, Edinburgh. 

{Smith, Samuel. Bank of Liverpool, Liverpool. 

{Smith, Samuel. 33 Compton-street, Goswell-road, London, E.C. 

{Smith, Swire. Lowfield, Keighley, Yorkshire. 

{Smith, Thomas. Dundee. 

{Smith, Thomas, Poole Park Works, Dundee. 

{Smith, Thomas James, F.G.S., F.C.S. Hornsea Burton, East York- 
shire. 

{Smith, Vernon. 127 Metcalfe-street, Ottawa, Canada. 

*Smith, Watson. Owens College, Manchester. 

{Smith, William. Eglinton Engine Works, Glasgow. 

*Smith, William. Sundon House, Clifton, Bristol. 

{Smith, William. 12 Woodside-place, Glasgow. 

{Smithells, Arthur, B.Sc., Professor of Chemistry in the Yorkshire 
College, Leeds. 

t{Smithson, Edward Walter. 15 Lendal, York. 

{Smithson, Mrs. 13 Lendal, York. 

{Smithson, Joseph S. Balnagowan, Rathmines, Co, Dublin. 

§Smithson, T. Spencer. Facit, Rochdale. 

{Smoothy, Frederick. Bocking, Essex. 

*Suyrn, Cuarzes Prazzt, F.R.S.E., F.R.A.S., Astronomer Royal for 
Scotland, Professor of Astronomy in the University of Edin- 
burgh. 15 Royal-terrace, Edinburgh. 

{Smyth, Rev. Christopher. Woodford Rectory, Thrapston. 

{Smyth, Henry. Downpatrick, Ireland. 

§Smyth, Mrs. Isabella. Wigmore Lodge, Cullenswood-avenue, 
Dublin. 

*Suyru, Jonny, jun., M.A., F.R.M.S. Milltown, Banbridge, Ireland. 

{Suyru, Warrneton W., M.A., F.R.S., F.G.8., F.R.G.S., Lecturer 
on Mining and Mineralogy at the Royal School of Mines, and 
Inspector of the Mineral Property of the Crown. 5 Inverness- 
terrace, Bayswater, London, W. 

{Smythe, General W. J., R.A., F.R.S. Atheneum Club, Pall 
Mall, London, 8S. W. 

{Snape, Joseph. 13 Scarisbrick-street, Southport. 

§Snell, H. Saxon. 22 Southampton-buildings, London, W.C. 

*Sotras, W. J., M.A., D.Se., F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of Geology 
in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin. 

Sorbey, Alfred. The Rookery, Ashford, Bakewell. 

*Sorpy, H. Cuirton, LL.D.,F-.R.S., F.G.S. Broomfield, Sheffield. 

*Sorby, Thomas W. Storthfield, Sheffield. 

*Southall, John Tertius. Parkfields, Ross, Herefordshire. 

{Southall, Norman. 44 Cannon-street West, London, E.C. 

{Southwood, Rey. T. A. Cheltenham College. 

{Sowerby, John. Shipcote House, Gateshead, Durham. 


88 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1888. 


1863. 
1879. 
1869, 
1881. 
1884, 
1861. 
1861. 
1863. 


1875. 
1884, 


1864, 
1864. 
1878, 
1864, 
1854, 
1883. 


1853. 


1884, 


1877, 


1879. 
1858, 


1884, 
1885. 


1865, 
1837. 
1881. 


1883. 


1883. 
1866. 
1876. 


1873. 
1881. 
1881, 
1884, 
1873. 
1861. 
1884, 
1884. 
1884, 


1879. 
1881. 


§Spanton, William Dunnett, F.R.C.S. Chatterley House, Hanley, 
Staffordshire. 
*Spark, H. King. Starforth House, Barnard Castle. 
tSpence, David. Brookfield House, Freyinghall, Yorkshire. 
*Spence, J. Berger. 31 Lombard-street, London, E.C. 
{Spencer, Herbert E. Lord Mayor’s Walk, York. 
tSpencer, John, M.Inst.M.E. Globe Tube Works, Wednesbury. 
tSpencer, John Frederick. 28 Great George-street, London, S.W. 
*Spencer, Joseph. Springbank, Old Trafford, Manchester. 
“Spencer, Thomas. The Grove, Ryton, Blaydon-on-Tyne, Co. 
Durham. 
tSpencer, W. H. Richmond Hill, Clifton, Bristol. 
*Spice, Robert Paulson, M.Inst.C.E. 21 Parliament-street, West- 
minster, 8. W.’ 
*Spicer, Henry, B.A., M.P., F.L.S., F.G.S. 14 Aberdeen Park, High- 
bury, London, N. 
*SPILLER, JOHN, F.C.S. 2 St. Mary’s-road, Canonbury, London, N. 
§Spottiswoode, George Andrew. 3 Cadogan-square, London, S.W. 
*Spottiswoode, W. Hugh. 41 Grosvenor-place, London, 8. W. 
*SpracuE, THomas Bonn, M.A., F.R.S.E. 29 Buckingham-terrace, 
Edinburgh. 
§Spratling, W. J., B.Sc., F.G.S. Maythorpe, 72 Wickham-road, 
Brockley, 8.E. 
{Spratt, Joseph James. West Parade, Hull. 
*Spruce, Samuel. Beech House, Tamworth. 
Square, Joseph Elliot, F.G.S. 24 Portland-place, Plymouth. 
tSevarE, WirrrAM, F.R.C.S., F.R.G.S. 4 Portland-square, Ply- 
mouth. 
*Squire, Lovell. 9 Osman-road, Hammersmith, London, W. 
tStacye, Rev. John. Shrewsbury Hospital, Sheffield. 
*Srarnton, Henry T., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.G.S. Mountsfield, Lewis- 
ham, S.E. 
{Stancoffe, Frederick. Dorchester-street, Montreal, Canada, 
*Stanford, Edward, jun., F.R.G.S. 17 Spring-gardens, London, 
S.W. 
{Sranrorp, Epwarp C. C0. Glenwood, Dalmuir, N.B. 
Staniforth, Rev. Thomas. Storrs, Windermere. 
*Stanley, William Ford, F.G.S. Cumberlow, South Norwood, 
Surrey, S.E. 
§Stanley, Mrs. Cumberlow, South Norwood, Surrey, S.E. 
Stapleton, M. H., M.B., M.R.I.A. 1 Mountjoy-place, Dublin. 
{Stapley, Alfred M. Marion-terrace, Crewe. 
{Starey, Thomas R. Daybrook House, Nottingham. 
§Starling, John Henry, F.0.S. The Avenue, Erith, Kent. 
Staveley, T. K. Ripon, Yorkshire. 
*Stead, Charles. Saltaire, Bradford, Yorkshire. 
§Stead, W. H. Hexham House, Southport, Lancashire. 
{Stead, Mrs. W. H. Hexham House, Southport, Laneashire. 
{Stearns, Sergeant P. U.S. Consul-General, Montreal, Canada. 
{Steinthal,G. A. 15 Hallfield-road, Bradford, Yorkshire. 
{Steinthal, H. M. Hollywood, Fallowfield, near Manchester. 
{Stephen, George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada. 
tStephen, Mrs. George. 140 Drummond-street, Montreal, Canada. 
iephae W. Hudson. Lowville (P.0.), State of New York, 
S.A. 


*SrerpHENsOoN, Henry, J.P. Endcliffe Vale, Sheffield. 
{Stephenson, J. F. 3 Mount-parade, York. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 89 


Year of 
Election. 


1861. 
1876, 
1870. 


1880. 
1868. 
1878. 


1865. 
1882. 
1885. 
1855. 


1864, 


1885. 
1875. 


1876. 
1867. 
1876. 


1867. 
1865. 
1885. 
1864, 


1854. 
1845, 
1862. 
1874, 


1876. 
1883, 


1859. 
1857. 


1878. 
1861. 


1876. 


1883. 
1883. 
1854. 
1873. 


1884, 
1859. 


1874, 
1871. 


*Stern,S. J. Littlecrove, East Barnet, Herts. 

{Steuart, Walter. City Bank, Pollockshaws, near Glasgow. 

*Stevens, ce Anna Maria. Oak Villa, George-street, Ryde, Isle of 
Wight. 

*Stevens, J. Edward. 6 Carlton-terrace, Swansea. 

TStevenson, Henry, F.L.S. Newmarket-road, Norwich. 

{Stevenson, Rev. James, M.A. 21 Garville-avenue, Rathgar, 
Dublin. 

*Sruvenson, JAMES C., M.P., F.C.S. Westoe, South Shields, 

{Steward, Rev. C. E., M.A. The Polygon, Southampton. 

§Stewart, Rev. Alexander. Heathcot, Aberdeen. 

tSrewarr, Batrour, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Natural 
Philosophy in Owens College, Manchester. 

ae Cares, M.A., F.L.S. St. Thomas’s Hospital, London, 

EK. 


§Stewart, David. 295 Union-street, Aberdeen. 

*Stewart, James, B.A., M.R.C.P.Ed. Dunmurry, Sneyd Park, Clifton, 
Gloucestershire. 

{Stewart, William. Violet Grove House, St. George’s-road, Glasgow. 

{Stirling, Dr. D. Perth. 

{Stirling, William, M.D., D.Se., F.R.S.E., Professor of Physiology in 
the University of Aberdeen. 

*Stirup, Mark, F.G.S. Richmond Hill, Bowden, Cheshire. 

*Stock, Joseph 8. St. Mildred’s, Walmer. 

*Stocker, W. R. Cooper’s Hill, Staines. 

f{Sropparr, Wittram Water, F.G.S., F.C.S. Grafton Lodge, 
Sneyd Park, Bnstol. 

{Stoess, Le Chevalier Ch. de W. (Bavarian Consul). Liverpool. 

*Sroxes, GrorGE Gapriet, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., Pres. R.S., Lucasian 
Professor of Mathematics in the University of Cambridge. Lens- 
field Cottage, Cambridge. 

{Sronz, Epwarp Jamus, M.A., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., Director of the 
Radcliffe Observatory, Oxford. 

{Stone, J. Harris, B.A., F.L.S., F.C.S. 11 Shetfield-cardens, Ken- 
sington, London, W. 

{Stone, Octavius C., F.R.G.S. Springfield, Nuneaton. 

§Stone, Thomas William. 189 Goldhawk-road, Shepherd’s Bush, 
London, W. 

{Srons, Dr. Wittiam H. 14 Dean’s-yard, Westminster, S. W. 

{Sronry, Brypon B., LL.D., F.R.S., M.Inst.C.E., M.R.1.A., Engineer 
of the Port of Dublin. 14 Elgin-road, Dublin. 

*Stoney, G. Gerald. 9 Palmerston Park, Dublin. 

*Sronry, GrorcEe Jonnstone, M.A., F.R.S., M.R.I.A. 9 Palmerston 
Park, Dublin. 

§Stopes, Henry, F.G.S. Kenwyn, Cintra Park, Upper Norwood, 
S.E. 


§Stepes, Mrs. Kenwyn, Cintra Park, Upper Norwood, 8.E. 

{Stopes, Miss Lucy. 84 East Hill, Colchester. 

tStore, George. Prospect House, Fairfield, Liverpool. 

{Storr, William. The ‘Times’ Office, Printing-house-square, Lon- 
don, F.C. 

§Storrs, George H. Fern Bank, Stalybridge. 

§Story, Captain James Hamilton. 17 Bryanston-square, London, 
W 


{Stott, William. Sear Bottom, Greetland, near Halifax, Yorkshire. 
*SrracHgy, Lieut.-General Ricwarp, R.E., C.S.I., F.R.S., F.R.G.S., 
F.LS., F.G.S. 69 Lancaster-gate, Hyde Park, London, W. 


90 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1881. 


1876, 
1865. 
1882. 
1881. 


1879. 
1884. 


1859. 
1883. 


1867. 
1876. 


1878. 
1876. 
1872. 


1884, 
1885. 
1879. 
1857. 
1883. 
1885. 
1884, 
1885. 
1873. 
1873. 
1863. 
1862, 


1884, 


1863. 
1881. 
1881. 
1876. 
1881. 
1861. 
1862, 


1862. 


1879. 
1883. 


1870. 
1863. 
1885, 
1873. 
1858, 


1883. 
1873. 


1847, 


{Strahan, Aubrey, M.A., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn- 
street, London, S. W. 

{Strain, John. 143 West Regent-street, Glasgow. 

{Straker, John. Wellington ‘House, Dacha 

{Strange, Rev. Cresswell, M.A. Edgbaston Vicarage, Birmingham. 

{Strangways, C. Fox, EGS. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street,. 
London, 8.W. 

*Strickland, Charles. 21 Fitzwilliam-place, Dublin. 

{Strickland, Sir Charles W., K.C.B. Hildenley-road, Malton. 

Strickland, William. French Park, Roscommon, Ireland. 

{Stringham, Irving. The University, Berkeley, California, U.S.A. 

tStronach, William, R.E. Ardmellie, Banff. 

§Strong, Henry J., M.D. Whitgift House, Croydon. 

{Stronner, D. 14 Princess-street, Dundee. 

*SrrurHers, Joun, M.D., LL. Ds Professor of Anatomy in the 
University of Aberdeen. 

{Strype, W. G. Wicklow. 

*Stuart, Charles Maddock. High School, Newcastle, Staffordshire. 

*Stuart, Rey. Edward A., M.A. 116 Grosvenor-road, Highbury New 
Park, London, N. 

{Stuart, Dr. W. Theophilus. 183 Spadina-avenue, Toronto, Canada. 

§Stump, Edward C. Belgrave-road, Oldham. 

*Styring, Robert. 3 Hartshead, Sheffield. 

{Suriivan, Wiiiram K., Ph.D., M.R.LA. Queen’s College, Cork. 

§Summers, Alfred. Sunnyside, Ashton-under-Lyne. 

{Summers, William, M.P. Sunnyside, Ashton-under-Lyne. 

tSumner, George. 107 Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada. 

{Sutcliffe, J. 8., J.P. Beech House, Bacup. 

{Sutcliffe, J. W. Sprink Bank, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

{Sutclitte, Robert. Imdle, near Leeds. 

{Sutherland, Benjamin John. 10 Oxford-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne.. 

*SUTHERLAND, GEORGE GRANVILLE Witttam, Duke of, K.G.,. 
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Stafford House, London, 8. W. 

{Sutherland, J.C. Richmond, Quebec, Canada. 

{Surron, Francis, F.C.S. Bank Plain, Norwich. 

{Sutton, William. Town Hall, Southport. 

tSwales, William. Ashville, Holeate-road, York. 

{Swan, David, jun. Braeside, Maryhill, Glasgow. 

§Swan, Joseph W. Mosley-street, Neweastle-on-Tyne, 

*Swan, Patrick Don 8. Kirkcaldy, N.B 

“Swan, Witrram, LL.D., F.R.S. E. , Professor of Natural Philosophy 
in the University of St. Andrews, N.B. 

*Swann, Rey. S. Kirke, F.R.A.S. Forest Hill Lodge, Warsop,. 
Mansfield, Nottinghamshire. 

tSwanwick, Frederick. Whittington, Chesterfield. 

{Sweeting, Rev. T. E. 50 Roe-lane, Southport. 

Sweetman, Walter, M.A., M.R.LA. 4 Mountjoy-square North, 

Dublin. 

*Swinburne, Sir John, Bart., M.P. Capheston, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

{Swindell, J. 8. E. Summerhill, Kingswinford, Dudley. 

§Swindells, Miss. Springfield House, Ilkley, Yorkshire. 

*Swinglehurst, Henry. Hincaster House, near Milnthorpe. 

Se The Right Rey. Atrrep Barry, Bishop of, D.D., D.C.L. 

dney. 

§Sykes, "A Mfred. Highfield, Huddersfield. 

§Sykes, Benjamin Clifford, M.D. Cleckheaton. 

tSykes, H. P. 47 ‘Albion-street, Hyde Park, London, W. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 91 


Year of 
Election. 


1862, 
1847, 
1870. 
1885. 
1881. 
1856. 
1859. 
1860. 
1859. 


1883. 
1855. 


1872. 
1865. 
1877. 
1871. 


1867. 


1883. 
1866. 


1878. 
1861. 
1856. 
1857. 
1870. 
1858. 


1876. 


1879. 
1878. 


1884, 


1874. 
1881. 
1884. 
1882. 
1879. 
1861. 


18738. 


1881. 
1865. 
1883. 
1876. 
1878. 
1884, 


{Sykes, Thomas. Cleckheaton. 
{Sykes, Captain W.H.F. 47 Albion-street, Hyde Park, London, W. 
SyLvesTER, James Josepu, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Savilian 

Professor of Geometry in the University of Oxford. Oxford. 

{tSymes, RicHarp Guascorr, B.A., F.G.8. Geological Survey of 
Treland, 14 Hume-street, Dublin. 

§Symington, Johnson, M.D. 10 Warrender Park-crescent, Edinburgh. 

*Symington, Thomas. 15 Dundas-street, Edinburgh. 

*Symonds, Frederick, M.A., F.R.C.S. 35 Beaumont-street, Oxford. 

{Symonds, Captain Thomas Edward, R.N. 10 Adam-street, Adelphi, 
London, W.C. 

{Symonns, Rey. W.S8., M.A., F.G.S. Pendock Rectory, Worcester- 


shire. 
§Symons, G. J., F.R.S., Sec.R.M.S. 62 Camden-square, London, 
N. W. 


tSymons, Simon. Belfast House, Farquhar-road, Norwood, 8.E. 
*Symons, Wittram, F.C.S. 26 Joy-street, Barnstaple. 
Synge, Francis. Glanmore, Ashford, Co. Wicklow. 
tSynge, Major-General Millington, R.E., F.S.A., F.R.G.S. United 
Service Club, Pall Mall, London, 8.W. 


tTailyour, Colonel Renny, R.E. Newmanswalls, Montrose, N.B. 

*Tart, Lawson, F.R.O.S. The Crescent, Birmingham. 

{Tarr, Perer Gorrie, F.R.S.E., Professor of Natural Philosophy 
in the University of Edinburgh. George-square, Edinburgh. 

{Tait, P. M., F.R.G.S., F.S.S. Oriental Club, Hanover-square, 
London, W. 

§Tapscott, R. L. 41 Parkfield-road, Prince’s Park, Liverpool. 

TTarbotton, Marrott Ogle, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.8. Newstead-grove, 
Nottingham. 

{Tarpry, Huew. Dublin. 

*Tarratt, Henry W. Ferniebrae, Dean Park, Bournemouth. 

{Tartt, William Macdonald, F.S.S. Sandford-place, Cheltenham. 

*Tate, Alexander. Longwood, Whitehouse, Belfast. 

{Tate, Norman A. 7 Nivell-chambers, Fazackerley-street, Liverpool. 

*Tatham, George, J.P. Springfield Mount, Leeds. 

{Tatlock, Robert R. 26 Burnbank-gardens, Glasgow. 

{Tattershall, William Edward. 15 North Church-street, Sheffield. 

*Taylor, A. Claude. Clinton-terrace, Derby-road, Nottingham. 

*Taylor, Rev. Charles, D.D. St. John’s Lodge, Cambridge. 

Taylor, Frederick. Laurel Cottage, Rainhill, near Prescot, Lan- 

cashire. 

tTaylor, G. P. Students’ Chambers, Belfast. 

*Taylor, H. A. 25 Collingham-road, South Kensington, London, 8.W. 

*Taylor, H. M.,M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge. 

*Taylor, Herbert Owen, M.D. 17 Castlegate, Nottingham. 

tTaylor, John. Broomhall-place, Sheffield. 

*Taylor, John, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. 6 Queen-street-place, Upper 
Thames-street, London, E.C. 

{Taytor, Joun Exton, Ph.D, F.LS., F.G.S. The Mount, 
Ipswich. 

*Taylor, John Francis. Holly Bank House, York. 

tTaylor, Joseph. 99 Constitution-hill, Birmingham, 

tTaylor, Michael W., M.D. Hatton Hall, Penrith. 

{Taylor, Robert. 70 Bath-street, Glasgow. 

{Taylor, Robert, J.P., LL.D. Corballis, Drogheda. 

*Taylor, Miss S$. Oak House, Shaw, near Oldham. 


92 


LIST OF MEMBERS, 


Year of 
Election. 


1881. 


1883. 
1870. 
1883. 
1883. 
1884, 
1858. 
1885. 
1880, 
1869. 
1876. 
1879. 


1880, 


1865. 
1882. 
1881. 
1883. 
1883. 
1866. 
1882. 


1885. 
1871. 
1871. 


1835. 
1870. 
1871. 
1875. 
1883. 


1884, 


1875. 
1869. 
1881. 
1869, 
1880. 


1883. 
1883. 
1885. 
1875, 
1883. 
1885, 


1882. 
1883. 
1859. 


1870. 
1883, 


{Taylor, Rev. S. B., M.A., Chaplain of Lower Assam, Gauhatti, 
Assam. (Care of Messrs. Grindlay & Co., 55 Parliament- 
street, London, S.W.) 

{Taylor, 8. Leigh. Birklands, Westcliffe-road, Birkdale, Southport. 

{Taylor, Thomas. Aston Rowant, Tetsworth, Oxon. 

{Taylor, William. Park-road, Southport. 

tTaylor, William, M.D. 21 Crockherbtown, Cardiff. 

{Taylor-Whitehead, Samuel, J.P. Burton Closes, Bakewell. 

tTeale, Thomas Pridgin, jun. 20 Park-row, Leeds. 

§Teall, J. J. H., M.A., F.G.S. 12 Cumberland-road, Kew, Surrey. 

{Tebb, Miss. 7 Albert-road, Regent’s Park, London, N.W. 

{Teesdale, C. 8. M. Whyke House, Chichester. 

*Temperley, Ernest, M.A. Queen’s College, Cambridge. 

{Temple, Lieutenant George T., R.N., F.R.G.S. The Nash, near 
Worcester. 

§TempLe, Sir Ricwarp, Bart, G.C.SJI., CIE, D.C.L. LL.D., 
M.P., F.R.G.S. Atheneum Club, London, 8S. W. 

{Tennant, Henry. Saltwell, Neweastle-on-Tyne. 

§Terrill, William. 3 Hanover-street, Swansea. 

{Terry, Mr. Alderman. Mount-villas, York. 

{Tetley, C. F. The Brewery, Leeds. 

}Tetley, Mrs. C. F. The Brewery, Leeds. 

{Thackeray, J. L. Arno Vale, Nottingham. 

*Thane, George Dancer, Professor of Anatomy in University College, 
Gower-street, London, W.C. 

§Thin, Dr. George, 22 Queen Anne-street, London, W. 

{Thin, James. 7 Rillbank-terrace, Edinburgh. 

{TuseLron-Dyer, W. T., C.M.G., M.A., B.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. 11 
Brunswick: villas, Kew Gardens-road, Kew. 

Thom, John. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire. 

{Thom, Robert Wilson. Lark-hill, Chorley, Lancashire. 

{Thomas, Ascanius William Nevill. Chudleigh, Devon. 

*THomas, Curistopner JAMES. Drayton Lodge, Redland, Bristol. 

{Thomas, Ernest C., B.A. 13 South-square, Gray’s Inn, London, 
W.C. 


{Tmomas, F. Wotrerstan. Molson’s Bank, Montreal, Canada. 

Thomas, George. Brislington, Bristol. 

{Thomas, Herbert. Ivor House, Redlands, Bristol. 

{Thomas, H. D. Fore-street, Exeter. 

{THomas, J. Broun. Southampton. 

tThomas, J. Henwood, F.R.G.S. ‘Custom House, London, E.C. 

*Thomas, Joseph William, F.C.S. The Laboratory, West Wharf, 
Cardiff. 

{Thomas, P. Bossley. 4 Bold-street, Southport. 

§Thomas, T. H. 45 The Walk, Cardiff. 

{Thomas, William. Lan, Swansea. 

t¢Thompson, Arthur. 12 St. Nicholas-street, Hereford. 

{Thompson, Miss 0. EK. Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester. 

§Thompson, D’Arcy W., B.A., Professor of Physiology in University 
College, Dundee. University Colleze, Dundee. 

{Thompson, Charles O. Terre Haute, Indiana, U.S.A. 

*Thompson, Francis. 1 Avenue-villas, St. Peter’s-road, Croydon. 

{Thompson, George, jun. Pitmedden, Aberdeen. 

Thompson, Harry Stephen. Kirby Hall, Great Ouseburn, Yorkshire. 
{THompson, Sir Henry. 35 Wimpole-street, London, W. 
*Thompson, Henry G., M.D. 8 Addiscombe-villas, Croydon. 

Thompson, Henry Stafford. Fairfield, near York. 


Year of 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 93 


Hection. 


1883. 


1861. 
1864, 


1873. 
1876. 
1883. 
1874. 
1876. 


1884. 
1883. 
1863. 
1867. 


1850. 
1868. 


1876. 
1883. 


1871. 
1871. 
1847. 


1877. 
1874. 
1880. 
1871. 
1852. 
1867. 
1883. 
1845, 
1881. 
1871. 
1881. 
1864. 


1871. 
1883. 
1883. 
1868, 
1870. 


1873. 
1884. 


1874. 


*Thompson, Isaac Cooke, F.R.M.S. Woodstock, Wavyerley-road, 
Liverpool. 

*Thompson, Joseph. Riversdale, Wilmslow, Manchester. 

{THomrson, Rev. JosrepH Hesseterave, B.A. Cradley, near 
Brierley Hill. 

{Thompson, M. W. Guiseley, Yorkshire. 

*Thompson, Richard. Park-street, The Mount, York. 

{Thompson, Richard. Bramley Mead, Whalley, Lancashire. 

TThompson, Robert. Walton, Fortwilliam Park, Belfast. 

{THompson, Sttvanus Purrres, B.A., D.Sc., F.R.A.S., Professor 
of Physics in the City and Guilds of London Institute, Finsbury 
Technical Institute, E.C. 

{Thompson, Sydney de Courey. 16 Canonbury-park South, London, N. 

*Thompson, T. H. Heald Bank, Bowdon, Manchester. 

{Thompson, William. 11 North-terrace, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

tThoms, William. Magdalen-yard-road, Dundee. 

Thomson, Guy. Oxford. 

*THomson, Professor James, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S.L.& E. 
2 Florentine-gardens, Hillhead-street, Glasgow. 

§THomson, JAmus, F.G.8. 3 Abbotsford-place, Glasgow. 

*Thomson, James Gibson. 14 York-place, Edinburgh. 

{Thomson, James R. Mount Blow, Dalmuir, Glasgow. 

{THomson, J. J., M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Experimental Physics in 

the University of Cambridge. Trinity College, Cambridge. 

*THomson, Joun Mrizar, F.C.S. King’s College, London, W.C. 

tThomson, Robert, LL.B. 12 Rutland-square, Edinburgh. 

*Tnomson, Sir Witriam, M.A., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S.L.&E., 
F.R.A.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of 
Glasgow. The University, Glasgow, 

*Thomson, Lady. The University, Glasgow. 

§THomson, WILLIAM, F.R.S.E., F.C.S. Royal Institution, Manchester.. 

§Thomson, William J. Ghyllbank, St. Helen’s. 

tThornburn, Rey. David, M.A. 1 John’s-place, Leith. 

tThornburn, Rey. William Reid, M.A. Starkies, Bury, Lancashire. 

{Thornton, Thomas. Dundee. 

§Thorowgood, Samuel. Castle-square, Brighton. 

tThorp, Dr. Disney. Lyppiatt Lodge, Suffolk Lawn, Cheltenham. 

tThorp, Fielden. Blossom-street, York. 

tThorp, Henry. Briarleigh, Sale, near Manchester. 

*Thorp, Josiah. 17 Marmaduke-street, Liverpool. 

*THorP, WILLIAM, B.Sc., F.C.S. 39 Sandringham-road, Kingsland, 
London, E. 

{Tuorpr, T. E., Ph.D., F.R.S.L.& E., F.C.S., Professor of Che- 
mistry in the Royal School of Mines, South Kensington, 
London, 8.W. 

§Threlfall, Henry Singleton. 5 Prince’s-street, Southport. 

tThresh, John C., D.Sc. The Willows, Buxton. 

{Tuvurtirer, General Sir H. E. L., R.A., OSL, FRS., F.R.GS, 
1] Sussex-gardens, Hyde Park, London, W. 

tTichborne, Charles R. C., LL.D., F.C.S., M-R.LA. Apothecaries’ 
Hall of Ireland, Dublin. 

*TrppEemAN, R. H., M.A., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, 8.W. 

§Tidy, Charles Meymott, M.D. 3 Mandeville-place, Cavendish-square, 
London, W. 

fTinpen, Wittram A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.C.S., Professor of Chemistry 
and Metallurgy in the Mason Science College, Birmingham. 
36 Frederick-road, Birmingham. 


94 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1873. 
1883. 


1885. 


1865. 
1876. 
1857. 
1856. 
1864. 


1865, 
1865. 
1875. 


1861. 
1872. 


1875. 
1884. 
1884. 
1859. 


1873. 
1875. 
1883. 
1861. 


1877. 
. *TRart, Professor J. W. H., M.A., M.D., F.L.S. University of Aber- 


1876 


1883. 
1870. 


1883. 
1875. 
1868. 


1884. 


1868. 
1869. 
1870. 


1883. 
1884, 
1884. 


1879. 
1877. 
1871. 


1860. 
1884, 


1882. 
1886. 


{Tilzhman, B. C. Philadelphia, U.S.A. 

§Tillyard, A. L., M.A. Fordfield, Cambridge. 

{Tillyard, Mrs. Fordfield, Cambridge. 

Tinker, Ebenezer. Mealhill, near Huddersfield. 

jTimmins, Samuel, J.P., F.S. "A. Tiill Cottage, Fillongley, Coventry. 

{Todd, Rey. Dr. "Tudor Hall, Forest Hill, London, S.E. 

{Tombe, Rey. Canon. Glenealy, Co. Wicklow. 

t Tomes, Robert Fisher. Welford, Stratford-on-Avon. 

*Tomiryson, Cnartes, F.R.S., F.C.S. 7 North-road, Highgate, 
London, N. 

§Tonks, Edmund, B.C.L. Packwood Grange, Knowle, Warwickshire. 

*Tonks, William Henry. The Rookery, Sutton Coldfield. 

*Tookey, Charles, F.C.S. Royal Schoo! of Mines, Jermyn-street. 
London, 8.W. 

*Topham, John, A.LC.E. High Elms, 265 Mare-street, Hackney 
London, E. 

*Torptey, Witi1aM, F.G.S., A.LC.E. Geological Survey Office 
Jermyn-street, London, S.W. 

§Torr, Charles Hawley. 7 Regent-street, Nottingham. 

{Torrance, John F. Polly Lake, Nova Scctia, Canada. 

*Torrance, Rev. Robert, D.D. Guelph, Ontario, Canada. 

{Torry, Very Rey. John, Dean of St. Andrews. Coupar Angus, 
N.B. 


Towgood, Edward. St. Neot’s, Huntingdonshire. 

{Tow nend, W.H. Heaton Hall, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

Townsend, Charles. Avenue House, Cotham Park, Bristol. 
{Townsend, Francis Edward. 19 Aughton-road, Bir kdale, Southport. 
{Townsend, William. Attleborough Hall, near Nuneaton. 

tTozer, Henry. Ashburton. 


deen, Old Aberdeen. 

{TRAILL, Dr. Ballylough, Bushmills, Treland. 

{Traizt, WILLiAM A. Giant's Causeway Electric Tramway, 
Portrush, Ireland. 

tTraill, Mrs. Portrush, Ireland. 

{Trapnell, Caleb. Severnleigh, Stoke Bishop. 

{TRaqvarr, Ramsay H., M. D. , F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the Natural 
History Collections, Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh. 

{Trechmann, Charles O., Ph.D., F.G.S. Hartlepool. 

Tregelles, Nathaniel. Liskeard, Cornwall. 

{Trehane, John. Exe View Lawn, Exeter. 

{Trehane, John, jun. Bedford-circus, Exeter. 

tTrench, Dr. Municipal Offices, Dale-street, Liverpool. 

Trench, F. A. Newlands House, Clondalkin, Ireland. 

{Trendell, Edwin James, J.P. Abbey House, Abingdon, Berks. 

{Trenham, Norman W. 18 St. Alexis-street, Montreal, Canada. 

§Tribe, Paul C. M. 44 West Oneida-street, Oswego, New York, 
U.S.A. 

{Trickett, F. W. 12 Old Haymarket, Sheffield. 

t¢Troen, Henry, M.B., F.L.S. British Museum, London, 8. W. 

{Trimen, Rotanp, F.R.S., F.LS., F.Z.S. Colonial Secretary’s 
Office, Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope. 

§TristRam, Rev. Henry Baker, D.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., Canon 
of Durham. The College, Durham. 

*Trotter, Alexander Pelham. 7 Furnival’s Inn, London, Wc, 

*Trorrer, Rey. Courrs, M.A. Trinity College, Cambridge. 

§Trotter, Coutts. 17 Charlotte-square, Edinburgh. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 95 


Year of 
Election. 


1869. 
1885. 
1869. 
1847. 


1871. 
1881. 
1883, 


1854. 
1855. 
1871. 
1873. 
1882. 
1885. 
1875. 
1863. 


1883. 
1884. 
1842. 


1884. 


1847. 
1882. 
1865. 
1858. 
1883. 
1861. 
1884. 
1885. 
1883. 
1883. 
1876. 
1872. 


1876. 
1859. 


1866. 
1880. 


1885. 
1865. 


1884. 
1883. 
1868. 


1865. 


tTroyte,C. A. W. Huntsham Court, Bampton, Devon. 

*Tubby, A. H. Guy’s Hospital, London, S.E. 

tTucker, Charles. Marlands, Exeter. 

*Tuckett, Francis Fox. Frenchay, Bristol. 

Tuke, James H. Bancroft, Hitchin. 

tTuke, J. Batty, M.D. Cupar, Fifeshire. 

tTully, G. T. 10 West Chiff-terrace, Preston. 

§Tuprer, Sir Cuarzes, G.C.M.G., C.B., High Commissioner for 
Canada. 9 Victoria-chambers, London, S.W. 

Turnbull, James, M.D. 86 Rodney-street, Liverpool. 

fTurnbull, John. 87 West George-street, Glascow. 

{Turnbull, William, F.R.S.E. Menslaws, Jedburgh, N.B. 

*Turner, George. Horton Grange, Bradford, Yorkshire. 

§Turner, G. 8. 9 Carlton-crescent, Southampton. 

tTurner, Mrs. G.S. 9 Carlton-crescent, Southampton. 

{Turner, Thomas, FSS. Ashley House, Kingsdown, Bristol. 

*TuRNER, Sir Wit11AM, M.B., F.R.S. L. & E., Professor of Anatomy 
in the University of Edinburgh. 6 Eton-terrace, Edinburgh. 

§Turrell, Miss 8. S. High School, Redland-grove, Bristol. 

*Tutin, Thomas. 247 Sherwood-street, Nottingham. 

Twamley, Charles, F.G.S. Ryton-on-Dunsmore, Coventry. 

*Tweddell, Ralph Hart. Provender, Faversham, Kent. 

{Twiss, Sir Travers, Q.C., D.C.L., F.R.S., F.R.GS. 3 Paper- 
buildings, Temple, London, E.C. 

§Tyer, Edward. Horneck, Fitzjohn’s-avenue, Hampstead, London, 
N.W. 

{Tytor, Epwarp Buryerr, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S., Keeper of the 
University Museum, Oxford. 

*TyNnDALL, Joun, D.C.L., LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Professor of 
Natural Philosophy in the Royal Institution. Royal Institu- 
tion, Albemarle-street, London, W. 

tTyrer, Thomas, F.C.8. Garden-wharf, Battersea, London, S.W. 

*Tysoe, John. 28 Heald-road, Bowdon, near Manchester. 


*Underhill, G. E., M.A. Magdalen College, Oxford. 

§Unwin, Howard. Newton-grove, Bedford Park, Chiswick, London. 

§Unwin, John. Park-crescent, Southport. 

§Unwin, William Andrews. The Briars, Freshfield, near Liverpool. 

*Unwin, W. C., M.Inst.C.E., Professor of Hydraulic Engineering. 
7 Palace-gate Mansions, Kensington, London, W. 

f{Upward, Alfred. 11 Great Queen-street, Westminster, London, 
SAE 


{Ure, John F. 6 Claremont-terrace, Glasgow. 

fUrquhart, W. Pollard. Craigston Castle, N.B.; and Castlepollard, 
Treland. 

tUrquhart, William W. Rosebay, Broughty Ferry, by Dundee. 

tUssuer, W. A. E., F.G.S. 28 Jermyn-street, London, S.W. 


§Vachell, Charles Tanfield, M.D. Cardiff. 

tVandoni, le Commandeur Comte de, Chargé d’Affaires de S. M. 
Tunisienne, Geneva. 

tVan Horne, W. C. Dorchester-street West, Montreal, Canada. 

*VanSittart, The Hon. Mrs. A. A. 11 Lypiatt-terrace, Cheltenham. 

{Varley, Frederick H., F.R.A.S. Mildmay Park Works, Mildmay- 
avenue, Stoke Newington, London, N. 

*VarRLey, S. ALFRED. 2 Hamilton-road, Highbury Park, Lon- 

don, N. 


96 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1870. 
1869. 
1884, 
1875. 
1883. 
1881. 
1875. 


1883. 


1883. 
1879. 
1864, 
1868. 
1883. 


1856. 
1884. 
1869. 
1860. 
1884, 
1879. 
1870. 
1884. 
1873. 
1882. 


1885, 
1885. 


1885, 


1883. 
1866. 
1885. 


1866. 


1881. 
1867. 
1866. 
1884. 
1885. 


1881. 
1885. 
1885, 
18638. 


{Varley, Mrs. 8. A. 2 Hamilton-road, Highbury Park, London, N. 

tVarwell, P. Alphington-street, Exeter. 

§ Vasey, Charles. 112 Cambridge-cardens, London, W. 

{Vaughan, Miss. Burlton Hall, Shrewsbury. 

tVaughan, William. 42 Sussex-road, Southport. 

§ Very, V. H., M.A., F.C.S. University College, Oxford. 

*VERNEY, Captain Epuunp H., R.N., F.R.G.S. Rhianva, Bangor, 
North Wales. 

*Verney, Mrs. Rhianva, Bangor, North Wales. 

Verney, Sir Harry, Bart., M.P. Lower Claydon, Buckinghamshire. 

Vernon, George John, Lord. Sudbury Hall, Derbyshire. 

tVernon, H. H.,M.D. York-road, Birkdale, Southport. 

tVeth, D. D. Leiden, Holland. 

*Vicary, WitLrIAM, F.G.S. The Priory, Colleton-crescent, Exeter. 

{Vincent, Rey. William. Postwick Rectory, near Norwich. 

{Vines, Sydney Howard, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.L.S. 66 Hills-road, 
Cambridge. 

{Vrv1an, Epwarp, M.A. Woodfield, Torquay. 

*Vivian, Sir H. Hussey, Bart, M.P., F.G.S. Park Wern, 
Swansea; and 27 Belerave-square, London, 8.W. 

{Von Linden, Francois Hermann. Amsterdam, Holland. 

{Vose, Dr. James. Gambier-terrace, Liverpool. : 


§Waddingham, John. Guiting Grange, Winchcombe, Gloucester- 
shire. 
tWait, Charles E. Rolla, Missouri, U.S.A. : 
*Wake, Bernard. Abbeyfiekl, Sheffield. : : 
§Waxke, CHARLES Sranrtand. Welton, near Brough, East York- 
shire. — 
{Waldstein, Charles, M.A., Ph.D., Director of the Fitzwilliam : 
Museum, Cambridge. Cambridge. 
tWales, James. 4 Mount Royd, Manningham, Bradford, York- 
shire. 
*Walkden, Samuel. (Care of Messrs. Guillaume & Sons, 9 Salisbury- 
square, Fleet-street. London, 1.C.) 
§ Walker, Baillie. 52 Victoria-street, Aberdeen. : 
§ Walker, Charles Clement, F.R.A.S.  Lillieshall Old Hall, Newport, : 
Shropshire. 
{Walker, E. R. Pagefield Ironworks, Wigan. : 
Walker, Frederick John. The Priory, Bathwick, Bath. 
{Walker, George. 11 Hamilton-square, Birkenhead, Liverpool. 
{Walker, H. Westwood, Newport, by Dundee. 
§WatxkerR, General J. T., C.B., R.E., LLD., F.RBS., F.R.G.S. 
13 Cromwell-road, London, 8. W. 
*Wa ker, Jonn Francis, M.A., F.0.S.,F.G.8., F.L.8. 16 Gillygate, 
York. 
{ Walker, John Sydenham. 83 Bootham, York. 
*Walker, Peter G. 2 Airlie-place, Dundee. 
{Walker, 8. D. 38 Hampden-street, Nottingham. 
t{ Walker, Samuel. Woodbury, Sydenham Hill, London, 8.E. 
tWalker, Thomas A. 4 Saunders-street, Southport. 
Walker, William. 47 Northumberland-street, Edinburgh. 
*Walker, William. 14 Bootham-terrace, York. 
§Walker, Mrs. 14 Bootham-terrace, York, 
¢Wall, Henry. 14 Park-road, Southport. 
tWattacr, ALFrreD Roussst, F.L.S., F.R.G.S. Nutwood Cottage, 
Frith Hill, Godalming. 


Year 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 97 
of . 


Hlection. 


1883 
1859 


1862 
1883 


1884 
1883 


1883. 
1862. 


1863. 
1881. 


1863. 
1884. 
1872. 
1874. 
1881. 
1879. 


1874. 


. §Wallace, George J. Hawthornbank, Dunfermline. 
. }Wartrace, Wirr1aM, Ph.D., F.C.S. Chemical Laboratory, 138 Bath- 
street, Glascow. 
. TWallich, George Charles, M.D., F.L.S., F.R.G.S. 26 Addison-road 
North, Notting Hill, London, W. 
. {Wallis, Rey. Frederick. Caius College, Cambridge. 
. §Wallis, Herbert. Redpath-street, Montreal, Canada. 
. {Walmesley, Oswald. Shevington Hall, near Wigan. 
tWalmsley, T. M. Clevelands, Chorley-road, Heaton, Bolton. 
fWatpotz, The Right Hon. Spencer Horario, M.A., D.C.L., 
F.R.S. Ealing, Middlesex, W. 
{ Walters, Robert. Eldon-square, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 
{Walton, Thomas, M.A. Oliver's Mount School, Scarborough. 
Walton, Thomas Todd. Mortimer House, Clifton, Bristol. 
{Wanklyn, James Alfred. 7 Westminster-chambers, London, S8.W. 
§ Wanless, John, M.D. 88 Union-avenue, Montreal, Canada. 
t¢ Warburton, Benjamin. Leicester. 
§ Ward, F. D., J.P., M.R.LL.A. Clonaver, Strandtown, Co. Down. 
§ Ward, George, F.C.S. Buckingham-terrace, Headingley, Leeds. 
tWard, H. Marshall, M.A., Professor of Botany in the Royal Indian 
Civil Engineering College, Cooper’s Hill, Egham. 
{Ward, John, F.S.A., F.G.S., F.R.G.S8. Lenoxvale, Belfast. 


1857. {Ward, John S. Prospect Hill, Lisburn, Ireland. 


1880, 


1884, 
1883. 
1882. 


1867. 
1858. 
1884. 
1865, 


1878. 
1882. 
1884. 
1875. 
1883. 
1856. 
1876. 
1875. 


1854. 
1870. 
1875. 


1875. 


1881. 
1884, 
1867. 
1883. 


1855. 
1867. 


“Ward, J. Wesney. 5 Holtham-road, St. John’s Wood, London, 
N.W. 


*Ward, John William. Newstead, Halifax. 

{Ward, Thomas, F.C.S. Arnold House, Blackpool. 

{Ward, William. Cleveland Cottage, Hill-lane Southampton. 

“Ward, William Sykes, F.0.S. 12 Bank-street, and Denison Hall, 
Leeds. 

t{ Warden, Alexander J. 23 Panmure-street, Dundee. 

Wardle, Thomas. Leek Brook, Leek, Staffordshire. 

tWardwell, George J. Rutland, Vermont, U.S.A. 

{ Waring, Edward John, M.D., F.L.S. 49 Clifton-gardens, Maida Vale, 
London, W. 

§ Warineron, Rozpert, F.C.S. Harpenden, St. Albans, Herts. 

t Warner, F. W., F.L.S. 20 Hyde-street, Winchester. 

*Warner, James D. 199 Baltic-street, Brooklyn, U.S.A. 

{ Warren, Algernon. Naseby House, Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol. 

*Warren, Dr. Samuel. Abberley Villa, Hoylake. 

t Washbourne, Buchanan, M.D. Gloucester. 

{Waterhouse, A. Willenhall House, Barnet, Herts. 

*Waterhouse, Major J. 1 Wood-street, Caleutta. (Care of Messrs. 
Triibner & Co., Ludgate-hill, London, E.C.) 

{ Waterhouse, Nicholas. 5 Rake-lane, Liverpool. 

Waters, A. T. H., M.D. 29 Hope-street, Liverpool. 

{Waters, Arthur W., F.G.S., F.L.S. Woodbrook, Alderley Edge, 
near Manchester. 

}Watherston, Rey. Alexander Law, M.A., F.R.A.S. The Grammar 
School, Hinckley, Leicestershire. 

§Watherston, E. J. 12 Pall Mall East, London, S.W. 

{ Watson, A. G., D.C.L. The School, Harrow, Middlesex. 

t Watson, Rey. Archibald, D.D. The Manse, Dundee. 

tWatson, C. Knight, M.A. Society of Antiquaries, Burlington House, 
London, W. 

tT Watson, Ebenezer. 1 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow. 

} Watson, Frederick Edwin. Thickthorne House, Cringleford, Norwich 

@ 


98 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1885. 


1882. 
1873. 
1884. 
1859. 


1863. 
1863. 
1867. 
1879. 


1882. 
1884. 
1869. 
1861. 
1875. 
1884, 
1870. 


1873. 
1883, 


1859. 
1869. 
1883. 
1871. 
1866. 


1859. 
1834. 
1882. 


1884. 


1854. 
1865. 


1876. 
1881. 
1879. 
1881. 


1883. 
1883, 
1850. 
1881. 


1864. 
1865. 


1853. 


§Watson, Brigade Surgeon G.A. East India United Service Club, 
St. James’s-square, London, 8. W. 

*Watson, Henry Hoven, F.C.S. 227 The Folds, Bolton-le-Moors. 

§ Watson, Rev. H. W., D.Sc., F.R.S. Berkeswell Rectory, Coventry. 

*Watson, Sir James. 9 Woodside-terrace, Glasgow. 

tWatson, John. Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada. 

t{Wartson, Joun Forses, M.A., M.D., F.L.S. India Museum, Lon- 
don, S.W. 

{ Watson, Joseph. Bensham-grove, near Gateshead-on-Tyne. 

tWatson, R.S. 101 Pilgrim-street, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

t{Watson, Thomas Donald. 41 Cross-street, Finsbury, London, E.C. 

*Wartson, Witt1aM Henry, F.C.S., F.G.S. Analytical Laboratory, 
The Folds, Bolton-le-Moors, 

tWatt, Alexander. 89 Hartington-road, Sefton Park, Liverpool. 

tWatt, D. A. P. 284 Upper Stanley-street, Montreal, Canada. 

tWatt, Robert B. E., F.R.G.S. Ashley-avenue, Belfast. 

{ Watts, Sir James. Abney Hall, Cheadle, near Manchester. 

*Warrs, Joun, B.A., D.Sc. Merton College, Oxford. 

*Watts, Rev. Robert R. Stourpaine Vicarage, Blandford. 

§Watts, William, F.G.S. Oldham Corporation Waterworks, Pie- 
thorn, near Rochdale. 

*Warts, W. Marswatt, D.Se. Giggleswick Grammar School, near 
Settle. 

§Watts, W. W., B.A., F.G.S.__ Broseley, Shropshire. 

Waud, Rev. S. W., M.A., F.R.A.S., F.0.P.S. Rettenden, near 

Wickford, Essex. 

{ Waugh, Edwin. Sager-street, Manchester. 

Way, Samuel James. Adelaide, South Australia. 

{Webb, George. 5 Tenterden-street, Bury, Lancashire. 

{Webb, Richard M. 72 Grand-parade, Brighton. 

*Wess, Witt1aM FREDERICK, F.G.S., F.R.G.S. Newstead Abbey, 
near Nottingham. 

{ Webster, John. Edgehill, Aberdeen. 

{ Webster, Richard, F.R.A.S. 6 Queen Victoria-street, London, E.C, 

*Webster, Sir Richard Everard, Q.C., M.P. Hornton Lodge, 
Hornton-street, Kensington, London, 8. W. 

*Wedekind, Dr. Ludwig, Professor of Mathematics at Karlsruhe. 
Karlsruhe. 

{ Weightman, William Henry. Fern Lea, Seaforth, Liverpool. 

{Welch, Christopher, M.A. United University Club, Pall Mall 
East, London, 8. W. 

{Weldon, W. F. R., B.A. St. John’s College, Cambridge. 

§ Wellcome, Henry S. First Avenue Hotel, Holborn, London, W.C. 

§ Wells, Charles A. Lewes; and 45 Springfield-road, Brighton. 

§ Wells, Rev. Edward, B.A. 21 Buckland-crescent, South Hamp- 
stead, London, N.W. 

{Wells, G. I. J. Cressington Park, Liverpool. 

§ Welsh, Miss. Girton College, Cambridge. 

{Wemyss, Alexander Watson, M.D, St. Andrews, N.B. 

*Wenlock, The Right Hon. Lord. 8 Great Cumberland-place, Lon- 
don, W.; and Escrick Park, Yorkshire. 

Wentworth, Frederick W. T. Vernon. Wentworth Castle, near 

Barnsley, Yorkshire. 

*Were, Anthony Berwick. Hensingham, Whitehaven, Cumberland. 

{ Wesley, William Henry. Royal Astronomical Society, Burlington 
House, London, W. 

{West, Alfred. Holderness-road, Hull, 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 99 


Year of 
Election. 


1870. 
1853. 
1853. 
1870. 


1842. 
1882. 
1882. 
1882. 
1857. 
1863. 
1875. 
1864, 
1860. 


1882. 
1884, 
1885. 


1853. 
1866, 


1884, 
1847. 


1883. 


1878. 
1883. 
1879. 
1873. 


1884. 


1874. 
1883. 
1859, 


1876. 
1883. 
1882. 
1885. 
1876. 
1873. 
1859, 
1883. 
1865. 
1869. 
1884. 
1859. 
1877. 
1883. 
1861. 
1861. 
1861. 
1885. 


tWest, Captain E. W. Bombay. 

{West, Leonard. Summergangs Cottage, Hull. 

TWest, Stephen. Hessle Grange, near Hull. 

“Westgarth, William. 10 Bolton-gardens, South Kensington, Lon- 
don, S. W. 

Westhead, Edward. Chorlton-on-Medlock, near Manchester. 

§ Westlake, Ernest, F.G.S. Fordingbridge, Hants. 

{t Westlake, Richard. Portswood, Southam pton. 

{Westlake, W. C. Grosvenor House, Southampton. 

*Westley, William. 24 Regent-street, London, S.W. 

tWestmacott, Perey. Whickham, Gateshead, Durham. 

*Weston, Joseph D. Dorset House, Clifton Down, Bristol. 

{Wesrropp, W.H.S., M.R.LA. Lisdoonvarna, Co. Clare. 

}Wesrwoop, Jonn O., M.A., F.L.S., Professor of Zoology in the 
University of Oxford. Oxford. 

§WerneERED, Epwarp, F.G.S. 5 Berkeley-place, Cheltenham. 

{Wharton, E. R., M.A. 4 Broad-street, Oxford. 

*Wharton, Captain W. J. L., R.N., F.R.G.S. Broadheath, Wimbledon 
Common, Surrey. 

Wheatley, E. B. Cote Wall, Mirfield, Yorkshire. 

fWheatstone, Charles C. 19 Park-crescent, Regent’s Park, London, 
N.W 


§ Wheeler, Claude L. 123 Metcalfe-street, Montreal, Canada. 

{Wheeler, Edmund, F.R.A.S, 48 Tollington-road, Holloway, Lon- 
don, N. 

*Wheeler, George Brash. Elm Lodge, Wickham-road, Beckenham, 
Kent. 

*Wheeler, W. H., M.Inst.C.E. Boston, Lincolnshire. 

§Whelpton, Miss K. Newnham College, Cambridge. 

*Warpporne, Rey. GrorcE Ferris, M.A.,F.G.S. Charante, Torquay. 

}Whipple, George Matthew, B.Sc., F.R.A.S. Kew Observatory, 
Richmond, Surrey. 

tWhischer, Arthur Henry. Dominion Lands Office, Winnipeg, 
Canada. 

{Whitaker, Henry,M.D. 33 High-street, Belfast. 

{Whitaker, T. Helm View, Halifax. 

*“Waurtaker, Witiiam, B.A., F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 
Jermyn-street, London, S.W.; and 33 East Park-terrace, 
Southampton. 

tWhite, Angus. Easdale, Areyleshire. 

tWhite, Charles. 23 Alexandra-road, Southport. 

§ White, Rev. George Cecil, M.A. St. Paul’s Vicarage, Southampton. 

*White, J. Martin. Spring Grove, Dundee. 

*White, James. Overtoun, Dumbarton. 

TWhite, John. Medina Docks, Cowes, Isle of Wight. 

{Waurre, Joun Forsrs. 311 Union-street, Aberdeen. 

t{ White, John Reed. Rossall School, near Fleetwood. 

{White, Joseph. Regent’s-street, Nottingham. 

{White, Laban. Blandford, Dorset. 

{White, R. ‘Gazette’ Office, Montreal, Canada. 

t White, Thomas Henry. Tandragee, Ireland. 

*White, William. 365 Euston-road, London, N.W. 

*White, Mrs. 365 Euston-road, London, N.W. 

{ Whitehead, James, M.D. 87 Mosley-street, Manchester. 

*Whitehead, John B. Ashday Lea, Rawtenstall, Manchester. 

*Whitehead, Peter Ormerod. 25 Peel-avenue, Ardwick, Manchester. 

t Whitehead, P. J. 6 Cross-street, Southport. 

G2 


100 


Year of 
Election 


1855. 
1871. 
1884, 
1881. 
1866. 
1852. 


1870. 
1857. 


1874. 
1883, 


1870. 


1865. 
1885. 
1881. 


1883. 
1881. 
1878. 
1883. 


1884, 
1881. 
1857. 
1879. 
1859, 
1872. 
1869. 
1859. 
1872. 


1861. 


1883. 
1861. 
1875. 
1883. 
1857. 
1870. 


1875. 
1879. 


1883. 
1869. 
1888. 
1883. 
1877. 
1865. 
1883. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


*Whitehouse, Wildeman W. O. 18 Salisbury-road, West Brighton. 

{Whitelaw, Alexander. 1 Oakley-terrace, Glasgow. 

{ Whiteley, Joseph. Huddersfield. 

§ Whitfield, John, F.C.S. 113 Westborough, Scarborough. 

{ Whitfield, Samuel. Eversfield, Eastnor-grove, Leamington. 

{Whitla, Valentine. Beneden, Belfast. 

Whitley, Rey. Charles Thomas, M.A., F.R.A.S. Bedlington, 

Morpeth. 

tWhittem, James Sibley. Walgrave, near Coventry. 

*Wuuirty, Rey. Joun Irwin, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D. 92 Mortimer- 
street, Herne Bay, Kent. 

*Whitwill, Mark. Redland House, Bristol. 

{Whitworth, James. 88 Portland-street, Southport. 

*Wauitworta, Sir JosErH, Bart., LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S. Stancliffe, 
Matlock, Derbyshire. 

{Wauitworts, Rey. W. Atten, M.A. Glenthorne-road, Hammer- 
smith, London, W. 

{Wiggin, Henry. Metchley Grange, Harborne, Birmingham, 

§ Wigglesworth, Alfred. Gordondale House, Aberdeen. 

*Wigglesworth, James. New Parks House, Falsgrave, Scar- 
borough. 

tWigglesworth, Mrs. New Parks House, Falsgrave, Scarborough. 

*Wigglesworth, Robert. Buckingham Works, York. 

tWigham, John R. Albany House, Monkstown, Dublin. 

tWigner, G. W., F.C.S. Plough-court, 37 Lombard-street, London, 
E.C 


{ Wilber, Charles Dana, LL.D. Grand Pacific Hotel, Chicago, U.S.A. 
tWrtserrorce, W. W. Fishergate, York. 
{ Wilkinson, George. Temple Hill, Killiney, Co. Dublin. 
{ Wilkinson, Joseph. York. 
{Witxrnson, Ropert. Lincoln Lodge, Totteridge, Hertfordshire. 
{ Wilkinson, William. 168 North-street, Brighton. 
§ Wilks, George Augustus Frederick, M.D. Stanbury, Torquay. 
{Willet, John, M.Inst.C.E. 35 Albyn-place, Aberdeen. 
{Wuttert, Heyry, F.G.S. Arnold House, Brighton. 

Wittrams, Cuartes JAmMEs B., M.D., F.R.S. 47 Upper Brook- 

street, Grosvenor-square, London, W. 
*Williams, Charles Theodore, M.A., M.B. 47 Upper Bruok-street, 
Grosvenor-square, London, W. 
*Williams, Edward Starbuck. Ty-ar-y-graig, Swansea. 
*Williams, Harry Samuel, M.A., F.R.A.S. 1 Gorse-lane, Swansea. 
*Williams, Herbert A., M.A. 91 Pembroke-road, Clifton, Bristol. 
t Williams, Rev. H. A. The Ridgeway, Wimbledon, Surrey. 
{ Williams, Rev. James. Llanfairinghornwy, Holyhead. 
§Wittrams, Jonny, F.C.S. 63 Warwick Gardens, Kensington, 
London, W. 
*Williams, M. B. Killay House, near Swansea. 
t}Witt1aMms, Marraew W., F.C.S. Sterndale House, Sterndale-road, 
Brook Green, London, W. 

Williams, Robert, M.A. Bridehead, Dorset. 
{ Williams, R. Price. North Brow, Primrose Hill, London, N.W. 
tWittrams, Rev. SrrrHEn. Stonyhurst College, Whalley, Blackburn. 
§ Williams, T. H. 2 Chapel-walk, South Castle-street, Liverpool. 
§ Williams, T. Howell. 125 Fortess-road, London, N.W. 
*Williams, W. Carleton, F.C.S. Firth College, Sheffield. 
tWilliams, W. M. Stonebridge Park, Willesden. 
§ Williamson, Miss. Sunnybank, Ripon, Yorkshire. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 101 


Year of 
Election. 


1850. 


1857. 


1876. 
1863. 
1876, 


1883. 
1882. 
1865. 
1859. 


1885. 
1878. 


1859. 


1876. 
1874. 


1850. 
1876. 
1863. 
1847. 
1885. 


1875. 


1874. 
1863. 
1883. 
1879. 
1885. 
1857. 
1865. 


1884. 
1858. 


1879. 
1876. 
1847. 
1883. 
1867. 
1871. 
186]. 


1877. 


*WILLIAMSON, ALEXANDER WILLIAM, Ph.D., LL.D., For. Sec. R.S., 
F.C.S., Corresponding Member of the French Academy, Professor 
of Chemistry and of Practical Chemistry, University College, 
a (GENERAL TREASURER.) University College, London, 

{Wittramson, Bensamrn, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Natural Phi- 
losophy in the University of Dublin. Trinity College, Dublin. 

{ Williamson, Rev. F.J. Ballantrae, Girvan, N.B. 

t{ Williamson, John. South Shields. 

{ Williamson, Stephen. 19 James-street, Liverpool. 

Wrutiamson, Wriiiiam C., LL.D., F.R.S., Professor of Botany 
in Owens College, Manchester. 4 Egerton-road, Fallowfield, 
Manchester. 

{Wutuis, T. W. 51 Stanley-street, Southport. 

Willmore, Charles. Queenwood College, near Stockbridge, Hants. 

*Willmott, Henry. Hatherley Lawn, Cheltenham. 

*Wills, The Hon. Sir Alfred. 12 King’s Bench-walk, Inner Temple, 
London, E.C. 

§ Wilson, Alexander H. 2 Albyn-place, Aberdeen. 

{ Wilson, Professor Alexander 8., M.A., B.Sc. 124 Bothwell-street, 
Glasgow. 

t Wilson, Alexander Stephen, C.E. North Kinmundy, Summerhill, 
by Aberdeen. 

{ Wilson, Dr. Andrew. 118 Gilmore-place, Edinburgh. 

{Witson, Colonel Sir OC. W., R.E., K.C.B., K.C.M.G., D.C.L., 
F.R.S., F.R.G.S. Mountjoy Barracks, Phoenix Park, Dublin. 

t{ Wilson, Dr. Daniel. Toronto, Upper Canada. 

{ Wilson, David. 124 Bothwell-street, Glasgow. 

Wilson, Frederic R. Alnwick, Northumberland. 

*Wilson, Frederick. 73 Newman-street, Oxford-street, London, W. 

§ Wilson, Brigade-Surgeon, G. A. East India United Service Olub, 
St. James’s-square, London, S.W. 

tWilson, George Fergusson, F.R.S., F.C.S., F.L.S. Heatherbank, 
Weybridge Heath, Surrey. 

*Wilson, George Orr. Dunardagh, Blackrock, Co. Dublin. 

f{ Wilson, George W. Heron Hill, Hawick, N.B. 

*Wilson, Henry, M.A. Eastnor, Malvern Link, Worcestershire. 

tWilson, Henry J. 255 Pitsmoor-road, Sheffield. 

§ Wilson, J. Dove, LL.D. 17 Rubislaw-terrace, Aberdeen. 


{ Wilson, James Moncrieff. Queen Insurance Company, Liverpool. 

t{Witson, Rev. Jamus M., M.A., F.G.S. The College, Clifton, 
Bristol. 

t{Wilson, James S. Grant. H.M. Geological Survey, Sheriff Court- 
buildings, Edinburgh. 

*Wilson, John. Seacroft Hall, near Leeds. 


Wuson, Joun, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of Agriculture in the 

University of Edinburgh. The University, Edinburgh. 

tWilson, John Wyeliffe. Eastbourne, East Bank-road, Sheffield. 

{Wilson, R. W. R. St. Stephen’s Club, Westminster, S. W. 

*Wilson, Rey. Sumner. Preston Candover Vicarage, Basingstoke. 

{Wilson, T. Rivers Lodge, Harpenden, Hertfordshire. 

{Wilson, Rev. William. Free St. Paul’s, Dundee. 

*Wilson, William E. Daramona House, Rathowen, Ireland. 

*WittsHireE, Rev. THomas, M.A., F.G.S., F.L.S., F.R.A.S., Assistant 
Professor of Geology and Mineralogy in King’s College, London. 
25 Granville-park, Lewisham, London, 8.E. 

tWindeatt, T. W. Dart View, Totnes. 


102 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1854 


1863, 
1883. 
1884. 


1881. 
1885. 
1865. 
1861. 
1883. 


1875. 
1878. 


1885. 
1881. 


1883. 
1888. 


1883. 


1864, 
1871. 
1850. 


1865. 
1872. 


1863. 
1870. 
1884. 
1883. 
1884. 
1884. 
1850. 
1865. 
1871. 


1872. 
1869. 


1883. 


1866. 


1870. 
1881. 


ee Edward Higgin. Edelstowe, Bromley Park, Bromley, 

ent. 

*Winwoop, Rey. H. H., M.A., F.G.S. 11 Cavendish-crescent, Bath. 

§Wolfenden, Samuel. Cowley Hill, St. Helen’s, Lancashire. 

tWomack, Frederick, Lecturer on Physics and Applied Mathematics 
at St. Bartholomew’s Hospital. 68 Abbey-road, London, N.W. 

*Wood, Alfred John, 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey. 

§Wood, Mrs. A. J. 5 Cambridge-gardens, Richmond, Surrey. 

*Wood, Collingwood L. Freeland, Forgandenny, N.B. 

*Wood, Edward T. Blackhurst, Brinscall, Chorley, Lancashire. 

t{ Wood, Miss Emily F. Egerton Lodge, near Bolton, Lancashire. 

So George B., M.D. 1117 Avrch-street, Philadelphia, United 

tates. 

*Wood, George William Rayner. Singleton, Manchester. 

§ Woop, H. TruEmAn, M.A. Society of Arts, John-street, Adelphi, 
London, W.C. 

*Woop, James, LL.D. Woodbank, Mornington-road, Southport. 

§Wood, John, B.A., F.R.A.S. Wharfedale College, Boston Spa, 
Yorkshire. 

*Wood, J. H. Woodbine Lodge, Scarisbrick New-road, South- 
port. 

§Wood, Mrs. Mary. Ellison-place, Newcastle-on-Tyne. 

{Wood, P. F. Ardwick Lodge, Park-ayenue, Southport. 

{Wood, Richard, M.D. Driffield, Yorkshire. 

{Wood, Provost T. Barleyfield, Portobello, Edinburgh. 

tWood, Rev. Walter. Elie, Fife. 

Wood, William. KEdge-lane, Liverpool. 

*Wood, William, M.D. 99 Harley-street, London, W. 

§Wood, William Robert. Carlisle House, Brighton. 

*Wood, Rey. William Spicer, M.A., D.D. Higham, Rochester. 

*Woopatt, Joun Woopatt, M.A., F.G.S. St. Nicholas House, 
Scarborough. 

t{Woodburn, Thomas. Rock Ferry, Liverpool. 

{ Woodbury, C. J. H. 31 Devonshire-street, Boston, U.S.A. 

{ Woodcock, Herbert 8S. The Elms, Wigan. 

tWoodeock T., B.A. The Old Hall School, Wellington, Shropshire. 

t{Woodd, Arthur B. Woodlands, Hampstead, London, N.W. 

Bile BS H. L.,F.G.S. Roslyn House, Hampstead, London, 

f{Woodhill, J. C. Pakenham House, Charlotte-road, Edgbaston, 
Birmingham. 

t{Woodiwis, James. 51 Back George-street, Manchester. 

tWoodman, James. 26 Albany-villas, Hove, Sussex. 

t}Woodman, William Robert, M.D. Ford House, Exeter. 

*Woops, Epwarp, M.Inst.C.E. 68 Victoria-street, Westminster, 
London, S.W. 

tWoods, Dr. G. A., F.R.S.E., F.R.M.S. Carlton House, 57 Hoghton- 
street, Southport. 

Woops, Samwvrt, 1 Drapers-gardens, Throgmorton-street, London, 


*WoopwarD, C. J., B.Sc. 97 Harborne-road, Birmingham. 

}Woopwarp, Henry, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S., Keeper of the Depart- 
ment of Geology, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell- 
road, London, 8. W. 

tWoopwarp, Horace B., F.G.S. Geological Museum, Jermyn-street, 
London, 8. W. 

§Wooler, W. A. Sadberge Hall, Darlington. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 105: 


Year of 
Election. 


1884. 
1877. 
1883. 
1856. 


1874. 
1878. 


1863. 
1855. 


1856. 


1884. 
1879. 


1883. 
1883. 
1871. 


1861. 
1857. 


1884. 


1876. 
1874. 
1865. 
1884, 


1876. 
1871. 


1867. 


1867. 
1884. 
1883. 
1885. 
1871. 
1862. 


1875. 


1865. 
1883. 
1867. 
1884. 


1879. 


*Woolcock, Henry. Rickerby House, St. Bees. 
tWoollcombe, Robert W. 14 Acre-place, Stoke, Devonport. 
*Woolley, George Stephen. 69 Market-street, Manchester. 
t Woolley, Thomas Smith, jun. South Collingham, Newark. 
Worcester, The Right Rev. Henry Putrory, D.D., Lord Bishop 
of. Hartlebury Castle, Kidderminster. 
t+ Workman, Charles. Ceara, Windsor, Belfast. 
{Wormell, Richard, M.A., D.Se. Roydon, near Ware, Hertford 
shire. 
*Worsley, Philip J. Rodney Lodge, Clifton, Bristol. 
*Worthington, Rev. Alfred William, B.A. Stourbridge, Worcester- 
shire. 
Worthington, Archibald. Whitchurch, Salop. 
Worthington, James. Sale Hall, Ashton-on-Mersey. 
t{Worthy, George S. 2 Arlington-terrace, Mornington-crescent, 
Hampstead-road, London, N. W. 
tWragge, Edmund. 109 Wellesley-street, Toronto, Canada. 
§Wrentmore, Francis, 34 Holland Villas-road, Kensington, London, 


*Wright, Rey. Arthur, M.A. Queen’s College, Cambridge. 

*Wright, Rev. Benjamin, M.A. The Rectory, Darlaston. 

§Wrient, OC. R. A., D.Sc., F.RS., F.C.S., Lecturer on Chemistry 
in St. Mary's Hospital Medical School, Paddington, London, W. 

*Wright, E. Abbot. Castle Park, Frodsham, Cheshire. 

t+Wrreut, E. Prrcevat, M.A., M.D., F.L.S., M.R.LA., Professor 
of Botany, and Director of the Museum, Dublin University. 
5 Trinity College, Dublin. 

{Wright, Harrison. Wilkes’ Barré, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. 

{Wright, James, 114 John-street, Glasgow. 

tWright, Joseph. Cliftonville, Belfast. 

{Wright, J. 8. 168 Brearley-street West, Birmingham. 

Wright, Professor R. Ramsay, M.A., B.Sc. University College, 
Toronto, Canada. 

WRIGHT, T. G., M.D. Milnes House, Wakefield. 

tWright, William. 31 Queen Mary-avenue, Glasgow. 

Wrightson, Thomas, M.Inst.C.E., F.G.S. Norton Hall, Stockton- 
on-Tees. 

t Wiinsch, Edward Alfred. 146 West George-street, Glasgow. 

Wyld, James, F.R.G.S. Charing Cross, London, W.C. 

tWylie, Andrew. Prinlaws, Fifeshire. _ : 

tWylie, Professor Theophilus A. Bloomington, Indiana, U.S.A. 

tWyllie, Andrew. 10 Park-road, Southport. 

§ Wyness, James D., M.D. 53 School-hill, Aberdeen. 

{Wynn, Mrs. Williams. Cefn, St. Asaph. 

{WyryNyE, suas Hee yg F.G.S. Geological Survey Office, 14 
Hume-street, Dublin. 


{Yabbicom, Thomas Henry, C.E. 37 White Ladies-road, Clifton, 
Bristol. 

*Yarborough, George Cook. Camp's Mount, Doncaster. 

{Yates, Edwin. Stonebury, Edgbaston, Birmingham. 

Yates, James. Oarr House, Rotherham, Yorkshire. 

+Yates, James. Public Library, Leeds. 

+Yeaman, James. Dundee. 

{Yee, Fung, Secretary to the Chinese Legation. 49 Portland-place, 
London, W. 

{Yeomans, John. Upperthorpe, Sheffield. 


104 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1877. 
1879. 


1884. 
1884. 
1884, 
1876. 
1876. 


1885. 
1883. 
1868. 
1876. 
1871. 


tYonge, Rev. Duke. Puslinch, pies ty Devon. 

*Yorxk, His Grace the Archbishop of, D.D., F.R.S. The Palace, 
Bishopthorpe, Yorkshire. 

§ York, Frederick. 87 Lancaster-road, Notting Hill, London, W. 

Young, Frederick. 5 Queensberry-place, London, 8.W. 

Young, Professor George Paxton. 121 Bloor-street, Toronto, Canada. 

*Young, James, F.C.S. Kelly, Wemyss Bay, by Greenock. 

{Youne, Jonny, M.D., Professor of Natural History in the University 
of Glasgow. 38 Cecil-street, Hillhead, Glasgow. 

§Young, R. Bruce. 8 OCrown-gardens, Dowanhill, Glasgow. 

*Young, Sydney, D.Sc. University College, Bristol. 

Youngs, John. Richmond Hill, Norwich. 

tYuille, Andrew. 7 Sardinia-terrace, Hillhead, Glasgow. 

{Yutxz, Colonel Henry, O.B., F.R.G.S. 3 Penywern-road, South 
Kensington, London, 8. W. 


105 


CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1871. 
1881. 
1870. 
1880. 
1884. 


1884. 
1864, 


1861. 
1882. 
1855. 
1871. 
1881. 
1873. 
1880. 
1870. 
1876. 
1872. 
1866. 
1862. 


1864. 
1872. 
1870. 
1882, 


1881. 
1876. 
1861. 
1874. 
1872. 
1856. 
1842. 
1881. 


1866, 
1861. 
1884. 


1884. 


1870. 


HIS IMPERIAL MAJESTY tHe EMPEROR or ror BRAZILS. 
Professor G. F. Barker. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. 
Professor Van Beneden, LL.D. Louvain, Belgium. 

Professor Ludwig Boltzmann. Halbiirteasse, 1, Griz, Austria. 


Professor H. P. Bowditch, M.D. Boston, Massachusetts, United 
States. 

Professor George J. Brush. Yale College, New Haven, United 
States. 


Dr. H. D. Buys-Ballot, Superintendent of the Royal Meteorological] 
Institute of the Netherlands. Utrecht, Holland. 

Dr. Carus. Leipzig. 

Dr. R. Clausius, Professor of Physics. The University, Bonn. 

Dr. Ferdinand Cohn. Breslau, Prussia. 

Professor Dr. Colding. Copenhagen. 

Professor Josiah P. Cooke. Harvard University, United States. 

Professor Guido Cora. 74 Corso Vittorio Emanuele, Turin. 

Professor Cornu. L’Kcole Polytechnique, Paris. 

J. M. Crafts, M.D. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris. 

Professor Luigi Cremona. The University, Rome. 

Professor M. Croullebois. 18 Rue Sorbonne, Paris. 

Dr. Geheimrath von Dechen. Bonn. 

\ ieaer Delffs, Professor of Chemistry in the University of Heidel- 

erg. 

M. Des Cloizeaux. Paris. 

Professor G. Dewalque. Liége, Belgium. 

Dr. Anton Dohrn. Naples. 

Dr. Emil Du Bois-Reymond, Professor of Physiology. The University, 
Berlin. 

Captain J. B. Eads, M.Inst.0.E. St. Louis, United States, 

Professor Alberto Eccher. Florence. 

Professor A. Favre. Geneva. 

Dr. W. Feddersen. Leipzig. 

W. de Fonvielle. 50 Rue des Abbesses, Paris. 

Professor E. Frémy. L’Institut, Paris. 

M. Frisiant. 

C. M. Gariel, Secretary of the French Association for the Advance- 
ment ef Science. 4 Rue Antoine Dubois, Paris. 

Dr. Gaudry. Paris. 

Dr. Geinitz, Professor of Mineralogy and Geology. Dresden. 

Professor J. Willard Gibbs. Yale College, New Haven, United 
States. 

Professor Wolcott Gibbs. Harvard University, United States, 

Governor Gilpin. Oolorado, United States. 


106 


CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. 


Year of 
Election. 


1876, 


1852. 
1884, 
1871. 
1862. 


1876. 
1881. 
1872. 
1881. 
1864, 
1877. 
1872. 


1881. 
1876. 
1884. 


1867. 
1876. 
1862, 
1881. 


1876. 
1877. 
1862. 
1884. 
1875. 
1874. 
1856, 
1856. 


1877. 


1882. 
1876. 
1872. 
1883. 


1877. 


1871. 
1871. 
1869, 
1867. 
1881. 
1867. 


1884. 
1848, 
1855. 
1877. 
1864. 
1866. 


1864, 


Dr. Benjamin A. Gould, Director of the Argentine National Observa- 
tory, Cordoba. 

Professor Asa Gray, LL.D. Harvard University, United States. 

Major A. W. Greely. Washington, United States. 

Dr. Paul Giissfeld. 33 Meckenheimer-strasse, Bonn, Prussia. 

Dr. D. Bierens de Haan, Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences, 
Amsterdam. Leiden, Holland. 

Professor Ernst Haeckel. Jena. 

Dr. Edwin H. Hall. Baltimore, United States. 

Professor James Hall. Albany, State of New York. 

M. Halphen. 21 Rue Ste. Anne, Paris. 

M. Hébert, Professor of Geology in the Sorbonne, Paris. 

Professor H. L. F. von Helmholtz. Berlin. 

J. E. Hilgard, Assist.-Supt. U.S. Coast Survey. Washington, United 
States. 

Dr. A. A. W. Hubrecht. Leiden. 

Professor von Quintus Icilius. Hanover. 

Professor C. Loring Jackson. Harvard University, Cambridge, Mas- 
sachusetts, United States. 

Dr. Janssen, LL.D. 21 Rue Labat (18° Arrondissement), Paris. 

Dr. W. J. Janssen. Davos-Doerfli, Graubunden, Switzerland. 

Charles Jessen, Med. et Phil. Dr. Kastanienallee, 69, Berlin. 

W. Woolsey Johnson, Professor of Mathematics in the United States 
Naval Academy. Annapolis, United States. 

Dr. Giuseppe Jung. 9 Via Monte Pieta, Milan. 

M, Akin Karoly. 5 Babenberger-strasse, Vienna. 

Aug. Kekulé, Professor of Chemistry. Bonn. 

Professor Dairoku Kikuchi. Tokio, Japan. 

Dr. Felix Klein. The University, Leipzig. 

Dr. Knoblauch. Halle, Germany. 

Professor A. Kélliker. Wurzburg, Bavaria. 

Laurent-Guillaume De Koninck, M.D., Professor of Chemistry and 
Paleontology in the University of Liége, Belgium. 

Dr. Hage Kronecker, Professor of Physiology. 35 Dorotheen-strasse, 

rlin. 

Professor 8. P. Langley. Allegheny, United States. 

Professor yon Lasaulx. Breslau. 

M. Georges Lemoine. 76 Rue d’Assas, Paris. 

Dr. F. Lindemann, Professor of Mathematics in the University of 
KGnigsberg. 

Dr. M. Lindemann, Hon. Sec. of the Bremen Geographical Society, 
Bremen. 

Professor Jacob Liiroth. The University, Freiburg, Germany. 

Dr. Liitken. Copenhagen. 

Professor C. 8. Lyman. Yale College, New Haven, United States. 

Professor Mannheim. Rue de la Pompe, 11, Passy, Paris. 

Professor O. C. Marsh. Yale College, New Haven, United States. 

Professor Ch. Martins, Director of the Jardin des Plantes. Montpellier, 
France. 

Albert A. Michelson. Cleveland, Ohio, United States. 

Professor J. Milne-Edwards. Paris. 

M.V Abbé Moigno. Paris. % 

Professor V. L. Moissenet. L’Ecole des Mines, Paris. 

Dr. Arnold Moritz. The University, Dorpat, Russia. 

Chevalier C. Negri, President of the Italian Geographical Society, 
Turin, Italy. 

Herr Neumayer. Deutsche Seewarte, Hamburg. 


CORRESPONDING MEMBERS. | 107 


Year of 
Election. 


1884. 
1869. 


1874. 
1856. 
1857. 
1870. 


1884. 
1886. 


1868. 
1882. 
1884, 
1886. 
1872. 
1873. 


1866. 


1881. 
1857. 
1857. 


1883. 
1886. 
1874. 
1846. 
1872. 
1873. 
1861. 
1849. 
1876. 
1864. 
1866. 
1881. 
1881. 
1871. 
1870. 
1852. 


1884. 
1864. 


1886. 
1842. 
1881. 


1874. 
1876. 
1875, 


Professor Simon Newcomb. Washington, United States. 
a H. A. Newton. Yale College, New Haven, United 
tates. 

M. A. Niaudet. 6 Rue du Seine, Paris. 

M. E. Peligot, Memb. de l'Institut, Paris. 

Gustave Plarr, D.Sc. 22 Hadlow-road, Tunbridge, Kent. 

Professor Felix Plateau. 64 Boulevard du Jardin Zoologique, Gand, 
Belgium. 

Major J. W. Powell, Director of the Geological Survey of the 
United States. Washington, United States. 

Professor Putnam, Secretary of the American Association for the 
Advancement of Science. Washington, United States. 

L. Radlkofer, Professor of Botany in the University of Munich, 

Professor G. vom Rath. Bonn. 

Captain P. H. Ray. Washington, United States. 

Rey. A. Renard. Royal Museum, Brussels. 

Professor Victor von Richter. St. Petersburg, 

Baron von Richthofen. The University, Leipzig. 

M.dela Rive. Geneva. 

F. Romer, Ph.D., Professor of Geology and Paleontology in the 
University of Breslau. Breslau, Prussia. 

Professor Henry A. Rowland. Baltimore, United States, 

Professor Robert Schlagintweit. Giessen. 

Baron Herman de Schlagintweit-Sakiinliinski. Jaegersberg Castle, 
near Forchheim, Bavaria. 

Dr. Ernst Schréder. Karlsruhe, Baden. 

Dr. Max Schuster. The University, Vienna. 

Dr. G. Schweinfurth. Cairo. 

Baron de Selys-Longchamps. Liége, Belgium. 

Professor Carl Semper. Wurzburg, Bavaria. 

Dr. A. Shafarik. Prague. 

Dr. Werner Siemens. Berlin. 

Dr. Sijestrém. Stockholm, 

Professor R. D. Silva. L’Ecole Centrale, Paris. 

Adolph Steen, Professor of Mathematics. Copenhagen. 

Professor Steenstrup. Copenhagen. f 

Dr. Cyparissos Stephanos. 28 Rue de l’Arbaléte, Paris. 

Professor Sturm. Miinster, Westphalia. 

Dr. Joseph Szabé. Pesth, Hungary. 

Professor Tchebichef, Membre de l’Académie de St. Pétersbourg. 

M. Pierre de Tchihatchef, Corresponding Member of the Institute of 
France. 1 Piazza degli Zuaai, Florence. 

Professor Robert H. Thurston. Stevens Institute of Technology, 
Hoboken, New Jersey, United States. ieigat 

Dr. Otto Torell, Professor of Geology in the University of Lund, 
Sweden. : ob es 

Arminius Vambéry, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University 
of Pesth, Hungary. : ‘ 

M. Jules Vuylsteke. 80 Rue de Lille, Menin, Belgium. 

Professor Wartmann. Geneva. p ; 

Professor H. M. Whitney. Beloit College, Wisconsin, United 
States. 

Professor Wiedemann. Leipzig. 

Professor Adolph Wiillner. Aix-la-Chapelle, 

Dr, E. L. Youmans. New York, United States. 


™“t.,. mde a 


, t h) 
Pan tS CA 


109 


LIST OF SOCIETIES AND PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS 
TO WHICH A COPY OF THE REPORT IS PRESENTED. 


GREAT BRITAIN 


Admiralty, Library of the. 

Anthropological Institute. 

Arts, Society of. 

Asiatic Society (Royal). 

Astronomical Society (Royal). 

Belfast, Queen’s College. 

Birmingham, Midland Institute. 

Bristol Philosophical Institution. 

Cambridge Philosophical Society. 

Cardiff, University College of South 
Wales. 

Chemical Society. 

Civil Engineers, Institute of. 

eel Royal Geological Society 


of. 

Dublin, Royal College of Surgeons in 
Treland. . 

, Royal Geological Society of 

Ireland. 

, Royal Irish Academy. 

, Royal Society of. 

Dundee, University College. 

East India Library. 

Edinburgh, Royal Society of. 

—, Royal Medical Society of. 

— , Scottish Society of Arts. 

Exeter, Albert Memorial Museum. 

Geographical Society (Royal). 

Geological Society. 

Geology, Museum of Practical. 

Glasgow Philosophical Society. 

, Institution of Engineersand Ship- 
builders in Scotland. 

Greenwich, Royal Observatory. 

Kew Observatory. 

Leeds, Mechanics’ Institute. 


AND IRELAND. 


Leeds, Philosophical and Literary So- 
ciety of. 

Linnean Society. 

Liverpool, Free Public Library and 
Museum. 

, Royal Institution. 

London Institution. 

Manchester Literary and Philosophical 
Society. 

— , Mechanics’ Institute. 

Mechanical Engineers, Institute of. 

Meteorological Office. 

Meteorological Society (Royal). 

Neweastle-upon-Tyne Literary and 
Philosophical Society. 

Norwich, The Free Library. 

Nottingham, The Free Library. 

Oxford, Ashmolean Society. 

——., Radcliffe Observatory. 

Plymouth Institution. 

Physicians, Royal College of. 

Royal Engineers’ Institute, Chatham. 

Royal Institution. 

Royal Society. 

Salford, Royal Museum and Library. 

Sheffield, Firth College. 

Southampton, Hartley Institution. 

Statistical Society. 

Stonyhurst College Observatory. 

Surgeons, Royal College ot. 

United Service Institution. 

University College. 

War Office, Library of the. 

Wales (South), Royal Institution of. 

Yorkshire Philosophical Society. 

Zoological Society. 


EUROPE. 
3. ars Der Kaiserlichen Aka- | Brussels ......... Royal Academy of 
demie der Wissen- Sciences. 
schaften. Charkow ......... University Library. 
= eee Royal Academy of | Coimbra ......... Meteorological  Ub- 
Sciences. servatory. 
Breslau ......... Silesian Patriotic So- | Copenhagen ...Royal Society of 
ciety. Sciences. 
SOUT Pees ostatclese University Library. Dorpat, Russia... University Library, 


110 


Frankfort ...... Natural History So- | Nicolaieff......... University Library. 
ciety. APS Voce cesmscee Association Fran¢aise 
Geneva .....0--- Natural History So- pour lAvancement 
ciety. des Sciences. 
Gottingen ...... University Library. = wenn teers Geographical Society. 
Vaile Meeseeeaeees Leopoldinisch- ———_seseseceeece Geological Society. 
Carolinische ——sesseveeeees Royal. Academy of 
Akademie. Sciences. 
Harlem ......... Société Hollandaise | ——  ............ School of Mines. 
des Sciences. Pultova ......... Imperial Observatory. 
Heidelberg ...... University Library. IROMO PE cccwcrecoee Accademiadei Lincei. 
Helsingfors ...... University Library. | —— ............ Collegio Romano. 
Kasan, Russia ... University Library. $$ recceceeeeee Italian Geographical 
LG EI sor acer Royal Observatory. Society. 
RACY a eeseeeen- cee University Library. ———_ asvapanteten Italian Society of 
Lausanne......... The Academy. Sciences. 
Leyden ......... University Library. St. Petersburg . University Library. 
IGP reeencenssses- University Library. | ——_ ........... Imperial Observatory. 
Wisbotive..ts-es ee Academia Real des | Stockholm ...... Royal Academy. 
Sciences. Purinteeessrcoaese Royal Academy of 
Milani itenssseesece The Institute. Sciences. 
Modena ......... Royal Academy. Utrecht ......... University Library. 
Moscow ......... Society of Naturalists. | Vienna............ The Imperial Library. 
ocadosnce University Library. seseeeeeeeesCentral Anstalt fir 
Munich ......... University Library. Meteorologie und 
INwples)sccncseseeee Royal Academy of Erdmacnetismus. 
Sciences. TONIC aseveees ees General Swiss Society 
ASIA. 
INT ateoss rv ses The College. Calcutta ......... Hindoo College. 
Bombay ......... Elphinstone Institu- | —— ............ Hoogly College. 
tion. ee | actu oeee Medical College. 
——=— edeeoneeee re Grant Medical Col- | Madras............ The Observatory. 
lege. ————— seve tteenees University Library. 
Calcutta ........ Asiatic Society. 
AFRICA. 


Cape of Good Hope. . . The Royal Observatory. 


AMERICA. 

Albany  ....0-+ The Institute. Philadelphia... American Medical As- 
Bostoni...--cce-e=s American Academy of sociation. 

Arts and Sciences. | —— .......c0.., American Philosophical 
California ...... The University. Society 
Cambridge ...... Harvard University | —— ............ Franklin Institute. 

Library. Toronto ...... The Observatory. 
Manitoba ......... Historical and Scien- | Washington ...The Naval Observatory. 

tific Society. = | ——— eaeseseeneee Smithsonian Institution. 
Montreal ......... McGill College. == whe Rte; United States Geolo- 
New York ...... Lyceum of Natural gical Survey of the 


History. Territories. 


111 


AUSTRALIA, 
Adelaide. . . . The Colonial Government. 
Victoria . . . . The Colonial Government. 


NEW ZEALAND. 


Canterbury Museum. 


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BRUCE (Hon. W.N.). Life of Sir Charles Napier. [See Narrer. ] 

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BUNBURY (E.H.). A History of Ancient Geography, among the 
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6 LIST OF WORKS 


ee ee 


BURGON (J. W.). Ten Lives of Good Men, 8vo. Contents :— 
T.—The Learned Divine. Martin Josepu Roura. 
IL.—The Restorer of the Old Paths. Hucu James Kose. 
T1l.—The Great Provost. Epwarp HAWKINS. : 
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V.—The Humble Christian. Ricuaro Lyncn Corton. 
VI.—The Pious Librarian. Henry Octavius Coxe. 
VII.—The Faithful Steward. RicHARD GRESSWELL. 
VIIL.—The Christian Philosopher, WENryY LONGUEVILLE MANSEL. 
IX.—The Singleminded Bishop. WILLIAM JACOBSON. 
X.—The Good Layman. CuHaRLes LonGuEer HiGeIns. 
BURN. (Cou.). Dictionary of Naval and Military Technical 
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BUTTMANN’S LEXILOGUS; a Critical Examination of the 
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BUXTON (Cuaruzs). Memoirs of Sir Thomas Fowell Buxton, 
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BYLES (Srr Joun). Foundations of Religion in the Mind and 
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* Lord Chancellors and Keepers of the Great 


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———_—— Chief Justices of England. From the Norman 
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PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY, 7 


CAMPBELL (Txos.) Essay on English Poetry. With Short 
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CAREY (Life of). See Gzorce Surru. 
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CARTWRIGHT (W. C.). The Jesuits: their Constitution and 
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CHURTON (Arcupracon). Poetical Remains. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d. 
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COOK (Canon F. C.), The Revised Version of the Three First 


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The Origins of Language and Religion. Considered 
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COOKE (E. W.). Leaves from my Sketch-Book.* With Deserip- 
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8 LIST OF WORKS 


COOKERY (Mopern Domestic). Adapted for Private Families, 
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COURTHOPE (W. J.). The Liberal Movement in English 
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CRABBE (Rey. Grorar). Life & Poetical Works, Illustrations. 
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CRAIK (Henry). Life of Jonathan Swift. Portrait. 8vo. 18s. 

CRIPPS (Witrrep). Old English Plate: Ecclesiastical, Decorative, 
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*,* Tables of the Date Letters and Marks sold separately. 5s. 

Old French Plate; With Paris Date Letters, and 
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CROKER (Rr. Hoy. J. W.). Correspondence ‘and Diaries, 
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Political and Social Events of the first half of the present century. 
Edited by Louis J. Jennincs. With Portrait. 3 vols. Svo. 45s. 

Progressive Geography for Children. 18mo. ls. 6d. 

Boswell’s Life of Johnson. [Sve Boswnit.] 

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Raphael ; His Life and Works, with Particular Refer- 
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CUMMING (R. Gorpon), Five Years of a Hunter’s Life in the 
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CURRIE (C. L.). An Argument for the Divinity of Jesus Christ. 
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CURTIUS’ (Proressor) Student’s Greek Grammar, for the Upper 
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Principles of Greek Etymology. Translated by A. 8. 
Wirxiss, M.A., and E.B. ENauanp, M.A. New and Revised Edition. 
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The Greek Verb, its Structure and Development. 
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CURZON (Hon. Rozerz). Visits to the Monasteries of the Levant, 
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CUST (Genera). Warriors of the 17th Century—Civil Wars of 


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——— Annals of the Wars—18th & 19th Century, 
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— 


PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 9 


DAVY (Sir Humpury). Consolations in Travel; or, Last Days 
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Salmonia; or, Days of Fly Fishing. Woodcuts. 
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JOURNAL OF A NATURALIST DURING A VOYAGE ROUND THE 
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Oxiein oF Species By Mans or Natura SELection ; or, the 
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VARIATION OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS UNDER DoMESTICATION. 
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Descent oF Man, anp Sexection 1n Renation to SsEx. 
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Movements AND Hasits or Curmpina Puants. Woodeuis. 
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DE COSSON (E. A.). The Cradle of the Blue Nile; a Journey 
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DENNIS (Gzoraz): The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria. 
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DERBY (Earu or). Iliad of Homer rendered into English 
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DERRY (Bisuor or). Witness of the Psalms to Christ and Chris- 
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DEUTSCH (Emanvet). ‘Talmud, Islam, The Targums and other 
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DILKE (Sie C. W.). Papers from the Writings of the late 
CHARLES Ditke. 2 Vols. 8vo. 24s. 

DOG-BREAKING. [See Hurcniyson.] 

DRAKE’S (Sie Franors) Life, Voyages, and Exploits, by Sea and 
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DRINKWATER (Joun). History of the Siege of Gibraltar, 
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DU CHAILLU (Paun B.). Land of the Midnight Sun; Illus- 
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DUFFERIN (Lorn). Letters from High Latitudes ; a Yacht voy- 
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Speeches and Addresses, Political and Literary, 

delivered in the House of Lords, in Canada, and elsewhere. Svo. 12s, 


ee ee ee ee ee ee SS 


10 LIST OF WORKS 


DUNCAN (Con.) History of the Royal Artillery, Com- 
piled from the Original Records. Portraits. 2 Vols. Svo. 18s. 
English in Spain; or, The Story of the War of Suc- 

cession, 1834-1840. With Illustrations. 8vo. 16s. 

DURER (Atzert); his Life and Work. By Dx, Taavsrne. 
Translated from the German. Edited by F. A. Eaton, M.A. With 
Portrait and Illustrations. 2 vols. Medium 8vo. 42s, 

EASTLAKE (Sir C.). Contributions to the Literature of the 
Fine Arts. With Memoir by Lavy Eastrake. 2 Vols. 8vo. 24s, 

EDWARDS (W.H.). Voyage up the River Amazon, including a 
Visit to Para. Post8vo. 2s. 

ELDON’S (Lorn) Public and Private Life, with Selections from 
his Diaries, &c. By Horace Twiss. Portrait. 2 Vols. Post 8vo. 21s. 

ELGIN (Lorp). Letters and Journals, Edited by Tuxopors 
Watronp. With Preface by Dean Stanley. 8vo. lds. 

ELLESMERE (Lorp).’ Two Sieges of Vienna by the Turks, 
Translated trom the German. Post 8vo. 2s. 

ELLIS (W.). Madagascar Revisited. The Persecutions and 
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____— Memoir. By His Son. Portrait. 8vo. 10s. 6d. 

_____ (Rorrsow). Poems and Fragments of Catullus. 16mo. 5s. 

ELPHINSTONE (Hon. M.). History of India—the Hindoo and 
Mahomedan Periods. Edited by Prorrssorn CowELL. Map. 8vo. 18s. : 

_____—— Life of. [See Corzsrooxe. | 

__________—_ (H. W.). Patterns and instructions for orna- 
mental Turning. With 70 Illustrations. Small 4to. 15s. 

ELTON (Carr.) and H. B. COTTERILL. Adventures and 


Discoveries Among the Lakes and Mountains of Eastern and Central 
Africa. With Map and Illustrations, 8vo. 21s. 

ENGLAND. [See Artaur—Brewer— Croxer—HvumE—MARkHAM 
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ESSAYS ON CATHEDRALS. Edited, with an Introduction. 
By Dran Howson. 8vo. 12s. 

ETON LATIN GRAMMAR. Part 1.—Elementary. For use 
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by A. C. Aincer, M.A., and H. G. WintLr, M.A. Crown Svo. 8s. 6d. 

FIRST LATIN EXERCISE BOOK, adapted to the 
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FOURTH FORM OVID. Selections from Ovid and 
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FELTOE (Rey. J. Lert). Memorials of John Flint South, twice 
President of the Royal College of Surgeons and Surgeon to St. Thomas's 
Hospital (1841-63), With Portrait. Crown S8vo, 7s. 6d. 

FERGUSSON (Jamzs). History of Architecture in all Countries 
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Vols. I. & IJ. Ancient and Medieval. 63s. 
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Rude Stone Monuments in all Countries; their 

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Holy Sepulchre and the Temple at Jerusalem. 

Woodcuts. 8vo. 7s. 6d. ; 

Temples of the Jews and other buildings in 
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PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 11 


FERGUSSON. The Parthenon. An Essay on the construction of 
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FITZGERALD (the late Bishop). Lectures on Hecclesiastical 


Tlistory, including the origin and progress of the English Keformation, 
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FLEMING (Prormssor). Student’s Manual of Moral Philosophy. 
With Quotations and References. Post S8vo. 7s. 6d. 

FLOWER GARDEN. By Rev. Tuos.Jamrs, Feap. 8vo. 1s. 

FORBES (Carz.). British Burma and its People; Native 
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FORD (RicHarp). Gatherings from Spain. Post 8vo. 3s. 6d. 
FORSYTH (Wr11am). MHortensius; en Historical Essay on the 
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Novels and Novelists of the 18th Century, in 
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FRANCE (History or), [See Anruur—Marxeam —SMiTH — 
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FRENCH IN ALGIERS; The Soldier of the Foreign Legion— 
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FRERE (Srr Barriz). Indian Missions. Small 8vo. 2s. 6d. 
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GALTON (F.). Art of Travel; or, Hints on the Shifts and Con- 
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GEOGRAPHY. [See Bunsury—Croxer— Ricnarpson — Smita 
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GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY’S JOURNAL, (1846 to 1881 ) 
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Kesearches in Westeru China. By E. CoLBoRNE Bazer. Maps. 
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Vol. I., Part iii. Report on Part of the Ghilzi 

Country, &c. By Lieut. J. S. Broaproor. 

a —_ Journey from Shiraz to Jasbk. By 


J. R. PREECE. 
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GEORGE (Eryxst). The Mosel; Twenty Etchings. Imperial 4to. 42s. 
— [Loire and South of France; Twenty etchings. Folio. 42s, 
GERMANY (History or). [See Marxuam.] 
GIBBON’S History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 


Edited with notes by Mitman, Guizot, and Dr. Wm. Smire. Maps. 
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GIFFARD (Epwarp). Deeds of Naval Daring; or, Anecdotes of 
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GILBERT (Josran). Landscape in Art: before the days of Claude 
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ee ee 


12 ‘ LIST OF WORKS 


GILL (Carr.). The River of Golden Sand. A Journey through 
China to Burmah, Edited by E.C. Banger. With Memoir by Col. 
Yuue, C.B. Portrait, Map, and Illustrations. Post 8vo. 7s. 6d. 

GILL (Mrs.). Six Months in Ascension. An Unscientific Ac- 
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GLADSTONE (W. E.). Rome and the Newest Fashions in 
Religion. Three Tracts. 8vo. 7s, 6d. 

Gleanings of Past Years, 1843-78. 7 vols. Small 
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GLEIG (G. R.). Campaigns of the British Army at Washington 
and New ities Post 8vo, 2s. 
Story of the Battle of Waterloo. Post 8vo. 3s. 6d. 
Narrative of Sale’s Brigade in Affghanistan. Post 8yo. 2s. 
—— Life of Lord Clive. Post 8vo. 3s. 6d. 

- Life of Sir Thomas Munro. Post 8vo. 3s. 6d. 
GLYNNE (Sir Steppen). Notes on the Churches of Kent. With 
Preface by W. H. Gladstone, M.P. Illustrations. 8vo. 12s. 
GOLDSMITH’S (Oxiver) Works. Edited with Notes by Peter 

CunnincHam, Vignettes. 4 Vols. 8vo. 30s, 

GOMM (F.M. Sir Wm.).. His Letters and Journals. 1799 to 
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GORDON (Sir Auex.). Sketches of German Life, and Scenes 

from the War of Liberation. Post 8vo. 3s. 6d. 
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craft. Post 8vo. 2s. 
French in Algiers. 1. The Soldier of the Foreign 
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GRAMMARS. [See Curtivs—Ha.rz—Hurron—Kine Epwarp— 


Leatues— Marrzner--MaArruia—Smitn. } 
GREECE (History or). [See Grore—Smira—Srupenrs’.] 
GROTE’S (Grorcz) WORKS :— 


History or Greece. From the Earliest Times to the close 


of the generation contemporary with the Death of Alexander the Great, 
Library dition, Portrait, Maps, and Plans, 10 Vols. 8vo. 120s. 
Cabinet Edition. Portrait and Plans. 12 Vols, Post 8vo. 4s. each, 


Puato, and other Companions of Socrates. 38 Vols. 8vo. 45a.; 


or, a New Edition, Edited by ALExanpER Bain. 4 Vols. Crown 8vo. 
6s, each. (Zhe Volumes inay be hud Separatey.) 


AristoTLe. With additional Hssays. 8vo. 12s. 
Minor Works. Portrait. 8vo. 14s. 

Letrers on SWITZERLAND IN 1847. 6s. 
Persona Lirz, Portrait. 8vo. 12s. 


GROTE (Mrs.). A Sketch. By Lavy HEastnaxr. Crown 8vo. 6s. 
poesia (T. D.) School Manual of English Grammar. With 


Illustrations and Practical Exercises. 12mo. 3s. 6d. 
Primary English Grammar for Elementary Schools. 
With numerous Exercises, and graduated Parsing Lessons. 16mo. 1s. 
Manual of English Composition, With Copious Illustra- 
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——- Child's First Latin Book, comprising a full Practice of 


Nouns, Pronouns, and Adjectives, with the Active Verbs. 16mo. 2s, 


PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 13 


HALLAM’S (Henry) WORKS :-— 


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HYMNOLOGY, Diorronary or. [See Jurray. ] 


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LONDON: its History, Antiquarian and Modern, Founded on 
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revised edition. By JAmes THoryg, F.S.A. and H. B. WHEATLEY. 
Fine library edition, on laid paper. 3 vol-. Royal 8vo. 


c 2 


20 LIST OF WORKS 


LOUDON (Mrs.). Gardening for Ladies. With Directions and 
Calendar of Operations for Every Month. Woodcuts. Feap. 8vo. 3s. 6d. 
LUTHER (Martiy). The First Principles of the Keformation, 


or the Ninety-five Theses and Three Primary Works of Dr, Martin 
Luther. Translated and edited, with Introductions, by HENRY WaCE, 
D.D., and Pror. Bucuuem. Portrait. 8vo. 12s. 


LYALL (Sm Atrrep C.), K.C.B. Asiatic Studies; Religious and 
Social. Svo, 12s, 
LYELL (Str Cuaruss). Student's Elements of Geology. A new 
Edition, entirely revised by Prorzssor P. M. Duncan, F.RS. With 
600 lllustrations, Post 8vo. 9s. 
Life, Letters, and Journals. Edited by his sister-in-law, 
Mrs. LyEty, With Portraits. 2 Vols, 8vo. 30s. 
(K.M.). Geographical Handbook of Ferns. Post 8vo, 
7s. 6d, 
LYNDHURST (Lorn). [See Marrry.] [Svo. 5a. 
LYTTON (Lorp). A Memoir of Julian Fane. With Portrait. Poni 
-————_ Glenaveril ; or the Metamorphoses, A Poem 
in Six Books. 2 Vols. Feap. 8vo. 12s., or in six parts, 2s. each. 
M°CLINTOCK (Sim L.). Narrative of the Discovery of the 


Fate of Sir John Franklin and his Companions in the Arctic Seas. 
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MACGREGOR (J.). Rob Roy on the Jordan, Nile, Red Sea, Gen- 


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MAETZNER’S Eneoutsh Grammar. A Methodical, Analytical, 


and Historical Treatise on the Orthography, Prosody, Inflections, and 
Syntax, By CrairJ.Grece, LL.D. 38Vols., 8vo. 36s, 


MAHON (Lorp). [See Sranuopx.] 

MAINE (Sim H. Sumner). Ancient Law: its Connection with the 
Early History of Society, and its Relation to Modern Ideas. 8vo. 12s, 

Village Communities in the East and West. 8vo. 12s, 

Early History of Institutions. 8vo. 12s. 

Dissertations on Early Law and Custom. Chiefly 

Selected from Lectures delivered at Oxford. 8vo. 12s. . 

———— Popular Government; Four Essays. I.—Prospects 


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MALCOLM (Simm Jonny), Sketches of Persia. Post 8vo. 34. 6d. 
MALLOCK (W. H.). Property and Progress : or, Facts against 


Fallacies. A brief Enquiry into Contemporary Social Agitation in 
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MANSEL (Dean). Letters, Lectures, and Reviews. 8vo. 12s, 

MANUAL OF SCIENTIFIC ENQUIRY. For the Use of 
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MARCO POLO. [See Yurz]. Maps and Illustrations, 2 Vo's. 
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MARKHAM (Mrs.). History of England. From the First Inva- 
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History of France. From the Conquest of Gaul by 

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History of Germany. From its Invasion by Marius, 


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MARSH (GQ. P.). Student’s Manual of the English Language, 
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PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY, 21 
a eee 
MARTIN (Sir Tuxoporz), Life of Lord Lyndhurst, three 


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possession of his family, With Portraits. Syvo. 16s. 

MASTERS in English Theology. Lectures by Eminent Divines. 
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MATTHIA’S Greex Grammar. Abridged by Buomrretp, 
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MELViLLE (Hermann). Marquesas and South Sea Islands, 
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MEREDITH (Mrs. Cuarues). Notes and Sketches of New South 
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MEXICO. [See Brocktenvrsr.] 

MICHAEL ANGELO, Sculptor, Painter, and Aeaitheok, His Life 
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Index. 8vo. 16s. 

MIDDLETON (Cuas. H.) A Descriptive Catalogue of the 
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MILLER (Wu.). A Jictionary of English Names of Plants 

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MOGGRIDGE (M. W.). a in Almsgiving. A Handbook 
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MONTEFIORE (Sir Myce A Centennial Biography. With 
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MOTLEY (J. L.). History of the United Netherlands: from the 
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22 LIST OF WORKS 


MOZLEY (Canoy). Treatise on the Augustinian doctrine of 
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MURCHISON (Sir Ropericx). Siluria; or, a History of the 
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MURRAY (A. 8.), A History of Greek Sculpture from the 
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MUSTERS’ (Capr.) Patagonians; a Year’s Wanderings over 
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NADAILLAC (Marquis pr). Prehistoric America, Translated 
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NAPIER (Gent, Sir Gxorcz T.). Passages in his Early 
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NAPOLEON ar Fonrainesreav anp Expa. Journals. Notes 
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New Revised and Cheaper Edition, post Svo., 6s. 
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NAUTICAL ALMANAC (Tux). (By Authority.) 2s. 6d. 
NAVY LIST. (Monthly and Quarterly.) Post 8vo. : 
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By Arcupracon Cnyurton, M.A., and the BisHop or St. Davin’s. 
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NEWTH (Samvet). First Book of Natural Philosophy ; an Intro- 
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Elements of Mechanics, including Hydrostatics, 

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NICOLAS (31m Harris). Historic Peerage of England. Exhi- 
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NIMROD, On the Chace—Turf—and Road. With Portrait and 
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NORDHOFF (Cuas.). Communistic Societies of the United 
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NORTHCOTE’S (Srr Joun) Notebook in the Long Parliament. 


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ORNSBY (Pror. R.). Memoirs of J. Hope Scott, Q. C. (of 
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-——-— 


PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 23 


OVID LESSONS. [See Erox. ] 
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OXENHAM (Rev. W.). English Notes for Latin Elegiacs ; with 
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PAGET (Lorp Gxorcr), The Light Cavalry Brigade in the 
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PALMER (Prorzssor), Life of. [See Bzsanr.] 

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PARKYNS’ (Mansrietp) Three Years’ Residence in Abyssinia ; 
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POLLOCK (C. E.). A book of Family Prayers. Selected from 
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PORTER (Rev. J. L.). Damascus, Palmyra, and Lebanon. Map 
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ee 


24 LIST OF WORKS 


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Japan: Its History, Traditions, and Religions. With 
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ROME (History or), [See Grsnon—Lippr1u—Suira—Srvpents’, | 

ROYAL SOCIETY CATALOGUE OF SCIENTIFIC P APERS, 


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PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 25 


RUXTON (Gero. F.). Travels inMexico; with Adventures among Wild 
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8ST. HUGH OF AVALON, Bishop of Lincoln; his Life by G. G. 
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SCOTT (Sir Gitzert). The Rise and Development of Medizval 
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SELBORN EK (Lorp). Notes on some Passages in the Liturgical 
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SHADOWS OF A SICK ROOM. Preface by Canon Lippon. 
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SHAH OF PERSIA’S Diary during his Tour through Europe in 
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26 LIST OF WORKS 


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ED 


PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 27 


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Appendix to Frenon Prinorpra. Part I. Containing ad- 
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Frencn Privcrrra. Part Il. A Reading Book, containing 
Fables, Stories, and Anecdotes, Natural History, and Scenes from the 
History of France. With Grammatical Questions, Notes and copious 
Etymological Dictionary. 12mo. 4s, 6d, 

Frencn Principia. Part ILI. Prose Composition, containing 
a Systematic Course of Exercises on the Syntax, with the Principal 
Rules of Syntax. 12mo, [In the Press. 

Srupenr’s French Grammar. By C. Heron-Watn. With 
Introduction by M. Littré. Post 8vo. 6s. 

Smatter Grammar or THE Frencu Lanauage. Abridged 
from the above. 12mo. 3s. 6d. 


SMITH’S (Dr. Wu.) GERMAN COURSE :— 


German Principia. Part I. A First German Course, contain- 
ing a Grammar, Delectus, Exercise Book, and Vocabularies, 12mo. 3s, 6d, 

German Prinorpra. Part II. A Reading Book ; containing 
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History of Germany. With Grammatical Questions, Notes, and Dic- 
tionary, 12mo. 3s. 6d. 

Practica German Grammar. Post 8vo. 3s. 6d. 


SMITH'S (Dr. Wu.) ITALIAN COURSE :— 


Tratran Princrpra. Part I, An Italian Course, containing a 
Grammar, Delectus, Exercise Book, with Vocabularies, and Matenals 
for Italian Conversation. 12mo. 3s. 6d. 

Iratran Prinorpra. Part II. A First Italian Reading Book, 
containing Fables, Anecdotes, History, and Passages from the best 
Italian Authors, with Grammatical Questions, Notes, and a Copious 
Etymological Dictionary. 12mo. 3s. 6d, 


SMITH’S (Dr. Wu.) LATIN COURSE:— 


Tue Youne Beeinner’s First Latin Book: Containing the 
Rudiments of Grammar, Easy Grammatical Questions and Exercises, 
with Vocabularies. Being a Stepping-stone to Principia Latina, Part I, 
for Young Children. 12mo. 2s, 

Tur Youne Brcinner’s Sxconp Latin Book: Containing an 
easy Latin Reading Book, with an Analysis of the Sentences, Notes, 
anda Dictionary. Being a Stepping-stone to Principia Latina, Part IJ. 
for Young Children. 12mo. 23, 

Principia Latina. Part I. First Latin Course, containing a 
Grammar, Delectus,and Exercise Book, with Vocabularies. 12mo. 3s.6d. 

*,* In this Edition the Cases of the Nouns, Adjectives, and Pronouns 
are arranged both asin the ORDINARY GRAMMARS and as in the PusBtic 
ScHoou Primer, together with the corresponding Exercises. 


28 LIST OF WORKS 


SMITH’S (Dr. Wm.) Latin Course—continued. 
APPENDIX To Principra Latina. Part I.; being Additional 
Exercises, with Examination Papers. 12mo, 2s. 6d. 
Princrpra Latina. Part II. A Reading-book of Mythology, 


Geography, Roman Antiquities, aud History. With Notes and Dic- 
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Prinorpra Latina. Part III. A Poetry Book, Hexameters 
and Pentameters; Eclog. Ovidianz; Latin Prosody. 12mo, 3s. 6d. 
Prinorpra Latina. Part ITV. Prose Composition. Rules of 


Syntax, with Examples, Explanations of Synonyms, and Exercises 
on the Syntax. 12mo. 33s. 6d, 

PrinorprA Latina. Part V. Short Tales and Anecdotes for 
Translation into Latin. 12mo. 3s. 

Latin-Enerish Vocasunary anp First Larin-EnciisH 
DICTIONARY FOR PHA&DRUS, CORNELIUS NEPOS, ANDCSAR. 12mo, 3s. 6d. 

Sruprnt’s Latin Grammar. For the Higher Forms. Post 
8vo. 6s. 

Smatter Latin Grammar. 12mo. 3s. 6d. 


SMITH’S (Dr. Wu.) GREEK COURSE:— 
Init1a Grzoa. PartI. A First Greek Course, containing a Gram- 
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Avprenpix ro Init1a Greoa. Part I. Containing additional 
Exercises. With Examination Papers. Post 8vo. 2s. éd, 
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Short Tales, Anecdotes, Fables, Mythology, and Grecian History. 
12mo. 3s. 6d, 


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Srupenr’s Grerk Grammar. For the Higher Forms. By 
Curtius. Post 8vo. 6s. 

Smarter Greex Grammar. 12mo. 38s, 6d. 

Greek AccipENcE. 12mo. 2s. 6d. 

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PUBLISHED BY MR. MURRAY. 29 


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30 LIST OF WORKS 


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